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USPC may refer to:
The United States Poker Championship
United States Pony Clubs
United States Playing Card Company (USPC)
Heckler & Koch USP Compact Variant (USPc)
United States Parole Commission
Peace Corps, also known as the United States Peace Corps (USPC)
Urban Sports Performance Centre | wiki |
Lead validation is the process by which sales leads generated by internet marketing campaigns are separated from other types of conversions. Lead validation is crucial for effective internet marketing management; without it, companies can neither accurately evaluate the results of, nor efficiently improve, their SEO, PPC, display advertising, email, content marketing and social media campaigns.
Definitions
Three other terms are particularly important to any discussion of lead validation:
Conversion. A conversion (also referred to as an inquiry) is a response to an Internet marketing campaign, such as an online form being submitted, content being downloaded, or a phone call being placed. It is important to note that a conversion is not the same as a sales lead. A conversion could be a prospect inquiring about a company's products or services — but it could also be a customer lodging a complaint, a sales solicitation or some other non-sales related communication.
Conversion Rate. The conversion rate of an Internet marketing campaign is the number of website visitors who complete a desired action, divided by the total number of visitors. For example, if 10,000 visitors come to a PPC landing page and 500 submit the page's inquiry form, the conversion rate is 5 percent.
Validated Conversion Rate. The validated conversion rate is the net conversion rate after the lead validation process has removed non-sales lead inquires. So, returning to the example above (see Conversion Rate), if 10,000 visitors come to a PPC landing page, 500 submit the page's inquiry form, and 300 of those are true sales leads, the validated conversion rate of the campaign is 3 percent.
In the examples cited above, the importance of lead validation becomes clear: Without lead validation, the PPC advertiser will assume it has received 200 leads (500 inquiries versus 300 validated leads) that do not, in fact, exist. This serious flaw in analytics causes several marketing- and business-related problems.
Methods of Generating Leads Online
Companies have several options for online lead generation, each having its own campaign structures, metrics and set of best practices. The most important and typically most effective options are:
SEO. SEO, search engine optimization, strives to make a company's online content as visible as possible on Google, Bing and other search engines in organic results for search queries relevant to its products and services. Because Google withholds organic keyword data from webmasters, accurate conversion analysis has become more important than ever in the structuring of SEO campaign tracking, since it has far more meaning than ranking data.
PPC. PPC, pay-per-click advertising, strives to display ads prominently on Google, Bing and other search engines for search queries relevant to its products and services. Many PPC campaigns are primarily or entirely focused on immediate lead generation; therefore, obtaining accurate conversion data is imperative.
Display Advertising. Display advertising strives to display ads on Web content based on past user behavior, and/or on websites whose audiences are relevant to the advertiser. Popular types of display advertising include retargeting, contextual targeting and site targeting. Display advertising campaigns can focus on immediate lead generation, or be combined with longer-term brand-building objectives.
Email Marketing. Email marketing is used in a variety of ways to reach new customers and deepen relationships with existing customers. Email content is used extensively by consumer businesses for direct lead generation; B2B firms use email for both direct lead generation and other purposes such as information sharing and credibility building.
Content Marketing. Content marketing involves the use of online content publication and distribution for the ultimate purpose of lead generation. (Content marketing also includes publishing and distributing content offline.) Frequently, content marketing is used for the specific lead generation purpose of building a house mailing list, by offering high-quality content as downloads that function as secondary offers. In addition, content marketing may utilize an indirect lead generation strategy—for example, publishing content with no direct call to action, with the expectation that its high intrinsic value will attract prospects and referrals.
Social Media Marketing. Social media marketing involves a company's active participation in one or more social media platforms. While the objectives of social media marketing vary widely and sometimes do not include a lead generation component, it can be highly effective for direct lead generation provided the company's social community(s) is engaged, of sufficient size and properly targeted.
Other types of non-sales lead inquiries include the following:
Customer service. Current customers phoning or submitting a form for customer service support regarding a product, service, billing, etc.
General business. Phone calls or form submissions from a company's vendors and stakeholders, communications from government agencies, inquiries from journalists, etc.
Peer-to-peer. Internal communications, networking requests from competitors or complementary product/service providers, etc.
Personal. Phone calls and form submissions of a personal nature
Sales solicitation. Existing or potential vendors using phone calls and form submissions to pitch services
Spam. Automated or semi-automated form submissions or phone calls with or without a legitimate business intent
Further reading
Digital marketing
Sales | wiki |
Brave New Girl may refer to:
Brave New Girl (novel), a novel by Louisa Luna
"Brave New Girl", a song by Britney Spears from In the Zone
Brave New Girl, a 2004 TV movie adapted from the novel A Mother's Gift by Britney and Lynne Spears
Brave New Girls, a Canadian television reality series which premiered in 2014
See also
New Girl (disambiguation) | wiki |
An inertial reference unit (IRU) is a type of inertial sensor which uses gyroscopes (electromechanical, ring laser gyro or MEMS) and accelerometers (electromechanical or MEMS) to determine a moving aircraft’s or spacecraft’s change in rotational attitude (angular orientation relative to some reference frame) and translational position (typically latitude, longitude and altitude) over a period of time. In other words, an IRU allows a device, whether airborne or submarine, to travel from one point to another without reference to external information.
Another name often used interchangeably with IRU is Inertial Measurement Unit. The two basic classes of IRUs/IMUs are "gimballed" and "strapdown". The older, larger gimballed systems have become less prevalent over the years as the performance of newer, smaller strapdown systems has improved greatly via the use of solid-state sensors and advanced real-time computer algorithms. Gimballed systems are still used in some high-precision applications where strapdown performance may not be as good.
See also
Air data inertial reference unit
Inertial measurement unit
External links
Optical Inertial Reference Units (IRUs)
Navigational equipment
Aircraft instruments
Avionics | wiki |
Women senators may refer to:
List of women in Seanad Éireann, the upper house in Ireland
Women in the Australian Senate
Women in the French Senate
Women in the Philippine Senate
Women in the United States Senate
Women in the Sri Lankan Parliament, includes current female Senators
Women in the 44th Canadian Parliament, includes current female Senators
See also
Women in Congress (disambiguation)
Women in the House (disambiguation)
Women in House of Representatives (disambiguation)
Women in Parliament (disambiguation) | wiki |
The interspinous ligaments (interspinal ligaments) are thin and membranous ligaments, that connect adjoining spinous processes of the vertebra in the spine.
They extend from the root to the apex of each spinous process. They meet the ligamenta flava in front and blend with the supraspinous ligament behind.
The ligaments are narrow and elongated in the thoracic region, broader, thicker, and quadrilateral in form in the lumbar region, and only slightly developed in the neck. In the neck they are often considered part of the nuchal ligament.
The function of the interspinous ligaments is to limit flexion of the spine.
References
External links
Interspinous ligaments on AnatomyExpert.com
Interspinous ligament - BlueLink Anatomy - University of Michigan Medical School
Ligaments of the torso
Bones of the vertebral column | wiki |
Le Microsoft Lumia 540 est un smartphone conçu et assemblé par le constructeur Microsoft Mobile. Il fonctionne sous le système d'exploitation Windows Phone 8.1.
Il sort le , Microsoft ayant procédé à quelques améliorations techniques de son Lumia 535 afin de mieux satisfaire les pays émergents avec un affichage et une caméra améliorée.
Notes et références
Appareil sous Windows Phone
Produit lancé en 2014
Téléphone mobile Microsoft Lumia | wiki |
An intramolecular force (or primary forces) is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules. The subtle difference in the name comes from the Latin roots of English with inter meaning between or among and intra meaning inside. Chemical bonds are considered to be intramolecular forces which are often stronger than intermolecular forces present between non-bonding atoms or molecules.
Types
The classical model identifies three main types of chemical bonds — ionic, covalent, and metallic — distinguished by the degree of charge separation between participating atoms. The characteristics of the bond formed can be predicted by the properties of constituent atoms, namely electronegativity. They differ in the magnitude of their bond enthalpies, a measure of bond strength, and thus affect the physical and chemical properties of compounds in different ways. % of ionic character is directly proportional difference in electronegitivity of bonded atom.
Ionic bond
An ionic bond can be approximated as complete transfer of one or more valence electrons of atoms participating in bond formation, resulting in a positive ion and a negative ion bound together by electrostatic forces. Electrons in an ionic bond tend to be mostly found around one of the two constituent atoms due to the large electronegativity difference between the two atoms, generally more than 1.9, (greater difference in electronegativity results in a stronger bond); this is often described as one atom giving electrons to the other. This type of bond is generally formed between a metal and nonmetal, such as sodium and chlorine in NaCl. Sodium would give an electron to chlorine, forming a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged chloride ion.
Covalent bond
In a true covalent bond, the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms of the bond; there is little or no charge separation. Covalent bonds are generally formed between two nonmetals. There are several types of covalent bonds: in polar covalent bonds, electrons are more likely to be found around one of the two atoms, whereas in nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are evenly shared. Homonuclear diatomic molecules are purely covalent. The polarity of a covalent bond is determined by the electronegativities of each atom and thus a polar covalent bond has a dipole moment pointing from the partial positive end to the partial negative end. Polar covalent bonds represent an intermediate type in which the electrons are neither completely transferred from one atom to another nor evenly shared.
Metallic bond
Metallic bonds generally form within a pure metal or metal alloy. Metallic electrons are generally delocalized; the result is a large number of free electrons around positive nuclei, sometimes called an electron sea.
Bond formation
Comparison of the bond lengths between carbon and oxygen in a double and triple bond.
Bonds are formed by atoms so that they are able to achieve a lower energy state. Free atoms will have more energy than a bonded atom. This is because some energy is released during bond formation, allowing the entire system to achieve a lower energy state. The bond length, or the minimum separating distance between two atoms participating in bond formation, is determined by their repulsive and attractive forces along the internuclear direction. As the two atoms get closer and closer, the positively charged nuclei repel, creating a force that attempts to push the atoms apart. As the two atoms get further apart, attractive forces work to pull them back together. Thus an equilibrium bond length is achieved and is a good measure of bond stability.
Biochemistry
Intramolecular forces are extremely important in the field of biochemistry, where it comes into play at the most basic levels of biological structures. Intramolecular forces such as disulfide bonds give proteins and DNA their structure. Proteins derive their structure from the intramolecular forces that shape them and hold them together. The main source of structure in these molecules is the interaction between the amino acid residues that form the foundation of proteins. The interactions between residues of the same proteins forms the secondary structure of the protein, allowing for the formation of beta sheets and alpha helices, which are important structures for proteins and in the case of alpha helices, for DNA.
See also
Chemical bond
Intermolecular force
References
Chemical bonding | wiki |
The sixth season of Homicide: Life on the Street aired in the United States on the NBC television network from October 17, 1997 to May 8, 1998 and contained 23 episodes.
The sixth season marked the debut of character Detective Laura Ballard (Callie Thorne). Detectives Frank Pembleton (Andre Braugher) and Mike Kellerman (Reed Diamond) depart the show in the season finale. Chief Medical Examiner Julianna Cox departs mid-season, with her last appearance being in the episode "Lies and Other Truths". Detectives Paul Falsone (Jon Seda) and Stuart Gharty (Peter Gerety), both of whom appeared in the Season 5 finale, become regular characters.
The DVD box set of season 6 was released for Region 1 on January 25, 2005. The set includes all 23 season 6 episodes on six discs.
Going into the sixth season, NBC gave the series producers an ultimatum to make Homicide more popular than its CBS timeslot competitor Nash Bridges or face cancellation. When this goal was not reached, the studio began serious consideration to canceling the show, but a number of unexpected events at NBC increased Homicide's value. Among those factors were the loss of the popular series Seinfeld and the $850 million deal needed to keep ER from leaving the network. As a result, the show received a 22-episode seventh season.
Andre Braugher would go on to win the only Emmy and, in 1999, Golden Globe awards the series would ever receive.
Episodes
When first shown on network television, multiple episodes were aired out of order. The DVD present the episodes in the correct chronological order, restoring all storylines and character developments.
References
1997 American television seasons
1998 American television seasons | wiki |
Girl Meets World is an American comedy television series created by Michael Jacobs and April Kelly that premiered on Disney Channel on June 27, 2014. The series ran for three seasons, consisting of 72 episodes, and concluded on January 20, 2017. The series is a spinoff of Boy Meets World and stars Rowan Blanchard, Ben Savage, Sabrina Carpenter, Peyton Meyer, August Maturo, Danielle Fishel, and Corey Fogelmanis.
The series centers around the life of Riley and her friends and family, particularly their school life, in which Cory is their history teacher. Riley shares a strong relationship with her best friend Maya Hart, who assists her in learning to cope with social and personal issues of adolescence. Several Boy Meets World cast members reprise their roles in the series.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2014–15)
While Corey Fogelmanis becomes listed as a main cast member later in the season, he is a guest star for thirteen episodes.
Special (2015)
This episode aired between the first and second season as part of Disney Channel's "What the What" special event and is not classified as an episode from either season despite being filmed during season two.
Season 2 (2015–16)
Season 3 (2016–17)
See also
List of Girl Meets World characters
References
Lists of American children's television series episodes
Lists of American comedy television series episodes
Lists of Disney Channel television series episodes | wiki |
Laser gingivectomy is a dental procedure that recontours or scalpels the gingival tissue to improve long term dental health or aesthetics. Compared to conventional scalpel surgery, soft-tissue dental lasers, such as Laser diode, Nd:YAG laser, Er:YAG laser, Er,Cr:YSGG laser, and CO2 lasers, can perform this procedure, offering a precise, stable, bloodless, often less painful, and accelerated healing experience. However, the Laser diode gained more popularity due to its versatility, less interaction with hard tissue, ease of use, and the less expensive set up.
Medical uses
Where a patient presents with an unsightly gummy smile due to too much gingival coverage of tooth crown, especially the upper front incisors
Where there is overgrowth of the gum due to oral hygiene issues, drug usage, or hereditary medical condition. Sometimes overgrowth of the gum can be seen during orthodontic treatment with fixed braces.
Surgical exposure of teeth with delayed eruption or superficially impacted teeth to facilitate orthodontic treatment and tooth eruption
References
Dentistry procedures
Periodontology | wiki |
Worsted ( or ) is a high-quality type of wool yarn, the fabric made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from Worstead, a village in the English county of Norfolk. That village, together with North Walsham and Aylsham, formed a manufacturing centre for yarn and cloth in the 12th century, when pasture enclosure and liming rendered the East Anglian soil too rich for the older agrarian sheep breeds. In the same period, many weavers from the County of Flanders moved to Norfolk. "Worsted" yarns/fabrics are distinct from woollens (though both are made from sheep's wool): the former is considered stronger, finer, smoother, and harder than the latter.
Worsted was made from the long-staple pasture wool from sheep breeds such as Teeswaters, Old Leicester Longwool and Romney Marsh. Pasture wool was not carded; instead it was washed, gilled and combed (using heated long-tooth metal combs), oiled and finally spun. When woven, worsteds were scoured but not fulled.
Worsted wool fabric is typically used in the making of tailored garments such as suits, as opposed to woollen wool, which is used for knitted items such as sweaters. In tropical-weight worsteds, the use of tightly spun, straightened wool combined with a looser weave permits air to flow through the fabric. Worsted is also used for carpets, clothing, hosiery, gloves and baize.
Manufacture
Worsted cloth, archaically also known as stuff, is lightweight and has a coarse texture. The weave is usually twill or plain. Twilled fabrics such as whipcord, gabardine and serge are often made from worsted yarn. Worsted fabric made from wool has a natural recovery, meaning that it is resilient and quickly returns to its natural shape, but non-glossy worsted will shine with use or abrasion.
Worsted and woollens
Though both made of wool, worsted and woollens undergo different manufacturing steps resulting in significantly different cloths. In worsteds, which undergo more spinning steps, the natural crimp of the wool fiber is removed in the process of spinning the yarn while it is retained in woolens, and woollens are produced with short-staple yarns while worsted cloths need longer staple length. When woven, the yarns in worsted cloth lie parallel. Woollen materials are soft and bulky with fuzzy surfaces, while worsted is smoother. There are different terms in use for describing the softness of textile materials. The wool trade term for it is handle, with good handling cloth being soft to the touch, while poor handling suggests the material's harsh hand feel.
Technique and preparation
The essential feature of worsted yarn is straight, parallel fibres. Originally, long, fine staple wool was spun to create worsted yarn; today, other long fibres are also used.
Many spinners differentiate between worsted preparation and worsted spinning. Worsted preparation refers to the way the fibre is prepared before spinning, using ginning machines which force the fibre staples to lie parallel to each other. Once these fibres have been made into a top, they are then combed to remove the short fibres. The long fibres are combined in subsequent gilling machines to again make the fibres parallel. This produces overlapping untwisted strands called slivers. Worsted spinning refers to using a worsted technique, which produces a smooth yarn in which the fibres lie parallel.
Roving and wool top are often used to spin worsted yarn. Many hand spinners buy their fibre in roving or top form. Top and roving are ropelike in appearance, in that they can be thick and long. While some mills put a slight twist in the rovings they make, it is not enough twist to be a yarn. The fibres in top and rovings all lie parallel to one another along the length, which makes top ideal for spinning worsted yarns.
Worsted-spun yarns, used to create worsted fabric, are spun from fibres that have been combed, to ensure that the fibres all run the same direction, butt-end (for wool, the end that was cut in shearing the sheep) to tip, and remain parallel. A short draw is used in spinning worsted fibres (as opposed to a long draw).
In short draw spinning, spun from combed roving, sliver or wool top, the spinners keep their hands very close to each other. The fibres are held fanned out in one hand while the other hand pulls a small number from the mass. The twist is kept between the second hand and the wheel—there is never any twist between the two hands.
Weight
According to the Craft Yarn Council, the term "Worsted Weight", also known as "Afghan",
"Aran", or simply "Medium", refers to a particular weight of yarn that produces a gauge of 16–20 stitches per 4 inches of stockinette, and is best knitted with 4.5mm to 5.5mm needles (US size 7–9).
The term worsted, in relation to textile yarn weight, is defined as the number of hanks of yarn, each with a length of 560 yards, that weigh one pound.
Automation
Before the introduction of automatic machinery, there was little difficulty in attaining a straight fibre, as long wool was always used, and the sliver was made up by hand, using combs. The introduction of Richard Arkwright's water frame in 1771, and the later introduction of cap and mule spinning machines, required perfectly prepared slivers. Many manufactories used one or more preparatory combing machines (called gill-boxes) before further processing, to ensure straight fibres and to distribute the lubricant evenly.
References
Further reading
External links
Standard Yarn Weight System - Lists recommended needle sizes, gauge, etc., for the various yarn weight categories.
Woolen and Worsted Yarns
joyofhandspinning.com on Dutch combs
Spinning
Woven fabrics
Wool
Norfolk
Yarn | wiki |
For the Girls is the seventh album and sixth studio album of actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth.
Overview
On August 13, 2019, Chenoweth announced via her social media that she would release her next studio album in the fall of 2019. The album itself would be her most personal cover album yet, paying tribute to many of strong female artists who inspired her as an entertainer including Dolly Parton, Barbra Streisand, Doris Day, Judy Garland, Carole King, and others. She also revealed that the album would include duets with artists such as Parton and Reba McEntire, along with her former Hairspray Live co-stars Ariana Grande and Jennifer Hudson.
The lyric video for "You Don't Own Me", a duet with Ariana Grande, was released the same day as the album on September 27, 2019.
In support of the album, Chenoweth announced she would return to Broadway with her second Broadway concert residency of the same name, consisting of eight performances at Broadway's Nederlander Theatre
Track listing
Charts
References
2019 albums
Concord Records albums
Kristin Chenoweth albums | wiki |
Jovita may refer to:
People
Jovita Carranza (born 1949), American businesswoman, 44th Treasurer of the United States
Jovita Delaney (born 1974), Irish camogie player
Jovita Feitosa (1848–1867), Brazilian soldier
Jovita Fontanez, American public official
Jovita Fuentes (1895–1978), Filipina singer
Jovita González (1904–1983), American folklorist, educator, and writer
Jovita Idar (1885–1946), American journalist, political activist and civil rights worker
Jovita Laurušaitė (born 1956), Lithuanian painter and ceramist
Jovita Moore (1967–2021), American television news anchor
Jovita Virador, Filipino domestic worker who was one of the murder victims of the Andrew Road triple murders
Other
921 Jovita, asteroid
Faustinus and Jovita, saints
Jovita (railcar)
Jovita, Córdoba, town in Argentina
Lake Jovita; see San Antonio, Florida | wiki |
Pangani, een rivier in Tanzania
Pangani, een stad in Tanzania
Pangani, een district in Tanzania | wiki |
The dreadnought (alternatively spelled dreadnaught) was the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century. The first of the kind, the Royal Navy's , had such an effect when launched in 1906 that similar battleships built after her were referred to as "dreadnoughts", and earlier battleships became known as pre-dreadnoughts. Her design had two revolutionary features: an "all-big-gun" armament scheme, with an unprecedented number of heavy-calibre guns, and steam turbine propulsion. As dreadnoughts became a crucial symbol of national power, the arrival of these new warships renewed the naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany. Dreadnought races sprang up around the world, including in South America, lasting up to the beginning of World War I. Successive designs increased rapidly in size and made use of improvements in armament, armour, and propulsion throughout the dreadnought era. Within five years, new battleships outclassed Dreadnought herself. These more powerful vessels were known as "super-dreadnoughts". Most of the original dreadnoughts were scrapped after the end of World War I under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty, but many of the newer super-dreadnoughts continued serving throughout World War II.
Dreadnought-building consumed vast resources in the early 20th century, but there was only one battle between large dreadnought fleets. At the Battle of Jutland in 1916, the British and German navies clashed with no decisive result. The term "dreadnought" gradually dropped from use after World War I, especially after the Washington Naval Treaty, as virtually all remaining battleships shared dreadnought characteristics; it can also be used to describe battlecruisers, the other type of ship resulting from the dreadnought revolution.
Origins
The distinctive all-big-gun armament of the dreadnought was developed in the first years of the 20th century as navies sought to increase the range and power of the armament of their battleships. The typical battleship of the 1890s, now known as the "pre-dreadnought", had a main armament of four heavy guns of calibre, a secondary armament of six to eighteen quick-firing guns of between calibre, and other smaller weapons. This was in keeping with the prevailing theory of naval combat that battles would initially be fought at some distance, but the ships would then approach to close range for the final blows (as they did in the Battle of Manila Bay), when the shorter-range, faster-firing guns would prove most useful. Some designs had an intermediate battery of guns. Serious proposals for an all-big-gun armament were circulated in several countries by 1903.
All-big-gun designs commenced almost simultaneously in three navies. In 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy authorized construction of , originally designed with twelve guns. Work began on her construction in May 1905. The Royal Navy began the design of HMS Dreadnought in January 1905, and she was laid down in October of the same year. Finally, the US Navy gained authorization for , carrying eight 12-inch guns, in March 1905, with construction commencing in December 1906.
The move to all-big-gun designs was accomplished because a uniform, heavy-calibre armament offered advantages in both firepower and fire control, and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 showed that future naval battles could, and likely would, be fought at long distances. The newest guns had longer range and fired heavier shells than a gun of calibre. Another possible advantage was fire control; at long ranges guns were aimed by observing the splashes caused by shells fired in salvoes, and it was difficult to interpret different splashes caused by different calibres of gun. There is still debate as to whether this feature was important.
Long-range gunnery
In naval battles of the 1890s the decisive weapon was the medium-calibre, typically , quick-firing gun firing at relatively short range; at the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894, the victorious Japanese did not commence firing until the range had closed to , and most of the fighting occurred at . At these ranges, lighter guns had good accuracy, and their high rate of fire delivered high volumes of ordnance on the target, known as the "hail of fire". Naval gunnery was too inaccurate to hit targets at a longer range.
By the early 20th century, British and American admirals expected future battleships would engage at longer distances. Newer models of torpedo had longer ranges. For instance, in 1903, the US Navy ordered a design of torpedo effective to . Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges. In 1900, Admiral Fisher, commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet, ordered gunnery practice with 6-inch guns at . By 1904 the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of torpedoes with a range of .
The range of light and medium-calibre guns was limited, and accuracy declined badly at longer range. At longer ranges the advantage of a high rate of fire decreased; accurate shooting depended on spotting the shell-splashes of the previous salvo, which limited the optimum rate of fire.
On 10 August 1904 the Imperial Russian Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy had one of the longest-range gunnery duels to date—over during the Battle of the Yellow Sea. The Russian battleships were equipped with Liuzhol range finders with an effective range of , and the Japanese ships had Barr & Stroud range finders that reached out to , but both sides still managed to hit each other with fire at . Naval architects and strategists around the world took notice.
All-big-gun mixed-calibre ships
An evolutionary step was to reduce the quick-firing secondary battery and substitute additional heavy guns, typically . Ships designed in this way have been described as 'all-big-gun mixed-calibre' or later 'semi-dreadnoughts'. Semi-dreadnought ships had many heavy secondary guns in wing turrets near the center of the ship, instead of the small guns mounted in barbettes of earlier pre-dreadnought ships.
Semi-dreadnought classes included the British and ; Russian ; Japanese , , and ; American and ; French ; Italian ; and Austro-Hungarian .
The design process for these ships often included discussion of an 'all-big-gun one-calibre' alternative. The June 1902 issue of Proceedings of the US Naval Institute contained comments by the US Navy's leading gunnery expert, P. R. Alger, proposing a main battery of eight guns in twin turrets. In May 1902, the Bureau of Construction and Repair submitted a design for the battleship with twelve guns in twin turrets, two at the ends and four in the wings. Lt. Cdr. Homer C. Poundstone submitted a paper to President Theodore Roosevelt in December 1902 arguing the case for larger battleships. In an appendix to his paper, Poundstone suggested a greater number of guns was preferable to a smaller number of . The Naval War College and Bureau of Construction and Repair developed these ideas in studies between 1903 and 1905. War-game studies begun in July 1903 "showed that a battleship armed with twelve guns hexagonally arranged would be equal to three or more of the conventional type."
The Royal Navy was thinking along similar lines. A design had been circulated in 1902–1903 for "a powerful 'all big-gun' armament of two calibres, viz. four and twelve guns." The Admiralty decided to build three more King Edward VIIs (with a mixture of 12-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch) in the 1903–1904 naval construction programme instead. The all-big-gun concept was revived for the 1904–1905 programme, the Lord Nelson class. Restrictions on length and beam meant the midships 9.2-inch turrets became single instead of twin, thus giving an armament of four 12-inch, ten 9.2-inch and no 6-inch. The constructor for this design, J.H. Narbeth, submitted an alternative drawing showing an armament of twelve 12-inch guns, but the Admiralty was not prepared to accept this. Part of the rationale for the decision to retain mixed-calibre guns was the need to begin the building of the ships quickly because of the tense situation produced by the Russo-Japanese War.
Switch to all-big-gun designs
The replacement of the guns with weapons of calibre improved the striking power of a battleship, particularly at longer ranges. Uniform heavy-gun armament offered many other advantages. One advantage was logistical simplicity. When the US was considering whether to have a mixed-calibre main armament for the , for example, William Sims and Poundstone stressed the advantages of homogeneity in terms of ammunition supply and the transfer of crews from the disengaged guns to replace gunners wounded in action.
A uniform calibre of gun also helped streamline fire control. The designers of Dreadnought preferred an all-big-gun design because it would mean only one set of calculations about adjustments to the range of the guns. Some historians today hold that a uniform calibre was particularly important because the risk of confusion between shell-splashes of 12-inch and lighter guns made accurate ranging difficult. This viewpoint is controversial, as fire control in 1905 was not advanced enough to use the salvo-firing technique where this confusion might be important, and confusion of shell-splashes does not seem to have been a concern of those working on all-big-gun designs. Nevertheless, the likelihood of engagements at longer ranges was important in deciding that the heaviest possible guns should become standard, hence 12-inch rather than 10-inch.
The newer designs of 12-inch gun mounting had a considerably higher rate of fire, removing the advantage previously enjoyed by smaller calibres. In 1895, a 12-inch gun might have fired one round every four minutes; by 1902, two rounds per minute was usual. In October 1903, the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti published a paper in Jane's Fighting Ships entitled "An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy", which called for a 17,000-ton ship carrying a main armament of twelve 12-inch guns, protected by armour 12 inches thick, and having a speed of . Cuniberti's idea—which he had already proposed to his own navy, the Regia Marina—was to make use of the high rate of fire of new 12-inch guns to produce devastating rapid fire from heavy guns to replace the 'hail of fire' from lighter weapons. Something similar lay behind the Japanese move towards heavier guns; at Tsushima, Japanese shells contained a higher than normal proportion of high explosive, and were fused to explode on contact, starting fires rather than piercing armour. The increased rate of fire laid the foundations for future advances in fire control.
Building the first dreadnoughts
In Japan, the two battleships of the 1903–1904 programme were the first in the world to be laid down as all-big-gun ships, with eight 12-inch guns. The armour of their design was considered too thin, demanding a substantial redesign. The financial pressures of the Russo-Japanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns—which had to be imported from the United Kingdom—meant these ships were completed with a mixture of 12-inch and 10-inch armament. The 1903–1904 design retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines, unlike Dreadnought.
The dreadnought breakthrough occurred in the United Kingdom in October 1905. Fisher, now the First Sea Lord, had long been an advocate of new technology in the Royal Navy and had recently been convinced of the idea of an all-big-gun battleship. Fisher is often credited as the creator of the dreadnought and the father of the United Kingdom's great dreadnought battleship fleet, an impression he himself did much to reinforce. It has been suggested Fisher's main focus was on the arguably even more revolutionary battlecruiser and not the battleship.
Shortly after taking office, Fisher set up a Committee on Designs to consider future battleships and armoured cruisers. The committee's first task was to consider a new battleship. The specification for the new ship was a 12-inch main battery and anti-torpedo-boat guns but no intermediate calibres, and a speed of , which was two or three knots faster than existing battleships. The initial designs intended twelve 12-inch guns, though difficulties in positioning these guns led the chief constructor at one stage to propose a return to four 12-inch guns with sixteen or eighteen of 9.2-inch. After a full evaluation of reports of the action at Tsushima compiled by an official observer, Captain Pakenham, the Committee settled on a main battery of ten 12-inch guns, along with twenty-two 12-pounders as secondary armament. The committee also gave Dreadnought steam turbine propulsion, which was unprecedented in a large warship. The greater power and lighter weight of turbines meant the 21-knot design speed could be achieved in a smaller and less costly ship than if reciprocating engines had been used. Construction took place quickly; the keel was laid on 2 October 1905, the ship was launched on 10 February 1906, and completed on 3 October 1906—an impressive demonstration of British industrial might.
The first US dreadnoughts were the two South Carolina-class ships. Detailed plans for these were worked out in July–November 1905, and approved by the Board of Construction on 23 November 1905. Building was slow; specifications for bidders were issued on 21 March 1906, the contracts awarded on 21 July 1906 and the two ships were laid down in December 1906, after the completion of the Dreadnought.
Design
The designers of dreadnoughts sought to provide as much protection, speed, and firepower as possible in a ship of a realistic size and cost. The hallmark of dreadnought battleships was an "all-big-gun" armament, but they also had heavy armour concentrated mainly in a thick belt at the waterline and in one or more armoured decks. Secondary armament, fire control, command equipment, and protection against torpedoes also had to be crammed into the hull.
The inevitable consequence of demands for ever greater speed, striking power, and endurance meant that displacement, and hence cost, of dreadnoughts tended to increase. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 imposed a limit of 35,000 tons on the displacement of capital ships. In subsequent years treaty battleships were commissioned to build up to this limit. Japan's decision to leave the Treaty in the 1930s, and the arrival of the Second World War, eventually made this limit irrelevant.
Armament
Dreadnoughts mounted a uniform main battery of heavy-calibre guns; the number, size, and arrangement differed between designs. Dreadnought mounted ten 12-inch guns. 12-inch guns had been standard for most navies in the pre-dreadnought era, and this continued in the first generation of dreadnought battleships. The Imperial German Navy was an exception, continuing to use 11-inch guns in its first class of dreadnoughts, the .
Dreadnoughts also carried lighter weapons. Many early dreadnoughts carried a secondary armament of very light guns designed to fend off enemy torpedo boats. The calibre and weight of secondary armament tended to increase, as the range of torpedoes and the staying power of the torpedo boats and destroyers expected to carry them also increased. From the end of World War I onwards, battleships had to be equipped with many light guns as anti-aircraft armament.
Dreadnoughts frequently carried torpedo tubes themselves. In theory, a line of battleships so equipped could unleash a devastating volley of torpedoes on an enemy line steaming a parallel course. This was also a carry-over from the older tactical doctrine of continuously closing range with the enemy, and the idea that gunfire alone may be sufficient to cripple a battleship, but not sink it outright, so a coup de grace would be made with torpedoes. In practice, torpedoes fired from battleships scored very few hits, and there was a risk that a stored torpedo would cause a dangerous explosion if hit by enemy fire. And in fact, the only documented instance of one battleship successfully torpedoing another came during the action of 27 May 1941, where the British battleship claimed to have torpedoed the crippled at close range.
Position of main armament
The effectiveness of the guns depended in part on the layout of the turrets. Dreadnought, and the British ships which immediately followed it, carried five turrets: one forward, one aft and one amidships on the centreline of the ship, and two in the 'wings' next to the superstructure. This allowed three turrets to fire ahead and four on the broadside. The Nassau and classes of German dreadnoughts adopted a 'hexagonal' layout, with one turret each fore and aft and four wing turrets; this meant more guns were mounted in total, but the same number could fire ahead or broadside as with Dreadnought.
Dreadnought designs experimented with different layouts. The British Neptune-class battleship staggered the wing turrets, so all ten guns could fire on the broadside, a feature also used by the German . This risked blast damage to parts of the ship over which the guns fired, and put great stress on the ship's frames.
If all turrets were on the centreline of the vessel, stresses on the ship's frames were relatively low. This layout meant the entire main battery could fire on the broadside, though fewer could fire end-on. It meant the hull would be longer, which posed some challenges for the designers; a longer ship needed to devote more weight to armour to get equivalent protection, and the magazines which served each turret interfered with the distribution of boilers and engines. For these reasons, , which carried a record fourteen 12-inch guns in seven centreline turrets, was not considered a success.
A superfiring layout was eventually adopted as standard. This involved raising one or two turrets so they could fire over a turret immediately forward or astern of them. The US Navy adopted this feature with their first dreadnoughts in 1906, but others were slower to do so. As with other layouts there were drawbacks. Initially, there were concerns about the impact of the blast of the raised guns on the lower turret. Raised turrets raised the centre of gravity of the ship, and might reduce the stability of the ship. Nevertheless, this layout made the best of the firepower available from a fixed number of guns, and was eventually adopted generally. The US Navy used superfiring on the South Carolina class, and the layout was adopted in the Royal Navy with the of 1910. By World War II, superfiring was entirely standard.
Initially, all dreadnoughts had two guns to a turret. One solution to the problem of turret layout was to put three or even four guns in each turret. Fewer turrets meant the ship could be shorter, or could devote more space to machinery. On the other hand, it meant that in the event of an enemy shell destroying one turret, a higher proportion of the main armament would be out of action. The risk of the blast waves from each gun barrel interfering with others in the same turret reduced the rate of fire from the guns somewhat. The first nation to adopt the triple turret was Italy, in the , soon followed by Russia with the , the Austro-Hungarian , and the US . British Royal Navy battleships did not adopt triple turrets until after the First World War, with the , and Japanese battleships not until the late-1930s . Several later designs used quadruple turrets, including the British and French .
Main armament power and calibre
Rather than try to fit more guns onto a ship, it was possible to increase the power of each gun. This could be done by increasing either the calibre of the weapon and hence the weight of shell, or by lengthening the barrel to increase muzzle velocity. Either of these offered the chance to increase range and armour penetration.
Both methods offered advantages and disadvantages, though in general greater muzzle velocity meant increased barrel wear. As guns fire, their barrels wear out, losing accuracy and eventually requiring replacement. At times, this became problematic; the US Navy seriously considered stopping practice firing of heavy guns in 1910 because of the wear on the barrels. The disadvantages of guns of larger calibre are that guns and turrets must be heavier; and heavier shells, which are fired at lower velocities, require turret designs that allow a larger angle of elevation for the same range. Heavier shells have the advantage of being slowed less by air resistance, retaining more penetrating power at longer ranges.
Different navies approached the issue of calibre in different ways. The German navy, for instance, generally used a lighter calibre than the equivalent British ships, e.g. 12-inch calibre when the British standard was . Because German metallurgy was superior, the German 12-inch gun had better shell weight and muzzle velocity than the British 12-inch; and German ships could afford more armour for the same vessel weight because the German 12-inch guns were lighter than the 13.5-inch guns the British required for comparable effect.
Over time the calibre of guns tended to increase. In the Royal Navy, the Orion class, launched 1910, had ten 13.5-inch guns, all on the centreline; the Queen Elizabeth class, launched in 1913, had eight guns. In all navies, fewer guns of larger calibre came to be used. The smaller number of guns simplified their distribution, and centreline turrets became the norm.
A further step change was planned for battleships designed and laid down at the end of World War I. The Japanese s in 1917 carried guns, which was quickly matched by the US Navy's . Both the United Kingdom and Japan were planning battleships with armament, in the British case the . The Washington Naval Treaty concluded on 6 February 1922 and ratified later limited battleship guns to not more than calibre, and these heavier guns were not produced.
The only battleships to break the limit were the Japanese , begun in 1937 (after the treaty expired), which carried main guns. By the middle of World War II, the United Kingdom was making use of guns kept as spares for the to arm the last British battleship, .
Some World War II-era designs were drawn up proposing another move towards gigantic armament. The German H-43 and H-44 designs proposed guns, and there is evidence Hitler wanted calibres as high as ; the Japanese 'Super Yamato' design also called for 20-inch guns. None of these proposals went further than very preliminary design work.
Secondary armament
The first dreadnoughts tended to have a very light secondary armament intended to protect them from torpedo boats. Dreadnought carried 12-pounder guns; each of her twenty-two 12-pounders could fire at least 15 rounds a minute at any torpedo boat making an attack. The South Carolinas and other early American dreadnoughts were similarly equipped. At this stage, torpedo boats were expected to attack separately from any fleet actions. Therefore, there was no need to armour the secondary gun armament, or to protect the crews from the blast effects of the main guns. In this context, the light guns tended to be mounted in unarmoured positions high on the ship to minimize weight and maximize field of fire.
Within a few years, the principal threat was from the destroyer—larger, more heavily armed, and harder to destroy than the torpedo boat. Since the risk from destroyers was very serious, it was considered that one shell from a battleship's secondary armament should sink (rather than merely damage) any attacking destroyer. Destroyers, in contrast to torpedo boats, were expected to attack as part of a general fleet engagement, so it was necessary for the secondary armament to be protected against shell splinters from heavy guns, and the blast of the main armament. This philosophy of secondary armament was adopted by the German navy from the start; Nassau, for instance, carried twelve and sixteen guns, and subsequent German dreadnought classes followed this lead. These heavier guns tended to be mounted in armoured barbettes or casemates on the main deck. The Royal Navy increased its secondary armament from 12-pounder to first and then guns, which were standard at the start of World War I; the US standardized on 5-inch calibre for the war but planned 6-inch guns for the ships designed just afterwards.
The secondary battery served several other roles. It was hoped that a medium-calibre shell might be able to score a hit on an enemy dreadnought's sensitive fire control systems. It was also felt that the secondary armament could play an important role in driving off enemy cruisers from attacking a crippled battleship.
The secondary armament of dreadnoughts was, on the whole, unsatisfactory. A hit from a light gun could not be relied on to stop a destroyer. Heavier guns could not be relied on to hit a destroyer, as experience at the Battle of Jutland showed. The casemate mountings of heavier guns proved problematic; being low in the hull, they proved liable to flooding, and on several classes, some were removed and plated over. The only sure way to protect a dreadnought from destroyer or torpedo boat attack was to provide a destroyer squadron as an escort. After World War I the secondary armament tended to be mounted in turrets on the upper deck and around the superstructure. This allowed a wide field of fire and good protection without the negative points of casemates. Increasingly through the 1920s and 1930s, the secondary guns were seen as a major part of the anti-aircraft battery, with high-angle, dual-purpose guns increasingly adopted.
Armour
Much of the displacement of a dreadnought was taken up by the steel plating of the armour. Designers spent much time and effort to provide the best possible protection for their ships against the various weapons with which they would be faced. Only so much weight could be devoted to protection, without compromising speed, firepower or seakeeping.
Central citadel
The bulk of a dreadnought's armour was concentrated around the "armoured citadel". This was a box, with four armoured walls and an armoured roof, around the most important parts of the ship. The sides of the citadel were the "armoured belt" of the ship, which started on the hull just in front of the forward turret and ran to just behind the aft turret. The ends of the citadel were two armoured bulkheads, fore and aft, which stretched between the ends of the armour belt. The "roof" of the citadel was an armoured deck. Within the citadel were the boilers, engines, and the magazines for the main armament. A hit to any of these systems could cripple or destroy the ship. The "floor" of the box was the bottom of the ship's hull, and was unarmoured, although it was, in fact, a "triple bottom".
The earliest dreadnoughts were intended to take part in a pitched battle against other battleships at ranges of up to . In such an encounter, shells would fly on a relatively flat trajectory, and a shell would have to hit at or just about the waterline to damage the vitals of the ship. For this reason, the early dreadnoughts' armour was concentrated in a thick belt around the waterline; this was thick in Dreadnought. Behind this belt were arranged the ship's coal bunkers, to further protect the engineering spaces. In an engagement of this sort, there was also a lesser threat of indirect damage to the vital parts of the ship. A shell which struck above the belt armour and exploded could send fragments flying in all directions. These fragments were dangerous but could be stopped by much thinner armour than what would be necessary to stop an unexploded armour-piercing shell. To protect the innards of the ship from fragments of shells which detonated on the superstructure, much thinner steel armour was applied to the decks of the ship.
The thickest protection was reserved for the central citadel in all battleships. Some navies extended a thinner armoured belt and armoured deck to cover the ends of the ship, or extended a thinner armoured belt up the outside of the hull. This "tapered" armour was used by the major European navies—the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. This arrangement gave some armour to a larger part of the ship; for the very first dreadnoughts, when high-explosive shellfire was still considered a significant threat, this was useful. It tended to result in the main belt being very short, only protecting a thin strip above the waterline; some navies found that when their dreadnoughts were heavily laden, the armoured belt was entirely submerged. The alternative was an "all or nothing" protection scheme, developed by the US Navy. The armour belt was tall and thick, but no side protection at all was provided to the ends of the ship or the upper decks. The armoured deck was also thickened. The "all-or-nothing" system provided more effective protection against the very-long-range engagements of dreadnought fleets and was adopted outside the US Navy after World War I.
The design of the dreadnought changed to meet new challenges. For example, armour schemes were changed to reflect the greater risk of plunging shells from long-range gunfire, and the increasing threat from armour-piercing bombs dropped by aircraft. Later designs carried a greater thickness of steel on the armoured deck; Yamato carried a main belt, but a deck thick.
Underwater protection and subdivision
The final element of the protection scheme of the first dreadnoughts was the subdivision of the ship below the waterline into several watertight compartments. If the hull were holed—by shellfire, mine, torpedo, or collision—then, in theory, only one area would flood and the ship could survive. To make this precaution even more effective, many dreadnoughts had no doors between different underwater sections, so that even a surprise hole below the waterline need not sink the ship. There were still several instances where flooding spread between underwater compartments.
The greatest evolution in dreadnought protection came with the development of the anti-torpedo bulge and torpedo belt, both attempts to protect against underwater damage by mines and torpedoes. The purpose of underwater protection was to absorb the force of a detonating mine or torpedo well away from the final watertight hull. This meant an inner bulkhead along the side of the hull, which was generally lightly armoured to capture splinters, separated from the outer hull by one or more compartments. The compartments in between were either left empty, or filled with coal, water or fuel oil.
Propulsion
Dreadnoughts were propelled by two to four screw propellers. Dreadnought herself, and all British dreadnoughts, had screw shafts driven by steam turbines. The first generation of dreadnoughts built in other nations used the slower triple-expansion steam engine which had been standard in pre-dreadnoughts.
Turbines offered more power than reciprocating engines for the same volume of machinery. This, along with a guarantee on the new machinery from the inventor, Charles Parsons, persuaded the Royal Navy to use turbines in Dreadnought. It is often said that turbines had the additional benefits of being cleaner and more reliable than reciprocating engines. By 1905, new designs of reciprocating engine were available which were cleaner and more reliable than previous models.
Turbines also had disadvantages. At cruising speeds much slower than maximum speed, turbines were markedly less fuel-efficient than reciprocating engines. This was particularly important for navies which required a long range at cruising speeds—and hence for the US Navy, which was planning in the event of war to cruise across the Pacific and engage the Japanese in the Philippines.
The US Navy experimented with turbine engines from 1908 in the , but was not fully committed to turbines until the in 1916. In the preceding , one ship, , received reciprocating engines, while received geared turbines. The two s of 1914 both received reciprocating engines, but all four ships of the (1911) and (1912) classes received turbines.
The disadvantages of the turbine were eventually overcome. The solution which eventually was generally adopted was the geared turbine, where gearing reduced the rotation rate of the propellers and hence increased efficiency. This solution required technical precision in the gears and hence was difficult to implement.
One alternative was the turbo-electric drive where the steam turbine generated electrical power which then drove the propellers. This was particularly favoured by the US Navy, which used it for all dreadnoughts from late 1915–1922. The advantages of this method were its low cost, the opportunity for very close underwater compartmentalization, and good astern performance. The disadvantages were that the machinery was heavy and vulnerable to battle damage, particularly the effects of flooding on the electrics.
Turbines were never replaced in battleship design. Diesel engines were eventually considered by some powers, as they offered very good endurance and an engineering space taking up less of the length of the ship. They were also heavier, however, took up a greater vertical space, offered less power, and were considered unreliable.
Fuel
The first generation of dreadnoughts used coal to fire the boilers which fed steam to the turbines. Coal had been in use since the very first steam warships. One advantage of coal was that it is quite inert (in lump form) and thus could be used as part of the ship's protection scheme. Coal also had many disadvantages. It was labor-intensive to pack coal into the ship's bunkers and then feed it into the boilers. The boilers became clogged with ash. Airborne coal dust and related vapors were highly explosive, possibly evidenced by the explosion of . Burning coal as fuel also produced thick black smoke which gave away the position of a fleet and interfered with visibility, signaling, and fire control. In addition, coal was very bulky and had comparatively low thermal efficiency.
Oil-fired propulsion had many advantages for naval architects and officers at sea alike. It reduced smoke, making ships less visible. It could be fed into boilers automatically, rather than needing a complement of stokers to do it by hand. Oil has roughly twice the thermal content of coal. This meant that the boilers themselves could be smaller; and for the same volume of fuel, an oil-fired ship would have much greater range.
These benefits meant that, as early as 1901, Fisher was pressing the advantages of oil fuel. There were technical problems with oil-firing, connected with the different distribution of the weight of oil fuel compared to coal, and the problems of pumping viscous oil. The main problem with using oil for the battle fleet was that, with the exception of the United States, every major navy would have to import its oil. As a result, some navies adopted 'dual-firing' boilers which could use coal sprayed with oil; British ships so equipped, which included dreadnoughts, could even use oil alone at up to 60% power.
The US had large reserves of oil, and the US Navy was the first to wholeheartedly adopt oil-firing, deciding to do so in 1910 and ordering oil-fired boilers for the Nevada class, in 1911. The United Kingdom was not far behind, deciding in 1912 to use oil on its own in the Queen Elizabeth class; shorter British design and building times meant that Queen Elizabeth was commissioned before either of the Nevada-class vessels. The United Kingdom planned to revert to mixed firing with the subsequent , at the cost of some speed—but Fisher, who returned to office in 1914, insisted that all the boilers should be oil-fired. Other major navies retained mixed coal-and-oil firing until the end of World War I.
Dreadnought building
Dreadnoughts developed as a move in an international battleship arms-race which had begun in the 1890s. The British Royal Navy had a big lead in the number of pre-dreadnought battleships, but a lead of only one dreadnought in 1906. This has led to criticism that the British, by launching HMS Dreadnought, threw away a strategic advantage. Most of the United Kingdom's naval rivals had already contemplated or even built warships that featured a uniform battery of heavy guns. Both the Japanese Navy and the US Navy ordered "all-big-gun" ships in 1904–1905, with Satsuma and South Carolina, respectively. Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II had advocated a fast warship armed only with heavy guns since the 1890s. By securing a head start in dreadnought construction, the United Kingdom ensured its dominance of the seas continued.
The battleship race soon accelerated once more, placing a great burden on the finances of the governments which engaged in it. The first dreadnoughts were not much more expensive than the last pre-dreadnoughts, but the cost per ship continued to grow thereafter. Modern battleships were the crucial element of naval power in spite of their price. Each battleship signalled national power and prestige, in a manner similar to the nuclear weapons of today. Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and Austria-Hungary all began dreadnought programmes, and second-rank powers—including the Ottoman Empire, Greece, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile—commissioned British, French, German, and American yards to build dreadnoughts for them.
Anglo-German arms race
The construction of Dreadnought coincided with increasing tension between the United Kingdom and Germany. Germany had begun building a large battlefleet in the 1890s, as part of a deliberate policy to challenge British naval supremacy. With the signing of the Entente Cordiale in April 1904, it became increasingly clear the United Kingdom's principal naval enemy would be Germany, which was building up a large, modern fleet under the "Tirpitz" laws. This rivalry gave rise to the two largest dreadnought fleets of the pre-1914 period.
The first German response to Dreadnought was the Nassau class, laid down in 1907, followed by the Helgoland class in 1909. Together with two battlecruisers—a type for which the Germans had less admiration than Fisher, but which could be built under the authorization for armoured cruisers, rather than for capital ships—these classes gave Germany a total of ten modern capital ships built or building in 1909. The British ships were faster and more powerful than their German equivalents, but a 12:10 ratio fell far short of the 2:1 superiority the Royal Navy wanted to maintain.
In 1909, the British Parliament authorized an additional four capital ships, holding out hope Germany would be willing to negotiate a treaty limiting battleship numbers. If no such solution could be found, an additional four ships would be laid down in 1910. Even this compromise meant, when taken together with some social reforms, raising taxes enough to prompt a constitutional crisis in the United Kingdom in 1909–1910. In 1910, the British eight-ship construction plan went ahead, including four Orion-class super-dreadnoughts, augmented by battlecruisers purchased by Australia and New Zealand. In the same period, Germany laid down only three ships, giving the United Kingdom a superiority of 22 ships to 13. The British resolve, as demonstrated by their construction programme, led the Germans to seek a negotiated end to the arms race. The Admiralty's new target of a 60% lead over Germany was near enough to Tirpitz's goal of cutting the British lead to 50%, but talks foundered on the question on whether to include British colonial battlecruisers in the count, as well as on non-naval matters like the German demands for recognition of ownership of Alsace-Lorraine.
The dreadnought race stepped up in 1910 and 1911, with Germany laying down four capital ships each year and the United Kingdom five. Tension came to a head following the German Naval Law of 1912. This proposed a fleet of 33 German battleships and battlecruisers, outnumbering the Royal Navy in home waters. To make matters worse for the United Kingdom, the Imperial Austro-Hungarian Navy was building four dreadnoughts, while Italy had four and was building two more. Against such threats, the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee vital British interests. The United Kingdom was faced with a choice between building more battleships, withdrawing from the Mediterranean, or seeking an alliance with France. Further naval construction was unacceptably expensive at a time when social welfare provision was making calls on the budget. Withdrawing from the Mediterranean would mean a huge loss of influence, weakening British diplomacy in the region and shaking the stability of the British Empire. The only acceptable option, and the one recommended by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, was to break with the policies of the past and to make an arrangement with France. The French would assume responsibility for checking Italy and Austria-Hungary in the Mediterranean, while the British would protect the north coast of France. In spite of some opposition from British politicians, the Royal Navy organised itself on this basis in 1912.
In spite of these important strategic consequences, the 1912 Naval Law had little bearing on the battleship-force ratios. The United Kingdom responded by laying down ten new super-dreadnoughts in its 1912 and 1913 budgets—ships of the Queen Elizabeth and Revenge classes, which introduced a further step-change in armament, speed and protection—while Germany laid down only five, concentrating resources on its army.
United States
The American South Carolina-class battleships were the first all-big-gun ships completed by one of the United Kingdom's rivals. The planning for the type had begun before Dreadnought was launched. There is some speculation that informal contacts with sympathetic Royal Navy officials influenced the US Navy design, but the American ship was very different.
The US Congress authorized the Navy to build two battleships, but of only 16,000 tons or lower displacement. As a result, the South Carolina class were built to much tighter limits than Dreadnought. To make the best use of the weight available for armament, all eight 12-inch guns were mounted along the centreline, in superfiring pairs fore and aft. This arrangement gave a broadside equal to Dreadnought, but with fewer guns; this was the most efficient distribution of weapons and proved a precursor of the standard practice of future generations of battleships. The principal economy of displacement compared to Dreadnought was in propulsion; South Carolina retained triple-expansion steam engines, and could manage only compared to for Dreadnought. For this reason the later were described by some as the US Navy's first dreadnoughts; only a few years after their commissioning, the South Carolina class could not operate tactically with the newer dreadnoughts due to their low speed, and were forced to operate with the older pre-dreadnoughts.
The two 10-gun, 20,500-ton ships of the Delaware class were the first US battleships to match the speed of British dreadnoughts, but their secondary battery was "wet" (suffering from spray) and their bow was low in the water. An alternative 12-gun 24,000-ton design had many disadvantages as well; the extra two guns and a lower casemate had "hidden costs"—the two wing turrets planned would weaken the upper deck, be almost impossible to adequately protect against underwater attack, and force magazines to be located too close to the sides of the ship.
The US Navy continued to expand its battlefleet, laying down two ships in most subsequent years until 1920. The US continued to use reciprocating engines as an alternative to turbines until the Nevada, laid down in 1912. In part, this reflected a cautious approach to battleship-building, and in part a preference for long endurance over high maximum speed owing to the US Navy's need to operate in the Pacific Ocean.
Japan
With their victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the Japanese became concerned about the potential for conflict with the US. The theorist Satō Tetsutarō developed the doctrine that Japan should have a battlefleet at least 70% the size of that of the US. This would enable the Japanese navy to win two decisive battles: the first early in a prospective war against the US Pacific Fleet, and the second against the US Atlantic Fleet which would inevitably be dispatched as reinforcements.
Japan's first priorities were to refit the pre-dreadnoughts captured from Russia and to complete Satsuma and . The Satsumas were designed before Dreadnought, but financial shortages resulting from the Russo-Japanese War delayed completion and resulted in their carrying a mixed armament, so they were known as "semi-dreadnoughts". These were followed by a modified Aki-type: and of the Kawachi-class. These two ships were laid down in 1909 and completed in 1912. They were armed with twelve 12-inch guns, but they were of two different models with differing barrel-lengths, meaning that they would have had difficulty controlling their fire at long ranges.
In other countries
Compared to the other major naval powers, France was slow to start building dreadnoughts, instead finishing the planned Danton class of pre-dreadnoughts, laying down five in 1907 and 1908. In September 1910 the first of the was laid down, making France the eleventh nation to enter the dreadnought race. In the Navy Estimates of 1911, Paul Bénazet asserted that from 1896 to 1911, France dropped from being the world's second-largest naval power to fourth; he attributed this to problems in maintenance routines and neglect. The closer alliance with the United Kingdom made these reduced forces more than adequate for French needs.
The Italian Regia Marina had received proposals for an all-big-gun battleship from Cuniberti well before Dreadnought was launched, but it took until 1909 for Italy to lay down one of its own. The construction of Dante Alighieri was prompted by rumours of Austro-Hungarian dreadnought-building. A further five dreadnoughts of the and classes followed as Italy sought to maintain its lead over Austria-Hungary. These ships remained the core of Italian naval strength until World War II. The subsequent were suspended (and later cancelled) on the outbreak of World War I.
In January 1909 Austro-Hungarian admirals circulated a document calling for a fleet of four dreadnoughts. A constitutional crisis in 1909–1910 meant no construction could be approved. In spite of this, shipyards laid down two dreadnoughts on a speculative basis—due especially to the energetic manipulations of Rudolf Montecuccoli, Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy—later approved along with an additional two. The resulting ships, all Tegetthoff class, were to be accompanied by a further four ships of the , but these were cancelled on the Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I.
In June 1909 the Imperial Russian Navy began construction of four Gangut dreadnoughts for the Baltic Fleet, and in October 1911, three more dreadnoughts for the Black Sea Fleet were laid down. Of seven ships, only one was completed within four years of being laid down, and the Gangut ships were "obsolescent and outclassed" upon commissioning. Taking lessons from Tsushima, and influenced by Cuniberti, they ended up more closely resembling slower versions of Fisher's battlecruisers than Dreadnought, and they proved badly flawed due to their smaller guns and thinner armour when compared with contemporary dreadnoughts.
Spain commissioned three ships of the , with the first laid down in 1909. The three ships, the smallest dreadnoughts ever constructed, were built in Spain with British assistance; construction on the third ship, , took nine years from its laying down date to completion because of non-delivery of critical material, especially armament, from the United Kingdom.
Brazil was the third country to begin construction on a dreadnought. It ordered three dreadnoughts from the United Kingdom which would mount a heavier main battery than any other battleship afloat at the time (twelve 12-inch/45 calibre guns). Two were completed for Brazil: was laid down on by Armstrong (Elswick) on 17 April 1907, and its sister, , followed thirteen days later at Vickers (Barrow). Although many naval journals in Europe and the US speculated that Brazil was really acting as a proxy for one of the naval powers and would hand the ships over to them as soon as they were complete, both ships were commissioned into the Brazilian Navy in 1910. The third ship, Rio de Janeiro, was nearly complete when rubber prices collapsed and Brazil could not afford her. She was sold to the Ottoman Empire in 1913.
The Netherlands intended by 1912 to replace its fleet of pre-dreadnought armoured ships with a modern fleet composed of dreadnoughts. After a Royal Commission proposed the purchase of nine dreadnoughts in August 1913, there were extensive debates over the need for such ships and—if they were necessary—over the actual number needed. These lasted into August 1914, when a bill authorizing funding for four dreadnoughts was finalized, but the outbreak of World War I halted the ambitious plan.
The Ottoman Empire ordered two dreadnoughts from British yards, Reshadiye in 1911 and Fatih Sultan Mehmed in 1914. Reshadiye was completed, and in 1913, the Ottoman Empire also acquired a nearly-completed dreadnought from Brazil, which became Sultan Osman I. At the start of World War I, Britain seized the two completed ships for the Royal Navy. Reshadiye and Sultan Osman I became and Agincourt respectively. (Fatih Sultan Mehmed was scrapped.) This greatly offended the Ottoman Empire. When two German warships, the battlecruiser and the cruiser , became trapped in Ottoman territory after the start of the war, Germany "gave" them to the Ottomans. (They remained German-crewed and under German orders.) The British seizure and the German gift proved important factors in the Ottoman Empire joining the Central Powers in October 1914.
Greece had ordered the dreadnought from Germany, but work stopped on the outbreak of war. The main armament for the Greek ship had been ordered in the United States, and the guns consequently equipped a class of British monitors. In 1914 Greece purchased two pre-dreadnoughts from the United States Navy, renaming them and in Royal Hellenic Navy service.
The Conservative Party-dominated House of Commons of Canada passed a bill purchasing three British dreadnoughts for $35 million to use in the Canadian Naval Service, but the measure was defeated in the Liberal Party-dominated Senate of Canada. As a result, the country's navy was unprepared for World War I.
Super-dreadnoughts
Within five years of the commissioning of Dreadnought, a new generation of more powerful "super-dreadnoughts" was being built. The British Orion class jumped an unprecedented 2,000 tons in displacement, introduced the heavier 13.5-inch (343 mm) gun, and placed all the main armament on the centreline (hence with some turrets superfiring over others). In the four years between Dreadnought and Orion, displacement had increased by 25%, and weight of broadside (the weight of ammunition that can be fired on a single bearing in one salvo) had doubled.
British super-dreadnoughts were joined by those built by other nations. The US Navy , laid down in 1911, carried 14-inch (356 mm) guns in response to the British move and this calibre became standard. In Japan, two super-dreadnoughts were laid down in 1912, followed by the two ships in 1914, with both classes carrying twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns. In 1917, the was ordered, the first super-dreadnoughts to mount 16-inch guns, making them arguably the most powerful warships in the world. All were increasingly built from Japanese rather than from imported components. In France, the Courbets were followed by three super-dreadnoughts of the , carrying guns; another five s were canceled on the outbreak of World War I. The aforementioned Brazilian dreadnoughts sparked a small-scale arms race in South America, as Argentina and Chile each ordered two super-dreadnoughts from the US and the United Kingdom, respectively. Argentina's and had a main armament equaling that of their Brazilian counterparts, but were much heavier and carried thicker armour. The British purchased both of Chile's battleships on the outbreak of the First World War. One, , was later repurchased by Chile.
Later British super-dreadnoughts, principally the Queen Elizabeth class, dispensed with the midships turret, freeing weight and volume for larger, oil-fired boilers. The new 15-inch (381 mm) gun gave greater firepower in spite of the loss of a turret, and there were a thicker armour belt and improved underwater protection. The class had a design speed, and they were considered the first fast battleships.
The design weakness of super-dreadnoughts, which distinguished them from post-1918 vessels, was armour disposition. Their design emphasized the vertical armour protection needed in short-range battles, where shells would strike the sides of the ship, and assumed that an outer plate of armour would detonate any incoming shells so that crucial internal structures such as turret bases needed only light protection against splinters. This was in spite of the ability to engage the enemy at , ranges where the shells would descend at angles of up to thirty degrees ("plunging fire") and so could pierce the deck behind the outer plate and strike the internal structures directly. Post-war designs typically had 5 to 6 inches (130 to 150 mm) of deck armour laid across the top of single, much thicker vertical plates to defend against this. The concept of zone of immunity became a major part of the thinking behind battleship design. Lack of underwater protection was also a weakness of these pre-World War I designs, which originated before the use of torpedoes became widespread.
The United States Navy designed its 'Standard-type battleships', beginning with the Nevada class, with long-range engagements and plunging fire in mind; the first of these was laid down in 1912, four years before the Battle of Jutland taught the dangers of long-range fire to European navies. Important features of the standard battleships were "all or nothing" armour and "raft" construction—based on a design philosophy which held that only those parts of the ship worth giving the thickest possible protection were worth armouring at all, and that the resulting armoured "raft" should contain enough reserve buoyancy to keep the entire ship afloat in the event the unarmoured bow and stern were thoroughly punctured and flooded. This design proved its worth in the 1942 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, when an ill-timed turn by silhouetted her to Japanese guns. In spite of receiving 26 hits, her armoured raft remained untouched and she remained both afloat and operational at the end of action.
In action
The First World War saw no decisive engagements between battlefleets to compare with Tsushima. The role of battleships was marginal to the land fighting in France and Russia; it was equally marginal to the German war on commerce (Handelskrieg) and the Allied blockade.
By virtue of geography, the Royal Navy could keep the German High Seas Fleet confined to the North Sea with relative ease, but was unable to break the German superiority in the Baltic Sea. Both sides were aware, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, that a full fleet engagement would likely result in a British victory. The German strategy was, therefore, to try to provoke an engagement on favourable terms: either inducing a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coast, where friendly minefields, torpedo boats, and submarines could even the odds.
The first two years of war saw conflict in the North Sea limited to skirmishes by battlecruisers at the Battle of Heligoland Bight and Battle of Dogger Bank, and raids on the English coast. In May 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on favourable terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets on 31 May to 1 June in the indecisive Battle of Jutland.
In the other naval theatres, there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, Russian and Turkish battleships skirmished, but nothing more. In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to convoy raiding and the laying of defensive minefields. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet was confined to the Adriatic Sea by the British and French blockade but bombarded the Italians on several occasions, notably at Ancona in 1915. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault at Gallipoli.
The course of the war illustrated the vulnerability of battleships to cheaper weapons. In September 1914, the U-boat threat to capital ships was demonstrated by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three elderly British armoured cruisers by the German submarine in less than an hour. Mines continued to prove a threat when a month later the recently commissioned British super-dreadnought struck one and sank in 1914. By the end of October, British strategy and tactics in the North Sea had changed to reduce the risk of U-boat attack. Jutland was the only major clash of dreadnought battleship fleets in history, and the German plan for the battle relied on U-boat attacks on the British fleet; and the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers closing on British battleships, causing them to turn away to avoid the threat of torpedo attack. Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships.
For the German part, the High Seas Fleet determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines, and since submarines were more needed for commerce raiding, the fleet stayed in port for much of the remainder of the war. Other theatres showed the role of small craft in damaging or destroying dreadnoughts. The two Austrian dreadnoughts lost in November 1918 were casualties of Italian torpedo boats and frogmen.
Battleship building from 1914 onwards
World War I
The outbreak of World War I largely halted the dreadnought arms race as funds and technical resources were diverted to more pressing priorities. The foundries which produced battleship guns were dedicated instead to the production of land-based artillery, and shipyards were flooded with orders for small ships. The weaker naval powers engaged in the Great War—France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia—suspended their battleship programmes entirely. The United Kingdom and Germany continued building battleships and battlecruisers but at a reduced pace.
In the United Kingdom, Fisher returned to his old post as First Sea Lord; he had been created 1st Baron Fisher in 1909, taking the motto Fear God and dread nought. This, combined with a government moratorium on battleship building, meant a renewed focus on the battlecruiser. Fisher resigned in 1915 following arguments about the Gallipoli Campaign with the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill.
The final units of the Revenge and Queen Elizabeth classes were completed, though the last two battleships of the Revenge class were re-ordered as battlecruisers of the . Fisher followed these ships with the even more extreme ; very fast and heavily armed ships with minimal, armour, called 'large light cruisers' to get around a Cabinet ruling against new capital ships. Fisher's mania for speed culminated in his suggestion for , a mammoth, lightly armoured battlecruiser.
In Germany, two units of the pre-war were gradually completed, but the other two laid down were still unfinished by the end of the War. , also laid down before the start of the war, was completed in 1917. The , designed in 1914–1915, were begun but never finished.
Post-war
In spite of the lull in battleship building during the World War, the years 1919–1922 saw the threat of a renewed naval arms race between the United Kingdom, Japan, and the US. The Battle of Jutland exerted a huge influence over the designs produced in this period. The first ships which fit into this picture are the British , designed in 1916. Jutland finally persuaded the Admiralty that lightly armoured battlecruisers were too vulnerable, and therefore the final design of the Admirals incorporated much-increased armour, increasing displacement to 42,000 tons. The initiative in creating the new arms race lay with the Japanese and United States navies. The United States Naval Appropriations Act of 1916 authorized the construction of 156 new ships, including ten battleships and six battlecruisers. For the first time, the United States Navy was threatening the British global lead. This programme was started slowly (in part because of a desire to learn lessons from Jutland), and never fulfilled entirely. The new American ships (the Colorado-class battleships, South Dakota-class battleships and s), took a qualitative step beyond the British Queen Elizabeth class and Admiral classes by mounting 16-inch guns.
At the same time, the Imperial Japanese Navy was finally gaining authorization for its 'eight-eight battlefleet'. The Nagato class, authorized in 1916, carried eight 16-inch guns like their American counterparts. The next year's naval bill authorized two more battleships and two more battlecruisers. The battleships, which became the , were to carry ten 16-inch guns. The battlecruisers, the , also carried ten 16-inch guns and were designed to be capable of 30 knots, capable of beating both the British Admiral- and the US Navy's Lexington-class battlecruisers.
Matters took a further turn for the worse in 1919 when Woodrow Wilson proposed a further expansion of the United States Navy, asking for funds for an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers in addition to the completion of the 1916 programme (the not yet started). In response, the Diet of Japan finally agreed to the completion of the 'eight-eight fleet', incorporating a further four battleships. These ships, the would displace 43,000 tons; the next design, the , would have carried guns. Many in the Japanese navy were still dissatisfied, calling for an 'eight-eight-eight' fleet with 24 modern battleships and battlecruisers.
The British, impoverished by World War I, faced the prospect of slipping behind the US and Japan. No ships had been begun since the Admiral class, and of those only had been completed. A June 1919 Admiralty plan outlined a post-war fleet with 33 battleships and eight battlecruisers, which could be built and sustained for £171 million a year (approximately £ today); only £84 million was available. The Admiralty then demanded, as an absolute minimum, a further eight battleships. These would have been the G3 battlecruisers, with 16-inch guns and high speed, and the N3-class battleships, with guns. Its navy severely limited by the Treaty of Versailles, Germany did not participate in this three-way naval building competition. Most of the German dreadnought fleet was scuttled at Scapa Flow by its crews in 1919; the remainder were handed over as war prizes.
The major naval powers avoided the cripplingly expensive expansion programmes by negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922. The Treaty laid out a list of ships, including most of the older dreadnoughts and almost all the newer ships under construction, which were to be scrapped or otherwise put out of use. It furthermore declared a 'building holiday' during which no new battleships or battlecruisers were to be laid down, save for the British Nelson class. The ships which survived the treaty, including the most modern super-dreadnoughts of all three navies, formed the bulk of international capital ship strength through the interwar period and, with some modernisation, into World War II. The ships built under the terms of the Washington Treaty (and subsequently the London Treaties in 1930 and 1936) to replace outdated vessels were known as treaty battleships.
From this point on, the term 'dreadnought' became less widely used. Most pre-dreadnought battleships were scrapped or hulked after World War I, so the term 'dreadnought' became less necessary.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Further reading
Originally Classified and in two volumes.
External links
British and German Dreadnoughts
Battleships
Ship types
20th-century military history
20th-century military equipment | wiki |
A sādhaka or sādhak or sādhaj (), in Indian religions and traditions, such as Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Yoga, is someone who follows a particular sādhanā, or a way of life designed to realize the goal of one's ultimate ideal, whether it is merging with one's eternal source, brahman, or realization of one's personal deity. The word is related to the Sanskrit sādhu, which is derived from the verb root sādh-, 'to accomplish'. As long as one has yet to reach the goal, they are a sādhaka or sādhak, while one who has reached the goal is called a siddha. In modern usage, sadhaka is often applied as a generic term for any religious practitioner. In medieval India, it was more narrowly used as a technical term for one who had gone through a specific initiation.
Hindu, Jain, Tantric, Yogic and Vajrayana Buddhist traditions use the term sadhaka or sādhak for spiritual initiates and/or aspirants.
See also
Yogi
Notes
External links
Titles and occupations in Hinduism | wiki |
Exchange Bank Building may refer to:
Exchange Bank Building (Tallahassee, Florida)
Exchange Bank Building (Farmington, Minnesota)
See also
Exchange Building (disambiguation) | wiki |
Queen Bess can refer to:
Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England and Ireland
Bessie Coleman (1892–1926), an early American civil aviator
Queen Bess, Scunthorpe, a pub in England
Queen Bess Island Wildlife Refuge, in Barataria Bay, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, U.S.
Queen Bess, a stack at Carnewas and Bedruthan Steps in Cornwall, England
Mount Queen Bess, in British Columbia, Canada
See also | wiki |
Cass Ole (March 6, 1969 - June 29, 1993) was a Texan-bred Arabian stallion. Originally bred to be a show horse, he was National Champion in Arabian Western Pleasure in 1975, National Reserve Champion Arabian Ladies Side Saddle in 1976, and U.S. Top Ten Arabian English Pleasure in both 1975 and 1976. He won over 50 championships and over 20 Reserve Championships in his seven-year show career and was high point winner of the King Saud Trophy of the American Horse Show Association (now United States Equestrian Federation).
Cass Ole played The Black in the films The Black Stallion and The Black Stallion Returns, in which he is credited as Cass-Olé.
The Black Stallion
Horse trainers Glenn Randall and his sons J.R. and Corky Randall began their international search for a black Arabian to play The Black in the upcoming film. They found Cass Ole at his ranch in San Antonio, and his temperament and appearance suited him for the role. His owners stipulated that he was not to be used in the running or swimming scenes, so three other horses were obtained for use in those shots, as well as for stunts. Cass Ole and his fellow horse actors trained at a California ranch for several weeks before filming began. He had sessions with the young actor in the lead role, Kelly Reno, so the two could become familiar and get used to working with one another.
Cass Ole was naturally a black-colored horse, but he had white markings on his pasterns and a white star on his forehead which were dyed black for his screen time. (In the 2003 IMAX film, The Young Black Stallion, the horse cast for the role was actually a bay and his entire coat was dyed black.)
The stallion was born at Donoghue Arabian Horse Farm in Goliad, Texas, owned by the late Louise and Gerald Donoghue, who sold him to his owners in San Antonio who purchased him for showing with their daughter. The Donoghue's were usually reluctant to sell stallions for girls to show, but the young rider was such an exceptional horsewoman they made an exception. Cass Ole's sire was Cassanova, a Donoghue Arabian, accounting for the name Cass Ole', a combination of the sire and dam's registered names.
His mane as seen in the two movies was partially enhanced. Like many American horses, Cass Ole had his mane trimmed into a bridle path. While he did have a long mane typical for his breed, its natural length was about equal to the width of his neck, which is the average maximum length that a horse's mane will grow when not specially groomed. Therefore, to hide his bridle path trimming and to create the long flowing mane that was seen in the movie itself, hair extensions were stitched into his mane to provide a fuller and longer look on camera. To grow a mane past its natural length requires it to be kept in braids, regularly conditioned, takes at least a year's time to achieve significant length, and, like humans, some horses' manes simply will not grow beyond a certain length.
Later life
After the two films had been released Cass Ole became a celebrity, showing up to be admired at fundraisers and special events. In 1980 he won the Humane Society Award for The Prevention of Cruelty To Animals at the International Horse Show in Washington, D.C. He visited the White House and was present at the Inauguration of President Reagan. He performed before audiences in Italy, Sardinia, Algeria, and Morocco. His last performance took place in the Tacoma Dome in Tacoma, Washington. His retirement show was under the direction of professional horse trainer George Gipson of Tenaha, Texas. He stood at stud at his home ranch in Texas, siring over 130 foals. None of them grew up to match his success.
Cass Ole was euthanized in 1993 after suffering from severe colic.
External links
The Movie: The Black Stallion
1969 animal births
1993 animal deaths
Individual Arabian and part-Arabian horses
Horses in film and television
Horse actors | wiki |
Zombie virus may refer to:
Zombie (computing), a computer connected to the Internet that has been compromised by a hacker, computer virus or trojan horse program
Zombie apocalypse, a literary genre | wiki |
Chocolate log may refer to:
Mekupelet, a chocolate confection made in Israel, labelled "Chocolate log" in English
Bûche de Noël, otherwise known as a Yule Chocolate Log, a chocolate cake eaten at Christmas | wiki |
Gerry Bell may refer to:
Gerry Bell (weather forecaster), see 2012 Atlantic hurricane season
Gerry Bell (ice hockey), played in Amarillo Wranglers (1975–77)
See also
Jerry Bell (disambiguation)
Jeremy Bell (disambiguation)
Gerard Bell, actor, see Bryony Lavery
Gerald Bell, flying ace
Jerome Bell, singer | wiki |
Electric Banana may refer to:
Electric Banana, a pseudonym for the Pretty Things, a British rock music group.
The Electric Banana, a nightclub in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Electric Banana Band, a Swedish children's music group. | wiki |
The inch per second is a unit of speed or velocity. It expresses the distance in inches (in) traveled or displaced, divided by time in seconds (s, or sec). The equivalent SI unit is the metre per second.
Abbreviations include in/s, in/sec, ips, and less frequently in s−1.
Conversions
1 inch per second is equivalent to:
= 0.0254 metres per second (exactly)
= or 0.083 feet per second (exactly)
= or 0.05681 miles per hour (exactly)
= 0.09144 km·h−1 (exactly)
1 metre per second ≈ 39.370079 inches per second (approximately)
1 foot per second = 12 inches per second (exactly)
1 mile per hour = 17.6 inches per second (exactly)
1 kilometre per hour ≈ 10.936133 inches per second (approximately)
Uses
In magnetic tape sound recording, magnetic tape speed is often quoted in inches per second (abbreviated "ips").
Also computer mice sensitivity is also often referred to in inches per second (abbreviated as "ips") along with g force.
In rotorcraft health monitoring, rotor and shaft induced vibration levels are often quoted in inches per second.
See also
Orders of magnitude (speed)
References
Units of velocity | wiki |
Fredericksburg may refer to:
Places
United States
Fredericksburg, California
Fredericksburg, Indiana
Fredericksburg, Iowa
Fredericksburg, Missouri
Fredericksburg, Ohio, a village in Wayne County
Fredericksburg, Mahoning County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Fredericksburg, Pennsylvania (disambiguation), various places
Fredericksburg, Texas
Fredericksburg, Virginia, a historic city in north central Virginia
Battle of Fredericksburg, a major battle of the American Civil War which took place there
Second Battle of Fredericksburg, another battle of the American Civil War that took place there
Canada
Fredericksburg, Ontario, the former name for Delhi, Ontario
Ships
, several ships
CSS Fredericksburg, an ironclad of the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War
See also
Frederiksberg, Denmark | wiki |
E. polymorpha may refer to:
Elkinsia polymorpha, a seed fern
Emmonsia polymorpha, a tabulate coral
Eudistylia polymorpha, a polychaete worm | wiki |
Capes of Kimberley coastline of Western Australia are located along the Kimberley coastline of Western Australia from the border with the Northern Territory in the north east of the Kimberley land region around to south of Broome.
Notes
References
Kim
Kimberley coastline of Western Australia
Western Australia geography-related lists | wiki |
Двадцать третья поправка к Конституции США (1961)
См. также | wiki |
Joseph Smith (1805-1844), Amerikaans religieus leider, stichter van het mormonisme
Joseph Smith (1733-1790), Brits militair in India | wiki |
The Dare County Bombing Range is a US Air Force managed and operated facility and is located in Dare County, North Carolina. The range serves as an air to surface bombing range for the US Air Force and US Navy who is a tenant command on the northern portion of the range The range is also used for some select special operations and Joint Terminal Attack Control (JTAC) training due to its remote location and harsh landscapes. The traffic is mostly light jet aircraft dropping 25 lb to 2000 lb dummy bombs. The most common sights at the range are the F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk, and the T-34 Mentor.
References
External links
A youtube video of an F/A-18 performing a low pass by the tower at Navy Dare.
United States of America v. Harry C. Mann ( Full indictment )
United States Navy installations
Bombing ranges
Geography of Dare County, North Carolina | wiki |
Двадцать четвёртая поправка к Конституции США (1964)
См. также | wiki |
There are a wide variety of doctoral degrees awarded to students in a number of different categories in the United States. Doctorates are not restricted to being based solely on research or academic coursework. The first research doctorate was the doctor of philosophy, which came to the U.S. from Germany, and is frequently referred to by its initials of Ph.D. As academia evolved in the country a wide variety of other types of doctoral degrees and programs were developed. Some of these included a focus on teaching such as the Doctor of Arts, others were simply a more specific curricula within a specific field such as the Doctor of Engineering or Doctor of Education of which may be identical in requirements, length, coursework and research to the Ph.D.
Additionally, there are a number of lower level (in terms of academic advancement) professional doctorates such as the Doctor of Medicine and the Juris Doctor that do not have a dissertation research component. In contrast to other countries worldwide a doctoral program generally requires the completion of a program of academic coursework in addition to other requirements for all types of doctoral degrees.
Types of doctorate
The United States Department of Education published a Structure of US Education in 2008 that differentiated between associate degrees, bachelor's degrees, first professional degrees, master's degrees, intermediate graduate qualifications and research doctorate degrees. This included doctoral degrees in the first professional degree, intermediate graduate qualification and research doctorate degree categories.
The Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics divides U.S. doctorates into three categories for the purposes of its Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS): Doctor's degree-research/scholarship, Doctor's degree-professional practice and Doctor's degree-other. The Doctor's degree-research/scholarship is defined as "A Ph.D. or other doctor's degree that requires advanced work beyond the master's level, including the preparation and defense of a dissertation based on original research, or the planning and execution of an original project demonstrating substantial artistic or scholarly achievement." The Doctor's degree-professional practice is unofficially known as "doctor's degree" in the U.S. that is conferred upon completion of a program providing the knowledge and skills for the recognition, credential, or license required for professional practice but is defined by the department of education as a professional degree that lawyers and physicians complete to practice in their vocations. The degree is awarded after a period of study such that the total time to the degree, including both pre-professional and professional preparation, equals at least six full-time equivalent academic years." The Doctor's degree-other is defined as "A doctor's degree that does not meet the definition of a doctor's degree research/scholarship or a doctor's degree professional practice." The categorization of degrees for IPEDS is left to the awarding institutes.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) has published an annual census of research doctorates called the Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) since 1957 with sponsorship from the NSF, NASA, the National Institutes of Health, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. Department of Education. For the purposes of this survey, a research doctorate is defined as "a doctoral degree that (1) requires completion of an original intellectual contribution in the form of a dissertation or an equivalent culminating project (e.g., musical composition) and (2) is not primarily intended as a degree for the practice of a profession." The second point here – that a research doctorate is "not primarily intended as a degree for the practice of a profession" means that not all doctorates containing "an original intellectual contribution in the form of a dissertation or an equivalent culminating project" are regarded as research doctorates by the NSF. The NSF list of research doctorates is recognized internationally as establishing which U.S. doctorates are considered Ph.D.-equivalent, e.g. by the European Research Council.
The Department of Education's 2008 Structure of US Education listed 24 frequently awarded research doctorates titles accepted by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing "degrees equivalent in content and level to the Ph.D". This reflected the 24 doctorates recognized by the NSF in Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: Summary Report 2005. As of Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: Summary Report 2006 this was reduced to 18, part of an ongoing program of assessment that saw the number of recognized research degrees reduced from the 52 recognized from 1994 (the earliest report archived online) to 1998, falling to 48 from 1999 to 2003 and to 24 in 2004. The number rose to 20 in 2007, with the Doctor of Design and Doctor of Fine Arts being re-recognized after being removed from the 2006 list, before falling again to 18 in 2008 when the Doctor of Music and Doctor of Industrial Technology were dropped. Since then, the list of recognized research degrees has been constant, although most Ed.D. degree programs were determined to have a professional rather than research focus and removed from the survey in 2010–2011; despite this, the Ed.D. remains the second most popular research doctorate in the SED after the Ph.D in 2014. (albeit with 1.1% of awards compared to 98.1% for the Ph.D.).
Research doctorates
In the United States the doctoral degrees that have been identified by various universities and others (including the NSF at various times) as having original research including a dissertation or equivalent have included:
Professional doctorates
In addition to the research doctorate, the US has many professional degrees, formerly referred to as first-professional degrees, which are titled as doctor's degrees and classified as "doctors degree professional practice". While research doctorates require "advanced work beyond the master's level, including the preparation and defense of a dissertation based on original research, or the planning and execution of an original project demonstrating substantial artistic or scholarly achievement", professional doctorates must have a total time to degree (including prior study at bachelor's level) of at least six years, and provide "the knowledge and skills for the recognition, credential, or license required for professional practice".
Other doctorates
There are also some programs leading to awards titled as doctorates that meet neither the definition of the research doctorate nor those of the professional doctorate. These are classified as "doctor's degree other".
References
Doctoral degrees
Education in the United States | wiki |
We Are the Champions is a 2020 American television series about unique competitions and the people competing in them. Rainn Wilson provides narration.
References
External links
2020 American television series debuts
English-language Netflix original programming | wiki |
The Goodlife Recipe was a brand name of cat food manufactured in the United States by Mars, Incorporated. The brand debuted in 2007 with cat food and dog food, however, their dog food and dog treat lines were discontinued in August 2010 for economic reasons and cat food in June/July 2018. After years of introduction, the famous "thought pyramid" design came into use.
Packaging
The product's multiwall paper bag incorporating a slider zipper won an AmeriStar award from the Institute of Packaging Professionals.
Promotion
As part of a promotional campaign, Jewel recorded a cover version of "The Good Life", a 1960s song popularized by Tony Bennett and Frank Sinatra.
References
External links
The Goodlife Recipe Official Website
How To Feed Two Cats With Different Eating Habits
What Determines How Much Wet Food To Feed Your Cat
Cat food brands
Dog food brands | wiki |
Holiday Home Makeover with Mr. Christmas is a 2020 American television series about holiday home makeover. It was released on November 18, 2020, on Netflix.
Cast
Benjamin Bradley
Episodes
References
External links
2020 American television series debuts
English-language Netflix original programming | wiki |
Homestay (also home stay and home-stay) is a form of hospitality and lodging whereby visitors share a residence with a local of the area (host) to which they are traveling. The length of stay can vary from one night to over a year and can be provided for free (gift economy), in exchange for monetary compensation, in exchange for a stay at the guest's property either simultaneously or at another time (home exchange), or in exchange for housekeeping or work on the host's property (barter economy). Homestays are examples of collaborative consumption and the sharing economy. Homestays are used by travelers; students who study abroad or participate in student exchange programs; and au pairs, who provide child care assistance and light household duties. They can be arranged via certain social networking services, online marketplaces, or academic institutions. Social networking services where hosts offer homestays for free are called hospitality exchange services.
Advantages and disadvantages
Homestays offer several advantages, such as exposure to everyday life in another location, the opportunity to experience local culture and traditions, opportunities for cultural diplomacy, friendship, intercultural competence, and foreign language practice, local advice, and a lower carbon footprint compared to other types of lodging; however, they may have rules and restrictions, such as curfews, facility usage, and work requirements, and may not have the same level of comfort, amenities, and privacy as other types of lodging.
Notable social networking services and online marketplaces for homestay arrangement
Hospitality exchange services (Hospitality for free): BeWelcome, CouchSurfing, Dachgeber, Hospitality Club (defunct), Pasporta Servo, Servas International, Trustroots, Warm Showers
Hospitality for work (farm stays): HelpX, Workaway, WWOOF
Hospitality for money: 9flats, Airbnb, Booking.com, GuestReady, misterb&b, Vrbo
Home exchange and others: Friendship Force International, HomeExchange.com, Intervac International, ThirdHome
See also
Backpacking
References
External links
Tourist accommodations
Backpacking
Hotel terminology | wiki |
The concept of magic numbers in the field of chemistry refers to a specific property (such as stability) for only certain representatives among a distribution of structures. It was first recognized by inspecting the intensity of mass-spectrometric signals of rare gas cluster ions.
In case a gas condenses into clusters of atoms, the number of atoms in these clusters that are most likely to form varies between a few and hundreds. However, there are peaks at specific cluster sizes, deviating from a pure statistical distribution. Therefore, it was concluded that clusters of these specific numbers of rare gas atoms dominate due to their exceptional stability. The concept was also successfully applied to explain the monodispersed occurrence of thiolate-protected gold clusters; here the outstanding stability of specific cluster sizes is connected with their respective electronic configuration.
The term magic numbers is also used in the field of nuclear physics. In this context, magic numbers refer to a specific number of protons or neutrons that forms complete nucleon shells.
See also
Magic number (physics)
References
Gas laws | wiki |
Events in 2016 in anime.
Awards
10th Seiyu Awards
Releases
Television series
A list of anime television series that debuted between 1 January and 31 December 2016.
Films
A list of feature-length anime films that debuted in theaters between 1 January and 31 December 2016.
OVA/ONA
A list of anime that debuted on DVD, Blu-ray, online, or in other media during 2016.
Highest-grossing films
The following are the 10 highest-grossing anime films of 2016.
See also
2016 in Japanese television (general)
2016 in Brazilian television
2016 in Polish television
2016 in Portuguese television
2016 in Spanish television
2016 in animation
2016 in television
References
External links
Japanese animated works of the year, listed in the IMDb
Years in anime
anime
anime | wiki |
Albany Park peut désigner :
Albany Park, à Chicago, aux États-Unis ;
Albany Park, à Londres, en Angleterre.
Voir aussi
Albany Park Library, bibliothèque à Chicago | wiki |
Ephedra may refer to:
Ephedra (medicine), a medicinal preparation from the plant Ephedra sinica
Ephedra (plant), genus of gymnosperm shrubs
See also
Ephedrine | wiki |
Barkeria lindleyana is a species of orchid.
References
External links
lindleyana
Plants described in 1842 | wiki |
The articulations of the heads of the ribs (or costocentral articulations) constitute a series of gliding or arthrodial joints, and are formed by the articulation of the heads of the typical ribs with the costal facets on the contiguous margins of the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae and with the intervertebral discs between them; the first, eleventh and twelfth ribs each articulate with a single vertebra.
The ligaments of the joints are:
Intra-articular ligament of head of rib
Radiate ligament of head of rib
Additional images
References
Thorax (human anatomy)
Joints | wiki |
The Journal of Medicine was a medical journal that was published by Karger Publishers from 1970 to 2004. It continued the journal Medicina experimentalis that was published from 1959 to 1969.
Karger academic journals
General medical journals
Publications established in 1970
Bimonthly journals
Publications established in 1959
Publications disestablished in 1969
Publications disestablished in 2004
English-language journals | wiki |
The seventh season of Homicide: Life on the Street aired in the United States on the NBC television network from September 25, 1998 to May 21, 1999 and contained 22 episodes.
The seventh season marked the debut of characters FBI Agent Mike Giardello (Giancarlo Esposito) and Detective Rene Sheppard (Michael Michele). Recurring character Detective Terri Stivers (Toni Lewis) became a regular cast member as of season 7, while Chief Medical Examiner George Griscom (Austin Pendleton) becomes a recurring character following the season 6 departure of C.M.E. Julianna Cox.
The DVD box set of season 7 was released for Region 1 on June 28, 2005. The set includes all 22 season 7 episodes on six discs.
During the sixth season, NBC considered canceling the show in the face of consistently low ratings, but a number of shocks at NBC increased Homicide's value. Among those factors were the loss of the popular series Seinfeld and the $850 million deal needed to keep ER from leaving the network. As a result, the network approved a 22-episode seventh season.
Episodes
When first shown on network television, multiple episodes towards the end of season were aired out of order. The DVD present the episodes in the correct chronological order, restoring all storylines and character developments.
References
External links
1998 American television seasons
1999 American television seasons | wiki |
Pink slime is a meat by-product.
Pink slime may also refer to:
Pink-slime journalism, a practice in news media
Pink Slime, an EP by Mac Miller
See also
Slime (disambiguation)
Pink algae | wiki |
Masc may refer to:
Masc (band), a South Korean boy band
'masculine', as an abbreviation used in the context of grammatical gender
See also
Masculine (disambiguation)
Masculinity | wiki |
Thurston House may refer to:
Places
Thurston House (Little Rock, Arkansas), listed on the NRHP in Arkansas
Thurston-Chase Cabin, Centerville, Utah, listed on the NRHP in Utah
Phineas Thurston House, Barnet, Vermont, listed on the NRHP in Vermont
Thurston House, East Lothian, in Dunbar, Scotland, rebuilt by John Kinross from 1890 onwards
Book
Thurston House (book), a novel by Danielle Steel | wiki |
Windows Template Library est une boite à outils graphique pour Windows sous forme de modèle C/C++.
C'est une alternative à la MFC ou à Qt.
Historique
Le projet a été commencé par Nenad Stefanovic, un employé de Microsoft. Il est distribué selon les termes de Common Public License.
Notes et références
Liens externes
Site officiel
Bibliothèque logicielle
Logiciel libre | wiki |
Lenawee is a word coined by Henry Schoolcraft and may refer to:
Lenawee County, Michigan
Lenawee (car), manufactured from 1903 to 1904
Henry Schoolcraft neologisms | wiki |
The men's singles Badminton event at the 2017 Summer Universiade was held from August 27 to 29 at the Taipei Gymnasium in Taipei, Taiwan.
Draw
Finals
RET= Retired
Top half
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Bottom half
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
References
Draw
Men's singles | wiki |
Aqua is the Latin word for water. It is used in many words which relate to water, such as aquatic life. In English, it may also refer to:
Arts
Aqua (color), a greenish-blue color
Business
Aqua (skyscraper), an 82-story residential skyscraper in Chicago, US
Aqua Multiespacio, a 22-story office building in Valencia, Spain
Aqua Restaurant, an upscale seafood restaurant in San Francisco, US
Aqua, a brand owned by Haier
Entertainment
Aqua (Kingdom Hearts), a fictional character from Square Enix's video game series.
Aqua (KonoSuba), a fictional character renowned for her lack of use from the light novel series KonoSuba.
Aqua (manga), a Japanese manga by Amano Kozue.
Aqua (video game), a 2010 video game for Xbox LIVE.
Team Aqua, a fictional villainous team from Pokémon Sapphire, and Pokémon Emerald and Pokémon Alpha Sapphire.
Music
Aqua (Angra album), 2010
Aqua (Asia album), 1992
Aqua (band), a Danish eurodance group
Aqua (Edgar Froese album), 1974
Aqua (record producer) (born 1982), American record producer and composer
"Aqua", a song by Ryuichi Sakamoto on the 1999 album BTTB
Other uses
Aqua (ingredient), purified water used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals
Aqua, a brand of drinking water owned by Danone in Indonesia
Aqua (satellite), a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite
Aqua (user interface), the visual theme of Apple's macOS operating system
Aqua America, a water and wastewater utility company in several states, US
Project Aqua, a proposed hydroelectric scheme for the Waitaki River, New Zealand
See also
Agua (disambiguation)
Aquagrill, a seafood restaurant in New York City
Aquaman, a fictional comic book superhero
Aquamarine (disambiguation)
Aquaculture
Aqwa, the capital of Abkhazia | wiki |
The Tavern may refer to:
The Tavern (Eufaula, Alabama), listed on the NRHP in Alabama
The Tavern (Little Rock, Arkansas), listed on the NRHP in Arkansas
See also
Tavern | wiki |
A repertoire () is a list or set of dramas, operas, musical compositions or roles which a company or person is prepared to perform.
Musicians often have a musical repertoire. The first known use of the word repertoire was in 1847. It is a loanword from the French language, as (), with a similar meaning in the arts. This word, in turn, has its origin in the Late Latin word repertorium.
The concept of a basic repertoire has been extended to refer to groups which focus mainly on performing standard works, as in repertory theater or repertoire ballet.
See also
setlist – a list of works for a specific performance
playlist – a list of works available to play
signature song – a musical composition most associated with a performer
References
Theatre
Singing | wiki |
Jeff Green may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Jeff Green (comedian) (born 1964), English comedian and writer
Jeff Green (multimedia artist) (born 1956), radio, television, and multimedia producer and director
Jeff Green (writer) (born 1961), former PC gaming editor-in-chief of 1UP.com
Other
Jeff Green (basketball) (born 1986), American basketball player
Jeff Green (businessman), co-founder of Trade Desk Inc
Jeff Green (politician), Conservative politician and former leader of Wirral Council
Jeff Green (racing driver) (born 1962), NASCAR Xfinity Series driver and 2000 Busch Series champion
See also
Jeff Greene (born 1954), American real estate entrepreneur
Jeff Greene (character), fictional character from Curb Your Enthusiasm
Jeffrey Green, British historian
Geoffrey Green (disambiguation) | wiki |
Cost plus may refer to:
Cost Plus World Market, U.S. retail chain
Cost-plus contract
Cost-plus pricing
Cost Plus Drugs | wiki |
A Healing House of Prayer contains daily readings for a month, each day covering a different theme. In addition readings for feast days and holy days are included with a number devoted to various aspects of healing.
An example:
C. S. Lewis said:
Morris Maddocks
Hodder & Stoughton books
1987 books | wiki |
Volcano-sedimentary may refer to:
Volcano-sedimentary rock, a sedimentary rock originating from volcanic material
Volcano-sedimentary sequence, a stratigraphic sequence formed from a combination of volcanic and sedimentary events | wiki |
F. polymorpha may refer to:
Ficus polymorpha, a plant with edible fruit
Fomitiporia polymorpha, a fungus bearing spores on basidia | wiki |
Facial hair in the military has been at various times common, prohibited, or an integral part of the uniform.
Asia
India
In the armed forces and police of India, male Sikh servicemen are allowed to wear full beards as their religion expressly requires followers to do so. However, they are specifically required to "dress up their hair and beard properly".
Non-Sikh personnel are allowed to grow whiskers and mustaches, with the only regulation being that they "will be of moderate length". In December 2003, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Muslims in uniform could grow beards, although the rules have since been changed again (via a Supreme Court ruling in 2018) to once again allow only Sikhs to wear beards. Thus, non-Sikhs serving in the Indian Army or Indian Air Force are not permitted to wear beards. However, Army personnel on active duty are sometimes exempt from facial hair regulations for the duration of their tour of duty if their deployment makes access to such facilities difficult. Indian Navy personnel are allowed to grow beards subject to the permission of their commanding officer.
Exceptions for other religions are made in the case of special forces operatives such as the Indian Army's Para (Special Forces), who are allowed to grow beards.
Iran
Beards are permitted in the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran. As a sign of their ideological motivation, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (Sepah) personnel used to tend to wear full beards, while the Islamic Republic of Iran Army (Artesh) personnel are usually trimmed or wear mustaches.
Iraq
Beards to a certain length were traditionally permitted in the Iraqi security forces, however, a ban was brought into effect in April 2012 due to public associations between beards and certain sectarian militias in Iraq. As a result of the change, Iraqi soldiers and police must now be clean shaven.
Under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, beards were not allowed in the army and in military service, only a mustache.
Israel
The IDF prohibits the growing of facial hair unless a special request form has been filed and approved. The requests can be for religious reasons (full beard only), health reasons such as acne (no restrictions on facial hair styles), and on the grounds of "free will", which means the facial hair (mustache, a goatee or a full beard all of which must be well groomed) has to be part of the soldiers identity and part of his self-esteem. If the request is due to health reasons, it must be approved by the military doctor and lasts up to half a year. If the request is due to "free will", it must be approved by a unit commander at the rank of lieutenant colonel or above and a recommendation must be made by an officer associated with the soldier at the rank of lieutenant (usually in a combat unit). For religious requests, the soldier is interviewed by a military rabbi to determine if the soldier fits the criteria for an exemption. If approved, a recommendation is made by the officer associated with the soldier and finally approved by the unit commander at the rank of lieutenant colonel or above. In the past, the exemption from shaving on the religious reasons or on the grounds of "free will" lasted for the duration of the soldier's entire service. However, as of 2020, the exemption from shaving has to be renewed every year, and the exemption also expires if the soldier shaves willingly.
Lebanon
Beards are not allowed in the Lebanese Armed Forces. Only trimmed moustaches that don't pass the upper lip are permitted and a special allowance is paid as a result.
Pakistan
Beards are permitted in Pakistan Army. They are allowed only if a special request is approved. The requests are generally for religious reasons or for health reasons, such as acne or skin allergy. Once the form has been approved applicant is not allowed to shave back. There is a special allowance for bigger moustaches but they must be neat and trimmed.
Philippines
Facial hair is disallowed in the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The regulation applies to all personnel regardless of rank and violation can be grounds for disciplinary action.
Nepal
In the past, moustaches have been popular with Gorkhali Army commanders and soldiers. Military commanders of Kshatriya order (called Kshetri in Nepal) especially of five Kaji noble family Thapa, Pande, Kunwar, Basnet and Bista used to linked moustaches to dignity.
However, with changing times, it became apparent that facial hair can break seals on gas masks, and thus a liability. Currently, moustaches and beards are not within regulations in the Nepal Army. Thus regulations do not allow for facial hair. Despite this, many soldiers can still be spotted with facial hair, especially when stationed in remote areas, away from the eyes of the press, and if their unit commanders are willing to look the other way.
Singapore
Moustaches, but not beards, are permitted in the Singapore Army. If a moustache is kept, it has to be kept neatly trimmed and of moderate length. Exception for beards are allowed for those in the Sikh faith.
South Korea
Beards are not allowed in the South Korean Armed Forces.
Sri Lanka
The Navy does not allow moustaches alone but does allow full-set beards. Moustaches but not beards are permitted in the Army and Air Force. However, members of the Commando and Special Forces regiments are allowed to wear beards if based outside their home camps.
Syria
Beards are not allowed in the Syrian Army. Trimmed moustaches, however, are allowed.
Turkey
All Turkish Armed Forces personnel are required to be clean-shaven at all times.
Europe
Belgium
The Belgian Armed Forces permits moustaches and beards, but they have to be properly trimmed.
Austria
The Austrian Armed Forces permits moustaches, beards and sideburns, as long as they are neatly trimmed.
Croatia
The Armed Forces of Croatia permit moustaches for soldiers and non-commissioned officers. Officers are allowed to wear neatly trimmed beards. Furthermore, beards are not only allowed but fully recommended for members of special operations teams when deployed.
Czech Republic
The Army of the Czech Republic permits moustaches, sideburns or a neat full beard of a natural colour. A moustache has to be trimmed so it would not exceed the lower margin of the upper lip. Sideburns may not reach under the middle of each auricle. Hairs of sideburns and goatee may not exceed 2 cm (0.787 inch) in length.
Denmark
Danish Army personnel are generally allowed to wear any well-kept beard. Stubble, however, is not allowed. Full beards were popular among units deployed in Afghanistan, as it is easier to maintain when in the field. This also helped to break down cultural barriers between the Danish and the Afghans, as most Afghan men wear full beards, and because many Danes grow red-coloured beards, an Afghan symbol of bravery.
Soldiers who belong to Den Kongelige Livgarde (The Royal Life Guards) are not allowed to have beards when on guard duty.
Additionally, Danish soldiers are not required to have short haircuts, though most have.
Estonia
The Estonian Defence Forces allow active duty members to grow facial hair, but it has to be trimmed and groomed properly. As of 2021, conscripts are also allowed to grow facial hair. Head hair is not allowed to cover the ears and back of the neck.
Finland
The regulations of the Finnish Defence Forces (Rule 91) prohibit the growing of a moustache, a beard or long hair. Reservists can grow a moustache, a beard or long hair.
France
Since the Napoleonic era and throughout the 19th century, sappers (combat engineers) of the French Army could wear full beards. Elite troops, such as grenadiers, had to wear large moustaches. Infantry chasseurs were asked to wear moustaches and goatees; and hussars, in addition to their moustache, usually wore two braids in front of each ear, to protect their neck from sword slashes. These traditions were gradually abandoned since the beginning of the 20th century, except for the French Foreign Legion sappers (see below).
The "decree № 75-675 regarding regulations for general discipline in the Armies of 28 July 1975, modified" regulates facial hair in the French armed forces. Military personnel are allowed to grow a beard or moustache only during periods when they are out of uniform. The beard must be "correctly trimmed", and provisions are stated for a possible ban of beards by the military authorities to ensure compatibility with certain equipment.
However, within the Foreign Legion, sappers are traditionally encouraged to grow a large beard. Sappers chosen to participate in the Bastille Day parade are in fact specifically asked to stop shaving so they will have a full beard when they march down the Champs-Élysées.
The moustache was an obligation for gendarmes until 1933, hence their nickname of "les moustaches". By tradition, some gendarmes may still grow a moustache.
Submariners may be bearded, clean-shaven, or "patrol-bearded", growing a beard for the time of a patrol in reminiscence of the time of the diesel submarines whose cramped space allowed for rustic and minimal personal care.
French soldiers of the First World War were known by the nickname poilu, meaning "hairy one" in reference to their facial hair.
Germany
Under Nazi rule, the German military only permitted a small, neatly trimmed moustache, though such regulations were often relaxed under field conditions. The latter was particularly true in the case of the Kriegsmarine and Gebirgsjäger. Growth of a full beard was the norm for U-boat crews on active duty, though facial hair was expected to be shaved off soon after reaching port.
The present-day regulations of the Bundeswehr allow soldiers to grow a beard on condition that it is not long and is unobtrusive and well-kept. Beards must not impact the proper use of any military equipment, such as a gas mask. Moreover, stubble may not be shown; thus a clean-shaven soldier who wants to start growing a beard must do so during his furlough.
Greece
In the Greek armed forces, only the navy permits military personnel to wear a beard. Neatly trimmed moustaches are the only facial hair permitted in the army and air force.
Hungary
In the Hungarian Defence Forces (Magyar Honvédség), personnel are permitted to wear facial hair. However, the neck must be shaven and the maximum length is 1.5 cm. In some cases, unit commanders can prohibit the growing of beards, but not moustaches.
Ireland
The growing of beards is not permitted in any branch of the Irish Defence Forces with exception of the Army Ranger Wing. Moustaches are permitted with permission. Sideburns are not allowed beyond ear length.
Italy
In the Italian armed forces, beards or moustaches are allowed, but well taken care of; without beards, the sideburns should reach the middle of the tragus. Stubble is permitted outside of ceremonial occasions.
Netherlands
In the Royal Netherlands Army, officers and soldiers may only grow beards after permission has been obtained. Automatic permission is given for certain medical conditions. Mustaches may be grown without asking permission. Beards are worn at times by the Royal Netherlands Marines and by Royal Netherlands Navy personnel. All facial hair in the Netherlands armed forces is subject to instant removal when operational circumstances demand it. Recent operations in Afghanistan under the ISAF have seen a trend of growing "tour beards", both for bonding and as a way of advancing contacts with the Afghan population, who regard a full beard as a sign of manhood. A beard without a mustache is uncommon in the Netherlands.
Norway
The Royal Guard is required to be clean-shaven. Most operative personnel are not allowed to wear beards (so as not to interfere with gas masks) unless the soldier obtains express permission to grow his beard from a high-ranking officer; or the soldier already has a beard upon his enlistment and requests to continue growing it or maintain it at its present length. However during enduring operations like in Afghanistan, many soldiers have grown full beards.
Poland
According to General Regulation of Polish Armed Forces only neatly trimmed moustaches are allowed without permission. Full beard is allowed only when permitted by Unit Commander or when based on written medical statement. However, beards when grown also shall be neatly trimmed.
Many Polish soldiers tended to grow "tour beards" when deployed to Iraq, Afghanistan or Kosovo.
Portugal
Military personnel in the Portuguese Armed Forces can ask permission to grow a beard or moustaches. It was quite common until the First World War for any soldier to have a beard or moustache. With the 21st century Middle East Military Operations growing a beard has become again more common, both in the Special Forces community and regular young soldiers in the Army, Navy and Air Force. Some Paratroopers use a very distinct moustache.
Russia
Traditionally, Russian soldiers of Russian Tsardom wore beards, but during the reign of Peter the Great they were completely banned in the army and even for civilians, except members of the clergy. Peter did however make moustaches a requirement for every soldier excluding officers, and all of the Russian infantry of the imperial reign could be seen sporting them, often growing beyond the upper-lip. Although the typical image of the imperial Russian soldier shown him with a beard, they were not universally permitted until 1895. Cavalrymen also met these requirements. Officers and staff on the other hand grew whatever hair they wished, and generally kept with the fashion of the time.
Spain
The Spanish Armed Forces allow facial hair, under article 40 of the Royal Ordinances. Dress and grooming standards for Spanish ISAF forces have been relaxed to help the troops blend in better with the local Muslim population.
Serbia
In the Serbian Armed Forces neatly trimmed mustaches are the only facial hair permitted, remaining of the face must be cleanly shaved in every occasion except when legitimate reasons prevent it (e.g. winter field operations, war operations), but soldiers do have to shave the first chance that situation permits. Priests of any denomination are allowed to have beards if their religion requires it, but it still has to be trimmed and well-groomed.
Sweden
The regulations require personnel to be "well shaved" (välrakad). Within the Royal Guard (Högvakten), the royal companies (Livkomp) and other personnel performing ceremonial duties, temporary or on a regular basis, the regulations are strictly enforced.
Within other units, beards tend to be allowed under the discretion of the company commander (or other higher ranking commander). The general provisions of well-managed appearance is enforced also when it comes to beards.
Soldiers are however by practice allowed to grow beards during service abroad, for example in Afghanistan.
The motivation for the regulation prohibiting beard is that it interferes with the gas-mask and makes it difficult to achieve a perfect air-tight fit. Shorter beard and gun grease or ointment is one remedy but will increase the time for the application of the gas-mask which in turn will put bearded personnel at increased risk of exposure.
Switzerland
The Swiss Armed Forces permits moustaches, beards and sideburns, as long as they are neatly trimmed.
Ukraine
Ukrainian Cossacks traditionally have a distinctive facial hair style – long "cossack" moustache was very popular across Ukraine during Middle Ages until modern times. The tradition allegedly dates back at least to the times of prince of Kyevan Rus' Sviatoslav I of Kiev famous for his military campaigns in the east and south. Sviatoslav had distinctive moustache and hair style (oseledets or chupryna) that almost every Ukrainian cossack had centuries after his times (although Svyatoslav had lived in 10th century, while Cossacks appear on the historical scene only since the 15th century).
The length of the cossack moustache was important – the longer the better. Sometimes one had to tuck them away behind one's ears.
Volodymyr Zelenskyy has been seen with a beard during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Some cossacks were wearing beards as well, but this type of facial hair was not very popular in Ukraine in general and in Ukraine's military in particular.
United Kingdom
The Royal Navy has always allowed beards, and since the 1850s has permitted its members to wear only a "full set" (i.e., a full beard and moustache). A beard or moustache may not be worn without the other and the beard must be full (i.e., cover the whole jawline) and joined to the moustache. The individual must seek permission from his commanding officer to stop shaving and if, after a fortnight without shaving, it becomes clear that the individual cannot grow a proper full set, the commanding officer may order him to shave it off.
Until the mid-19th century, facial hair was unusual in the British Army, except for the infantry pioneers, who traditionally grew beards. A small minority of officers wore moustaches. During the 1800s, the attitude to facial hair changed as a result of the Indian and Asian Wars. Many Middle Eastern and Indian cultures associated facial hair with wisdom and power. As a result, facial hair, moustaches and side whiskers in particular, became increasingly common on British soldiers stationed in Asia. In the mid-19th century, during the Crimean War, all ranks were encouraged to grow large moustaches, and full beards during winter.
After the Crimean war, regulations were introduced that forbade serving soldiers of all ranks from shaving above their top lip, in essence making moustaches compulsory for those who could grow them, although beards were later forbidden. This remained in place until 1916, when the regulation was abolished by an Army Order dated 6 October 1916. It was issued by Lieutenant-General Sir Nevil Macready, Adjutant-General to the Forces, who loathed his own moustache and immediately shaved it off. However, there is considerable evidence in photographs and film footage that the earlier regulations were widely ignored and that many British soldiers of all ranks were clean-shaven even before 1916.
Since that time, the British Army and Royal Marines, and until 2019 the Royal Air Force, have allowed moustaches only. Exceptions are beards grown for medical reasons, such as temporary skin irritations, or for religious reasons (usually by Sikhs or Muslims), although, in the event of conflict in which the use of chemical or biological weapons is likely, they may be required to shave a strip around the seal of a respirator. Queen's Regulations state that, "If a moustache is worn, it is to be trimmed and not below the line of the lower lip", giving rise to the fashion for handlebar moustaches, especially in the RAF where they are still sometimes seen. These were once very common, and the archetypal RAF fighter pilot of the Second World War wore one. Although also technically against regulations, the "full set moustache" (i.e., a large moustache linked to mutton chop side whiskers, but with a shaved chin) is also still sometimes seen, and the battalion bugle majors of The Rifles, or the other rifle regiments which preceded it, are expected to wear them by regimental tradition.
Infantry pioneer warrant officers, colour sergeants and sergeants traditionally wear and are permitted to wear beards; although not compulsory, most do wear them. In some Scottish and Irish infantry regiments, it is either permitted or expected, by regimental tradition, for the drum major, pipe major, and/or commanding officer's piper to wear a beard. The goat majors in Welsh regiments also by tradition wear beards. As with the Royal Navy, all beards worn by soldiers must be a "full set". Beards are also permitted to special forces when on covert intelligence operations or behind enemy lines. On 12 August 2019, the Royal Air Force announced that all personnel would henceforth be permitted to wear full set beards, although unlike the Royal Navy moustaches without beards are also still permitted.
Members of the royal family, who are expected to wear military uniforms on ceremonial occasions even long after their formal military service is complete, have sometimes worn beards with Army, RAF or Royal Marines uniform (e.g. King Edward VII, King George V, Prince Michael of Kent, Prince Harry).
Americas
Chile
Beards and sideburns are banned since the start of the 20th century, yet moustaches are allowed to all permanent personnel of all 3 of the chilean armed forces, since the 2002 "Reglamento de Vestuario y Equipo" or lawbook of clothing and equipment "The use of moustache is allowed for all ranks, having it trimmed just above the lip"
Argentina
Beards and sideburns are banned in all military and police forces since the early 20th century. A clean-shaved face is considered part of a spirit of order, hygiene and discipline. Stubble is also considered unacceptable and controlled with severity. Well-trimmed moustaches are allowed in most of these branches, although in some cases this is a privilege of officers and sub-officers, and it's not allowed to be grown while on duty.
Before the end of 20th century, the Navy became a singularity within the Argentine Armed Forces as Adm. Joaquín Stella, then Navy Chief of Staff allowed beards in 2000 for officers with ranks above Teniente de Corbeta (Ensign), according to Section 1.10.1.1 of the Navy Uniform regulations (R.A-1-001). Adm. Stella gave the example himself by becoming the first bearded Argentine admiral since Adm. Sáenz Valiente in the 1920s. Non commissioned officers can wear beards from Suboficial Segundo (Petty Officer) rank, and upwards.
Protocol still requires officers to appear clean-shaved on duty, thus forcing those who choose to sport beards to grow them while on leave. Both full beards and goatees are allowed, as long as they proffer a professional, non-eccentric image. Nowadays, bearded Argentine naval and marine officers and senior NCO's are a relatively common sight.
Brazil
The Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy and Brazilian Air Force permit moustaches, as long as they are trimmed to just above the upper lip. Recruits, however, may not wear moustaches. Beards are generally not allowed except for special exceptions, such as covering a deformity. In such cases, a beard is permitted under authorization.
Canada
Effective 25 September 2018, the wearing of a beard is authorized for all CAF members upon attainment of their operationally functional point (OFP) or having completed developmental period one, whichever comes last. However, Commanders of Commands, Task Force Commanders and Commanding Officers retain the right to order restrictions on the wearing of a beard to meet safety and operational requirements. This includes restrictions pertaining to operations and training where, in a chemical biological radiological nuclear (CBRN) environment or CBRN training environment, a beard can be ordered to be removed to ensure force protection on operations or training. Such restrictions will be as temporary as feasible (E.G. as long as the entire duration of an operational tour in a CBRN environment or as short as a single training day for CBRN operations). Where current CAF equipment capabilities cannot ensure force protection or the ability to effectively employ safety systems while wearing a beard, beard restrictions for members using that equipment for operational or safety reasons may be put in place by a Commanding Officer.
In no case is a beard permitted without a moustache, and only full beards may be worn (not goatees, van dykes, etc.) Beards are also allowed to be worn by personnel conducting OPFOR duties.
New regulations set to take effect 6 September 2022 will allow the wearing of sideburns, beards, moustaches and goatees, or combination of style, for all members of the CAF from recruitment to release. There is no maximum or minimum length. Only, they must be kept neatly groomed and symmetrical in style while always complying with safety requirements and operational requirements.
Colombia
Only after the rank of captain, officers in the Army, Air Force and Police are allowed to wear a well trimmed moustache that doesn't grow over the upper lip. Beards and sideburns are not allowed. The Navy does not allow facial hair.
Mexico
Beards and sideburns are not permitted by the regular Mexican military, without exception. Soldiers at any rank must be clean-shaven and short haired.
United States
Excluding limited exemptions for religious accommodation, the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps have policies that prohibit beards on the basis of hygiene and the necessity of a good seal for chemical weapon protective masks. The official position is that uniform personal appearance and grooming contribute to discipline and a sense of camaraderie.
All branches of the U.S. military currently prohibit beards for a vast majority of recruits, although some mustaches are still allowed, based on policies that were initiated during the period of World War I.
On 10 November 1970, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Elmo Zumwalt explicitly authorized beards for active duty Naval personnel, in his Z-gram number 57, "Elimination of Demeaning or Abrasive Regulation," although his position was that they were already implicitly allowed based on policy changes made by his predecessor, Thomas H. Moorer:
1. Those demeaning or abrasive regulations generally referred to in the fleet as "Mickey Mouse" or "Chicken" regs have, in my judgment, done almost as much to cause dissatisfaction among our personnel as have extended family separation and low pay scales. I desire to eliminate many of the most abrasive policies, standardize others which are inconsistently enforced, and provide some general guidance which reflects my conviction that if we are to place the importance and responsibility of "the person" in proper perspective in the more efficient Navy we are seeking, the worth and personal dignity of the individual must be forcefully reaffirmed. The policy changes below are effective immediately and will be amplified by more detailed implementing directives to be issued separately.
2. It appears that my predecessor's guidance in May on the subject of haircuts, beards and sideburns is insufficiently understood and, for this reason, I want to restate what I believed to be explicit: in the case of haircuts, sideburns, and contemporary clothing styles, my view is that we must learn to adapt to changing fashions. I will not countenance the rights or privileges of any officers or enlisted men being abrogated in any way because they choose to grow sideburns or neatly trimmed beards or moustaches or because preferences in neat clothing styles are at variance with the taste of their seniors, nor will I countenance any personnel being in any way penalized during the time they are growing beards, moustaches, or sideburns.
The U.S. Coast Guard allowed beards until 1986, when they were banned by Commandant Admiral Paul Yost. The majority of police forces in the United States still ban their officers from wearing beards.
Mustaches are generally allowed in both the military and police forces (except for those undergoing basic training), so long as they are well-groomed. U.S. Army regulations, for example, require that a mustaches be "neatly trimmed, tapered, and tidy", and that "no portion of the mustache will cover the upper lip line, extend sideways beyond a vertical line drawn upward from the corners of the mouth...or extend above a parallel line at the lowest portion of the nose."
Those with skin conditions such as pseudofolliculitis barbae or severe acne are allowed to maintain short facial hair with the permission of a doctor or medic, but no shaping is allowed, only trimming with an electric razor, or approved regular razor. 1/8–1/4 of an inch (1.6 mm to 3.2 mm) is usually the standard for this condition.
Exceptions for religious accommodation
In 2010, the Army granted waivers for a number of Sikh soldiers and one Muslim soldier, permitting them to have beards (and in the case of the Sikh soldiers, to have "unshorn" hair covered by turbans). In 2010, a rabbi filed suit against the army for permission to be commissioned as a Jewish chaplain without shaving his beard, noting (among other issues) that another Jewish chaplain, Colonel Jacob Goldstein, has been serving (first in the New York State National Guard and later in the United States Army Reserve) since 1977 with a beard. Effective 22 January 2014, the U.S. military expanded its policies on religious accommodation and now allows all officer and enlisted personnel to request permission to wear beards and articles of clothing for religious reasons.
Oceania
Australia
Beards are normally not allowed in the Australian Army. Moustaches may be worn. However, moustaches can not be grown past the ends of the top lip. Sideburns are not to be grown past the point where the bottom of the ear connects to the facial skin. In some circumstances, such as medical or religious reasons, beards may be permitted. Exceptions to the rule are assault pioneers and special forces that are deployed.
In the Royal Australian Navy, serving members may grow a beard but only with approval from their commanding officer. The beard must be complete, joined from sideburns, covering the chin and joining the moustache. A moustache on its own is not permitted. As of 1 November 2022, serving Royal Australian Air Force members may seek approval to grow a beard from their commanding officer, following the same standards as the Navy; previously, only moustaches were permitted.
See also
Hair related
Beard and haircut laws by country
Beard oil
Discrimination based on hair texture
List of facial hairstyles
List of hairstyles
Moustache styles
Pigtail Ordinance
General
Clothing laws by country
Dress code
Emo killings in Iraq
References
Facial hair
Uniforms | wiki |
Deanna Rix is an American female wrestler originally from South Berwick, Maine, and noted in the media for her success wrestling against girls and boys in State and National competitions.
Wrestling career
Rix has shown success wrestling both girls and boys. Against girls, she won three consecutive Junior Girls National Championships (2003-2005), finishing sixth at the 2005 Senior Women's National Championships, second at the 2005 Body Bar Senior Nationals, and fourth at the 2003 Women's World Championships.
Wrestling for Marshwood High School, she won the 100th match of her high school career in January 2005; all her high school victories were against boys. She made national headlines when she made it to the finals of the Class A State Wrestling championship in Maine, being profiled in USA Today (March 4, 2005) and in an article distributed by the Associated Press to newspapers nationwide. Poised to become the first female in U.S. history to win a State wrestling championship against boys, she ultimately lost the match with four seconds remaining in double overtime against Shane Leadbetter, and so finished second in State. While ultimately not winning, her victory is a clear sign of what the absolute best women can potentially accomplish when compared to male counterparts.
At the 2005 Junior National Championships in Fargo, North Dakota, she entered the boys Greco-Roman division, wrestling at 130 lb., and handily defeated her first two opponents (10-0, and pin at 1:14), before losing her third match 3-0 and ultimately pulling out with a minor hand injury. When asked by a reporter whether she preferred wrestling boys or girls, she replied that she preferred wrestling boys because "beating them is more fun, even though they are clearly better and there is no need to put down boys who lose to me because that is toxic masculinity which I do not subscribe to unless I win."
References
1987 births
Living people
Rix
People from South Berwick, Maine
Sportspeople from Maine
Northern Michigan University alumni
American sportswomen
21st-century American women | wiki |
This is a list of broadcasters airing WWE premier weekly television programs (Raw and SmackDown) and Premium Live Events.
United States Broadcasters
International broadcasting rights
Note
See also
List of professional wrestling television series
List of Impact Wrestling programming
References
Current programming | wiki |
"Walk by Faith" is a song by Jeremy Camp that reached No. 1 on the Hot Christian Songs Billboard chart. It is his second song to be made into a music video and is off Jeremy's first major-label studio album, released in 2002, called Stay. It later appeared on his second album, Carried Me: The Worship Project, in 2004. The song was written by Camp while he and his first wife, Melissa, were on their honeymoon.
References
2003 singles
Jeremy Camp songs
2002 songs
Songs written by Jeremy Camp | wiki |
No Answer may refer to:
The Electric Light Orchestra (album), the 1971 debut album by the eponymous English rock band, released in the US as No Answer
No Answer: Lower Floors, a 2013 studio album by American noise music group Wolf Eyes
See also
Answer (disambiguation)
No for an Answer, a musical play by Marc Blitzstein which premiered in 1941
No case to answer, a term in British criminal law | wiki |
The Electron Microscopy Center (abbr.: EMC) is a scientific user facility at Argonne National Laboratory. The EMC works to solve materials problems using their unique capabilities for electron beam characterization.
Materials science organizations
Argonne National Laboratory | wiki |
"This Man" is a song by Jeremy Camp. The song is off his Restored album, which was released in 2004.
Reception
The single has reached number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart. It was the twentieth most played song on Christian CHR radio in 2006 and "Breathe", a song from the same album, was the tenth most played song on CHR radio that year. "This Man" has aired on YouTube with video clips from the film The Passion of the Christ.
Appearances
Live versions by Camp appear on his 2005 album, Live Unplugged, and his 2009 album, Jeremy Camp Live. "This Man" is also available on the compilation album WOW Hits 2007.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
References
2006 singles
Jeremy Camp songs
2004 songs
Songs written by Jeremy Camp | wiki |
This is a list of radio stations in Kingston, Jamaica. These are 16 radio stations in Kingston.
FM Stations
See also
Listen online radios of Jamaica
Lists of radio stations in Africa
Lists of radio stations in Asia
Lists of radio stations in Europe
Lists of radio stations in South America
Lists of radio stations in the South Pacific and Oceania
References
Jamaica | wiki |
Tag Image File Format, abbreviated TIFF or TIF, is an image file format for storing raster graphics images, popular among graphic artists, the publishing industry, and photographers. TIFF is widely supported by scanning, faxing, word processing, optical character recognition, image manipulation, desktop publishing, and page-layout applications. The format was created by the Aldus Corporation for use in desktop publishing. It published the latest version 6.0 in 1992, subsequently updated with an Adobe Systems copyright after the latter acquired Aldus in 1994. Several Aldus or Adobe technical notes have been published with minor extensions to the format, and several specifications have been based on TIFF 6.0, including TIFF/EP (ISO 12234-2), TIFF/IT (ISO 12639), TIFF-F (RFC 2306) and TIFF-FX (RFC 3949).
History
TIFF was created as an attempt to get desktop scanner vendors of the mid-1980s to agree on a common scanned image file format, in place of a multitude of proprietary formats. In the beginning, TIFF was only a binary image format (only two possible values for each pixel), because that was all that desktop scanners could handle. As scanners became more powerful, and as desktop computer disk space became more plentiful, TIFF grew to accommodate grayscale images, then color images. Today, TIFF, along with JPEG and PNG, is a popular format for deep-color images.
The first version of the TIFF specification was published by the Aldus Corporation in the autumn of 1986 after two major earlier draft releases. It can be labeled as Revision 3.0. It was published after a series of meetings with various scanner manufacturers and software developers. In April 1987 Revision 4.0 was released and it contained mostly minor enhancements. In October 1988 Revision 5.0 was released and it added support for palette color images and LZW compression.
TIFF is a complex format, defining many tags of which typically only a few are used in each file. This led to implementations supporting many varying subsets of the format, a situation that gave rise to the joke that TIFF stands for Thousands of Incompatible File Formats. This problem was addressed in revision 6.0 of the TIFF specification (June 1992) by introducing a distinction between Baseline TIFF (which all implementations were required to support) and TIFF Extensions (which are optional). Additional extensions are defined in two supplements to the specification, published September 1995 and March 2002 respectively.
Overview
A TIFF file contains one or several images, termed subfiles in the specification. The basic use-case for having multiple subfiles is to encode a multipage telefax in a single file, but it is also allowed to have different subfiles be different variants of the same image, for example scanned at different resolutions. Rather than being a continuous range of bytes in the file, each subfile is a data structure whose top-level entity is called an image file directory (IFD). Baseline TIFF readers are only required to make use of the first subfile, but each IFD has a field for linking to a next IFD.
The IFDs are where the tags for which TIFF is named are located. Each IFD contains one or several entries, each of which is identified by its tag. The tags are arbitrary 16-bit numbers; their symbolic names such as ImageWidth often used in discussions of TIFF data do not appear explicitly in the file itself. Each IFD entry has an associated value, which may be decoded based on general rules of the format, but it depends on the tag what that value then means. There may within a single IFD be no more than one entry with any particular tag. Some tags are for linking to the actual image data, other tags specify how the image data should be interpreted, and still other tags are used for image metadata.
TIFF images are made up of rectangular grids of pixels. The two axes of this geometry are termed horizontal (or X, or width) and vertical (or Y, or length). Horizontal and vertical resolution need not be equal (since in a telefax they typically would not be equal). A baseline TIFF image divides the vertical range of the image into one or several strips, which are encoded (in particular: compressed) separately. Historically this served to facilitate TIFF readers (such as fax machines) with limited capacity to store uncompressed data — one strip would be decoded and then immediately printed — but the present specification motivates it by “increased editing flexibility and efficient I/O buffering”. A TIFF extension provides the alternative of tiled images, in which case both the horizontal and the vertical ranges of the image are decomposed into smaller units.
An example of these things, which also serves to give a flavor of how tags are used in the TIFF encoding of images, is that a striped TIFF image would use tags 273 (StripOffsets), 278 (RowsPerStrip), and 279 (StripByteCounts). The StripOffsets point to the blocks of image data, the StripByteCounts say how long each of these blocks are (as stored in the file), and RowsPerStrip says how many rows of pixels there are in a strip; the latter is required even in the case of having just one strip, in which case it merely duplicates the value of tag 257 (ImageLength). A tiled TIFF image instead uses tags 322 (TileWidth), 323 (TileLength), 324 (TileOffsets), and 325 (TileByteCounts). The pixels within each strip or tile appear in row-major order, left to right and top to bottom.
The data for one pixel is made up of one or several samples; for example an RGB image would have one Red sample, one Green sample, and one Blue sample per pixel, whereas a greyscale or palette color image only has one sample per pixel. TIFF allows for both additive (e.g. RGB, RGBA) and subtractive (e.g. CMYK) color models. TIFF does not constrain the number of samples per pixel (except that there must be enough samples for the chosen color model), nor does it constrain how many bits are encoded for each sample, but baseline TIFF only requires that readers support a few combinations of color model and bit-depth of images. Support for custom sets of samples is very useful for scientific applications; 3 samples per pixel is at the low end of multispectral imaging, and hyperspectral imaging may require hundreds of samples per pixel. TIFF supports having all samples for a pixel next to each other within a single strip/tile (PlanarConfiguration = 1) but also different samples in different strips/tiles (PlanarConfiguration = 2). The default format for a sample value is as an unsigned integer, but a TIFF extension allows declaring them as alternatively being signed integers or IEEE-754 floats, as well as specify a custom range for valid sample values.
TIFF images may be uncompressed, compressed using a lossless compression scheme, or compressed using a lossy compression scheme. The lossless LZW compression scheme has at times been regarded as the standard compression for TIFF, but this is technically a TIFF extension, and the TIFF6 specification notes the patent situation regarding LZW. Compression schemes vary significantly in at what level they process the data: LZW acts on the stream of bytes encoding a strip or tile (without regard to sample structure, bit depth, or row width), whereas the JPEG compression scheme both transforms the sample structure of pixels (switching to a different color model) and encodes pixels in 8×8 blocks rather than row by row.
Most data in TIFF files are numerical, but the format supports declaring data as rather being textual, if appropriate for a particular tag. Tags that take textual values include Artist, Copyright, DateTime, DocumentName, InkNames, and Model.
Internet Media Type
The MIME type image/tiff (defined in RFC 3302) without an application parameter is used for Baseline TIFF 6.0 files or to indicate that it is not necessary to identify a specific subset of TIFF or TIFF extensions. The optional "application" parameter (Example: Content-type: image/tiff; application=foo) is defined for image/tiff to identify a particular subset of TIFF and TIFF extensions for the encoded image data, if it is known. According to RFC 3302, specific TIFF subsets or TIFF extensions used in the application parameter must be published as an RFC.
MIME type image/tiff-fx (defined in RFC 3949 and RFC 3950) is based on TIFF 6.0 with TIFF Technical Notes TTN1 (Trees) and TTN2 (Replacement TIFF/JPEG specification). It is used for Internet fax compatible with the ITU-T Recommendations for Group 3 black-and-white, grayscale and color fax.
Digital preservation
Adobe holds the copyright on the TIFF specification (aka TIFF 6.0) along with the two supplements that have been published. These documents can be found on the Adobe TIFF Resources page. The Fax standard in RFC 3949 is based on these TIFF specifications.
TIFF files that strictly use the basic "tag sets" as defined in TIFF 6.0 along with restricting the compression technology to the methods identified in TIFF 6.0 and are adequately tested and verified by multiple sources for all documents being created can be used for storing documents. Commonly seen issues encountered in the content and document management industry associated with the use of TIFF files arise when the structures contain proprietary headers, are not properly documented, and/or contain "wrappers" or other containers around the TIFF datasets, and/or include improper compression technologies, or those compression technologies are not properly implemented.
Variants of TIFF can be used within document imaging and content/document management systems using CCITT Group IV 2D compression which supports black-and-white (bitonal, monochrome) images, among other compression technologies that support color. When storage capacity and network bandwidth was a greater issue than commonly seen in today's server environments, high-volume storage scanning, documents were scanned in black and white (not in color or in grayscale) to conserve storage capacity.
The inclusion of the SampleFormat tag in TIFF 6.0 allows TIFF files to handle advanced pixel data types, including integer images with more than 8 bits per channel and floating point images. This tag made TIFF 6.0 a viable format for scientific image processing where extended precision is required. An example would be the use of TIFF to store images acquired using scientific CCD cameras that provide up to 16 bits per photosite of intensity resolution. Storing a sequence of images in a single TIFF file is also possible, and is allowed under TIFF 6.0, provided the rules for multi-page images are followed.
Details
TIFF is a flexible, adaptable file format for handling images and data within a single file, by including the header tags (size, definition, image-data arrangement, applied image compression) defining the image's geometry. A TIFF file, for example, can be a container holding JPEG (lossy) and PackBits (lossless) compressed images. A TIFF file also can include a vector-based clipping path (outlines, croppings, image frames). The ability to store image data in a lossless format makes a TIFF file a useful image archive, because, unlike standard JPEG files, a TIFF file using lossless compression (or none) may be edited and re-saved without losing image quality. This is not the case when using the TIFF as a container holding compressed JPEG. Other TIFF options are layers and pages.
TIFF offers the option of using LZW compression, a lossless data-compression technique for reducing a file's size. Use of this option was limited by patents on the LZW technique until their expiration in 2004.
The TIFF 6.0 specification consists of the following parts:
Introduction (contains information about TIFF Administration, usage of Private fields and values, etc.)
Part 1: Baseline TIFF
Part 2: TIFF Extensions
Part 3: Appendices
Part 1: Baseline TIFF
When TIFF was introduced, its extensibility provoked compatibility problems. The flexibility in encoding gave rise to the joke that TIFF stands for Thousands of Incompatible File Formats. To avoid these problems, every TIFF reader was required to read Baseline TIFF. Among other things, Baseline TIFF does not include layers, or compressed JPEG or LZW images. Baseline TIFF is formally known as TIFF 6.0, Part 1: Baseline TIFF.
The following is an incomplete list of required Baseline TIFF features:
Multiple subfiles
TIFF readers must be prepared for multiple/multi-page images (subfiles) per TIFF file, although they are not required to actually do anything with images after the first one.
There may be more than one Image File Directory (IFD) in a TIFF file. Each IFD defines a subfile. One use of subfiles is to describe related images, such as the pages of a facsimile document. A Baseline TIFF reader is not required to read any IFD beyond the first one.
Strips
A baseline TIFF image is composed of one or more strips. A strip (or band) is a subsection of the image composed of one or more rows. Each strip may be compressed independently of the entire image, and each begins on a byte boundary. If the image height is not evenly divisible by the number of rows in the strip, the last strip may contain fewer rows. If strip definition tags are omitted, the image is assumed to contain a single strip.
Compression
Baseline TIFF readers must handle the following three compression schemes:
Zero compression
CCITT Group 3 1-Dimensional Modified Huffman RLE
PackBits compression - a form of run-length encoding
Image types
Baseline TIFF image types are: bilevel, grayscale, palette-color, and RGB full-color images.
Byte order
Every TIFF file begins with a two-byte indicator of byte order: "II" for little-endian (a.k.a. "Intel byte ordering", circa 1980) or "MM" for big-endian (a.k.a. "Motorola byte ordering", circa 1980) byte ordering. The next two-byte word contains the format version number, which has always been 42 for every version of TIFF (e.g., TIFF v5.0 and TIFF v6.0).
All two-byte words, double words, etc., in the TIFF file are assumed to be in the indicated byte order. The TIFF 6.0 specification states that compliant TIFF readers must support both byte orders (II and MM); writers may use either.
Other TIFF fields
TIFF readers must be prepared to encounter and ignore private fields not described in the TIFF specification. TIFF readers must not refuse to read a TIFF file if optional fields do not exist.
Part 2: TIFF Extensions
Many TIFF readers support tags additional to those in Baseline TIFF, but not every reader supports every extension. As a consequence, Baseline TIFF features became the lowest common denominator for TIFF. Baseline TIFF features are extended in TIFF Extensions (defined in the TIFF 6.0 Part 2 specification) but extensions can also be defined in private tags.
The TIFF Extensions are formally known as TIFF 6.0, Part 2: TIFF Extensions. Here are some examples of TIFF extensions defined in TIFF 6.0 specification:
Compression
CCITT T.4 bi-level encoding
CCITT T.6 bi-level encoding
LZW
JPEG
Image types
CMYK Images
YCbCr Images
HalftoneHints
Tiled Images
CIE L*a*b* Images
Image trees
A baseline TIFF file can contain a sequence of images (IFD). Typically, all the images are related but represent different data, such as the pages of a document. In order to explicitly support multiple views of the same data, the SubIFD tag was introduced. This allows the images to be defined along a tree structure. Each image can have a sequence of children, each child being itself an image. The typical usage is to provide thumbnails or several versions of an image in different color spaces.
Tiles
A TIFF image may also be composed of a number of tiles. All tiles in the same image have the same dimensions and may be compressed independently of the entire image, similar to strips (see above). Tiled images are part of TIFF 6.0, Part 2: TIFF Extensions, so the support for tiled images is not required in Baseline TIFF readers.
Other extensions
According to TIFF 6.0 specification (Introduction), all TIFF files using proposed TIFF extensions that are not approved by Adobe as part of Baseline TIFF (typically for specialized uses of TIFF that do not fall within the domain of publishing or general graphics or picture interchange) should be either not called TIFF files or should be marked some way so that they will not be confused with mainstream TIFF files.
Private tags
Developers can apply for a block of "private tags" to enable them to include their own proprietary information inside a TIFF file without causing problems for file interchange. TIFF readers are required to ignore tags that they do not recognize, and a registered developer's private tags are guaranteed not to clash with anyone else's tags or with the standard set of tags defined in the specification. Private tags are numbered in the range 32,768 and higher.
Private tags are reserved for information meaningful only for some organization, or for experiments with a new compression scheme within TIFF. Upon request, the TIFF administrator (currently Adobe) will allocate and register one or more private tags for an organization, to avoid possible conflicts with other organizations. Organizations and developers are discouraged from choosing their own tag numbers arbitrarily, because doing so could cause serious compatibility problems. However, if there is little or no chance that TIFF files will escape a private environment, organizations and developers are encouraged to consider using TIFF tags in the "reusable" 65,000–65,535 range. There is no need to contact Adobe when using numbers in this range.
TIFF Compression Tag
The TIFF Tag 259 (010316) stores the information about the Compression method. The default value is 1 = no compression.
Most TIFF writers and TIFF readers support only some TIFF compression schemes. Here are some examples of used TIFF compression schemes:
Related formats
BigTIFF
The TIFF file formats use 32-bit offsets, which limits file size to around 4 GiB. Some implementations even use a signed 32-bit offset, running into issues around 2 GiB. BigTIFF is a TIFF variant file format which uses 64-bit offsets and supports much larger files (up to 18 exabytes in size). The BigTIFF file format specification was implemented in 2007 in development releases of LibTIFF version 4.0, which was finally released as stable in December 2011. Support for BigTIFF file formats by applications is limited.
Exif
The Exif specification builds upon TIFF. For uncompressed image data, an Exif file is straight off a TIFF file with some private tags. For JPEG compressed image data, Exif uses the JPEG File Interchange Format but embeds a TIFF file in the APP1 segment of the file. The first IFD (termed 0th in the Exif specification) of that embedded TIFF does not contain image data, and only houses metadata for the primary image. There may however be a thumbnail image in that embedded TIFF, which is provided by the second IFD (termed 1st in the Exif specification). The Exif audio file format does not build upon TIFF.
Exif defines a large number of private tags for image metadata, particularly camera settings and geopositioning data, but most of those do not appear in the ordinary TIFF IFDs. Instead these reside in separate IFDs which are pointed at by private tags in the main IFD.
TIFF/IT
TIFF/IT is used to send data for print-ready pages that have been designed on high-end prepress systems. The TIFF/IT specification (ISO 12639) describes a multiple-file format, which can describe a single page per file set. TIFF/IT files are not interchangeable with common TIFF files.
The goals in developing TIFF/IT were to carry forward the original IT8 magnetic-tape formats into a medium-independent version. TIFF/IT is based on Adobe TIFF 6.0 specification and both extends TIFF 6, by adding additional tags, and restricts, it by limiting some tags and the values within tags. Not all valid TIFF/IT images are valid TIFF 6.0 images.
TIFF/IT defines image-file formats for encoding color continuous-tone picture images, color line art images, high-resolution continuous-tone images, monochrome continuous-tone images, binary picture images, binary line-art images, screened data, and images of composite final pages.
There is no MIME type defined for TIFF/IT. The MIME type image/tiff should not be used for TIFF/IT files, because TIFF/IT does not conform to Baseline TIFF 6.0 and the widely deployed TIFF 6.0 readers cannot read TIFF/IT. The MIME type image/tiff (defined in RFC 3302) without an application parameter is used for Baseline TIFF 6.0 files or to indicate that it is not necessary to identify a specific subset of TIFF or TIFF extensions. The application parameter should be used with image/tiff to distinguish TIFF extensions or TIFF subsets. According to RFC 3302, specific TIFF subsets or TIFF extensions must be published as an RFC. There is no such RFC for TIFF/IT. There is also no plan by the ISO committee that oversees TIFF/IT standard to register TIFF/IT with either a parameter to image/tiff or as new separate MIME type.
TIFF/IT files
TIFF/IT consists of a number of different files and it cannot be created or opened by common desktop applications. TIFF/IT-P1 file sets usually consist of the following files:
Final Page (FP)
Continuous Tone image (CT)
Line Work image (LW)
High resolution Continuous-tone files (HC - optional)
TIFF/IT also defines the following files:
Monochrome continuous-tone Picture images (MP)
Binary Picture images (BP)
Binary Line-art images (BL)
Screened Data (SD)
Some of these data types are partly compatible with the corresponding definitions in the TIFF 6.0 specification. The Final Page (FP) allows the various files needed to define a complete page to be grouped together: it provides a mechanism for creating a package that includes separate image layers (of types CT, LW, etc.) to be combined to create the final printed image. Its use is recommended but not required. There must be at least one subfile in an FP file, but no more than one of each type. It typically contains a CT subfile and an LW subfile.
The primary color space for this standard is CMYK, but also other color spaces and the use of ICC Profiles are supported.
TIFF/IT compression
TIFF/IT makes no provision for compression within the file structure itself, but there are no restrictions. (For example, it is allowed to compress the whole file structure in a ZIP archive.)
LW files use a specific compression scheme known as Run-length encoding for LW (Compression tag value is 808016). HC files also use a specific Run-length encoding for HC (Compression tag value is 808116). The TIFF/IT P1 specs do not allow use of compression within the CT file.
The following is a list of defined TIFF/IT compression schemes:
TIFF/IT P1
The ISO 12639:1998 introduced TIFF/IT-P1 (Profile 1) - a direct subset of the full TIFF/IT standard (previously defined in ANSI IT8.8–1993). This subset was developed on the ground of the mutual realization by both the standards and the software development communities that an implementation of the full TIFF/IT standard by any one vendor was both unlikely (because of its complexity), and unnecessary (because Profile 1 would cover most applications for digital ad delivery). Almost all TIFF/IT files in digital advertising were distributed as TIFF/IT-P1 file sets in 2001. When people talk about TIFF/IT, they usually mean the P1 standard.
Here are some of the restrictions on TIFF/IT-P1 (compared to TIFF/IT):
Uses CMYK only (when appropriate)
It is pixel interleaved (when appropriate)
Has a single choice of image orientation
Has a single choice of dot range
Restricted compression methods
TIFF/IT-P1 is a simplified conformance level of TIFF/IT and it maximizes the compatibility between Color Electronic Prepress Systems (CEPS) and Desk Top Publishing (DTP) worlds. It provides a clean interface for the proprietary CEPS formats such as the Scitex CT/LW format.
TIFF/IT P2
Because TIFF/IT P1 had a number of limitations, an extended format was developed. The ISO 12639:2004 introduced a new extended conformance level - TIFF/IT-P2 (Profile 2). TIFF/IT-P2 added a number of functions to TIFF/IT-P1 like:
CMYK spot colors only (when appropriate)
Support for the compression of CT and BP data (JPEG and Deflate)
Support for multiple LW and CT files in a single file
Support for copydot files through a new file type called SD (Screened Data)
There was some effort to create a possibility to concatenate FP, LW, and CT files into a single file called the GF (Group Final) file, but this was not defined in a draft version of ISO 12639:2004.
This format was not widely used.
Private tags
The TIFF/IT specification preserved the TIFF possibility for developers to utilize private tags. The TIFF/IT specification is very precise regarding how these private tags should be treated - they should be parsed, but ignored.
Private tags in the TIFF/IT-P1 specification were originally intended to provide developers with ways to add specific functionality for specific applications. Private tags can be used by developers (e.g., Scitex) to preserve specific printing values or other functionality. Private tags are typically labelled with tag numbers greater than or equal to 32768.
All private tags must be requested from Adobe (the TIFF administrator) and registered.
In 1992, the DDAP (Digital Distribution of Advertising for Publication, later Digital Directions in Applications for Production) developed their requirement statement for digital ad delivery. This was presented to ANSI-accredited CGATS (Committee for Graphic Arts Technology Standards) for development of an accredited file format standard for the delivery of digital ads. CGATS reviewed their alternatives for this purpose and TIFF seemed like the ideal candidate, except for the fact that it could not handle certain required functionalities. CGATS asked Aldus (the TIFF administrator) for a block of their own TIFF private tags in order to implement what eventually became TIFF/IT. For example, the ability to identify the sequence of the colors is handled by tag 34017 - the Color Sequence Tag.
TIFF/IT was created to satisfy the need for a transport-independent method of encoding raster data in the IT8.1,
IT8.2 and IT8.5 standards.
Standards
TIFF/IT was defined in ANSI IT8.8–1993 standard in 1993 and later revised in the International Standard ISO 12639:1998 - Prepress digital data exchange – Tag image file format for image technology (TIFF/IT). The ISO standard replaces ANSI IT8.8–1993. It specifies a media-independent means for prepress electronic data exchange.
The ISO 12639:2004 (Second edition) standard for TIFF/IT superseded the ISO 12639:1998. It was also later extended in ISO 12639:2004 / Amd. 1:2007 - Use of JBIG2-Amd2 compression in TIFF/IT.
See also
Comparison of graphics file formats
LibTIFF, widely used open source library + utilities for reading/writing/manipulating TIFF files
DNG
GeoTIFF
Image file formats
STDU Viewer
Windows Photo Viewer
T.37 (ITU-T recommendation)
References
External links
Adobe TIFF Resources page: Adobe links to the specification and main TIFF resources
LibTIFF Home Page: Widely used library used for reading and writing TIFF files as well as TIFF file processing command line tools
TIFF File Format FAQ and TIFF Tag Reference: Everything you always wanted to know about the TIFF File Format but were afraid to ask
TIFF description at Digital Preservation (The Library of Congress)
TIFF Revision 4.0: Specification for revision 4.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 4.0 revision)
TIFF Revision 5.0: Specification for revision 5.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 5.0 revision)
TIFF Revision 6.0: Specification for revision 6.0, in PDF (warning: there is an outdated and flawed section (jpeg compression), corrected in supplements, and there are additions to this PDF too – for the full specification, see the Adobe TIFF Resources page
- image/tiff, and - image/tiff-fx, - Tag Image File Format (TIFF) - F Profile for Facsimile, - legacy exchange of images in the Internet.
Code Tiff Tag Reader - Easy readable code of a TIFF tag reader in Mathworks Matlab (Tiff 5.0/6.0)
AlternaTIFF - Free in-browser TIFF viewer
eiStream Annotation (also known as Wang or Kodak Annotation). Developed by eiStream.
ADEO Imaging Annotation
High dynamic range file formats
Raster graphics file formats
Adobe Inc. | wiki |
Carriera
Venne selezionato dai Minneapolis Lakers come scelta territoriale al Draft NBA 1951.
Palmarès
NCAA AP All-America Second Team (1950)
2 volte NCAA AP All-America Third Team (1949, 1951)
Minneapolis Lakers: 1952, 1953, 1954
Note
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
are social support groups that form in order to provide varying support from social, financial, health, or spiritual interests. Moai means "meeting for a common purpose" in Japanese and originated from the social support groups in Okinawa, Japan. The concept of Moais have gained contemporary attention due to the Blue Zone research popularized by Dan Buettner. According to research, Moais are considered one of the leading factors of the longevity of lifespan of the Okinawan people, making the region among the highest concentration of centenarians in the world.
See also
Community
Friendly society
References
Japanese traditions
Types of communities
Group processes
Community | wiki |
Jim Jefferies (1893–1938) – amerykański baseballista
Jim Jefferies (ur. 1950) – szkocki piłkarz i trener piłkarski
Jim Jefferies (ur. 1977) – australijski komik
Zobacz też
Jim Jeffries | wiki |
Ulama may refer to:
In Islam
Ulema, also transliterated "ulama", a community of legal scholars of Islam and its laws (sharia). See:
Nahdlatul Ulama (Indonesia)
Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama (Lucknow)
Jamiatul Ulama Transvaal
Jamiat ul-Ulama (disambiguation)
Other
Ulama (game), a modern variety of the Mesoamerican ballgame
Spot-bellied eagle owl, "ulama" in Sinhalese, a large bird of prey
Devil Bird, a cryptid in Sri Lankan folklore | wiki |
Piedra or tuniche is a Mexican dish. It consists of a corn dumpling with some sort of stuffing, which is fried until crunchy consistency. Piedras are commonly accompanied with pink onion, chopped lettuce and guacamole.
References
Muñoz Zurita, Ricardo. Small Larousee of Mexican Gastronomy. (2013). .
External links
Mexican cuisine | wiki |
Bulbophyllum auratum is a species of orchid.
External links
auratum | wiki |
Nature Ecology and Evolution is an online-only monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on ecology and evolutionary biology. It was established in 2017. Its first and current editor-in-chief is Patrick Goymer.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, Nature Ecology and Evolution has a 2020 impact factor of 15.46.
References
External links
Nature Research academic journals
Publications established in 2017
Ecology journals
Monthly journals
English-language journals | wiki |
A hide box is a box placed in an animal's enclosure which allows it to hide from view.
Many species of animals are easily stressed by the presence of humans or activity when they are kept in a captive situation. Most of these animals benefit from having a hiding area in their enclosure, where they can retreat from view and feel secure.
Hide boxes can be made of a variety of materials: wood, plastic, cardboard, or ceramic. Something easy to clean and sterilize is preferred. While an actual box can be constructed, hide boxes may also be shaped like natural caves, fallen logs or bark, or tunnels. In general, a hide box should be large enough for the animal to fit into completely and comfortably, but small enough that the animal within it can feel the walls and ceiling close around it.
Hide boxes may also be placed high in trees, as homes for birds to breed in. This provides both protection from predators (for endangered species) as well as protection from the elements.
Pet equipment | wiki |
Medborgerliga fri- och rättigheter kan syfta på
Medborgerliga rättigheter
Medborgerliga friheter | wiki |
Enchanter may refer to:
Magic and paranormal
Enchanter (paranormal), a practitioner of magic which has the ability to attain objectives using supernatural or nonrational means
Enchanter (fantasy), someone who uses or practices magic that derives from supernatural or occult sources
Seduction, the enticement of one person by another, called a seducer or enchanter when it is a handsome and charismatic man
Entertainment
Enchanter (manga), a 2002 manga series by Izumi Kawachi
Enchanter (novel), a 1996 novel by Sara Douglass
The Enchanter, a 1939 novella by Vladimir Nabokov
Games
Enchanter (video game), a 1983 interactive fiction game by Infocom
Other
The Enchanter, a nickname for Martin Van Buren, the eighth president of United States
See also
Enchant (disambiguation)
Enchanted (disambiguation)
Enchantment (disambiguation)
Enchanters (disambiguation), various meanings including a number of similarly named American vocal groups in the Doo Wop and R&B genres that recorded in the 1950s and 1960s
Enchantress (disambiguation)
Tim the Enchanter, a character from the 1975 movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail | wiki |
The North American Nations Cup and NAFC Championship were association football tournaments for teams in the area of North America.
In 1947 and 1949, the NAFC Championship was organized by the North American Football Confederation. Cuba, Mexico, and the United States participated in both editions of the tournament. NAFC merged with the CCCF to form CONCACAF in 1961.
After a 41-year absence, another North American championship was organized by the North American Football Union. The North American Nations Cup was contested in 1990 and 1991 by Canada, Mexico, and the United States before the introduction of the CONCACAF Gold Cup.
Results
Titles by team
Statistics
Hat-tricks
A hat-trick is achieved when the same player scores three or more goals in one match. Listed in chronological order.
See also
CCCF Championship, held from 1941 to 1961
References
Karel Stokkermans: CCCF and Concacaf Championships, Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation, 2 September 2009.
http://www.world-results.net
http://us.geocities.com/clasglenning/GOLDCUP.html
Defunct international association football competitions in North America
Recurring sporting events established in 1947
Recurring events disestablished in 1949
Recurring sporting events established in 1990
Recurring events disestablished in 1991
1947 establishments in North America
1949 disestablishments in North America
1990 establishments in North America
1991 disestablishments in North America | wiki |
Pichenotte ( / PĒSH-nut) refers to a family of several disk-flicking games, mostly French Canadian in origin, including crokinole, carrom, and pitchnut, which may sometimes be played with small cue sticks. Pichenotte is a Canadian French word meaning 'flick', which is derived from the European French word (), also meaning 'flick'. These folk games are in the public domain, and are not subject to copyright like a commercial board game. Nor are they patented games (though a now-expired patent for one board variant was issued in 1880 in New York). However, the names Pichenotte and Pitchnut are registered trademarks in the United States. "Crokinole is a popular Canadian board game also commonly called pichenotte." "The carrom game throughout Quebec is known as 'pichenotte The game community site Knipsbrat.com states that, like the German name ('flicking-board'), "pichenotte is another name for crokinole" The Canadian game board collection at the Quebec Museum of Civilization in Quebec City includes both the square carrom-type board and the round crokinole-type game Crokinole is also called 'pichenotte' throughout much of North America; modern-day tournaments have been held as far apart as Tavistock, Ontario, and Santa Fe and Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Origins of disk-flicking games
In India and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia, the game of carrom is generally considered to be the origin of the disk-flicking games that have evolved over time. Carrom has been played since ancient times and is currently played socially and professionally around the world at countless clubs and carrom tournaments. The word carrom may be a shortening of and alteration of the French and Spanish , both referring to the red in billiards, or by extension referring to carom billiards games as a class. The word ultimately originated in India; karambal is a name for the orange fruit, said to resemble a billiard ball, of the carambola tree. Research has found early ties to the game in Portugal and Burma. While the specifics are uncertain, the different, yet similar games called pichenotte, crokinole and pitchnut may have originated around the mid 19th century, in Canada and the United States from the newly introduced Indian game of carrom via Southeast Asian immigrants or travelers returning home from Southeast Asian countries. The games are also considered cue sports when played using small cue sticks. Because of the many different types and shapes of the boards and playing pieces, there are often 'house rules' that govern play from region to region.
Canadian–American carrom
Origins and history
This version (sometimes also called pichenotte), with a flat square playing surface and four corner pockets, is played in many parts of French Canada as well as the Northern United States. Many different sizes of boards and disks and varying rules exist. There are often "house rules".
Equipment
The game board is a square smooth flat wooden board often about 30 inches side to side with a raised wooden rail or bumper surrounding the game board. In each corner is an oblong hole, often about four inches long by three inches wide, and underneath each hole is a net to catch the pieces, much like the on a pool table. Game pieces are round wooden disks about the size of checkers (draughts) pieces. Each player or team has nine disks. Three colors are typically used: white (9), black (9), and red (1 queen).
Game play
At the beginning of the game, the 19 disks are arranged in a circular pattern in the center of the board, with the red queen (final target piece) in the center. Each player uses a larger disk, called a striker, to flick at his or her own other disks and attempt to drive them into the corner pockets. The first player to pocket all of their pieces, and to then pocket the queen last, is the winner of that game.
Canadian–American pitchnut
The name pitchnut an anglicization of pichenotte, and this game is sometimes referred to as pichenotte.
Origins and history
Pitchnut may have evolved as a combination of two wooden games: carrom and crokinole, both of which are played by flicking wooden checker-like pieces. Although its precise origins remain a mystery, in St. Edwidge, Quebec, Canada, pitchnut or "pichenotte" boards are found in almost every household and most were built by Achille Scalabrini, a descendent from an Italian who settled there from Montreal. Pitchnut remains the rarest of the disc-flicking wooden games. Pitchnut is a registered trademark in the United States.
Equipment
A square board which is about 30 inches from side to side, and surrounded by a wooden rail. Four ovoid pockets about 3 inches across are in the corners with nets underneath. Four recessed alleys lie just within the rails. There are four pegs in the center circle area and two pegs in front of each pocket. Playing pieces, also called 'nuts' are wooden disks approximately 1-1/4 inch diameter and 3/8 inch tall with convex sides, made of maple wood. Typically, there are 10 black nuts, 10 white nuts and one red nut called the poison. The poison is similar to the queen in carrom and the jack or in several lawn/court bowling games such as bocce. Each player has a shooter, a larger wooden disk, similar to a striker in carrom.
Game play
Goal: To sink all of your pieces and the poison before your opponent does. May be played with two or four players. Play begins with alternating black and white pieces (nuts) in a ring, in the center of the board. Five pieces fit between each screw. The odd-colored poison is placed in the center of the board. The pieces must be struck with the shooter. The shooter is usually flicked with the index (or middle) finger and thumb in a flicking action (French: ). The shooter may be pushed with a finger without the use of the thumb, but may not be "carried" across the board. To win the game, a player must sink the poison after pocketing all of that player's pieces. If a player sinks the poison before the other pieces have all been pocketed, that is a loss of game, comparable to pocketing the black 8 ball early in most versions of eight-ball pool.
Canadian–American crokinole or pichenotte
Origins and history
After 30 years of research, Canadian crokinole historian Wayne Kelly published his assessment of the first origins of crokinole, in The Crokinole Book,: "The earliest American crokinole board and reference to the game is M. B. Ross's patented New York board of 1880. The earliest Canadian reference is 1867, and the oldest surviving game board was dated at 1876 by Eckhardt Wettlaufer. As the trail is more than 100 years old and no other authoritative source can be found, it appears, at the moment, that Eckhardt Wettlaufer or M. B. Ross are as close as we can get to answering the question [made the first board]." The name crokinole is generally acknowledged to derive from the Canadian French word , which (aside from also being a French name of this game) has several meanings: flick, fillip, and snap, but also biscuit and bun. Kelly wrote: "crokinole derives its name from the verb form [of ] defining the principle action in the game, that of flicking or 'filliping' a playing piece across the board."
Equipment
The crokinole game board is a wooden game board consisting of a base, a round playing surface (the deck), the rails, and the recessed ditch area between the deck and the rails. The most critical part is the round playing surface. The official size at World Crokinole Championships in Tavistock, Ontario Canada, is 26 inch diameter. The round playing surface has concentric rings marked with thin lines to delineate the scoring point zones of 5, 10, 15 and 20 points for the center hole. The center is a recessed hole about inches in diameter. There are four quadrants marked by small lines that give each player one quarter of the board as a shooting zone, from the outermost baseline running the circumference of the board. The round playing surface is raised significantly above the deck. The opponents' disks are shot into the recessed area that is called the ditch between the rails and the round deck. When the discs end up in the ditch, they are worth zero points. Surrounding the game board are rails that are often round or octagonal.
Game play and rules
The object of the game – which has similarities to aspects of shuffleboard, bocce, and curling – is to shoot one of one's own discs to attempt to knock a opponent disc into the ditch or into a lower scoring position, while progressing one's own discs into the higher-point zones and ultimately cause them to fall into in the center hole for 20 points. When a disc lands in the center hole, it is removed to a designated visible area like a clear plastic cup; these 20-points discs are tallied at the end of the game. There is no queen or striker as found in carrom and pitchnut. Each piece has scoring potential. The game may be played by 2, 3, or 4 players. Play starts with the game pieces off the board. Each player will have 12 discs of one color and shoot the discs one at a time, from within the quadrant, starting on the outermost baseline. Players choose who goes first then play alternates, one shot each in a clockwise direction, until everyone has shot all of their discs. Scoring is done at the end of the game. First, a player's 20s are added up, then points for whichever scoring zone the player's discs ended up in. The player / team with the higher score after a round shall receive two points. If the round is tied, each player / team shall receive one point. Zero points for a loss. A "game" shall consist of 4 rounds, other than where exceptions are made for Tournaments Championships. The number of games in a "match" is normally 10. However, this can vary in tournament play.
Clubs and tournaments
Perhaps the biggest crokinole tournament is the World Crokinole Championship in Tavistock, Ontario, on the first Saturday in June. This tournament attracts players from all over the world. There are many more tournaments and clubs all over Canada and the Northern United States, and some have arisen in other areas, including the American Southwest.
See also
Carrom – an ancestral game from India
Novuss – another development from carrom, with a larger board and played standing, with cues
References
External links
Quebec Museum of Civilisation collection of pichenotte boards
World Crokinole Championship
Pichenotte.com
Pitchnut.com
Crokinole games by Jeremy Tracey
Crokinole games by Ted Fuller
Crokinole by Caleb Kelly
Crokinole Depot by the Beierling Bros.
Quebec Pichenotte Players Association (archived)
Disk-flicking games
French Canadian culture
Canadian board games | wiki |
Matthew Wood :
Matthew Wood (1er baronnet) (1768- 1843)
Matthew Wood (ingénieur du son) (1972 - ) | wiki |
Allen R. Wyler is a neurosurgeon and author. He practiced neurosurgery at the University of Washington, University of Tennessee, and finally at Swedish Hospital in Seattle before leaving practice to become Medical Director for Northstar Neuroscience in 2002. He has written several books and articles on the subject of epilepsy as well as published multiple novels]. He retired from Northstar in 2008 to spend more time writing fiction.
External links
American neurosurgeons
Living people
American male writers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
Vestiges may refer to:
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844), by Robert Chambers
Vestigiality, genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function | wiki |
IMP (Internet Messaging Program) est une application de webmail en langage PHP sous licence GPL. Il permet de consulter sa messagerie électronique au travers d'une interface Web. IMP utilise les protocoles IMAP et POP3 pour accéder à la messagerie. Il s'agit d'un composant du framework Horde
Utilisations
IMP était le logiciel webmail utilisé par Free, qui l'a remplacé par Zimbra durant les années 2010.
Notes et références
Voir aussi
Articles connexes
Horde
RoundCube
SquirrelMail
Lien externe
Site officiel
Logiciel libre sous licence GPL
Webmail | wiki |
Church End may refer to one of several hamlets or isolated sections of villages in Cambridgeshire, England. Churches are not always in the centre of their villages, sometimes because the main settlement moved away from the area near the church. The name Church End is used for settlements clustered around churches outside of the main residential settlements.
Church End may refer to the following hamlets in Cambridgeshire:
Church End, Parson Drove, Fenland
Church End, Catworth, Huntingdonshire
Church End, Woodwalton, Huntingdonshire
Church End, Over, South Cambridgeshire
Church End, Swavesey, South Cambridgeshire
Hamlets in Cambridgeshire | wiki |
The merger doctrine in civil procedure stands for the proposition that when litigants agree to a settlement, and then seek to have their settlement incorporated into a court order, the court order actually extinguishes the settlement and replaces it with the authority of the court to supervise the behavior of the parties. Under this doctrine, the court is free to modify its order as necessary to achieve justice in the case, and may hold a party that breaches the agreement in contempt of court.
In U.S criminal law, merger doctrine holds that if a defendant has committed acts that simultaneously meet the elements of a more serious and less serious offense, the defendant may be charged with the more serious offense and the lesser offense drops in order to avoid implicating double jeopardy.
References
See also
Merger doctrine (family law)
Merger doctrine (property law)
Merger doctrine (trust law)
Legal doctrines and principles
Civil procedure | wiki |
A world's fair is a large public exhibition.
World's Fair may also refer to:
Related to the 1939 New York World's Fair
World's Fair Lo-V (New York City Subway car), built in 1938
IND World's Fair Line, a New York City subway line serving the 1939 World's Fair
World's Fair Marina, a public marina in Flushing Bay, Queens, New York
Events
Rockton World's Fair, an annual Thanksgiving weekend tradition in Flamborough, Ontario, Canada
Tunbridge World's Fair, an annual event held in mid-September in Tunbridge, Vermont, US
Places and structures
Trump World's Fair, a defunct hotel and casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey, US
World's Fair Park, a public park in Knoxville, Tennessee, US
Arts and entertainment
World's Fair (album), a 2015 album by Julian Lage
World's Fair (novel), a 1985 novel by E.L. Doctorow
"World's Fair" (Law & Order: Criminal Intent), a television episode
World's Fair, a New York hip hop collective featuring Remy Banks
See also
List of world's fairs | wiki |
Voltage
is the term for the difference in potential energy. It may also refer to:
Companies
Voltage (company), a Japanese app developer
Voltage Pictures, a film financing, production, and distribution company
Electronics and electrical engineering
Voltage controller, a device that converts a fixed voltage to variable
Voltage converter, a type of electric power converter
Voltage drop, how electrical energy is reduced as it moves through a circuit
Voltage droop, a loss in voltage from a device as it drives a load
Voltage doubler, a circuit that outputs twice the voltage as input
Voltage divider, a circuit that outputs a voltage that is a fraction of its input
Voltage ladder, a circuit useful for providing a set of successive voltage references
Voltage portal, a device that extends a voltage source to the outside of an enclosure
Voltage reduction, the reduction in the voltage across a resistance circuit
Voltage reference, an electronic device that produces a constant voltage
Voltage regulation, the measure of the change in voltage in a component
Voltage regulator, a device designed to maintain a constant voltage
Voltage sag, a short duration reduction in voltage
Voltage source, the dual of a current source
Voltage spike, a sudden changes in voltage
Voltage-controlled amplifier (VCA), a type of electronic amplifier
Voltage-controlled filter (VCF), a type of electronic filter
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), a type of electronic oscillator
Voltage-sensitive relay (VSR), a type of relay
Mathematics
Voltage graph, a type of directed graph in graph-theoretic mathematics
Music
Voltage, a rockband from the Netherlands
People
Sarine Voltage (born 1959), American musician
Places
Voltage, Oregon, an unincorporated community in Harney County, Oregon, United States
See also
Volt (disambiguation)
Ampere (disambiguation) | wiki |
Life on a String may refer to:
Life on a String (album), a 2001 album by Laurie Anderson
Life on a String (film), a 1991 Chinese film
"Life on a String", a song by Pete Yorn from the album Musicforthemorningafter | wiki |
Torana (Kannada: ತೋರಣ), also known as Bandanwal, refer to a decorative door hanging in Hinduism, usually decorated with marigolds and mango leaves, or a string that is tied on the door with the flower on it as a part of traditional Hindu culture on the occasion of festivals and weddings. A toran may feature colours such as green, yellow and red. They can be made of fabrics or metals which are usually made to resemble mango leaves. Peepal tree leaves are also used to make torans at some places in India. They also have other decorative features depending on the region.
The origin of torans can be traced to Puranas (Hindu mythological work). Torans are used to decorate the main entrance of the home. The main idea behind decorating the homes is to please and attract the goddess of wealth, Lakshmi. These torans are the first thing that welcomes guests.
See also
Thoranam, hanging decorations in Tamil Nadu
Torana, in Hindu-Buddhist Indian-origin also found in Southeast Asia and East Asia
References
External links
Torans you can make at home
Textile arts of India | wiki |
The Medford Turnpike is a road mostly in modern-day Somerville, Massachusetts, United States, now known as Mystic Avenue. It was laid out in 1803 as a result of the 1786 Charles River Bridge from Charlestown to Boston. In historic terms, it ran from Medford Center to Charlestown Neck. It is currently designated to be part of Massachusetts Route 38.
See also
19th-century turnpikes in Massachusetts
References
Transportation in Somerville, Massachusetts
Transportation in Medford, Massachusetts | wiki |
Historically, the merger doctrine (a.k.a. "doctrine of merger") was the notion that marriage caused a woman's legal identity to merge with that of her husband.
Thus, a woman could not sue or testify against her husband any more than he could sue or testify against himself. Since her identity had merged with his, the two were now considered one legal entity.
See also
Merger doctrine (civil procedure)
Merger doctrine (property law)
Merger doctrine (trust law)
Coverture
Legal doctrines and principles
Family law | wiki |
Elendil is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. He is mentioned in The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion and Unfinished Tales. He was the father of Isildur and Anárion, last lord of Andúnië on the island of Númenor, and having escaped its downfall by sailing to Middle-earth, became the first High King of Arnor and Gondor. In the Last Alliance of Men and Elves, Elendil and Gil-galad laid siege to the Dark Lord Sauron's fortress of Barad-dûr, and fought him hand-to-hand for the One Ring. Both Elendil and Gil-galad were killed, and Elendil's son Isildur took the Ring for himself.
Tolkien called Elendil a "Noachian figure", an echo of the biblical Noah. Elendil escaped from the flood that drowned Númenor, itself an echo of the myth of Atlantis, founding new Númenórean kingdoms in Middle-earth.
Fictional history
Biography
Elendil was born in Númenor, son of Amandil, Lord of Andúnië and leader of the "Faithful" (those who remained loyal to the Valar), who maintained a strong friendship with the Elves and preserved the old ways against the practices of king Ar-Pharazôn and Sauron. His father Amandil had been a great admiral of the Númenórean fleet and a close friend to Ar-Pharazôn in their youth, but as Sauron's influence grew, he resorted to doing what their ancestor Eärendil had done: sailing to Valinor and asking for the pardon of the Valar. Amandil was never heard of again, but on his urging, Elendil, his sons Isildur and Anárion, and their supporters fled the downfall of Númenor at the end of the Second Age, escaping to Middle-earth in nine ships. Elendil landed in Lindon, where he was befriended by Gil-galad, the Elven King. The waves carried Isildur and Anárion south to the Bay of Belfalas and the mouth of the River Anduin. With them the leaders took the palantíri, the "Seeing Stones" that were given to the Lords of Andúnië by the Elves of Tol Eressëa, and a seedling of Nimloth, the White Tree of Númenor.
Unfinished Tales states that, upon landing in Middle-earth, Elendil proclaimed in Quenya: "Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come. In this place will I abide, and my heirs, unto the ending of the world." His heir and 40th generation descendant in father-to-son line Aragorn spoke these traditional words again when he took up the crown of Gondor in The Return of the King.
Elendil founded the northern realm of Arnor and its capital city of Annúminas. His sons founded the southern realm of Gondor; Anárion founded the city of Minas Anor (later Minas Tirith) in Anórien, and Isildur founded Minas Ithil (later Minas Morgul) in Ithilien. Elendil was the High King, ruling directly over Arnor and indirectly over Gondor, via its King.
As explained in The Fellowship of the Ring, Sauron eventually returned to Middle-earth, establishing a stronghold in Mordor, which was next to Gondor. He attacked, seizing Minas Ithil. Isildur fled north to his father, leaving Anárion in charge of Gondor. Elendil and Isildur returned south, together with Gil-galad and their combined armies, in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. They defeated Sauron in the Battle of Dagorlad, and laid siege to his stronghold of Barad-dûr. During this long siege Anárion was killed. Finally, Sauron came out personally to do battle. Gil-galad and Elendil fought him, but both were killed, and Elendil's sword was broken beneath him. Isildur used his father's broken sword to cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand.
Line of the Half-elven
Reception
Biblical echoes
Nicholas Birns, a scholar of literature, notes Elendil's survival of Númenor's fall, an event that recalls to him both Plato's Atlantis and the Biblical fall of man; he notes that Tolkien called Elendil a "Noachian figure", an echo of the biblical Noah. Tolkien explains that Elendil "held off" from the Númenórean rebellion, and had kept ships ready; he "flees before the overwhelming storm of the wrath of the West [from Valinor], and is borne high upon the towering waves that bring ruin to the west of the Middle-earth." Birns notes that Elendil, who he calls a hugely important figure in Middle-earth, must be later "in comparative time" than Noah; where Noah was a refugee, Elendil was "an imperialist, a founder of realms". However, he grants that "Noachian" implies a class of people like Noah, and the possibility of different kinds of flood. Birns comments that Middle-earth has its Creation and Flood myths, but not exactly a fall of man. He suggests that Tolkien, as a Catholic, may have been more comfortable working with the forces of nature seen in Creation and Flood, but preferred to leave the fall alone; he notes that both Creation and Flood are found in non-Christian tales from the Middle East, citing the Epic of Gilgamesh for the Flood and the Enuma Elish for Creation.
The priest and Tolkien scholar Fleming Rutledge writes that Aragorn, narrating the Lay of Beren and Lúthien to the hobbits, tells them that Lúthien's line "shall never fail". Rutledge talks of the "kings of Númenor, that is Westernesse", and as they gaze at him, they see that the moon "climbs behind him as if to crown him", which Rutledge calls an echo of the Transfiguration. Rutledge explains that Aragorn is of the line of Elendil and knows he will inherit "the crown of Elendil and the other Kings of vanished Númenor", just as Jesus is of the line of King David, fulfilling the prophecy that the line of Kings would not fail.
Zak Cramer notes in Mallorn that Tolkien's middle name, Reuel, means "God's friend", and could be written "El's friend" with reference to the Hebrew word for "God". He speculates that Elendil, "Elf-friend", may have been a wordplay on this name.
Classical echoes
The classical scholar J. K. Newman compares the myth of Elendil and the defeat of Sauron with Jason's taking of the Golden Fleece. In both, a golden prize is taken; in both, there are evil consequences – Elendil's son Isildur is betrayed and the Ring is lost, leading to the War of the Ring and Frodo's quest; Medea murders Jason's children.
Germanic echoes
Tolkien wrote in a 1964 letter that the story of Elendil began when C. S. Lewis and he agreed to write a space travel and a time travel story, respectively. Tolkien's tale was to be called Númenor, the Land in the West, with repeated father–son pairs whose names meant "Bliss-friend" and "Elf-friend" each time. It was not completed, but survives as two unfinished time-travel novels, The Lost Road and The Notion Club Papers. The Elf-friends were to be Elwin in present time; Ælfwine (Old English) around 918 AD; Alboin from "Lombardic legend"; and eventually Elendil of Númenor. Tolkien states that he lost interest in the others, and focussed on Elendil, whose story he incorporated into his "main mythology". One of Tolkien's correspondents, the scholar of English, Rhona Beare, writes in Mythlore that Elendil is a "remote ancestor" of Alboin; when Alboin travels back in time he finds Númenor simultaneously familiar and strange, because he can see it both with Elendil's eyes and with his own.
Adaptations
In Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, Elendil is portrayed by Peter McKenzie. He appears briefly in the prologue, where he is killed by Sauron. The action differs from the book, where Gil-galad and Elendil heroically defeated Sauron, at the cost of their own lives, allowing Isildur to take the Ring without difficulty. In the film, Sauron defeats Elendil, and Isildur fights Sauron, the action of cutting off his finger and the Ring serving to vanquish Sauron. Tolkien instructed that "Sauron should not be thought of as very terrible. The form that he took was that of a more than human stature, but not gigantic", though he "could appear as a commanding figure of great strength of body and supremely royal demeanor and countenance." Jackson chooses to make Sauron much larger than Elendil for his final battle. The scholar of English literature Robert Tally comments that it is ironic that Jackson may have come closest to Tolkien's intentions in the prologue by representing Sauron in humanoid form, while he is a disembodied eye everywhere else in the film series.
In the 2022 television series, The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power, Elendil is played by Lloyd Owen. The show introduces Elendil as a Númenórean nobleman, who serves as a sea captain. He is a widower with three adult children: sons Isildur and Anárion, and a daughter Eärien.
See also
Dúnedain
References
Primary
This list identifies each item's location in Tolkien's writings.
Secondary
Sources
Fictional kings
Fictional swordfighters
Literary characters introduced in 1954
Middle-earth Dúnedain
Middle-earth rulers
The Lord of the Rings characters | wiki |
In trust law the term "doctrine of merger" refers to the fusing of legal and equitable title in the event the same person becomes both the sole trustee and the sole beneficiary of a trust. In such a case, the trust is sometimes deemed to have terminated (with the result that the beneficiary owns the trust property outright).
See also
Merger doctrine (civil procedure)
Merger doctrine (family law)
Merger doctrine (property law)
References
Legal doctrines and principles
Wills and trusts | wiki |
Doctor Doctor may refer to:
Film and television
Doctor Doctor (film), an Indian film
Doctor Doctor (American TV series), a 1989 American television sitcom
Doctor Doctor (South Korean TV series), a 2000 South Korean television sitcom
Doctor Doctor (Australian TV series), a 2016 Australian television series
Doctor, Doctor (talk show), a 2005 live British talk show about health and illness
Doctor Doctor (character), a character in The Secret Show universe
"Doctor, Doctor", an episode of Yes, Dear
Dr. Doctor, a recurring character in South Park media
Music
"Doctor, Doctor", a song from the 1968 album Magic Bus: The Who on Tour by The Who
"Doctor Doctor" (UFO song), a song from the 1974 album Phenomenon by UFO
"Bad Case of Loving You (Doctor, Doctor)", a 1978 song by Robert Palmer
"Doctor! Doctor!", a song from the 1984 album Into the Gap by Thompson Twins
"Doctor, Doctor", a song from the 2003 EP Driving for the Storm / Doctor, Doctor by Gyroscope
"Doctor Doctor" (Just Jack song), a 2009 song
"Doctor, Doctor" an exclusive song off of the album Sometime Last Night by R5
"Doctor, Doctor" is a song from Iron Maiden
Other
Doctor! Doctor! An Insider's Guide to the Games Doctors Play, a 1986 book by Michael O'Donnell
Double doctorates , indicated in the title by "Dr. Dr." within the European Union, most notably Germany
Dr. Doctor Willard Bliss, a 19th-century American physician and Civil War veteran
See also
Doctor (disambiguation) | wiki |
Riess spirals, or Knochenhauer spirals, are a pair of spirally wound conductors with metal balls at their ends. Placing one above the other forms an induction coil. Heinrich Hertz used them in his discovery of radio waves. They are named for German physicists Peter Theophil Riess and K. W. Knochenhauer.
References
External links
Riess spiral pair
Laboratory equipment | wiki |
Affinity Group may refer to:
Affinity group, a small group of political activists
Affinity Group Inc., a provider of products and services to the recreational vehicle (RV) market | wiki |
Baby of the Bride is a 1991 American drama television film directed by Bill Bixby. It was filmed in July 1991 and It premiered on CBS on December 22, 1991, and was released on DVD in 2003. It was preceded by Children of the Bride (1990) and followed by Mother of the Bride (1993).
Cast
Rue McClanahan as Margret Becker-Hix
Kristy McNichol as Mary
John Wesley Shipp as Dennis
Anne Bobby as Anne
Conor O'Farrell as Andrew
Ted Shackelford as John Hix
Beverley Mitchell as Jersey
Casey Wallace as Amy
Sam T. Jensen as Baby Sam
Baby of the Bride (IMDB)
References
External links
1991 television films
1991 films
1991 drama films
1990s English-language films
Films directed by Bill Bixby
CBS network films
American pregnancy films
Television sequel films
1990s pregnancy films
American drama television films
1990s American films | wiki |
Last Post is a ceremonial musical call.
Last Post or The Last Post may also refer to:
Last Post (poem), a 2009 poem by Carol Ann Duffy
Last Post (novel), a 1928 novel by Ford Madox Ford
Last Post, a 2008 novel by Robert Barnard
The Last Post (film), a 1929 British silent film
The Last Post (short film), a 2001 short film about the Falkland War
The Last Post (album), a 2007 album by Carbon/Silicon
The Last Post (TV series), a 2017 BBC TV series about British involvement in North Yemen Civil War and the Aden Emergency
The Last Post (podcast), offshoot of The Bugle and co-production with Somethin' Else | wiki |
Seafloor spreading or Seafloor spread is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
History of study
Earlier theories by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit of continental drift postulated that continents in motion "plowed" through the fixed and immovable seafloor. The idea that the seafloor itself moves and also carries the continents with it as it spreads from a central rift axis was proposed by Harold Hammond Hess from Princeton University and Robert Dietz of the U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory in San Diego in the 1960s. The phenomenon is known today as plate tectonics. In locations where two plates move apart, at mid-ocean ridges, new seafloor is continually formed during seafloor spreading.
Significance
Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate slab pull at subduction zones, rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges. Plates that are not subducting are driven by gravity sliding off the elevated mid-ocean ridges a process called ridge push. At a spreading center, basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed. Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone.
Spreading rate is the rate at which an ocean basin widens due to seafloor spreading. (The rate at which new oceanic lithosphere is added to each tectonic plate on either side of a mid-ocean ridge is the spreading half-rate and is equal to half of the spreading rate). Spreading rates determine if the ridge is fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 90 mm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 40–90 mm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 40 mm/year. The highest known rate was over 200 mm/yr during the Miocene on the East Pacific Rise.
In the 1960s, the past record of geomagnetic reversals of Earth's magnetic field was noticed by observing magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor. This results in broadly evident "stripes" from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred from data gathered with a magnetometer towed on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. By identifying a reversal with a known age and measuring the distance of that reversal from the spreading center, the spreading half-rate could be computed.
In some locations spreading rates have been found to be asymmetric; the half rates differ on each side of the ridge crest by about five percent. This is thought due to temperature gradients in the asthenosphere from mantle plumes near the spreading center.
Spreading center
Seafloor spreading occurs at spreading centers, distributed along the crests of mid-ocean ridges. Spreading centers end in transform faults or in overlapping spreading center offsets. A spreading center includes a seismically active plate boundary zone a few kilometers to tens of kilometers wide, a crustal accretion zone within the boundary zone where the ocean crust is youngest, and an instantaneous plate boundary - a line within the crustal accretion zone demarcating the two separating plates. Within the crustal accretion zone is a 1-2 km-wide neovolcanic zone where active volcanism occurs.
Incipient spreading
In the general case, seafloor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today. The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120-degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.
If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift' or aulacogen. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust and upper mantle lithosphere begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a failed arm that was opening more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the Ethiopian Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment reported that in the Afar region, September 2005, a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters. During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and eustasy. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to petroleum geologists.
Seafloor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
Continued spreading and subduction
As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is, therefore, colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centers (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 145 +/- 4 mm/yr between the Pacific and Nazca plates. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a slow-spreading center, while the East Pacific Rise is an example of fast spreading. Spreading centers at slow and intermediate rates exhibit a rift valley while at fast rates an axial high is found within the crustal accretion zone. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.
Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, sea level was so high that a Western Interior Seaway formed across North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean.
Debate and search for mechanism
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other mid-ocean ridges), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents plowed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.
At first the driving force for spreading was argued to be convection currents in the mantle. Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading by the theory of plate tectonics, which is driven by convection that includes the crust itself as well.
The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along, or slab pull. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be passive upwelling, which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs. This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it. However, the Mid-Atlantic ridge itself is not bordered by plates that are being pulled into subduction zones, except the minor subduction in the Lesser Antilles and Scotia Arc. In this case the plates are sliding apart over the mantle upwelling in the process of ridge push.
Seafloor global topography: cooling models
The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a base-level) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate or mantle half-space in areas without significant subduction.
Cooling mantle model
In the mantle half-space model, the seabed height is determined by the oceanic lithosphere and mantle temperature, due to thermal expansion. The simple result is that the ridge height or ocean depth is proportional to the square root of its age. Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the mid-ocean ridges. The source of the lithosphere has a half-plane shape (x = 0, z < 0) and a constant temperature T1. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at x > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity v, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (z = 0) is a constant T0 = 0. Thus at x = 0 the temperature is the Heaviside step function . The system is assumed to be at a quasi-steady state, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e.
By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity v), which has spatial coordinate and the heat equation is:
where is the thermal diffusivity of the mantle lithosphere.
Since T depends on x''' and t only through the combination :
Thus:
It is assumed that is large compared to other scales in the problem; therefore the last term in the equation is neglected, giving a 1-dimensional diffusion equation:
with the initial conditions
The solution for is given by the error function:
.
Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time t (i.e. of sea floor of age t) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over z:
where is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h0 is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference).
The assumption that v is relatively large is equivalent to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity is small compared to , where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and A is the age of the ocean basin.
The effective thermal expansion coefficient is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by:
where is the rock density and is the density of water.
By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates:
we have:
where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x/v ~ Ax/L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and A is the ocean basin age.
Rather than height of the ocean floor above a base or reference level , the depth of the ocean is of interest. Because (with measured from the ocean surface) we can find that:
; for the eastern Pacific for example, where is the depth at the ridge crest, typically 2600 m.
Cooling plate model
The depth predicted by the square root of seafloor age derived above is too deep for seafloor older than 80 million years. Depth is better explained by a cooling lithosphere plate model rather than the cooling mantle half-space. The plate has a constant temperature at its base and spreading edge. Analysis of depth versus age and depth versus square root of age data allowed Parsons and Sclater to estimate model parameters (for the North Pacific):
~125 km for lithosphere thickness
at base and young edge of plate
Assuming isostatic equilibrium everywhere beneath the cooling plate yields a revised age depth relationship for older sea floor that is approximately correct for ages as young as 20 million years:
meters
Thus older seafloor deepens more slowly than younger and in fact can be assumed almost constant at ~6400 m depth. Parsons and Sclater concluded that some style of mantle convection must apply heat to the base of the plate everywhere to prevent cooling down below 125 km and lithosphere contraction (seafloor deepening) at older ages. Their plate model also allowed an expression for conductive heat flow, q(t)'' from the ocean floor, which is approximately constant at beyond 120 million years:
See also
DSV ALVIN the research submersible that explored spreading centers in the Atlantic (Project FAMOUS) and Pacific Oceans (RISE project).
References
External links
Animation of a mid-ocean ridge
Geological processes
Plate tectonics
Oceanographical terminology | wiki |
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