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Pierogi leniwe, leniwe (literally "lazy dumplings") - dumplings made of quark, eggs and flour, boiled in lightly salted water. Most frequently served with double/ sour cream, sugar or bespeckled with butter, fried bread crumbs, as well as with sugar and cinnamon.
See also
Kluski
Polish cuisine
References
Polish cuisine | wiki |
Stage 4 may refer to:
Key Stage 4
Stage 4 of Everywhere at the End of Time
Cambrian Stage 4
Stage 4 cancer
Stage 4 CKD
Dual-Stage 4-Grid
Stage 4 of Braak staging
Decomposition stage 4
Whale fall stage 4
2019–20 Biathlon World Cup – Stage 4
2021 Call of Duty League season stage 4
See also
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development | wiki |
The third season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 21, 2006, and concluded on May 17, 2007. The season was produced by Touchstone Television, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company, the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. Actors Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers and T. R. Knight reprised their roles as surgical interns Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens, Alex Karev and George O'Malley, respectively, continuing their expansive storylines as focal points throughout the season. Previous main cast members Chandra Wilson, James Pickens, Jr., Kate Walsh, Isaiah Washington, and Patrick Dempsey also returned, while previous guest-stars Sara Ramirez and Eric Dane were promoted to series-regulars, following the extension of their contracts.
The season followed the continuation of the surgical residency of 5 young interns, as they experience the demands of the competitive field of medicine, which becomes defining in their personal evolution. Although set in fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington, filming primarily occurred in Los Angeles, California. Whereas the first season mainly focused on the impact the surgical field has on the main characters, and the second season provided a detailed perspective on the physicians' private lives, the third season deals with the tough challenges brought by the last phase of the surgeons' internship, combining the professional motif emphasized in the first season, with the complex personal background used in the second. Through the season, several new storylines are introduced, including the arrival of Dane's character, Dr. Mark Sloan, conceived and introduced as an antagonizing presence.
In a departure from the previous season, the third season aired in a new competitive time-slot of 9:00 pm on Thursdays, competing against the heavily-promoted and highly-rated dramatic television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, which simultaneously aired on the CBS Network. Season 3 of Grey's Anatomy contained 25 episodes, in addition to 2 clip shows that were produced to recap the previous events of the show, before the introduction of major new arcs. "Complications of the Heart" aired on the same night as the season premiere, recapping the last episodes of the second season with insights into future episodes in the third, while "Every Moment Counts" aired before the twentieth episode. The season also aired a 2-part episode arc, which primarily served as a backdoor pilot for a proposed spin-off, Private Practice, focusing on the departure of Walsh's character, Dr. Addison Montgomery.
The series ended its third season with an average of 19.22 million viewers per episode and a 6.8/35 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, ranking #8 in the television season, outperformed by CSI. Television critics expressed a mainly negative outlook on the development of the series throughout the season, with the reviews ranging from mixed-to-negative, as exaggeration and lack of realism have been highlighted as the main issues in the declining quality of the storylines. Despite the negative critical response, the performance of the cast members and the production technique of the crew received outstanding recognition through numerous awards and nominations. Earning major category nominations at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 65th Golden Globe Awards, the season achieved the series' highest number of recipients, with Heigl being the most-awarded cast member. The series was ranked #6 in USA Today "best of television" list, following the conclusion of the season.
Episodes
Each episode of this season is named after a song.
Cast and characters
Main
Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey
Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang
Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens
Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev
T. R. Knight as Dr. George O'Malley
Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey
James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber
Kate Walsh as Dr. Addison Montgomery
Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres
Eric Dane as Dr. Mark Sloan
Isaiah Washington as Dr. Preston Burke
Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd
Recurring
Chyler Leigh as Dr. Lexie Grey
Brooke Smith as Dr. Erica Hahn
Kate Burton as Ellis Grey
Chris O'Donnell as Finn Dandridge
Steven W. Bailey as Joe, the Bartender
Kyle Chandler as Dylan Young
Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Denny Duquette
Notable guests
Elizabeth Reaser as Rebecca "Ava" Pope
Loretta Devine as Adele Webber
Sarah Utterback as Olivia Harper
Héctor Elizondo as Carlos Torres
Kali Rocha as Sydney Heron
Mitch Pileggi as Lawrence Jennings
Roger Rees as Colin Marlowe
Jeff Perry as Thatcher Grey
Mare Winningham as Susan Grey
Debra Monk as Louise O'Malley
George Dzundza as Harold O'Malley
Tim Griffin as Ronny O'Malley
Greg Pitts as Jerry O'Malley
Robin Pearson Rose as Patricia Murphy
Elisabeth Moss as Nina Rogerson
Embeth Davidtz as Nancy Shepherd
Monica Keena as Bonnie Crasnoff
Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole
Anna Maria Horsford as Elizabeth Fallon
Abigail Breslin as Megan Clover
Mae Whitman as Heather Douglas
Tsai Chin as Helen Yang
Diahann Carroll as Jane Burke
Amy Brenneman as Violet Turner
Paul Adelstein as Cooper Freedman
Tim Daly as Pete Wilder
Chris Lowell as Dell Parker
Taye Diggs as Sam Bennett
Merrin Dungey as Naomi Bennett
Production
Crew
This season is the last to be produced by ABC Studios under title of Touchstone Television, as the company's decision to change its name occurred after the conclusion of the season. Shonda Rhimes returned as the series' showrunner and executive producer. She also continued her position from the first 2 seasons as one of the most prominent members of the writing staff. Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon and Rob Corn also returned as executive producers, along with Mark Wilding, Peter Horton and Krista Vernoff, who have been in this position since the inception of the series. Allan Heinberg, however, joins the production team at the beginning of the third season as a co-executive producer, before his promotion to an executive. Kent Hodder, Nancy Bordson and Steve Mulholland served as executive producers for 4 episodes during the season. Horton left the series at the conclusion of the season, whereas James D. Parriott, who previously served a writer and executive producer for the first 2 seasons, did not continue his work on the show during this season. Joan Rater and Tony Phelan continued to serve as co-executive producers, with Rater being a supervising producer as well. Stacy McKee, who previously served as a producer and writer for the series, was promoted to co-executive producer.
After having written 3 episodes for the first season and 5 for the second, Rhimes returned as a writer for 6 episodes, out of which one was written along with Marti Noxon. Krista Vernoff, Tony Phelan, Stacy McKee and Mark Wilding returned to the series as members of the writing staff, with Vernoff and Phelan writing 3 episodes and McKee and Wilding producing the script of 2 episodes. Gabrielle Stanton and Harry Werksman, Jr. worked together for the writing of 1 episode, after 3 episodes they have written for the series in the past. The season includes the first episode to be written by Debora Cahn, who would become one of the series' main writers, as well as a consulting and supervisor producer. Other writers include Kip Koenig, Carolina Paiz, Eric Buchman, Joan Rater and Chris Van Dusen. Rob Corn returned to the series to direct 3 episodes for the season, after writing 2 episodes in the second season. Greg Yaitanes is credited for directing 2 episodes during the season, the only ones to have been directed by him in the series. Other prominent directors were Jeff Melman, Michael Grossman, Julie Anne Robinson and Adam Arkin, each directing 2 or more episodes during the season. Danny Lux continued his position as the main music composer for the series, while Herbert Davis and Walt Fraser served as the season's cinematography directors. Susan Vaill and Edward Ornelas resumed their positions as editors, seeing David Greenspan, Matthew Ramsey and Avi Fisher being added to the team. Fisher, however, left the series at the conclusion of the season.
Writing and filming
The season was primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. Fisher Plaza, which is the headquarters building for the media company Fisher Communications and Fisher's ABC-affiliated Komo radio and television stations for Seattle, is used for some exterior shots of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, such as air ambulances landing on the Komo Television newscopter's helipad. This puts Seattle Grace conveniently close to the Space Needle, which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza, the Seattle Monorail, and other local landmarks. However, the hospital used for most other exterior and many interior shots is not in Seattle, are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills, California. Most scenes are primarily taped in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, at the Prospect Studios, and the set occupies 2 stages, including the hospital pieces, but some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle. Several props used are genuine medical supplies, including the MRI machine. Before the production of the season officially began, producer Shonda Rhimes stated that she was planning a major development in Ellen Pompeo's character, Meredith Grey.
"There's a spirit there that's just very interesting to me. She was charming and there was something about her so intriguing to watch", stated Rhimes in response to Pompeo's portrayal of her character. Executive producer Betsy Beers stated that the writing staff was going to focus on the balance between her vulnerability and her courage, also dealing with changes in the relationship with her friends. Pompeo noted that the uncertainty of her character's fate is what helped her evolve into a more adaptable actor. Rhimes also disclosed that an episode with Ellis Grey's unexpected lucidity and eventual death was in plans since the beginning of the series. Rhimes described how Pompeo got through the challenge of sending Meredith in the afterlife: "It was an exciting place to take her. Exciting to watch her find her way back." In response to Izzie's arc, Shonda Rhimes discussed the impact Denny Duquette's death will have on her, noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism, which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine. In the aftermath of Denny's death, Katherine Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor. Executive producer Betsy Beers explained, however, that Denny's death served to make Izzie more mature, and Heigl affirmed that "At the beginning of the third season, they were trying to show how lost Izzie was. She lost her optimism. She realizes now that life is difficult, but she still tries very hard to see the best in people."
Creator Shonda Rhimes compared what she deemed the 2 "most iconic moments of the season", describing how the season begins with Izzie lying in the prom dress on the bathroom, and ends with Cristina standing motionless in her wedding dress. Cast member Eric Dane described the impact his first scene in the season had on him, stating that it was a spectacular entrance: "It was a brand new towel, which had a hard time staying together. So every time I put it together and let my hands go, it was almost like throwing caution to the wind." Cast member Sara Ramirez noted that one of the most significant scene in the season was when Izzie and George "have this beautiful moment when neither of them speaks, but they say so much and it was just so rich", describing how their interaction during the scene determined everything that would be developed for their arc later. Betsy Beers, however, noted that the most "powerful" scene in the season saw Preston Burke and Cristina Yang in the on-call room, talking about the future of their relationship: "It's fascinating to see how their entire relationship changes and almost disintegrates in this one exchange." Beers and Rhimes expressed their desire to introduce Patrick Dempsey's passion of car racing in the series, although this ultimately did not occur during the season. "Patrick loved it. He's always driving something new, always trying something out", stated the series creator, regarding Dempsey's response to the storyline.
Rhimes also described the difficulty she faced in finding an appropriate love-interest for the character of Alex Karev: "We kept meeting with people and it wasn't until we met Elizabeth Reaser and sat down with her, and 2 seconds into it we realized that she was absolutely the one we'd been looking for." Reaser explained that when she was cast, there were no definite plans for the development of her character, and that only the intrigue of the ferry accident had been explained to her. She also deemed her character "frustrated and scared." As for the make-up process, Reaser stated: "The prosthetic changes your outlook on yourself. It can be very disorienting. It's intense." Beers, however, noted that the focus on Ava was mainly due to her inability to express her feelings through facial expressions, only communicating with her eyes and voice. Executive producer Rob Corn stated that his plan for the original arc was about Jane Doe's inner life, struggling to get out of the situation she is trapped in. He stated that the main characteristics they had been looking for in the actress for the part were strength and vulnerability. He also called Reaser's performance "heart-wrenching and wonderful." Betsy Beers, the show's supervising executive producer, found Izzie to have been marked for life by Denny's death, which matured her "in a very sobering way", but played a major role in making her feel more confident. She also noted the undeniable connection between Izzie and Alex Karev, whose desire to do honorable things has been compared with his "cutting and sarcastic" personality. After Izzie's continuous efforts to change Alex during their relationship in the previous season, Beers announced the possibility of a relationship between the two of them. She also contrasted the female leads on the show with women in film, explaining how the characters on television are shaped in unique ways.
Casting
The third season had 12 roles receiving star-billing, with 10 returning from the previous season, of whom 9 were part of the original cast. All the main characters are physicians in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. Ellen Pompeo portrayed Meredith Grey, both the protagonist and the narrator of the series, whose main goal is achieving a balance between the difficulties of the internship, and the complicated relationships in her private life. Sandra Oh portrayed Cristina Yang, who quickly develops as Meredith's best-friend, despite the continuous competition against the other interns. Katherine Heigl portrayed intern Isobel "Izzie" Stevens, mourning the death of her fiancé as she unexpectedly decides to quit her job; she concludes that she is too personally involved with her patients. Justin Chambers acted as Alexander "Alex" Karev, whose abrasive, arrogant attitude is softened with a more emotional and sensitive outlook on his career and relationships. T. R. Knight played the role of intern George O'Malley, who gradually becomes more self-confident after his feelings for Meredith diminish. Chandra Wilson portrayed fifth-year resident in general surgery, Miranda Bailey, the resident in charge of the 5 interns.
James Pickens, Jr. acted as Seattle Grace Hospital's Chief of Surgery, Richard Webber, who has to deal with the choice between his career and his marriage. Kate Walsh played Addison Montgomery, obstetrician-gynecologist and neonatal surgeon, who comes to terms with her husband Derek Shepherd's desire to divorce, while dealing with the arrival of her former lover. Isaiah Washington played the role of attending physician and cardiothoracic surgeon, Preston Burke, who becomes engaged to intern Cristina Yang after their developing a relationship. Patrick Dempsey portrayed attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, whose relationship with intern Meredith Grey has been the focal-point of the series since its inception. Sara Ramirez began receiving star-billing in the season premiere, after numerous appearances during the last episodes of the second season. She portrayed orthopedic surgeon and fifth-year resident, Calliope "Callie" Torres, whose relationship with intern George O'Malley evolves into a sudden marriage with unpleasant repercussions. Eric Dane was also promoted to the series regular status after a guest appearance in the eighteenth episode of the previous season, and an uncredited one in the second episode of this season. He began receiving star-billing in the third episode of the season, portraying attending physician, otolaryngologist and plastic surgeon Mark Sloan, whose arc, describing the attempt at resuming his relationship with Addison Montgomery, is heavily developed throughout the season.
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline. Brooke Smith continues her role as cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn, whose storylines include the rivalry with Preston Burke, her arrival to perform surgery of George O'Malley's dying father, and Richard Webber's decision to hire her in the hospital. Chyler Leigh portrayed Meredith's half-sister, Lexie Grey, who is accepted into the hospital's internship program after her mother's sudden death. Kate Burton appeared as Meredith Grey's mother, Ellis Grey, a renowned surgeon suffering from Alzheimer's disease, who ultimately dies following a heart attack. Veterinary physician Finn Dandrige was portrayed by Chris O'Donnell and appeared in the first 4 episodes of the season to resume the storyline of his romantic relationship with Meredith, previously introduced in the second season. Deceased since the second-season finale, character Dennsion "Denny" Duquette, Jr. (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) appeared in 2 episodes of the season, during Meredith's limbo sequence.
Elizabeth Reaser portrayed Rebecca "Ava" Pope, recurring character and love-interest for Alex Karev. She arrives as a patient suffering from amnesia and severe facial injuries after being involved in a massive ferry crash. Loretta Devine acted as Adele Webber, Richard's wife, whose continuous struggle to have a normal marriage culminates in her asking her husband to retire. Other guest-stars include Sarah Utterback in the role of nurse Olivia Harper, former love-interest of both George O'Malley and Alex Karev, Kali Rocha portraying fifth-year resident Sydney Heron, who enters a competition against Miranda Bailey and Callie Torres for the position of Chief Resident, Roger Rees in the role of Colin Marlowe, a cardiothoracic surgeon and Cristina Yang's former professor and lover, Jeff Perry portraying Meredith Grey's father, Thatcher Grey; Mare Winningham in the role of Susan Grey, Embeth Davidtz playing Derek Shepherd's sister Nancy Shepherd, a surgeon who is revealed to have slept with Mark Sloan; Tsai Chin in the role of Helen Yang Rubenstein, Cristina's mother, and Diahann Carroll portraying Jane Burke, Preston Burke's overly protective mother. Future Private Practice series regulars Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell starred in the twenty-second and twenty-third episodes of the season, portraying Violet Turner, Cooper Freedman, Peter Wilder, Sam Bennett and William "Dell" Parker, respectively, in order to make the transition to the proposed spin-off.
Spin-Off Launch
On February 21, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin-off medical drama television series for the series featuring Kate Walsh's character, Addison Montgomery. Subsequent reports confirmed the decision, stating that an expanded 2-hour broadcast of Grey's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin-off. The cast was reportedly unhappy about the decision, as all hoped the spin-off would have been given to them. Pompeo commented that she felt, as the star, she should have been consulted, and Heigl, disclosed that she had hoped for a spin-off for Izzie. The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3, 2007, sees Addison take "a leave-of-absence" from Seattle Grace Hospital, to visit her best-friend from Los Angeles, Naomi Bennett, a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist, in order to get pregnant. While in Los Angeles, she meets Bennett's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center and even becomes the clinic's obstetrician-gynecologist for the day. The 2-hour broadcast served as the twenty-second and the twenty-third episodes of the third season, and was directed by Michael Grossman, according to Variety. The cast included Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell and Merrin Dungey. ABC officially picked up Private Practice for its 2007 lineup on May 11, 2007. KaDee Strickland's character, Charlotte King, who would be introduced in the spin-off's first-season premiere, did not appear in the backdoor pilot. Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11, 2007, prior to the commencement of the first season. She did not have to audition for the role, but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes. Also not present in the backdoor pilot was Audra McDonald, due to her character, Bennett, being portrayed by a different actress, Merrin Dungey. However, on June 29, 2007, ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced, with no reason given for the change. The premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars, and provided a lead-in to fellow freshman series, Dirty Sexy Money. Pushing Daisies, a third new series for the evening, rounded out the lineup as a lead-in to Private Practice. The series aired a total of 6 seasons, ending in 2013.
Reception
Ratings
The second season of Grey's Anatomy ended with an average of 19.44 million viewers per episode and a 6.9 rating share for in the 18–49 demographic, determining the series to finish in #5 out of all the 100 television shows in the season. Due to its high ratings, the series received a full third season renewal for the fall primetime line-up. In response to numerous fan complaints regarding scheduling during the previous seasons, the American Broadcasting Company decided to do major changes in the season. After 2 seasons of airing as a lead-out to fellow ABC series Desperate Housewives, the network decided to move Grey's Anatomy to 9:00 ET in the Thursday night time-slot, dominated by CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, where the series began airing as a lead-out to Ugly Betty, which aired in the time-slot from its first season, until the conclusion of the third in 2009. The show maintained its position as a top 10 series and became the #8 most-watched program in the season, with an average of 19.220 million viewers per episode. The highest-rated episode of the season was the seventeenth, the highly anticipated conclusion of a 3-part story-arc, which was watched by 27.390, receiving a 9.7 rating, a #4 ranking in the week and a #1 ranking in the time-slot. The episode outperformed CSI's "Fallen Idols", which ranked #7 with a 7.7 rating and 21.780 million viewers tuning in.
The lowest-rated episode was its ninth, which was watched by 18.510 million viewers, ranking third in the week with a 6.5 rating, outperforming CSI Thanksgiving special episode, "Living Legend", watched by 17.170 million viewers with a 6.1 rating and #4 ranking. The season premiere was watched by 25.41 million viewers and received 9.0 rating after being ranked #1 in both the time-slot and the week. The number of viewers increased significantly compared to the previous season premiere, which was watched by 18.980 million viewers and received a 6.8 rating. "Time Has Come Today" also outperformed the previous season finale, which was watched by 22.50 million viewers and was rated 8.0. The season finale was watched by 22.570 million viewers and received an 8.0 rating, ranking #3 in the week after American Idol. Wayne Firedman of Media Daily News described the move from the Sunday night time-slot to Thursdays as "the network's boldest and biggest move." He also expressed concerns regarding the tough competition the series will face, due to airing against CBS Network's CSI. Stephen McPherson of ABC Entertainment explained the reason for the change: "To have all hits on Sunday night doesn't help us. We wanted to be aggressive."
Critical response
The season received mixed-to-negative reviews, after 2 seasons that resulted in high critical acclaim. Following a positive outlook on the second season, Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment expressed disappointment during the third one, mainly due to the declining quality and lack of realism of the storylines. He noted a growing number of similarities between the season's arcs and the ones that are developed in soap operas, by stating that "the line which separates primetime television from soap opera is oftentimes razor-thin" and admitting that, despite his considering the series "the best drama", he freely admits that it requires some inherent suspension of disbelief, after it "found itself mired in the annoying and absurd." Whereas Monfette acknowledged that the fans would consider the problem to have been a simple case of lazy writing, he noted that over-writing played a main role in the series becoming unexpectedly unrealistic. He also noted the senseless intrigues in the Meredith/Derek relationship, by stating that the season would not have achieved high ratings if a functional relationship had been introduced: "The season generally opts to stall out for its vast majority, providing Meredith with some bizarrely underdeveloped subplot about depression and giving Derek a season's worth of reconsidering to do."
Monfette criticized the romantic development of the characters throughout the season, by describing Burke and Cristina's relationship as an excuse for the possibility of a wedding for Meredith, whereas Burke's unfair behavior towards Cristina is thought to be manipulative, exposing her to his overly-romantic notion of an ideal ceremony. The way the doubts regarding the success of their relationship were resolved in the season finale was described as "most-obvious and least-compelling." IGN Entertainment was also critical of Alex Karev's storyline, who is seen falling for a pregnant and badly injured Jane Doe, despite having always been "self-obsessed." Monfette once again noted the lack of realism in the improvement of Jane Doe's condition, as she gives birth to her baby and undergoes reconstructive surgery in a short amount of time. However, her incapability and continuous struggle to remember who she is was considered to be "the most affecting and honest plotline of the season", noting the nuanced and emotionally resonant scenes, which gave the show a "charmingly positive, feel-good foundation." Monfette considered Izzie's affair with George as the season's worst but most significant storyline, criticizing it as being "force-fed, emotionally-incorrect, a mismatch from the beginning and a narrative long-shot", which does not express love, but lust. He agreed that the essential problem of the season was its reluctance to move, leading to frustration after seeing "the entertaining familiar characters so weighed down by their most annoying of traits."
In response to the season premiere, Oscar Dahl of Buddytv.com noted the predictability of the series, but expressed hope in its further development, by stating that it has become "a medical chick flick, but a damn good one" with a big and attractive cast. He also praised the interaction between the characters, noting the "smart" dialogue that helps each character evolve. However, Dahl expressed disappointment in the over-emotional scenes, describing them as "off-putting" and "not believable", while comparing them to real-life interactions between people who emote in a more subtle manner than displayed on television. "Emotions ran high in the premiere and there was much crying", stated Dahl, but noted that the dialogue, who he had previously been worried would be "too cutesy", was not bothering, and rather realistic, noting how the show is "smartly written." He also described the acting of Ellen Pompeo and Katherine Heigl as "worthy of attention."
New York Post Robert Rorke reviewed the numerous characters with heavy romantic development, noting perpetual "merry-go-round of hookups, breakups and makeup sex", while describing the lack of sentimental involvement of Katherine Heigl's character in the first half of the season. However, he deemed Izzie Stevens "the heart-and-soul" of the "sex-filled series", due to the season mostly focusing on the events that come to define her as a person. Rorke named her the show's heroine, and wrote that "Izzie is a welcome, calming presence, despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiancé Denny Duquette", considering her to have been more prominent than the title character, Meredith Grey, whose storyline received negative critiques: "She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas. But lately, she's been a little dopey, with that endless McDreamy soliloquies." He also noted Meredith's decreasing importance in the ongoing arc, describing how Sandra Oh's character development was vital to the success of the season, as he compared her "cutthroat exterior" with the emotional side of her personality that evolves throughout the season. New York Post compared Izzie, who is described as having achieved a depth, to Miranda Bailey, noting the maturity they have, which is uncharacteristic to the fellow interns. Robert Rorke positively reviewed Chandra Wilson's performance by stating that she was "formidable."
Prior to the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, Stuart Levine of Variety reviewed the performances of the 3 cast members nominated in the Outstanding Supporting Actress category. "The ladies of Grey's Anatomy dominate the category, and it'd be far from a stretch to say at least 2 of those women rose to high dramatics last season", commented Levine, while praising Sandra Oh for her portrayal of Cristina Yang who endured a tumultuous seasoning relationship, seeing her trepidation at spending a life together with the man she loved. He regarded the appearances of Chandra Wilson as more subdued, though "by no means less well-executed." He deemed Miranda Bailey a rock, being the most level-headed character on the show with a right thing to say in any situation. He expressed admiration towards Chandra Wilson, by describing her as being "flashy and over the top", which he considers better than being consistently good. Considering Heigl's chances of winning the Emmy, Levine assessed of her performance, by remarking the slight difficulty she has in reaching each emotional state Izzie Stevens has to go through: "Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines, and she's up to the challenge." However, he also noted that Izzie's irrational actions during crisis situations may be bothering.
Accolades
The season was one of the most acclaimed of the show, receiving numerous awards and nominations. Several cast and crew members were nominated for their work on the show during its third season at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards. Chandra Wilson received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in "Oh, the Guilt", the season's fifth episode, whereas Sandra Oh was nominated for the same category for her portrayal of Cristina Yang in "From a Whisper to a Scream", the season's ninth episode. However, they both lost to co-star Katherine Heigl, whose portrayal of Izzie Stevens in "Time After Time", the twentieth episode of the season, resulted in her first Emmy win.
T. R. Knight was also nominated for his performance in the third season in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category, for the 2-episode arc "Six Days", the eleventh and second episodes of the season. Elizabeth Reaser and Kate Burton were nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, for their performances as Rebecca Pope in "My Favorite Mistake", the nineteenth episode in the season, and Ellis Grey in "Wishin' and Hopin'", the fourteenth episode. Linda Lowy and John Brace were nominated for Outstanding Casting in a Drama Series, while Norman T. Leavitt, Brigitte Bugayong, Thomas R. Burman and Bari Dreiband-Burman were nominated for Best Prosthetic Make-Up. The production team was acclaimed for the Best Drama Series category, but only received a nomination.
Sara Ramirez was nominated at the 2007 Alma Awards for her portrayal of Callie Torres. At the 65th Golden Globe Awards, the series was nominated for Best Television Drama Series, while Katherine Heigl's individual performance resulted in a nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television. The show's third season was once again recognized at the 38th National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Awards, when the production team was nominated for Best Drama Series. Also at the 2007 ceremony, Isaiah Washington won Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Preston Burke in this season, while Chandra Wilson won Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Several cast members have been awarded at the PRISM Awards in 2007: Katherine Heigl in the Favorite Female TV Star category for portraying Izzie Stevens, Patrick Dempsey for Favorite Male TV Star in the role of Derek Shepherd, and Chandra Wilson in the Favorite Scene Stealing Star category for her performance of Miranda Bailey. Mark Gordon, Shonda Rhimes, James D. Parriott, Betsy Beers, Peter Horton and Rob Corn have been nominated at the Producers Guild of America 2007 Awards for Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic Drama for the production of the third season, after winning the award at the 2006 Awards for the second season. At the 2007 Satellite Awards, Ellen Pompeo won the award Best Actress in Drama Series, while T. R. Knight was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or TV Film and Chandra Wilson for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or TV Film. At the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the series' regular cast received a nomination for Outstanding Cast in Drama Series. Katherine Heigl and Patrick Dempsey were nominated at the 2007 Teen Choice Awards. Also in 2007, the female cast and crew of Grey's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award, which honors those whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women.
DVD release
The third season was officially released on DVD in region 1 on September 11, 2007, becoming available in both the United States and Canada. It was released 2 weeks before the fourth season originally began airing. The title of the box set, "Grey's Anatomy: Season Three – Seriously Extended" is a pun, referring to the success the series had, using the medical term "extension." Also in the official title is the world "seriously", which is one frequently-used in the series. The box-set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound and widescreen format, enhanced for television with a 16:9 aspect ratio. It was distributed by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. The same set was released in region 4 on October 31, 2007, being made available first in Australia. In region 2, the season was first released in Romania on August 12, 2008, shortly after the season concluded airing on national television. In the United Kingdom, the season was released on September 15, 2008, approximately a year after its original release in the United States. Although the season aired in high definition, it has not been released on Blu-ray in any region to date.
The box-set includes all the original 25 episodes that aired on the American Broadcasting Company, being divided into 7 discs. Subtitles are available in French, in Spanish and in English for the hearing impaired, whereas the available languages for the character voices are English, French and Spanish. It featured audio commentaries with cast members Kate Walsh, Chandra Wilson, Ellen Pompeo, Kate Burton and Sandra Oh for the first, fourteenth and twenty-first episodes. It also featured the first, seventh, thirteenth and fourteenth episodes as extended episodes, with a longer running time. The bonus features were available on the seventh disc, including interviews with cast members Patrick Dempsey, Ellen Pompeo and Elizabeth Reaser, listed under the titles of "Making Rounds With Patrick Dempsey", "One on One with Ellen Pompeo" and "Prescription for Success: Making Jane Doe a Star", respectively. The region 1 release featured footage from behind the scenes, under the title of "In Stitches: Season 3 Outtakes" and unaired scenes from 9 episodes, including the season premiere and the finale, under the name of "Dissecting Grey's Anatomy." Omnipresent in the bonus material were executive producers Shonda Rhimes and Betsy Beers, providing their outlook on characters, actors and the production process.
The box-set received mixed reviews. Kelly West of CinemaBlend noted that the "seriously extended episodes" were not significantly expanded, only adding a few minutes of extra footage, which don't influence the storyline. She also noted a "weakness" in the audio commentary provided by 4 of the actresses, who she deemed to have been fantastic during the series, describing the features as "random chit-chats." However, she praised Sandra Oh's commentary, noting that she put the most effort in hers by trying to come up with interest topics, while being "amusing and worth listening to." She described the bonus features as "mildly entertaining", emphasizing Dempsey's interview about his passion for racing cars, which she regarded useless. USA Today had a positive perspective on the box-set, by calling it "scintillating" and "addictive."
References
External links
2006 American television seasons
2007 American television seasons
Grey's Anatomy seasons | wiki |
Crestone may refer to:
Crestone (Macedonia), a town of ancient Macedonia, Greece
Crestone, Colorado, a town in Saguache County
Crestone Needle, a mountain peak in Colorado
Crestone Peak, the seventh highest peak in Colorado
The Crestones, four peaks in Colorado
Crestone (album), a 2007 album by the Paul Winter Consort
See also
Creston (disambiguation) | wiki |
Thomas Morley (1917-2002) – botanico statunitense
Thomas Morley (1557-1602) – compositore, organista ed editore inglese | wiki |
Saphenous may refer to one of two saphenous veins or the saphenous nerve in the leg:
Great saphenous vein
Small saphenous vein
Saphenous nerve | wiki |
Fagonia pachyacantha is a species of flowering plant in the caltrop family known by the common name sticky fagonbush. It is native to the Sonoran Desert of northwest Mexico in Sonora and the Lower Colorado River Valley area at the California and Arizona border.
Description
Fagonia pachyacantha is a spreading perennial herb not more than in height with very glandular stems and foliage. Each leaf is divided into three flat, green leaflets and there are straight, pointed, spine-like stipules at the base of each set.
Flowers, each about 1.5 centimeters wide, appear in the axils of the sparse leaves. The flower has five purplish pink petals with bases narrowed to thin claws. The fruit is a rounded capsule about half a centimeter long.
References
External links
Jepson Manual Treatment — Fagonia pachyacantha
Fagonia pachyacantha — U.C. Photo gallery
pachyacantha
Flora of the Sonoran Deserts
Flora of the California desert regions
Flora of Sonora
Flora of Arizona
Natural history of the Colorado Desert
Natural history of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Flora without expected TNC conservation status | wiki |
Certus Gearless Company Ltd. was a British manufacturer of automobiles.
History
The company was founded in London in 1907. The brand name was Certus. Only a few units were produced, and production ended in 1908.
Models
The smaller model used a two-cylinder engine. A larger model was propelled by a 4-cylinder engine from Aster with a displacement of 3000 cm³. The distinguishing feature of both models was the use of a friction drive.
References
Harald Linz, Halwart Schrader: Die Internationale Automobil-Enzyklopädie. United Soft Media Verlag, München 2008, .
George N. Georgano: The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. Volume 1: A–F. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago 2001, .
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England
Vehicle manufacture in London
Defunct companies based in London | wiki |
Cassini's laws provide a compact description of the motion of the Moon. They were established in 1693 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, a prominent scientist of his time.
Refinements of these laws to include physical librations have been made, and they have been generalized to treat other satellites and planets.
Cassini's laws
The Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance. This means that the rotation–orbit ratio of the Moon is such that the same side of it always faces the Earth.
The Moon's rotational axis maintains a constant angle of inclination from the ecliptic plane. The Moon's rotational axis precesses so as to trace out a cone that intersects the ecliptic plane as a circle.
A plane formed from a normal to the ecliptic plane and a normal to the Moon's orbital plane will contain the Moon's rotational axis.
In the case of the Moon, its rotational axis always points some 1.5 degrees away from the North ecliptic pole. The normal to the Moon's orbital plane and its rotational axis are always on opposite sides of the normal to the ecliptic.
Therefore, both the normal to the orbital plane and the Moon's rotational axis precess around the ecliptic pole with the same period. The period is about 18.6 years and the motion is retrograde.
Cassini state
A system obeying these laws is said to be in a Cassini state, that is: an evolved rotational state where the spin axis, orbit normal, and normal to the Laplace plane are coplanar while the obliquity remains constant. The Laplace plane is defined as the plane about which a planet or satellite orbit precesses with constant inclination. The normal to the Laplace plane for a moon is between the planet's spin axis and the planet's orbit normal, being closer to the latter if the moon is distant from the planet. If a planet itself is in a Cassini state, the Laplace plane is the invariable plane of the stellar system.
Cassini state 1 is defined as the situation in which both the spin axis and the orbit normal axis are on the same side of the normal to the Laplace plane. Cassini state 2 is defined as the case in which the spin axis and the orbit normal axis are on opposite sides of the normal to the Laplace plane. Earth's Moon is in Cassini state 2.
In general, the spin axis moves in the direction perpendicular to both itself and the orbit normal, due to the tidal force exerted by the object being orbited (planet or star) and other objects in the system. (In the case of the Moon, its spin axis moves mostly under the influence of the Earth, whereas the smaller tidal influence of the Sun works in the same direction at full moon and in the opposite direction at new moon and is thus negligible.) The rate of movement of the spin axis goes to zero if the spin axis coincides with the orbit normal. If the orbit normal precesses in a regular circular motion (due to tidal influences from other objects, such as the Sun in the case of the Moon), it is possible to characterize the solutions to the differential equation for the motion of the spin axis. It turns out that the spin axis traces out loops on the unit sphere that rotates at the speed of the orbital precession (so that the orbit normal and the normal to the Laplace plane are fixed points in the sphere). With certain values of the parameters, there are three areas on the sphere in each of which we have circulation around a point inside the area where the spin axis doesn't move (in this rotating frame of reference). These points are Cassini states 1 and 2 and a third Casssini state in which the rotation is retrograde (which would not apply to a moon like ours that is tidally locked). The three areas are separated by a separatrix that crosses itself, and the point where it crosses itself is the unstable Cassini state 4. (Under other parameter values only states 2 and 3 exist, and there is no separatrix.) If an object flexes and dissipates kinetic energy, then these solutions are not exact and the system will slowly evolve and approach a stable Cassini state. This has happened with the Moon. It has reached a state with a constant obliquity of 6.7°, at which the precession of the spin axis takes the same 18.6 years as taken by the precession of the orbit normal, and is thus in a Casssini state.
References and notes
Further reading
Cassini Laws – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics
Cassini's 3 laws
Cassini's laws
See also
Orbit of the Moon
Astrophysics
Laws | wiki |
The Pajama Game is a Broadway musical.
"The Pajama Game" may also refer to:
The Pajama Game (film), a 1957 movie based on the Broadway musical
The Pajama Game (album), a 1957 Doris Day album based on the movie
The Pajama Game cast recording, the 2006 Broadway cast recording from The Pajama Game, disc one on Harry Connick, Jr.'s album Harry on Broadway, Act I | wiki |
Chemically strengthened glass is a type of glass that has increased strength as a result of a post-production chemical process. When broken, it still shatters in long pointed splinters similar to float glass. For this reason, it is not considered a safety glass and must be laminated if a safety glass is required. However, chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times the strength of float glass. The most common trademark for this kind of glass is Gorilla glass.
The glass is chemically strengthened by a surface finishing process. Glass is submersed in a bath of a molten potassium salt (typically potassium nitrate) at about . This causes sodium ions in the glass surface to be replaced by potassium ions from the bath.
These potassium ions are larger than the sodium ions and therefore wedge into the gaps left by the smaller sodium ions when they migrate to the molten potassium nitrate. This replacement of ions causes the surface of the glass to be in a state of compression and the core in compensating tension. The surface compression of chemically strengthened glass may reach up to .
The strengthening mechanism depends on the fact that the compressive strength of glass is significantly higher than its tensile strength. With both surfaces of the glass already in compression, it takes a certain amount of bending before one of the surfaces can even go into tension. More bending is required to reach the tensile strength. The other surface simply experiences more and more compressive stress. But since the compressive strength is so much larger, no compressive failure is experienced.
Because the surface of chemically strengthened glass is in compression, it is also significantly more scratch resistant than untreated glass. This is why cell phone screens are typically made this way. Since phones are commonly carried in a pocket or purse with other items such as keys, scratch resistance is important.
There also exists a more advanced two-stage process for making chemically strengthened glass, in which the glass article is first immersed in a sodium nitrate bath at 450 °C (842 °F), which enriches the surface with sodium ions. This leaves more sodium ions on the glass for the immersion in potassium nitrate to replace with potassium ions. In this way, the use of a sodium nitrate bath increases the potential for surface compression in the finished article.
Chemical strengthening results in a strengthening similar to toughened glass. However, the process does not use extreme variations of temperature and therefore chemically strengthened glass has little or no bow or warp, optical distortion or strain pattern. This differs from toughened glass, in which slender pieces can be significantly bowed.
Also unlike toughened glass, chemically strengthened glass may be cut after strengthening, but loses its added strength within the region of approximately 20 mm of the cut. Similarly, when the surface of chemically strengthened glass is deeply scratched, this area loses its additional strength.
Another negative of chemically strengthened glass is the added cost. While tempered glass can be made cheaply through the fabrication process, chemically strengthened glass has a much more expensive route to the market. These costs make the product prohibitive for use in many applications.
Chemically strengthened glass was used for the aircraft canopy of some fighter aircraft.
See also
Architectural glass
Toughened glass
References
Glass types
Glass coating and surface modification | wiki |
The Identity Theft Resource Center (ITRC) is a United States non-profit organization that provides identity crime victim assistance and education, free of charge, through a toll-free call center, live chat, website, podcasts, and social media. The ITRC educates consumers, businesses, government agencies, policymakers, and other organizations on best practices for identity theft and fraud detection, reduction, and mitigation; and, serves as an objective national resource on trends related to cybersecurity, data breaches, social media, fraud, scams, and other identity issues.
The ITRC was founded in December 1999 in San Diego, California and is a 501(c)(3) non-profit funded by a combination of competitive government grants, business services and sponsorships, and corporate donations.[1] In addition to the victim assistance services that are free of charge to individual consumers, the Center also conducts research and analysis related to identity and data privacy issues and publishes four annual reports that detail trends and impacts of identity crimes: the ITRC Data Breach Report, the ITRC Trends in Identity Crimes Report, the ITRC Consumer Impact Report, and the ITRC Small Business Impact Report. [2]
The ITRC received a United States Department of Justice National Crime Victim Service Award in 2004.[3] In 2019, ITRC President & CEO Eva Velasquez received a Crime Victims Service Award from the U.S. Department of Justice
See also
Bank fraud
Check fraud
Check washing
Credit card fraud
Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act
Fair Credit Billing Act
Fair Credit Reporting Act
Ghosting (identity theft)
Hacking
Identity document forgery
Identity fraud
Identity theft
Internet security
Pharming
Phishing
RFID
Spam
Wireless identity theft
References
External links
US Resource Map of Crime Victim Services & Information
Theft Resource Center
Fraud in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in San Diego
1999 establishments in California | wiki |
Legacy Family Tree är ett genealogiprogram för Windows. Det finns tillgängligt i två versioner, Standard Edition, vilket distribueras som freeware, och Deluxe Edition.
Referenser
Externa länkar
Legacy Family Tree
Programvaran på svenska
Genealogiprogram
Fria genealogiprogram
Freewareprogram
Windows-program | wiki |
A series of large floods occurred in parts of the United Kingdom during the summer of 2007. The worst of the flooding occurred across Scotland on 14 June; East Yorkshire and the Midlands on 15 June; Yorkshire, the Midlands, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire on 25 June; and Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire and South Wales on 28 July 2007.
June was one of the wettest months on record in Britain (see List of weather records). Average rainfall across the country was ; more than double the June average. Some areas received a month's worth of precipitation in 24 hours. It was Britain's wettest May–July period since records began in 1776. July had unusually unsettled weather and above-average rainfall through the month, peaking on 20 July as an active frontal system dumped more than of rain in southern England.
Civil and military authorities described the June and July rescue efforts as the biggest in peacetime Britain. The Environment Agency described the July floods as critical and expected them to exceed the 1947 benchmark.
Meteorological background
June 2007 started quietly with an anticyclone to the north of the United Kingdom maintaining a dry, cool easterly flow. From 10 June the high pressure began to break down as an upper trough moved into the area, triggering thunderstorms that caused flooding in Northern Ireland on 12 June.
Later that week, a slow-moving area of low pressure from the west of Biscay moved east across the British Isles. At the same time, an associated occluded front moved into Northern England, becoming very active as it did so with the peak rainfall on 15 June. Rainfall records were broken across the region, leading to localised flooding. As it weakened, the front moved north into Scotland on 16 June and left England and Wales with a very unstable airmass, frequent heavy showers, thunderstorms and cloudy conditions. This led to localised flash flooding and prevented significant drying where earlier rains had fallen.
On 25 June, another unseasonably low pressure (993 hPa / 29.3 inHg) depression, Cyclone Uriah, moved across England. The associated front settled over northern and eastern England and dumped more than of rain in places. The combination of high rainfall and high water levels from the earlier rainfall led to extensive flooding across many parts of England and Wales, with the Midlands, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, South, West and East Yorkshire the most affected. Gales along the east coast also caused storm damage. RAF Fylingdales on the North York Moors reported rainfall totals of in 24 hours, an estimated in Hull and on Emley Moor in West Yorkshire. Until 2007, the average monthly total for June for the whole UK was .
On 27 June, the Met Office released an early warning of severe weather for the approaching weekend, stating that of rain could fall in some areas, raising the possibility of more flooding within the already saturated flood plains.
On 20 July, another active frontal system moved across Southern England. Many places recorded a month's rainfall or more in one day. The Met Office at RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire reported : a sixth of its annual rainfall. The college at Pershore in Worcestershire reported , causing the Environment Agency to issue 16 further severe flood warnings. By 21 July, many towns and villages were flooded, with Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, London and South Wales facing the brunt of the heavy rainfall.
Climate researchers have suggested that the unusual weather leading to the floods may be linked to this year's appearance of La Nina in the Pacific Ocean, and the jet stream being further south than normal.
Affected areas in England
England was affected by the June and July floods, with the North badly hit in June, the West badly hit in July, and many areas hit in both. It was England's wettest July on record. Gloucestershire was the worst affected county – with both some minor flooding in June, and major flooding in July. Non-administrative counties and administrative counties affected by the flooding are given below.
Bedfordshire
By 25 July, a number of low-lying parts adjacent to the river in Bedford and Luton were flooded and one man drowned attempting to swim across the River Great Ouse in Bedford.
Parts of Felmersham and Turvey were also flooded.
Berkshire
On 20 July, the M4 was closed after a landslide caused by flooding between Junctions 12 and 13 eastbound. Approximately 1,100 properties in Thatcham were affected by flash flooding.
By 21 July, Newbury and Maidenhead town centres were flooded, the shopping mall in Maidenhead was closed and parts of the Glade Festival were flooded. Officials warned that the River Thames, the River Ock, and its tributaries from Charney could burst their banks. Trinity School was badly affected by the flooding as well due to Vodafone's HQ nearby. Vodafone's ornamental lake overflowed due to the sudden downpour and badly damaged Trinity School's astro turf to the front of the school as well as some damage to inside the school.
In Reading, rail services to the southwest were affected and westbound trains from Paddington could go no further.
The flood waters affected the Atomic Weapons Establishment at Burghfield, which handles Britain's nuclear warheads, resulting in a suspension of work for almost a year.
Buckinghamshire
On 3 June, Stoke Goldington suffered flash flooding affecting 25 homes. Stoke Goldington was affected again on 3 July, with 10 houses being flooded.
By 21 July, seventy homes and businesses were flooded by the River Ouse in Buckingham and 30 people spent the night in the town's Radcliffe centre, but away a system of balancing lakes prevented Milton Keynes from suffering significantly, apart from a flash flood of Stony Stratford High Street from the River Ouse.
Cambridgeshire
On 24 July, four bridges in St Neots, Cambridgeshire were shut when the river level peaked, and the Environment Agency warned residents in the St Neots, Paxton and Offords areas to expect flooding that night. By 25 July, parts of St Ives were flooded. Later the same day, the Environment Agency advised residents near the River Great Ouse that the peak had passed and further flooding was unlikely.
County Durham
On 15 June, heavy rainfall caused the postponement of the fourth test match between England and the West Indies at the Riverside Ground, Chester-le-Street. On 23 June, flash floods affected parts of Darlington and Stanhope Road, Northgate, St Cuthbert's Way, Parkgate and Haughton Road were closed after water levels rose by about 2 feet (0.6 m). It has also led to Woodland Road to improve its drainage to prevent such flooding on one of the main roads out the town. On 17 July, flooding affected Peterlee town centre, closing shops and a local school.
Cumbria
A 64-year-old man hit his head and died after trying to bail out his flooded home in Alston, Cumbria.
Derbyshire
On 25 June, flooding affected properties in Coal Aston, Calow and Chesterfield town centre, and the A617 was covered by more than of floodwater causing traffic delays.
Gloucestershire
On 19 July, Gloucestershire Fire and Rescue Service attended 1,800 calls in a 48-hour period, compared with the usual 8,000 calls a year.
On 22 July, Gloucester City A.F.C.'s Stadium was flooded, and the Tewkesbury road at Longford was completely impassable by the Longford Inn. Tewkesbury was completely cut off with no road access, parts of the town were under around of water and flood waters entered Tewkesbury Abbey for the first time in 247 years. Tewkesbury's Mythe Water Treatment Works were flooded. Severn Trent Water warned that treated water would run out by early Sunday evening in Tewkesbury, Cheltenham, Gloucester and surrounding areas.
Combined military and civil emergency services tried to stop floods reaching the Walham electricity substation in Gloucester supplying half a million people. On 23 July 50,000 Gloucestershire homes were left without electricity after a major electricity substation in Castle Meads had to be turned off. Efforts to stop flooding at Walham substation succeeded; the Castle Meads substation was repaired the next day.
By 24 July, an estimated 420,000 people were without drinking water, including most of the population of Gloucester, Cheltenham, and Tewkesbury. Emergency services continued repair work at the Mythe water-treatment works but Severn Trent Water estimated that water supplies would not be restored for at least 14 days. 900 drinking water bowsers were brought in and the Army was mobilised to distribute three million bottles of water a day and keep the bowsers filled. Coors, Carlsberg, Scottish and Newcastle, Inbev and Greene King brewing companies offered 23 beer tankers to help supply drinking water. On 26 July Severn Trent Water organised a temporary non-potable water supply to 10,000 homes in Tewkesbury. It was not until 7 August – 16 days after Mythe Treatment Works stopped pumping – that the tap water for the 140,000 homes affected was again declared safe to drink.
In terms of casualties, a man and his 24-year-old son died from asphyxiation from carbon monoxide poisoning on 27 July when attempting to stop flooding in the unventilated Tewkesbury Rugby Football Club cellar. On 28 July, the body of a 19-year-old boy, reported missing seven days earlier, was recovered in Tewkesbury.
Greater London
On 20 July flooding occurred in many parts of Greater London. Water and power supplies were not disrupted but parts of South West London were under of water. Heathrow Airport cancelled 141 flights. Two of four rail lines in South Croydon were closed by landslips. The London Underground was severely disrupted and 25 stations were closed.
Herefordshire
By 19 June, Herefordshire was affected by flooding. The M50 motorway near Ledbury was closed on 22 July due to flooding. More than 5,200 people in and around Bromyard, Herefordshire were without clean water on 22 and 23 July after the pumps at the Whitbourne works in Herefordshire failed. Once supply was restored residents were urged by Welsh Water to boil their tap-water until further notice. The village of Hampton Bishop, 3 miles (5 km) from the city of Hereford remains surrounded and flooded by water after the River Lugg burst its banks. On the afternoon of 24 July the Fire Service began pumping flood water out of the village, but not before 130 residents were evacuated. Houses, including the Herefordshire home of Daily Mail writer Quentin Letts, were flooded by a torrent of water gushing from what had previously been only a small, unnamed brook north of Ross-on-Wye.
Residents of East Bromyard were rescued after the River Frome burst its banks.
Lancashire
On 12 June, Lostock Hall and Penwortham near Preston were hit by flash floods.
On 3 July, heavy rain caused flooding in Earby and Ribchester, affecting homes and causing the Royal Lancashire Show to be cancelled on 9 July. On 4 July, the Blackburn Mela was cancelled due to ground conditions. On 18 July, Walton-le-Dale near Preston was hit by flash floods.
Lincolnshire
Louth and Horncastle were severely flooded, with some roads in that area impassable. Children at a school in Horncastle were evacuated because of floods. More than 600-flood related calls occurred across the county. In Lincoln, mainly round the Stamp End area, a house called Shuttleworth House was completely flooded with water in its insides. After power was lost in the area, more than 200 people were rescued in dinghies.
Nottinghamshire
On 27 June 2007, flash flooding caused extensive damage to the villages of Lambley, Woodborough and Burton Joyce. Major towns were hit including Mansfield and Hucknall but not as severely as Lambley. The same day, flooding occurred at Retford and Worksop after the River Idle and River Ryton respectively overtopped their banks.
Oxfordshire
Many rivers burst their banks, including both the Thames and the Cherwell in Oxford and the Ock in Abingdon the Windrush in Witney and the Evenlode.
By 21 July, Banbury and Witney were flooded. Oxford, particularly Botley, was flooded and some 300 people were evacuated.
On 22 July, the Environment Agency warned of further flooding and 1,500 people in Abingdon were evacuated. Forty thousand sandbags were transported from Grantham in Lincolnshire to Abingdon and Oxford.
By 23 July, Oxford, Abingdon, Kidlington and Bladon were affected; some 3,000 homes including the home of William Morris at Kelmscott were flooded and 600 residents were evacuated, with many taking refuge in Oxford United Football Club's Kassam Stadium.
On 24 July the Thames in Abingdon rose 3 feet (0.9 m) in less than 12 hours to a "perilously high" level and the Thames and the Severn were expected to rise to 20 feet (6.1 m) higher than normal.
On 25 July residents of Osney in west Oxford were advised to leave their homes. About 30 people went to the Kassam stadium shelter while another 250 decided to stay with family and friends. Osney Mead substation, which supplies power to Oxford city centre, was threatened but did not flood. Later that evening, the Thames breached its banks at Henley.
Shropshire
By 19 June, rain had washed away the main road at Hampton Loade and the Severn Valley Railway line from Bridgnorth was closed after numerous landslips on the line. Also, on 19 June/20 June, parts of the town of Shifnal near Telford, were flooded when the Wesley Brook burst its banks. Some of the residents blame Severn Trent Water for opening floodgates at Priors Lee balancing lake, however no such gates exist. Repair costs to the railway were estimated at £2 million.
On 26 June, the Burway Bridge collapsed, disrupting one of the main roads into Ludlow, severing a gas main and causing the surrounding area to be evacuated.
On 1 July, a woman was pulled out of the River Severn at Jackfield on the Telford and Wrekin border near Ironbridge. By 24 July, the UK National Ballooning Championships in Ludlow had been cancelled for the first time in their 32-year history.
Warwickshire
By 21 July, flooded parts of Warwickshire included Alcester, Stratford-upon-Avon, Shipston on Stour and Water Orton. To a lesser extent, areas of Leamington Spa and Warwick also experienced flooding.
Several nature reserves in the Tame Valley, including Ladywalk and Kingsbury Water Park were badly affected, just as ground- and reedbed- nesting birds were hatching young.
West Midlands
200 people were forced to leave Witton Road and Tame Road in Aston, Birmingham when the River Tame flooded. Water entered the streets of Shirley, Solihull. As in Warwickshire, the Tame caused losses at a nature reserve; this time RSPB Sandwell Valley. In the Dudley borough flooding damaged local schools, shops and communities. Schools opened the doors with parts of buildings flooded with water, the damage in the West Midlands area estimated at 1.9 billion (2007 GDP).
Wiltshire
On 20 July, Swindon had a month's rainfall in less than half a day. More than 50 people were rescued from their flooded homes.
Worcestershire
By 19 June, Worcestershire was affected by flooding. A 68-year-old motorist died after he was trapped in his vehicle in flood water near Pershore whilst attempting to cross an old ford in Bow Brook which was by then 2 m deep. The waters were still rising, endangering the confluence of the River Teme and the River Severn. On 26 June 2007 the New Road Ground, home to Worcestershire County Cricket Club, was flooded after the River Severn overtopped its banks, causing the next day's Twenty20 match against Warwickshire to be cancelled. On 17 July, Tenbury Wells in Worcestershire was flooded for the second time in three weeks after a thunderstorm caused flash flooding. By 21 July the M5 was affected, compounded by the closure of the Strensham services, and the motorway was closed, stranding hundreds in their vehicles overnight.
By 23 July, parts of Worcestershire were under 6 feet (2 m) of water and the Army was brought in to help emergency services supply the inhabitants of Upton-upon-Severn which was cut off by floodwater.
On 1 June, the first day of the floods. A road in Cropthorne near Worcester was brutally forced down by a high impact of water flowing underneath the road in a pipe. The hole it made was deep and wide, traffic throughout the county was held up due to the collapsed main road. The site was named Cropthorne Canyon.
East Riding of Yorkshire and Kingston upon Hull
On 15 June, the region was hit by flooding. Roads including the A63 and A1105 in Hull and schools in the region were closed, the Hull Lord Mayor's Parade was cancelled, the Festival of Football was postponed, police declared a major incident and Hessle in Hull, on the border between Hull City Council and East Riding of Yorkshire Council, suffered two square miles of severe sewage-contaminated flooding.
On 25 June, the region was hit by flooding again. Fire crews received over 1500 calls in a 12-hour period, dozens of homes in Beverley and about 50 people at a Hull nursing home were evacuated, boats were used to evacuate about 90 people from 4 feet (1 m) of floodwater in Hull's County Road North, and in Hessle a 28-year-old man died after becoming trapped in a drain. The new Hull police station had to be vacated because of flooding. The next day, only 12 of Hull's 88 schools were still open, affecting 30,000 out of 38,000 Hull schoolchildren.
By 4 July in Hull, six schools were still closed and 120 residents in residential or nursing care had been relocated.
By 5 July, an estimated 35,000 people in streets containing 17,000 homes had been affected by flooding in Hull and by the next day more than 10,000 homes had been evacuated. Hull City Council estimated repair costs at £200 million.
By 24 July, Hull City Council had checked each house in the flooded streets and stated that 6,500 homes had been flooded.
By 27 July, £2.1 million had been allocated to Hull and £600,000 to the East Riding for clean-up and immediate repairs, and £3.2 million to Hull and £1.5 million to the East Riding for further repairs to the region's estimated 101 schools suffering significant flood damage.
By 3 September, figures released by Hull City Council had been revised upwards to 7,800 houses that had been flooded plus 1,300 businesses that were affected.
North Yorkshire
By 15 June, towns and villages in North Yorkshire were flooded, with Knaresborough, Harrogate and York being particularly affected. The A59 road at Kex Gill was closed due to a landslip where of earth slide down the hillside and trapped a couple in their car. In Scarborough, the main A171 Scalby Road flooded outside Scarborough Hospital, and the ornamental lake at Peasholm Park overtopped its banks and poured down Peasholm Gap into North Bay. Near Catterick, North Yorkshire, a 17-year-old soldier on a training exercise from Catterick Garrison died after being swept away whilst crossing Risedale Beck, Hipswell Moor. On 23 June, flooding affected Middlesbrough.
Pickering was flooded after Pickering Beck overflowed its banks. On 18 July, streams overflowed and roads were blocked in Barton, Gilling West, Melsonby, Hartforth, Scotch Corner, Middleton Tyas and Kirby Hill after a freak rainstorm, and on 18 July 2007 a cloud burst left parts of Filey under 3 feet (1 m) of water, just caused by the rain, rather than by a river bursting its banks. Pensioners were stranded in the town's swimming pool and rescued by lifeboat.
South Yorkshire
On 25 June, Sheffield suffered extensive damage as the River Don over topped its banks causing widespread flooding in the Don Valley area of the city. A 14-year-old boy was swept away by the swollen River Sheaf, a 68-year-old man died after attempting to cross a flooded road in Sheffield city centre, and several cattle were washed away, found up to across fields in some areas of cultivated land. The Meadowhall shopping centre was closed due to flooding with some shops remaining closed downstairs until late September and Sheffield Wednesday's ground Hillsborough was under 6 feet (1.83 m) of water. A number of people were rescued by RAF helicopters from buildings in the Brightside area, whilst in the Millhouses Park area to the southwest of the city the River Sheaf overtopped its banks causing widespread damage. There was also widespread flooding in Barnsley, Doncaster and Rotherham with much of these towns cut off.
By 26 June, the waters in some parts of Sheffield and the surrounding area receded, and over 700 villagers from Catcliffe, near Rotherham's Ulley reservoir were evacuated after cracks appeared in the dam. Emergency services from across England pumped millions of gallons of water from the reservoir to ease the pressure on the damaged dam, and the nearby M1 Motorway was closed between junctions 32 and 36 as a precaution.
On 27 June, the Army moved into the Doncaster area after the River Don overtopped its banks and threatened the area around what was Thorpe Marsh Power Station. A man was incorrectly reported missing near the village of Adwick le Street near Doncaster.
West Yorkshire
On 15 June and on 25 June, the villages of Scissett and Clayton West and other parts of Kirklees were flooded by the River Dearne, the second time worse than the first.
On 25 June, Wakefield was flooded. Six elderly women, including a 91-year-old, were stranded in their homes.
During the Wakefield flood, hundreds of homes were evacuated in the Agbrigg area of Wakefield and looting was feared, but by 1 July only four looters had been arrested in the city and were later released on bail.
The village of Collingham (near Wetherby) was particularly affected by the flooding and one house was looted.
Affected areas in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland was hit by flooding in the June and July floods and it was Northern Ireland's wettest June since 1958. The non-administrative counties and districts affected are given below.
County Antrim
On 12 June, the Knockmore campus of the Lisburn Institute in Lisburn was affected by flooding. The same day, parts of East Belfast near the Antrim-Down border that were affected included the Kings Road, Ladas Drive, Strandtown Primary School and the Parliament Buildings in Stormont, with 80 residents evacuated from their old people's home on the Kings Road and Avoniel Leisure Centre opened to assist flood victims. On 2 July, houses were flooded and two people evacuated from their home in Cushendall in Antrim after the River Dall burst its banks following heavy rain. On 16 July, parts of Belfast International Airport near Aldergrove in Antrim were flooded by a freak thunderstorm leaving 10 planes unable to land, landslides closed the Antrim Coast Road near Ballygally, Larne, and people were trapped in their cars in Portrush, Coleraine.
County Down
On 15 June, there was severe flooding around Bangor in North Down, Saintfield, Crossgar and Ballynahinch in Down and Newtownards and Comber in Ards, with shops in Crossgar centre flooded.
County Londonderry
On 12 June, Magherafelt was affected by flooding. On 16 July, roads in Aghadowey, Coleraine and Portstewart, Coleraine were rendered impassable by floodwater.
County Tyrone
On 12 June, Omagh and Dungannon were affected by flooding, with a Dunnes supermarket evacuated in Omagh.
Affected areas in Scotland
Scotland was hit by flooding in June and July, with the Scottish Lowlands most badly affected. On 12 June, the Met Office issued torrential rain warnings for Scotland and it was Scotland's wettest June since 1938. The non-administrative counties and council areas affected are given below.
Ayrshire and Arran
On 21 June, about 2000 homes were left without electricity and properties were affected as flash floods hit Kilmarnock. On 18 July, flooding affected Kilmarnock again, the River Irvine burst its banks in Newmilns, and flash floods affected roads including the M77.
Dumfries
On 18 July, floods wrecked homes in Closeburn, power was cut off at Eaglesfield, and roads were closed at Moffat and Lochmaben.
Edinburgh and Midlothian
On 1 July rain cancelled the one-day international cricket match between Scotland and Pakistan in Edinburgh and by 3 July parts of Midlothian were flooded, with worst hit areas including residential areas in Dalkeith and Mayfield.
Glasgow and Lanarkshire
On 22 June, heavy storms flooded roads and dumped debris on the railway line in Glasgow. The same day, torrential rain caused a landslide just south of Lesmahagow, closing the M74.
Moray
On 3 July a landslide caused by floodwater disrupted traffic on the A941 Rothes to Aberlour road in Moray.
Ross and Cromarty
On 18 July, heavy rain caused landslips blocking the railway line between Strathcarron and Achnasheen for a predicted 10 days,
Tweeddale
On 25 June rain forced the 108-year-old Beltane Festival in Peebles to be held indoors for the first time.
Affected areas in Wales
Wales was hit by flooding in June and July, with the Eastern areas most badly affected. It was Wales's wettest June since 1998, and its second wettest since 1914. The preserved counties and principal areas affected are given below.
Clwyd
On 26 June, roads including the A5 were impassable at Corwen in Denbighshire, a river overflowed at Worthenbury in Flintshire, and properties were affected in Wrexham. In North Wales, a man was rescued by fire services after he was stranded on a small island in the River Dee in Llangollen, Denbighshire. On 17 July, flash floods after torrential rain forced the closure of a secondary school in Prestatyn in Denbighshire.
Dyfed
Lampeter in Ceredigion was affected by flooding on 11 June and then again on 15 June.
Gwent
On 26 June, properties were affected in Tintern on the River Wye in Monmouthshire. On 20 July, flash floods affected parts of Newport, Monmouthshire and Torfaen.
Powys
In Montgomeryshire, ten people were taken to safety at Tregynon and a dozen homes were flooded at Bettws Cedewain on 22 July, firefighters used a boat to evacuate five people from a house near Welshpool after they were cut off by floods on 23 July, and the same boat was later used to rescue three people stranded in a car on the A483. In Radnorshire, 30 tonnes of debris and earth blocked the only road out of Barland near Presteigne on 23 July. In Brecknockshire, the River Wye burst its banks in Builth Wells on 1 July,
the saturated ground later causing chaos at the Royal Welsh Show in Llanelwedd on 24 July.
South Glamorgan
On 20 July, flash floods affected the Vale of Glamorgan, causing schools to be evacuated, roads to be closed, and boats used to rescue people from their homes in Barry.
Timeline for June and July floods
Areas affected by flooding during this period were as follows (see above for specific citations):
1–7 June:
England (Buckinghamshire)
8–14 June:
England (Lancashire),
Northern Ireland (Belfast, Cookstown, Dungannon, Lisburn, Magherafelt, Omagh),
Wales (Ceredigion)
15–21 June:
England (County Durham, Herefordshire, North and West Yorkshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire),
Northern Ireland (Ards, Down, North Down),
Scotland (Ayrshire, Lanarkshire),
Wales (Ceredigion)
22–28 June:
England (East Riding of Yorkshire, Hull, Nottinghamshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, South Yorkshire),
Scotland (Peebles),
Wales (Denbighshire, Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Wrexham)
29 June – 5 July:
England (Buckinghamshire, Lancashire, West Yorkshire),
Northern Ireland (Antrim),
Scotland (Midlothian, Moray)
6–12 July:
De facto gap between the June and July floods
13–19 July:
England (County Durham, Cumbria, Lancashire, North Yorkshire, Worcestershire),
Northern Ireland (Coleraine, Larne),
Scotland (Ayrshire, Dumfriesshire, Ross and Cromarty),
Wales (Denbighshire)
20–26 July:
England (Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Gloucestershire, Greater London, Herefordshire, Lincolnshire, Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Worcestershire),
Wales (Newport, Monmouthshire, Powys, Torfaen, Vale of Glamorgan)
Aftermath
Rescue effort
Following the flooding in late June, the rescue effort was described by the Fire Brigades Union as the "biggest in peacetime Britain". Following the flooding in July, the RAF said it is carrying out its biggest ever peacetime rescue operation, with six Sea King helicopters from as far afield as RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall, RAF Valley in Anglesey and RAF Leconfield in the East Riding of Yorkshire rescuing up to 120 people. An RAF heavy lift Chinook helicopter was also employed to move aggregate to reinforce the banks of the River Don. The Environment Agency described the situation as "critical".
4x4 Response groups from throughout the UK assisted councils and blue light services during and in the immediate aftermath of the flooding. During the recovery phase a number of responders from around the UK 4x4 Response assisted the Red Cross in the distribution of fresh drinking water in the Gloucestershire area after mains drinking water was contaminated.
Health risks
The Health Protection Agency advised people that the risk of contracting any illness was low but that it was best to avoid coming into direct contact with flood water. There were no reported cases of any outbreaks. In some areas bottled water was handed out where sewage works got flooded.
Crop damage
The floods caused widespread crop damage, especially broccoli, carrots, peas and potatoes. In parts of Lincolnshire it was estimated that 40% of the pea crop may have been damaged, with other crops also suffering major losses. Prices of vegetables were expected to rise in the following months.
Financial cost
Environment Agency chief executive Baroness Young said that about £1 billion a year was needed to improve flood defences. The Association of British Insurers has estimated the total bill for the June and July floods as £3 billion.
A report by the Environment Agency in 2010 concluded that "the scale and seriousness of the summer 2007 floods were sufficient to classify them as a national disaster", and that the "total economic costs of the summer 2007 floods are estimated at about £3.2 billion in
2007 prices, within a possible range of between £2.5 billion and £3.8 billion.
Government response
On 3 July, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn announced that the Government would increase the spending on risk management and flood defences by £200 million to £800 million by 2010–11.
During Prime Minister's Questions in the House of Commons later that month, Prime Minister Gordon Brown promised £46 million in aid to flood-hit councils and £800 million rise in annual spending on flood protection by 2010–11, confirming Hilary Benn's announcement. Brown also pledged to push insurance firms to make payouts.
On 22 July, the Government convened COBRA to co-ordinate the response to the crisis.
Visiting Gloucestershire on 25 July, Mr. Brown praised emergency services for their efforts, but added: "We've got to get the supplies stepped up. We will get more tankers in, we will get more bowsers in, we will get more regular filling of them, and at the same time, more bottled water will be provided."
On 8 August 2007 Defra announced that Sir Michael Pitt would chair an independent review of the response to the flooding. On 4 September of that year the Cabinet Office website launched a comments page to let people affected by the flooding contribute their experiences to the review.
Sir Michael published his interim report on 17 December 2007.
In April 2010 the government passed the Flood and Water Management Act 2010, which implemented many of Sir Michael Pitt's recommendations. The Act gives more power and responsibility to the Environment Agency and local authorities to plan flood defences co-ordinated across catchment areas and the wider country, to counteract the tendency for defences to be built for upstream areas without much thought for how this might be making flooding worse for downstream areas. In also brings in a new regime whereby new building activity which exacerbates flooding by reducing the capacity of land to absorb water will need to be accompanied by the construction of sustainable drainage systems such as grassy roofs, ponds and soakaways.
Criticism of Hull City Council
Hull City Council was criticised for not insuring the city's libraries, schools and other public buildings. In response, Hull City Council said that "Many councils do not have the feature in their budget", but other flood-hit councils were insured. It was thought that council tax payers would be left with the bill, as emergency Government funding would not cover it.
Criticism of government response
In June, councillors in Hull claimed that the city was being forgotten and had the floods occurred in the Home Counties, help would have arrived much more quickly. One in five homes in Hull was damaged and 90 out of the city's 105 schools suffered some damage. Damage to the schools alone was estimated to cost £100 million. The Bellwin scheme for providing aid after natural disasters was criticised as inadequate by Hull MP Diana Johnson. The lack of media coverage of flooding in Kingston upon Hull led the city council leader Carl Minns to dub Hull "the forgotten city".
In July, the Government came under mounting criticism of its handling of the crisis, the fact that responsibilities were spread across four departments and no single minister could be held responsible, and the fact that the Army had not been called in to assist.
The Observer newspaper stated on 22 July 2007 that the Government had been warned in the spring by the Met Office that summer flooding would be likely because the El Niño phenomenon had weakened, but no action was taken.
In response to the criticism, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn said on BBC Sunday AM that "This was very, very intense rainfall, with five inches in 24 hours in some areas; even some of the best defences are going to be overwhelmed". He praised the way the emergency services had dealt with "unprecedented" levels of rainfall and said he had "total confidence" in the response of the Environment Agency.
Conservative leader David Cameron called for a public inquiry into the flooding after visiting Witney, the main town in his Oxfordshire constituency.
Then Liberal Democrat leader Sir Menzies Campbell accused the government of lack of preparation leading to a "summer of suffering", and said, "With sophisticated weather forecasting as we now have, particularly in relation to what's happened over the weekend, there are quite a few questions as to how it was that flood-prevention measures were not in place or were not more effective."
See also
List of natural disasters in Britain and Ireland
2009 Great Britain and Ireland floods
Great Sheffield Flood
Flood risk assessment
Rihanna Curse
References
External links
Online Bowser Maps For Gloucestershire
UK Flood
Tewkesbury's Ongoing Flood Risk (Tewkesbury's new river monitoring system)
Tewkesbury Medieval Town Showcase (Tewkesbury Town recovered)
2007 in England
Geography of Sheffield
Floods
2007
Disasters in Yorkshire
Disasters in Lincolnshire
June 2007 events in the United Kingdom
July 2007 events in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Lightiella is een geslacht van kreeftachtigen uit de klasse van de Cephalocarida (strijkboutkreeftjes).
Soorten
Lightiella floridana McLaughlin, 1976
Lightiella incisa Gooding, 1963
Lightiella magdalenina Carcupino, Floris, Addis, Castelli & Curini-Galletti, 2006
Lightiella monniotae Cals & Delamare Deboutteville, 1970
Lightiella serendipita Jones, 1961
Cephalocarida | wiki |
Children of God may refer to:
In religion
People of God, a religious concept
Divine filiation, the Christian concept of becoming a child of God
The New Forest Shakers, an 1870s and 1880s English religious sect also known as the "Children of God"
The Family International, a US religious sect originally known as the "Children of God"
Arts and entertainment
Children of God (novel), a 1998 science fiction novel by Mary Doria Russell
Children of God (film), a 2010 film directed and written by Kareem Mortimer
Children of God (Swans album), 1987
Children of God (Phil Wickham album), 2016
"Children of God", a song by Eyehategod, from the 1992 album In the Name of Suffering
"Children of God," a song by Third Day, from the 2010 album Move
"Children of God," a song by Andrew Jackson Jihad, from the 2014 album Christmas Island
Other uses
Harijan, or "children of God", a Hindi term Mohandas Gandhi used for dalits
See also
God's Children (disambiguation)
Child of God, a 1973 novel by Cormac McCarthy | wiki |
M1914 may refer to:
Hotchkiss M1914, machine gun chambered for the 8mm Lebel cartridge
Prilutsky M1914, a semi-automatic pistol
Lewis Model 1914, a First World War-era light machine gun | wiki |
Robert Manuel may refer to:
Robert Manuel (veteran) (born 1935), Korean War veteran
Robert Manuel (politician) (born 1953), Haitian political figure
Rob Manuel (born 1973), co-founder of B3ta
Bobby Manuel (born 1945), American guitarist
Robert Manuel (baseball) (born 1983), American baseball player
Robert Manuel (actor) (1916–1995), French actor and film director | wiki |
SMLE may refer to:
Smle (DJs)
Short Magazine Lee–Enfield rifle | wiki |
Keratopathy may refer to:
Florida keratopathy, a disease of the eye found in dogs, cats, horses and birds
Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy, a disease of the human eye | wiki |
Not Just Another Cable News Show is a comedy cable news show on CNN: Headline News that premiered on April 5, 2008. It was canceled in March, 2009 and replaced with Issues with Jane Velez-Mitchell. It featured comedians' perspectives on historic events. It formerly aired at 7 pm, 9 pm, midnight, and 5 am on Saturday and Sunday.
References
External links
CNN Headline News original programming
2008 American television series debuts
2009 American television series endings
Television series about television | wiki |
Dry sack can refer to:
a dry bag- a waterproof bag used in outdoor activities like kayaking and rafting to prevent damage to water-sensitive gear.
a variety of dry sherry, also called sack | wiki |
A bishōnen is an ideally beautiful young man often seen in anime and manga
Bishōnen may also refer to:
Bishonen (film), a film about homosexual love
Bishonen (song), a song by Momus (artist)
Bishonen Yonfan, a director
Bishōnen (series), a novel series | wiki |
The Mighty Ducks is a media franchise spawned from the 1992 sports film of the same name.
The Mighty Ducks or Mighty Ducks may also refer to:
The Mighty Ducks (film), the original 1992 hockey film
D2: The Mighty Ducks, the 1994 sequel film
D3: The Mighty Ducks, the 1996 sequel film
Mighty Ducks: The Animated Series, a 1996 animated television series
The Mighty Ducks: Game Changers, a 2021 live-action television series
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, now the Anaheim Ducks, a National Hockey League team
Cincinnati Mighty Ducks, an American Hockey League team | wiki |
AERD may refer to:
Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease, also known aspirin-induced asthma
Atheroembolic renal disease, a cholesterol embolism involving the kidneys
Atomic Energy Research Department, former name for Atomics International
| wiki |
FLPD may refer to:
Fort Lauderdale Police Department
Fort Lee Police Department | wiki |
Placebo har flere betydninger:
Placebo (eller Placeboeffekt) – den effekt der kommer af placebo, også kaldet snydemedicin.
Placebo (band) – et britisk rockband.
Placebo (album) – et album af Karl William.
Placebo (film) – dansk kortfilm fra 2013 instrueret af Johanna Stentorp | wiki |
Cardboard is a generic term for a heavy-duty paper.
Cardboard may also refer to:
Materials
Binder's board
Card stock, heavy paper used for making cards
Corrugated fiberboard, a combination of paperboards, usually two flat liners and one inner fluted corrugated medium, often used for making corrugated boxes
Display board, Poster board
Paperboard, a paper-based material often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, etc.
Containerboard
Folding boxboard
Solid bleached board
Solid unbleached board
White lined chipboard
Other uses
Google Cardboard, a smartphone mount supporting virtual reality visualization
The Cardboards, a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania band of the 1970s and 1980s
Cardboard record, a type of cheaply made phonograph record made of plastic-coated thin paperboard
Cardboard, a graphic novel by Doug TenNapel
Pycnanthus angolensis, a tree species
See also
Cardboard box | wiki |
Opole cuisine is an umbrella term for all dishes with a specific regional identity belonging to the region of Opole. It is a subtype of Polish and German cuisine with many similarities to and signs of the influence of neighbouring cuisines.
List of Opole dishes
Pastry and baked goods
Anyżki - flat, oval aniseed biscuits
Chleb mleczny praszkowski (Praszków milk bread) - traditional, slightly sour tasting bread
Chrust, faworki (angel wings) - traditional sweet crisp pastry, deep-fried, sprinkled with powdered sugar
Buchty śląskie - unleavened dough pampuchy, traditionally served with berry kompot, powidła, pork, sauerkraut or sugar
Hałwa sezamowa (sesame halva) - largely unflavoured, sesame based taste
Kołocz śląski - made from yeast dough with a sweet crumb topping
Jeż - cake with blackberry cream dollop
Kretowina - yeast dough cake with chocolate
Śliszki - bread rolls with poppy-seed filling
Szpyrek - biscuits with pork fat; light sweet taste
Soups
Germuszka, warmuszka, biermuszka - bread, cumin soup of thick texture
Ścierka opolska - thick flour-egg, sweet-sour tasting soup
Siemieniotka - bird seed soup
Śląski żur na maślance (Silesian buttermilk sour rye soup) - sour rye soup with buttermilk
Wodzionka - stale bread and fat with water or milk
Fish dishes
Harynki w cebulowej zołzie (herring in onion sauce) - lightly salted Baltic herring served with sweet-sour onion sauce; may be served with śmietana
Karp niemodliński (Niemodlin carp) - a slightly sweet-tasting carp
Pork and beef dishes
Żymlok opolski biały (white Opole żymlok) - kaszanka from pork lung, heart or kidney
Krupniok śląski (Silesian krupniok) - kaszanka; generally with barley-groat stuffing
Krupnioki z Górek (Górki krupniok) - originated from Górki; a kaszanka, kasza with garlic
Leberwurst drobno mielony z Górek (liverwurst from Górki) - a liverwurst produced after pig slaughter, spiced with garlic and pepper
Opolska rolada wołowa (Opole beef rouladen) - a rouladen with baked beef; generally with pickled cucumber, bacon
Modziki - a pigeon meat based dish, generally served with fresh vegetables
Stews, vegetable and potato dishes
Ciapkapusta, pańczkraut, pańćkraut - potato, cabbage pureé dish
Pierogi postne ze Starych Kolni (Lent pierogi from Stare Kolnie) - originating from the village of Stare Kolnie; resembling a mid-sized cake, stuffed with groat kasza and potato
Placki kartoflane (potato pancakes) - round, flat potato pancakes
Oberiba na gęsto - a thick, turnip-based salad
Biołe kluski - potato dumplings with a small depression in the centre
Śląskie niebo - bacon with kluski and sauce, generally with vegetables
Szałot śląski - potato, cucumber and onion salad
Puddings
Mołcka - a traditional Silesian Wigilia viand, made from dried fruit
See also
Silesian cuisine
Polish cuisine
List of Polish dishes
References
Polish cuisine
Opole Voivodeship
Silesia | wiki |
The constitution of the United Kingdom is an uncodified constitution made up of various statutes, judicial precedents, convention, treaties and other sources. Beginning in the Middle Ages, the constitution developed gradually in response to various crises. By the 20th century, the British monarchy had become a constitutional and ceremonial monarchy, and Parliament developed into a representative body exercising parliamentary sovereignty.
Initially, the constitutional systems of the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom developed separately under English domination. The Kingdom of England conquered Wales in 1283, but it was only later through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 that the country was brought completely under English law. While technically a separate state, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the English monarchy.
From 1603 to 1707, England and the Kingdom of Scotland shared the same monarch as part of the Union of the Crowns; however, each nation maintained separate governments. In 1707, England and Scotland were joined in the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801, Great Britain and Ireland were joined in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. While the United Kingdom remains a unitary state in which Parliament is sovereign, a process of devolution began in the 20th and 21st centuries that saw Parliament restore self-government to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Aspects of the British constitution were adopted in the constitutions and legal systems of other countries around the world, particularly those that were part of, or formerly part of, the British Empire including the United States and those countries that adopted the Westminster parliamentary system. The British constitution is the source of the modern concepts of the rule of law, parliamentary sovereignty and judicial independence and adoption of British constitutional principles propagated their spread around the world.
Kingdom of England
Anglo-Saxon government (pre-1066)
Prior to the 9th century, England consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms ruled by kings whose primary role was as warrior and protector of his people. An Anglo-Saxon king was advised by a group of councilors or "wise men" called a witan, composed of lords and church leaders. The witan was consulted when creating law, and it was also the highest court in the land where the king gave final judgment in person. In times of crisis or when a king was too young to rule, the witan may have assumed greater role over government.
Following the Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxons, written law codes or "dooms" were produced, the earliest being the Law of Æthelberht . Early Anglo-Saxon laws were mainly concerned with preventing blood feuds by mandating criminals make compensation (Old English ) to victims or the victim's family for injuries or death. In the case of death, the victim's family was owed the wergild ("man price"). These laws were enforced by the family of the victim—not the king. Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical and one's wergild was greater or lesser depending on social status:
King
Ætheling (prince)
Ealdorman (greater nobleman)
Thegn (lesser nobleman)
Ceorl (low-ranking freeman)
Slaves (By the 12th century, slavery in Britain was transformed into a form of serfdom with a class of peasant known as villeins.)
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were consolidated under the rule of the House of Wessex into a single Kingdom of England. Around 890, Alfred the Great compiled the largest Anglo-Saxon law code, the Doom book, possibly to replace the various regional laws of his expanding kingdom. The current British coronation service largely dates back to 973. Edgar the Peaceful and subsequent monarchs swore a coronation oath to protect the English church, defend their people against enemies, and to administer justice.
While a capital existed at Winchester (where the royal treasury was located), the king and his itinerant court moved constantly throughout the kingdom. Priests attached to the king's chapel acted as royal secretaries—writing letters, charters, and other official documents. Under Edward the Confessor (), the office of chancellor appears for the first time. Regenbald, the first chancellor, kept the king's seal and oversaw the writing of charters and writs. The treasury had probably developed into a permanent institution by the time of King Cnut (). During the Confessor's reign, supervision of the treasury was one of the responsibilities of the king's or chamberlains. Initially, the king did not tax his subjects but was owed service in the form of the —fyrd service, burh building, and bridge building. The only direct tax was the Danegeld, which was paid seven times between 996 and 1118. Other government functions were paid for by income from the royal estates and court fines and fees.
By the tenth century, England was divided into shires and subdivided into hundreds. The hundred was the basic unit of government with its own hundred court. The hundred court met monthly to consider issues such as property disputes and breaches of the king's peace. All free men over the age of twelve were expected to attend, and it was these local men who gave judgment in disputes as there was no judge. The hundred was administered by a reeve, who enforced court decisions and collected royal revenue. The shire court met twice a year and was presided over by the "shire reeve" or sheriff. Sheriffs enforced royal justice, maintained the king's peace, collected royal revenue, and commanded the shire's military forces.
There were two methods used to start court proceedings. In one, the alleged victim made an accusation (criminal appeal) that was formally denied by the accused. The second was through frankpledge—a system of self-policing in which every man belonged to a tithing and was sworn to report crimes on pain of amercement. As there were no judges or juries, cases were judged by the suitors (those required to attend the court), particularly the thegns. In disputes over land, courts could use charters and local knowledge as evidence.
But in other cases, there often were no witnesses or evidence, only neighborhood suspicion. In these instances, the accused swore a holy oath to his innocence and could invite oath-helpers to swear similar oaths if he was considered untrustworthy. In the Christian society of Anglo-Saxon England, a false oath was a grave offense against God and could endanger one's immortal soul. If the accused swore his innocence and gathered the required number of oath-helpers, then he was acquitted. If he was not believed or was unable to gather oath-helpers, then divine judgment was appealed to by means of trial by ordeal (most commonly ordeal by hot water, cold water or hot iron). A trial by ordeal was overseen by the church.
In addition to these local courts, private courts also existed. In the Anglo-Saxon period, the king created private courts in two ways. First, the king could grant the church (either the bishop of a diocese or the abbot of a religious house) the right to administer a hundred. The hundred's reeve would then answer to the bishop or abbot and the hundred court would become an ecclesiastical court. The same cases would be tried as before, but the profits of justice would now go to the church. The second way was to grant by writ or charter special rights to a landowner termed sake and soke. This was the right to hold a court with jurisdiction over his own lands, including infangthief (the power to punish thieves).
Cases involving the king, royal property, or treason were judged by the king. People could also appeal decisions from lower courts to the king. By the 9th century, the idea of the king's peace was taking shape. Under this concept, crimes such as murder, treason, arson, and theft were under the exclusive jurisdiction of the king's courts. Compensation was replaced by more severe penalties, including mutilation (blinding or castration) and capital punishment.
Feudal monarchy (1066–1216)
Norman government
After the Norman Conquest of 1066, England's old Anglo-Saxon rulers were replaced with an Anglo-Norman aristocracy, and English feudalism, which first appeared in the Anglo-Saxon period, continued to develop under Norman influence. William the Conqueror () claimed ownership of all land in England. As a feudal lord, the king gave fiefs to his most important followers, his tenants-in-chief (the barons), who in return owed the king fealty and military service (or scutage payments). The king was also entitled to be paid feudal reliefs by his barons on certain occasions, such as the knighting of an eldest son, marriage of an eldest daughter, or upon inheriting a fief. Likewise, barons owed feudal aids when the king's eldest son was knighted or eldest daughter married.
Tenants-in-chief would then grant land to their own vassals in return for homage and fealty. At the end of this chain of subinfeudation was the knight's fee, an estate large enough to support one knight. In return, the knight owed forty days of military service per year. Besides knight-service, other forms of feudal land tenure included serjeanty and frankalmoign. If a lord failed to uphold his responsibilities to his vassals (to protect his vassals and exercise his feudal rights fairly and justly), a vassal was entitled to renounce his homage and fealty through the ritual act of defiance known as diffidation (Latin ) followed by rebellion. Rebellion against the king, therefore, was not treason.
The king and his court or was the center of government. It was where he received counsel, heard complaints and petitions, settled important lawsuits, and conducted state trials. The king's closest friends and advisers from among the aristocracy were his familiares. At certain times, the king enlarged the court by summoning large numbers of magnates (earls, barons, bishops and abbots) to attend a (Latin for "great council") to discuss national business and promulgate legislation. Councils were important venues for building consensus for royal policy. As Norman kings spent most of their time in Normandy, it became necessary to appoint agents to govern England in their absence. The chief justiciar functioned as the king's chief minister and viceroy with particular responsibility over financial and legal matters.
According to the , the royal household was divided into five departments, including the chapel, chamber, and outdoors. The chapel—led by the chancellor—served the king's spiritual and secretarial needs. Subordinate to the chancellor was the master of the writing office (or chancery) who supervised the clerks who wrote various government documents: letters, charters, writs, surveys, and rolls. The chamber was the main financial office within the king's government and also saw to the king's personal needs. The chamber was led by the master chamberlain (Latin ), lesser chamberlains, and other officials. Also included in the chamber was a treasurer and two chamberlains based at the treasury in Winchester—the treasury split completely from the chamber by the end of the 12th century.
The constabulary-marshalsea constituted the outdoor staff (including a large number of hunting officials) under the authority of the constables and master-marshal. These officers also supervised the knights of the royal household, who formed the backbone of the king's army. Knights of the military household or were often young men from prominent families for whom receiving military training in the king's household was considered a great honor. Others were younger sons forced to make their own way in the world.
Under Henry I (), the Exchequer developed to bring the various departments under a central auditing and accounting process, as it included officials from the treasury, the chancellor, and other officials of the royal household. As described in the Dialogus de Scaccario, the Exchequer audited the accounts of sheriffs and other royal officials twice a year. Summaries of these audits were recorded in the Pipe Roll. When disputes arose over financial rights and obligations, the Exchequer could also function as a court, the Court of the Exchequer.
Sheriffs remained in charge of royal administration in the counties (formerly shires), presiding over a hierarchy of bailiffs. Early Norman kings chose sheriffs from among the local barons, but Henry I preferred to utilize clerks and knights of the royal household—who owed their success solely to royal patronage. The Normans brought castle building to England, and most shires had a royal castle in the charge of a royally appointed castellan. These were centers of royal administration and the location of royal mints.
Hundred and county courts, presided over by the sheriff or his bailiff, continued to meet as they had before the Conquest. Most disputes in these courts concerned land claims, violence, or theft. Certain cases called pleas of the Crown could only be heard by the king or his representative. So that royal pleas could be heard across the kingdom, the chief justiciar sent itinerant judges out to the counties; however, these royal judges did not decide cases as that was still the responsibility of the suitors to the court, who were overwhelmingly landowners.
The laws concerned with royal forests (i.e. royal hunting preserves) were adjudicated by forest courts, and jurisdiction over cases involving marriage, wills, legitimacy, and crimes committed by clerics were transferred to church courts. The lord of a manor automatically enjoyed the right to hold a manorial court—a departure from Anglo-Saxon tradition, which required royal grant to have sake and soke. Manorial courts had jurisdiction over "debt under forty shillings, contracts and conventions made within the power of the lord, cattle wounding [and other sorts of things], damage to crops by animals, assault not leading to bloodshed, trespass or damaging of timber where the king's peace was not involved, and actions about land by writ of right up to the stage of their removal to the king's court for the grand assize."
Angevin government
Henry II (), England's first Angevin king, introduced a new form of legislation, the assize. An assize was an agreement between the king and his feudal tenants to clarify or alter existing custom. Examples of such legislation include the Assize of Arms of 1181 and the Assize of Bread and Ale.
Other assizes introduced legal reforms. The Assize of Clarendon was an important step in the development of trial by jury. When itinerant judges came to a county, juries of presentment were to identify those "accused or notoriously suspect of being a robber, murderer or thief". The jury developed as a body of local men whose job was to investigate, collect evidence, and come to a verdict. Unlike oath-helpers, jurors were summoned by royal officials and, in theory, would have no personal involvement in the case. Innocence or guilt would be proven by ordeal or trial by battle (introduced by the Normans). Itinerant judges traveled from county to county on general eyres (circuits) to hear pleas of the Crown. By 1189, there were around thirty-five itinerant judges, seven to nine judges per circuit. These royal judges did not merely preside over the court, but "From 1176 the royal justices in eyre made judgments themselves in what was a local session of a national royal court."
In civil cases, such as land disputes, the Grand Assize of 1179 gave defendants the option of having the matter settled by a jury of twelve knights instead of trial by battle. Henry also introduced the petty assizes—procedures to allow speedy resolution of land disputes. These include novel disseisin, mort d'ancestor, and darrein presentment. Henry's reforms mark the origins of the common law and reduced the importance of non-royal courts by making royal justice readily available.
Henry II's expansion of royal justice led to other important changes. Previously, important cases were head (Latin for "in the presence of the king himself"). But the growth of the legal system required specialization, and the judicial functions of the were delegated to two courts sitting at Westminster Hall. The Court of King's Bench was concerned with pleas of the Crown. The Court of Common Pleas had jurisdiction over cases involving private parties (such as debts, property rights and trespass).
The Danegeld or geld levied on land was replaced by (gifts) and (aids) levied on groups outside of the feudal nobility (such as freemen, boroughs, royal demesne, sheriffs, and England's Jewish community). Traditionally, the great council was not involved in levying taxes. Royal finances derived from land revenues, feudal aids and incidents, and the profits of royal justice. But this changed due to the levying of extraordinary taxation to finance the Third Crusade, ransom Richard I, and pay for the series of Anglo-French wars fought between the Plantagenet and Capetian dynasties. In 1188, Henry II set a precedent when he applied to the great council for consent to levy the Saladin tithe on land and movable property.
The burden imposed by extraordinary taxation and the likelihood of resistance made consent politically necessary. It was convenient for kings to present the great council of magnates as a representative body capable of consenting on behalf of all within the kingdom. Increasingly, the kingdom was described as the (Latin for "community of the realm") and the barons as their natural representatives. But this development also created more conflict between kings and the baronage as the latter attempted to defend what they considered the rights belonging to the king's subjects.
Under the Angevins, royal government was capable of functioning even with the king's absence, as demonstrated during the reign of Richard I () who spent most of it in the Holy Land on Crusade or as a hostage of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. Before going on Crusade, Richard divided England into two justiciarships. The chancellor William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, was made justiciar south of the River Trent and Hugh de Puiset, Bishop of Durham, justiciar in the north. Longchamp managed to become sole justiciar by June 1190, but his authoritarian rule alienated the baronage.
Longchamp was deposed by a cabal of barons and bishops led by Walter of Coutances, Archbishop of Rouen, who acted under instructions from Richard. Going beyond the king's instructions, the magnates declared that Richard's brother John Lackland would be regent and heir if the king was to die childless and appointed Coutances the new justiciar. This was the first time that the magnates removed a royal minister and replaced him with someone else not personally chosen by the king. It was also the first time an heir was named who had not been chosen by the king; in fact, Richard had declared that his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, was to be his heir.
Magna Carta
King John needed large amounts of money to recover the lost continental possessions of the Angevin Empire, and his extortionate use of scutage, fines and amercements provoked baronial opposition. In 1215, about forty barons rose in revolt. A larger group of barons—around one hundred—worked with Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, to mediate a compromise that ultimately became the Magna Carta. This was a charter of liberties that expressed what the barons believed to be their customary feudal rights. Magna Carta was based on three assumptions important to later constitutional development:
the king was subject to the law
the king could only make law and raise taxation (except customary feudal dues) with the consent of the community of the realm
that the obedience owed by subjects to the king was conditional and not absolute
While the clause stipulating no taxation "without the common counsel" was deleted from later reissues, it was nevertheless adhered to by later kings. Magna Carta transformed the magnates' feudal obligation to advise the king into a right to consent. While it was the barons who made the charter, the liberties guaranteed within it were granted to "all the free men of our realm". None of the charter's provisions applied to the unfree serfs that formed a majority of the English population.
Magna Carta was a paradox, as highlighted by constitutional scholar Ann Lyon:Later kings would reconfirm Magna Carta, and later versions were enshrined in law. Overtime, Magna Carta gained the status of "fundamental statute". The first three clauses have never been repealed:
the English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired;
the city of London shall enjoy all its ancient liberties and free customs … all other cities, boroughs, towns and ports shall enjoy all their liberties and free customs;
to no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice.
Parliamentary monarchy (1216–1399)
By 1237, the had formally split into two separate councils; though, they had long been separate in practice. The king's council was "permanent, advisory, and executive". It managed day to day government and included the king's ministers and closest advisers. Parliament was the larger assembly of magnates that evolved out of the or great council. It met occasionally when summoned by the king. Parliament differed from the older magnate council by being "an institution of the community rather than the crown". For the community of the realm, "it acts as representative, approaching the government from without, and 'parleying' with the king and his council".
Before 1258, legislation was not a major part of parliamentary business. The two major forms of legislation were enacted outside of Parliament. The first form, legislative , were administrative orders drafted by the king's council and issued as letters patent or letters close. The second form, writs, were drafted by the chancery and issued in response to particular court cases. Technically, new writs needed consent from Parliament as much as other forms of legislation, but this was not always sought.
Parliament successfully asserted for itself the right to consent to taxation, and a pattern developed in which the king would make concessions (such as reaffirming Magna Carta) in return for grants of taxation. This was its main tool in disputes with the king. Nevertheless, this proved ineffective at restraining the king as he was still able to raise lesser amounts of revenue from sources that did not require parliamentary consent:
county farms (the fixed sum paid annually by sheriffs for the privilege of administering and profiting from royal lands in their counties)
profits from the eyre
tallage on the royal demesne, the towns, foreign merchants, and most importantly English Jews
scutage
feudal dues and fines
profits from wardship, escheat, and vacant episcopal sees
Henry III and his ministers
Henry III was still a child when he became king, so the magnates drew partly on the precedent of Richard I's reign to appoint a regent. William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke and hereditary Lord Marshal, was given the title (Latin for "governor of the king and of the kingdom") until his death in 1219. The regency ended in 1223 when the king was declared of age.
After the death of Marshal, the government was led by a succession of chief ministers, first Hubert de Burgh (1219–1232) and then Peter des Rosches (1232–1234). Both of these ministers alienated the baronage by their accumulation of power and wealth for themselves and their families, ultimately leading to their removal from power. Rosches was particularly hated for his revival of many of King John's tyrannical practices.
Appointing ministers was traditionally a royal prerogative, but a precedent had been established by Henry's regency government of seeking the consent of the magnates. With their links to the magnates and established traditions and procedures, the great offices had functioned as a check on royal power. Under Rosches, the Crown adopted a policy of subordinating the great offices (justiciar, chancellor, treasurer) to the offices of the royal household (chamberlain, keeper of the Wardrobe).
The chief justiciarship lost most of its powers and was reduced to supervising the judiciary. The office was left vacant after Stephen de Segrave was dismissed in 1234. In 1238, the Lord Chancellor Ralph Neville was deprived of the great seal, which was entrusted to Wardrobe clerks. After Neville's death, the seal was entrusted to keepers and the chancellorship remained vacant. With the great seal in Henry's custody, "the king was relieved of all constraint save such as the more elastic methods of his domestic clerks might impose".
After 1240, the king's closest counselors were foreigners—Queen Eleonor's Savoyard relatives and Henry's Lusignan half-brothers. Among the barons, an opposition party formed to oppose a royal government controlled by foreigners.
Baronial reform movement
By 1258, the relationship between the king and the baronage had reached a breaking point. At the Oxford Parliament of 1258, reform-minded barons forced a reluctant king to accept a constitutional framework known as the Provisions of Oxford:
The king was to govern according to the advice of an elected council of fifteen barons.
The baronial council appointed royal ministers (justiciar, treasurer, chancellor) to serve for one-year terms.
Parliament met three times a year on the octave of Michaelmas (October 6), Candlemas (February 3), and June 1.
The barons elected twelve representatives (two bishops, one earl and nine barons) who together with the baronial council could act on legislation and other matters even when Parliament was not in session as "a kind of standing parliamentary committee".
Parliament now met regularly according to a schedule rather than at the pleasure of the king. The reformers hoped that the provisions would ensure parliamentary approval for all major government acts. Under the provisions, Parliament was "established formally (and no longer merely by custom) as the voice of the community".
The king defeated the reform party in the Second Barons' War, and the Provisions of the Oxford were overturned. But the reign of Henry III was "the beginnings of the transition from the king as an absolute and in a sense dictatorial ruler, to the concept of the king ruling through institutions, and of his ruling only while he retained the trust and confidence of his people."
Edwardian government
Edward I () learned from the failures of his father's reign the usefulness of Parliament for building consensus and strengthening royal authority. Parliaments were held regularly throughout his reign, generally twice a year at Easter in the spring and after Michaelmas in the autumn.
Parliaments handled a large amount of petitions and judicial business. The first major statutes amending the common law were passed, beginning with the Statute of Westminster in 1275. These laws, however, "were not by the King in Parliament, but simply announced by the king or his ministers in a parliament." At the same time, the king continued to legislate outside of Parliament through ordinances and writs.
Feudalism had declined as the organising principle of political life. The shires and boroughs were recognised as communes (Latin ) with a unified constituency capable of being represented by knights of the shire and burgesses in Parliament.
Edward's legal reforms established the foundation of English land law, which was not significantly altered until 1925. For example, the Statute of Westminster of 1285 allowed for the creation of entails. Royal control over non-royal courts was also increased; the writ of limited the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts to attacks on clerics and matrimonial, testamentary, and moral concerns.
As part of the 1267 Treaty of Montgomery, Henry III had recognised Llywelyn ap Gruffudd as Prince of Wales in return for Llywelyn's homage and fealty. When the Prince refused to attend Parliament to do homage, Edward invaded Wales in 1276 and by 1283 had completed the conquest of Wales. The Statute of Wales created as system of shires for northern Wales that were overseen by the Justiciar of North Wales. English criminal law was imposed, but Welsh law continued to apply in other areas of life (see Principality of Wales).
The Ordinances of 1311 were a series of regulations imposed on King Edward II by the Lords and higher clergy to restrict the power of the king.
Throughout the middle ages, common land was a source of welfare for common people, peasant labourers bound by a feudal system of control. In 1348, the Black Death struck England, and killed around a third of the population. As peasants lost their lords, and there was a shortage of workers, wages rose. The King and Parliament responded with the Statute of Labourers 1351 to freeze wage rises. This led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, where leaders demanded an end to feudalism, and for everything to be held in common. Despite the revolt’s violent repression, slavery and serfdom broke down, yet most people remained without any substantial liberty, in political or economic rights.
As sheep farming became more profitable than agricultural work, enclosures of common land dispossessed more people, who turned into paupers and were punished.
Tudor dynasty
Under Henry VIII, to seal a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn (who he soon beheaded for supposed infidelity), the Church of England was declared separate from Rome in the Act of Supremacy 1534, with the King as the head. The Law in Wales Act 1535 united Wales and England in one administrative system, while the King became ever more despotic, executing the Lord Chancellor, Sir Thomas More in 1535, and dissolving the monasteries and murdering those who resisted. After Henry VIII died, and power struggles following the death of his boy Edward VI at age 15, Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, took the throne in 1558. Half a century of prosperity followed as Elizabeth I largely avoided wars.
A second Act of Supremacy 1559 restored powers over the church to Elizabeth I, reversing Mary I's catholic laws, and required all office-holders including the clergy to take an oath of allegiance acknowledging the Queen as the supreme governor of the Church of England. After the Spanish Armada was defeated in 1588, Its two levels of administration were the House of Lords, composed of influential peers of the realm and Lords Spiritual, and the House of Commons, which consisted of representative members of the aristocracy and the middle-class. Puritans in the House of Commons began demanding more rights, but their demands were ignored. James I would later have problems with them.
Before 1600, the Crown founded corporations including the East India Company to monopolise trade routes. Under her successor, James I, further companies were created to colonise North America, including the London Company and the Virginia Company in 1606, and the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1628. Many religious dissidents left England to settle the new world.
Stuart dynasty
While Elizabeth I maintained a protestant Church, under her successor James, who unified the Scottish and English Crowns, religious and political tensions grew as he asserted a divine right of Kings. In 1605, Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up Parliament, but was caught, tortured and executed. A wave of repression against catholics followed. James acceded to Puritan requests by commissioning the "King James Bible" in 1604, an English language translation and interpretation of the Bible completed in 1611. Possibly persuaded by his (secretly Catholic) wife, James exempted Catholics from paying tithes to the Anglican Church, but this caused a great decrease in Anglican Church revenue, so he quickly took those rights away.
The assertion of divine right prompted a series of cases from Sir Edward Coke, the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas and then King's Bench courts, which denied that the King could pass judgment in legal proceedings, and held that the royal prerogative was subject to the law and cannot be expanded. Coke CJ went even further in Dr Bonham's case, holding that even that "the common law will control Acts of Parliament". Though supported by some judges, the idea that common law courts could nullify Acts of Parliament was rejected, and the common law was formally placed under the King's control in the Earl of Oxford’s case, establishing that equity (then administered by the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords) was above common law. Coke fell from favour, and was removed from judicial office.
Traditionally, Parliament had voted at the beginning of a King's reign on the amount allowed for a King's Tonnage and Poundage, the customs duties (taxes on imported goods like wool and wine) that made up a large portion of a king's annual income. Now Parliament wanted to re-evaluate these taxes annually, which would give it more control over the king. James I resisted this abrogation of his 'Divine Right' and dealt with the situation by dissolving Parliament. Charles I did the same at first and later just ignored its annual evaluations.
When Charles I succeeded to the throne in 1625, and more fervently asserted a divine right, including the ability to levy tax without Parliament, particularly a Ship Money tax that required the counties bordering the sea to fund a navy to protect the English coastline. The coastal counties were unhappy as it was not actually used to fund the navy. Charles then placed the Ship Money tax on the interior counties as well. A London MP named John Hampden refused to pay this "new," interior Ship Money tax, so he was tried for a crime by Charles I and was convicted with a vote of 7 to 5. This meant that 5 of 12 jurors were against their king, which did not look good or bode well for Charles I. Coke and others presented the Petition of Right 1628. This demanded the King to abide by Magna Carta, levy no tax without Parliament, not arbitrarily commit people to prison, not have martial law in times of peace, and not billet soldiers in private homes. As Charles I was at war with France and Spain, he signed the Petition of Right, but then responded by shutting down or proroguing Parliament and taxing trade (or "ship money") without authority.
The country descended into the English Civil War in 1642 culminating in the capture and execution of King Charles I on Whitehall in 1649 by the New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell, not wishing to become a King, became a de facto dictator. After his death, the monarchy was restored with Charles II in 1660, but his successor James II again attempted to assert divine right to rule. In 1688, Parliament 'invited' a replacement King and Queen, William and Mary of Orange, and after a brief conflict forced Charles II out.
Known as the Glorious Revolution, Parliament proclaimed a new Bill of Rights 1689, with a Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland, that cemented Parliamentary sovereignty. As well as reaffirming Magna Carta, it says the 'pretended power of suspending laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal’, that 'election of members of Parliament ought to be free’, and that 'Parliament ought to be held frequently'. The justification for government itself, encapsulated by John Locke in his Second Treatise on Government was the protection of people's rights: "lives, liberties and estates."
Civil War
William Laud and Thomas Wentworth were appointed to fill the void that the Duke of Buckingham left. On top of the wars England had with France and with Spain (both caused by the Duke of Buckingham), Charles I and William Laud (the Archbishop of Canterbury) began a war with Scotland in an attempt to convert Scotland to the Church of England (the Anglican Church). This was called the Bishops' War (1639–1640) and it had two major parts: The first Bishops' War (1639) ended in a truce. The second Bishops' War, the following year, began with the a Scottish invasion of England in which the Scottish defeated the English and remained stationed in England until their issues were solved. To get the Scottish out, Charles I signed the Treaty of Ripon (1640), which required England to pay an indemnity of £850 for each day that the Scottish were stationed in England.
During the second part of the Bishops' War, Charles I had run very low on money (since he was also fighting France and Spain), so he was forced to call a Parliament to make new taxes. He and the Parliament could not agree on anything, so after three weeks, Charles I dissolved the Parliament. Then he desperately needed new taxes, so Charles I called a Parliament again and it would only help him if he agreed to some terms, which ultimately made Charles I a constitutional monarch. It was called the Long Parliament (1640–1660), because it was not officially dissolved by its own vote until 1660.
These terms were:
That Charles I had to impeach Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. He reluctantly placed them under arrest and put them in The Tower, executing Wentworth in 1641 (for which Charles I never forgave himself since he was close to Thomas Wentworth) and William Laud in 1645.
Charles I had to agree to the Triennial Act (1641), which required the Parliament to meet every three years with or without the king's consent.
Charles I had to abolish the Court of the Star Chamber, a royal court controlled completely by Charles I in which the prosecutor was also the judge (which pretty much guaranteed a guilty verdict for the defendant) and it was intended to be used to implement the will of the king legally with a "judicial" façade. It was considered an "extralegal" court. It dealt with odd cases and punishments.
Charles I had to abolish the High Court, which was the same as the Court of the Star Chamber, though it dealt with religious heresy. It was considered an "extralegal" court.
Charles I had to accept the Grand Remonstrance and allow the circulation of its copies, and it was a document that outlined (hyperbolically) the crimes that officials had accused Charles of committing since the beginning of his reign. Charles I was also never to do any of those crimes again.
Charles I, most importantly, had to agree never to dissolve a Parliament without the consent of the Parliament.
Most of England believed that Parliament had done enough to curb the power of King Charles I, but the radicals in Parliament (the extremist Puritans) and the radicals around the country (again, extremist Puritans) wanted to reform the Church of England by getting rid of the bishops (and all other things with the semblance of Catholicism) and by establishing the Puritans' method of worship as the standard. This caused a political division in Parliament, so Charles I took advantage of it. He then sent 500 soldiers into the House of Commons to arrest five of the Puritans' ringleaders (John Hampden included). The five ringleaders had been tipped off, so they had left Parliament and Charles I was left with only shame for storming Parliament.
King Charles I left London and went to Oxford, and the English Civil War began (1642). The North and West of England were on Charles I's side (along with most of the Nobles and country gentry). They were known as the Cavaliers. Charles I created an army illegally (since he needed the Parliament's consent).
The South and East of England were on Parliament's side and were known as Roundheads, for their haircuts. In response to Charles I raising an army, they did so as well. Yet, they didn't have the military might that King Charles I (and his nobles) had, so they solicited the help of the Scottish with the Solemn League and Covenant that promised to impose the Presbyterian religion on the Church of England. They called their army the New Model Army and they made its commander Oliver Cromwell, who was also a member of Parliament. The New Model Army was composed mostly of Presbyterians.
Cromwell and Commonwealth
Though Parliament won, it was clear to the Scots that it was not going to uphold the Solemn League and Covenant by imposing Presbyterianism on England (Puritanism wasn't quite Presbyterian), so the New Model Army, Parliament and the Scots began falling apart. The Scots were paid for their help and sent back to Scotland.
The Presbyterian Roundheads were interested in freedom to practice their religion and not in making the Presbyterian religion the state religion.
Cromwell proposed that Parliament reinstate the bishops of the Church of England and King Charles I as a constitutional monarch, but allow for the toleration of other religions. Though at the end of the war, the people of England could accept Charles I back in office but not religious toleration. They also wanted the New Model Army dissolved since it was a provocative factor. Thus Parliament disallowed religious toleration and voted to disband the New Model Army, but the New Model Army refused the order.
Charles I then made the same deal that the Roundheads had made with the Scottish and Parliamentary Presbyterians. He solicited the help of Scotland (and the Presbyterians) and in return he promised to impose Presbyterianism on England. The New Model Army would not allow this deal to be made (because it would give Charles I military power once more). Thus a "new" civil war broke out in 1648.
This time, Scotland, the Parliamentary Presbyterians and the royalists were on the side of Charles I. The New Model Army and the rest of Parliament were against him.
In the Battle of Preston (1648) Cromwell and his New Model Army defeated Charles I.
Then one of Cromwell's officers, Colonel Pride, destroyed the Presbyterian majority in Parliament by driving out of Parliament 143 Presbyterians of the 203 (leaving behind 60). The new Parliament constituted a Rump Parliament, which was a Parliament in which the minority (Presbyterians) carried on in the name of the majority that was kicked out. The Rump Parliament:
Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords in Parliament (it then executed Charles I after publicly trying him for crimes).
Created a republic called the "Commonwealth" that was really just a dictatorship run by Cromwell.
Scotland was against Cromwell's "Commonwealth" (Republic) and declared Charles I's son king at Edinburgh as King Charles II, but Cromwell and the New Model Army defeated him (1650) and he fled to France where he stayed until 1660.
Cromwell then went to Ireland to govern it, but was "disgusted" with the Catholics, so he massacred many of them (in battle) and so the Irish rebelled against him as well. Cromwell then dissolved the Rump Parliament and declared himself to be the Lord Protector (dictator).
Cromwell died (1658) and was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell, who tried to keep power militarily and absolutely, but he was also incapable of unifying all of the diverse groups (religious and ethnic). General George Monk came down from Scotland and overthrew Richard. He then invited the remnants of the Long Parliament (the Rump Parliament) to reconvene. The Long Parliament met and officially ended (in 1660, after being open since 1640) when it voted to dissolve itself and create a new Parliament. The new Parliament began the Restoration (of the monarchy) by choosing Charles I's son Charles II to be the King of England.
Popular political movements
The idea of a political party with factions took form around the time of the Civil War. Soldiers from the Parliamentarian New Model Army and a faction of Levellers freely debated rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The Levellers published a newspaper (The Moderate) and pioneered political petitions, pamphleteering and party colours. Later, the pre-war Royalist (then Cavalier) and opposing Parliamentarian groupings became the Tory party and the Whigs in the Parliament.
In 1649 Diggers, a small people's political reform movement, published The True Levellers Standard Advanced: or, The State of Community opened, and Presented to the Sons of Men. This is another important document in the history of British constitutionalism, though different from the others listed here because the Diggers' declaration comes from the people instead of from the state. They are some times called "True Levellers" to distinguish themselves from the larger political group called the Levellers, which had supported the republicans during the civil war. The Diggers were not satisfied with what had been gained by the war against the king and wanted instead a dismantling of the state. They can be best understood through such philosophies as libertarianism, anarchism, and religious communism.
Also at this time, the Polish Brethren arrived in England and Holland. The sect of Polish Brethren had been driven out of Poland after The Deluge because they were commonly considered to be collaborators with the Swedish.
The Diggers' radical ideas influenced thinkers in Poland, Holland, and England, playing an especially important role in the philosophy of John Locke. Locke, in turn, profoundly impacted the development of political ideas regarding liberty, which would later influence the Founding Fathers of the United States.
The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of James II in 1688 and his replacement with William III and Mary II as joint monarchs. The Convention Parliament of 1689 drew up a Declaration of Right to address perceived abuses of government under James II and to secure the religion and liberties of Protestants. This was enacted by the Parliament of England as the Bill of Rights 1689, which limited royal power and reaffirmed certain civil rights, building on the Petition of Right 1628 and the Habeas Corpus Act 1679. The Parliament of Scotland approved it as the Claim of Right.
Both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch. Leading, ultimately, to the establishment of constitutional monarchy. They furthered the protection of the rule of law, which had started to become a principle of the way the country is governed.
Wales
Under the Statute of Wales, English criminal law replaced Welsh law in 1284. English civil law was imposed on Wales by Henry VIII's series of Laws in Wales Acts between 1535 and 1542. The Laws in Wales Acts formally incorporated all of Wales within the Kingdom of England.
The Encyclopaedia of Wales notes that the Council of Wales and the Marches was created by Edward IV in 1471 as a household institution to manage the Prince of Wales's lands and finances. In 1473, it was enlarged and given the additional duty of maintaining law and order in the Principality and the Marches of Wales. Its meetings appear to have been intermittent, but it was revived by Henry VII for his heir, Prince Arthur. The Council was placed on a statutory basis in 1543 and played a central role in co-ordinating law and administration. It declined in the early 17th century and was abolished by Parliament in 1641. It was revived at the Restoration before being finally abolished in 1689.
From 1689 to 1948 there was no differentiation between the government of England and government in Wales. All laws relating to England included Wales and Wales was considered by the British Government as an indivisible part of England within the United Kingdom. The first piece of legislation to relate specifically to Wales was the Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881. A further exception was the Welsh Church Act 1914, which disestablished the Church in Wales (which had formerly been part of the Church of England) in 1920.
In 1948 the practice was established that all laws passed in the Parliament of the United Kingdom were designated as applicable to either "England and Wales" or "Scotland", thus returning a legal identity to Wales which had not existed for hundreds of years following the Act of Union with Scotland in 1707. Also in 1948 a new Council for Wales was established as a parliamentary committee. In 1964 the Welsh Office was established, based in London, to oversee and recommend improvements to the application of laws in Wales. This situation would continue until the devolution of government in Wales and the establishment of the autonomous National Assembly for Wales in 1998.
Kingdom of Scotland
From the fifth century AD, north Britain was divided into a series of petty kingdoms. Ferocious Viking raids beginning in AD 793 may have speeded up a long-term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish kingdoms. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) as "king of the Picts" in the 840s (traditionally dated to 843), which brought to power the House of Alpin. When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900 one of his successors, Domnall II (Donald II), was the first man to be called rí Alban (King of Alba).
The term Scotia was increasingly used to describe the heartland of these kings, north of the River Forth. Eventually the entire area controlled by its kings was referred to as Scotland. The long reign (900–942/3) of Donald's successor Causantín (Constantine II) is often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba/Scotland. He was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church.
Máel Coluim I (Malcolm I) (reigned c. 943–954) annexed Strathclyde, over which the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later ninth century. The reign of David I has been characterised as a "Davidian Revolution", in which he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, established the first royal burghs in Scotland and the first recorded Scottish coinage, and continued a process of religious and legal reforms.
Government
The unified kingdom of Alba retained some of the ritual aspects of Pictish and Scottish kingship. These can be seen in the elaborate ritual coronation at the Stone of Scone at Scone Abbey.
While the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, Scone remained one of its most important locations, with royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later Middle Ages before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the fifteenth century.
The Crown remained the most important element of government, despite the many royal minorities. In the late Middle Ages, it saw much of the aggrandisement associated with the New Monarchs elsewhere in Europe. Theories of constitutional monarchy and resistance were articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan, in the sixteenth century, but James VI of Scotland advanced the theory of the divine right of kings, and these debates were restated in subsequent reigns and crises. The court remained at the centre of political life, and in the sixteenth century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, including High Steward, Chamberlain, Lord High Constable, Earl Marischal and Lord Chancellor. The King's Council emerged as a full-time body in the fifteenth century, increasingly dominated by laymen and critical to the administration of justice. The Privy Council, which developed in the mid-sixteenth century, and the great offices of state, including the chancellor, secretary and treasurer, remained central to the administration of the government, even after the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in England from 1603. However, it was often sidelined and was abolished after the Acts of Union 1707, with rule direct from London.
The Parliament of Scotland also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy. By the end of the Middle Ages it was sitting almost every year, partly because of the frequent royal minorities and regencies of the period, which may have prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy. In the early modern era, Parliament was also vital to the running of the country, providing laws and taxation, but it had fluctuating fortunes and was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England.
In the early period the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords of the mormaers (later earls) and toísechs (later thanes), but from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In the seventeenth century the creation of justices of the peace and the Commissioner of Supply helped to increase the effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds.
United Kingdom development
With Parliamentary sovereignty as the cornerstone of the new constitution, Parliament created a system of finance in the Bank of England Act 1694.
The Act of Settlement 1701 made several important reforms.
Judges' commissions were for life (during "good behavior"), and a judge could be removed only by vote of both Houses of Parliament. (Previously, a judge served at the discretion of the Crown.)
No person holding a paid office under the Crown or receiving a pension from the Crown could serve in the House of Commons.
No Catholic, or spouse of a Catholic, could ever succeed to the Crown of England.
The King or Queen of England must practice the Anglican religion.
The succession to the Crown of England was settled on the nearest Protestant relatives of King William III and his expected successor Anne, who were childless. These were Electress Sophia of Hanover, and her son, who in 1714 succeeded as King George I.
In 1703, Ashby v White established that the right to vote was a constitutional right.
In April 1706, Scottish and English representatives began negotiations for union at Whitehall. The English proposed a combined parliament, to which Scotland would send 38 MPs and 16 peers, elected by Scottish peers at every new parliament. After the Scottish successfully negotiated an extra seven MPs, the proposals were brought before Queen Anne. The vote passed the Scottish Parliament 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707. The Acts of Union 1707 were passed by the English and Scottish Parliaments separately and on 1 May 1707, the two countries became formally united as Great Britain (though one view holds that as a matter of international law, Great Britain was a successor state of England). This created a new parliament called the Parliament of Great Britain.
The Acts of Union also established a full economic union between England and Scotland. Scotland's separate currency, taxes, and trade regulations were effectively abolished, while Scottish merchants gained complete access to England and its colonies. Scotland retain a separate legal system and judiciary.
The new union was soon faced with disaster as in the War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish promised the right for British ships to trade (mostly slaves) in the seas around South America. The South Sea Company, duly incorporated to monopolise trade routes, became the object of mass financial speculation, provoked by government ministers interested in its rising share price. When it transpired, contrary to promoters' stories, that no trade was done because the Spanish had revoked their promise the stock market crashed, driving economic chaos. This was made worse by the decision of conservative politicians to endorse the company to take over the national debt as an alternative financier to the government over the Whig dominated Bank of England.
The result of the crash was that the Chancellor of the Exchequer was imprisoned in the Tower of London for his corruption, the Postmaster General committed suicide, and the disgraced Lord Chancellor was replaced with Lord King LC who promptly ruled that people in a position of trust must avoid any possibility of a conflict of interest. Out of the chaos, Robert Walpole emerged as a stable political figure who for 21 years held a majority of the House of Commons, and is now considered the first "Prime Minister". Walpole chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all other ministers, and developed the doctrine of cabinet solidarity.
In 1765, the first teacher of English law, William Blackstone represented the standard view in his Commentaries on the Laws of England that slavery was unlawful and that "the spirit of liberty is so deeply ingrained in our constitution" any person enslaved in England must be freed. However, the transatlantic slave trade had accelerated to North American colonies. In 1772, when Lord Mansfield ruled in Somerset v Stewart that slavery was unlawful at common law, this set off a wave of outrage in southern, plantation colonies of America. Together with northern colonies grievances over taxation without representation, this led to the American Revolution and Declaration of Independence in 1776. The British military failed to hold control. Instead, it began settling Australia from 1788.
In 1789, the French Revolution broke out, and the King was deposed with demands for "liberty, equality and fraternity". The British aristocracy reacted with repression on free speech and association to forestall any similar movement. While figures like Jeremy Bentham called natural rights "nonsense upon stilts", Mary Wollstonecraft called for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman as well as men, arguing that unjust gender and class oppression flowed from "the respect paid to property... as from a poisoned fountain". While successful in the Napoleonic wars in defeating France, and cementing union with Ireland in the Act of Union 1800, liberty, freedom and democracy were scarcely protected in the new "United Kingdom".
Political and industrial revolution
During this time, with the invention of the steam engine the industrial revolution had begun. Poverty had also accelerated through the Speenhamland system of poor laws by subsidising employers and landowners with parish rates. The Corn Laws from 1815 further impoverished people by fixing prices to maintain landowner profits. While the Great Reform Act 1832 extended the vote slightly, only those with property had any representation in Parliament. Although the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished the slave trade within the British Empire, it only compensated slave owners and made ex-slaves in colonies pay off debts for their freedom for decades after. With the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, further punishment for poverty was inflicted as people were put into work houses if found to be unemployed. In R v Lovelass a group of agricultural workers who formed a trade union were prosecuted and sentenced to be transported to Australia under the Unlawful Oaths Act 1797, triggering mass protests.
A movement called Chartism grew demanding the right to vote for everyone in free and fair elections. As the great famine hit Ireland and millions migrated to the United States, Chartists staged a mass march from Kennington Common to Parliament in 1848 as revolutions broke out across Europe, and the Communist Manifesto was drafted by German revolutionary Karl Marx and Manchester factory owner Friedrich Engels. While the Crimean War distracted from social reform and Viscount Palmerston opposed anything, the American civil war of 1860 to 1865 ended slavery in the US, and the UK gradually enabled greater political freedom.
In the Second Reform Act 1867 more middle class property owners were enfranchised, the Elementary Education Act 1870 provided free primary school, and the Trade Union Act 1871 enabled free association without criminal penalty. William Ewart Gladstone's UK Midlothian campaign between 1878-80 began the move towards modern political campaigning. The Representation of the People Act 1884 reduced the property qualification further, so that around one third of men could vote.
Outside the UK liberty and the right to vote were violently repressed across the vast British Empire, in Africa, India, Asia and the Caribbean.
Social reform and war
From the start of the 20th century, the UK underwent vast social and constitutional change, beginning with an attempt by the House of Lords to suppress trade union freedom. In response, the labour movement organised to support representatives in Parliament, and in the 1906 general election won 29 seats and supported the Liberal Party's programme of reform. This included a legal guarantee of the right of unions to collectively bargain and strike for fair wages, an old age pension, a system of minimum wages, a People's Budget with higher taxes on the wealthy to fund spending. After a further election brought by the House of Lords blocking reform, Parliament pass a National Insurance system for welfare, and the Parliament Act 1911 prevented the House of Lords blocking legislation for more than two years, and removed the right to delay any money bills.
Despite this, the Liberal government, against the opposition of Labour, armed for and entered World War I. At the end of the War, with millions dead, Parliament passed the Representation of the People Act 1918 which enabled every adult male the vote, although it was only after the mass protest of the Suffragettes that the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 enabled all women to vote, and that the UK became democratic. The War also triggered uprising in Ireland, and an Irish War of Independence leading to the partition of the island between the Republic of Ireland in the south and Northern Ireland in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Versailles Treaty at the end of the War demanded German reparations, beggaring the country through the 1920s and upon the Great Depression leading to a fascist collapse under Hitler.
Irish independence and partition
In 1912, the House of Lords managed to delay a Home Rule bill passed by the House of Commons. It was enacted as the Government of Ireland Act 1914. During these two years the threat of religious civil war hung over Ireland with the creation of the Unionist Ulster Volunteers opposed to the Act and their nationalist counterparts, the Irish Volunteers supporting the Act. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 put the crisis on political hold. A disorganized Easter Rising in 1916 was brutally suppressed by the British, which had the effect of galvanizing Catholic demands for independence. Prime Minister David Lloyd George failed to introduce Home Rule in 1918 and in the December 1918 General Election Sinn Féin won a majority of Irish seats.
Its MPs refused to take their seats at Westminster, instead choosing to sit in the First Dáil parliament in Dublin. A declaration of independence was ratified by Dáil Éireann, the self-declared Republic's parliament in January 1919. An Anglo-Irish War was fought between Crown forces and the Irish Republican Army between January 1919 and June 1921. The war ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921 that established the Irish Free State. Six northern, predominantly Protestant counties became Northern Ireland and have remained part of the United Kingdom ever since, despite demands of the Catholic minority to unite with the Republic of Ireland. Britain officially adopted the name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" by the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927.
Post-war
The failed international law system, after World War II was replaced with the United Nations where the UK held a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. However the British Empire began to crumble as India, Israel and nations across Africa fought for democracy, human rights, and independence. To prevent any recurrence of the Holocaust and war, the Council of Europe was established to draft the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. Further it was seen that the only way to prevent conflict was through economic integration. The European Economic Community, which became the European Union in 1992, was supported by Winston Churchill with the UK to be "at the centre", although it did not enter until the European Communities Act 1972.
Under Margaret Thatcher, significant cuts were made to public services, labour rights, and the powers of local government, including abolishing the Greater London Council. However some powers were restored with extensive devolution of power in the Scotland Act 1998, Northern Ireland Act 1998, Greater London Authority Act 1999 and the Government of Wales Act 2006. After many years of armed conflict in Northern Ireland, the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 brought peace.
The Life Peerages Act 1958 had allowed the creation of life peers which gave the Prime Minister the ability to change the composition of the House of Lords. The House of Lords Act 1999 reduced but did not fully eliminate hereditary peers.
An important change in constitutional law came about with the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which significantly altered the way in which parliament can be dissolved. Then, following a referendum on EU membership in 2016 that resulted in 52.89 per cent of people favouring to leave, the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the European Union on 31 January 2020. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act, which had impeded resolution of the Brexit controversy in Parliament, was subsequently repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022, reverting the constitutional situation to the status quo ante.
Devolution
In the First Blair ministry (1997–2001), Labour introduced a large package of constitutional reforms, which the party had promised in its 1997 manifesto. The most significant were:
The creation of a devolved parliament in Scotland and assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland, with their own direct elections.
The creation of a devolved assembly in London and the associated post of a directly elected mayor.
The beginning of a process of reform of the House of Lords, including the removal of all but 92 hereditary peers.
The incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law by passing the Human Rights Act 1998.
The passing of the Freedom of Information Act 2000.
The passing of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, creating the Electoral Commission to regulate elections and referendums and party spending to an extent.
The granting of independence over decisions about monetary policy including interest rates to the Bank of England.
The House of Commons voted on seven options in February 2003 on what proportion of elected and appointed members (from 100% elected to 100% appointed) the House of Lords should have. None of the options received a majority.
In 2004, a Joint Committee of the House of Commons and House of Lords tasked with overseeing the drafting of the Civil Contingencies Bill, published its first report, in which, among other things, it suggested amending the bill's clauses that grant Cabinet Ministers the power "to disapply or modify any Act of Parliament" as overly wide, and that the bill should be modified to preclude changes to the following Acts, which, it suggested, formed "the fundamental parts of constitutional law" of the United Kingdom:
This amendment was defeated by the government and the bill was passed without it. However, the government partially one recommendation — the Human Rights Act 1998 may not be amended by emergency regulations.
The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 created the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and guarantees judicial independence.
Coalition reforms
The Conservative-Liberal Democrat Coalition introduced several reforms including the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010, which reformed the Royal Prerogative and made other significant changes; the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which introduced fixed-term parliaments of 5 years.
A key Liberal Democrat policy was that of voting reform, to which a referendum took place in May 2011 on whether or not Britain should adopt a system of Alternative Vote to elect MPs to Westminster. However, the proposal was rejected overwhelmingly, with 68% of voters in favour of retaining first-past-the-post.
In late October 2011, the prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms voted to grant gender equality in the line of succession to the British throne, ending male-preference primogeniture. The amendment, once enacted, also ended the ban on the monarch marrying a Catholic. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701 came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 which changed the laws of succession to the British throne. In the United Kingdom, it was passed as the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.
Further devolution
Further powers were devolved under the Government of Wales Act 2006, Northern Ireland Act 2006, Northern Ireland Act 2009, Scotland Act 2012, Wales Act 2014, and the Scotland Act 2016. On 18 September, a referendum was held in Scotland on whether to leave the United Kingdom and become an independent country. The three UK-wide political parties - Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats - campaigned together as part of the Better Together campaign while the pro-independence Scottish National Party was the main force in the Yes Scotland campaign, together with the Scottish Greens and the Scottish Socialist Party. Days before the vote, with the opinion polls closing, the three Better Together party leaders issued 'The Vow', a promise of more powers for Scotland in the event of a No vote. The referendum resulted in Scotland voting by 55% to 45% to remain part of the United Kingdom.
The Smith Commission was announced by Prime Minister David Cameron on 19 September 2014 to propose the powers that would be devolved to the Scottish Government. Once the recommendations had been published they were debated in the UK Parliament and a command paper was published in January 2015 putting forward draft legislative proposals. A Scottish Parliament committee report published in May 2015 said that this draft bill did not meet the recommendations of the Smith Commission, specifically in relation to welfare payments. A spokesman for the UK Government said that a full Parliamentary discussion would follow. A bill based on the Smith Commission's recommendations was announced by the UK government in the May 2015 Queen's Speech. The bill subsequently became law as the Scotland Act 2016 in March 2016.
Accession to the EU and subsequent withdrawal
On 20 February 2016, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union would be held on 23 June 2016, following years of campaigning by eurosceptics. Debates and campaigns by parties supporting both "Remain" and "Leave" focused on concerns regarding trade and the single market, security, migration and sovereignty. The result of the referendum was in favour of the country leaving the EU with 51.9% of voters wanting to leave. The UK remains a member for the time being, but is expected to invoke Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, which would begin negotiations on a withdrawal agreement that will last no more than two years (unless the Council and the UK agree to extend the negotiation period) which will ultimately lead to an exit from the European Union.
In October 2016 the prime minister, Theresa May, promised a "Great Repeal Bill" which would repeal the 1972 European Communities Act and import its regulations into UK law, with effect from the date of British withdrawal. The regulations could then be amended or repealed on a case-by-case basis.
The Supreme Court issued a ruling in January 2017 that an Act of Parliament is needed before the government can trigger to leave the European Union.
Worldwide influence
Over its history, the British constitution has had widespread influence around the world on the constitutions and legal systems of other countries as well the spread of the principles of the rule of law, parliamentary sovereignty and judicial independence.
Magna Carta and the Parliament of England influenced the history of democracy in the Middle Ages and the early history of parliamentarism.
In the Thirteen Colonies, the Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the influences on the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the United States Declaration of Independence later that year. The Constitution of the United States was adopted in 1789 and the United States Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791, both of which were influenced by British constitutional history.
Although not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties, the Bill of Rights 1689 stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later, more general, statements of rights, including the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, as with the Bill of Rights 1689, the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and "cruel and unusual punishment". Similarly, "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" is banned under Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The modern system of parliament emerged with the Parliament of Great Britain (1707–1800), which contributed to the spread of parliamentarism in Europe. The British Parliament is often referred to as the Mother of Parliaments (in fact a misquotation of John Bright, who remarked in 1865 that "England is the Mother of Parliaments") because the British Parliament has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, democratising countries often chose the British model of democracy; many countries that were once part of the British Empire adopted the British Westminster parliamentary system (see, for example, Representation of the People Act). English common law has served as the template for the legal systems of many countries. International commercial contracts are often based on English common law. The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies.
Key statutes
Although there is no definitive list of constitutional statutes, there are certain statutes that are significant in the history of the Constitution of the United Kingdom. Some have been repealed, several have been amended and remain in statute, while others are current legislation as originally enacted. None are entrenched.
Scottish documents and statutes
Leges inter Brettos et Scottos 1124, Laws of the Brets (Welsh) and Scots
Declaration of Arbroath 1320, declaration sent to Pope asserting the sovereignty of the people of Scotland
Claim of Right Act 1689
Union with England Act 1707, based on the Treaty of Union and creates the new Parliament of Great Britain
Welsh statutes
Statute of Rhuddlan (1284)
English statutes
Magna Carta (1215), a revised version entered statute in 1297 and remains in statute today, although with most articles now repealed
Provisions of Oxford (1258)
Provisions of Westminster (1259)
Statute of Marlborough (1267)
Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, Wales became a full and equal part of the Kingdom of England with a single legal jurisdiction
Petition of Right (1628)
Instrument of Government (1653), first Constitution of England
Humble Petition and Advice (1657), second Constitution of England
Habeas Corpus Act 1679
Bill of Rights 1689
Act of Settlement 1701
Union with Scotland Act 1706, based on the Treaty of Union and creates the new Parliament of Great Britain
UK statutes
Acts of Union 1800, Union with Ireland Act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. Unites the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
Reform Act 1832, Reform Act 1867, Reform Act 1884, Representation of the People Act 1918, Representation of the People Act 1928, Representation of the People Act 1949, Representation of the People Act 1969, extending the vote to all adults equally
Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949
Government of Ireland Act 1920, Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922, Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, and Irish Free State (Consequential Provisions) Act 1922
Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927
Statute of Westminster 1931
His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936
United Nations Act 1946, enables the Government to implement resolutions under Article 41 of the United Nations Charter as Order in Council without the approval of Parliament
Life Peerages Act 1958, House of Lords Act 1999
European Communities Act 1972, European Union Act 2011
Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973
Human Rights Act 1998
Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act 1998, Northern Ireland Act 1998
Amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006, Northern Ireland Act 2006, Northern Ireland Act 2009, Scotland Act 2012, Wales Act 2014, Scotland Act 2016
Freedom of Information Act 2000, Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, Civil Contingencies Act 2004, Constitutional Reform Act 2005
Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010, Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, Succession to the Crown Act 2013, Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022
See also
Ancient constitution of England
Basic Law
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional reform in the United Kingdom
:Category:English constitutionalists
Fundamental Laws of England
History of democracy
History of England
History of the United Kingdom
Lord Chancellor's Department
Ministry of Justice
Parliament in the Making
Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom
Rights of Englishmen
Rule of law in the United Kingdom
Secretary of State for Justice
Separation of powers in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom constitutional law
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Constitutional Law Chronology
The Constitution Society feature and timeline on the British Constitution
The Parliament and Constitution Centre
The 'Mother of Parliaments' BBC Talking Politics
Developing democracy BBC Democracy Day
Constitution
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Constitution
Constitution
Political charters | wiki |
In mathematics, specifically group theory, a nilpotent group G is a group that has an upper central series that terminates with G. Equivalently, its central series is of finite length or its lower central series terminates with {1}.
Intuitively, a nilpotent group is a group that is "almost abelian". This idea is motivated by the fact that nilpotent groups are solvable, and for finite nilpotent groups, two elements having relatively prime orders must commute. It is also true that finite nilpotent groups are supersolvable. The concept is credited to work in the 1930s by Russian mathematician Sergei Chernikov.
Nilpotent groups arise in Galois theory, as well as in the classification of groups. They also appear prominently in the classification of Lie groups.
Analogous terms are used for Lie algebras (using the Lie bracket) including nilpotent, lower central series, and upper central series.
Definition
The definition uses the idea of a central series for a group. The following are equivalent definitions for a nilpotent group :
For a nilpotent group, the smallest such that has a central series of length is called the nilpotency class of ; and is said to be nilpotent of class . (By definition, the length is if there are different subgroups in the series, including the trivial subgroup and the whole group.)
Equivalently, the nilpotency class of equals the length of the lower central series or upper central series.
If a group has nilpotency class at most , then it is sometimes called a nil- group.
It follows immediately from any of the above forms of the definition of nilpotency, that the trivial group is the unique group of nilpotency class , and groups of nilpotency class are exactly the non-trivial abelian groups.
Examples
As noted above, every abelian group is nilpotent.
For a small non-abelian example, consider the quaternion group Q8, which is a smallest non-abelian p-group. It has center {1, −1} of order 2, and its upper central series is {1}, {1, −1}, Q8; so it is nilpotent of class 2.
The direct product of two nilpotent groups is nilpotent.
All finite p-groups are in fact nilpotent (proof). The maximal class of a group of order pn is n (for example, any group of order 2 is nilpotent of class 1). The 2-groups of maximal class are the generalised quaternion groups, the dihedral groups, and the semidihedral groups.
Furthermore, every finite nilpotent group is the direct product of p-groups.
The multiplicative group of upper unitriangular n × n matrices over any field F is a nilpotent group of nilpotency class n − 1. In particular, taking n = 3 yields the Heisenberg group H, an example of a non-abelian infinite nilpotent group. It has nilpotency class 2 with central series 1, Z(H), H.
The multiplicative group of invertible upper triangular n × n matrices over a field F is not in general nilpotent, but is solvable.
Any nonabelian group G such that G/Z(G) is abelian has nilpotency class 2, with central series {1}, Z(G), G.
The natural numbers k for which any group of order k is nilpotent have been characterized .
Explanation of term
Nilpotent groups are so called because the "adjoint action" of any element is nilpotent, meaning that for a nilpotent group of nilpotence degree and an element , the function defined by (where is the commutator of and ) is nilpotent in the sense that the th iteration of the function is trivial: for all in .
This is not a defining characteristic of nilpotent groups: groups for which is nilpotent of degree (in the sense above) are called -Engel groups, and need not be nilpotent in general. They are proven to be nilpotent if they have finite order, and are conjectured to be nilpotent as long as they are finitely generated.
An abelian group is precisely one for which the adjoint action is not just nilpotent but trivial (a 1-Engel group).
Properties
Since each successive factor group Zi+1/Zi in the upper central series is abelian, and the series is finite, every nilpotent group is a solvable group with a relatively simple structure.
Every subgroup of a nilpotent group of class n is nilpotent of class at most n; in addition, if f is a homomorphism of a nilpotent group of class n, then the image of f is nilpotent of class at most n.
The following statements are equivalent for finite groups, revealing some useful properties of nilpotency:
Proof:
(a)→(b) By induction on |G|. If G is abelian, then for any H, NG(H) = G. If not, if Z(G) is not contained in H, then hZHZ−1h−1 = h'H'h−1 = H, so H·Z(G) normalizers H. If Z(G) is contained in H, then H/Z(G) is contained in G/Z(G). Note, G/Z(G) is a nilpotent group. Thus, there exists a subgroup of G/Z(G) which normalizes H/Z(G) and H/Z(G) is a proper subgroup of it. Therefore, pullback this subgroup to the subgroup in G and it normalizes H. (This proof is the same argument as for p-groupsthe only fact we needed was if G is nilpotent then so is G/Z(G)so the details are omitted.)
(b)→(c) Let p1,p2,...,ps be the distinct primes dividing its order and let Pi in Sylpi(G), 1 ≤ i ≤ s. Let P = Pi for some i and let N = NG(P). Since P is a normal Sylow subgroup of N, P is characteristic in N. Since P char N and N is a normal subgroup of NG(N), we get that P is a normal subgroup of NG(N). This means NG(N) is a subgroup of N and hence NG(N) = N. By (b) we must therefore have N = G, which gives (c).
(c)→(d) Let p1,p2,...,ps be the distinct primes dividing its order and let Pi in Sylpi(G), 1 ≤ i ≤ s. For any t, 1 ≤ t ≤ s we show inductively that P1P2···Pt is isomorphic to P1×P2×···×Pt. Note first that each Pi is normal in G so P1P2···Pt is a subgroup of G. Let H be the product P1P2···Pt−1 and let K = Pt, so by induction H is isomorphic to P1×P2×···×Pt−1. In particular,|H| = |P1|⋅|P2|⋅···⋅|Pt−1|. Since |K| = |Pt|, the orders of H and K are relatively prime. Lagrange's Theorem implies the intersection of H and K is equal to 1. By definition,P1P2···Pt = HK, hence HK is isomorphic to H×K which is equal to P1×P2×···×Pt. This completes the induction. Now take t = s to obtain (d).
(d)→(e) Note that a p-group of order pk has a normal subgroup of order pm for all 1≤m≤k. Since G is a direct product of its Sylow subgroups, and normality is preserved upon direct product of groups, G has a normal subgroup of order d for every divisor d of |G|.
(e)→(a) For any prime p dividing |G|, the Sylow p-subgroup is normal. Thus we can apply (c) (since we already proved (c)→(e)).
Statement (d) can be extended to infinite groups: if G is a nilpotent group, then every Sylow subgroup Gp of G is normal, and the direct product of these Sylow subgroups is the subgroup of all elements of finite order in G (see torsion subgroup).
Many properties of nilpotent groups are shared by hypercentral groups.
Notes
References
review
Nilpotent groups
Properties of groups | wiki |
A pelvic digit, pelvic finger, or pelvic rib is a rare congenital abnormality in humans, in which bone tissue develops in the soft tissue near the pelvis, resembling a rib or finger and often divided into one or more segments with pseudo-articulations. Pelvic digits are typically benign and asymptomatic, and are usually discovered accidentally. Approximately 41 cases have been reported.
The pelvic digit was first reported by D. Sullivan and W.S. Cornwell in 1974. Pelvic digits may be located at any level of the pelvis, the lower ribs, or even the anterior abdominal wall. It is theorized that pelvic digit anomalies arise during the mesenchymal stage of bone growth, within the first six weeks of embryogenesis. Their formation may result from a failure of the primordium of the coccyx to fuse to the vertebral column, leading to the independent development of a proto-rib structure.
See also
Supernumerary body part
References
External links
Radiographs of a pelvic digit
"The Pelvic Digit – A Rare Developmental Anomaly"] in Acta Radiologica
Congenital disorders
Supernumerary body parts
Pelvis | wiki |
Ringtail, also known as tail necrosis, is an epidermal disease that may occur in rats, mice, hamsters and other rodents.
In affected individuals, the tail swells as a consequence of annular constrictions along its length (hence the name "ringtail") and subsequent dehydration; in the most severe cases, the process may end up in the tail becoming gangrenous and dropping off. Feet may also swell and redden.
Ringtail is traditionally attributed to low environmental humidity and high temperature, although a number of other possible causes have been suggested, from dietary deficiencies (low levels of fatty acids) to genetic predisposition. For lab and pet rodents, poor bedding (i.e., overly absorbent bedding) or repeated blood draws from tail veins have also been identified as possible causes of ringtail.
Footnotes
Rodent diseases | wiki |
Eleventh finger may refer to:
Polydactyly, a congenital anomaly in humans having supernumerary fingers or toes
Pelvic digit, a congenital anomaly in humans, in which bone tissue develops in the soft tissue near the pelvis | wiki |
Goar Hlgatian (; born 14 May 1975) is an Armenian chess player. She is a Woman International Master (WIM) since 1996 and three-time Armenian Women's chess champion (1996, 1997 and 2001).
Weblinks
References
1975 births
Living people
Armenian female chess players | wiki |
For the 2002 Vuelta a España, the field consisted of 207 riders; 132 finished the race.
By rider
By nationality
References
2002 Vuelta a España
2002 | wiki |
Italy is a European country.
Italy may also refer to:
Italy (geographical region)
Italian Peninsula
Roman Italy
Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire), a constituent kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire
Italian Republic (Napoleonic), a French client state in northern Italy 1802–1805
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic), a French client state 1805–1814
Kingdom of Italy, an independent and unified Italian state 1861–1946
Imperial Italy (fascist), an ambitious project envisioned by Fascist Italy
Italy, New York, USA, a town
Italy, Texas, USA, a town
"Italy" (Everybody Loves Raymond), a television episode
"Italy", a poem by Patti Smith from her 1978 book Babel (book)
I.T.A.L.Y., a 2008 Filipino film
A main character from the anime Hetalia: Axis Powers.
See also
Air Italy (disambiguation)
Little Italy (disambiguation)
Italia (disambiguation)
Italian (disambiguation)
Kingdom of Italy (disambiguation)
Imperial Italy (disambiguation)
Fascist Italy (disambiguation)
Italian people (disambiguation) | wiki |
Corona Capital is an annual music festival held in Mexico City, taking place in the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. It debuted in 2010 and is organized by Grupo CIE. It primarily features rock and alternative music.
The festival has managed to establish itself as one of the largest and most in-demand music events in Latin America, and its considered to be Mexico's equivalent to festivals such as Coachella and Lollapalooza having headliners such as Foo Fighters, Arctic Monkeys, The Stone Roses, Portishead and Pixies.
In 2018, the festival expanded to the state of Jalisco during springtime with a completely different lineup billed as Corona Capital Guadalajara.
Despite the festival's commercial and media success, it has also been the subject of much criticism and controversy after banning all local and Spanish-speaking performers in its lineup since 2013.
According to its organizers, the decision to focus only in English-speaking talent was made as a "solely commercial movement" being also organizers of other festivals such as Vive Latino and Electric Daisy Carnival where they can support their local performers, resulting in Corona Capital being the only music festival in the world that hosts only foreigner talent from outside the hosting country.
Editions
References
External links
Music festivals in Mexico
Music festivals established in 2010
Alternative rock festivals
Rock concerts | wiki |
A ludeme is "an element of play" within a card game or board game, as distinct from an "instrument of play" which forms part of the equipment with which a game is played. An example of a ludeme is the L-shaped movement of a knight in chess, whereas the knight itself is an instrument of play.
Origin
The term was originally coined by French game writer Pierre Berloquin. Borvo, one of the first to use the term, defines it as a 'type rule' such as the method of trick-taking in a card game or the leap capture in a board game.
See also
Game mechanics
References
Board games
Card game terminology | wiki |
William Nedham may refer to:
William Nedham (British politician)
William Nedham (Jamaican politician) | wiki |
Kingston: Confidential is an American mystery crime drama that aired on NBC for 13 episodes during the spring of 1977, following the success of a 1976 made-for-TV movie entitled Kingston. The series was produced by R.B. Productions, Inc. and Groverton Productions, Inc. in association with Universal Television.
Synopsis
The series starred Raymond Burr as R.B Kingston, a powerful media magnate similar to William Randolph Hearst, who owns numerous newspapers and TV stations. In his spare time, he and a group of his employees solve crimes. Co-starring in the series were Art Hindle, Pamela Hensley, and Linda Galloway.
Cast
Raymond Burr as R.B. Kingston
Art Hindle as Tony Martin
Pamela Hensley as Beth Kelly
Episodes
External links
NBC original programming
Television series by Universal Television
1970s American crime television series
Television series about journalism
English-language television shows
1977 American television series debuts
1977 American television series endings
Television shows set in San Francisco | wiki |
Maxwell Field is a former military airfield now known as Maxwell Air Force Base, in Montgomery, Alabama, United States.
Maxwell Field may also refer to:
Maxwell Field (stadium), a former high school football stadium in Louisville, Kentucky, United States
Maxwell Field at Warrior Stadium, a stadium on the campus of Winona State University in Winona, Minnesota, United States | wiki |
Billboard is a large outdoor sign usually used for advertising.
Billboard may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Billboard (magazine), a music and entertainment media brand
Billboard charts, inspired by the magazine
Billboard Music Award, sponsored by the magazine
Billboard Türkiye, official Turkish chart magazine founded in 2006
Billboard, a large film poster called a "Twenty four sheet"
"Billboard", an episode of the sitcom Malcolm in the Middle
Billboard, television ident for BBC Two used in 1992, from the 1991-2001 series of idents
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri, 2017 crime drama film
Other uses
The Billboard, a massive granite monolith in West Antarctica
Billboard, a 3D computer graphics sprite that is always facing the viewer
See also
Billboard antenna, an array of parallel antennas with flat reflectors | wiki |
This is a list of arts and cultural festivals regularly taking place in Edinburgh, Scotland.
The city has become known for its festivals since the establishment in 1947 of the Edinburgh International Festival and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe which runs alongside it. The latter is the largest event of its kind in the world.
The term Edinburgh Festival is commonly used, but there is no single festival; the various festivals are put on by separate, unrelated organisations. However they are widely regarded as part of the same event, particularly the various festivals that take place simultaneously in August each year. The term Edinburgh Festival is often used to refer more specifically to the Fringe, being the largest of the festivals; or sometimes to the International Festival, being the original "official" arts festival. Within the industry, people refer to all the festivals collectively as the Edinburgh Festivals (plural).
The festivals
Listed in chronological order by 2018 start date, with year of foundation in brackets
April
Dead by Dawn (1993)
Edinburgh International Science Festival (1988)
Easter time
Ceilidh Culture (1951)
May
Edinburgh International Children's Festival (formerly the Imaginate Festival) (1990)
June
Leith Festival (1907)
Leith Jazz and Blues Festival
Edinburgh International Film Festival (1947)
Edinburgh Annuale (2004)
July
Edinburgh International Magic Festival (2010)
Edinburgh Jazz and Blues Festival (1978)
August
Edinburgh Art Festival (2004)
Edinburgh International Festival (1947)
Edinburgh Festival Fringe (1947)
Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo (1950)
Just Festival (formerly the Festival of Spirituality and Peace) (2005)
Edinburgh International Book Festival (1983)
Edinburgh Mela (1995)
Edinburgh International Television Festival (1976)
Fringe of Colour (2018)
October
Leith Comedy Festival (2020)
Africa in Motion (2006)
Scottish International Storytelling Festival (1990)
Festival of Politics (2005)
Edinburgh Horror Festival (2016)
December
Edinburgh's Hogmanay (1994)
Uncertain dates
Edinburgh People's Festival (2002, but claims heritage from earlier festival of same name 1951–1954)
Defunct festivals
Edinburgh Interactive Festival (2003)
Edinburgh International Internet Festival (1999)
Edinburgh Swing Festival (2006)
Fringe Film Festival (1984 - 1990)
Fringe Film & Video Festival (FFVF) (1991 - 1996)
iFest (2007) — the Internet Festival and Conference
West Port Book Festival (2008) – a free book festival involving secondhand bookshops in the West Port area
Notes and references
External links
Edinburgh Festival City
Edinburgh Festivals a guide to the festivals that take place in Edinburgh which are members of Festivals Edinburgh
EdinburghFestivalGuide.co.uk a comprehensive listing of all (small and large) Edinburgh festivals
A History of the Edinburgh Festivals
Edinburgh Festival Classroom resources
National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE (selection of archive films about the Edinburgh Festival)
Arts festivals in Scotland
Annual events in Edinburgh
August events
Autumn events in Scotland | wiki |
The Ontario Secondary School Diploma (OSSD) is a diploma granted to secondary school graduates in the Canadian province of Ontario. It is part of the publicly-funded province-wide school system. It is awarded to all students who complete the Ontario education curriculum, including students in Special Education, the TOPS program, MaCS program, IB Program, and other focused secondary school programs.
Diploma requirements
The academic credit system applies to students from Grades 9 through 12. To obtain an Ontario Secondary School Diploma, one must earn the following compulsory credits:
4 credits in one's first language (English or French) (from Grade 9 - 12, one credit per year),
3 credits in Mathematics, with at least one credit in Grade 11 or 12,
2 credits in Science, one in Grade 9 and one in Grade 10,
1 credit in Grade 10 Canadian History,
1 credit in Grade 9 Canadian Geography,
1 credit in the arts,
1 credit in Health and physical education,
1 credit in one's second language, either French or English,
0.5 credits in Grade 10 Career Studies
0.5 credits in Grade 10 Civics
Additional provincial requirements
One must also earn 1 credit from each of the following three areas:
Group 1: 1 additional credit in a second language (either French or English), an aboriginal language, a classical or international language, or social sciences and the humanities, or canadian and World studies, or guidance and career education, or cooperative education*.
Group 2: 1 additional credit in health and physical education, or the arts, or business studies, or cooperative education*. As of March 2010, 1 additional credit in a second language (either French or English) can be used instead**.
Group 3: 1 additional credit in science in Grade 11 or 12, or technological education, computer studies, or cooperative education*. As of March 2010, 1 additional credit in a second language (either French or English) can be used instead.**
Note that *, only 2 credits in cooperative education can be counted as compulsory credits, and that **, only 2 additional second language (either French or English) credits can be counted as compulsory: one in group 1, or one in either group 2 or group 3.
In addition, students must also have completed:
12 optional credits (4 of which may be obtained through approved dual-credit courses and coop),
40 hours of community service,
meet the provincial secondary school literacy requirement.
Note that a student can receive their community service from the start of Grade 9 (including the summer between Grade 8 and 9) until the April of grade 12, with summer break and weekends included.
The provincial secondary school literacy requirement can be met through passing the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test with a score of 75.0% or above. If one fails the Literacy Test, they must rewrite the test the following school year, or complete the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Course (OLC 3O or 4O) in grade 11 or 12.
In Grade 9 and 10 (years 1 and 2, respectively), a student must complete 16 credits in total, 8 each year. In Grade 11 and 12 (Year 3 and 4, respectively), one must complete the 14 remaining credits, with no less than 6 attempted credits each year in accordance with compulsory education law. In total, 30 credits must be achieved. One can stay in high school until all 30 credits are achieved, or to obtain any additional or required credits for post-secondary admission.
Ontario Secondary School Certificate
The Ontario Secondary School Certificate may be requested by students who leave school before earning their OSSD if they have earned a minimum of 14 credits distributed over the following courses:
2 credits in English
1 credit in Canadian history or geography
1 credit in mathematics
1 credit in science
1 credit in health and physical education
1 credit in the arts, technological education, or computer studies
7 additional electives
See also
What do you need to graduate?
List of high schools in Ontario
References
Education in Ontario
Student assessment and evaluation
High School Diploma
Secondary school qualifications | wiki |
OFTA may refer to:
Office of the Telecommunications Authority, part of the Telecommunications Authority in Hong Kong, dissolved in 2012
Oman–United States Free Trade Agreement, trade agreement signed in 2006 | wiki |
Latin diacritics may refer to:
diacritics of the Latin alphabet
diacritics used in the Latin language (see ) | wiki |
100P/Hartley, also known as Hartley 1, is a periodic, Jupiter family comet in the Solar System.
On 29 April 2164 the comet will pass from Earth.
References
External links
100P/Hartley 1 – Seiichi Yoshida @ aerith.net
100P at Kronk's Cometography
Periodic comets
0100
Discoveries by Malcolm Hartley
Comets in 2016
19850613 | wiki |
Trigger Man is a 2007 American thriller film written and directed by Ti West.
Premise
Three friends from Manhattan are stalked while hunting in rural Delaware.
Production
Filming took place in Wilmington, Delaware.
References
External links
2007 films
2007 action thriller films
Films set in Delaware
Films shot in Delaware
Films directed by Ti West
2000s English-language films | wiki |
Sullivan may refer to:
People
Characters
Chloe Sullivan, from the television series Smallville
Colin Sullivan, a character in the film The Departed, played by Matt Damon
Harry Sullivan (Doctor Who), from the British science fiction television series Doctor Who
James P. "Sulley" Sullivan, a character in the Monsters, Inc. franchise
John 'Sully' Sullivan, from the television series Third Watch
John L. Sullivan, protagonist in the film Sullivan's Travels
Jordan Sullivan, from the television series Scrubs
Morgan Sullivan, an alias of the fictional protagonist of the film Cypher
Sam Sullivan, from the television series The Loop
Sieglinde Sullivan, a character from the manga and anime Black Butler
Sullivan, a character from the manga and anime Welcome to Demon School! Iruma-kun
Victor Sullivan, character from the video game Uncharted franchise
Walter Sullivan (Silent Hill), an antagonist of the video game Silent Hill 4: The Room
William "Rocky" Sullivan, protagonist in the film Angels with Dirty Faces
Places
Canada
Sullivan, Quebec
United States
Sullivan, Illinois
Sullivan, Indiana
Sullivan, Kentucky
Sullivan, Maine
Sullivan, Missouri
Sullivan, New Hampshire
Sullivan, New York
Sullivan, Ohio
Sullivan, Virginia
Sullivan, Raleigh County, West Virginia
Sullivan, Randolph County, West Virginia
Sullivan (town), Wisconsin
Sullivan, Wisconsin, a village within the town
Sullivan City, Texas
Craters
Sullivan (Mercurian crater)
Sullivan (Venusian crater)
Music
Sullivan Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to finding, developing, and furthering the careers of promising opera singers in the United States
Sullivan (band), an alternative rock band from Greensboro, North Carolina
Sir Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900), composer, of the team Gilbert and Sullivan
"Sullivan" (song), a 1997 song by Caroline's Spine
Other uses
Sullivan reaction, a chemical reaction
Sullivan Expedition, a United States Revolutionary War offensive against the Seneca Nation of Indians
Silky Sullivan, racehorse
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, a United States Supreme Court case
Sullivan & Company, a brand engagement firm
Sullivan's Index, a health metric
Sullivan (play), a comedy by Anne-Honoré-Joseph Duveyrier de Mélésville
See also
Sulivan, a surname
Sullavan
O'Sullivan (disambiguation)
Sullivan County (disambiguation)
Sullivan Township (disambiguation)
Justice Sullivan (disambiguation) | wiki |
Soybean meal is used in food and animal feeds, principally as a protein supplement, but also as a source of metabolizable energy. Typically 1 bushel (i.e. 60 lbs. or 27.2 kg) of soybeans yields 48 lbs. (21.8 kg) of soybean meal. Some, but not all, the soybean meal is produced as a co-product of soybean oil extraction. Some, but not all, soybean meal contains ground soybean hulls. Soybean meal is heat-treated during production, to denature the trypsin inhibitors of soybeans, which would otherwise interfere with protein digestion.
Major kinds of soybean meal
Three main kinds of soybean meal are produced:
• Full-fat soybean meal, made from whole soybeans. It has a high metabolizable energy concentration. (For example, metabolizable energy for swine in this product is about 3.69 megacalories (i.e. 15.4 MJ) per kg dry matter.) Crude protein concentration is about 38 percent (as fed). This kind of product is sometimes fed to various classes of livestock.
• Defatted soybean meal, containing no hulls. This product has an intermediate energy concentration. (For example, metabolizable energy for swine in this product is about 3.38 megacalories (i.e. 14.1 MJ) per kg dry matter.) Crude protein concentration is about 48 percent. This percentage [which is commonly used in describing the product] is calculated at the typical as-fed moisture content of 88 percent. Thus, crude protein concentration expressed on a dry matter basis is 54 percent. This product is commonly fed to swine, broilers and layers.
• Defatted soybean meal, containing soybean hulls. The hulls are readily digestible by ruminant livestock. This product is often fed as a protein supplement for domestic ruminants. Ruminant-metabolizable energy concentration is about 3.0 megacalories (i.e. about 12.5 MJ) per kg dry matter, and crude protein concentration is about 44 percent. The latter percentage [which is commonly used in describing the product] is calculated at the typical as-fed moisture content of 90 percent. Thus, crude protein concentration on a dry matter basis is 49 percent.
Use in animal feed
Globally, about 98 percent of soybean meal is used as animal feed. Of the US soybean production magnitude from 2010 through 2012, about 44 percent was exported as soybeans, and 53 percent was crushed in the US. Of the crushed tonnage, 19 percent was recovered as soybean oil and the remainder was recovered as soybean meal. Of the total US soybean tonnage produced, about 35 percent was fed to US livestock and poultry as soybean meal. Most of the remaining soybean meal produced in the US was exported. It has been estimated that, of soy meal fed to animals in the US, 48 percent is fed to poultry, 26 percent to swine, 12 percent to beef cattle, 9 percent to dairy cattle, 3 percent is used in fish feed and about 2 percent in pet food. Although this implies that the tonnage of soybean meal fed to other species is relatively minor, such use is not unimportant. For example, for rapidly growing lambs on low-protein feeds, soybean meal can be an important supplement to ensure adequate protein intake, and partly because of its palatability, soybean meal is often recommended for use in starter rations when creep feeding lambs.
Uses as human food
Globally, about 2 percent of soybean meal is used for soy flour and other products for human consumption. Soy flour is used to make some soy milks and textured vegetable protein products, and is marketed as full-fat, low-fat, defatted, and lecithinated types.
Phytoestrogens
Most studies of phytoestrogens in soy have identified the isoflavones genistein and daidzein as its principal phytoestrogenic substances. For several soy flour samples analyzed by various persons using high-performance liquid chromatography, daidzein content ranged from 226 to 2100 micrograms per gram, and genistein content ranged from 478 to 1123 micrograms per gram. For four analyses of defatted soy meal, the concentrations were 616 and 753 micrograms per gram, respectively; for one analysis of soybean meal (whole), concentrations were 706 and 1000 micrograms per gram, respectively.
Although reproductive physiology of sheep is particularly sensitive to phytoestrogens, soybean meal supplementation of ewe lambs or ewes on pasture in some studies has been found to have no detrimental effect on reproductive performance.
See also
Crush spread
Soybean oil
References
Animal feed
Soy products
Soy-based foods | wiki |
Metro North may refer to:
Metro-North Railroad, a commuter railroad serving parts of New York and Connecticut in the United States
Dublin Metro#Metro North, a branch of the proposed Dublin Metro, in Dublin, Ireland
Metro North Mall, Kansas City, Missouri
MetroNorth Corridor, proposed St. Louis MetroLink alignment | wiki |
The SAT ( ) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times. For much of its history, it was called the Scholastic Aptitude Test and had two components, Verbal and Mathematical, each of which was scored on a range from 200 to 800. Later it was called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT.
The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, not-for-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service, which until recently developed the SAT as well. The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college. Originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula, several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016. College Board president David Coleman added that he wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards, which have been adopted by the District of Columbia and many states.
Starting with the 2015–16 school year, the College Board began working with Khan Academy to provide free SAT preparation. On January 19, 2021, the College Board announced the discontinuation of the optional essay section, as well as its SAT Subject Tests, after June 2021.
While a considerable amount of research has been done on the SAT, many questions and misconceptions remain. Outside of college admissions, the SAT is also used by researchers studying human intelligence in general and intellectual precociousness in particular, and by some employers in the recruitment process.
Function
The SAT is typically taken by high school juniors and seniors. The College Board states that the SAT is intended to measure literacy, numeracy and writing skills that are needed for academic success in college. They state that the SAT assesses how well the test-takers analyze and solve problems—skills they learned in school that they will need in college. However, the test is administered under a tight time limit (sped) to help produce a range of scores.
The College Board also states that the SAT, in combination with high school grade point average (GPA), provides a better indicator of success in college than high school grades alone, as measured by college freshman GPA. Various studies conducted over the lifetime of the SAT show a statistically significant increase in correlation of high school grades and college freshman grades when the SAT is factored in. The predictive validity and powers of the SAT are topics of active research in psychometrics.
There are substantial differences in funding, curricula, grading, and difficulty among U.S. secondary schools due to U.S. federalism, local control, and the prevalence of private, distance, and home schooled students. SAT (and ACT) scores are intended to supplement the secondary school record and help admission officers put local data—such as course work, grades, and class rank—in a national perspective.
Historically, the SAT was more widely used by students living in coastal states and the ACT was more widely used by students in the Midwest and South; in recent years, however, an increasing number of students on the East and West coasts have been taking the ACT. Since 2007, all four-year colleges and universities in the United States that require a test as part of an application for admission will accept either the SAT or ACT, and as of Fall 2022, over 1400 four-year colleges and universities do not require any standardized test scores at all for admission, though some of them are applying this policy only temporarily due to the coronavirus pandemic.
The SAT takes three hours to finish and costs US$60.00, excluding late fees, with additional processing fees if the SAT is taken outside the United States. Scores on the SAT range from 400 to 1600, combining test results from two 200-to-800-point sections: the Mathematics section and the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section. Although taking the SAT, or its competitor the ACT, is required for freshman entry to many colleges and universities in the United States, during the 2010s, many institutions made these entrance exams optional, but this did not stop the students from attempting to achieve high scores as they and their parents are skeptical of what "optional" means in this context. In fact, the test-taking population was increasing steadily. And while this may have resulted in a long-term decline in scores, experts cautioned against using this to gauge the scholastic levels of the entire U.S. population.
Structure
The SAT has two main sections, namely Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW, normally known as the "English" portion of the test) and the Math section. These are both further broken down into four sections: Reading, Writing and Language, Math (no calculator), and Math (calculator allowed). The test taker was also optionally able to write an essay which, in that case, is the fifth test section. The total time for the scored portion of the SAT is three hours (or three hours and fifty minutes if the optional essay section was taken). Some test takers who are not taking the essay may also have a fifth section, which is used, at least in part, for the pretesting of questions that may appear on future administrations of the SAT. (These questions are not included in the computation of the SAT score.)
Two section scores result from taking the SAT: Evidence-Based Reading and Writing, and Math. Section scores are reported on a scale of 200 to 800, and each section score is a multiple of ten. A total score for the SAT is calculated by adding the two section scores, resulting in total scores that range from 400 to 1600. In addition to the two section scores, three "test" scores on a scale of 10 to 40 are reported, one for each of Reading, Writing and Language, and Math, with increment of 1 for Reading / Writing and Language, and 0.5 for Math. There are also two cross-test scores that each range from 10 to 40 points: Analysis in History/Social Studies and Analysis in Science. The essay, if taken, was scored separately from the two section scores. Two people score each essay by each awarding 1 to 4 points in each of three categories: Reading, Analysis, and Writing. These two scores from the different examiners are then combined to give a total score from 2 to 8 points per category. Though sometimes people quote their essay score out of 24, the College Board themselves do not combine the different categories to give one essay score, instead giving a score for each category.
There is no penalty or negative marking for guessing on the SAT: scores are based on the number of questions answered correctly. The optional essay will not be offered after the June 2021 administration. College Board said it would discontinue the essay section because "there are other ways for students to demonstrate their mastery of essay writing," including the test's reading and writing portion. It also acknowledged that the COVID-19 pandemic had played a role in the change, accelerating 'a process already underway'.
Reading Test
The Reading Test of the SAT contains one section of 52 questions and a time limit of 65 minutes. All questions are multiple-choice and based on reading passages. Tables, graphs, and charts may accompany some passages, but no math is required to correctly answer the corresponding questions. There are five passages (up to two of which may be a pair of smaller passages) on the Reading Test and ten or eleven questions per passage or passage pair. SAT Reading passages draw from three main fields: history, social studies, and science. Each SAT Reading Test always includes: one passage from U.S. or world literature; one passage from either a U.S. founding document or a related text; one passage about economics, psychology, sociology, or another social science; and, two science passages. Answers to all of the questions are based only on the content stated in or implied by the passage or passage pair.
The Reading Test contributes (with the Writing and Language Test) to two subscores, each ranging from 1 to 15 points:
Command of Evidence
Words in Context
Writing and Language Test
The Writing and Language Test of the SAT is made up of one section with 44 multiple-choice questions and a time limit of 35 minutes. As with the Reading Test, all questions are based on reading passages which may be accompanied by tables, graphs, and charts. The test taker will be asked to read the passages and suggest corrections or improvements for the contents underlined. Reading passages on this test range in content from topic arguments to nonfiction narratives in a variety of subjects. The skills being evaluated include: increasing the clarity of argument; improving word choice; improving analysis of topics in social studies and science; changing sentence or word structure to increase organizational quality and impact of writing; and, fixing or improving sentence structure, word usage, and punctuation.
The Writing and Language Test reports two subscores, each ranging from 1 to 15 points:
Expression of Ideas
Standard English Conventions
Mathematics
The mathematics portion of the SAT is divided into two sections: Math Test – No Calculator and Math Test – Calculator. In total, the SAT math test is 80 minutes long and includes 58 questions: 45 multiple choice questions and 13 grid-in questions. The multiple choice questions have four possible answers; the grid-in questions are free response and require the test taker to provide an answer.
The Math Test – No Calculator section has 20 questions (15 multiple choice and 5 grid-in) and lasts 25 minutes.
The Math Test – Calculator section has 38 questions (30 multiple choice and 8 grid-in) and lasts 55 minutes.
Several scores are provided to the test taker for the math test. A subscore (on a scale of 1 to 15) is reported for each of three categories of math content:
"Heart of Algebra" (linear equations, systems of linear equations, and linear functions)
"Problem Solving and Data Analysis" (statistics, modeling, and problem-solving skills)
"Passport to Advanced Math" (non-linear expressions, radicals, exponentials and other topics that form the basis of more advanced math).
A test score for the math test is reported on a scale of 10 to 40, with an increment of 0.5, and a section score (equal to the test score multiplied by 20) is reported on a scale of 200 to 800.
Calculator use
All scientific and most graphing calculators, including Computer Algebra System (CAS) calculators, are permitted on the SAT Math – Calculator section only. All four-function calculators are allowed as well; however, these devices are not recommended. All mobile phone and smartphone calculators, calculators with typewriter-like (QWERTY) keyboards, laptops and other portable computers, and calculators capable of accessing the Internet are not permitted.
Research was conducted by the College Board to study the effect of calculator use on SAT I: Reasoning Test math scores. The study found that performance on the math section was associated with the extent of calculator use: those using calculators on about one third to one half of the items averaged higher scores than those using calculators more or less frequently. However, the effect was "more likely to have been the result of able students using calculators differently than less able students rather than calculator use per se." There is some evidence that the frequent use of a calculator in school outside of the testing situation has a positive effect on test performance compared to those who do not use calculators in school.
Style of questions
Most of the questions on the SAT, except for the grid-in math responses, are multiple choice; all multiple-choice questions have four answer choices, one of which is correct. Thirteen of the questions on the math portion of the SAT (about 22% of all the math questions) are not multiple choice. They instead require the test taker to bubble in a number in a four-column grid.
All questions on each section of the SAT are weighted equally. For each correct answer, one raw point is added. No points are deducted for incorrect answers. The final score is derived from the raw score; the precise conversion chart varies between test administrations.
Logistics
Frequency
The SAT is offered seven times a year in the United States: in August, October, November, December, March, May, and June. For international students SAT is offered four times a year: in October, December, March and May (2020 exception: To cover worldwide May cancelation, an additional September exam was introduced, and August was made available to international test-takers as well). The test is typically offered on the first Saturday of the month for the October, November, December, May, and June administrations. The test was taken by 1,737,678 high school graduates in the class of 2022.
Candidates wishing to take the test may register online at the College Board's website or by mail at least three weeks before the test date.
Fees
As of 2022, the SAT costs US$60.00, plus additional fees if testing outside the United States. The College Board makes fee waivers available for low-income students. Additional fees apply for late registration, standby testing, registration changes, scores by telephone, and extra score reports (beyond the four provided for free).
Accommodation for candidates with disabilities
Students with verifiable disabilities, including physical and learning disabilities, are eligible to take the SAT with accommodations. The standard time increase for students requiring additional time due to learning disabilities or physical handicaps is time + 50%; time + 100% is also offered.
Scaled scores and percentiles
Students receive their online score reports approximately two to three weeks after test administration (longer for mailed, paper scores). Included in the report is the total score (the sum of the two section scores, with each section graded on a scale of 200–800) and three subscores (in reading, writing, and analysis, each on a scale of 2–8) for the optional essay. Students may also receive, for an additional fee, various score verification services, including (for select test administrations) the Question and Answer Service, which provides the test questions, the student's answers, the correct answers, and the type and difficulty of each question.
In addition, students receive two percentile scores, each of which is defined by the College Board as the percentage of students in a comparison group with equal or lower test scores. One of the percentiles, called the "Nationally Representative Sample Percentile", uses as a comparison group all 11th and 12th graders in the United States, regardless of whether or not they took the SAT. This percentile is theoretical and is derived using methods of statistical inference. The second percentile, called the "SAT User Percentile", uses actual scores from a comparison group of recent United States students that took the SAT. For example, for the school year 2019–2020, the SAT User Percentile was based on the test scores of students in the graduating classes of 2018 and 2019 who took the SAT (specifically, the 2016 revision) during high school. Students receive both types of percentiles for their total score as well as their section scores.
Percentiles for total scores (2022)
Percentiles for total scores (2006)
The following chart summarizes the original percentiles used for the version of the SAT administered in March 2005 through January 2016. These percentiles used students in the graduating class of 2006 as the comparison group.
Percentiles for total scores (1984)
Percentiles for verbal and math scores (1969–70)
The mean verbal score was 461 for students staking the SAT, 383 for the sample of all students.
The mathematical scores for 1969–70 were broken out by gender rather than reported as a whole; the mean math score for boys was 415, for girls 378. The differences for the nationally sampled population for math (not shown in table) were similar to those for the verbal section.
Ceilings and trends
The version of the SAT administered before April 1995 had a very high ceiling. For example, in the 1985–1986 school year, only 9 students out of 1.7 million test takers obtained a score of 1600.
In 2015 the average score for the Class of 2015 was 1490 out of a maximum 2400. That was down 7 points from the previous class's mark and was the lowest composite score of the past decade.
SAT–ACT score comparisons
The College Board and ACT, Inc., conducted a joint study of students who took both the SAT and the ACT between September 2004 (for the ACT) or March 2005 (for the SAT) and June 2006. Tables were provided to concord scores for students taking the SAT after January 2005 and before March 2016. In May 2016, the College Board released concordance tables to concord scores on the SAT used from March 2005 through January 2016 to the SAT used since March 2016, as well as tables to concord scores on the SAT used since March 2016 to the ACT.
In 2018, the College Board, in partnership with the ACT, introduced a new concordance table to better compare how a student would fare one test to another. This is now considered the official concordance to be used by college professionals and is replacing the one from 2016. The new concordance no longer features the old SAT (out of 2,400), just the new SAT (out of 1,600) and the ACT (out of 36).
As of 2018, the most appropriate corresponding SAT score point for the given ACT score is also shown in the table below.
Elucidation
Preparation
Pioneered by Stanley Kaplan in 1946 with a 64-hour course, SAT preparation has become a highly lucrative field. Many companies and organizations offer test preparation in the form of books, classes, online courses, and tutoring. The test preparation industry began almost simultaneously with the introduction of university entrance exams in the U.S. and flourished from the start. Test-preparation scams are a genuine problem for parents and students. In general, East Asian Americans, especially Korean Americans, are the most likely to take private SAT preparation courses while African Americans prefer one-on-one tutoring for remedial learning.
Nevertheless, the College Board maintains that the SAT is essentially uncoachable and research by the College Board and the National Association of College Admission Counseling suggests that tutoring courses result in an average increase of about 20 points on the math section and 10 points on the verbal section. Indeed, researchers have shown time and again that preparation courses tend to offer at best a modest boost to test scores. Like IQ scores, which are a strong correlate, SAT scores tend to be stable over time, meaning SAT preparation courses offer only a limited advantage. An early meta-analysis (from 1983) found similar results and noted "the size of the coaching effect estimated from the matched or randomized studies (10 points) seems too small to be practically important." Statisticians Ben Domingue and Derek C. Briggs examined data from the Education Longitudinal Survey of 2002 and found that the effects of coaching were only statistically significant for mathematics; moreover, coaching had a greater effect on certain students than others, especially those who have taken rigorous courses and those of high socioeconomic status. A 2012 systematic literature review estimated a coaching effect of 23 and 32 points for the math and verbal tests, respectively. A 2016 meta-analysis estimated the effect size to be 0.09 and 0.16 for the verbal and math sections respectively, although there was a large degree of heterogeneity. Meanwhile, a 2011 study found that the effects of one-on-one tutoring to be minimal among all ethnic groups. Public misunderstanding of how to prepare for the SAT continues to be exploited by the preparation industry.
While there is a link between family background and taking an SAT preparation course, not all students benefit equally from such an investment. In fact, any average gains in SAT scores due to such courses are primarily due to improvements among East Asian Americans. When this group is broken down even further, Korean Americans are more likely to take SAT prep courses than Chinese Americans, taking full advantage of their Church communities and ethnic economy.
The College Board announced a partnership with the non-profit organization Khan Academy to offer free test-preparation materials starting in the 2015–16 academic year to help level the playing field for students from low-income families. Students may also bypass costly preparation programs using the more affordable official guide from the College Board and with solid studying habits.
There is some evidence that taking the PSAT at least once can help students do better on the SAT; moreover, like the case for the SAT, top scorers on the PSAT could earn scholarships. According to cognitive scientist Sian Beilock, 'choking', or substandard performance on important occasions, such as taking the SAT, can be prevented by doing plenty of practice questions and proctored exams to improve procedural memory, making use of the booklet to write down intermediate steps to avoid overloading working memory, and writing a diary entry about one's anxieties on the day of the exam to enhance self-empathy and positive self-image.
Predictive validity and powers
In 2009, education researchers Richard C. Atkinson and Saul Geiser from the University of California (UC) system argued that high school GPA is better than the SAT at predicting college grades regardless of high school type or quality. According to William McGurn of the Wall Street Journal, it is the hope of some UC officials to increase the number of African- and Latino-American students attending by dropping or otherwise casting doubt on the SAT which, in turn, would enable decreasing the number of Asian-American students who are heavily represented in the UC student body (29.5%) relative to their share of the population of California (13.6%). However, Atkinson and Geiser's assertions on the better predictive power of high school GPA have been contested by the UC academic senate. In its 2020 report, the UC academic senate found that the SAT was better than high school GPA at predicting first year GPA, and just as good as high school GPA at predicting undergraduate GPA, first year retention, and graduation. This predictive validity was found to hold across demographic groups, with the report noting that standardized test scores were actually "better predictors of success for students who are Underrepresented Minority students (URMs), who are first-generation, or whose families are low-income." A series of College Board reports point to similar predictive validity across demographic groups.
The SAT is correlated with intelligence and as such estimates individual differences. It does not, however, have anything to say about "effective cognitive performance (what intelligent people do)". Nor does it measure non-cognitive traits associated with academic success such as positive attitudes or conscientiousness. Psychometricians Thomas R. Coyle and David R. Pillow showed in 2008 that the SAT predicts college GPA even after removing the general factor of intelligence (g), with which it is highly correlated. A 2009 study found that SAT or ACT scores along with high-school GPAs are strong predictors of cumulative university GPAs. In particular, those with standardized test scores in the 50th percentile or better had a two-thirds chance of having a cumulative university GPA in the top half. A 2010 meta-analysis by researchers from the University of Minnesota offered evidence that standardized admissions tests such as the SAT predicted not only freshman GPA but also overall collegiate GPA. A 2012 study from the same university using a multi-institutional data set revealed that even after controlling for socioeconomic status and high-school GPA, SAT scores were still as capable of predicting freshman GPA among university or college students. A 2019 study with a sample size of around a quarter of a million students suggests that together, SAT scores and high-school GPA offer an excellent predictor of freshman collegiate GPA and second-year retention. In 2018, psychologists Oren R. Shewach, Kyle D. McNeal, Nathan R. Kuncel, and Paul R. Sackett showed that both high-school GPA and SAT scores predict enrollment in advanced collegiate courses, even after controlling for Advanced Placement credits.
Education economist Jesse M. Rothstein indicated in 2005 that high-school average SAT scores were better at predicting freshman university GPAs compared to individual SAT scores. In other words, a student's SAT scores were not as informative with regards to future academic success as his or her high school's average. In contrast, individual high-school GPAs were a better predictor of collegiate success than average high-school GPAs. Furthermore, an admissions officer who failed to take average SAT scores into account would risk overestimating the future performance of a student from a low-scoring school and underestimating that of a student from a high-scoring school.
Like other standardized tests such as the ACT or the GRE, the SAT is a traditional method for assessing the academic aptitude of students who have had vastly different educational experiences and as such is focused on the common materials that the students could reasonably be expected to have encountered throughout the course of study. As such the mathematics section contains no materials above the precalculus level, for instance. Psychologist Raymond Cattell referred to this as testing for "historical" rather than "current" crystallized intelligence. Psychologist Scott Barry Kaufman further noted that the SAT can only measure a snapshot of a person's performance at a particular moment in time. Educational psychologists Jonathan Wai, David Lubinski, and Camilla Benbow observed that one way to increase the predictive validity of the SAT is by assessing the student's spatial reasoning ability, as the SAT at present does not contain any questions to that effect. Spatial reasoning skills are important for success in STEM. A 2006 study led by psychometrician Robert Sternberg found that the ability of SAT scores and high-school GPAs to predict collegiate performance could further be enhanced by additional assessments of analytical, creative, and practical thinking.
Experimental psychologist Meredith Frey noted that while advances in education research and neuroscience can help incrementally improve the ability to predict scholastic achievement in the future, the SAT or other standardized tests like it will remain a valuable tool to build upon. In a 2014 op-ed for The New York Times, psychologist John D. Mayer called the predictive powers of the SAT "an astonishing achievement" and cautioned against making it and other standardized tests optional. Research by psychometricians David Lubinsky, Camilla Benbow, and their colleagues has shown that the SAT could even predict life outcomes beyond university.
Difficulty and relative weight
The SAT rigorously assesses students' mental stamina, memory, speed, accuracy, and capacity for abstract and analytical reasoning. For American universities and colleges, standardized test scores are the most important factor in admissions, second only to high-school GPAs. By international standards, however, the SAT is not that difficult. For example, South Korea's College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) and Finland's Matriculation Examination are both longer, tougher, and count for more towards the admissibility of a student to university. In many countries around the world, exams, including university entrance exams, are the sole deciding factor of admission; school grades are simply irrelevant. In China and India, doing well on the Gaokao or the IIT-JEE, respectively, enhances the social status of the students and their families.
In an article from 2012, educational psychologist Jonathan Wai argued that the SAT was too easy to be useful to the most competitive of colleges and universities, whose applicants typically had brilliant high-school GPAs and standardized test scores. Admissions officers therefore had the burden of differentiating the top scorers from one another, not knowing whether or not the students' perfect or near-perfect scores truly reflected their scholastic aptitudes. He suggested that the College Board make the SAT more difficult, which would raise the measurement ceiling of the test, allowing the top schools to identify the best and brightest among the applicants. At that time, the College Board was already working on making the SAT tougher. The changes were announced in 2014 and implemented in 2016.
After realizing the June 2018 test was easier than usual, the College Board made adjustments resulting in lower-than-expected scores, prompting complaints from the students, though some understood this was to ensure fairness. In its analysis of the incident, the Princeton Review supported the idea of curving grades, but pointed out that the test was incapable of distinguishing students in the 86th percentile (650 points) or higher in mathematics. The Princeton Review also noted that this particular curve was unusual in that it offered no cushion against careless or last-minute mistakes for high-achieving students. The Review posted a similar blog post for the SAT of August 2019, when a similar incident happened and the College Board responded in the same manner, noting, "A student who misses two questions on an easier test should not get as good a score as a student who misses two questions on a hard test. Equating takes care of that issue." It also cautioned students against retaking the SAT immediately, for they might be disappointed again, and recommended that instead, they give themselves some "leeway" before trying again.
Recognition
Outside of the United States, the SAT is considered for university admissions in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Singapore, and India, among dozens of other countries. About 4,000 institutions of higher learning worldwide accept the SAT, as of early 2022.
Association with general cognitive ability
In a 2000 study, psychometrician Ann M. Gallagher and her colleagues found that only the top students made use of intuitive reasoning in solving problems encountered on the mathematics section of the SAT. Cognitive psychologists Brenda Hannon and Mary McNaughton-Cassill discovered that having a good working memory, the ability of knowledge integration, and low levels of test anxiety predicts high performance on the SAT.
Frey and Detterman (2004) investigated associations of SAT scores with intelligence test scores. Using an estimate of general mental ability, or g, based on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, they found SAT scores to be highly correlated with g (r=.82 in their sample, .857 when adjusted for non-linearity) in their sample taken from a 1979 national probability survey. Additionally, they investigated the correlation between SAT results, using the revised and recentered form of the test, and scores on the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices, a test of fluid intelligence (reasoning), this time using a non-random sample. They found that the correlation of SAT results with scores on the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices was .483, they estimated that this correlation would have been about 0.72 were it not for the restriction of ability range in the sample. They also noted that there appeared to be a ceiling effect on the Raven's scores which may have suppressed the correlation. Beaujean and colleagues (2006) have reached similar conclusions to those reached by Frey and Detterman. Because the SAT is strongly correlated with general intelligence, it can be used as a proxy to measure intelligence, especially when the time-consuming traditional methods of assessment are unavailable.
Psychometrician Linda Gottfredson noted that the SAT is effective at identifying intellectually gifted college-bound students.
For decades many critics have accused designers of the verbal SAT of cultural bias as an explanation for the disparity in scores between poorer and wealthier test-takers, with the biggest critics coming from the University of California system. A famous example of this perceived bias in the SAT I was the oarsman–regatta analogy question, which is no longer part of the exam. The object of the question was to find the pair of terms that had the relationship most similar to the relationship between "runner" and "marathon". The correct answer was "oarsman" and "regatta". The choice of the correct answer was thought to have presupposed students' familiarity with rowing, a sport popular with the wealthy. However, for psychometricians, analogy questions are a useful tool to gauge the mental abilities of students, for, even if the meaning of two words are unclear, a student with sufficiently strong analytical thinking skills should still be able to identify their relationships. Analogy questions were removed in 2005. In their place are questions that provide more contextual information should the students be ignorant of the relevant definition of a word, making it easier for them to guess the correct answer.
Association with college or university majors and rankings
In 2010, physicists Stephen Hsu and James Schombert of the University of Oregon examined five years of student records at their school and discovered that the academic standing of students majoring in mathematics or physics (but not biology, English, sociology, or history) was strongly dependent on SAT mathematics scores. Students with an SAT mathematics scores below 600 were highly unlikely to excel as a mathematics or physics major. Nevertheless, they found no such patterns between the SAT verbal, or combined SAT verbal and mathematics and the other aforementioned subjects.
In 2015, educational psychologist Jonathan Wai of Duke University analyzed average test scores from the Army General Classification Test in 1946 (10,000 students), the Selective Service College Qualification Test in 1952 (38,420), Project Talent in the early 1970s (400,000), the Graduate Record Examination between 2002 and 2005 (over 1.2 million), and the SAT Math and Verbal in 2014 (1.6 million). Wai identified one consistent pattern: those with the highest test scores tended to pick the physical sciences and engineering as their majors while those with the lowest were more likely to choose education and agriculture. (See figure below.)A 2020 paper by Laura H. Gunn and her colleagues examining data from 1389 institutions across the United States unveiled strong positive correlations between the average SAT percentiles of incoming students and the shares of graduates majoring in STEM and the social sciences. On the other hand, they found negative correlations between the former and the shares of graduates in psychology, theology, law enforcement, recreation and fitness.
Various researchers have established that average SAT or ACT scores and college ranking in the U.S. News & World Report are highly correlated, almost 0.9. Between the 1980s and the 2010s, the U.S. population grew while universities and colleges did not expand their capacities as substantially. As a result, admissions rates fell considerably, meaning it has become more difficult to get admitted to a school whose alumni include one's parents. On top of that, high-scoring students nowadays are much more likely to leave their hometowns in pursuit of higher education at prestigious institutions. Consequently, standardized tests, such as the SAT, are a more reliable measure of selectivity than admissions rates. Still, when Michael J. Petrilli and Pedro Enamorado analyzed the SAT composite scores (math and verbal) of incoming freshman classes of 1985 and 2016 of the top universities and liberal arts colleges in the United States, they found that the median scores of new students increased by 93 points for their sample, from 1216 to 1309. In particular, fourteen institutions saw an increase of at least 150 points, including the University of Notre-Dame (from 1290 to 1440, or 150 points) and Elon College (from 952 to 1192, or 240 points).
Association with types of schooling
While there seems to be evidence that private schools tend to produce students who do better on standardized tests such as the ACT or the SAT, Keven Duncan and Jonathan Sandy showed, using data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth, that when student characteristics, such as age, race, and sex (7%), family background (45%), school quality (26%), and other factors were taken into account, the advantage of private schools diminished by 78%. The researchers concluded that students attending private schools already had the attributes associated with high scores on their own.
Association with educational and societal standings and outcomes
Research from the University of California system published in 2001 analyzing data of their undergraduates between Fall 1996 through Fall 1999, inclusive, found that the SAT II was the single best predictor of collegiate success in the sense of freshman GPA, followed by high-school GPA, and finally the SAT I. After controlling for family income and parental education, the already low ability of the SAT to measure aptitude and college readiness fell sharply while the more substantial aptitude and college readiness measuring abilities of high school GPA and the SAT II each remained undiminished (and even slightly increased). The University of California system required both the SAT I and the SAT II from applicants to the UC system during the four academic years of the study. This analysis is heavily publicized but is contradicted by many studies.
There is evidence that the SAT is correlated with societal and educational outcomes, including finishing a four-year university program. A 2012 paper from psychologists at the University of Minnesota analyzing multi-institutional data sets suggested that the SAT maintained its ability to predict collegiate performance even after controlling for socioeconomic status (as measured by the combination of parental educational attainment and income) and high-school GPA. This means that SAT scores were not merely a proxy for measuring socioeconomic status, the researchers concluded. This finding has been replicated and shown to hold across racial or ethnic groups and for both sexes. Moreover, the Minnesota researchers found that the socioeconomic status distributions of the student bodies of the schools examined reflected those of their respective applicant pools. Because of what it measures, a person's SAT scores cannot be separated from their socioeconomic background.
In 2007, Rebecca Zwick and Jennifer Greif Green observed that a typical analysis did not take into account that heterogeneity of the high schools attended by the students in terms of not just the socioeconomic statuses of the student bodies but also the standards of grading. Zwick and Greif Green proceeded to show that when these were accounted for, the correlation between family socioeconomic status and classroom grades and rank increased whereas that between socioeconomic status and SAT scores fell. They concluded that school grades and SAT scores were similarly associated with family income.
According to the College Board, in 2019, 56% of the test takers had parents with a university degree, 27% parents with no more than a high-school diploma, and about 9% who did not graduate from high school. (8% did not respond to the question.)
Association with family structures
One of the proposed partial explanations for the gap between Asian- and European-American students in educational achievement, as measured for example by the SAT, is the general tendency of Asians to come from stable two-parent households. In their 2018 analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, economists Adam Blandin, Christopher Herrington, and Aaron Steelman concluded that family structure played an important role in determining educational outcomes in general and SAT scores in particular. Families with only one parent who has no degrees were designated 1L, with two parents but no degrees 2L, and two parents with at least one degree between them 2H. Children from 2H families held a significant advantage of those from 1L families, and this gap grew between 1990 and 2010. Because the median SAT composite scores (verbal and mathematics) for 2H families grew by 20 points while those of 1L families fell by one point, the gap between them increased by 21 points, or a fifth of one standard deviation.
Speaking to The Wall Street Journal, family sociologist W. Bradford Wilcox stated, "In the absence of SAT scores, which can pinpoint kids from difficult family backgrounds with great academic potential, family stability is likely to loom even larger in determining who makes it past the college finish line in California [whose public university system decided to stop requiring SAT and ACT scores for admissions in 2020]."
Sex differences
In performance
In 2013, the American College Testing Board released a report stating that boys outperformed girls on the mathematics section of the test, a significant gap that has persisted for over 35 years. As of 2015, boys on average earned 32 points more than girls on the SAT mathematics section. Among those scoring in the 700-800 range, the male-to-female ratio was 1.6:1. In 2014, psychologist Stephen Ceci and his collaborators found boys did better than girls across the percentiles. For example, a girl scoring in the top 10% of her sex would only be in the top 20% among the boys. In 2010, psychologist Jonathan Wai and his colleagues showed, by analyzing data from three decades involving 1.6 million intellectually gifted seventh graders from the Duke University Talent Identification Program (TIP), that in the 1980s the gender gap in the mathematics section of the SAT among students scoring in the top 0.01% was 13.5:1 in favor of boys but dropped to 3.8:1 by the 1990s. The dramatic sex ratio from the 1980s replicates a different study using a sample from Johns Hopkins University. This ratio is similar to that observed for the ACT mathematics and science scores between the early 1990s and the late 2000s. It remained largely unaltered at the end of the 2000s. Sex differences in SAT mathematics scores began making themselves apparent at the level of 400 points and above.
Some researchers point to evidence in support of greater male variability in verbal and quantitative reasoning skills. Greater male variability has been found in body weight, height, and cognitive abilities across cultures, leading to a larger number of males in the lowest and highest distributions of testing. Consequently, a higher number of males are found in both the upper and lower extremes of the performance distributions of the mathematics sections of standardized tests such as the SAT, resulting in the observed gender discrepancy. Paradoxically, this is at odds with the tendency of girls to have higher classroom scores than boys, proving that they do not lack scholastic aptitude. However, boys tend to do better on standardized test questions not directly related to the curriculum.
On the other hand, Wai and his colleagues found that both sexes in the top 5% appeared to be more or less at parity when it comes to the verbal section of the SAT, though girls have gained a slight but noticeable edge over boys starting in the mid-1980s. Psychologist David Lubinski, who conducted longitudinal studies of seventh graders who scored exceptionally high on the SAT, found a similar result. Girls generally had better verbal reasoning skills and boys mathematical skills. This reflects other research on the cognitive ability of the general population rather than just the 95th percentile and up.
Although aspects of testing such as stereotype threat are a concern, research on the predictive validity of the SAT has demonstrated that it tends to be a more accurate predictor of female GPA in university as compared to male GPA.
In strategizing
Mathematical problems on the SAT can be broadly categorized into two groups: conventional and unconventional. Conventional problems can be handled routinely via familiar formulas or algorithms while unconventional ones require more creative thought in order to make unusual use of familiar methods of solution or to come up with the specific insights necessary for solving those problems. In 2000, ETS psychometrician Ann M. Gallagher and her colleagues analyzed how students handled disclosed SAT mathematics questions in self-reports. They found that for both sexes, the most favored approach was to use formulas or algorithms learned in class. When that failed, however, males were more likely than females to identify the suitable methods of solution. Previous research suggested that males were more likely to explore unusual paths to solution whereas females tended to stick to what they had learned in class and that females were more likely to identify the appropriate approaches if such required nothing more than mastery of classroom materials.
In confidence
Older versions of the SAT did ask students how confident they were in their mathematical aptitude and verbal reasoning ability, specifically, whether or not they believed they were in the top 10%. Devin G. Pope analyzed data of over four million test takers from the late 1990s to the early 2000s and found that high scorers were more likely to be confident they were in the top 10%, with the top scorers reporting the highest levels of confidence. But there were some noticeable gaps between the sexes. Men tended to be much more confident in their mathematical aptitude than women. For example, among those who scored 700 on the mathematics section, 67% of men answered they believed they were in the top 10% whereas only 56% of women did the same. Women, on the other hand, were slightly more confident in their verbal reasoning ability than men.
In glucose metabolism
Cognitive neuroscientists Richard Haier and Camilla Persson Benbow employed positron emission tomography (PET) scans to investigate the rate of glucose metabolism among students who have taken the SAT. They found that among men, those with higher SAT mathematics scores exhibited higher rates of glucose metabolism in the temporal lobes than those with lower scores, contradicting the brain-efficiency hypothesis. This trend, however, was not found among women, for whom the researchers could not find any cortical regions associated with mathematical reasoning. Both sexes scored the same on average in their sample and had the same rates of cortical glucose metabolism overall. According to Haier and Benbow, this is evidence for the structural differences of the brain between the sexes.
Association with race and ethnicity
A 2001 meta-analysis of the results of 6,246,729 participants tested for cognitive ability or aptitude found a difference in average scores between black and white students of around 1.0 standard deviation, with comparable results for the SAT (2.4 million test takers). Similarly, on average, Hispanic and Amerindian students perform on the order of one standard deviation lower on the SAT than white and Asian students. Mathematics appears to be the more difficult part of the exam. In 1996, the black-white gap in the mathematics section was 0.91 standard deviations, but by 2020, it fell to 0.79. In 2013, Asian Americans as a group scored 0.38 standard deviations higher than whites in the mathematics section.
Some researchers believe that the difference in scores is closely related to the overall achievement gap in American society between students of different racial groups. This gap may be explainable in part by the fact that students of disadvantaged racial groups tend to go to schools that provide lower educational quality. This view is supported by evidence that the black-white gap is higher in cities and neighborhoods that are more racially segregated. Other research cites poorer minority proficiency in key coursework relevant to the SAT (English and math), as well as peer pressure against students who try to focus on their schoolwork ("acting white"). Cultural issues are also evident among black students in wealthier households, with high achieving parents. John Ogbu, a Nigerian-American professor of anthropology, concluded that instead of looking to their parents as role models, black youth chose other models like rappers and did not make an effort to be good students.
One set of studies has reported differential item functioning, namely, that some test questions function differently based on the racial group of the test taker, reflecting differences in ability to understand certain test questions or to acquire the knowledge required to answer them between groups. In 2003, Freedle published data showing that black students have had a slight advantage on the verbal questions that are labeled as difficult on the SAT, whereas white and Asian students tended to have a slight advantage on questions labeled as easy. Freedle argued that these findings suggest that "easy" test items use vocabulary that is easier to understand for white middle class students than for minorities, who often use a different language in the home environment, whereas the difficult items use complex language learned only through lectures and textbooks, giving both student groups equal opportunities to acquiring it. The study was severely criticized by the ETS board, but the findings were replicated in a subsequent study by Santelices and Wilson in 2010.
There is no evidence that SAT scores systematically underestimate future performance of minority students. However, the predictive validity of the SAT has been shown to depend on the dominant ethnic and racial composition of the college. Some studies have also shown that African-American students under-perform in college relative to their white peers with the same SAT scores; researchers have argued that this is likely because white students tend to benefit from social advantages outside of the educational environment (for example, high parental involvement in their education, inclusion in campus academic activities, positive bias from same-race teachers and peers) which result in better grades.
Christopher Jencks concludes that as a group, African Americans have been harmed by the introduction of standardized entrance exams such as the SAT. This, according to him, is not because the tests themselves are flawed, but because of labeling bias and selection bias; the tests measure the skills that African Americans are less likely to develop in their socialization, rather than the skills they are more likely to develop. Furthermore, standardized entrance exams are often labeled as tests of general ability, rather than of certain aspects of ability. Thus, a situation is produced in which African-American ability is consistently underestimated within the education and workplace environments, contributing in turn to selection bias against them which exacerbates underachievement.
Among the major racial or ethnic groups of the United States, gaps in SAT mathematics scores are the greatest at the tails, with Hispanic and Latino Americans being the most likely to score at the lowest range and Asian Americans the highest. In addition, there is some evidence suggesting that if the test contains more questions of both the easy and difficult varieties, which would increase the variability of the scores, the gaps would be even wider. Given the distribution for Asians, for example, many could score higher than 800 if the test allowed them to. (See figure below.)
2020 was the year in which education worldwide was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and indeed, the performance of students in the United States on standardized tests, such as the SAT, suffered. Yet the gaps persisted. According to the College Board, in 2020, while 83% of Asian students met the benchmark of college readiness in reading and writing and 80% in mathematics, only 44% and 21% of black students did those respective categories. Among whites, 79% met the benchmark for reading and writing and 59% did mathematics. For Hispanics and Latinos, the numbers were 53% and 30%, respectively. (See figure below.)
Test-taking population
By analyzing data from the National Center for Education Statistics, economists Ember Smith and Richard Reeves of the Brookings Institution deduced that the number of students taking the SAT increased at a rate faster than population and high-school graduation growth rates between 2000 and 2020. The increase was especially pronounced among Hispanics and Latinos. Even among whites, whose number of high-school graduates was shrinking, the number of SAT takers rose. In 2015, for example, 1.7 million students took the SAT, up from 1.6 million in 2013. But in 2019, a record-breaking 2.2 million students took the exam, compared to 2.1 million in 2018, another record-breaking year. The rise in the number of students taking the SAT was due in part to many school districts offering to administer the SAT during school days often at no further costs to the students. However, in 2021, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and the optional status of the SAT at many colleges and universities, only 1.5 million students took the test. But this number went up to 1.7 million in 2022, as ambitious students took the test in order to make themselves stand out from the competition.
Psychologists Jean Twenge, W. Keith Campbell, and Ryne A. Sherman analyzed vocabulary test scores on the U.S. General Social Survey () and found that after correcting for education, the use of sophisticated vocabulary has declined between the mid-1970s and the mid-2010s across all levels of education, from below high school to graduate school. However, they cautioned against the use of SAT verbal scores to track the decline for while the College Board reported that SAT verbal scores had been decreasing, these scores were an imperfect measure of the vocabulary level of the nation as a whole because the test-taking demographic has changed and because more students took the SAT in the 2010s than in the 1970s, meaning there were more with limited ability who took it. However, as the frequency of reading for pleasure and the level of reading comprehension among American high-school students continue to decline, students who take the SAT might struggle to do well, even if reforms have been introduced to shorten the duration of the test and to reduce the number of questions associated with a given passage in the verbal portion of the test.
Use in non-collegiate contexts
By high-IQ societies
Certain high IQ societies, like Mensa, Intertel, the Prometheus Society and the Triple Nine Society, use scores from certain years as one of their admission tests. For instance, Intertel accepts scores (verbal and math combined) of at least 1300 on tests taken through January 1994; the Triple Nine Society accepts scores of 1450 or greater on SAT tests taken before April 1995, and scores of at least 1520 on tests taken between April 1995 and February 2005. Mensa accepts qualifying SAT scores earned on or before January 31, 1994.
By researchers
Because it is strongly correlated with general intelligence, the SAT has often been used as a proxy to measure intelligence by researchers, especially since 2004. In particular, scientists studying mathematically gifted individuals have been using the mathematics section of the SAT to identify subjects for their research.
A growing body of research indicates that SAT scores can predict individual success decades into the future, for example in terms of income and occupational achievements. A longitudinal study published in 2005 by educational psychologists Jonathan Wai, David Lubinski, and Camilla Benbow suggests that among the intellectually precocious (the top 1%), those with higher scores in the mathematics section of the SAT at the age of 12 were more likely to earn a PhD in the STEM fields, to have a publication, to register a patent, or to secure university tenure. Wai further showed that an individual's academic ability, as measured by the average SAT or ACT scores of the institution attended, predicted individual differences in income, even among the richest people of all, and being a member of the 'American elite', namely Fortune 500 CEOs, billionaires, federal judges, and members of Congress. Wai concluded that the American elite was also the cognitive elite. Gregory Park, Lubinski, and Benbow gave statistical evidence that intellectually gifted adolescents, as identified by SAT scores, could be expected to accomplish great feats of creativity in the future, both in the arts and in STEM.
The SAT is sometimes given to students at age 12 or 13 by organizations such as the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY), Johns Hopkins Center for Talented Youth, and the Duke University Talent Identification Program (TIP) to select, study, and mentor students of exceptional ability, that is, those in the top one percent. Among SMPY participants, those within the top quartile, as indicated by the SAT composite score (mathematics and verbal), were markedly more likely to have a doctoral degree, to have at least one publication in STEM, to earn income in the 95th percentile, to have at least one literary publication, or to register at least one patent than those in the bottom quartile. Duke TIP participants generally picked career tracks in STEM should they be stronger in mathematics, as indicated by SAT mathematics scores, or the humanities if they possessed greater verbal ability, as indicated by SAT verbal scores. For comparison, the bottom SMPY quartile is five times more likely than the average American to have a patent. Meanwhile, as of 2016, the shares doctorates among SMPY participants was 44% and Duke TIP 37%, compared to two percent among the general U.S. population. Consequently, the notion that beyond a certain point, differences in cognitive ability as measured by standardized tests such as the SAT cease to matter is gainsaid by the evidence.
In the 2010 paper which showed that the sex gap in SAT mathematics scores had dropped dramatically between the early 1980s and the early 1990s but had persisted for the next two decades or so, Wai and his colleagues argued that "sex differences in abilities in the extreme right tail should not be dismissed as no longer part of the explanation for the dearth of women in math-intensive fields of science."
By employers
Cognitive ability is correlated with job training outcomes and job performance. As such, some employers rely on SAT scores to assess the suitability of a prospective recruit, especially if the person has limited work experience. There is nothing new about this practice. Major companies and corporations have spent princely sums on learning how to avoid hiring errors and have decided that standardized test scores are a valuable tool in deciding whether or not a person is fit for the job. In some cases, a company might need to hire someone to handle proprietary materials of its own making, such as computer software. But since the ability to work with such materials cannot be assessed via external certification, it makes sense for such a firm to rely on something that is a proxy of measuring general intelligence. In other cases, a firm may not care about academic background but needs to assess a prospective recruit's quantitative reasoning ability, and what makes standardized test scores necessary. Several companies, especially those considered to be the most prestigious in industries such as investment banking and management consulting such as Goldman Sachs and McKinsey, have been reported to ask prospective job candidates about their SAT scores. According to the Wall Street Journal, the scores are used similarly to how they are in college admissions, in that companies claim they provide insight into the intellectual capabilities and problem-solving skills of an individual.
Nevertheless, some other top employers, such as Google, have eschewed the use of SAT or other standardized test scores unless the potential employee is a recent graduate because for their purposes, these scores "don't predict anything." Educational psychologist Jonathan Wai suggested this might be due to the inability of the SAT to differentiate the intellectual capacities of those at the extreme right end of the distribution of intelligence. Wai told The New York Times, "Today the SAT is actually too easy, and that's why Google doesn't see a correlation. Every single person they get through the door is a super-high scorer."
Perception
Math–verbal achievement gap
In 2002, New York Times columnist Richard Rothstein argued that the U.S. math averages on the SAT and ACT continued their decade-long rise over national verbal averages on the tests while the averages of verbal portions on the same tests were floundering.
Optional SAT
In the 1960s and 1970s there was a movement to drop achievement scores. After a period of time, the countries, states and provinces that reintroduced them agreed that academic standards had dropped, students had studied less, and had taken their studying less seriously. They reintroduced the tests after studies and research concluded that the high-stakes tests produced benefits that outweighed the costs.
In a 2001 speech to the American Council on Education, Richard C. Atkinson, the president of the University of California, urged the dropping admissions tests such as the SAT I but not achievement tests such as the SAT II as a college admissions requirement. Atkinson's critique of the predictive validity and powers of the SAT has been contested by the University of California academic senate. In April 2020, the academic senate, which consisted of faculty members, voted 51–0 to restore the requirement of standardized test scores. However, the governing board overruled the senate. Because of the size of the Californian population, this decision might have an impact on U.S. higher education at large; schools looking to admit Californian students could have a harder time.
During the 2010s, over 1,230 American universities and colleges opted to stop requiring the SAT and the ACT for admissions, according to FairTest, an activist group opposing standardized entrance exams. Most, however, were small colleges, with the notable exceptions of the University of California system and the University of Chicago. Also on the list are institutions catering to niche students, such as religious colleges, arts and music conservatories, or nursing schools, and the majority of institutions in the Northeastern United States. On one hand, making the SAT and the ACT optional for admissions enables schools to attract a larger pool of applicants of a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds. On the other hand, letters of recommendation are not a good indicator of collegiate performance, and grade inflation is a genuine problem. If standardized tests were taken out of the picture, school grades would become more important, thereby incentivizing grade inflation. In fact, grades in American high schools have been inflating by noticeable amounts due to pressure from parents, creating an apparent oversupply of high achievers that makes actual high-performing students struggle to stand out, especially if they are from low-income families. Schools that made the SAT optional therefore lose an objective measure of academic aptitude and readiness, and they will have to formulate a new methodology for admissions or to develop their own entrance exams. Given that the selectivity of a school a student applies to is correlated with the resources of his or her high school—measured in terms of the availability of rigorous courses, such as AP classes, and the socioeconomic statuses of the student body—, making the SAT optional might exacerbate social inequities. Furthermore, since the costs of attending institutions of higher learning in the United States are high, eliminating the SAT requirement could make said institutions more likely to admit under-performing students, who might have to be removed for their low academic standing and who might be saddled with debt after attending. Another criticism of making the SAT optional is that subjective measures of an applicant's suitability, such as application essays, could become more important, making it easier for the rich to gain admissions at the expense of the poor because their school counselors are more capable of writing good letters of recommendation and they can afford to hire external help to boost their applications. It was due to these concerns that the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) decided to reinstate its SAT requirement in 2022.
Despite the fallout from Operation Varsity Blues, which found many wealthy parents illegally intervening to raise their children's standardized test scores, the SAT and the ACT remain popular among American parents and college-bound seniors, who are skeptical of the process of "holistic admissions" because they think is rather vague and uncertain, as schools try to access characteristics not easily discerned via a number, hence the growth in the number of test takers attempting to make themselves more competitive even if this parallels an increase in the number of schools declaring it optional. Holistic admissions notwithstanding, when merit-based scholarships are considered, standardized test scores might be the tiebreakers, as these are highly competitive. Scholarships and financial aid could help students and their parents significantly cut the cost of higher education, especially in times of economic hardship. Moreover, the most selective of schools might have no better options than using standardized test scores in order to quickly prune the number of applications worth considering, for holistic admissions consume valuable time and other resources.
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, around 1,600 institutions decided to waive the requirement of the SAT or the ACT for admissions because it was challenging both to administer and to take these tests, resulting in many cancellations. Some schools chose to make them optional on a temporary basis only, either for just one year, as in the case of Princeton University, or three, like the College of William & Mary. Others dropped the requirement completely. Some schools extended their moratorium on standardized entrance exams in 2021. This did not stop highly ambitious students from taking them, however, as many parents and teenagers were skeptical of the "optional" status of university entrance exams and wanted to make their applications more likely to catch the attention of admission officers. This led to complaints of registration sites crashing in the summer of 2020. On the other hand, the number of students applying to the more competitive of schools that had made SAT and ACT scores optional increased dramatically because the students thought they stood a chance. Ivy League institutions saw double-digit increases in the number of applications, as high as 51% in the case of Columbia University, while their admission rates, already in the single digits, fell, e.g. from 4.9% in 2020 to just 3.4% in 2021 at Harvard University. At the same time, interest in lower-status schools that did the same thing dropped precipitously. In all, 44% of students who used the Common Application—accepted by over 900 colleges and universities as of 2021—submitted SAT or ACT scores in 2020–21, down from 77% in 2019–20. Those who did submit their test scores tended to hail from high-income families, to have at least one university-educated parent, and to be white or Asian.
Writing section
In 2005, MIT Writing Director Les Perelman plotted essay length versus essay score on the new SAT from released essays and found a high correlation between them. After studying over 50 graded essays, he found that longer essays consistently produced higher scores. In fact, he argues that by simply gauging the length of an essay without reading it, the given score of an essay could likely be determined correctly over 90% of the time. He also discovered that several of these essays were full of factual errors; the College Board does not claim to grade for factual accuracy.
Perelman, along with the National Council of Teachers of English, also criticized the 25-minute writing section of the test for damaging standards of writing teaching in the classroom. They say that writing teachers training their students for the SAT will not focus on revision, depth, accuracy, but will instead produce long, formulaic, and wordy pieces. "You're getting teachers to train students to be bad writers", concluded Perelman.
On January 19, 2021, the College Board announced that the SAT would no longer offer the optional essay section after the June 2021 administration.
History
The College Board, the non-profit organization that owns the SAT, was organized at the beginning of the 20th century to provide uniform entrance exams for its member colleges, whose matriculating students often came from boarding and private day schools found in the Northeastern United States. The exams were essay-based, graded by hand, and required several days for the student to take them. By the early 1920s, the increasing interest in intelligence tests as a means of selection convinced the College Board to form a commission to produce such a test for college admission purposes. The leader of the commission was Carl Brigham, a psychologist at Princeton University, who originally saw the value of these types of tests through the lens of eugenic thought.
In June, 1926, the first SAT, then known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test, was administered to about 8,000 students, many of whom were applying to Yale University and Smith College. In 1934, James Conant and Henry Chauncey used the SAT as a means to identify recipients, besides those from the traditional northeastern private schools, for scholarships to Harvard University. By 1942, the College Board suspended the use of the essay exams, replacing them with the SAT, due in part to the success of Harvard's SAT program as well as because of the constraints from the onset of World War II. At this time, the SAT was standardized so that a test score received by a student in one year could be directly compared to a score received by a student in another year. Test scores ranged from 200 to 800 on each of two test sections (verbal and math) and the same reference group of students was used to standardize the SAT until 1995.
After the war, due to several factors including the formation of the Educational Testing Service, the use of the SAT increased rapidly: by 1951, about 80,000 SATs were taken, rising to about 1.5 million in 1971. During this time, changes made to the content of the SAT were relatively minor, and included the introduction of sentence completion questions and "quantitative comparison" math questions as well as changes in the timing of the test. In 1994, however, the SAT was substantially changed in an attempt to make the test more closely reflect the work done by students in school and the skills that they would need in college. Among other changes, antonym questions were removed from the verbal section, and free response questions were added to the math section along with the use of calculators. In 1995, after nearly forty years of declining scores, the SAT was recalibrated by the addition of approximately 100 points to each score to compensate for the decline in what constituted an average score.
In 2005, the SAT was changed again, in part due to criticism of the test by the University of California system, which said that the test was not closely enough aligned to high school curricula. Along with the elimination of analogies from the verbal section and quantitative comparison items from the math section, a new writing section with an essay was added. The changes introduced an additional section score, increasing the maximum SAT score to 2400.
In early 2016, the SAT would change again in the interest of alignment with typical high school curricula. The changes included making the essay optional (and returning the maximum score to 1600), changing all multiple-choice questions from having five answer options to four, and the removal of penalty for wrong answers (rights-only scoring). The essay was completely removed from the SAT by mid-2021, in the interest of reducing demands on students in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
In January 2022, College Board announced that the SAT would be administered digitally to all test takers by 2024. The digital format of the test is expected to be shorter than the current paper-based test and will allow scores to be determined in a matter of days rather than weeks.
Name changes
The SAT has been renamed several times since its introduction in 1926. It was originally known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test. In 1990, a commission set up by the College Board to review the proposed changes to the SAT program recommended that the meaning of the initialism SAT be changed to "Scholastic Assessment Test" because a "test that integrates measures of achievement as well as developed ability can no longer be accurately described as a test of aptitude". In 1993, the College Board changed the name of the test to SAT I: Reasoning Test; at the same time, the name of the Achievement Tests was changed to SAT II: Subject Tests. The Reasoning Test and Subject Tests were to be collectively known as the Scholastic Assessment Tests. According to the president of the College Board at the time, the name change was meant "to correct the impression among some people that the SAT measures something that is innate and impervious to change regardless of effort or instruction." The new SAT debuted in March 1994, and was referred to as the Scholastic Assessment Test by major news organizations. However, in 1997, the College Board announced that the SAT could not properly be called the Scholastic Assessment Test, and that the letters SAT did not stand for anything. In 2004, the Roman numeral in SAT I: Reasoning Test was dropped, making SAT Reasoning Test the name of the SAT. The "Reasoning Test" portion of the name was eliminated following the exam's 2016 redesign; it is now simply called the SAT.
Reuse of old SAT exams
The College Board has been accused of completely reusing old SAT papers previously given in the United States. The recycling of questions from previous exams has been exploited to allow for cheating on exams and impugned the validity of some students' test scores, according to college officials. Test preparation companies in Asia have been found to provide test questions to students within hours of a new SAT exam's administration.
On August 25, 2018, the SAT test given in America was discovered to be a recycled October 2017 international SAT test given in China. The leaked PDF file was on the internet before the August 25, 2018 exam.
See also
ACT (test), a college entrance exam, competitor to the SAT
College admissions in the United States
List of admissions tests
PSAT/NMSQT
SAT Subject Tests
Notes
References
Further reading
(and others)
External links
1901 introductions
Standardized tests in the United States | wiki |
Arrears (or arrearage) is a legal term for the part of a debt that is overdue after missing one or more required payments. The amount of the arrears is the amount accrued from the date on which the first missed payment was due. The term is usually used in relation with periodically recurring payments such as rent, bills, royalties (or other contractual payments), and child support.
Payment in arrear is a payment made after a service has been provided, as distinct from in advance, which are payments made at the start of a period. For instance, rent is usually paid in advance, but mortgages in arrear (the interest for the period is due at the end of the period). Employees' salaries are usually paid in arrear. Payment at the end of a period is referred to by the singular arrear, to distinguish from past due payments. For example, a housing tenant who is obliged to pay rent at the end of each month, is said to pay rent in arrear, while a tenant who has not paid rental due for 30 days is said to be one month in arrears. Precise usage may differ slightly (e.g. "in arrear" or "in arrears" for the same situation) in different countries.
Accounting
In accounting, arrears is used in at least three different ways.
Calls in arrears
When any shareholder does not pay his/her call money to company on his/her due date. At that time, company will deduct that calls in arrears from total called up capital for showing net paid up capital in balance sheet.
Dividends in arrears
The word arrears is used to mean "past due" when describing the past, omitted dividends on cumulative preferred stock. If a corporation fails to declare the preferred dividend, those dividends are said to be in arrears. The dividends in arrears must be disclosed in the notes (footnotes) to the financial statements. (Cumulative preferred stock requires that any past, omitted dividends must be paid to the preferred stockholders before the common stockholders will be paid any dividend.)
Annuities in arrears
The word arrears is used to mean "end of period" when referring to annuities (an annuity is series of equal amounts occurring at equal time intervals, such as £1,000 per month for 20 years). If the recurring amount comes at the end of each period, the annuity is described as an annuity in arrears or as an ordinary annuity. A loan repayment schedule is usually an annuity in arrears. For example, you borrow £10,000 on September 30 and your first monthly payment will be due on October 31, the second payment will be due on November 30, and so on.
Derivatives
An in-arrears swap is an interest rate swap that sets (fixes) the interest rate and pays the interest at the end of the coupon period. In contrast, a standard swap sets the interest rate in advance, at the beginning of the coupon period, and pays the interest in arrears, at the end of the coupon period. The same distinction holds for other interest rate derivatives, e.g. caps, floors and swaptions.
Notes
Debt | wiki |
Cham () may refer to:
Cham, Hamadan
Cham, Isfahan
Cham, Falavarjan, Isfahan Province
Cham, Nain, Isfahan Province
Cham, Behbahan, Khuzestan Province
Cham, Izeh, Khuzestan Province
Cham, Ramshir, Khuzestan Province
Cham, Yazd
See also
Cham is a common element in Iranian place names; see | wiki |
The R&A (or more formally, the R&A Trust Company (No. 1) Limited) is the collective name of a group of companies that together play a significant role within the game of golf. Historically, "the R&A" was a colloquial name for the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews; in 2004, the club spun off its previous governance and tournament organisation roles into the current R&A group, with the club itself reverting to a private members-only club. The R&A is based in St Andrews in Scotland. The R&A is the sole owner of three subsidiary companies: R&A Rules Limited, R&A Championships Limited, and R&A Group Services Limited.
R&A Rules Limited is one of the governing bodies of golf worldwide, alongside the United States Golf Association (USGA). The USGA governs in the United States and Mexico, and the R&A in the rest of the world. They both share a single code for the Rules of Golf, Rules of Amateur Status, Equipment Standards and World Amateur Golf Rankings.
R&A Championships Limited organises The Open Championship, which is the world's oldest international men's major golf championship; the Women's British Open; the Senior Open Championship; plus the Walker Cup and Curtis Cup.
The Royal and Ancient Golf Club founded what is now the Official World Golf Ranking for male professionals in 1986, and the R&A introduced the World Amateur Golf Ranking for male amateurs in 2007. The R&A also owns and operates The R&A World Golf Museum.
Rules of golf
The R&A cooperates with the USGA in producing and regularly revising the "Rules of Golf", and the two bodies have issued the rules jointly since 1952. The "Rules of Golf" are revised on a four-year cycle. From 1990 for the first time a single common set of Rules applied throughout the world. The two bodies also collaborate on the corresponding rule interpretative work, "Decisions on the Rules of Golf", which is reviewed on a two-year cycle. Additionally, the R&A is involved in formulating technical specifications for golf equipment, which were first issued 1 January 2019.
Championships
The R&A organises 21 championships and international matches, which were previously organised by the Royal and Ancient Golf Club. After the Ladies' Golf Union, the former governing body for women's golf in Great Britain and Ireland, merged into The R&A in late 2016, The R&A took over organisation of all events formerly under the auspices of the LGU.
The Open Championship: one of the four major championships in men's golf.
Women's British Open: one of the five major championships in women's golf. The 2017 edition was the first to be organised by the R&A.
The Amateur Championship: which was one of the four major championships before the professional game became dominant and is still one of the most prestigious amateur tournaments in the world.
The Womens Amateur Championship: one of the most prestigious women's amateur tournaments in the world.
Ladies' British Open Amateur Stroke Play Championship: similar to the above, except conducted exclusively at stroke play.
Boys Amateur Championship: for boys under the age of 18 at midnight on 1 January of the relevant year.
The Girls' British Open Amateur Championship: for girls under the age of 18 at midnight on 1 January of the relevant year.
Boys Home Internationals: a team competition for boys from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, with the Irish team selected on an All-Ireland basis.
Girls' Home Internationals: a team competition for girls from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland (also All-Ireland).
Ladies' Home International: a team competition for women from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland (also All-Ireland).
Ladies' Senior Home Internationals: a team competition for women aged 50 and above from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland (also All-Ireland).
Coronation Foursomes: a team competition for women's club golfers in Great Britain & Ireland, open to any (female) member of an affiliated golf club with an official handicap of 36 or under.
Seniors Open Amateur Championship: for male amateurs aged 55 or over on the first day of competition.
Ladies' Senior British Open Amateur Championship: for female amateurs aged 50 or over on the first day of competition.
Senior Open Championship: for men aged 50 and above. A major championship on PGA Tour Champions and the European Senior Tour.
Walker Cup: a biennial men's amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the United States (co-organised with the United States Golf Association).
Curtis Cup: a biennial women's amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the United States (also co-organised with the United States Golf Association).
Junior Open Championship: for boys and girls under the age of 16 at 00.00 hours on 1 January of the relevant year.
St Andrews Trophy: a biennial men's amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe.
Vagliano Trophy: a biennial women's amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe.
Jacques Léglise Trophy: an annual boys' amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe. In years when the St Andrews Trophy is held, the Léglise Trophy is held in conjunction with it at the same venue.
Junior Vagliano Trophy: a biennial girls' amateur team competition contested by Great Britain & Ireland and the Continent of Europe.
References
Further reading
External links
R&A website, including the Rules and Decisions of Golf
Golf associations
Golf in Scotland
Sports governing bodies in Scotland
Sports governing bodies in the United Kingdom
Golf in the United Kingdom
St Andrews
2004 establishments in Scotland | wiki |
Williams College is a private liberal arts college in Williamstown, Massachusetts.
Williams College may also refer to:
George Williams College (Chicago) in Chicago, Illinois
Roger Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island
Sir George Williams University in Montreal, Quebec
St William's College, a mediaeval building in York, England
Williams Baptist College in Walnut Ridge, Arkansas
Williams College in Berkeley, California, founded by Cora Lenore Williams | wiki |
A domestic short-haired cat is a cat possessing a coat of short fur, not belonging to any particular recognised cat breed. In Britain they are sometimes colloquially called moggies. Domestic short-haired cats are distinct from the British Shorthair, American Shorthair, and other standardized breeds with "Short-hair" names recognized by various registries. Domestic short-haired cats are the most common kind of cat in the United States, accounting for around 96% of their number. Other generic terms include house cat and alley cat (the latter may be used more specifically to refer to feral cats).
Description
In the cat fancy, and among veterinarians and animal control agencies, domestic short-haired cats may be classified with organisation-specific terminology (often capitalized), such as:
Domestic Shorthair (DSH)
House Cat, Shorthair (HCS), or
Shorthair Household Pet.
Such a pseudo-breed is used for registry as well as shelter/rescue classification purposes. While not bred as show cats, some domestic short-haired cats are actually pedigreed and entered into cat shows that have non-purebred "Household Pet" divisions. Show rules vary; Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe) permits "any eye colour, all coat colours and patterns, any coat length or texture, and any length of tail" (basically, any cat). Others may be more restrictive; an example from the World Cat Federation: "All classic colours are permitted. Any amount of white is permitted. The colours chocolate and cinnamon, as well as their dilution (lilac and fawn) are not recognized in any combinations (bicolour, tricolour, tabby). The pointed pattern is also not recognized. The description of colours is listed in the general list of colours."
Domestic short-haired cats are characterised by a wide range of colouring, and typically "revert to type" after a few generations, which means they express their coats as a tabby cat. This can be any colour or combination of colours. They also exhibit a wide range of physical characteristics, and as a result, domestic short-haired cats in different countries tend to look different in body shape and size, as they are working from differing gene pools. DSH cats in Asia tend to have a build similar to a "classic" Siamese or Tonkinese, while European and American varieties have a thicker, heavier build. Cats that did not go through selective breeding are much less vulnerable to the genetic problems for which purebred cats must be carefully screened, due to their diverse gene pool.
Since freely breeding domestic short-haired cats form distinctive landraces in wide geographic areas, they have been the basis of several recent formal breeds such as the European Shorthair (Celtic Shorthair), and American Shorthair.
Obesity is a common disease in pet cats. However, adult obesity is not significantly affected by birth weight and litter size.
See also
Domestic long-haired cat
References
Cat landraces | wiki |
The Russian Blue Cat (), commonly referred to as just Russian Blue, is a cat breed with colors that vary from a light shimmering silver to a darker, slate grey. The short, dense coat, which stands out from the body, has been the breed's hallmark for more than a century.
Origin
The Russian Blue is a naturally occurring breed that may have originated in the port of Arkhangelsk in Russia. They are also sometimes called Archangel Blues. It is believed that sailors took them from the Archangel Isles to Great Britain and Northern Europe in the 1860s. The first reference to an Archangel Cat appears in British print in 1862. The first recorded appearance of one in a show was in 1872 at The Crystal Palace in England as the Archangel Cat. However, Harrison Weir writing in 1895 reported that the early show cats under the Russian Blue name were British-bred grey tabbies, with separate grey cats arriving from Archangel in Britain in the 1800s with features consistent with the modern breed. The Russian Blue competed in a class including all other blue cats until 1912, when it was given its own class. The breed was developed mainly in England and Scandinavia until after World War II.
Right after the war, a lack of numbers of Russian Blues led to cross breeding with the Siamese. Although Russian Blues were in the United States before the war, it was not until the post-war period that American breeders created the modern Russian Blue that is seen in the United States today. American breeders combined the bloodlines of both the Scandinavian and British Russian Blues. The Siamese traits have now largely been bred out. The short hair and slate-gray/blue color is often seen in mixed-breed cats, which can affect breeders and showers due to mislabeling a cat as a Russian Blue.
Russian Blues are plush short-haired, shimmering pale blue-gray cats with emerald green eyes. Guard hairs are distinctly silver-tipped giving the cat a silvery sheen or lustrous appearance. They have been used on a limited basis to create other breeds such as the Havana Brown or alter existing breeds such as the Nebelung. They are being used in Italy as a way to make Oriental Shorthairs healthier and more robust called RUS4OSH in FIFe.
Russian Whites and Russian Blacks were created from crosses with domestic white cats which were allegedly imported from Russia. The first line was developed by Frances McLeod (Arctic) in the United Kingdom during the 1960s and the second line produced by Dick and Mavis Jones (Myemgay) in Australia in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, the Russian White and Russian Black colors were accepted by cat fanciers in Australia as well as in South Africa and now also in the United Kingdom as Russian cats (in different classes). However, the Cat Fanciers' Association and FIFe does not recognize any variation of the Russian Blue.
Physical characteristics
The Russian Blue has bright green eyes, pinkish lavender or mauve paws, two layers of short thick fur, and a blue-grey-black coat. The color is a bluish-gray that is the dilute expression of the black gene. However, as dilute genes are recessive ("d") and each parent will have a set of two recessive genes ("dd") two non-Color-Point Carrier (non-CPC) Russian Blues will always produce a blue cat. Due to the breeding with Siamese after World War II, there are color-point genes floating around. If two carriers are bred together, then they will produce a litter of mixed colors—solid blue or white with blue-point like a Siamese. People call these CPC cats "color-point", "whites" or "pointed" Russians. In most registries, one cannot register, breed or show a color-point Russian. These color-point (blue-point) cats are called Color-Point-Russian Blue (Blue Point Russian Blue) or more informally as Pika Blu (or pika blue) cats and have the same general characteristics as the Russian Blue cats.
The coat is known as a "double coat", with the undercoat being soft, downy and equal in length to the guard hairs, which are an even blue with silver tips. However, the tail may have a few very dull, almost unnoticeable stripes. The coat is described as thick, plush and soft to the touch. The silver tips give the coat a shimmering appearance. Its eyes are almost always a dark and vivid green. Any white patches of fur or yellow eyes in adulthood are seen as flaws in show cats. Russian Blues should not be confused with British Blues (which are not a distinct breed, but rather a British Shorthair with a blue coat as the British Shorthair breed itself comes in a wide variety of colors and patterns), nor the Chartreux or Korat which are two other naturally occurring breeds of blue cats, although they have similar traits.
They are generally considered to be a quiet breed but there are always exceptions. They are normally reserved around strangers, unless they are brought up in an active household. Many Russian Blues have been trained to do tricks. They can also be fierce hunters, often catching rodents, birds, rabbits, small mammals, or reptiles. As loving and easy going as Russian Blues are, they do not like change, and prefer predictable, routine schedules.
Russian Blue kittens are energetic and require adequate playmates or toys as they can become mischievous if bored. They have exceptional athleticism and rival even Abyssinians for their ability to leap and climb. Slow to mature, Russian Blues retain many of their adolescent traits both good and otherwise until they are 3–4 years old and even much older Blues can be easily enticed into play by their owners. Russian Blues are also highly intelligent. They have an excellent memory and will learn the hiding place of favorite toys (e.g., laser pointers) and lead their owners to them when they want a game. They also have a keen ability to remember favorite visitors and will race to greet familiar faces even if quite some time has passed between visits—a radical departure from their normally very reserved behavior around unfamiliar people.
Growth and maturity
Russian Blues have a life expectancy of around 10–20 years, but some have lived 25 years. They usually have few health issues as they tend to have little to no genetic problems and are not prone to illness. They are small to moderate-sized cats with an average weight of when fully grown. Males will typically be larger than females. Their gestation period is approximately 64 days.
Allergies
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Russian Blue may be better tolerated by individuals with mild to moderate allergies. There is speculation that the Russian Blue produces less glycoprotein Fel d 1, one source of cat allergies. The thicker coat may also trap more of the allergens closer to the cat's skin. Glycoprotein is one source of cat allergies, but this does not mean that all allergies will be stopped. You can still get allergies, just nowhere near as extreme, and for a much less amount of time than other cat breeds. Because of this, Russian Blues are very popular with people with allergies all around the world.
In popular culture
Arlene is portrayed by a Russian Blue in Garfield: The Movie.
Felicity, a character in the novel and film Felidae, was a Russian Blue.
A Russian Blue kitten is a trained assassin in the Cats & Dogs film. According to audio commentary on the DVD, several kittens were used due to the kittens growing faster than the filming schedule. Catherine from its sequel Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore is also a Russian Blue.
Eben and Snooch are Russian Blues in the comic Two Lumps.
The Nyan Cat meme was inspired by creator Chris Torres' Russian Blue Marty. Marty died in 2012 from feline infectious peritonitis.
Tom Cat of the Hanna-Barbera cartoon-produced for MGM Tom and Jerry is said to have been inspired by a Russian Blue.
In A Gentleman in Moscow by Amor Towles, the Metropol Hotel's lobby cat is a Russian Blue.
Smokey, the main antagonist in the film Stuart Little, is a Russian Blue.
See also
Nebelung, a moderately-long haired breed which used the Russian Blue as an outcross
Russian White, Black, and Tabby
References
External links
Breed profile and Russian Blue Breed Standard at Cat Fanciers' Association
Interactive CFA Russian Blue Standards and scoring
CFA Russian Blue Breed Council
Russian Blue Information
Russian Blue Cattery
Russian Blue Cat Breed Guide
Cat breeds
Natural cat breeds
Cat breeds originating in Russia | wiki |
Girls is an American comedy-drama television series created by Lena Dunham, who serves as executive producer along with Judd Apatow and Jenni Konner. The series premiered on HBO on April 15, 2012. Girls stars Dunham as Hannah Horvath, an aspiring writer in her 20s trying to navigate her personal and professional life in New York City after her parents discontinue their financial support. Allison Williams, Jemima Kirke, Zosia Mamet, Adam Driver, and Alex Karpovsky co-star as Hannah's circle of friends, who are also trying to figure out their own lives and relationships.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2012)
Season 2 (2013)
Season 3 (2014)
Season 4 (2015)
Season 5 (2016)
Season 6 (2017)
Ratings
References
External links
Lists of American comedy-drama television series episodes
Lists of American sitcom episodes
Lists of sex comedy television series episodes | wiki |
Justice of the Range is a 1935 American Western film directed by David Selman, which stars Tim McCoy, Billie Seward, and Ward Bond.
Cast list
Tim McCoy as Tim Condon
Billie Seward as Janet McLean
Ward Bond as Bob Brennan
Guy Usher as Hadley Graves
Edward Le Saint as John McLean
Allan Sears as Pinto Carew
Jack Rockwell as Rawhide
Jack Rutherford as Lafe Brennan
George 'Gabby' Hayes as John Coffin known as Pegleg Sanderson
References
External links
Columbia Pictures films
Films directed by David Selman
1935 Western (genre) films
1935 films
American Western (genre) films
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films | wiki |
Potato leaf (PL) is one of two major types of leaves which tomato plants exhibit. The other type is referred to as "regular leaf" (RL). Simply stated, potato leaf tomato plants have a smooth leaf edge when compared with the serrated edge of the regular leaf. The shape is oval and may feature notches separating large lobes. Its color is dark green.
Examples of potato leaf tomatoes include the Brandywine, Prudens Purple, Brandy Boy, Lillian's Yellow Heirloom, Stupice, Japanese Black Trifele, and others. The potato leaf trait is recessive.
References
Tomatoes
Leaves | wiki |
Matched may refer to:
Matched filter, a filter used in signal processing
Matched betting, a betting technique
Matched trilogy, a dystopian fiction trilogy of books, by Ally Condie
Matched (book), the first book in the trilogy | wiki |
Peter Cohen or Peter Cohn may refer to:
Peter A. Cohen, former chairman and CEO of Shearson Lehman Brothers and current chairman and CEO of Cowen Group
Peter-Adrian Cohen, American writer
Peter Cohen (director), Swedish film director, writer, editor and producer
Peter Cohn (director), American film director, writer, and producer | wiki |
Facchini Group is an Italian manufacturing company which manufactures and sells worldwide machinery and equipment for the production of various types of fresh and dry pasta (such as ravioli, tortellini and tortelloni), and for the thermal treatment of food products. The company was founded in 1959 by Spartaco Facchini.
The company originally produced high-precision equipment for the food industry. With the Spartacos two sons Roberto and Mauro involved in the family business, the staff was expanded and the internal structure modified. The two brothers began selling Facchini Group's production directly to large companies in the food production field, nationally and internationally.
In 2006 the company moved to a new facility in Cormano (in the Province of Milan area) to increase capacity of production of single machines. A year later, another facility was created in San Pietro in Gu (in the Province of Padua area) to manufacture complete pasta production lines.
See also
List of Italian companies
References
Official website
Industrial machine manufacturers
Manufacturing companies of Italy
Companies based in Lombardy
Manufacturing companies established in 1959
Italian companies established in 1959
Italian brands | wiki |
Mechanized Warfare is the sixth studio album released by American power metal band Jag Panzer, released in 2001. This album is more progressive than the band's previous work. After approximately forty seconds of silence at the end of "All Things Renewed", a recording plays of parts of "The Scarlet Letter", the audio quality sounding like an old phonograph recording with an old time piano in the background.
Track listing
Personnel
Harry Conklin – vocals
Mark Briody – guitar
Chris Broderick – guitar
John Tetley – bass guitar, backing vocals
Rikard Stjernquist – drums
References
2001 albums
Jag Panzer albums
Century Media Records albums
Albums with cover art by Travis Smith (artist) | wiki |
In association football, a substitute is a player who is brought on to the pitch during a match in exchange for an existing player. Substitutions are generally made to replace a player who has become tired or injured, or who is performing poorly, or for tactical reasons (such as bringing a striker on in place of a defender). A player who has been substituted during a match takes no further part in the game, in games played under the standard International Football Association Board Laws of the Game.
Substitutions were officially added to the Laws of the Game in 1958. Prior to this most games were played with no changes permitted at all, with occasional exceptions in cases of extreme injury or players not arriving to matches on time.
The number of substitutes has risen over time as well as the number of reserve players allowed to be nominated. It is now common for games to allow a maximum of 5 substitutions; some competitions allow for an additional substitution when playing extra time. A maximum of 3 "substitution opportunities" are provided to a side during normal time, and an extra opportunity during extra time. Substitutions can be made during half-time breaks during normal and extra time, and full time breaks(before the start of extra time), but do not count as substitution opportunities. There is also a provision of an additional substitution beyond whatever limits the match is being played under to be used specifically for a players who has sustained a concussion.
Teams choose a substitute player from a pre-selected set of reserve players, these players typically sit in the technical area with the coaches, and are said to be "on the bench". When the substitute enters the field of play it is said they have come on or have been brought on, while the player they are substituting for is coming off, or being brought off or substituted. This pool of reserve players has also steadily increased in most competitions where they now allow 5, 7 or 9 reserves while in international competitive tournaments it is common that every player selected in the tournament squad (usually 23 players total) is an eligible substitute if they aren't suspended from the game.
A player who is noted for frequently making appearances, or scoring important goals, as a substitute is often informally known as a "super sub".
History
The origin of football substitutes goes back to at least the early 1860s as part of English public school football games. The original use of the term substitute in football was to describe the replacement of players who failed to turn up for matches. For example, in 1863, a match reports states: "The Charterhouse eleven played a match in cloisters against some old Carthusians but in consequence of the non-appearance of some of those who were expected it was necessary to provide three substitutes." The substitution of absent players happened as early as the 1850s, for example from Eton College where the term emergencies is used. Numerous references to players acting as a "substitute" occur in matches in the mid-1860s where it is not indicated whether these were replacements of absent players or of players injured during the match.
While substitution during games was first added to the Laws of the Game in 1958, there are recorded instances of substitution being permitted on earlier occasions. On 7 November 1885, Lockwood Brothers used a substitute in an FA Cup first round replay against Notts Rangers, after midfielder F. Brears suffered a broken leg. The first use of a substitute in international football was on 15 April 1889, in the match between Wales and Scotland at Wrexham. Wales's original goalkeeper, Jim Trainer, failed to arrive; local amateur player Alf Pugh started the match and played for some 20 minutes until the arrival of Sam Gillam, who took over from him. In 1940, in a match between Mandatory Palestine and Lebanon, Mandatory Palestine centre-half Zvi Fuchs was replaced at half-time by Lonia Dvorin following an injury. Also during the qualifying phase for the 1954 World Cup, Horst Eckel of Germany is recorded as having been replaced by Richard Gottinger in their match with the Saarland on 11 October 1953. The use of substitutes in World Cup Finals matches was not allowed until the 1970 tournament.
The number of substitutes usable in a competitive match has increased from zero, meaning that teams were reduced if players' injuries could not allow them to play on, to one in 1958; to two out of a possible five in 1988. With the later increases in substitutions allowed, the number of potential substitute players increased to seven. The number of substitutes increased to two plus one (injured goalkeeper) in 1994, to three in 1995; and to a fourth substitute in certain competitions (starting from UEFA Euro 2016) in extra time.
In 2020, following a proposal from FIFA, the International Football Association Board allowed for competition organisers to temporarily allow for a maximum of five substitutions (with an additional allowed in extra time, where applicable) to be made in official matches for the remainder of the year in order to lessen the impact of fixture congestion caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there will only be three opportunities to make substitutions (with an additional allowed in extra time, where applicable), excluding those made at half-time, before the start of extra time and at half-time in extra time.
Procedure
Substitutions are governed under Law 3 of the Laws of the Game in the (3) Substitution Procedure section.
A player can only be substituted during a stoppage in play and with the permission of the referee. The player to be substituted (outgoing player) must have left the field of play before the substitute (incoming player) may enter the field of play; at that point the substitute becomes a player and the person substituted ceases to be a player. The incoming player may only enter the field at the halfway line. Failure to comply with these provisions may be punished by a caution (yellow card).
A player who has been substituted takes no further part in a match.
Unused substitutes still on the bench, as well as players who have been already substituted, remain under the authority of the referee. These are liable for misconduct, though cannot be said to have committed a foul. For example, in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Claudio Caniggia was shown the red card for cursing at the referee from the bench.
Under the Laws of the Game, the referee has no specific power to force a player to be substituted, even if the team manager or captain has ordered their player to be substituted. As Law 3 (3) Substitution Procedure simply states that: "if a player who is to be replaced refuses to leave, play continues." However, in some situations players may still be liable to punishment with a caution (yellow card) if they are perceived to be wasting time or behaving in an unsporting manner by refusing to leave the field of play.
A player who has been sent off (red card) cannot be replaced; the team will have to continue with one fewer player. In the case of a goalkeeper who is sent off, the coach will usually (but is not required to) substitute an outfield player so that the backup goalkeeper can enter the game. For example, in the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final, Arsenal midfielder Robert Pires was replaced by second-choice goalkeeper Manuel Almunia to replace Jens Lehmann, who was sent off less than 20 minutes into the match. If all substitutions have been used, or if no goalkeeper is available, an outfield player must take up the role of the goalkeeper. A famous example of this is when Chelsea goalkeepers Petr Čech and Carlo Cudicini were both injured in the same game, which led to defender John Terry spending the remainder of the match in goal wearing third-choice goalkeeper Hilário's shirt.
According to the Laws of the Game, "the number of substitutes, up to a maximum of five, which may be used in any match played in an official competition will be determined by FIFA, the confederation or the national football association."
Also:
In national A team matches, up to a maximum of six substitutes may be used.
In all other matches, a greater number of substitutes may be used provided that:
the teams concerned reach agreement on a maximum number;
the referee is informed before the match.
If the referee is not informed, or if no agreement is reached before the match, no more than six substitutes are allowed.
Concussion substitute
In October 2019, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) began discussing the use of additional substitutions for players who are suspected to have sustained a concussion during a match. Earlier in the year, the chairman of FIFA's medical committee, Michel D'Hooghe, said the body was open to discussing concussion substitutions. UEFA had also called for FIFA and IFAB to allow for temporary substitutes for suspected head injuries. The idea had been previously discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee five years earlier. However, the prevailing view was that the rule would hurt football's "universality", as it would be difficult to replicate on a grassroots level, and could be exploited to waste time and/or gain an additional substitution.
In 2014, UEFA introduced a rule to allow referees to stop matches for up to three minutes to assess head injuries, with players only allowed to return after the team doctor could confirm the player's fitness to carry on. The three-minute rule was similarly adopted at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The change came following high-profile head injuries at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and calls by FIFPro for FIFA to review its concussion protocol.
Initially, IFAB had considered a ten-minute assessment period for players suspected of a concussion, with a substitute replacing them in the interim. In December 2019, IFAB agreed to appoint an expert group, composed of sports medical specialists and football experts, to identify options for the assessment and management of suspected concussions during matches. Following feedback from the Concussion Expert Group, IFAB announced in February 2020 that it would draw up concussion substitute protocols to be used in trials. In October 2020, the expert group announced that an "additional permanent substitution" protocol would be used to protect the health of players using an "if in doubt, take them out" philosophy, and that trials would start in 2021. The protocol and trial was formally approved by IFAB on 16 December 2020. Under the protocol, players suspected of a concussion will be permanently removed from the match and replaced by a substitute. This prevents a player from sustaining multiple head injuries in a match, prevents teams from suffering a numerical or tactical disadvantage, reduces the pressure on medical personnel to make a quick assessment and can be applied on all levels of the game. Competition organisers must be approved by FIFA and IFAB to participate in the trial period, which will last from January 2021 to March 2022.
In January 2021, FIFA announced that it would trial concussion substitutes in the following month at the 2020 FIFA Club World Cup. Later that month, it was announced that the Premier League, FA Women's Super League, FA Women's Championship and FA Cup would begin the trial in February 2021. On 9 February 2021, West Ham United made the first concussion substitution in English football during an FA Cup match against Manchester United, when Issa Diop was replaced by Ryan Fredericks at half-time following a head injury. The trial is also taking place in the Eredivisie, Eerste Divisie and KNVB Cup.
Trial protocol
IFAB announced two protocols for concussion substitutes, with competition organisers able to choose which to use. The use of concussion substitutes will operate in conjunction with other protocols used, including the three-minute break for an on-field concussion assessment.
Both protocols use the following general principles and procedures:
A concussion substitution does not count towards the number of substitutions allowed in a match
In competitions where the number of named substitutes is the same as the maximum number of substitutes allowed, the concussion substitute can be a player who has previously been substituted out of the match.
A concussion substitution may be made:
Immediately after a concussion occurs or is suspected
After an initial three-minute on-field assessment, and/or after an off-field assessment
At any other time when a concussion occurs or is suspected (including when a player has previously been assessed and has returned to the field of play)
If a team decides to make a concussion substitution, the match officials must be informed (ideally by using a substitution card/form of a different colour).
The injured player is not permitted to take any further part in the match, including a penalty shoot-out.
The following principles are specific to each protocol:
Protocol A
Each team is permitted to use a maximum of one concussion substitute during a match.
When a concussion substitute is used, no change will be made to the maximum number of substitutions permitted by the opposing team.
Protocol B
Each team is permitted to use a maximum of two concussion substitutes during a match.
When a concussion substitute is used, the opposing team has the option of using an additional substitute for any reason.
The opposing team is informed of their additional substitution opportunity by the match officials.
The additional substitution may be used concurrently with the concussion substitution or at any time thereafter.
Super-sub
The term "super-sub" refers to a player who is not a regular in the starting line-up but who is noted for often coming on a substitute and making a significant impact on the game. Players regarded as "super-subs" include David Fairclough and Divock Origi for Liverpool, John Hewitt for Aberdeen, Tosaint Ricketts for Vancouver Whitecaps FC, Adam Le Fondre for Reading, Ole Gunnar Solskjær and Javier Hernández for Manchester United, Mikael Forssell for Chelsea, Edin Džeko for Manchester City, Brendon Santalab for Western Sydney Wanderers, Henrique for Brisbane Roar, Stevie Kirk for Motherwell, Archie Thompson, Joshua Kennedy and Tim Cahill for Australia, Fernando Llorente for Tottenham Hotspur, Roger Milla for Cameroon, Oliver Bierhoff for Germany, Ilsinho for Philadelphia Union, and Abby Wambach and Carli Lloyd for the United States women's team.
References
Association football terminology | wiki |
Chronic pain is classified as pain that lasts longer than three to six months. In medicine, the distinction between acute and chronic pain is sometimes determined by the amount of time since onset. Two commonly used markers are pain that continues at three months and six months since onset, but some theorists and researchers have placed the transition from acute to chronic pain at twelve months. Others apply the term acute to pain that lasts less than 30 days, chronic to pain of more than six months duration, and subacute to pain that lasts from one to six months. A popular alternative definition of chronic pain, involving no fixed duration, is "pain that extends beyond the expected period of healing".
Chronic pain may originate in the body, or in the brain or spinal cord. It is often difficult to treat. Epidemiological studies have found that 8–11.2% of people in various countries have chronic widespread pain. Various non-opioid medicines are initially recommended to treat chronic pain, depending on whether the pain is due to tissue damage or is neuropathic. Psychological treatments including cognitive behavioral therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy may be effective for improving quality of life in those with chronic pain. Some people with chronic pain may benefit from opioid treatment while others can be harmed by it. People with non-cancer pain who have not been helped by non-opioid medicines might be recommended to try opioids if there is no history of substance use disorder and no current mental illness.
People with chronic pain tend to have higher rates of depression and although the exact connection between the comorbidities is unclear, a 2017 study on neuroplasticity found that "injury sensory pathways of body pains have been shown to share the same brain regions involved in mood management." Chronic pain can contribute to decreased physical activity due to fear of making the pain worse. Pain intensity, pain control, and resilience to pain can be influenced by different levels and types of social support that a person with chronic pain receives, and are also influenced by the person's socioeconomic status.
One approach to predicting a person's experience of chronic pain is the biopsychosocial model, according to which an individual's experience of chronic pain may be affected by a complex mixture of their biology, psychology, and their social environment.
Classification
The International Association for the Study of Pain defines chronic pain as pain with no biological value, that persists past normal tissue healing. The DSM-5 recognizes one chronic pain disorder, somatic symptom disorders. The criteria include pain lasting longer than six months.
The International Classification of Disease, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11) suggests seven categories for chronic pain.
Chronic primary pain: defined by 3 months of persistent pain in one or more regions of the body that is unexplainable by another pain condition.
Chronic cancer pain: defined as cancer or treatment related visceral (within the internal organs), musculoskeletal, or bony pain.
Chronic post-traumatic pain: pain lasting 3 months after an injury or surgery, excluding infectious or pre-existing conditions.
Chronic neuropathic pain: pain caused by damage to the somatosensory nervous system.
Chronic headache and orofacial pain: pain that originates in the head or face, and occurs for 50% or more days over a 3 months period.
Chronic visceral pain: pain originating in an internal organ.
Chronic musculoskeletal pain: pain originating in the bones, muscles, joints or connective tissue.
Chronic pain may be divided into "nociceptive" (caused by inflamed or damaged tissue activating specialized pain sensors called nociceptors), and "neuropathic" (caused by damage to or malfunction of the nervous system).
Nociceptive pain can be divided into "superficial" and "deep", and deep pain into "deep somatic" and "visceral". Superficial pain is initiated by activation of nociceptors in the skin or superficial tissues. Deep somatic pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain. Visceral pain originates in the viscera (organs). Visceral pain may be well-localized, but often it is extremely difficult to locate, and several visceral regions produce "referred" pain when damaged or inflamed, where the sensation is located in an area distant from the site of pathology or injury.
Neuropathic pain is divided into "peripheral" (originating in the peripheral nervous system) and "central" (originating in the brain or spinal cord). Peripheral neuropathic pain is often described as "burning", "tingling", "electrical", "stabbing", or "pins and needles".
Causes
Pathophysiology
Under persistent activation, the transmission of pain signals to the dorsal horn may produce a pain wind-up phenomenon. This triggers changes that lower the threshold for pain signals to be transmitted. In addition, it may cause nonnociceptive nerve fibers to respond to, generate, and transmit pain signals. The type of nerve fibers that are believed to generate the pain signals are the C-fibers, since they have a slow conductivity and give rise to a painful sensation that persists over a long time. In chronic pain, this process is difficult to reverse or stop once established. In some cases, chronic pain can be caused by genetic factors which interfere with neuronal differentiation, leading to a permanently lowered threshold for pain.
Chronic pain of different causes has been characterized as a disease that affects brain structure and function. MRI studies have shown abnormal anatomical and functional connectivity, even during rest involving areas related to the processing of pain. Also, persistent pain has been shown to cause grey matter loss, which is reversible once the pain has resolved.
These structural changes can be explained by neuroplasticity. In the case of chronic pain, the somatotopic representation of the body is inappropriately reorganized following peripheral and central sensitization. This can cause allodynia or hyperalgesia. In individuals with chronic pain, EEGs showed altered brain activity, suggesting pain-induced neuroplastic changes. More specifically, the relative beta activity (compared to the rest of the brain) was increased, the relative alpha activity was decreased, and the theta activity was diminished.
Dysfunctional dopamine management in the brain could potentially act as a shared mechanism between chronic pain, insomnia and major depressive disorder. Astrocytes, microglia, and satellite glial cells have also been found to be dysfunctional in chronic pain. Increased activity of microglia, alterations of microglial networks, and increased production of chemokines and cytokines by microglia might aggravate chronic pain. Astrocytes have been observed to lose their ability to regulate the excitability of neurons, increasing spontaneous neural activity in pain circuits.
Management
Pain management is a branch of medicine that uses an interdisciplinary approach. The combined knowledge of various medical professions and allied health professions is used to ease pain and improve the quality of life of those living with pain. The typical pain management team includes medical practitioners (particularly anesthesiologists), rehabilitation psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners. Acute pain usually resolves with the efforts of one practitioner; however, the management of chronic pain frequently requires the coordinated efforts of a treatment team. Complete, longterm remission of many types of chronic pain is rare.
Nonopioids
Initially recommended efforts are non opioid based therapies. Non-opioid treatment of chronic pain with pharmaceutical medicines might include acetaminophen (paracetamol) or NSAIDs.
Various other nonopioid medicines can be used, depending on whether the pain is a result of tissue damage or is neuropathic (pain caused by a damaged or dysfunctional nervous system). There is limited evidence that cancer pain or chronic pain from tissue damage as a result of a conditions (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis) is best treated with opioids. For neuropathic pain other drugs may be more effective than opioids, such as tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and anticonvulsants. Some atypical antipsychotics, such as olanzapine, may also be effective, but the evidence to support this is in very early stages. In women with chronic pain, hormonal medications such as oral contraceptive pills ("the pill") might be helpful. When there is no evidence of a single best fit, doctors may need to look for a treatment that works for the individual person. It is difficult for doctors to predict who will use opioids just for pain management and who will go on to develop an addiction. It is also challenging for doctors to know which patients ask for opioids because they are living with an opioid addiction. Withholding, interrupting or withdrawing opioid treatment in people who benefit from it can cause harm.
Interventional pain management may be appropriate, including techniques such as trigger point injections, neurolytic blocks, and radiotherapy. While there is no high quality evidence to support ultrasound, it has been found to have a small effect on improving function in non-specific chronic low back pain.
Psychological treatments, including cognitive behavioral therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy can be helpful for improving quality of life and reducing pain interference. Brief mindfulness-based treatment approaches have been used, but they are not yet recommended as a first-line treatment. The effectiveness of mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) has been supported by a range of studies.
Among older adults psychological interventions can help reduce pain and improve self-efficacy for pain management. Psychological treatments have also been shown to be effective in children and teens with chronic headache or mixed chronic pain conditions.
While exercise has been offered as a method to lessen chronic pain and there is some evidence of benefit, this evidence is tentative. For people living with chronic pain, exercise results in few side effects.
Opioids
In those who have not benefited from other measures and have no history of either mental illness or substance use disorder treatment with opioids may be tried. If significant benefit does not occur it is recommended that they be stopped. In those on opioids, stopping or decreasing their use may improve outcomes including pain.
Some people with chronic pain benefit from opioid treatment and others do not; some are harmed by the treatment. Possible harms include reduced sex hormone production, hypogonadism, infertility, impaired immune system, falls and fractures in older adults, neonatal abstinence syndrome, heart problems, sleep-disordered breathing, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, physical dependence, addiction, abuse, and overdose.
Alternative medicine
Alternative medicine refers to health practices or products that are used to treat pain or illness that are not necessarily considered a part of conventional medicine. When dealing with chronic pain, these practices generally fall into the following four categories: biological, mind-body, manipulative body, and energy medicine.
Implementing dietary changes, which is considered a biological-based alternative medicine practice, has been shown to help improve symptoms of chronic pain over time. Adding supplements to one's diet is a common dietary change when trying to relieve chronic pain, with some of the most studied supplements being: Acetyl-L-carnitine, alpha lipoic acid, and vitamin E. Vitamin E is perhaps the most studied out of the three, with strong evidence that it helps lower neurotoxicity in those with cancer, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases.
Hypnosis, including self-hypnosis, has tentative evidence. Hypnosis, specifically, can offer pain relief for most people and may be a safe alternative to pharmaceutical medication. Evidence does not support hypnosis for chronic pain due to a spinal cord injury.
Preliminary studies have found medical marijuana to be beneficial in treating neuropathic pain, but not other kinds of long term pain. , the evidence for its efficacy in treating neuropathic pain or pain associated with rheumatic diseases is not strong for any benefit and further research is needed. For chronic non-cancer pain, a recent study concluded that it is unlikely that cannabinoids are highly effective. However, more rigorous research into cannabis or cannabis-based medicines is needed.
Tai chi has been shown to improve pain, stiffness, and quality of life in chronic conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and osteoporosis. Acupuncture has also been found to be an effective and safe treatment in reducing pain and improving quality of life in chronic pain including chronic pelvic pain syndrome.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation for reduction of chronic pain is not supported by high quality evidence, and the demonstrated effects are small and short-term.
Spa therapy could potentially improve pain in patients with chronic lower back pain, but more studies are needed to provide stronger evidence of this.
While some studies have investigated the efficacy of St John's Wort or nutmeg for treating neuropathic (nerve) pain, their findings have raised serious concerns about the accuracy of their results.
Kinesio Tape has not been shown to be effective in managing chronic non-specific low-back pain.
Myofascial release has been used in some cases of fibromyalgia, chronic low back pain, and tennis elbow but there is not enough evidence to support this as method of treatment.
Epidemiology
Chronic pain varies in different countries affecting anywhere from 8% to 55% of the population. It affects women at a higher rate than men, and chronic pain uses a large amount of healthcare resources around the globe.
A large-scale telephone survey of 15 European countries and Israel found that 19% of respondents over 18 years of age had suffered pain for more than 6 months, including the last month, and more than twice in the last week, with pain intensity of 5 or more for the last episode, on a scale of 1 (no pain) to 10 (worst imaginable). 4839 of these respondents with chronic pain were interviewed in-depth. Sixty-six percent scored their pain intensity at moderate (5–7), and 34% at severe (8–10); 46% had constant pain, 56% intermittent; 49% had suffered pain for 2–15 years; and 21% had been diagnosed with depression due to the pain. Sixty-one percent were unable or less able to work outside the home, 19% had lost a job, and 13% had changed jobs due to their pain. Forty percent had inadequate pain management and less than 2% were seeing a pain management specialist.
In the United States, chronic pain has been estimated to occur in approximately 35% of the population, with approximately 50 million Americans experiencing partial or total disability as a consequence. According to the Institute of Medicine, there are about 116 million Americans living with chronic pain, which suggests that approximately half of American adults have some chronic pain condition. The Mayday Fund estimate of 70 million Americans with chronic pain is slightly more conservative. In an internet study, the prevalence of chronic pain in the United States was calculated to be 30.7% of the population: 34.3% for women and 26.7% for men.
In Canada it is estimated that approximately 1 in 5 Canadians live with chronic pain and half of those people have lived with chronic pain for 10 years or longer. Chronic pain in Canada also occurs more and is more severe in women and Canada's Indigenous communities.
Outcomes
Sleep disturbance, and insomnia due to medication and illness symptoms are often experienced by those with chronic pain. These conditions can be difficult to treat due to the high potential of medication interactions, especially when the conditions are treated by different doctors.
Severe chronic pain is associated with increased risk of death over a ten-year period, particularly from heart disease and respiratory disease. Several mechanisms have been proposed for this increase, such as an abnormal stress response in the body's endocrine system. Additionally, chronic stress seems to affect risks to heart and lung (cardiovascular) health by increasing how quickly plaque can build up on artery walls (arteriosclerosis). However, further research is needed to clarify the relationship between severe chronic pain, stress and cardiovascular health.
Psychology
Personality
Two of the most frequent personality profiles found in people with chronic pain by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) are the conversion V and the neurotic triad. The conversion V personality expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings, develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, and often fails to recognize their own emotional state, including depression. The neurotic triad personality also expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings and develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, but is demanding and complaining.
Some investigators have argued that it is this neuroticism that causes acute pain to turn chronic, but clinical evidence points the other way, to chronic pain causing neuroticism. When long term pain is relieved by therapeutic intervention, scores on the neurotic triad and anxiety fall, often to normal levels. Self-esteem, often low in people with chronic pain, also shows improvement once pain has resolved.
It has been suggested that catastrophizing might play a role in the experience of pain. Pain catastrophizing is the tendency to describe a pain experience in more exaggerated terms than the average person, to think a great deal more about the pain when it occurs, or to feel more helpless about the experience. People who score highly on measures of catastrophization are likely to rate a pain experience as more intense than those who score low on such measures. It is often reasoned that the tendency to catastrophize causes the person to experience the pain as more intense. One suggestion is that catastrophizing influences pain perception through altering attention and anticipation, and heightening emotional responses to pain. However, at least some aspects of catastrophization may be the product of an intense pain experience, rather than its cause. That is, the more intense the pain feels to the person, the more likely they are to have thoughts about it that fit the definition of catastrophization.
Comorbidity with trauma
Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have a high comorbidity with chronic pain. Patients with both PTSD and chronic pain report higher severity of pain than those who do not have a PTSD comorbidity.
Effect on cognition
Chronic pain's impact on cognition is an under-researched area, but several tentative conclusions have been published. Most people with chronic pain complain of cognitive impairment, such as forgetfulness, difficulty with attention, and difficulty completing tasks. Objective testing has found that people in chronic pain tend to experience impairment in attention, memory, mental flexibility, verbal ability, speed of response in a cognitive task, and speed in executing structured tasks. A review of studies in 2018 reports a relationship between people in chronic pain and abnormal results in test of memory, attention, and processing speed.
Social and personal impacts
Social support
Social support has important consequences for individuals with chronic pain. In particular, pain intensity, pain control, and resiliency to pain have been implicated as outcomes influenced by different levels and types of social support. Much of this research has focused on emotional, instrumental, tangible and informational social support. People with persistent pain conditions tend to rely on their social support as a coping mechanism and therefore have better outcomes when they are a part of larger more supportive social networks. Across a majority of studies investigated, there was a direct significant association between social activities or social support and pain. Higher levels of pain were associated with a decrease in social activities, lower levels of social support, and reduced social functioning.
Racial disparities
Evidence exists for unconscious biases and negative stereotyping against racial minorities requesting pain treatment, although clinical decision making was not affected, according to one 2017 review. Minorities may be denied diagnoses for pain and pain medications, and are more likely to go through substance abuse assessment, and are less likely to transfer for pain specialist referral. Preliminary research showed that health providers might have less empathy for black patients and underestimated their pain levels, resulting in treatment delays. Minorities may experience a language barrier, limiting the high level of engagement between the person with pain and health providers for treatment.
Perceptions of injustice
Similar to the damaging effects seen with catastrophizing, perceived injustice is thought to contribute to the severity and duration of chronic pain. Pain-related injustice perception has been conceptualized as a cognitive appraisal reflecting the severity and irreparability of pain- or injury-related loss (e.g., "I just want my life back"), and externalizing blame and unfairness ("I am suffering because of someone else's negligence."). It has been suggested that understanding problems with top down processing/cognitive appraisals can be used to better understand and treat this problem.
Chronic pain and COVID-19
COVID-19 has disrupted the lives of many, leading to major physical, psychological and socioeconomic impacts in the general population. Social distancing practices defining the response to the pandemic alter familiar patterns of social interaction, creating the conditions for what some psychologists are describing as a period of collective grief. Individuals with chronic pain tend to embody an ambiguous status, at times expressing that their type of suffering places them between and outside of conventional medicine. With a large proportion of the global population enduring prolonged periods of social isolation and distress, one study found that people with chronic pain from COVID-19 experienced more empathy towards their suffering during the pandemic.
Effect of chronic pain in the workplace
In the workplace, chronic pain conditions are a significant problem for both the person with the condition and the organization; a problem only expected to increase in many countries due to an aging workforce. In light of this, it may be helpful for organizations to consider the social environment of their workplace, and how it may be working to ease or worsen chronic pain issues for employees. As an example of how the social environment can affect chronic pain, some research has found that high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism (perfectionism induced by external pressure from others, such as a supervisor) can interact with the guilt felt by a person with chronic pain, thereby increasing job tension, and decreasing job satisfaction.
Mobility and road safety impacts
A 2022 systematic review found that chronic pain could increase crash risk among drivers. Chronic pain drivers report experiencing difficulties with safety maneuvers, such as shoulder checking for blind spots, merging with traffic, turning corners, and reversing the vehicle.
See also
Childhood chronic pain
Neuroinflammation
Neurodegeneration
Dopaminergic pathways
References
Further reading
External links
International Association for the Study of Pain
Chronic pain syndromes
Nociception
Pain management | wiki |
Podlaskie cuisine is an umbrella term for all dishes with a specific regional identity belonging to the region of Podlaskie. It is a subtype of Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian cuisine with many similarities to and signs of the influence of neighbouring cuisines.
List of Podlaskie dishes
Pastry and baked goods
Augustowska jagodzianka - bread rolls with berry filling, besprinkled with streusel
Cebulniaczki - small bread rolls with onion stuffing
Hajnowski marcinek - cake prepared from a layer of 30 pancakes, with butter cream between each layer
Kreple - traditional doughnuts from East Prussia
Makowiec z Ejszeryszek - light buttery, sour tasting makowiec
Mrowisko - faworki-shaped cake; pastry lightness dependent on eggs, natural honey
Sękacz, bankuchen - pyramid cake, made of many layers; includes butter, egg whites, flour and cream; different variations exist around Podlasie
Soups
Chołodziec litewski - cold soup made with soured milk, young beet leaves, beets, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill
Stews, vegetable and potato dishes
Babka ziemniaczana - potato cake
Bliny po litewsku - flat, oval potato pancakes with meat filling
Cepeliny, kartacze sejneńskie - elongated, oval potato dumplings stuffed with meat and marjoram
Kociołek cygański - thick-textured soup with chicken, pork, kiełbasa with added mushrooms and vegetables
Kopytka - potato dumplings with fried onions
Kołduny litewskie - a type of small pierogi, stuffed with meat, besprinkled with pork rind and onion
Pieczeń wiedźmy - roast with pork ham, slices of fatback, onions and bay leaves
Pierekaczewnik - an oval, curled pasty; taste dependent on filling
Pierogi ruskie (Ruthenian pierogi) - quark cheese and potato dumplings
Pierogi wigierskie - crescent-shaped pierogi with fruit stuffing
Tort ziemniaczany - roast with Krakowska kiełbasa, cheese and onion
Fish dishes
Okoń smażony - perch fried on butter
Pork and beef dishes
Kiszka ziemniaczana - kaszanka with pork, bacon or fatback
Puddings
Melszpejz zaparzany z jabłek - cake based on butter, apples and bread crumbs
See also
Lublin cuisine
Świętokrzyskie cuisine
Pomeranian cuisine
Polish cuisine
List of Polish dishes
References
Polish cuisine
Lithuanian cuisine
Belarusian cuisine
Podlaskie Voivodeship | wiki |
Comparable transactions, in the context of mergers and acquisitions, is one of the conventional methods to value a company for sale. The main approach of the method is to look at similar or comparable transactions where the acquisition target has a similar business model and similar client base to the company being evaluated. The value of a business is then arrived at using a similar multiple of the company's EBITDA as demonstrated by multiples of EBITDA achieved in past, completed transactions of comparable businesses in the sector. See Valuation using multiples more generally.
This approach is fundamentally different from that of DCF valuation method, which calculates intrinsic value.
References
What is a Comparable Company Analysis
Comparable Transaction Analysis in the Glossary of mergers-acquisitions.org
Mergers and acquisitions | wiki |
SIA Ltd was a UK Limited company specialising in Geographic Information System (GIS) software and services. The company offices were based in London, England.
History
The company was bought by Hometrack in July 2007. It was based near the Eccleston Square Hotel, off the A3213.
Products
dataMAP GIS
dataMAP GIS Web Browser
dataMAP Mobile
dataMAP Routing System
SMART
SMART Online
dataMAPX and SMARTX SDKs
Partners
Ordnance Survey
Plantech
National Housing Federation
IBS OPENSystems
Encanvas
Bartholomew Maps
Arete
Anite
Competitors
GGP Systems Ltd
ESRI
MapInfo
References
SIA Ltd's home page
Companies based in the City of Westminster
British companies disestablished in 2007
GIS companies | wiki |
William Sadlier may refer to:
William Sadlier (bishop), Anglican bishop of Nelson
William H. Sadlier, American family-owned publishing company
Bill Sadlier, Australian rugby league player
See also
William Sadler (disambiguation) | wiki |
This is a list of almond foods and dishes, which use almond as a primary ingredient. The almond is a species of tree native to the Middle East and South Asia. "Almond" is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed (which is not a true nut) inside.
"Almonds" may also be from Terminalia catappa, a plant commonly called "India almond." They are edible, yet not considered as palatable as the "almonds" from Prunus.
Almond foods and dishes
- A famous spanish desert in Casinos, Valencia.
Almond cookies
Almond biscuit – also referred to as almond cookie
Beverages
Almond milk – a plant milk with a watery texture and nutty flavor manufactured from almonds
Amaretto – an Italian liqueur associated with the city of Saronno
Amarguinha – a bitter, almond-flavored Portuguese liqueur
Almond water - A sweet drink with an Almond Scent
Confectionery
See also
Almond meal
List of edible seeds
Lists of prepared foods
References
Almond | wiki |
The .17 CCM (Cooper Centerfire Magnum) is a cartridge. It is a necked down version of the .22 CCM. This cartridge was introduced in 1992 and was originally designed by Mike Hill. Dan Cooper (President of Cooper Arms) further refined the cartridge and chambering to put it into production in the Cooper Model 38 action.
The .17 CCM is designed specifically for varmint and small game hunting. Its major benefits are low noise, accuracy and minimal barrel temperature, which makes it a perfect cartridge for prairie dogs. It has an effective range of around 300 yards, but like any other .17 caliber it is sensitive to the wind out past 100 yards.
See also
List of rifle cartridges
4 mm caliber
References
Pistol and rifle cartridges | wiki |
A sketchbook is a book or pad with blank pages for sketching and is frequently used by artists for drawing or painting as a part of their creative process. Some also use sketchbooks as a sort of blueprint for future art pieces.
The exhibition of sketchbooks at the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University in 2006 suggested that there were two broad categories for classifying sketches:
Observation: this focuses on the documentation of the external world and includes many such travel and nature studies and sketches recording an artist's travels.
Invention: this follows the artists' digressions and internal journeys as they develop compositional ideas.
Types of sketchbooks
Sketchbooks come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, with varied covers, and differing numbers of pages. Sketchbooks began as a way to provide a readily available supply of drawing paper in the convenient form of a book. Finish of the work found in the sketchbook varies widely depending on the artist and their style of work, with some having very simple drawings and notes, and some having highly worked images. Over time, it might allow others to see the artist's progress, as their style and skills develop. Many artists personalize their sketchbook by decorating the covers. Sketches are sometimes removed from sketchbooks at a later date.
Sketchbooks made out of high quality paper, differentiated by weight (referring to density of the sheets) and tooth (also called grain), allow for a wide variety of techniques to be used, ranging from pencil drawings, to watercolor, to colored pencil, to pen and ink, and so on. Certain paper characteristics might be more desirable for use with certain mediums. Sketchbook paper comes in a variety of tones, ranging from pure white, to cream, and includes less common varieties, such as gray.
In displays of contemporary art, as well as historical retrospectives, intimate and ephemeral records are increasingly valued, resulting in the exhibition of sketchbooks alongside "finished" artworks.
Computer technology has allowed for the development of digital sketchbooks, such as Apple's iPad devices and Microsoft's Surface tablets.
Online sketchbooks
The World Wide Web has increased access to documents such as the sketchbooks of famous artists which previously would only be seen in an exhibition. A number of the sketchbooks of famous artists have been digitally recorded and are now available online. Links are provided in the external links section below.
Leonardo da Vinci (Italian 1452-1519) made hundreds of pages of sketchbooks during his life, filled with drawings and writings that went along with his very curious mind, you can find some of his sketchbook pages at the following link:
www.unmuseum.org
Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch 1606-1669) Good example of Rembrandt's sketches and drawings can be found in:
the British Museum and
Getty Museum – sketch of an artist in his studio
Goya (Spanish 1746- 1828) was a painter and print maker and made an important contribution to the art of drawing.
The Italian Sketchbook created in the 1770s and currently in the Museo del Prado
Eight albums of sketchbooks by Goya This link provides a summary of each of the albums, what it contains and what materials were used — the site is still under construction.
sketchbook drawings held by Museum of Fine Art in Boston
J. M. W. Turner (English 1775-1851) produced 300 sketchbooks and around 30,000 sketches and watercolours on his travels. Five years after his death, the majority of his art was bequeathed to the nation and is housed at Tate Britain
Turner sketchbooks, Turner Bequest, Tate Britain This link provides access to all 300 sketchbooks.
John Constable (English 1776–1837) believed in the importance of working from life and based his paintings on sketches and drawings of the landscape. Some of his sketches were in oil while others were in small sketchbooks. This is an example of a Sketchbook at the Victoria and Albert Museum
Conrad Martens (English 1801–1878) accompanied Darwin on the Beagle as expedition artist and produced three detailed sketchbooks of places visited and objects seen on the expedition. This is the itinerary of the expedition and this is the story of his sketchbooks from the Beagle expedition which are in the Cambridge University Library. This is a categorised list of sketchbook images. Most of the sketchbook images are in graphite. Click on a link to see images and on an image to see a larger image and more detail about it.
Paul Cézanne (French 1839-1906) worked from life and made detailed observations of form in his drawings and sketches as well as his paintings. Dover Publications has reproduced one of Cézanne's sketchbooks
Vincent van Gogh (Dutch 1853–1890) made preliminary drawings (sketches) prior to developing his paintings. He often drew with a reed pen and ink. Students of mark-making will probably be interested in the great range of marks he used routinely.
Examples from the 2005 exhibition of Van Gogh Drawings at the Metropolitan Museum, New York
John Singer Sargent (1856–1925) Sargent at Harvard — the Harvard University Art Museums' collection of sketchbooks
Various American Artists: Sketchbooks in the Archives of American Art — the curators' choice of 17 sketchbooks "demonstrates the broad range of material available for research at the Archives of American Art from academic notebooks with anatomical studies to illustrated journals, ranging in date from the 1840s to the 1970s."
Henry Moore (English 1898–1986): early drawings (1916-1939) of ideas / for sculptures
David Hockney (contemporary) has produced a DVD of fifteen palm-sized sketchbooks (of 25) produced during for a period of 18 months in 2002–2003 (copyright/published by David Hockney/Gregory Evans Inc.). The sketches chronicle his home, his studio, his travels, landscapes, still lifes, hotel rooms, his friends and their families.
Xavier Pick (English 1972– ): A life in sketchbooks contemporary illustrator who has been drawing constantly in his sketchbooks both personal and internationally, most notably as a war artist.
See also
Painting
Drawing
Sketch (drawing)
Oil sketch
References
External links
Under Cover — Artists Sketchbooks" Exhibition at Harvard University Art Museums (Fogg) 2006
Artists' Sketchbooks OnLine - created in 1998 by Scattergood-Moore - contains numerous links to sketchbooks and notebooks by contemporary and famous artists...
A PhD thesis by artist Paul Ryan from 2009, on how sketchbooks mean what they do, available online from The British Library's Ethos service.
Drawing
Visual arts materials
Notebooks | wiki |
The speckled blenny (Acanthemblemaria betinensis) is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs in the western Caribbean, from Puerto Limón to Colombia.
References
Acanthemblemaria
Fish of Panama
Fish of Colombia
Fish described in 1974 | wiki |
Dino () is a fictional character featured in the Hanna-Barbera animated television series The Flintstones, and its spin-offs and feature films. He is a pet dinosaur of the series' main characters, Fred and Wilma Flintstone. Dino debuted in the opening credits of the pilot episode of The Flintstones, but is not mentioned by name until the first season's fourth episode, "No Help Wanted". Dino was voiced by voiceover actor Mel Blanc from 1960 to 1989 and in 1994 and 2000.
Background
In the series, Dino serves the role of a pet dog, and exhibits the characteristics of a typical domesticated canine.
Dino is a prosauropod-like dinosaur, a Snorkasaurus. Dino is a relatively small dinosaur, only slightly larger than the humans of his time, smaller than mammoths that appear in the series, and much smaller than the numerous sauropods that appear as work animals in the series (a full-sized sauropod appears as a crane in the opening sequence, and oversized "bronto ribs" the size of an automobile are seen in the closing credits).
A recurring gag in the series is Fred coming home from work, and Dino gets excited and knocks him down and licks his face. But no matter how hard he tries to the contrary, Fred usually gives in to Dino's ticklish and wet doglike kisses. Dino frequently exhibits human emotions, nearly "talking", and can also be moved to anger, at which point he snarls and snaps, especially when Fred tries to lie either to or in front of him, which he can always tell. He also loves to play with Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm, the Flintstones' and Rubbles' respective offspring; these characters are introduced in the middle part of the series. In the episode "Hop Happy" Dino meets Hoppy, the Rubbles' new pet hopperoo. At first, Dino and Fred get scared, thinking he's a giant mouse, but they eventually become best friends after Hoppy helps Dino rescue their owners in an accident.
Although he is usually immune, Dino does take a couple of brief stabs at romance. The first comes in the episode, "Dino Goes Hollyrock", which originally aired on September 14, 1962. In it, Dino falls in love with female TV star sauropod "Sassie" (an obvious takeoff on "Lassie") and then becomes her co-star on her TV show. However, after she removes her false eyelashes and wig, he is shocked that she turned out to be an ugly, talented sauropod that could be beautified. The second comes in the episode, "Dino and Juliet", which originally aired on November 26, 1964. In it, Dino falls in love with the new neighbor's female sauropod (Juliet). Their romance, which results in the birth of 15 puppies, helps end the feud between Fred and the new neighbor, Mr. Loudrock.
Although Dino had already appeared earlier in the series' first season (such as the episode "No Help Wanted" and "Arthur Quarry's Dance Class" - these episodes were made after the "Snorkasaurus Hunter" but aired before), Dino is portrayed quite differently in the first season's 18th episode "The Snorkasaurus Hunter". In this episode, Fred and his friend Barney Rubble are on a camping trip, trying to hunt a snorkasaurus. Unlike Dino's other appearances, the snorkasaurus in this episode speaks and behaves toward Fred and Barney in a manner similar to comedian Phil Silvers. At the end of the episode, the Flintstones take in the dinosaur; the snorkasaurus (called "Dino" at one point by Wilma) is seen acting like a butler for the Flintstones: answering the telephone, dusting, and ironing. Dino in this episode is also slightly larger than in other appearances, walks on his hind legs, and has purple skin instead of his varying pink-to-red color, which seems to vary from episode-to-episode during this early period, but is permanently purple after this episode. After this episode, Dino is permanently portrayed as behaving in a doglike fashion.
Dino's origins are explained in the episode "Dino Disappears", which originally aired on October 10, 1963. In it, Wilma states that Dino followed Fred home because Fred was playing with him. Fred counters by saying he was merely trying to chase him away. This seems to refer to the episode "Snorkasaurus Hunter" where Fred and Barney's playing was actually hunting him down and Dino's following him was actually Dino sneaking onto the car.
Post-original series, Dino appears in most of the series' spin-offs, except during the first season of The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show. There, Dino is replaced by Wooly, a dwarf mammoth, as the Flintstone family's pet. However, starting with the following series The Flintstone Comedy Hour, Dino once again becomes a regular character.
In the 1980-1982 series The Flintstone Comedy Show, Dino is featured in his own segment, "Dino and Cavemouse", where Dino tries futilely to capture a pesky mouse in the Flintstone household. The segments bear some similarities to classic cat-and-mouse cartoons such as Tom and Jerry.
Dino later appears as a puppy in 1986-1988 series The Flintstone Kids (including his own segment, "Dino's Dilemmas"), as Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm's babysitter in the short-lived 1996 series Cave Kids, and also starred in his own two 7-minute short cartoons, Dino: Stay Out! (1995) and Dino: The Great Egg-Scape (1997).
In 2020, Dino is featured in the new series Yabba-Dabba Dinosaurs. Similar to Cave Kids, the show focuses on the lives of Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm, who are joined by Dino for many adventures in the Stone Age.
Other media
Dino appears in both live-action movies. He isn't seen very often in the first film, The Flintstones (1994). Dino was created with both computer-generated imagery and as a puppet from Jim Henson's Creature Shop, while archival audio of Mel Blanc from the original series was used to serve as Dino's voice.
However, in the second film, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000), Dino has more screen time; he appears here as a puppy. Fred won Dino's egg as a prize after winning a carnival game. Initially, Fred didn't think much of the egg as he felt that the creatures inside never live long. On a ferris wheel, just as Fred and Wilma are about to kiss, Dino's egg hatches and he takes an immediate attachment to Fred, believing him to be his mother. (This, of course, contradicts Dino's origin in the original series.)
Dino made non-speaking cameos on Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law in the episodes "The Dabba Don" and "Peanut Puberty".
Filmography
Television shows
The Flintstones (1960–1966)
The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972–1974)
Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977–1978)
The New Fred and Barney Show (1979)
Fred and Barney Meet the Thing (1979)
Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo (1979–1980)
The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980–1982)
The Flintstone Funnies (1982–1984)
The Flintstone Kids (1986–1988)
What a Cartoon! – featuring Dino: Stay Out! (1995) and Dino: The Great Egg-Scape (1997)
Cave Kids (1996)
Yabba Dabba Dinosaurs (2020)
Films and Specials
The Man Called Flintstone (1966)
Energy: A National Issue (1977)
A Flintstone Christmas (1977)
The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)
The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)
The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)
The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)
The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)
The Flintstone Kids' "Just Say No" Special (1988)
A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration: 50 Years of Hanna-Barbera (1989)
I Yabba-Dabba Do! (1993)
Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)
A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)
The Flintstones (1994)
A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)
The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000)
The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001)
The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)
Portrayal
Dino's barks and sound effects were provided by Mel Blanc for 29 years, from 1960–1989; archive audio of Blanc was used for Dino in the 1994 live-action film and its prequel in 2000. Jerry Mann provided the speaking voice of Dino in the 1961 episode "The Snorkasaurus Hunter". Frank Welker provided Dino's vocal effects for 20 years, from The Flintstones: Jogging Fever in 1981, until The Flintstones: On the Rocks in 2001 (a role he shared with Mark Mangini). Bill Farmer provided the vocal effects in the 2000 video game The Flintstones: Bedrock Bowling. Mark Mangini shared vocal duties with Frank Welker for The Flintstones: On the Rocks. Eric Bauza provided the vocal effects for the 2015 direct-to-video The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! and the 2020 spin-off Yabba-Dabba Dinosaurs.
References
Animated characters introduced in 1960
Television characters introduced in 1960
Anthropomorphic dinosaurs
The Flintstones characters
Post Foods characters
Male characters in animated series
Male characters in advertising | wiki |
Songshark is a term for a dishonest music publisher, whose main source of income is the naivete of new songwriters, whom they charge for services a reputable publisher would provide free to their clients.
"Song shark" is the trade name for any individual, or firm who, with the deliberate intention to defraud, solicits business from amateur songwriters, advising them that by having music written to their lyrics, or vice versa, they will have a finished composition which will immediately be "snatched up" by a music publisher. Often, the song shark will himself claim to be a publisher, and will tell the songwriter that his only expense will be in "defraying half the costs of publication."
See also
Song poem
Vanity press
References
General references
Inline citations
Occupations in music
Jazz terminology
Musical terminology | wiki |
A single-chip module (SCM) is a chip package with only one die. Contrast with multi-chip modules, where multiple dies are placed on a chip package.
See also
System in package (SIP)
Hybrid integrated circuit
Chip carrier Chip packaging and package types list
Multi-chip module (MCM)
Semiconductor packages | wiki |
Corydoras diphyes is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the Corydoradinae sub-family of the family Callichthyidae. It originates in inland waters in South America. Corydoras diphyes is restricted to tributaries of the río Monday and the río Acaray, and right bank tributaries of the río Paraná in Paraguay.
References
Corydoras
Catfish of South America
Fish of Paraguay
Taxa named by Thomas Erik Axenrot
Taxa named by Sven O. Kullander
Fish described in 2003 | wiki |
An N battery (or N cell) is a standard size of dry-cell battery. An N battery is cylindrical with electrical contacts on each end; the positive end has a bump on the top. The battery has a length of 30.2 mm and a diameter of 12.0 mm, and is approximately three-fifths the length of a AA battery.
Overview
A zinc–carbon battery in this type is designated as R1 by IEC standards; likewise, an alkaline battery in this type is designated as LR1. ANSI designates this battery as 910A and 910D for alkaline and zinc–carbon chemistries, respectively. Energizer calls this type E90.
Mercury batteries of the same dimensions are no longer manufactured because of their toxicity. Former mercury cells such as the Mallory RM401, Duracell RM-401, IEC-MR1, etc. were supplanted by the alkaline Kodak KN.
Rechargeable N-size batteries are also available, in nickel-cadmium (KR1) and nickel-metal hydride (HR1) chemistries. However, these are far less common than other rechargeable sizes. Rechargeable N-Series batteries may be charged in an AA charger using a makeshift adapter (such as a small metal slug or a spring). Some universal battery chargers (with spring-loaded contacts) are also able to charge N size batteries.
Common uses for this size of battery include some small flashlights, radio pocket pager receivers, remote control door chimes, glucose meters, small desk clocks, wireless microphones, laser pointers, some vintage calculators, some slot cars, film cameras, and small vibrators. However, as technology has improved, many of these devices now run on button batteries.
An N-cell battery has a similar size to the A23 battery, which has a 12 V output.
Adapter AA
The battery has a length of 30.2 mm – 29.6 mm, AA has a length of 49.2 mm – 50.5 mm so that any adapter should extend the battery by 19.6 mm – 20.3 mm.
See also
Battery recycling
References
External links
Brand-neutral drawing of alkaline N battery based on ANSI specifications
Battery shapes | wiki |
Rzeźnik drzew is collection of 12 short stories written by Polish fantasy writer Andrzej Pilipiuk. The stories are not related in storyline, however in some stories there is a recurring character from Pilipiuk's works - Dr. Skórzewski.
References
2009 short story collections
Fabryka Słów books
21st-century Polish literature
Polish short story collections
Fantasy short story collections | wiki |
William or Bill Smeaton may refer to:
William Henry Oliphant Smeaton, Scottish writer
William Arthur Smeaton, British chemist and historian of science
Bill Smeaton (politician), mayor of Niagara Falls, Ontario
Bill Smeaton (footballer), Australian rules footballer | wiki |
The Wuhan–Xianning intercity railway (), commonly abbreviated as Wu-Xian intercity railway, is a high-speed commuter railway line in Hubei Province of China with double tracks. It connects the provincial capital Wuhan with the city of Xianning, with a number of intermediate stops throughout Wuhan's southern suburbs. The railway is part of Wuhan Metropolitan Area intercity railway system.
The railway line is long, and includes 13 stations, from Wuhan's Wuchang railway station to Xianning South railway station in Xianning. Intermediate stations is include Nanhu East railway station (in Wuhan's Guanggu area), several stations in Wuhan's suburban Jiangxia District and in Xianning City (Xian'an District).
Although there are already two railway lines between Wuhan and Xianning (the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway and the older "conventional" Beijing–Guangzhou railway), the new railway is supposed to complement them, rather than compete with them. Unlike the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway, which has no passenger stations between Wuhan and Xianning, and the Xianning North railway station is somewhat out of town, the new intercity railway will serve a number of towns and township between the two city, and will have Xianning East railway station in downtown Xianning. Besides, the intercity line's terminal in Wuhan (the Wuchang railway station) is more convenient for most passengers than the Wuhan railway station used by the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway. As to the "conventional" Beijing–Guangzhou railway, its trains are much slower and aren't frequent, since that railway's capacity is now mainly used for freight or long distance passenger services.
The travel time between Wuchang and Xianning on the intercity railway (28 min) will be only a few minutes longer than the one the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway, while the fare will be somewhat lower.
The railway began operation on December 28, 2013 with 10 services each direction per day.
At Tangxunhu railway station, transfer is available to the Optics Valley (Guanggu) Line of Wuhan Tram.
Notes
Transport in Hubei
High-speed railway lines in China
Railway lines opened in 2013
2013 establishments in China | wiki |
This is a list of significant dust storms.
Notes
References
See also
Dust Bowl, a period of severe dust storms in the 1930s affecting the United States and Canada
Dust storms
Weather-related lists | wiki |
Mark Reisman est un scénariste et créateur de séries télévisées américaines.
Biographie
Filmographie
Créateur
2011 : The Exes (saison 1 & 4)
2004 : Les Quintuplés (saison 1)
2002 : In-Laws (saison 1)
1997 : Jenny (saison 1)
Scénariste
2000 : Frasier (saison 8)
1999 : Frasier (saison 7)
Producteur exécutif
2011-2014 : The Exes
2004 : Les Quintuplés
1997 : Wings
1993-2004 : Frasier
1990-1997 : Jenny
Liens externes
Scénariste américain de cinéma
Producteur américain
Date de naissance non renseignée (XXe siècle) | wiki |
Wheat middlings (also known as millfeed, wheat mill run, or wheat midds) are the product of the wheat milling process that is not flour. A good source of protein, fiber, phosphorus, and other nutrients, they are a useful fodder for livestock and pets. They are also being researched for use as a biofuel.
Production
White flour is made entirely from the endosperm or protein/starchy part of the grain, leaving behind the germ and the bran or fiber part. In addition to marketing the bran and germ as products in their own right, middlings include shorts (making up approximately 12% of the original grain, consisting of fractions of endosperm, bran, and germ with an average particle size of 500-900 microns) and red dog (actually a low-grade flour, making up approximately 3% of the original grain, consisting of fractions of endosperm and bran, with an average particle size of 100-300 microns).
The middlings include those portions of the wheat kernel that are richest in proteins, vitamins, lipids and minerals. For example, highly refined patent flour may contain only 10 to 12% of the total thiamine and niacin, 20% of the phosphorus, and 50% of the calcium of the parent grain.
Classification inconsistencies
The term is somewhat imprecise, as it does not take into account the various mill streams and proportions that are combined and ultimately constitute the product's final composition. As a consequence of this inconsistent terminology, difficulties are encountered when ascertaining nutritional value and establishing economic worth. Wheat midds are sometimes referred to negatively as "floor sweepings" although such products are generally captured long before they would end up on the floor.
Nonhuman consumption
When used in feed for livestock or horses, middlings can be a good source of protein, fiber, phosphorus, and other nutrients. Flour milling products arising from a fairly homogeneous parent grain can vary greatly depending on the objectives of the milling process. Thus, the degree of nutrient variation in wheat midds can be a major consideration in determining whether its inclusion in a ration or formula feed is beneficial. It has 96% of the energy value of barley and 91% of the energy value of corn. It is also used as an inexpensive filler for food for pets such as dogs and cats, who do not digest wheat products as readily.
Fuels research
Due to its high energy content and low price, wheat middlings is being researched as a biofuel.
Nutrition
Sources
Pet foods
Mid
cereals | wiki |
William Starmer may refer to:
William T. Starmer, professor of biology
William Austin Starmer, sheet music cover artist | wiki |
The EFL Cup (historically and colloquially referred to as the League Cup), currently known as the Carabao Cup for sponsorship reasons, is an annual knockout competition and major trophy in men's domestic football in England. Organised by the English Football League (EFL), it is open to any club within the top four levels of the English football league system – 92 clubs in total – comprising the top-level Premier League, and the three divisions of the English Football League's own league competition (Championship, League One and League Two).
First held in 1960–61 as the Football League Cup, it is one of the three top-tier domestic football competitions in England alongside the Premier League and FA Cup, although it is arguably of far lower prestige. It concludes in February, long before the other two, which end in May. It was introduced by the league as a response to the increasing popularity of European football, and to also exert power over the FA. It also took advantage of the roll-out of floodlights, allowing the fixtures to be played as midweek evening games. With the renaming of the Football League as the English Football League in 2016, the tournament was rebranded as the EFL Cup from the 2016–17 season onwards.
The tournament is played over seven rounds, with single-leg ties throughout, except for the semi-finals. The final is held at Wembley Stadium, which is the only tie in the competition played at a neutral venue and on a weekend (Sunday). The first two rounds are split into North and South sections, and a system of byes based on league level ensures higher ranked teams enter in later rounds, and to defer the entry of teams still involved in Europe. Winners receive the EFL Cup, of which there have been three designs, the current one also being the original. Winners also qualify for European football. From 1972-1963 through the 2019–20 season, the winners received a place in the UEFA Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup). From 1966–67 through 1971–72 the winners gained a place in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup). And starting with the 2020–21 season, the winners earn a place in the UEFA Europa Conference League. Should the winner also qualify for Europe through other means at the end of the season, this place is transferred to the highest-placed Premier League team not already qualified for European competition. The current Cup holders are Manchester United, who defeated Newcastle United 2–0 in the 2023 final to win their sixth League Cup.
Status
Although the League Cup is one of the four domestic trophies attainable by English league teams, it is of far lower prestige than the league title or the FA Cup. League Cup winners receive £100,000 prize money (awarded by the Football League) with the runners-up receiving £50,000, considered relatively insignificant to top-flight teams, compared to the £2 million prize money of the FA Cup, which is in turn eclipsed by the Premier League's television money (awarded on final league position) and consequent participation in the Champions League.
Some clubs have repeatedly fielded a weaker side in the competition, making the opportunity for giant-killing of the larger clubs more likely. Many teams in the Premier League, Arsenal and Manchester United in particular, have used the competition to give young players valuable big-game experience. Consequently, it began to be described sarcastically by many fans as the "Mickey Mouse cup".
However, in 2010, in response to Arsène Wenger's claim that a League Cup win would not end his trophy drought, Alex Ferguson described the trophy as "a pot worth winning". After a period of decline when the competition's future was regularly questioned, recent years have seen a revival in respect for the trophy, as the larger Premier League clubs have come to dominate the competition again, and the development nature of the competition has begun to be viewed as a positive for the clubs involved. Premier League giants Manchester City (6), Manchester United (6), Liverpool (4) and Chelsea (3) between them won 19 editions of the competition between 2000 and 2023.
History
The original idea for a League Cup came from Stanley Rous who saw the competition as a consolation for clubs who had already been knocked out of the FA Cup. However, it was not Rous who came to implement it, but Football League Secretary Alan Hardaker. Hardaker initially proposed the competition as a way for the clubs to make up on lost revenue, due to a reduction in matches played, for when the league was to be re-organised. The re-organisation of the league was not immediately forthcoming; however, the cup competition was introduced regardless.
The trophy was paid for personally by Football League President Joe Richards, who was proud of the competition and he had his own name engraved on it. Richards described the competition's formation as an "interim step" on the way to the league's re-organisation. Richards' priority was the re-organisation of the leagues, "perhaps by cutting down the number of clubs in each division, as has already been suggested, and even given more consideration to the system of four up and four down".
Hardaker felt that the Football League needed to adapt to the times, as the English game was losing prestige. He felt that the Football League should take the lead in revitalising football in the nation: "It must be obvious to all of you that the time has come to do something, and it is up to the Football League to give the lead. I hope the Press will not immediately assume that the League is going to fall out with the F.A. or anybody else... the time has come for our voice to be heard in every problem which affects the professional game."
The League Cup competition was established at a time when match day attendances were dwindling. The league had lost a million spectators compared to the previous season. It was established at a time when tensions between the Football League and the Football Association were high. The biggest disagreement was about how revenue was shared between the clubs.
During the late 1950s, the majority of senior English clubs equipped their grounds with floodlights. This opened up the opportunity to exploit weekday evenings throughout the winter. The League Cup was introduced in the 1960–61 season specifically as a mid-week floodlit tournament, to replace the Southern Professional Floodlit Cup.
The League Cup was criticised by the better-endowed clubs. The Times correspondent at the time felt that the League Cup was a step in the wrong direction; the European Cup had been formed five years prior to the League Cup and the correspondent felt the League Cup's introduction was adding to existing problems. The Times published on 30 May 1960: "Where a drastic reduction is required in an attempt to raise quality, no doubt quantity and a further spread of mediocrity will be the dose. Where men like Count Bernabeu with his wider horizons, think in terms of a European League for the future in which a lead could surely now be given jointly by our leaders, the Football League propose next season to implement their useless Football League Cup to be played in midweek. It gets the players, the clubs and the public nowhere."
Aston Villa were the inaugural winners in 1960–61, defeating Rotherham United 3–2 in the final over two legs. Football in England was considered to be of a low quality, compared to what was being played on the continent, as relatively unfashionable clubs Burnley and Wolverhampton Wanderers were England's representatives in Europe that year, having lifted the major honours ahead of much bigger clubs like Arsenal and Manchester United. Richards referred to the appetite for European football as 'continental fever'. He was keen for the league to re-establish itself: 'We must be prepared to put the interests of the League and the game before individual clubs.' Sixteen clubs opposed the competition's creation, thirty-one approved it. The average attendance across the League Cup was 10,556, just higher than the average gate in the Third Division. The total attendance of the Football League competition had fallen by 4 million from the previous season. Richards is reputed to have told Hardaker that he foresaw 'the League Cup final being held at Wembley, but that it wouldn't be during his lifetime'. The first League Cup final to be held at Wembley was Third Division Queens Park Rangers's win over First Division West Bromwich Albion on 4 March 1967. Richards died in 1968.
The first League Cup was won in 1960–61 by Aston Villa who, at the time, held the overall record for major trophies won in England. The next three finals, however, saw the trophy won by clubs who had never won a major trophy before. One of them, Norwich City, had yet to even play in the First Division, while their opponents Rochdale had played no higher than the Third Division.
The introduction of the League Cup gave the Football League more negotiating power with the FA and UEFA. Hardaker threatened UEFA with a boycott of the UEFA Cup, unless UEFA gave the League Cup winner European qualification. As a result of the negotiating tactics, UEFA provided the League Cup winner with a place in the European competitions, providing the team was in the first division. Tottenham Hotspur were the first team to qualify for Europe by virtue of winning the competition. Although Leeds United had won the competition before Tottenham, Leeds qualified for Europe based on league position. The winners of the 1966–67 and 1968–69 editions, Queen's Park Rangers and Swindon Town did not participate in Europe, as they were not in the First Division.
Prior to the agreement with UEFA, the competition was not considered worthy of the larger clubs' attention. However, once a position in Europe was on offer, as was a final at Wembley Stadium, the competition's standing was improved and in the 1968–69 season only Manchester United declined to participate. Everton chose not to compete in 1970–71 so that they could concentrate their efforts on the European Cup. Entry was made compulsory for all Football League teams the following year.
Liverpool have won the cup on the most occasions with nine victories, and both they and Manchester City have won four League Cups in successive years. Liverpool completed two trebles of trophy wins, in 1983–84 and 2000–01, winning the League Cup in both of these years.
English clubs lost their place in European competitions for an indefinite period in 1985 as a result of the Heysel disaster, where Liverpool fans had taken part in a riot at the European Cup final, resulting in the death of 39 spectators. That year's winners of the League Cup were Norwich City, who would otherwise have played in a European competition for the first time in the 1985–86 season. Oxford United, Arsenal, Luton Town and Nottingham Forest also missed out on the chance to compete in the UEFA Cup as League Cup holders over the next four years. Even when the ban was lifted in 1990, League Cup winners did not participate in European competitions for two more years, when Manchester United won the trophy and qualified for the UEFA Cup anyway, as they had finished second in the league. In the previous two seasons, Nottingham Forest and Sheffield Wednesday had both been prevented from competing in the UEFA Cup as League Cup winners, due to the gradual reintegration of English clubs in European competitions.
In 2016–17, the competition was renamed the EFL Cup as part of the Football League's rebranding to become the English Football League.
Modern changes
In the early 21st century, following restructuring of European football, particularly of its international club competitions, the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa Conference League and the UEFA Europa League, there were considerations of removing the prize of European qualification from the League Cup's winners. It has retained its Europa Conference League berth, however, leaving England and France the only UEFA members to offer a European berth to the winners of their second cup competitions until 2020, when Coupe de la Ligue was suspended indefinitely. This has allowed the League Cup to retain popularity, especially with fans of clubs for whom success in cup competitions offers their only realistic chance of qualifying for Europe.
Giant-killings
Giant-killings are less well remembered in the League Cup than in the FA Cup due to the absence of non-league sides and the fact that big clubs often field more inexperienced sides in the early rounds. However, there have been some notable upsets, the final of 1966–67 saw Division Three side Queens Park Rangers come from 2–0 down at half time to win 3–2 against top-flight West Bromwich Albion in the first League Cup Final to be hosted at Wembley Stadium. Two years later in 1968–69, Third Division side Swindon Town beat Arsenal 3–1 after extra time in the final to win the trophy. In 1974–75, Fourth Division side Chester beating defending league champions Leeds United 3–0 on their surprise run to the semi-finals.
Former League club and now defunct Scarborough defeated Chelsea 4–3 on aggregate in October 1989, while a Fourth Division club. In 1992–93, Scarborough then defeated Coventry City (then a top-tier side) 3–2 on aggregate, before ultimately going out of the competition, narrowly, 1–0, against Arsenal.
In 1995–96, Manchester United were beaten 3–0 at home by York City in the second round, first leg; United could only win 3–1 in the second leg and went out 4–3 on aggregate (York went on to repeat the achievement against Everton the following year). United went on to win the FA Premier League and FA Cup double and did not lose another home game that season, while York narrowly avoided relegation to Division Three (fourth tier).
Grimsby Town recorded a number of upsets over a nine year stretch, whilst playing in the third tier in 1996-97 they defeated Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday 4-3 on aggregate over both legs before dumping out fellow top flight side Leicester City 3-1 in the next round. In 2001–02 they beat current holders Liverpool at Anfield with a 2-1 win in extra time. Four years later they recorded another giant killing by defeating Tottenham Hotspur 1-0 at home, by this time Grimsby were playing in the fourth tier.
Manchester United have also been knocked out by Southend United and Coventry City in 2006–07 and 2007–08 respectively: in the match against Southend they fielded a strong side with 10 internationals, bucking a trend they had themselves started during the 1990s. In the 2014–15 season, Manchester United fielded five international players but lost 4–0 in the second round (in which they entered the tournament) against third-tier side MK Dons.
In 2010 Liverpool were humbled again by Northampton Town, one of the lowest placed teams in League Two. In the 2012–13 competition, League Two (fourth tier) side Bradford City eliminated three Premier League sides from the competition, becoming the lowest-ranked team to do so since Rochdale in 1961–62. However, their luck finally ran out in the final, where they were beaten by Swansea City. In their centenary year, Swansea became the first team from outside England to win the League Cup on 24 February 2013, when they beat Bradford City 5–0 to win their first major English trophy.
In the 2022–23 competition, Gillingham (then ranked 22nd in League Two) eliminated Brentford (then ranked 11th in the Premier League) in the third round on penalties; the teams were 79 places apart in the English football league system.
Format
The League Cup is open to all 92 members of the Premier League and English Football League and is divided into seven rounds, organised so that 32 teams remain by the third round (with the exception of the 1961–62 competition). Since 1996–97, teams involved in European competition during the season have received a bye to the third round; the remaining Premier League teams enter at the second round, and the remaining Football League teams enter at the first round. If the number of byes causes an odd number of teams to enter a round, another team may be given a bye (usually the highest-placed team of those relegated from the Premier League the previous season) or a preliminary round may be played between the two teams promoted from the Football Conference the previous season (or, if only one team is promoted, that team would play against the lowest-placed team not to be relegated from the Football League the previous season); preliminary rounds have only been necessary in the 2002–03 and 2011–12 competitions. Up to 1995–96, all teams were involved by the second round, although some received byes to that stage.
Matches in all rounds are single-legged, except for the semi-finals, which have been two-legged since the competition began. The final was two-legged from 1961 to 1966, but has been single-legged ever since. The first round was two-legged from 1975–76 to 2000–01, and the second round was two-legged from 1979–80 to 2000–01. Single-legged matches would be replayed as necessary until 1993–94, when penalties were introduced to settle the first replay; the last single-legged tie to require a replay was played in 1996–97.
Until 1974–75, two-legged ties that remained level after extra time in the second leg would be replayed; in that time, three ties reached a third replay. Between 1975–76 and 1979–80, ties would still be replayed, but a penalty shoot-out would be used to settle ties that could not be decided after a replay; replays of two-legged matches were finally abolished for 1980–81, with the away goals rule and penalties being adopted instead. The semi-finals were the exception to this, with level ties being replayed until 1986–87, after which the away goals rule and penalties were introduced. The semi-finals, when played over two legs, would apply the away goals rule only after extra time. From 2018–19, extra time was scrapped for all rounds except the final, and the away goal rule was scrapped for the semi-final, with level ties going straight to a penalty shoot-out.
Final
For the first six seasons of the Football League Cup, the final was played over two legs, with each leg being played at the home ground of each finalist. Since 1967, the final has been played as a single match at Wembley Stadium, although the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff was used between 2001 and 2007, following the demolition of the old Wembley. Between 1967 and 1997, finals that finished level after extra time were replayed at an alternative venue until a winner was decided. The only final to require two replays was the 1977 final between Aston Villa and Everton. The venues that hosted replays were Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, Old Trafford and Maine Road in Manchester and Villa Park in Birmingham.
Since 1998, finals that have finished level after extra time have been decided by penalty shoot-out. Until 1999–2000, the final was played in late March or early April. Thereafter it has been played in late February or early March.
Since 1989–90, the best player in the League Cup final has been presented with the Alan Hardaker Trophy, named after Alan Hardaker, the former secretary of the Football League who devised the Football League Cup. John Terry, Ben Foster and Vincent Kompany are the only players to win the award more than once.
Results by club
Sponsorship
From 1981 to the present (except in 2016–17), the League Cup has attracted title sponsorship, which meant, unlike its older sibling the FA Cup, the League Cup was named after its sponsor, giving it the following names:
Trophy
The winners receive the EFL Cup, of which there have been three designs – the current one also being the original, a three-handled Georgian-style urn with a separate plinth (added later). Designed and manufactured by Mappin & Webb, it weighs 2.976 kg and measures 27 cm by 20.5 cm. It is worth around £20,000. It was used until the 1980–81 competition, before coming back into use ever since the 1990–91 competition. The reason for the break in usage was the introduction of the first competition sponsor – the Milk Marketing Board, who chose to award their own trophy from 1981–82 to 1985–86. The next sponsor, Littlewoods, also chose to award their own trophy, from 1986–87 until 1989–90. Later sponsors have used the original.
Broadcasters
In the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, 15 matches will be broadcast live by Sky Sports through 2024 with highlights from the several matches on ITV Sport beginning in 2022/23. This competition is included in the EFL broadcast package.
Records
:
Most tournament wins (team): 9 – Liverpool
Most consecutive tournament wins (team): 4 – Liverpool (1981–1984) and Manchester City (2018–2021)
Most final appearances (team): 13 – Liverpool
Most tournament wins (individual): 6
Sergio Agüero and Fernandinho for Manchester City (2014, 2016, 2018–2021)
Most final appearances: (individual): 6
Ian Rush for Liverpool (1981–1984, 1987, 1995)
Emile Heskey for Leicester City (1997, 1999, 2000), Liverpool (2001, 2003) and Aston Villa (2010)
Fernandinho for Manchester City (2014, 2016, 2018–2021)
Most goals scored (individual, career): 49 – Ian Rush
Most goals scored (individual, season): 12 – Andy Richie, Oldham Athletic (1989–90)
Most goals scored (individual, match): 6 – Frankie Bunn (Oldham Athletic, vs Scarborough, 25 October 1989)
Biggest win:
West Ham United 10–0 Bury, second round, second leg, 25 October 1983
Liverpool 10–0 Fulham, second round first leg, 23 September 1986
Biggest aggregate win in a semi-final: Manchester City 10–0 Burton Albion (9–0 home, 1–0 away), 23 January 2019
Biggest win in a final: Swansea City 5–0 Bradford City, 24 February 2013
Highest scoring game: Reading 5–7 (a.e.t.) Arsenal, fourth round, 30 October 2012 and Dagenham & Redbridge 6–6 (a.e.t.) Brentford, first round, 12 August 2014
Most penalties scored in a penalty shoot-out: 27
Liverpool 14–13 Middlesbrough (23 September 2014)
Derby County 14–13 Carlisle United (23 August 2016)
Most penalties attempted in a penalty shoot-out: 32 – Derby County vs Carlisle United (23 August 2016)
Youngest player: Harvey Elliott () – Millwall vs Fulham, 25 September 2018)
Youngest goalscorer in the final: Norman Whiteside ( (Manchester United vs Liverpool, 1983)
Youngest captain in the final: Barry Venison, – Sunderland vs Norwich City, 1985)
Most replays in a tie: 3
Tranmere Rovers v. Chester (1968–69, first round): 0–0, 2–2 , 1–1 , 2–1
Reading v. Brighton & Hove Albion (1974–75, first round): 0–0, 2–2 , 0–0 , 3–2
Hartlepool v. Bournemouth (1974–75, second round): 1–1, 2–2 , 1–1 , 1–0
Birmingham City v. Notts County (1983–84, third round): 2–2, 0–0 , 0–0 , 3–1
Swindon Town v. Bolton Wanderers (1989–90, third round): 3–3, 1–1 , 1–1 , 2–1
References
External links
England League Cup Full Results 1960–1996. Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF)
BBC News and RSSSF for attendance data
Cup
2
1960 establishments in England
Recurring sporting events established in 1960 | wiki |
Zhang Jinmei is a Chinese sprint canoer who competed in the mid-2000s. She won a bronze medal in the K-4 1000 m event at the 2006 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships in Szeged, Hungary.
References
Chinese female canoeists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak | wiki |
William Suttor may refer to:
William Henry Suttor, Australian pastoralist and politician
William Suttor Jr., his son, Australian politician and pastoralist | wiki |
Short bones are designated as those bones that are as wide as they are long. Their primary function is to provide support and stability with little to no movement. They are one of five types of bones: short, long, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Examples of these bones include the tarsals in the foot and the carpals in the hand.
Additional images
References
Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary, 27th Edition
Skeletal system | wiki |
A company car is a vehicle which companies or organisations lease or own and which employees use for their personal and business travel. Take-home vehicle is a vehicle which can be taken home by company employees. Depending on the company, company cars may be available to all employees or just top level personnel.
In corporate car sharing, the company shares the vehicles and allows multiple employees (rather than just one) to make use of a company car, at times when they actually need it. The vehicles are made available from a corporate car sharing pool, and shared for a fixed or flexible period of time. One shared car could replace up to 8 non-shared cars. However, car-sharing does involve additional processing and associated costs. Still, it reduces fleet-related costs over the long term and allow employees to save not only on costs but also on time.
Attractiveness
There are three main reasons which explain why the provision of a company car for private use as a benefit may be attractive for both the employee and the employer.
The first reason is that companies can supply the fringe benefit at lower costs than the employee is able to achieve on their own – and consequently pass it on to the employee.
Secondly, the tax system may encourage the provision of cars over monetary remuneration from the perspective of both the employer and employee. Ways on how this can be encouraged include tax benefits (tax deductions and depreciation write-offs)
Thirdly, firms may want the employee to drive in a car of certain minimum standard or have access to a suitable vehicle at all times.
It may also benefit the employer if there is advertising/branding on the car's paintwork (or window stickers), since if the employee uses the car during the evening/weekend, it spreads advertising in public areas more than if the car was locked up in a garage during these times.
The use of company cars is widespread in some regions. For example, business registrations account for roughly 50% of all car sales in the EU, largely due to taxation rules which give companies a strong incentive to provide the benefit. The practice has been criticised by many groups who argue that the benefit encourages people to drive more (thus increasing CO2 emissions), reduces government tax revenues, distorts economic competition, and may work to neutralise other government programs and objectives.
Usage by police departments
Police departments are among frequent participants in take-home vehicle programs, allowing officers to take home the police cars they use while on duty. It is considered to be a fringe benefit by the departments. It has been viewed by some departments as a crime-fighting tool, given its cost.
Issues with take-home vehicles
Economic distortions
There is a straightforward distortion in consumer markets as consumers through tax incentives are being encouraged to consume more car services than they would have been otherwise.
There is also a substantial tax loss resulting from the subsidy.
Environmental damage
Studies have shown that the subsidy encourages consumers to buy more and bigger cars than they would choose otherwise. In many areas, fuel costs are also covered by the benefit, so that the marginal cost of driving may approach zero. In these areas consumers are encouraged to drive more frequently and farther than they otherwise would, and avoid other forms of transportation. Emissions of CO2 and other harmful gases are clearly higher as a result.
Costs to government
When issued by a government agency, concern has been brought up by citizens and advocates over taxpayer money used to fund take-home vehicles. This has led some cities to cutting or reducing the number of employees to whom vehicles are offered.
In Sacramento, California, the issuing of take-home vehicles has come under scrutiny as the city has faced a budget deficit.
In the city of Baltimore, the use of take-home vehicles by city employees has been questioned due to the distance that city employees drive them to their homes. It was determined in a report that two-thirds of city employees drive their vehicles outside city limits, some more than 100 mi (160 km) from the city, and the cost to taxpayers, which included fuel, was high. Baltimore's former mayor Sheila Dixon was also criticized for having three tax-funded take-home vehicles parked at her house. She defended herself by saying she might need the vehicles if there were an emergency.
In Dallas, the city was having trouble obtaining data in attempting to determine the cost of take-home vehicles to taxpayers.
The city of Los Angeles was criticized for issuing take-home vehicles to utility employees while raising rates to customers, though the city stated it would be a minuscule part of the budget.
The city of Evansville, Indiana reduced the number of take-home vehicles offered to city employees, but allowed public safety employees to keep theirs.
See also
Cycling and public transport: alternatives to privately owned motorized vehicles
Fleet vehicle
Remote work
Smart mobility: component of the European Green Deal
Traffic congestion
Criticism of vehicle-to-grid
References
Vehicle
Vehicle law | wiki |
The 1903–04 Butler Bulldogs men's basketball team represented Butler University during the 1903–04 college men's basketball season. The head coach was Ralph Jones, coaching in his second season with the Bulldogs.
Schedule
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References
Butler Bulldogs men's basketball seasons
Butler
Butl
Butl | wiki |
The gown-and-glove striptease is considered a very traditional form of the striptease. This routine developed in America and spread to Europe. The performer, usually female, is dressed elegantly in an evening gown with a back zipper and elbow length opera gloves. She then removes the gloves one at a time, in a slow teasing manner, before similarly removing the gown. This type of dance is exemplified by actresses like Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946) and Natalie Wood in Gypsy (1962) and by current neo-burlesque performers like Dita Von Teese, Bonnie Delight, Bettsie Bon Bon and Havana Hurricane.
See also
Jessica Rabbit
References
Erotic dance | wiki |
Once Upon A Time In Punchbowl is a four-part Australian documentary television series produced by SBS on the Lebanese community in multicultural Australia. It premiered on 19 June 2014.
Originally due for airing in 2013 the documentary was delayed due to issues with the integrity of the subjects within the program.
References
Special Broadcasting Service original programming
2010s Australian documentary television series
Television series by Northern Pictures | wiki |
The King of Miami (2007–2008) was a reality comedy TV show that tracked the adventures of comedian Dave Hill and his sidekick (Phil Costello) as they try to establish themselves as big-name celebrities in Miami, Florida. Despite having dubious credentials and being from Cleveland, Ohio, Hill adopts the moniker “The King of Miami” and begins acquiring the accoutrements and buzz of a famous Miamian.
The King of Miami ran for one season. The show aired on the MOJO HD network. It is also currently airing on Film24 in the United Kingdom.
External links
King of Miami (MOJO HD)
2000s American reality television series
2007 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings
Television shows set in Miami | wiki |
Forensic Files is an American documentary series which reveals how forensic science is used to solve violent crimes, mysterious accidents, and even outbreaks of illness. The show is broadcast on truTV, narrated by Peter Thomas, and produced by Medstar Television, in association with truTV Original Productions. It has broadcast 406 episodes since its debut on TLC in 1996 as Medical Detectives. The HLN channel broadcasts new episodes once a week.
Episodes
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References
External links
Forensic Files episodes on TV Guide
04 | wiki |
Spray drying is a method of forming a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly drying with a hot gas. This is the preferred method of drying of many thermally-sensitive materials such as foods and pharmaceuticals, or materials which may require extremely consistent, fine particle size. Air is the heated drying medium; however, if the liquid is a flammable solvent such as ethanol or the product is oxygen-sensitive then nitrogen is used.
All spray dryers use some type of atomizer or spray nozzle to disperse the liquid or slurry into a controlled drop size spray. The most common of these are rotary disk and single-fluid high pressure swirl nozzles. Atomizer wheels are known to provide broader particle size distribution, but both methods allow for consistent distribution of particle size. Alternatively, for some applications two-fluid or ultrasonic nozzles are used. Depending on the process requirements, drop sizes from 10 to 500 μm can be achieved with the appropriate choices. The most common applications are in the 100 to 200 μm diameter range. The dry powder is often free-flowing.
The most common type of spray dryers are called single effect. There is a single source of drying air at the top of the chamber (see n°4 on the diagram). In most cases the air is blown in the same direction as the sprayed liquid (co-current). A fine powder is produced, but it can have poor flow and produce much dust. To overcome the dust and poor flow of the powder, a new generation of spray dryers called multiple effect spray dryers have been produced. Instead of drying the liquid in one stage, drying is done through two steps: the first at the top (as per single effect) and the second with an integrated static bed at the bottom of the chamber. The bed provides a humid environment which causes smaller particles to clump, producing more uniform particle sizes, usually within the range of 100 to 300 μm. These powders are free-flowing due to the larger particle size.
The fine powders generated by the first stage drying can be recycled in continuous flow either at the top of the chamber (around the sprayed liquid) or at the bottom, inside the integrated fluidized bed.
The drying of the powder can be finalized on an external vibrating fluidized bed.
The hot drying gas can be passed in as a co-current, same direction as sprayed liquid atomizer, or counter-current, where the hot air flows against the flow from the atomizer. With co-current flow, particles spend less time in the system and the particle separator (typically a cyclone device). With counter-current flow, particles spend more time in the system and is usually paired with a fluidized bed system. Co-current flow generally allows the system to operate more efficiently.
Alternatives to spray dryers are:
Freeze dryer: a more-expensive batch process for products that degrade in spray drying. Dry product is not free-flowing.
Drum dryer: a less-expensive continuous process for low-value products; creates flakes instead of free-flowing powder.
Pulse combustion dryer: A less-expensive continuous process that can handle higher viscosities and solids loading than a spray dryer, and sometimes yields a freeze-dry quality powder that is free-flowing.
Spray dryer
A spray dryer takes a liquid stream and separates the solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent into a vapor. The solid is usually collected in a drum or cyclone. The liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapor stream and vaporized. Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make the droplets as small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water vaporization. Droplet sizes can range from 20 to 180 μm depending on the nozzle.
There are two main types of nozzles: high pressure single fluid nozzle (50 to 300 bars) and two-fluid nozzles: one fluid is the liquid to dry and the second is compressed gas (generally air at 1 to 7 bars).
Spray dryers can dry a product very quickly compared to other methods of drying. They also turn a solution (or slurry) into a dried powder in a single step, which simplifies the process and improves profit margins.
In pharmaceutical manufacturing, spray drying is employed to manufacture Amorphous Solid Dispersions, by uniformly dispersing Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients into a polymer matrix. This state will put the active compounds (drug) in a higher state of energy which in turn facilitates diffusion of drug spices in patient body.
Micro-encapsulation
Spray drying often is used as an encapsulation technique by the food and other industries. A substance to be encapsulated (the load) and an amphipathic carrier (usually some sort of modified starch) are homogenized as a suspension in water (the slurry). The slurry is then fed into a spray drier, usually a tower heated to temperatures above the boiling point of water.
As the slurry enters the tower, it is atomized. Partly because of the high surface tension of water and partly because of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions between the amphipathic carrier, the water, and the load, the atomized slurry forms micelles. The small size of the drops (averaging 100 micrometers in diameter) results in a relatively large surface area which dries quickly. As the water dries, the carrier forms a hardened shell around the load.
Load loss is usually a function of molecular weight. That is, lighter molecules tend to boil off in larger quantities at the processing temperatures. Loss is minimized industrially by spraying into taller towers. A larger volume of air has a lower average humidity as the process proceeds. By the osmosis principle, water will be encouraged by its difference in fugacities in the vapor and liquid phases to leave the micelles and enter the air. Therefore, the same percentage of water can be dried out of the particles at lower temperatures if larger towers are used. Alternatively, the slurry can be sprayed into a partial vacuum. Since the boiling point of a solvent is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the solvent is equal to the ambient pressure, reducing pressure in the tower has the effect of lowering the boiling point of the solvent.
The application of the spray drying encapsulation technique is to prepare "dehydrated" powders of substances which do not have any water to dehydrate. For example, instant drink mixes are spray dries of the various chemicals which make up the beverage. The technique was once used to remove water from food products. One example is the preparation of dehydrated milk. Because the milk was not being encapsulated and because spray drying causes thermal degradation, milk dehydration and similar processes have been replaced by other dehydration techniques. Skim milk powders are still widely produced using spray drying technology, typically at high solids concentration for maximum drying efficiency. Thermal degradation of products can be overcome by using lower operating temperatures and larger chamber sizes for increased residence times.
Recent research is now suggesting that the use of spray-drying techniques may be an alternative method for crystallization of amorphous powders during the drying process since the temperature effects on the amorphous powders may be significant depending on drying residence times.
Spray drying applications
Food: milk powder, coffee, tea, eggs, cereal, spices, flavorings, blood, starch and starch derivatives, vitamins, enzymes, stevia, nutracutical, colourings, animal feed, etc.
Pharmaceutical: antibiotics, medical ingredients, additives
Industrial: paint pigments, ceramic materials, catalyst supports, microalgae
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Keey, R.B., (1992). Drying of Loose and Particulate Materials 1st ed., Taylor & Francis,
Nutritional evaluation of food processing second edition (1975), Robert S. Harris, Ph.D. and Endel Karmas Ph.D. (eds)
Cook, E.M, and DuMont, H.D. (1991) Process Drying Practice, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
External links
Animation of standard Spray Drying Concept
Spray Drying trainings paper
Food industry
Flavor technology
Drying processes
Industrial processes
Pharmaceutical industry | wiki |
Irene Riano (1871 — 1940) foi uma atriz de teatro britânica. Era mãe da também atriz Renie Riano (1899–1971).
Atrizes do Reino Unido
Atrizes de teatro | wiki |
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