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Dungeons & Dragons Tactics is a tactical role-playing game released on the PlayStation Portable handheld video game console. It is set in the world of Dungeons & Dragons and uses a strict interpretation of the Dungeons & Dragons 3.5 Edition rule set.
Plot
In the campaign storyline, players lead a party of adventurers on their quest to investigate an ancient being, about which little beyond the name is initially known. The plot is eventually revealed to be an epic contest between two dragons competing for godhood. The player can choose the path of good or evil, with different quests available depending on which is preferred, although the distinction between the two is not always clear. The game is divided up into a number of distinct battles or missions (30+), with the player able to access the majority of these during a given campaign, since several of the scenarios are mutually exclusive. Scenarios cannot be re-played once successfully completed.
The campaign revolves around a single lead character, with the other characters playing a supporting role. At the start of each scenario or battle, players select which additional adventurers to take along (up to a total of five such auxiliary characters after the first few scenarios). While this technically allows one to have more than six adventurers, only characters who actually participate in a given battle earn experience, so attempting to field a larger stable of cohorts serves to dilute earned experience levels.
The game features the core character classes from the 3.5 Player's Handbook: the Barbarian, Bard, Cleric, Druid, Fighter, Monk, Paladin, Ranger, Rogue, Sorcerer, and Wizard, as well as two non-core classes, the Psion and Psychic Warrior. A full set of character generation rules permit players to create their own characters, or use pre-generated characters selected from a "character library".
Gameplay
Dungeons & Dragons Tactics makes use of a simple overworld map between battles. The map shows key locations of interest, with the party's current location depicted by a flag icon. While a few cutscenes are triggered upon entering certain locations, in general, the party is free to move to any known location. There is no notion of time associated with movement, and there are no random encounters. At some locations, players can buy additional goods, and can always trade items between characters or adjust character equipment. When a battle or mission is available at a given location, the "Adventure" action is presented, allowing players to undertake the indicated scenario.
Once a scenario begins, the player forms a party from the available characters, and the game then switches to adventuring mode. In this mode, the party and surroundings are displayed using a zoomed-in bird's eye view. The camera can be rotated using the left analog stick and the map scrolled as desired, although only features (e.g. monsters) which characters can currently see are shown. In dimly lit environments, torches or the use of darkvision are required to achieve full visibility.
The game uses a menu-based action system, where a character is selected and his or her actions are then selected from a series of branching menu options. In "exploration mode", where no monsters are currently nearby, characters can take turns in any order, with the same character able to act again and again if desired. The party can also rest in this mode, restoring all spells and hitpoints. However, once a monster is observed or becomes aware of the party, the game switches to a standard initiative-based Dungeons & Dragons turn system. After all such enemies are defeated, the game returns to exploration mode. This cycle continues until either the party leader is defeated, or the completion conditions for the scenario are fulfilled.
While a few magical items are awarded for completing certain scenarios, most such treasure is stored in chests discovered during scenarios. These chests must be opened and their contents removed during the course of a mission if the characters are to make use of them. If a scenario is completed before such chests are open, their contents are lost forever. As characters cannot easily trade items amongst themselves during an adventure, weaker characters can easily become overloaded if they pick up a sufficiently heavy quantity of equipment. Items can be dropped on the ground and picked up by any other characters in your party if you wish to trade items during an adventure. This process can be time-consuming and is generally not recommended while in combat.
Multiplayer
Dungeons & Dragons Tactics supports several different multiplayer modes via the PlayStation Portable wireless connection. These include multiplayer deathmatch and co-operative modes supporting up to five players. Regardless of mode, only the pre-generated characters can be used; those from single player campaigns are not available in multiplayer.
In deathmatch mode, five different maps are available, while in the co-operative mode, players can choose from three.
Reception
Dungeons & Dragons Tactics suffered at the hands of most reviewers, who complained of numerous issues with the game. The user interface was universally noted as being cumbersome and difficult to use. The GameSpot review noted that "Wrestling with the interface is the biggest headache. [...] You can't just push a single button and move, you need to push a button then scroll across a bunch of choices to select the move command." Another frequent source of frustration was the camera, which tends to be quite zoomed-in, hindering visibility. The IGN review commented, "Since you don't really have the option to pull the camera out very far to see even on illuminated battlefields, much less darkened dungeon pathways, it can frequently be tricky to gain a sense of where your enemies are until they're right on top of you."
On Metacritic, the game has a score of 58 out of 100.
References
External links
2007 video games
Dungeons & Dragons video games
PlayStation Portable-only games
PlayStation Portable games
Role-playing video games
Tactical role-playing video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Świętokrzyskie cuisine is an umbrella term for all dishes with a specific regional identity belonging to the region of Świętokrzyskie. It is a subtype of Polish and Galician cuisine with many similarities to and signs of the influence of neighbouring cuisines.
List of Świętokrzyskie dishes
Pastry and baked goods
Burocorz bogoryjski - oval, bread-like sweet bake with a hint of beet
Gryska - oval-shaped wheat bread, with a minute salty taste
Krówka opatowska (Opatów krówka) - milk condensate sweet with a minute vanilla taste; produced since the year 1980
Pączek opatowski (Opatów pączek) - yeast-cake pączek, traditionally with plum marmalade or rose filling
Piernik z żytniej mąki (piernik from rye flour) - creamy, honey and root gingerbread
Szczodroki - a yeast-cake and śmietana rogal
Wólecka chałka pleciona - traditional chałka from Wola Wiśniowska; creamy, quadruply plaited bread roll
Soups
Fitka kazimierska - traditional soup from Kazimierza County; made from potatoes, vegetables, pork rind from fatback, barley kasza and tomato purée
Jacentowski barszcz z kapustą - traditional barszcz from Jacentów; barszcz with cabbage
Zalewajka świętokrzyska - żurek with diced potatoes, with kiełbasa or smoked bacon, onion and pork rind
Fish dishes
Rytwiański karp w galarecie (Rytwiany carp in aspic) - Rytwiany carp prepared in aspic
Pork and beef dishes
Dzionie rakowskie - kaszanka made from pork or beef intestine, visually similar to kaszanka pâté
Kaszanka szarbianka - kaszanka with groat kasza in pork intestine
Kiełbasa łosieńska - traditional Łosień smoked kiełbasa
Kiełbasa radoszycka - traditional Radoszyce kiełbasa, with an elongated, characteristic orange colour
Kiełbasa swojska opatwowska (homemade Opatów kiełbasa) - traditional kiełbasa from Opatów; aromatic oak taste with garlic and pepper
Kiełbasa swojska wąchocka hycowana (homemade Wąchock kiełbasa) - traditional Wąchock kiełbasa, with an intense alder and birchen, heavy garlic taste
Kiełbasa z Pacanowa - traditional kiełbasa from Pacanów; with an aromatic garlic taste
Polędwica tradycyjna z Wąchocka - traditional Wąchock sirloin
Stews, vegetable and potato dishes
Farsz z kaszy gryczanej - groat kasza stuffing, traditional stuffing from the village of Małyszyn Dolny, in the centre-north of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship
Kugiel - noodle-like dish made from potatoes, served with meat
Prazoki - kluski-like dish made from boiled potatoes and steamed flour, served with fatback and onion
Rakowiski ziemniak pieczony - originating from the village of Dębno; sweet taste
Słupiański siekaniec dworski - rouladen dish, sliced into c. 1.5 cm wide pieces; includes gentian and groat kasza
Żabieckie gały - small, round kluski with speck and bacon lard
See also
Lublin cuisine
Podlaskie cuisine
Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship
List of Polish dishes
References
Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship
Polish cuisine | wiki |
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge (a divergent or constructive plate boundary) located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in the world. In the North Atlantic, the ridge separates the North American from the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate, north and south of the Azores Triple Junction. In the South Atlantic, it separates the African and South American plates. The ridge extends from a junction with the Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge) northeast of Greenland southward to the Bouvet Triple Junction in the South Atlantic. Although the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is mostly an underwater feature, portions of it have enough elevation to extend above sea level, for example in Iceland. The ridge has an average spreading rate of about per year.
Discovery
A ridge under the northern Atlantic Ocean was first inferred by Matthew Fontaine Maury in 1853, based on soundings by the USS Dolphin. The existence of the ridge and its extension into the South Atlantic was confirmed during the expedition of HMS Challenger in 1872. A team of scientists on board, led by Charles Wyville Thomson, discovered a large rise in the middle of the Atlantic while investigating the future location for a transatlantic telegraph cable. The existence of such a ridge was confirmed by sonar in 1925 and was found to extend around Cape Agulhas into the Indian Ocean by the German Meteor expedition.
In the 1950s, mapping of the Earth's ocean floors by Marie Tharp, Bruce Heezen, Maurice Ewing, and others revealed that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge had a strange bathymetry of valleys and ridges, with its central valley being seismologically active and the epicenter of many earthquakes. Ewing, Heezen and Tharp discovered that the ridge is part of a 40,000-km (25,000 mile) long essentially continuous system of mid-ocean ridges on the floors of all the Earth's oceans. The discovery of this worldwide ridge system led to the theory of seafloor spreading and general acceptance of Wegener's theory of continental drift and expansion in the modified form of plate tectonics. The ridge is central to the breakup of the hypothetical supercontinent of Pangaea that began some 180 million years ago.
Notable features
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge includes a deep rift valley that runs along the axis of the ridge for nearly its entire length. This rift marks the actual boundary between adjacent tectonic plates, where magma from the mantle reaches the seafloor, erupting as lava and producing new crustal material for the plates.
Near the equator, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is divided into the North Atlantic Ridge and the South Atlantic Ridge by the Romanche Trench, a narrow submarine trench with a maximum depth of , one of the deepest locations of the Atlantic Ocean. This trench, however, is not regarded as the boundary between the North and South American Plates, nor the Eurasian and African Plates.
Islands
The islands on or near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, from north to south, with their respective highest peaks and location, are:
Northern Hemisphere (North Atlantic Ridge):
Jan Mayen (Beerenberg, 2277 metres (7470') (at ), in the Arctic Ocean
Iceland (Hvannadalshnúkur at Vatnajökull, 2109.6 metres (6921') (at ), through which the ridge runs
Azores (Ponta do Pico or Pico Alto, on Pico Island, 2351 metres (7713'), (at )
Saint Peter and Paul Rocks (Southwest Rock, 22.5 metres (74'), at )
Southern Hemisphere (South Atlantic Ridge):
Ascension Island (The Peak, Green Mountain, 859 metres (2818'), at )
Saint Helena (Diana's Peak, 818 metres (2684') at )
Tristan da Cunha (Queen Mary's Peak, 2062 metres (6765'), at )
Gough Island (Edinburgh Peak, 909 metres (2982'), at )
Bouvet Island (Olavtoppen, 780 metres (2560'), at )
Iceland
The submarine section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge close to southwest Iceland is known as the Reykjanes Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs through Iceland where the ridge is also known as the Neovolcanic Zone. In the north of Iceland the Tjörnes Fracture Zone connects Iceland to the Kolbeinsey Ridge.
Geology
The ridge sits atop a geologic feature known as the Mid-Atlantic Rise, which is a progressive bulge that runs the length of the Atlantic Ocean, with the ridge resting on the highest point of this linear bulge. This bulge is thought to be caused by upward convective forces in the asthenosphere pushing the oceanic crust and lithosphere. This divergent boundary first formed in the Triassic period, when a series of three-armed grabens coalesced on the supercontinent Pangaea to form the ridge. Usually, only two arms of any given three-armed graben become part of a divergent plate boundary. The failed arms are called aulacogens, and the aulacogens of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge eventually became many of the large river valleys seen along the Americas and Africa (including the Mississippi River, Amazon River and Niger River). The Fundy Basin on the Atlantic coast of North America between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada is evidence of the ancestral Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
See also
Atlantis Massif
Canadian Arctic Rift System
Central Atlantic Magmatic Province
Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone
East Pacific Rise
Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone
Project FAMOUS
Researcher Ridge
References
Bibliography
Evans, Rachel. "Plumbing Depths to Reach New Heights: Marie Tharp Explains Marine Geological Maps." The Library of Congress Information Bulletin. November 2002.
External links
MAR-ECO, a Census of Marine Life project on life along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Mesozoic rifts and grabens
Cenozoic rifts and grabens | wiki |
A lithosphere () is the rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years or more. The crust and upper mantle are distinguished on the basis of chemistry and mineralogy.
Earth's lithosphere
Earth's lithosphere, which constitutes the hard and rigid outer vertical layer of the Earth, includes the crust and the uppermost mantle. The lithosphere is underlain by the asthenosphere which is the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary is defined by a difference in response to stress. The lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of geologic time in which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the asthenosphere deforms viscously and accommodates strain through plastic deformation.
The thickness of the lithosphere is thus considered to be the depth to the isotherm associated with the transition between brittle and viscous behavior. The temperature at which olivine becomes ductile (~) is often used to set this isotherm because olivine is generally the weakest mineral in the upper mantle.
The lithosphere is subdivided horizontally into tectonic plates, which often include terranes accreted from other plates.
History of the concept
The concept of the lithosphere as Earth's strong outer layer was described by the English mathematician A. E. H. Love in his 1911 monograph "Some problems of Geodynamics" and further developed by the American geologist Joseph Barrell, who wrote a series of papers about the concept and introduced the term "lithosphere". The concept was based on the presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust, from which he inferred that there must exist a strong, solid upper layer (which he called the lithosphere) above a weaker layer which could flow (which he called the asthenosphere). These ideas were expanded by the Canadian geologist Reginald Aldworth Daly in 1940 with his seminal work "Strength and Structure of the Earth." They have been broadly accepted by geologists and geophysicists. These concepts of a strong lithosphere resting on a weak asthenosphere are essential to the theory of plate tectonics.
Types
The lithosphere can be divided into oceanic and continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is associated with oceanic crust (having a mean density of about ) and exists in the ocean basins. Continental lithosphere is associated with continental crust (having a mean density of about ) and underlies the continents and continental shelves.
Oceanic lithosphere
Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic crust and ultramafic mantle (peridotite) and is denser than continental lithosphere. Young oceanic lithosphere, found at mid-ocean ridges, is no thicker than the crust, but oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. The oldest oceanic lithosphere is typically about thick. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling, which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle and causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly thick and dense with age. In fact, oceanic lithosphere is a thermal boundary layer for the convection in the mantle. The thickness of the mantle part of the oceanic lithosphere can be approximated as a thermal boundary layer that thickens as the square root of time.
Here, is the thickness of the oceanic mantle lithosphere, is the thermal diffusivity (approximately ) for silicate rocks, and is the age of the given part of the lithosphere. The age is often equal to L/V, where L is the distance from the spreading centre of mid-oceanic ridge, and V is velocity of the lithospheric plate.
Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere. While chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, thermal contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old.
Subducted lithosphere
Geophysical studies in the early 21st century posit that large pieces of the lithosphere have been subducted into the mantle as deep as to near the core-mantle boundary, while others "float" in the upper mantle. Yet others stick down into the mantle as far as but remain "attached" to the continental plate above, similar to the extent of the old concept of "tectosphere" revisited by Jordan in 1988. Subducting lithosphere remains rigid (as demonstrated by deep earthquakes along Wadati–Benioff zone) to a depth of about .
Continental lithosphere
Continental lithosphere has a range in thickness from about to perhaps ; the upper approximately of typical continental lithosphere is crust. The crust is distinguished from the upper mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions.
Because of its relatively low density, continental lithosphere that arrives at a subduction zone cannot subduct much further than about before resurfacing. As a result, continental lithosphere is not recycled at subduction zones the way oceanic lithosphere is recycled. Instead, continental lithosphere is a nearly permanent feature of the Earth.
Mantle xenoliths
Geoscientists can directly study the nature of the subcontinental mantle by examining mantle xenoliths brought up in kimberlite, lamproite, and other volcanic pipes. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium. Such studies have confirmed that mantle lithospheres below some cratons have persisted for periods in excess of 3 billion years, despite the mantle flow that accompanies plate tectonics.
See also
Carbonate–silicate cycle
Climate system
Cryosphere
Geosphere
Kola Superdeep Borehole
Mohorovičić discontinuity
Pedosphere
Solid earth
Vertical displacement
References
Further reading
External links
Earth's Crust, Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Crust and Lithosphere
Plate tectonics
Earth's mantle
Systems ecology | wiki |
The asthenosphere () is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between ~ below the surface, and extends as deep as . However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere is not well defined.
The asthenosphere is almost solid, but a slight amount of melting (less than 0.1% of the rock) contributes to its mechanical weakness. More extensive decompression melting of the asthenosphere takes place where it wells upwards, and this is the most important source of magma on Earth. It is the source of mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) and of some magmas that erupted above subduction zones or in regions of continental rifting.
Characteristics
The asthenosphere is a part of the upper mantle just below the lithosphere that is involved in plate tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments. It is composed of peridotite, a rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is conventionally taken at the isotherm. Below this temperature (closer to the surface) the mantle behaves rigidly; above this temperature (deeper below the surface) it acts in a ductile fashion. The asthenosphere is where the mantle rock most closely approaches its melting point, and a small amount of melt is likely to present in this layer.
Seismic waves pass relatively slowly through the asthenosphere compared to the overlying lithospheric mantle. Thus, it has been called the low-velocity zone (LVZ), although the two are not strictly the same; the lower boundary of the LVZ lies at a depth of , whereas the base of the asthenosphere lies at a depth of about . The LVZ also has a high seismic attenuation (seismic waves moving through the asthenosphere lose energy) and significant anisotropy (shear waves polarized vertically have a lower velocity than shear waves polarized horizontally). The discovery of the LVZ alerted seismologists to the existence of the asthenosphere and gave some information about its physical properties, as the speed of seismic waves decreases with decreasing rigidity.
This decrease in seismic wave velocity from the lithosphere to the asthenosphere could be caused by the presence of a very small percentage of melt in the asthenosphere, though since the asthenosphere transmits S waves, it cannot be fully melted.
In the oceanic mantle, the transition from the lithosphere to the asthenosphere (the LAB) is shallower than for the continental mantle (about 60 km in some old oceanic regions) with a sharp and large velocity drop (5–10%). At the mid-ocean ridges, the LAB rises to within a few kilometers of the ocean floor.
The upper part of the asthenosphere is believed to be the zone upon which the great rigid and brittle lithospheric plates of the Earth's crust move about. Due to the temperature and pressure conditions in the asthenosphere, rock becomes ductile, moving at rates of deformation measured in cm/yr over lineal distances eventually measuring thousands of kilometers. In this way, it flows like a convection current, radiating heat outward from the Earth's interior. Above the asthenosphere, at the same rate of deformation, rock behaves elastically and, being brittle, can break, causing faults. The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float" or move about on the slowly flowing asthenosphere, enabling isostatic equilibrium and allowing the movement of tectonic plates.
Boundaries
The asthenosphere extends from an upper boundary at approximately below the surface to a lower boundary at a depth of approximately .
Lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary
The lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) is relatively sharp and likely coincides with the onset of partial melting or a change in composition or anisotropy. Various definitions of the boundary reflect various aspects of the boundary region. In addition to the mechanical boundary defined by seismic data, which reflects the transition from the rigid lithosphere to ductile asthenosphere, these include a thermal boundary layer, above which heat is transported by thermal conduction and below which heat is conduction largely by convection; a rheological boundary, where the viscosity drops below about 1021 Pa-s; and a chemical boundary layer, above which the mantle rock is depleted in volatiles and enriched in magnesium relative to the rock below.
Lower boundary of asthenosphere
The lower boundary of the asthenosphere is less well-defined, but has been placed at the base of the upper mantle. This boundary is neither seismically sharp nor well understood but is approximately coincident with the complex 670 km discontinuity. This discontinuity is generally linked to the transition from mantle rock containing ringwoodite to mantle rock containing bridgmanite and periclase.
Origin
The mechanical properties of the asthenosphere are widely attributed to the partial melting of the rock. It is likely that a small amount of melt is present through much of the asthenosphere, where it is stabilized by the traces of volatiles (water and carbon dioxide) present in the mantle rock. However, the likely amount of melt, not more than about 0.1% of the rock, seems inadequate to fully explain the existence of the asthenosphere. This is not enough melt to fully wet grain boundaries in the rock, and the effects of melt on the mechanical properties of the rock are not expected to be significant if the grain boundaries are not fully wetted. The sharp lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is also difficult to explain by partial melting alone. It is possible that melt accumulates at the top of the asthenosphere, where it is trapped by the impermeable rock of the lithosphere. Another possibility is that the asthenosphere is a zone of minimum water solubility in mantle minerals so that more water is available to form greater quantities of melt. Another possible mechanism for producing mechanical weakness is grain boundary sliding, where grains slide slightly past each other under stress, lubricated by the traces of volatiles present.
Numerical models of mantle convection in which the viscosity is dependent both on temperature and strain rate reliably produce an oceanic asthenosphere, suggesting that strain-rate weakening is a significant contributing mechanism.
Magma generation
Decompression melting of asthenospheric rock creeping towards the surface is the most important source of magma on Earth. Most of this erupts at mid-ocean ridges to form the distinctive mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) of the ocean crust. Magmas are also generated by decompressional melting of the asthenosphere above subduction zones and in areas of continental rifting.
Decompression melting in upwelling asthenosphere likely begins at a depth as great as , where the small amounts of volatiles in the mantle rock (about 100 ppm of water and 60 ppm of carbon dioxide) assist in melting not more than about 0.1% of the rock. At a depth of about , dry melting conditions are reached and melting increases substantially. This dehydrates the remaining solid rock and is likely the origin of the chemically depleted lithosphere.
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
San Diego State University, "The Earth's internal heat energy and interior structure"
Structure of the Earth
Plate tectonics | wiki |
North Jutland County () is a former county (Danish: amt) in northern Denmark. It was located on the eastern half of Vendsyssel-Thy and the northernmost part of the Jutland peninsula. It was the largest county in Denmark, but with a relatively low population. The county seat was Aalborg, Denmark's fourth largest city. The county was abolished effective January 1, 2007, when it merged into North Denmark Region ().
Municipalities (1970-2006)
See also
Vendsyssel
North Denmark Region
Northern Jutland
Former counties of Denmark (1970–2006)
North Jutland Region | wiki |
Fòrnix (arquitectura)
Fòrnix cerebral
Fòrnix vaginal | wiki |
Csehország
Pěnčín, település a Jablonec nad Nisou-i járásban
Pěnčín, település a Libereci járásban
Pěnčín, település a Prostějovi járásban | wiki |
The Hard Easy either refers to:
"The Hard Easy" (Adventure Time), an episode of an animated television series
The Hard Easy (film), an independent film directed by released in 2006, directed by Ari Ryan
See also
The hard–easy effect, a cognitive bias
The Hard and the Easy (2005 album)
Harder Than Easy (2009 album) | wiki |
This is a list of MRT and LRT lines in Singapore, with details on costs, construction timelines and route length.
MRT and LRT lines
References
Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) lines
Underground rapid transit in Singapore
Singapore transport-related lists | wiki |
A skirt lifter, also known as a dress lifter, skirt grip, dress suspender, hem-holder, page or porte-jupe, was a device for lifting a long skirt to avoid dirt or to facilitate movement. It clamped on to the hem and was attached to the belt by a cord, ribbon, or chain.
The first skirt lifters date from around 1846 and they were most popular in the 1860s-1880s.
Costume designer Penny Rose chose a skirt lifter as her hypothetical donation to the imaginary museum in an August 2017 episode of BBC Radio 4's The Museum of Curiosity.
References
Further reading
Fashion accessories | wiki |
Fox Studios may refer to one of several related companies:
Fox Film, the movie studio from 1915 to 1935
20th Century Fox, formed from the merger of Fox Film and 20th Century Pictures
Fox Studios Australia, a film studio and studio location of 20th Century Fox transferred to the Walt Disney Company but that still retains the "Fox" name
See also
Fox Movies (disambiguation) | wiki |
Chhota Nagpur, divisió sota un comissionat, a la província de Bengala, Índia.
Estats tributaris de Chota Nagpur, estats tributaris protegits situats a l'oest de Chhota Nagpur.
Altiplà de Chhota Nagpur, sistema elevat de l'Índia oriental. | wiki |
Voicemail is a centralized system of managing telephone messages.
Voicemail or Voice Mail may also refer to:
Voice Mail (album), an album by John Wetton
Voice Mail (band), a dancehall reggae trio
Audio letter sending recordings by postal mail
Voicemail, a song by Antarctigo Vespucci | wiki |
Horn () are common features in crests in Scandinavian and German heraldry, although rare in other heraldic traditions. As these horns, almost always in a pair, were often drawn with an open ring at the tip, they have sometimes been altered into elephant trunks or trumpets.
Heraldic charges
Headgear in heraldry | wiki |
Le Dreameye est un appareil photographique numérique compatible avec la console de jeu Dreamcast. Sorti uniquement au Japon en 2000, il est conçu pour être utilisé comme une webcam et caméra numérique. Des plans envisageaient d'impliquer le Dreameye avec différents jeux.
Les fonctionnalités Dreameye sont absentes des versions non-japonaise des jeux compatibles. Le Dreameye peut être considéré comme la première utilisation d'un appareil photo numérique sur une console de jeux vidéo de salon.
Caractéristiques
Articles connexes
Game Boy Camera
PlayStation Eye
Kinect
PlayStation Camera
Go!Cam
Notes et références
Appareil photographique numérique
Dreamcast
Matériel Sega
Produit lancé en 2000 | wiki |
The in scale (also known as the Sakura pentatonic scale due to its use in the well-known folk song Sakura Sakura) is, according to a traditional theory, one of two pentatonic scales used in much Japanese music, excluding gagaku and Buddhist chanting. The in scale, which contains minor notes, is used specifically in music for the koto and shamisen and is contrasted with the yo scale, which does not contain minor notes.
More recent theory emphasizes that it is more useful in interpreting Japanese melody to view scales on the basis of "nuclear tones" located a fourth apart and containing notes between them, as in the miyako-bushi scale used in koto and shamisen music and whose pitches are equivalent to the in scale:
In scale in the other musical traditions
In Indian classical music, Gunkali (Hindustani), Raga Salanganata (Indian) and Karnataka Shuddha Saveri (Carnatic) are nearly identical to the pentatonic in scale, highlighting the shared past of their origins. Some rare examples of ancient genres of Andean music (e.g. k'antu) use a scale similar to the in scale combined with melody leading with a parallel fifths and fourths. For example, Machulas Kantu by Bolivia Manta folk group from the album Wiñayataqui.
See also
Hirajōshi scale
Japanese mode
Japanese musical scales
Sources
Further reading
Hewitt, Michael. 2013. Musical Scales of the World. The Note Tree. .
Pentatonic scales
Japanese music
Andean music
Hemitonic scales
Tritonic scales | wiki |
Grant Park refers to both a neighborhood and public park in the Northeast section of Portland, Oregon. The neighborhood is bordered by Alameda and Beaumont-Wilshire to the north; Rose City Park to the east; Hollywood District, Laurelhurst, and Sullivan's Gulch to the south; and Irvington to the west.
It is best known for its association with Beverly Cleary's Klickitat Street series of books, which are set in the neighborhood. Houses in the neighborhood generally date to the early 20th century, and are primarily of the Old Portland or Craftsman styles. There is a park of the same name, which is connected to Grant High School.
References
External links
Grant Park Neighborhood Association
Grant Park Neighborhood Association on Facebook
Grant Park Street Tree Inventory Report
Neighborhoods in Portland, Oregon | wiki |
Bålen (Thallus) är "kroppen" av en växt som inte kan delas upp i stam, rot och blad.
Typexempel är bållevermossor och lavar.
Referenser
Växtanatomi | wiki |
The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. This is caused by seafloor spreading and continental drift, which rearranges the land and ocean.
It has been estimated that there are 1.386 billion cubic kilometres (333 million cubic miles) of water on Earth. This includes water in gaseous, liquid and frozen forms as soil moisture, groundwater and permafrost in the Earth's crust (to a depth of 2 km); oceans and seas, lakes, rivers and streams, wetlands, glaciers, ice and snow cover on Earth's surface; vapour, droplets and crystals in the air; and part of living plants, animals and unicellular organisms of the biosphere. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount, whereas fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic and mountain glaciers; 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater; and only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.
The total mass of Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1018 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. At any given time, about 2 × 1013 tonnes of this is in the form of water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs 1 tonne). Approximately 71% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometres (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).
History
According to Merriam Webster, the word hydrosphere was brought into English in 1887, translating the German term hydrosphäre, introduced by Eduard Suess.
Water cycle
The water cycle refers to the transfer of water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar ice caps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees. Evapotranspiration is the term used by hydrologists in reference to the three processes together, transpiration, sublimation and evaporation.
Marq de Villiers has described the hydrosphere as a closed system in which water exists. The hydrosphere is intricate, complex, interdependent, all-pervading, stable, and "seems purpose-built for regulating life." De Villiers claimed that, "On earth, the total amount of water has almost certainly not changed since geological times: what we had then we still have. Water can be polluted, abused, and misused but it is neither created nor destroyed, it only migrates. There is no evidence that water vapor escapes into space."Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km3 of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km3) and from land (74,200 km3). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km3 on the ocean and 119,000 km3 on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 − 74,200 = 44,800 km3/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km3/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km3/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities.Water is a basic necessity of life. Since two thirds of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. The hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became its present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved into the rain water. In turn, this further caused water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when cyanobacteria evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, Earth's atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of other planets and allowed for life to evolve on Earth.
Human activity has had an impact on the water cycle. Infrastructure, like dams, have a clear, direct impact on the water cycle by blocking and redirecting water pathways. Human caused pollution has change the biogeochemical cycles of some water systems, and climate change has significantly altered weather patterns. Water withdrawals have exponentially increased because of agriculture, state and domestic use, and infrastructure.
Recharging reservoirs
According to Igor A. Shiklomanov, it takes 2500 years for the complete recharge and replenishment of oceanic waters, 10,000 years for permafrost and ice, 1500 years for deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers, 17 years in lakes, and 16 days in rivers.
Specific fresh water availability
"Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water." Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998, 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m³ per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies," and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. Only 2.5% of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh water and only 0.25% of that water is accessible for our use.
Human impact
The activities of modern humans have drastic effects on the hydrosphere. For instance, water diversion, human development, and pollution all affect the hydrosphere and natural processes within. Humans are withdrawing water from aquifers and diverting rivers at an unprecedented rate. The Ogallala Aquifer is used for agriculture in the United States; if the aquifer goes dry, more than $20 billion worth of food and fiber will vanish from the world's markets. The aquifer is being depleted so much faster than it is replenished that, eventually, the aquifer will run dry. Additionally, only one third of rivers are free-flowing due to the extensive use of dams, levees, hydropower, and habitat degradation. Excessive water use has also caused intermittent streams to become more dry, which is dangerous because they are extremely important for water purification and habitat. Other ways humans impact the hydrosphere include eutrophication, acid rain, and ocean acidification. Humans also rely on the health of the hydrosphere. It is used for water supply, navigation, fishing, agriculture, energy, and recreation.
See also
Aquatic ecosystem
Biosphere
Climate system
Cryosphere
Lithosphere
World ocean
Pedosphere
Water cycle
Extraterrestrial liquid water
List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System
Ocean world
Notes
References
External links
Ground Water - USGS
Aquatic ecology
Hydrology
Physical geography
Global natural environment
Water
Hydrogeology | wiki |
Swill is liquid (or partially liquid) food for animals.
The term can also be used as a derogatory label for any drink meant for human ingestion perceived as unpalatable or nearly so.
Pig swill
Pig swill, hog swill, or hogwash is kitchen refuse used to feed pigs.
Historically, pig farmers arranged collection of swill, e.g. by means of swill bins. The grease was skimmed off the swill tanks and sold for further processing, while the remaining swill was processed into pig food.
During World War II, a collection of pig swill was a nationwide campaign in Great Britain.
During the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak, it was thought that unprocessed pig swill was a key link in the chain of the infection, and it was banned in Great Britain. In 2003, the ban was expanded to the whole European Union.
There is now significant research and support from farmers for a return to feeding swill to pigs, not only as a way to reduce pig feed costs but also to reduce demands on agricultural land for pig feed. In the United States, 27 states, along with Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, permit swill feeding, for which proper processing and a license is required. Swill feeding is prohibited in 23 states.
See also
Swill milk scandal
References
Recycling
Pig farming | wiki |
Lake Mohawk – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Ohio, w hrabstwie Carroll.
CDP w stanie Ohio | wiki |
Sheepdog of the Hills is a 1941 British drama film directed by Germain Burger and starring David Farrar, Philip Friend and Helen Perry. The screenplay concerns an outbreak of sheep-stealing that occurs in a small rural community in the West Country.
Cast
David Farrar ... Rev. Michael Verney
Philip Friend ... Dr. Peter Hammond
Helen Perry ... Frances Miller
Dennis Wyndham ... Riggy Teasdale
Leonard Sharp ... Geordie Scott
Jack Vyvian ... Constable Scott
Arthur Denton ... Hawkins
Philip Godfrey ... Sam Worrow
Johnnie Schofield ... Tom Abbott
References
External links
1941 films
1941 drama films
Films about sheep
British drama films
British black-and-white films
1940s English-language films
1940s British films | wiki |
John E. Daubney (1919–2003) was an Irish Catholic mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota, 1952-1954.
References
American people of Irish descent
Mayors of Saint Paul, Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
1919 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American politicians | wiki |
Touch Up may refer to:
Touch Up, function in Portrait Professional
Touch Up, product in Nice 'n Easy (hair coloring)
Touch Up (Mother Mother album)
See also
"Touch Me Up", single by Aretha Franklin from Sweet Passion 1977 | wiki |
"Only Here for a Little While" is a song written by Wayland Holyfield and Richard Leigh, and recorded by American country music artist Billy Dean. It was released in November 11, 1990 as the second single from his debut album Young Man. The song spent 22 weeks on the Hot Country Songs charts, peaking at number three in early 1991.
Music video
The music video was directed by Bill Young and premiered in late 1990.
Chart performance
Year-end charts
References
1990 singles
Billy Dean songs
Songs written by Wayland Holyfield
Songs written by Richard Leigh (songwriter)
Song recordings produced by Tom Shapiro
Capitol Records Nashville singles
1990 songs | wiki |
Edgar Beecher Bronson (1856–1917) was a Nebraska rancher, a West Texas cattleman, an African big-game hunter, a serious photographer and starting late in life, an author of fiction and personal memoirs. As he matured as a writer, his works showed a "marked advance...in characterization".
Bronson was a nephew of famed abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher. Formerly a reporter for the New York Tribune, Bronson headed west in 1877 to learn the cattle business under the directive of Clarence King — first director of the United States Geological Survey and owner of large mining and cattle operations in the American West. Bronson worked for one season in Wyoming before starting his own ranch with 716 cows with calves. Bronson chose Sioux County, Nebraska for the site of his first ranch.
Bibliography
Reminiscences of a Ranchman (1908)
The Red-Blooded Heroes of the Frontier (1910)
In Closed Territory (1910) - about Africa, with over 100 photos
The Vanguard (1914)
The Love of Loot and Women (1917) - published posthumously
References
External links
Works by Edgar Beecher Bronson at Google Books
1856 births
1917 deaths
People from Sioux County, Nebraska
Ranchers from Nebraska
New-York Tribune people
American male journalists
Beecher family
American memoirists | wiki |
Aston Martin Vantage, vettura in produzione dal 1977 al 1989
Aston Martin Vantage, vettura in produzione dal 2005 al 2017
Aston Martin Vantage, vettura in produzione dal 2018 | wiki |
Influenza A virus subtype H7 may refer to:
Influenza A virus subtype H7N1
Influenza A virus subtype H7N2
Influenza A virus subtype H7N3
Influenza A virus subtype H7N4
Influenza A virus subtype H7N7
Influenza A virus subtype H7N9 | wiki |
StarWipe was a satirical website from The Onion which parodied celebrity gossip sites, such as TMZ. It launched on September 21, 2015, and closed on June 17, 2016. It was run by Sean O'Neal, the senior editor of The A.V. Club.
Content posted on StarWipe was also shared on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter.
See also
List of satirical news websites
References
External links
The Onion
Fusion Media Group
Internet properties established in 2015
2015 establishments in Illinois
Internet properties disestablished in 2016
2016 disestablishments in Illinois | wiki |
Anna Demetriou (born 1993) is an English actress. In her first starring role since leaving London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA), Demetriou played the Princess Helle of Volsung in Viking Destiny.
Film
Video games
References
External links
Anna Demetriou on YouTube
Anna Demetriou on Instagram
Anna Demetriou on Twitter
English film actresses
1993 births
Living people
Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art | wiki |
Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine (abbreviated as TFH Magazine) is a bimonthly magazine geared to hobbyist keepers of tropical fish, with news and information on a variety of topics concerning freshwater and marine aquariums. The magazine was first published in September 1952. The magazine is based in Neptune City, New Jersey. It is published by TFH Publications, which publishes books relating to the care aquarium fish and pets.
Significant Publications
Significant articles published in Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine include the 1956 scientific description of the cardinal tetra by Leonard Peter Schultz.
Noted Authors
Several established and well known ichthyologists, hobbyists, and experts have published works in TFH Magazine, including:
Herbert Axelrod
Leonard Peter Schultz
William T. Innes
George S. Myers
Wayne Leibel
Paul Loiselle
Mark Smith
Robert M. Fenner
References
External links
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Animal and pet magazines
Fishkeeping
Hobby magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1952
Magazines published in New Jersey
Pets in the United States | wiki |
The Samsung Galaxy Player (known as the Samsung Galaxy S WiFi in Europe) was a line of Android-based all-purpose pocket computers produced by Samsung. The product was debuted on 2 September at the 2010 IFA in Berlin, and was showcased at the 2011 CES in Las Vegas.
Models
All of the Galaxy Player models support 3-axis accelerometer. The Galaxy Player 4.2 also supports 3-axis gyroscope.
Galaxy Player 50 (YP-G50)
The Galaxy Player 50 (not to be confused with Galaxy Player 5.0) was the first Samsung Android-based media player, announced at the 2010 IFA and released early 2011. It features a 3.2 inch 400 x 240 pixels TFT-LCD display, 8 or 16GB internal memory, a microSDHC slot, 1000mAh battery, Bluetooth 3.0, RDS FM tuner and 2 MP rear camera. It runs on Android 2.1 Eclair.
Galaxy Player 4.0 or Galaxy S WiFi 4.0 (YP-G1)
The Galaxy Player 4.0 features a 4" multi-touch capacitative touchscreen, a "Super Clear" LCD with 800x480 resolution (WVGA). It has 8 GB of internal flash storage, that can be expanded with a microSD card (up to 32 GB cards are supported). It has two cameras (a VGA front camera, and a 3.2 megapixel back camera), WiFi, FM radio, and a GPS, and runs Android 2.3.5 ("Gingerbread"). Development teams have created an unofficial Android 4.0 ("Ice Cream Sandwich") port.
Its design is almost the same of the Samsung Galaxy S phone (I9000) but with a lower resolution camera (3.2 MP instead of 5.0 MP) and without phone functions or 3G. The CPU is a Samsung Exynos 3110 Applications Processor.
Samsung announced that the Galaxy S WiFi 4.0 would be released in the first half of 2011, starting with the UK. The Galaxy Player 4.0 and 5.0 launched in U.S. in October 2011.
Galaxy Player 5.0 or Galaxy S WiFi 5.0 (YP-G70)
The Galaxy Player 5.0 features a micro-SD card slot allowing for up to an additional 32 GB of storage. The CPU is an Exynos 3110 1Ghz Application Processor. It has an estimated 60-hour battery life during music playback and 8 hours during video playback. As of now, the Galaxy Player 5.0 comes preloaded with Android 2.2.2 Froyo in Europe, and Android 2.3.5 Gingerbread in the US. Development teams have created an unofficial Android 4.0 ("Ice Cream Sandwich"), Android 4.4 ("KitKat") up to Android 5.1.1 ("Lollipop").
Galaxy Player 3.6 or Galaxy S WiFi 3.6 (YP-GS1)
The Galaxy Player 3.6 carries a 3.65" LCD TFT (with a resolution of 480×320) instead of the AMOLED which is used by Samsung in most of its phones. The internal storage is flash 8 GB that can be expanded via a microSD card. The CPU is a single core 1 GHz based on ARM Cortex-A8 based CPU core (OMAP3630). It has a removable battery. It runs on the Android 2.3 Gingerbread OS.
The player has a 2.0 MP camera on the back, GPS location services, and an accelerometer.
The player supports Wi-Fi (802.11b/g/n) as well as Bluetooth 3.0 (A2DP, AVRCP, OPP, PBAP).
Galaxy Player 4.2 or Galaxy S WiFi 4.2 (YP-GI1)
The Galaxy Player 4.2 has a 4.2" IPS display at 800 x 480, 1 GHz processor, front and rear cameras and Android 2.3 Gingerbread. It has a removable battery and microSD card slot.
Galaxy Player 5.8 (YP-GP1)
The Galaxy Player 5.8 has a 5.8 inch qHD LCD display at a resolution of 960 x 540, 1GB of RAM, dual-core 1 GHz processor, a 3.0 megapixel camera with no LED flash, and will ship with Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich, although some versions have been known to ship with Android 4.0.3. It has the same 2500 mAh battery as the Galaxy Player 5.0 and comes in 16 and 32 GB variants, with a microSD card slot supporting up to 32 GB of extra storage.
Galaxy 070 or Smart Home Phone 2 HD or 스마트홈 폰 HD mini (YP-GI2)
The Galaxy 070 features a 4.2 inch 800 x 480 pixels TFT LCD display, dual-core ARM Cortex A9 1.2 GHz CPU, Bluetooth 3.0, 1300 mAh battery, 8 GB internal memory and microSDXC slot. It runs on the Android 4.1 Jelly Bean. It was released in August 2013 in Korea only. It was only sold by Korea Telecom and marketed as a home phone with specific apps allowing SMS and calls via WiFi.
It is the latest Galaxy Player released.
Codec support
Audio: MP3, M4A (AAC, AAC+, eAAC+), AMR (AMR-NB, AMR-WB), WMA, OGG, FLAC
Video: MP4, 3GP, AVI (DivX, Xvid), WMV, ASF, H.263/H.264
Pricing
Suggested retail pricing in the U.S. is $149.99 for the 3.6 model, $199.99 for the 4.2 model, $229.99 for the 4.0 model & $269.99 for the 5.0 model.
See also
iPod Touch
Samsung YEPP
References
External links
Samsung Galaxy Player 50 Product Page
Samsung Galaxy Player S WiFi (4" & 5")
Galaxy Player 4 & 5 spec sheet
Official video at YouTube
Official Samsung-USA Galaxy Player Reference
Meticulus Development - YP-G70 ROMS
Android (operating system) devices
Touchscreen portable media players
Galaxy Player
Tablet computers
Android media players | wiki |
For information about generic boot/recovery discs, see Recovery disc
A Microsoft Windows Emergency Repair Disk (ERD) is a specially formatted diskette that creates backups of important system files and settings and is used to troubleshoot and repair problems in Microsoft Windows NT and Windows 2000 systems. An ERD is used in conjunction with the Windows repair option. The Emergency Repair Disk provides only the ability to restore the system to a bootable state. It is not a replacement for system and file backups.
Note: The emergency repair disk is not to be confused with a standard boot diskette as it cannot be used alone.
Unlike the ERD in Windows NT 4.0, the Windows 2000 ERD does not store registry information. Rather, Windows creates a copy of registry files in the \Winnt\Repair\RegBack directory when the ERD is created. The ERD is not bootable. The original Windows NT or Windows 2000 setup disks need to be used to boot the computer. From there, choosing the option to repair the system will prompt the user for the ERD.
In Windows NT 4.0, the option to create an ERD is available during setup. It can be used for the following:
Replace damaged system files
Restore damaged or incorrect registry information
Rebuild the startup environment
In Windows 2000, an ERD can be created by clicking "Backup" under "System Tools" (Start->Programs->Accessories->System Tools->Backup). It can be used for the following repair functions:
Inspect and repair the startup environment.
Verify the Windows 2000 system files and replace missing or damaged files.
Inspect and repair the boot sector.
Microsoft Windows operating system (OS) installation disks (beginning with Windows 2000) include the Recovery Console, which allows the user to perform administrative operations on services, drives, and local data.
References
Installation software | wiki |
Influenza A virus subtype H5 may refer to one of nine subtypes of Influenza A virus:
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1
Influenza A virus subtype H5N2
Influenza A virus subtype H5N3
Influenza A virus subtype H5N4
Influenza A virus subtype H5N5
Influenza A virus subtype H5N6
Influenza A virus subtype H5N7
Influenza A virus subtype H5N8
Influenza A virus subtype H5N9 | wiki |
Public holidays in Washington may refer to:
Public holidays in Washington (state)
Public holidays in Washington, D.C. | wiki |
This glossary of surfing includes some of the extensive vocabulary used to describe various aspects of the sport of surfing as described in literature on the subject. In some cases terms have spread to a wider cultural use. These terms were originally coined by people who were directly involved in the sport of surfing.
About the water
A-Frame: Wave with a peak that resembles an A and allows surfers to go either left or right, with both sides having a clean shoulder to work with.
Barrel: (also tube, cave, keg, green room) The effect when a big wave rolls over, enclosing a temporary horizontal tunnel of air with the surfer inside
Beach break: An area with waves that are good enough to surf break just off a beach, or breaking on a sandbar farther out from the shore
Big sea: Large, unbreaking surf
Blown out: When waves that would otherwise be good have been rendered too choppy by wind
Bomb: An exceptionally large set wave
Bottom: Refers to the ocean floor, or to the lowest part of the wave ridden by a surfer
Channel: A deep spot in the shoreline where waves generally don't break, can be created by a riptide pulling water back to the sea and used by surfers to paddle out to the waves
Chop or choppy: Waves that are subjected to cross winds, have a rough surface (chop) and do not break cleanly
Close-out: A wave is said to be "closed-out" when it breaks at every position along the face at once, and therefore cannot be surfed
Crest: The top section of the wave, or peak, just before the wave begins to break
Curl: The actual portion of the wave that is falling or curling over when the wave is breaking
Face: The forward-facing surface of a breaking wave
Flat: No waves
Glassy: When the waves (and general surface of the water) are extremely smooth, not disturbed by wind
Gnarly: Large, difficult, and dangerous (usually applied to waves)
Green: The unbroken portion of the wave, sometimes referred to as the wave shoulder
Inshore: The direction towards the beach from the surf, can also be referring to the wind direction direction traveling from the ocean onto the shore
Line-up: The queue area where most of the waves are starting to break and where most surfers are positioned in order to catch a wave
Mushy: A wave with very little push
Off the hook: An adjective phrase meaning the waves are performing extraordinarily well
Outside: Any point seaward of the normal breaking waves
Peak: The highest point on a wave
Pocket: The area of the wave that's closest to the curl or whitewash. Where you should surf if you want to generate the most speed. The steepest part of a wave, also known as the energy zone.
Pounder: An unusually hard breaking wave
Point break: Area where an underwater rocky point creates waves that are suitable for surfing
Riptide: A strong offshore current that is caused by the tide pulling water through an inlet along a barrier beach, at a lagoon or inland marina where tide water flows steadily out to sea during ebb tide
Sections: The parts of a breaking wave that are rideable
Sectioning: A wave that does not break evenly, breaks ahead of itself
Set waves: A group of waves of larger size within a swell
Shoulder: The unbroken part of a breaking wave
Surf's up: A phrase used when there are waves worth surfing
Swell: A series of waves that have traveled from their source in a distant storm, and that will start to break once the swell reaches shallow enough water
Trough: The bottom portion of the unbroken wave and below the peak, low portion between waves
Undertow: An under-current that is moving offshore when waves are approaching the shore
Wall: The section of the wave face that extends from the shoulder to the breaking portion, where the wave has not broken and where the surfer maneuvers to ride the wave
Wedge: Two waves traveling from slightly different direction angles that converge to form a wedge when they merge, where the wedge part of the two waves usually breaks a great deal harder than the individual waves themselves
Whitecaps: The sea foam crest over the waves
Whitewater: In a breaking wave, the water continues on as a ridge of turbulence and foam called "whitewater" or also called "soup"
Techniques and maneuvers
Air/Aerial: Riding the board briefly into the air above the wave, landing back upon the wave, and continuing to ride
Backing out: pulling back rather than continuing into a wave that could have been caught
Bail: To step off the board in order to avoid being knocked off (a wipe out)
Bottom turn: The first turn at the bottom of the wave
Carve: Turns (often accentuated)
Caught inside: When a surfer is paddling out and cannot get past the breaking surf to the safer part of the ocean (the outside) in order to find a wave to ride
Cheater five: See Hang-five/hang ten
Cross-step: Crossing one foot over the other to walk down the board
Drop in: Dropping into (engaging) the wave, most often as part of standing up
"To drop in on someone": To take off on a wave that is already being ridden. Not a legitimate technique or maneuver. It is a serious breach of surfing etiquette.
Drop-knee: A type of turn where both knees are bent where the trail or back leg is bent closer to the board than the lead or front leg knee
Duck dive: Pushing the board underwater, nose first, and diving under an oncoming wave instead of riding it
Fade: On take-off, aiming toward the breaking part of the wave, before turning sharply and surfing in the direction the wave is breaking, a maneuver to stay in the hottest or best part of the wave
Fins-free snap (or "fins out"): A sharp turn where the surfboard's fins slide off the top of the wave
Floater: Riding up on the top of the breaking part of the wave, and coming down with it
Goofy foot: Surfing with the left foot on the back of board (less common than regular foot)
Grab the rail: When a surfer grabs the board rail away from the wave
Hang Heels: Facing backwards and putting the surfers' heels out over the edge of a longboard
Hang-five/hang ten: Putting five or ten toes respectively over the nose of a longboard
Kick-out: Surfer throwing their body weight to the back of the board and forcing the surfboard nose straight up over the face of the wave, which allows the surfer to propel the board to kick out the back of the wave
Head dip: The surfer tries to stick their head into a wave to get their hair wet
Nose ride: the art of maneuvering a surfboard from the front end
Off the Top: A turn on the top of a wave, either sharp or carving
Pop-up: Going from lying on the board to standing, all in one jump
Pump: An up/down carving movement that generates speed along a wave
Re-entry: Hitting the lip vertically and re-reentering the wave in quick succession.
Regular/Natural foot: Surfing with the right foot on the back of the board
Rolling, Turtle Roll: Flipping a longboard up-side-down, nose first and pulling through a breaking or broken wave when paddling out to the line-up (a turtle roll is an alternative to a duck dive)
Smack the Lip /Hit the Lip: After performing a bottom turn, moving upwards to hit the peak of the wave, or area above the face of the wave.
Snaking, drop in on, cut off, or "burn": When a surfer who doesn't have the right of way steals a wave from another surfer by taking off in front of someone who is closer to the peak (this is considered inappropriate)
Snaking/Back-Paddling: Stealing a wave from another surfer by paddling around the person's back to get into the best position
Snap: A quick, sharp turn off the top of a wave
Soul arch: Arching the back to demonstrate casual confidence when riding a wave
Stall: Slowing down by shifting weight to the tail of the board or putting a hand in the water. Often used to stay in the tube during a tube ride
Side-slip: travelling down a wave sideways to the direction of the board
Switchfoot: Ambidextrous, having equal ability to surf regular foot or goofy foot (i.e. left foot forward or right foot forward)
Take-off: The start of a ride
Tandem surfing: Two people riding one board. Usually the smaller person is balanced above (often held up above) the other person
Tube riding/Getting barreled: Riding inside the hollow curl of a wave
Accidental
Over the falls: When a surfer falls off the board and the wave sucks them up in a circular motion along with the lip of the wave. Also referred to as the "wash cycle", being "pitched over" and being "sucked over"
Wipe out: Falling off, or being knocked off, the surfboard when riding a wave
Rag dolled: When underwater, the power of the wave can shake the surfer around as if they were a rag doll
Tombstone: When a surfer is held underwater and tries to climb up their leash the board is straight up and down
Pearl: Accidentally driving the nose of the board underwater, generally ending the ride
About people
Dilla: A surfer who is low maintenance, without concern, worry or fuss, One who is confidently secure in being different or unique
Grom/Grommet/Gremmie: A young surfer
Hang loose: Generally means "chill", "relax" or "be laid back". This message can be sent by raising a hand with the thumb and pinkie fingers up while the index, middle and ring fingers remain folded over the palm, then twisting the wrist back and forth as if waving goodbye, see shaka sign
Hodad: A nonsurfer who pretends to surf and frequents beaches with good surfing
Kook: A wanna-be surfer of limited skill
Waxhead: Someone who surfs every day
About the board
Blank: The block from which a surfboard is created
Deck: The upper surface of the board
Ding: A dent or hole in the surface of the board resulting from accidental damage
Fin or Fins: Fin-shaped inserts on the underside of the back of the board that enable the board to be steered
Leash: A cord that is attached to the back of the board, the other end of which wraps around the surfer's ankle
Nose : The forward tip of the board
Quiver: A surfer's collection of boards for different kinds of waves
Rails: The side edges of the surfboard
Rocker: How concave the surface of the board is from nose to tail
Stringer: The line of wood that runs down the center of a board to hold its rigidity and add strength
Tail: The back end of the board
Wax: Specially formulated surf wax that is applied to upper surface of the board to increase the friction so the surfer's feet do not slip off the board
Leggie: A legrope or lease. The cord that connects your ankle to the tail of surfboard so it isn't washed away when you wipe out. Made of lightweight urethane and available in varying sizes. With thicker ones for big waves and thinner ones for small waves.
Thruster: A three-finned surfboard originally invented back in 1980 by Australian surfer Simon Anderson. It is nowadays the most popular fin design for modern surfboards.
Clothing
Board shorts; also known as Baggies.
Pendleton jacket; popularized by the Beach Boys.
Rash guard: a shirt that protects surfers from sunburns and abrasion
Wetsuit: Often referred to as "rubber", sometimes surfers also wear a neoprene hood and booties in cold conditions
Further reading
See also
Surf culture
Notes
References
External links
Surfing
Wikipedia glossaries using unordered lists | wiki |
Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the second plate and sinks into the mantle. A region where this process occurs is known as a subduction zone, and its surface expression is known as an arc-trench complex. The process of subduction has created most of the Earth's continental crust. Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with rates of convergence as high as 11 cm/year.
Subduction is possible because the cold oceanic lithosphere is slightly denser than the underlying asthenosphere, the hot, ductile layer in the upper mantle underlying the cold, rigid lithosphere. Once initiated, stable subduction is driven mostly by the negative buoyancy of the dense subducting lithosphere. The slab sinks into the mantle largely under its weight.
Earthquakes are common along the subduction zone, and fluids released by the subducting plate trigger volcanism in the overriding plate. If the subducting plate sinks at a shallow angle, the overriding plate develops a belt of deformation characterized by crustal thickening, mountain building, and metamorphism. Subduction at a steeper angle is characterized by the formation of back-arc basins.
Subduction and plate tectonics
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth's lithosphere, its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger tectonic plates and several smaller plates. These plates are in slow motion, due mostly to the pull force of subducting lithosphere. Sinking lithosphere at subduction zones are a part of convection cells in the underlying ductile mantle. This process of convection allows heat generated by radioactive decay to escape from the Earth's interior.
The lithosphere consists of the outermost light crust plus the uppermost rigid portion of the mantle. Oceanic lithosphere ranges in thickness from just a few km for young lithosphere created at mid-ocean ridges to around for the oldest oceanic lithosphere. Continental lithosphere is up to thick. The lithosphere is relatively cold and rigid compared with the underlying asthenosphere, and so tectonic plates move as solid bodies atop the asthenosphere. Individual plates often include both regions of the oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere.
Subduction zones are where the cold oceanic lithosphere sinks back into the mantle and is recycled. They are found at convergent plate boundaries, where the oceanic lithosphere of one plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of another plate. The heavier oceanic lithosphere is overridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The overridden plate (the slab) sinks at an angle of approximately 25 to 75 degrees to Earth's surface. This sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the slab and the surrounding asthenosphere, as the colder oceanic lithosphere has, on average, a greater density. Sediments and some trapped water are carried downwards by the slab and recycled into the deep mantle.
Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur, and subduction zones are its most important tectonic feature. Subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur. Oceanic subduction zones are located along convergent plate margins, almost equal to the cumulative plate formation rate of mid-ocean ridges.
Sea water seeps into oceanic lithosphere through fractures and pores, and reacts with minerals in the crust and mantle to form hydrous minerals (such as serpentine) that store water in their crystal structures. Water is transported into the deep mantle via hydrous minerals in subducting slabs. During subduction, a series of minerals in these slabs such as serpentine can be stable at different pressures within the slab geotherms, and may transport significant amount of water into the Earth's interior. As plates sink and heat up, released fluids can trigger seismicity and induce melting within the subducted plate and in the overlying mantle wedge. This type of melting selectively concentrates volatiles and transports them into the overlying plate. If an eruption occurs, the cycle then returns the volatiles into the oceans and atmosphere
Structure of subduction zones
Arc-trench complex
The surface expression of subduction zones are arc-trench complexes. On the ocean side of the complex, where the subducting plate first approaches the subduction zone, there is often an outer trench high or outer trench swell. Here the plate shallows slightly before plunging downwards, as a consequence of the rigidity of the plate. The point where the slab begins to plunge downwards is marked by an oceanic trench. Oceanic trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor.
Beyond the trench is the forearc portion of the overriding plate. Depending on sedimentation rates, the forearc may include an accretionary wedge of sediments scraped off the subducting slab and accreted to the overriding plate. However, not all arc-trench complexes have an accretionary wedge. Accretionary arcs have a well-developed forearc basin behind the accretionary wedge, while the forearc basin is poorly developed in non-accretionary arcs.
Beyond the forearc basin, volcanoes are found in long chains called volcanic arcs. The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in hydrous minerals and clays. Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward. During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a supercritical fluid. The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle, where it lowers the melting temperature of the mantle rock, generating magma via flux melting. The magmas, in turn, rise as diapirs because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are initially basaltic in composition) can ultimately reach the Earth's surface, resulting in volcanic eruptions. The chemical composition of the erupting lava depends upon the degree to which the mantle-derived basalt interacts with (melts) of Earth's crust or undergoes fractional crystallization. Arc volcanoes tend to produce dangerous eruptions because they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive. Krakatoa, Nevado del Ruiz, and Mount Vesuvius are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are also associated with most ore deposits.
Beyond the volcanic arc is a back-arc region whose character depends strongly on the angle of subduction of the subducting slab. Where this angle is shallow, the subducting slab drags the overlying continental crust partially with it, which produces a zone of shortening and crustal thickening in which there may be extensive folding and thrust faulting. If the angle of subduction steepens or rolls back, the upper plate lithosphere will be put in tension instead, often producing a back-arc basin.
Deep structure
The arc-trench complex is the surface expression of a much deeper structure. Though not directly accessible, the deeper portions can be studied using geophysics and geochemistry. Subduction zones are defined by an inclined zone of earthquakes, the Wadati–Benioff zone, that dips away from the trench and extends down below the volcanic arc to the 660-kilometer discontinuity. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths (up to ) than elsewhere on Earth (typically less than depth); such deep earthquakes may be driven by deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, or dehydration embrittlement. Seismic tomography shows that some slabs can penetrate the lower mantle and sink clear to the core–mantle boundary. Here the residue of the slabs may eventually heat enough to rise back to the surface as mantle plumes.
Subduction angle
Subduction typically occurs at a moderately steep angle by the time it is beneath the volcanic arc. However, anomalous shallower angles of subduction are known to exist as well as some that are extremely steep.
Flat slab subduction (subducting angle less than 30°) occurs when the slab subducts nearly horizontally. The relatively flat slab can extend for hundreds of kilometers under the upper plate. This geometry is commonly caused by the subduction of buoyant lithosphere due to thickened crust or warmer lithosphere. Recent studies have also shown a strong correlation that older and wider subduction zones are related to flatter subduction dips. This provides an explanation as to why flat subduction only presently occur in the eastern pacific as only these regions were old and wide enough to support flat slab subduction and why the Laramide flat slab subduction and South China flat slab subduction were possible. Hu ultimately proposes that a combination of subduction age and slab characteristics provide the strongest controls over subduction dips. Because subduction of slabs to depth is necessary to drive subduction zone volcanism, flat-slab subduction can be invoked to explain volcanic gaps.
Flat-slab subduction is ongoing beneath part of the Andes, causing segmentation of the Andean Volcanic Belt into four zones. The flat-slab subduction in northern Peru and the Norte Chico region of Chile is believed to be the result of the subduction of two buoyant aseismic ridges, the Nazca Ridge and the Juan Fernández Ridge, respectively. Around Taitao Peninsula flat-slab subduction is attributed to the subduction of the Chile Rise, a spreading ridge.
The Laramide Orogeny in the Rocky Mountains of the United States is attributed to flat-slab subduction. During this orogeny, a broad volcanic gap appeared at the southwestern margin of North America, and deformation occurred much farther inland; it was during this time that the basement-cored mountain ranges of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, South Dakota, and New Mexico came into being. The most massive subduction zone earthquakes, so-called "megaquakes", have been found to occur in flat-slab subduction zones.
Steep-angle subduction (subducting angle greater than 70°) occurs in subduction zones where Earth's oceanic crust and lithosphere are cold and thick and have, therefore, lost buoyancy. Recent studies have also correlated steep angled subduction zones with younger and less extensive subduction zones. This would explain why most modern subduction zones are relatively steep. The steepest dipping subduction zone lies in the Mariana Trench, which is also where the oceanic lithosphere of Jurassic age, is the oldest on Earth exempting ophiolites. Steep-angle subduction is, in contrast to flat-slab subduction, associated with back-arc extension of the upper plate, creating volcanic arcs and pulling fragments of continental crust away from continents to leave behind a marginal sea.
Life cycle of subduction zones
Initiation of subduction
Although stable subduction is fairly well understood, the process by which subduction is initiated remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction can begin spontaneously if the denser oceanic lithosphere can founder and sink beneath the adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere through vertical forcing only; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones by horizontally forcing the oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere. Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as the oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. The compilation of subduction zone initiation events back to 100 Ma suggests horizontally-forced subduction zone initiation for most modern subduction zones, which is supported by results from numerical models and geologic studies. Some analogue modeling shows, however, the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at specific locations like passive margins and along transform faults. There is evidence this has taken place in the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system. Earlier in Earth's history, subduction is likely to have initiated without horizontal forcing due to the lack of relative plate motion, though a proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.
End of subduction
Subduction can continue as long as the oceanic lithosphere moves into the subduction zone. However, the arrival of buoyant lithosphere at a subduction zone can result in increased coupling at the trench and cause plate boundary reorganization. The arrival of continental crust results in a collision or terrane accretion that may disrupt subduction. Continental crust can subduct to depths of where it can reach a point of no return. Sections of crustal or intraoceanic arc crust greater than in thickness or oceanic plateau greater than in thickness can disrupt subduction. However, island arcs subducted end-on may cause only local disruption, while an arc arriving parallel to the zone can shut it down. This has happened with the Ontong Java Plateau and the Vitiaz Trench.
Effects
Metamorphism
Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process create and destroy water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.
A metamorphic facies is characterized by a stable mineral assemblage specific to a pressure-temperature range and specific starting material. Subduction zone metamorphism is characterized by a low temperature, high-ultrahigh pressure metamorphic path through the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite, blueschist, and eclogite facies stability zones of subducted oceanic crust. Zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies assemblages may or may not be present, thus the onset of metamorphism may only be marked by blueschist facies conditions. Subducting slabs are composed of basaltic crust topped with pelagic sediments; however, the pelagic sediments may be accreted onto the forearc-hanging wall and not subducted. Most metamorphic phase transitions that occur within the subducting slab are prompted by the dehydration of hydrous mineral phases. The breakdown of hydrous mineral phases typically occurs at depths greater than 10 km. Each of these metamorphic facies is marked by the presence of a specific stable mineral assemblage, recording the metamorphic conditions undergone but the subducting slab. Transitions between facies cause hydrous minerals to dehydrate at certain pressure-temperature conditions and can therefore be tracked to melting events in the mantle beneath a volcanic arc.
Arc magmatism
Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: island arcs that form on the oceanic lithosphere (for example, the Mariana and the Tonga island arcs), and continental arcs such as the Cascade Volcanic Arc, that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs (intraoceanic or primitive arcs) are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs (Andean arcs) form during the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction). An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska.
Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna, and Mount Fuji, lie approximately one hundred kilometers from the trench in arcuate chains called volcanic arcs. Plutons, like Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, generally form 10–50 km below the volcanoes within the volcanic arcs and are only visible on the surface once the volcanoes have weathered away. The volcanism and plutonism occur as a consequence of the subducting oceanic slab dehydrating as it reaches higher pressures and temperatures. Once the oceanic slab reaches about 100 km in depth, hydrous minerals become unstable and release fluids into the asthenosphere. The fluids act as a flux for the rock within the asthenosphere and cause it to partially melt. The partially melted material is more buoyant and as a result will rise into the lithosphere, where it forms large magma chambers called diapirs. Some of the magma will make it to the surface of the crust where it will form volcanoes and, if eruptive on earth's surface, will produce andesitic lava. Magma that remains in the lithosphere long enough will cool and form plutonic rocks such as diorite, granodiorite, and sometimes granite.
The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately one hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. Arcs produce about 10% of the total volume of magma produced each year on Earth (approximately 0.75 cubic kilometers), much less than the volume produced at mid-ocean ridges, but they have formed most continental crust. Arc volcanism has the greatest impact on humans because many arc volcanoes lie above sea level and erupt violently. Aerosols injected into the stratosphere during violent eruptions can cause rapid cooling of Earth's climate and affect air travel.
Arc-magmatism plays a role in Earth’s Carbon cycle by releasing subducted carbon through volcanic processes. Older theory states that the carbon from the subducting plate is made available in overlying magmatic systems via decarbonation, where CO is released through silicate-carbonate metamorphism. However, evidence from thermodynamic modeling has shown that the pressures and temperatures necessary for this type of metamorphism are much higher than what is observed in most subduction zones. Frezzoti et al. (2011) propose a different mechanism for carbon transport into the overriding plate via dissolution (release of carbon from carbon-bearing minerals into an aqueous solution) instead of decarbonation. Their evidence comes from the close examination of mineral and fluid inclusions in low-temperature (<600 °C) diamonds and garnets found in an eclogite facies in the Alps. The chemistry of the inclusions supports the existence of a carbon-rich fluid in that environment, and additional chemical measurements of lower pressure and temperature facies in the same tectonic complex support a model for carbon dissolution (rather than decarbonation) as a means of carbon transport.
Earthquakes and tsunamis
Elastic strain caused by plate convergence in subduction zones produces at least three types of earthquakes. These are deep earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, and outer rise earthquakes. Deep earthquakes happen within the crust, megathrust earthquakes on the subduction interface near the trench, and outer rise earthquakes on the subducting lower plate as it bends near the trench.
Anomalously deep events are a characteristic of subduction zones, which produce the deepest quakes on the planet. Earthquakes are generally restricted to the shallow, brittle parts of the crust, generally at depths of less than twenty kilometers. However, in subduction zones quakes occur at depths as great as . These quakes define inclined zones of seismicity known as Wadati–Benioff zones which trace the descending slab.
Nine of the ten largest earthquakes of the last 100 years were subduction zone megathrust earthquakes. These included the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake which at M 9.5 was the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The subduction of cold oceanic lithosphere into the mantle depresses the local geothermal gradient and causes a larger portion of Earth's crust to deform in a more brittle fashion than it would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur only when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes. If such a quake causes rapid deformation of the sea floor, there is potential for tsunamis. The largest tsunami ever recorded happened due to a mega-thrust earthquake on December 26, 2004. The earthquake was caused by subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate under the Euro-Asian Plate, but the tsunami spread over most of the planet and devastated the areas around the Indian Ocean]]. Small tremors which cause small, nondamaging tsunamis, also occur frequently.
A study published in 2016 suggested a new parameter to determine a subduction zone's ability to generate mega-earthquakes. By examining subduction zone geometry and comparing the degree of lower plate curvature of the subducting plate in great historical earthquakes such as the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, it was determined that the magnitude of earthquakes in subduction zones is inversely proportional to the angle of subduction near the trench, meaning that "the flatter the contact between the two plates, the more likely it is that mega-earthquakes will occur."
Outer rise earthquakes on the lower plate occur when normal faults oceanward of the subduction zone are activated by flexure of the plate as it bends into the subduction zone. The 2009 Samoa earthquake is an example of this type of event. Displacement of the sea floor caused by this event generated a six-meter tsunami in nearby Samoa.
Seismic tomography has helped detect subducted lithospheric slabs deep in the mantle where there are no earthquakes. About one hundred slabs have been described in terms of depth and their timing and location of subduction. The great seismic discontinuities in the mantle, at depth and , are disrupted by the descent of cold slabs in deep subduction zones. Some subducted slabs seem to have difficulty penetrating the major discontinuity that marks the boundary between the upper mantle and lower mantle at a depth of about 670 kilometers. Other subducted oceanic plates have sunk to the core–mantle boundary at 2890 km depth. Generally, slabs decelerate during their descent into the mantle, from typically several cm/yr (up to ~10 cm/yr in some cases) at the subduction zone and in the uppermost mantle, to ~1 cm/yr in the lower mantle. This leads to either folding or stacking of slabs at those depths, visible as thickened slabs in Seismic tomography. Below ~1700 km, there might be a limited acceleration of slabs due to lower viscosity as a result of inferred mineral phase changes until they approach and finally stall at the core–mantle boundary. Here the slabs are heated up by the ambient heat and are not detected anymore ~300 Myr after subduction.
Orogeny
Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, sediments and passive continental margins to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted to (scraped off) the continent, resulting in exotic terranes. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. The accreted material is often referred to as an accretionary wedge or prism. These accretionary wedges can be associated with ophiolites (uplifted ocean crust consisting of sediments, pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and peridotite).
Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic material that accretes to the overriding continent. When the lower plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called "flat-slab subduction"), the subducting plate may have enough traction on the bottom of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract by folding, faulting, crustal thickening, and mountain building. Flat-slab subduction causes mountain building and volcanism moving into the continent, away from the trench, and has been described in western North America (i.e. Laramide orogeny, and currently in Alaska, South America, and East Asia.
The processes described above allow subduction to continue while mountain building happens concurrently, which is in contrast to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.
Subduction of continental lithosphere
Continents are pulled into subduction zones by the sinking Oceanic plate they are attached to. Where continents are attached to oceanic plates with no subduction there is a deep basin that accumulates thick suites of sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and is known as a passive margin. Some passive margins have up to 10 km of sedimentary and volcanic rocks covering the continental crust. As a passive margins is pulled into a subduction zone by the attached and negatively buoyant oceanic lithosphere, the sedimentary and volcanic cover is mostly scraped off to form an orogenic wedge. An orogenic wedge is larger than most accretionary wedges due to the volume of material there is to accrete. The continental basement rocks beneath the weak cover suites are strong and mostly cold, and can be underlain by a >200 km thick layer of dense mantle. After shedding the low density cover units, the continental plate, especially if it is old, goes down the subduction zone. As this happens metamorphic reactions increase the density of the continental crustal rocks, which leads to less buoyancy.
One study of the active Banda arc-continent collision claims that by unstacking the layers of rock that once covered the continental basement, but are now thrust over one another in the orogenic wedge, and measuring how long they are, can provide a minimum estimate of how far the continent has subducted. The results show at least a minimum of 229 kilometers of subduction of the northern Australian continental plate. Another example may be the continued northward motion of India, which is subducting beneath Asia. The collision between the two continents initiated around 50 my ago, but is still active.
Arc-continent collision and global Climate
In their 2019 study, Macdonald et al. proposed that arc-continent collision zones and the subsequent obduction of oceanic lithosphere was at least partially responsible for controlling global climate. Their model relies on arc-continent collision in tropical zones, where exposed ophiolites composed mainly of mafic material increase “global weatherability” and result in the storage of carbon through silicate weathering processes. This storage represents a carbon sink, removing carbon from the atmosphere and resulting in global cooling. Their study correlates several Phanerozoic ophiolite complexes, including active arc-continent subduction, with known global cooling and glaciation periods. It is of note that this study does not discuss Milankovitch cycles as a driver of global climate cyclicity.
Beginnings of subduction on Earth
Modern-style subduction is characterized by low geothermal gradients and the associated formation of high-pressure low-temperature rocks such as eclogite and blueschist. Likewise, rock assemblages called ophiolites, associated with modern-style subduction, also indicate such conditions. Eclogite xenoliths found in the North China Craton provide evidence that modern-style subduction occurred at least as early as 1.8 Ga ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era. The eclogite itself was produced by oceanic subduction during the assembly of supercontinents at about 1.9–2.0 Ga.
Blueschist is a rock typical for present-day subduction settings. The absence of blueschist older than Neoproterozoic reflects more magnesium-rich compositions of Earth's oceanic crust during that period. These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into greenschist at conditions when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist. The ancient magnesium-rich rocks mean that Earth's mantle was once hotter, but not that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, the lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different type of subduction. Both lines of evidence refute previous conceptions of modern-style subduction having been initiated in the Neoproterozoic Era 1.0 Ga ago.
History of investigation
Harry Hammond Hess, who during World War II served in the United States Navy Reserve and became fascinated in the ocean floor, studied the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and proposed that hot molten rock was added to the crust at the ridge and expanded the seafloor outward. This theory was to become known as seafloor spreading. Since the Earth's circumference has not changed over geologic time, Hess concluded that older seafloor has to be consumed somewhere else, and suggested that this process takes place at oceanic trenches, where the crust would be melted and recycled into the Earth's mantle.
In 1964, George Plafker researched the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska. He concluded that the cause of the earthquake was a megathrust reaction in the Aleutian Trench, a result of the Alaskan continental crust overlapping the Pacific oceanic crust. This meant that the Pacific crust was being forced downward, or subducted, beneath the Alaskan crust. The concept of subduction would play a role in the development of the plate tectonics theory.
First geologic attestations of the "subduct" words date to 1970, In ordinary English to subduct, or to subduce (from Latin subducere, “to lead away”) are transitive verbs requiring a subject to perform an action on an object not itself, here the lower plate, which has then been subducted (“removed”). The geological term is "consumed," which happens the geological moment the lower plate slips under, even though it may persist for some time until its remelting and dissipation. In this conceptual model, plate is continually being used up. The identity of the subject, the consumer, or agent of consumption, is left unstated. Some sources accept this subject-object construct.
Geology makes to subduct into an intransitive verb and a reflexive verb. The lower plate itself is the subject. It subducts, in the sense of retreat, or removes itself, and while doing so, is the "subducting plate." Moreover, the word slab is specifically attached to the "subducting plate," even though in English the upper plate is just as much of a slab. The upper plate is left hanging, so to speak. To express it geology must switch to a different verb, typically to override. The upper plate, the subject, performs the action of overriding the object, the lower plate, which is overridden.
Importance
Subduction zones are important for several reasons:
Subduction zone physics: Sinking of the oceanic lithosphere (sediments, crust, mantle), by the contrast of density between the cold and old lithosphere and the hot asthenospheric mantle wedge, is the strongest force (but not the only one) needed to drive plate motion and is the dominant mode of mantle convection.
Subduction zone chemistry: The subducted sediments and crust dehydrate and release water-rich (aqueous) fluids into the overlying mantle, causing mantle melting and fractionation of elements between the surface and deep mantle reservoirs, producing island arcs and continental crust. Hot fluids in subduction zones also alter the mineral compositions of the subducting sediments and potentially the habitability of the sediments for microorganisms.
Subduction zones drag down subducted oceanic sediments, oceanic crust, and mantle lithosphere that interact with the hot asthenospheric mantle from the over-riding plate to produce calc-alkaline series melts, ore deposits, and continental crust.
Subduction zones pose significant threats to lives, property, economic vitality, cultural and natural resources, and quality of life. The tremendous magnitudes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can also have knock-on effects with global impact.
Subduction zones have also been considered as possible disposal sites for nuclear waste in which the action of subduction itself would carry the material into the planetary mantle, safely away from any possible influence on humanity or the surface environment. However, that method of disposal is currently banned by international agreement. Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, making the effects of using any specific site for disposal unpredictable and possibly adverse to the safety of long-term disposal.
See also
Compaction simulation
References
Additional reading
External links
The Subduction Zone Initiation Database: The latest knowledge about the formation of subduction zones
Animation of a subduction zone.
From the Seafloor to the Volcano's Top Video about the work of the Collaborative Research Center (SFB) 574 Volatiles and Fluids in Subduction Zones in Chile by GEOMAR I Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel.
Plate Tectonics Basics 1 - Creation and Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere, University of Texas at Dallas (~ 9 minutes long).
Atlas of the Underworld – mapping of subducted plates in the Earth’s mantle and their geological interpretation
Plate tectonics
Geological processes
Lithosphere | wiki |
Obduction is a geological process whereby denser oceanic crust (and even upper mantle) is scraped off a descending ocean plate at a convergent plate boundary and thrust on top of an adjacent plate. When oceanic and continental plates converge, normally the denser oceanic crust sinks under the continental crust in the process of subduction. Obduction, which is less common, normally occurs in plate collisions at orogenic belts (where an oceanic plate that is subducting scrapes some of its material onto the continental plate) or back-arc basins (places where the edge of a continent is pulled away from the rest of the continent due to the stress of plate collision).
Obduction of oceanic lithosphere produces a characteristic set of rock types called an ophiolite. This assemblage consists of deep-marine sedimentary rock (chert, limestone, clastic sediments), volcanic rocks (pillow lavas, volcanic glass, volcanic ash, sheeted dykes and gabbros) and peridotite (mantle rock). John McPhee describes ophiolite formation by obduction as "where ocean crust slides into a trench and goes under a continent, [and] a part of the crust - i.e., an ophiolite - is shaved off the top and ends up on the lip of the continent."
Obduction occurs where a fragment of continental crust is caught in a subduction zone with resulting overthrusting of oceanic mafic and ultramafic rocks from the mantle onto the continental crust. Obduction often occurs where a small tectonic plate is caught between two larger plates, with the crust (both island arc and oceanic) welding onto an adjacent continent as a new terrane. When two continental plates collide, obduction of the oceanic crust between them is often a part of the resulting orogeny.
Most obductions appear to have initiated at back-arc basins above the subduction zones during the closing of an ocean or an orogeny.
Types of obductions
Upwedging in subduction zones
This process is operative beneath and behind the inner walls of oceanic trenches (subduction zone) where slices of oceanic crust and mantle are ripped from the upper part of the descending plate and wedged and packed in high pressure assemblages against the leading edge of the other plate.
Weakening and cracking of oceanic crust and upper mantle is likely to occur in the tensional regime. This results in the incorporation of ophiolite slabs into the overriding plate.
Progressive packing of ophiolite slices and arc fragments against the leading edge of a continent may continue over a long period of time and lead to a form of continental accretion.
Compressional telescoping onto Atlantic-type continental margins
The simplest form of this type of obduction may follow from the development of a subduction zone near the continental margin. Above and behind the subduction zone, a welt of oceanic crust and mantle rides up over the descending plate. The ocean, intervening between the continental margin and the subduction zone is progressively swallowed until the continental margin arrives at the subduction zone and a giant wedge or slice (nappe) of oceanic crust and mantle is pushed across the continental margin. Because the buoyancy of the relatively light continental crust is likely to prohibit its extensive subduction, a flip in subduction polarity will occur yielding an ophiolite sheet lying above a descending plate.
If however, a large tract of ocean intervenes between the continental margin the subduction zone, a fully developed arc and back arc basin may eventually arrive and collide with the continental margin. Further convergence may lead to overthrusting of the volcanic arc assemblage and may be followed by flipping the subduction polarity.
According to the rock assemblage as well as the complexly deformed ophiolite basement and arc intrusions, the Coastal Complex of western Newfoundland may well have been formed by this mechanism.
Gravity sliding onto Atlantic-type continental margins
This concept involves the progressive uplift of an actively spreading oceanic ridge, the detachment of slices from the upper part of the lithosphere and the subsequent gravity sliding of these slices onto the continental margin as ophiolites. This concept was advocated by Reinhardt for the emplacement of the Semail Ophiolite complex in Oman and argued by Church and Church and Stevens for the emplacement of the Bay of Islands sheet in western Newfoundland. This concept has subsequently been replaced by hypotheses that advocate subduction of the continental margin beneath oceanic lithosphere.
Transformation of a spreading ridge to a subduction zone
Many ophiolite complexes were emplaced as thin hot obducted sheets of oceanic lithosphere shortly after their generation by plate accretion. The change from a spreading plate boundary to a subduction plate boundary may result from rapid rearrangement of relative plate motion. A transform fault may also become a subduction zone, with the side with the higher, hotter, thinner lithosphere riding over the lower, colder lithosphere. This mechanism would lead to obduction of ophiolite complex if it occurred near a continental margin.
Interference of a spreading ridge and a subduction zone
In the situation where a spreading ridge approaches a subduction zone, the ridge collides with the subduction zone, at which time there will develop a complex interaction of subduction-related tectonic sedimentary, and spreading-related tectonic igneous activity. The left-over ridge may either subduct or ride upward across the trench onto arc trench gap and arc terranes as a hot ophiolite slice. These two mechanisms are shown in figure 2 B and C. Two examples of this interaction of a ridge colliding into a trench are well documented. The first one is the progressive diminution of the Farallon plate off California. Ophiolite obduction by the above proposed mechanism would not be expected as the two plates share a dextral transform boundary. However, the major collision of the Kula/Pacific plate with the Alaskan/Aleutian resulted in the initiation of subduction of the Pacific plate beneath Alaska, with no sign of either obduction or indeed any major manifestation of a ridge being “swallowed”.
Obduction from rear-arc basin
Dewey and Bird suggested that a common form of ophiolite obduction is related to the closure of rear-arc marginal basins and that, during such closure by subduction, slices of oceanic crust and mantle may be expelled onto adjacent continental forelands and emplaced as ophiolite sheets. In the high heat-flow region of a volcanic arc and rear-arc basin the lithosphere is particularly thin. This thin lithosphere may preferentially fail along gently dipping thrust surface if a compressional stress is applied to the region. Under these circumstances a thin sheet of lithosphere may become detached and begin to ride over adjacent lithosphere to finally become emplaced as a thin ophiolite sheet on the adjacent continental foreland. This mechanism is a form of plate convergence where a thin, hot layer of oceanic lithosphere is obducted over cooler and thicker lithosphere.
Obduction during continental collision
As an ocean is progressively trapped in between two colliding continental lithospheres, the rising wedges of oceanic crust and mantle rise are caught in the jaws of the continent/continent vise and detach and begin to move up the advancing continental rise. Continued convergence may lead to the overthrusting of the arc-trench gap and eventually overthrusting of the metamorphic plutonic and volcanic rocks of the volcanic arc.
Following total subduction of an oceanic tract, continuing convergence may lead to a further sequence of intra-continental mechanisms of crustal shortening. This mechanism is thought to be responsible for the various ocean basins of the Mediterranean region. The Alpine belt is believed to register a complex history of plate interactions during the general convergence of the Eurasian plate and African plates.
Examples
There are few continental plates being obducted under an oceanic plate known today, but in the past it appears to have happened a number of times. Thus there are examples of oceanic crustal rocks and deeper mantle rocks that have been obducted and are now exposed at the surface, worldwide. New Caledonia is one example of recent obduction. The Klamath Mountains of northern California contain several obducted oceanic slabs, most famously the Coast Range Ophiolite. Obducted fragments also are found in the Hajar Mountains of Oman, the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus, Newfoundland, New Zealand, the Alps of Europe, the Shetland islands of Unst and Fetlar, Leka island in Norway, and the Blue Ridge Ophiolite in the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America.
See also
References
Plate tectonics
Geological processes | wiki |
A transition metal fullerene complex is a coordination complex wherein fullerene serves as a ligand. Fullerenes are typically spheroidal carbon compounds, the most prevalent being buckminsterfullerene, C60.
One year after it was prepared in milligram quantities in 1990, C60 was shown to function as a ligand in the complex [Ph3P]2Pt(η2-C60).
Since this report, a variety of transition metals and binding modes were demonstrated. Most transition metal fullerene complex are derived from C60, although other fullerenes also coordinate to metals as seen with C70Rh(H)(CO)(PPh3)2.
Binding modes
As ligands, fullerenes behave similarly to electron-deficient alkenes such as tetracyanoethylene. Thus, their complexes are a subset of metal-alkene complexes. They almost always coordinate in a dihapto fashion and prefer electron-rich metal centers. This binding occurs on the junction of two 6-membered rings. Hexahapto and pentahapto bonding is rarely observed.
In Ru3(CO)9(C60), the fullerene binds to the triangular face of the cluster.
Examples
C60 forms stable complexes of the type M(C60)(diphosphine)(CO)3 for M = Mo, W. A dirhenium complexes is known with the formula Re2(PMe3)4H8(η2:η2C60) where two of the hydrogen act as bridging ligands.
Many fullerene complexes are derived from platinum metals. An unusual cationic complex features three 16e Ru centers:
3 Cp*Ru(MeCN)3+ + C60 → {[(Cp*Ru(MeCN)2]3C60}3+ + 3 MeCN
Vaska's complex forms a 1:1 adduct, and the analogous IrCl(CO)(PEt3)2 binds 200x more strongly. Complexes with more than one fullerene ligand are illustrated by Ir4(CO)3(μ4-CH)(PMe3)2(μ-PMe)2(CNCH2Ph)(μ-η2:η2C60)(μ4-η1:η1:η2:η2C60). In this Ir4 cluster two fullerene ligands with multiple types of mixed binding. Platinum, palladium, and nickel form complexes of the type C60ML2 where L is a monodentate or bidentate phosphorus ligand. They are prepared by displacement of weakly coordinating ligands such as ethylene:
[Ph3P]2Pt(C2H4) + C60 → [Ph3P]2Pt(η2-C60) + C2H4
In [(Et3P)2Pt]6(η2-C60), six Pt centers are bound to the fullerene.
Modified fullerenes as ligands
Osmium tetraoxide adds to C60 to give, in the presence of pyridine (py), the diolate C60O2OsO2(py)2.
The pentaphenyl anion C60Ph5− behaves as a cyclopentadienyl ligand.
<p style="text-align: left;">In this example, the binding of the ligand is similar to ferrocene. The anion C60(PhCH2)2Ph functions as an indenyl-like ligand.
Fullerenes can also be substituents on otherwise conventional ligands as seen with an isoxazoline fullerene chelating to platinum, rhenium, and iridium compounds.
Ongoing research
Although no application has been commercialized. non-linear optical (NLO) materials, and as supramolecular building blocks.
See also
Exohedral fullerene
Endohedral fullerene
References
Bibliography
Spessard, Gary; Miessler, Gary (2010). Organometallic Chemistry
Fullerenes
Ligands | wiki |
A strudel (plural: strudel) is a vertical hole in sea ice through which downward jet-like, buoyancy-driven drainage of flood water is thought to occur. This feature is less than a few tens of meters in size and typically occurs within 30 km from a river mouth, in the sea ice expanse that is fastened to the coastline (known as fast ice). Once the water that flooded the ice has completely drained off the ice surface, strudel become recognizable by a radial pattern of feeder channels that lead to the hole. They are elongated and irregularly spaced, with the larger ones up to several kilometers apart. Their distribution tends to be controlled by weak areas in the ice – in places, they line up along fractures or refrozen extensional cracks. The ice sheet where they occur may be 2 m in thickness, at water depths (below the ice) in the order of a few meters.
The term strudel is German, and designates a whirlpool, in reference to the water vortex that forms above these features during drainage. It has been suggested that this vortex could present a hazard for investigators wishing to study this phenomenon in the field, and that this would explain, at least partly, why little is known about strudel.
Formation
The formation of strudel is related to the break up of a frozen river during the melting season, where this river runs into a sea ice expanse. At that time, fresh water flows onto the fast ice with a progression rate of about 2–3 m/s, extending up to a few tens of kilometers away from the river mouth. Water depths above the ice surface may be up to a few meters. A strudel forms as a result of water carving its way through the ice sheet. Drainage is initiated through small openings or cracks in the ice resulting from the weight of the freshwater. Some are reportedly enlarged seal-breathing holes. Within a few days, the water drains off the ice. Drainage is driven by the buoyancy of the ice, not by the density difference between freshwater and sea water. The pressure difference responsible for that flow is a function of the ice thickness and the difference in unit weight between the ice and the water.
Strudel scours
Water gushing downward through strudel produces scour depressions in the seabed. This occurs at shallow water levels, within the two-meter bathymetry contour, and up to 8 meters. The depth of these depressions may reach 6 meters or more. This depends on a number of factors: seabed properties, water depth, flow velocity, flow duration and size and shape of the orifice. The width of individual strudel scours are generally in the order of 10–20 meters. An excavation rate of 2.5 km−2y−1 has been reported, as well as complete back filling by sediments within 2–3 years. Such rapid filling rates imply that most strudel scours are recent events. Strudel scours present risks to submarine pipelines if water action removes the soil from below a pipe segment such that it becomes a free span. The consequences include: vortex-induced oscillation, lateral buckling and overstress due to self-weight. Moreover, the presence of a pipeline may conceivably promote the generation of strudel because of the heat generated by this structure, which may thin and thus weaken the ice above it.
A distinction is made between strudel scours and ice scours. The former is the result of water action, as is the case for other types of scours (bridge and tidal scours); the latter, also called gouges, are produced by drifting ice and are most often linear features.
See also
Bridge scour
Fast ice
Seabed gouging by ice
Sea ice
Submarine pipeline
Tidal scour
References
Sea ice
Oceanography | wiki |
Oriental Theatre or Oriental Theater may refer to:
Oriental Theatre (Chicago)
Oriental Theater (Denver, Colorado), listed on the NRHP in Denver, Colorado
Oriental Theatre (Milwaukee)
Oriental Theatre (Portland, Oregon) | wiki |
This is a list of poppy seed pastries and dishes. Poppy seed is an oilseed obtained from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). The tiny kidney-shaped seeds have been harvested from dried seed pods by various civilizations for thousands of years. The seeds are used, whole or ground, as an ingredient in many foods, and they are pressed to yield poppyseed oil. Poppy seeds are less than a millimeter in length, and minute: it takes 3,300 poppy seeds to make up a gram, and a pound contains between 1 and 2 million seeds. The primary flavor compound is 2-Pentylfuran.
Poppy seed pastries and dishes
See also
List of pastries
List of desserts
List of sesame seed dishes
References
External links
Lists of foods by ingredient
List
Poppy seed | wiki |
Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering cardiology. It was established in 1958 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief is Carl Lavie (Ochsner Medical Center). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2019 impact factor of 6.763 .
References
External links
Cardiology journals
Elsevier academic journals
Bimonthly journals
Publications established in 1958
English-language journals | wiki |
The Gospel According to St. Matthew may refer to:
Gospel of Matthew, one of the four Gospel accounts of the New Testament in the Bible
The Gospel According to St. Matthew (film) (Italian: Il Vangelo secondo Matteo), a 1964 Italian film based on the Gospel, directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini | wiki |
Insanity – album dei Darkane del 2001
Insanity – singolo di Darin del 2007
Insanity – singolo di Masami Okui del 2007 | wiki |
A fainting room was a private room, common in the Victorian era, which typically contained fainting couches. Such couches or sofas typically had an arm on one side only to permit easy access to a reclining position, similar to its cousin the Chaise longue, although the sofa style most typically featured a back at one end (usually the side with the arm) so that the resulting position was not purely supine.
There are also accounts that mention fainting rooms in eighteenth-century America. These rooms, which were also referred to as bedrooms (bedrooms were called chambers), were located in the ground floor and contained a day bed that allowed occupants to rest for brief periods during the day.
Theories for prevalence
One theory for the predominance of fainting couches is that women were actually fainting because their corsets were laced too tightly, thus restricting blood flow. By preventing movement of the ribs, corsets restricted airflow to the lungs and, as a result, if the wearer exerted themselves to the point of needing large quantities of oxygen and was unable to fully inflate the lungs, this could lead to fainting. Hyperventilation for any reason could also potentially result in brief loss of consciousness.
Victorian fainting rooms are associated with a doubtful claim that they are part of the legacy of female containment where such rooms served as a deeply female space meant to force women to remain indoors and inactive under the guise of ensuring privacy, class, and interiority.
See also
Corset controversy
Social aspects of clothing
References
Victorian era
Rooms | wiki |
Indian tobacco may refer to:
Kinnikinnick, a smoking product made of mixture of leaves and bark
Lobelia inflata, a species of Lobelia native to eastern North America
Nicotiana quadrivalvis, a species of tobacco native to the Western United States | wiki |
Neurotic may refer to:
Neurosis, a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations
Neuroticism, a fundamental personality trait characterized by anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy and jealousy
The Newtown Neurotics, or simply The Neurotics, an English punk rock band
Neurotic (EP), an EP by the US punk band The Bouncing Souls | wiki |
Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development relating to the practice of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements since his work. The psychoanalytic theory came to full prominence in the last third of the twentieth century as part of the flow of critical discourse regarding psychological treatments after the 1960s, long after Freud's death in 1939. Freud had ceased his analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and shifted his focus to the study of the psyche, and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of transference. His study emphasized the recognition of childhood events that could influence the mental functioning of adults. His examination of the genetic and then the developmental aspects gave the psychoanalytic theory its characteristics. Starting with his publication of The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899, his theories began to gain prominence.
Definition
Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in English. The latter is the older term, and at first, simply meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche.' But with the emergence of psychoanalysis as a distinct clinical practice, both terms came to describe that. Although both are still used, today, the normal adjective is psychoanalytic.
Psychoanalysis is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as
A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Also: a system of psychological theory is associated with this method.
The beginnings
Freud began his studies on psychoanalysis in collaboration with Dr. Josef Breuer, most notably in relation to the case study of Anna O. Anna O. was subject to a number of psychosomatic disturbances, such as not being able to drink out of fear. Breuer and Freud found that hypnosis was a great help in discovering more about Anna O. and her treatment. Freud frequently referred to the study on Anna O. in his lectures on the origin and development of psychoanalysis.
Observations in the Anna O. case led Freud to theorize that the problems faced by hysterical patients could be associated with painful childhood experiences that could not be recalled. The influence of these lost memories shaped the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of patients. These studies contributed to the development of the psychoanalytic theory.
The unconscious
In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious mind consists of ideas and drives that have been subject to the mechanism of Repression: anxiety-producing impulses in childhood are barred from consciousness, but do not cease to exist, and exert a constant pressure in the direction of consciousness. However, the content of the unconscious is only knowable to consciousness through its representation in a disguised or distorted form, by way of dreams and neurotic symptoms, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes. The psychoanalyst seeks to interpret these conscious manifestations in order to understand the nature of the repressed. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather that which is actively repressed from conscious thought. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, anxiety-producing wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of consciousness by the mechanism of repression. Such unconscious mental processes can only be recognized through analysis of their effects in consciousness. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but they are capable of partially evading the censorship mechanism of repression in a disguised form, manifesting, for example, as dream elements or neurotic symptoms. Dreams and symptoms are supposed to be capable of being "interpreted" during psychoanalysis, with the help of methods such as free association, dream analysis, and analysis of verbal slips.
Personality structure
In Freud's model the psyche consists of three different elements, the id, ego, and the superego. The id is the aspect of personality that is driven by internal and basic drives and needs, such as hunger, thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. The id acts in accordance with the pleasure principle. Due to the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and unaware of the implications of actions. The superego is driven by the morality principle. It enforces the morality of social thought and action on an intrapsychic level. It employs morality, judging wrong and right and using guilt to discourage socially unacceptable behavior.
The ego is driven by the reality principle. The ego seeks to balance the conflicting aims of the id and superego, by trying to satisfy the id's drives in ways that are compatible with reality. The Ego is how we view ourselves: it is what we refer to as 'I' (Freud's word is the German ich, which simply means 'I').
Defense mechanisms
The ego balances demands of the id, the superego, and of reality to maintain a healthy state of consciousness, where there is only minimal intrapsychic conflict. It thus reacts to protect the individual from stressors and from anxiety by distorting internal or external reality to a lesser or greater extent. This prevents threatening unconscious thoughts and material from entering the consciousness. The ten different defence mechanisms initially enumerated by Anna Freud are: repression, regression, reaction formation, isolation of affect, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal into the opposite, and sublimation. In the same work, however, she details other manoeuvres such as identification with the aggressor and intellectualisation that would later come to be considered defence mechanisms in their own right. Furthermore, this list has been greatly expanded upon by other psychoanalysts, with some authors claiming to enumerate in excess of one hundred defence mechanisms.
Psychology theories
Psychosexual development
Freud's take on the development of the personality (psyche). It is a stage theory that believes progress occurs through stages as the libido is directed to different body parts. The different stages, listed in order of progression, are Oral, Anal, Phallic (Oedipus complex), Latency, Genital. The Genital stage is achieved if people meet all their needs throughout the other stages with enough available sexual energy. Individuals who don't have their needs met in a given stage become fixated, or "stuck" in that stage.
Neo-analytic theory
Freud's theory and work with psychosexual development led to Neo-Analytic/ Neo-Freudians who also believed in the importance of the unconscious, dream interpretations, defense mechanisms, and the integral influence of childhood experiences but had objections to the theory as well. They do not support the idea that development of the personality stops at age 6, instead, they believed development spreads across the lifespan. They extended Freud's work and encompassed more influence from the environment and the importance of conscious thought along with the unconscious. The most important theorists are Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), Anna Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney, and including the school of object relations. Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory is based on eight stages of development. The stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair. These are important to the psychoanalytic theory because it describes the different stages that people go through life. Each stage has a major impact on their life outcomes since they are going through conflicts at each stage and whichever route they decide to take, will have certain outcomes.
Criticisms
Some claim that the theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology. Other criticisms are that the theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on personality.
Psychoanalytic theory comes from Freud and is focused on childhood. This might be an issue since most believe studying children can be inconclusive. One major concern lies in if observed personality will be a lifelong occurrence or if the child will shed it later in life
Application to the arts and humanities
Psychoanalytic theory is a major influence in Continental philosophy and in aesthetics in particular. Freud is sometimes considered a philosopher. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, and the philosophers Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida, have written extensively on how psychoanalysis informs philosophical analysis.
When analyzing literary texts, the psychoanalytic theory could be utilized to decipher or interpret the concealed meaning within a text, or to better understand the author's intentions. Through the analysis of motives, Freud's theory can be used to help clarify the meaning of the writing as well as the actions of the characters within the text.
References
Further reading
Books
Brenner, C. (1973). An Elementary Textbook of Psychoanalysis – Revised edition. New York: International Universities Press.
Ellman, S. (2010). When Theories Touch: A Historical and Theoretical Integration of Psychoanalytic Thought. London: Karnac Books.
Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, J. B. (1974). The Language of Psycho-Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company,
Online papers
Benjamin, J. (1995). Recognition and destruction: An outline of intersubjectivity
Boesky, D. (2005). Psychoanalytic controversies contextualized
Boston Process of Change Study Group. (2005). The "something more" than interpretation
Brenner, C. (1992). The mind as conflict and compromise formation
Eagle, M. (1984). Developmental deficit versus dynamic conflict
Gill, M. (1984). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: A revision
Kernberg, O. (2000). Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and supportive psychotherapy: contemporary controversies
Mitchell, Stephen A. (1984). Object relations theories and the developmental tilt
Rubinstein, B. (1975). On the clinical psychoanalytic theory and its role in the inference and confirmation of particular clinical hypotheses
Schwartz, W. (2013) Essentials of Psychoanalytic Theory and Practice
Sprenger, Scott (2002) Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory
Others
Freud, Sigmund 1900, Interpretation of Dreams (Chapter 2). Standard Edition.
Grünbaum, Adolf 1986. Precis of Foundations of Psycho-Analysis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 : 217–284.
Greenberg, J. and Mitchell, S.A. (1983). Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory. Cambridge MASS and London: Harvard University Press.
Klein, Melanie 1932. Chapter 2, The Psychoanalysis of Children. In The Writings of Melanie Klein Volume 2. London: Hogarth Press.
Klein, Melanie (1935), A contribution to the psychogenesis of manic-depressive states, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 16: 145–74. Republished: Hogarth Press.
Bion, W. (1957), 'On Arrogance', in Second Thoughts. London: Heinemann, pp. 86–92, 161–6.
Benjamin, J. (1990). An Outline of Intersubjectivity: the development of recognition. Psychoanalytic Psychology 7S:33–46.
External links
PSY-LOG: Psychoanalytic Web Directory (in French, German and English)
René Major article on Foucault and psychoanalysis (in French)
The États Generaux de la psychanalyse, which was organized in part by Jacques Derrida and René Major (in French)
Critical psychology glossary
American Psychoanalytic Association's official website
Psychoanalysis – Techniques and Practice
Psychological theories
Freudian psychology
Theories of aesthetics
Continental philosophy | wiki |
WAP billing is a mechanism for consumers to buy content from Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) sites that is charged directly to their mobile phone bill. It is an alternative payment mechanism to debit or credit cards and premium SMS for billing. Using WAP billing, consumers can buy mobile content without registering for a service or entering a username or password. The user clicks on a link and agrees to make a purchase, after which they can download content.
WAP billing is particularly associated with downloading mobile entertainment content like ringtones, mobile games and wallpapers. Some commentators have suggested it could compete with Premium SMS as a leading payment channel for mobile content.
How WAP billing works
WAP billing works with WAP-enabled mobile phones over a GPRS or 3G wireless connection. The customer initiates a WAP session with the content service provider by browsing a WAP page, for example. The WAP site hoster obtains the visitor's MSISDN without the visitor having to register on a specific WAP gateway or service. This information is provided through integration with the operator's own MSISDN lookup service.
Consumers confirm a purchase by clicking on a 'confirm purchase' link on their mobile phone and the WAP billing platform informs the WAP application of the completed purchase transaction. Consumers are redirected to the content they have purchased. The purchases are recorded and billed directly via the mobile phone bill using the MSISDN.
Cross-operator WAP billing
Attempts have been made to create a single, cross-operator WAP billing platform that can support the purchase of products on any mobile network.
In other markets, like Ireland, WAP Billing is available across O2 and Vodafone mobile operators, via MSIDSN forwarding. WAP billing is only available to mobile aggregators operating in the Irish market on a case by case, business model basis, unlike the UK market.
Benefits of WAP billing
The benefits cited for WAP Billing include the ability to sell to minors who lack a credit card or bank account and an improved customer experience including 'Single click' purchases where transactions are completed without consumers having to send or receive a text message or remember shortcodes. It has been claimed that WAP Billing also reduces the possibility of fraud when paying for mobile content. Another benefit cited for WAP Billing is the assertion that users experience the same 'browse and buy' experience they are used to via their PC on the Internet.
Critique of WAP billing
WAP billing lacks transparency to the customer. The act of signing a contract, handing out money to a human, reading, understanding and writing or at least typing something and thus also indirectly proving that you are a legitimate customer is reduced to a single touch. Even a child or a pet that occasionally touches the screen may trigger a purchase. Often a customer doesn't notice that they've actually paid for something or bought a subscription, until they look at their phone bill afterwards.
To silently start billing with a single click is very inviting for malicious apps and malicious embedded ads. This misuse of WAP billing is a form of clickjacking.
Once triggered it is hard to stop or cancel a payment.
Normally there are three entities involved in the claim of the money:
Your mobile provider,
a payment gateway provider and finally
the 3rd party provider that offers its paid service.
Thus, the service is indirectly paid through your phone bill. This makes it more complicated to deny the payment or to claim your money back.
In 2013, the Federal Trade Commission settled with Jesta Digital LLC concerning unauthorized WAP billing charges.
See also
LEC billing
References
Computer security exploits
Cybercrime
Telecommunication services
Mobile telecommunications
Telecommunications infrastructure | wiki |
Hay varias comedias tituladas Anfitrión:
Anfitrión, del comediógrafo latino Plauto.
Anfitrión (1668), del francés Molière. | wiki |
The Grapes is a Grade II listed public house at 39 Fairfield Street, Wandsworth, London, England.
It was built in the early–mid-19th century.
References
External links
Pubs in the London Borough of Wandsworth
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Wandsworth
Grade II listed pubs in London | wiki |
Stedman may refer to:
Stedman (name)
Stedman, North Carolina
Stedman's Medical Dictionary
Stedman Machine Company
Battle of Fort Stedman
Stedman barb, a species of cyprinid fish native to India and Bangladesh
Stedman v United Kingdom, 1997 UK labour law case
Stedmans V&S, Canadian department store
Stedman, a popular method in Change ringing
See also
Steadman (disambiguation)
Steedman (disambiguation) | wiki |
This is a list of veal dishes, which use or may use veal as a primary ingredient. Veal is the meat of young calves, in contrast to the beef from older cattle. Though veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed, most veal comes from male calves. Generally, veal is more expensive than beef from older cattle.
Veal dishes
Blanquette de veau – a French ragout in which neither the veal nor the butter is browned in the cooking process
Bockwurst – a German sausage traditionally made from ground veal and pork
Bratwurst – a sausage usually composed of veal, pork or beef
Carpaccio – prepared using raw meat; veal is sometimes used
Cotoletta – is an Italian word for a breaded cutlet of veal
Hortobágyi palacsinta – a savory Hungarian pancake, filled with meat (usually veal)
Karađorđeva šnicla
Ossobuco
Pariser Schnitzel – prepared from a thin slice of veal, salted, dredged in flour and beaten eggs, and pan fried in clarified butter or lard
Veal
Piccata – a method of preparing food: meat is sliced, coated, sautéed, and served in a sauce. The dish originated in Italy using veal.
Ragout fin consists of veal, sweetbread, calf brain, tongue, and bone marrow, and chicken breast and fish
Vitello tonnato – a Piedmontese dish of cold, sliced veal covered with a creamy, mayonnaise-like sauce that has been flavored with tuna
Wallenbergare
Weisswurst – a traditional Bavarian sausage made from minced veal and pork back bacon
Wiener Schnitzel – a very thin, breaded and pan-fried cutlet made from veal, it is one of the best-known specialities of Viennese cuisine. The Wiener Schnitzel is the national dish of Austria.
Zürcher Geschnetzeltes
See also
List of beef dishes
Lists of prepared foods
References
Veal dishes | wiki |
Dwarf ebony is a common name for two closely related plants endemic to St Helena. It is inconsistently applied, and either of the following species may be referred to as dwarf ebony, with St Helena ebony used to refer to the other:
Trochetiopsis ebenus
Trochetiopsis melanoxylon | wiki |
A grand duchy is a country or territory whose official head of state or ruler is a monarch bearing the title of grand duke or grand duchess.
Relatively rare until the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the term was often used in the official name of countries smaller than most continental kingdoms of modern Europe (e.g., Hungary, Castile, England) yet larger than most of the sovereign duchies in the Holy Roman Empire (e.g. Anhalt, Lorraine, Modena, Schleswig-Holstein). Only two grand duchies existed during the Holy Roman Empire's tenure, both located in Imperial Italy: Tuscany (declared as such in 1569) and Savoy (in 1696). During the 19th century there were as many as 14 grand duchies in Europe at once (a few of which were first created as exclaves of the Napoleonic empire but later re-created, usually with different borders, under another dynasty). Some of these were sovereign and nominally independent (Baden, Hesse and by Rhine, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Saxe-Weimar and Tuscany), some sovereign but held in personal union with larger realms by a monarch whose grand-dukedom was borne as a subsidiary title (Finland, Luxembourg, Transylvania), some of which were client states of a more powerful realm (Cleves and Berg), and some whose territorial boundaries were nominal and the position purely titular (Frankfurt).
In the 21st century, only Luxembourg remains a grand duchy.
Luxembourg
The only grand duchy still extant is Luxembourg. It regained its independence from Napoleonic France and became a sovereign grand duchy in 1815 by decision of the Congress of Vienna which dealt with the political aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.
In order to act as a sufficient counterbalance to France, the Congress decided to grant the dignity of grand duke of Luxembourg to the monarch of the newly created United Kingdom of the Netherlands which comprised present-day Netherlands and Belgium. Luxembourg remained in personal union with the crown of the Netherlands until 1890 when William III, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, died without leaving a male heir. He was succeeded on the Dutch throne by his daughter Wilhelmina, but she could not become Grand Duchess of Luxembourg under the semi-Salic law established by the Congress of Vienna. In terms of the law, the grand ducal throne had to be passed to a male dynast. If there were no male heirs in a specific branch of the House of Nassau, the throne would go to the next in line from any of the other branches. This resulted in the title of grand duke being bestowed on a distant male cousin of William III, Adolphe, from the elder branch of Nassau-Weilburg (at present Luxembourg-Nassau). The current monarch is Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg since 2000.
Grand duchies of the past
The contemporary independent republics of Finland and Lithuania have been grand duchies during certain eras of their history.
The same is true for the core state of what would ultimately become the Russian Empire: the Grand Duchy of Muscovy.
History
The term "grand duchy" is of relatively late invention, used at first in Western Europe in 1569 in the case of Tuscany, to denote either territories of a particularly mighty duke or territories of significant importance in political, economical or military matters without being of sufficient size or importance to be recognized internationally as a kingdom.
The number of duchies had inflated towards the end of the Middle Ages to an extent that included middle-sized towns or relatively small fiefs, as compared to the national, pre-medieval tribal provinces. As a consequence, a new title was needed to make the difference between important and unimportant regional powers: the title grand duke was born.
One of the first examples was the unofficial use of the title for the dukes of Burgundy, who almost succeeded in forming a new kingdom in the historical region of Lotharingia. Collectively known as the Burgundian State in modern historiography, they held lands in modern-day eastern France (Burgundy, Franche-Comté, Alsatia, Lorraine, Champagne, Picardy and Nord-Pas-de-Calais) as well as most of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg and small parts of western Germany (Burgundian Netherlands). The first monarchy ever officially titled a "grand duchy" was the Medici sovereignty over Tuscany under suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperors, the first rulers receiving the title in 1569. Tuscany remained a grand duchy until 1860, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia which succeeded in establishing a united Kingdom of Italy.
In 1696, the Duchy of Savoy became the Grand Duchy of Savoy when its duke was promoted to grand duke by writ of the emperor. The title was considered a necessary bribe to keep Savoy aligned with the rest of the imperial states during the Nine Years War against France. From 1713, the primary title of the ruler of the Savoyard state became "king" instead (briefly of Sicily, then of Sardinia from 1720 onward).Peter Wilson. "Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire." Cambridge: 2016. Pages 227 and 445.
In the early nineteenth century, Napoléon I occasionally used the title "grand duchy" for several French satellite states given to his relatives or generals. Other allies abandoned the orbit of the Holy Roman Empire to join Napoleon's nominally independent Confederation of the Rhine. The elevation of these vassals to the title of grand duke was usually accompanied by an expansion of their realms with additional territory gathered at the expense of subdued powers such as Prussia. Though Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and most of his newly created satellite states abolished, the Congress of Vienna restored some of the previous sovereign duchies and principalities, while recognizing others as grand duchies. As a result, the 19th century saw the creation of a new group of grand duchies in central Europe, such as the grand duchies of Hesse, Baden and Oldenburg.
Historically, in Europe a sovereign grand duke was one of the highest ranks among hereditary rulers after emperor and king, and was equal to that of prince-elector; ranking as royalty, i.e., European rulers and, in Germany, the reigning nobility (). The correct form of address (also for the heir apparent and his wife) is Royal Highness (HRH).
The title of grand duke borne under the Russian Empire by children and grandchildren of its rulers was a non-sovereign honorific, unrelated to any grand duchy, to which was attached the style of Imperial Highness (HIH). Ranking, internationally, no higher than the members of other reigning dynasties whose head held the title of emperor, the usage was an historical anomaly, persisting from the elevation of the Grand Duchy of Muscovy to the tsardom and, later, empire of All Russia, until its collapse in 1917.
Associated titles
In several Balto-Slavic languages (such as Russian and Lithuanian), the term often translated into English as "grand duke" is literally grand prince. In some western European languages (English, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, etc.), the term "grand prince" was rare or non-existent, used to refer to some rulers of Russia, Transylvania or Tuscany prior to the 19th century. In German and Scandinavian languages, both titles co-exist: ("grand duke") and ("grand prince"). is specifically a monarchal title (as used, for example, by the imperial princes () of the Holy Roman Empire and retained by several of the smaller post-1815 German states' rulers, and still in use today by the Prince of Liechtenstein) and is distinct from , which is used for a member of the dynasty of a monarch; both are translated as "prince" in English.
Emerging from the Middle Ages, the rulers of Lithuania and of historic Russian states, as well as other Eastern European princes and later Russian dynasts, were referred to by the title (, ), whose literal English translation is "grand prince" rather than "grand duke". Although grand prince is found in historical references, since the reign of Catherine the Great, the Russian has usually been translated into English as "grand duke". Since the 18th century it has also been used to refer to cadets of the imperial House of Romanov who were children or patrilineal grandchildren of a Russian emperor. More remote descendants of emperors were titled "prince" (, ).
The Grand Duchy of Finland, a semi-autonomous region within the Russian Empire created in 1809, was referred to in Russian, Finnish and Swedish as a Grand Principality ( ; ; ); as above the Russian title (which was held by the Tsar) was ().
The title or "grand duke" () is said to have been used by the rulers of Lithuania, and after rulers from the Jagiellonian dynasty became Kings of Poland, it was found among the titles used by the rulers of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish kings of the Swedish House of Vasa also used this grand-princely title for their non-Polish territories.
On the other hand, the Habsburg (Austrian) is referred to as the Grand Principality of Transylvania in English rather than as a Grand Duchy, since its name/title derives directly from . Until the 18th century it had been simply referred to as in German and the Principality of Transylvania in English, much like the Danubian Principalities.
Junior members of the dynasties of historical grand duchies in Germany sometimes bore the style of Highness, sometimes that of Grand Ducal Highness, and continued to be accorded those styles post-monarchy by courtesy in such reference works as the Almanach de Gotha and Burke's Peerage.
List
Prior to the Napoleonic Wars, only two grand duchies (three if Lithuania is counted, as its title was officially translated as such) were recognized in Europe. Both were in Italy and both were elevated to that status by Holy Roman Emperors who were their nominal suzerains:
Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1569–1860, absorbed into the Kingdom of Italy afterwards)
Grand Duchy of Savoy (1696–1847, fused into the greater Kingdom of Sardinia, which was later absorbed into the Kingdom of Italy)
Other states whose names are translated as "grand duchy" in English were, properly, grand principalities:
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Ruthenian: Великое князство Литовське; established c. 1183/1236, in personal union with the Kingdom of Poland in 1386–1401, 1447–1492, and 1501–1795)
Grand Duchy of Finland (, , ; raised from duchy status, from to 1809 as part of the Swedish Empire; conquered by the Russian Empire and held 1809–1917 in personal union with Russia; became the independent Republic of Finland in 1917)
Grand Duchy of Moscow (Russian: )
Grand Duchy of Kiev (Ruthenian: Вели́ке Кня́зівство Київське)
Grand Duchy of Ryazan (Russian: )
Grand Duchy of Rus' (Ruthenian: Велике Князівство Руське)
Grand Principality of Transylvania (1765–1867) a realm of the Hungarian Crown and after 1804 an Austrian crown land.
The Napoleonic Wars saw several minor ducal titles so elevated, and between then and World War I there were many grand duchies in Europe. Some were created in the Napoleonic era, others were recognized by the Congress of Vienna and were founding members of the German Confederation.
Grand Duchy of Berg (1806–1813, absorbed into Prussia afterwards)
Grand Duchy of Würzburg (1806–1814, absorbed into Bavaria afterwards)
Grand Duchy of Baden (1806–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Hesse (1806–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Fulda (1816–1866) part of the Electorate of Hesse, annexed by Prussia 1866)
Grand Duchy of Frankfurt (1810–1813, part of several German states afterwards)
Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine (1815–1822 as part of Prussia)
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (from 1815 in personal union with the Netherlands until 1890. Extant independently)
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1815–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1815–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Posen (1815–1848 as a de facto part of Prussia (nominally ruled in a personal union), )
Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1815–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg (1829–1918, joined the German Empire in 1871)
Grand Duchy of Cracow (1846–1918 nominally a separate Austrian crown land, administered as part of Galicia and Lodomeria, )
The term "grand duchy" is often, but incorrectly, used in reference to Warsaw between 1807 and 1813, which was in fact the Duchy of Warsaw.
Metonymy
In Belgium and to some extent in France, Grand-Duché (French for "grand duchy") is often used as a metonym to refer to the neighbouring country, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. This practice helps to avoid confusion with the adjacent Belgian Province of Luxembourg, i.e. the Walloon-speaking part of the portion of Luxembourg which was annexed by Belgium in 1839.
See also
Archduke
Duchy
Grand principality
Herzog
References
External links
Monarchy
Dukedoms | wiki |
Csehország
Mírová, település a Karlovy Vary-i járásban
Mírová pod Kozákovem, település a Semilyi járásban | wiki |
The English Magpie is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. They can also be very easily spotted in England and in most parts of America. Magpies, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia). The original Magpie was one of the old tumbler varieties, coming via Germany from Denmark about 1900.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
References
Pigeon breeds
External Links
English Magpie Pigeon: Breed Guide Pigeonpedia | wiki |
Legend
List
References
External links
The Year Of The RPG? at GameInformer
The Best Role-Playing Games of 2012 at IGN
2012-13 | wiki |
This is a list of the Turkey national football team results from 2010 to 2019.
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Other unofficial games
Notes
Turkey national football team results | wiki |
The voiced uvular tap or flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages.
There is no dedicated symbol for this sound in the IPA. It can specified by adding a 'short' diacritic to the letter for the uvular plosive, , but normally it is covered by the unmodified letter for the uvular trill, , since the two have never been reported to contrast.
The uvular tap or flap is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.
More commonly, it is said to vary with the much more frequent uvular trill, and is most likely a single-contact trill rather than an actual tap or flap in these languages.
Features
Features of the voiced uvular tap or flap:
Occurrence
Notes
References
Uvular consonants
Tap and flap consonants
Pulmonic consonants
Oral consonants
Central consonants | wiki |
Sky Television may refer to:
Sky Group, a pan-European broadcasting company (formerly British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB))
Sky UK, a television and radio platform run by Sky Group
Sky Ireland, a satellite television service in Ireland run by Sky Group
Sky Deutschland, a satellite television service in Germany run by Sky Group
Sky Italia, an Italian digital satellite television service run by Sky Group
Sky Television (1984–1990), a four-channel network launched by Rupert Murdoch in 1984; merged with British Satellite Broadcasting to form BSkyB
Sky (New Zealand), a pay TV network in New Zealand
SKY Perfect JSAT Group
SKY PerfecTV!, in Japan
Sky México, in Mexico
SKY Brasil, in Brazil
Sky Turk 360, a Turkish television service
Sky (cable company), a Philippines television provider
See also
Skai TV, a Greek television network
Skynet (disambiguation), including some networks named Sky
Sky (disambiguation) | wiki |
Ireland Blyth Ltd. (IBL) is the largest business group in Mauritius with a turnover of over 16 billion Mauritian rupees (approx. US$467 million) as of 2015 listed on the Stock Exchange of Mauritius. It operates in Commerce, Engineering, Financial Services, Logistics, Aviation & Shipping, Retail, Seafood & Marine sectors under various names, representing over 200 brands and employs over 6,000 people
In 2008 the company was reported as the largest company in Mauritius per their net sales revenues.
History
It was incorporated in 1972 following the merger of two leading companies which had been trading in Mauritius since the early 19th Century, namely Blyth Brothers, founded in 1830 by James Blyth, and Ireland Fraser & Co. Ltd. Ireland Fraser & Co. Ltd was founded on the 1st July 1850 by George Ireland, Hugh Hunter and James Fraser. The original name was Hunter Ireland & Co., but when Hugh Hunter left the company in 1860, the name was changed to Ireland Fraser & Co. It became Ireland Fraser & Co. Ltd. in 1927.
In 1994 the group became a public company and was admitted to the official list of the Stock Exchange of Mauritius.
Notable subsidiaries
BrandActiv
Created in 2011 from the merger of IBL Consumer Goods and IBL Frozen Foods, BrandActiv is involved in the importation and distribution of consumer goods in Mauritius. Amongst more than 100 brands that it represents, international brands include L'Oréal, Kraft foods, Colgate Palmolive, Johnson & Johnson and H.J.Heinz.
The earliest predecessor of BrandActiv, Cold Storage (became New Cold Storage in 1970 and then IBL Frozen Foods in 1996) was the first importer of frozen meat in Mauritius from Australia in the 1900s.
Chantier Naval de l'Océan Indien
Chantier Naval de l'Océan Indien (CNOI), established in 2001, is involved in the construction, repair and maintenance (including dry-docking) of vessels in Port Louis.
It was founded as a joint venture between IBL and Chantier Piriou of Concarneau, France before IBL took a 60% controlling stake.
The shipyard's facilities include a covered building berth and slipway for the construction of vessels and vessel sections up to 50 metres long, a dry-dock (130 metres long, 27 metres wide), a ship elevator of 1400 tons and 350 metres of quays which can accommodate ships with a draft reaching up to 8.5 metres for repairs afloat.
Ships worked on by the company includes frigates of the French Navy to French and Spanish tunny boats, trawlers, small oil and gas tankers and yachts. Regular customers include the French Navy, which signed a contract for the maintenance and repair of its frigates and patrol ships operating in the Indian Ocean, Sapmer of Reunion island and Austral Fisheries of Australia.
Notable construction projects include a 35-metre patrol ship for Madagascar, a 39-metre barge for Mayotte, and a trawler and a long-liner for Reunion. CNOI also enlarged an Australian fishing boat by 8 metres.
Winner's supermarkets
Winner's is an integrated chain of 20 supermarkets established in 1994 operating in the retail segment of the group. Its turnover of MUR 5.5 billion represented 35% of the turnover of the group in 2015. IBL took 100% stake in the company (from its previous 51%) in 2015.
Scomat
Scomat operates in the engineering segment of the group and provides products and professional services in the field of earthmoving and agricultural equipment, generators, uninterruptible power supply, hydraulics & diesel.
It is also a dealership for Caterpillar in Mauritius, the agreement dating to 1929 between Caterpillar and one of IBL's predecessor, Blyth Brothers.
Mauritian Eagle Insurance Company Limited
Mauritian Eagle Insurance Company Limited (SEM: MEI) is a provider of personal and commercial insurance. It was created in 1973 as a joint venture between Ireland Blyth Limited and South African Eagle Insurance Company Limited (now part of the Zurich Group) and listed on the Stock Exchange of Mauritius in 1993.
In 2007, the company became the first in the Indian Ocean (and in Mauritius) to obtain the ISO 27001 certification relating to information security.
See also
Economy of Mauritius
List of Mauritian companies
References
Conglomerate companies of Mauritius
Companies based in Port Louis | wiki |
The Young Learners Tests of English (YLTE) are a set of English language tests for learners in primary and middle grades. The tests are developed by CaMLA, a not-for-profit collaboration between the University of Michigan and the University of Cambridge.
The tests cover all four language skills: listening, reading, writing and speaking. They focus on American English and are available at three levels: Bronze (beginner), Silver and Gold (early intermediate).
Test format
The YLTE is a pen-and-paper test.
The Bronze, Silver and Gold tests all have three test sections:
Listening
Reading and writing
Speaking
The printed test booklets use American English spellings and vocabulary. However, both British and American English are accepted in the student's written answers and in the speaking test.
Bronze
The YLTE Bronze test has the following test sections:
Silver
The YLTE Silver test has the following test sections:
Gold
The YLTE Gold test has the following test sections:
Scoring
There is no pass/fail score. All test takers receive a certificate, which has the following information:
A score for each section of the test (maximum score of 5 medals per section)
A total score (maximum score of 15 medals).
Students who achieve a total of 10 medals or more are ready to start preparing for the next level.
Usage
The YLTE are designed to be used as a way to prepare students for future English-language learning and help them develop their English skills, rather than as an institutional measurement device.
The YLTE is taken by students living in many different countries around the world, such as: Afghanistan, Albania, Brazil, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Colombia, Greece, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Malaysia, Mexico (Ministry of Education), Peru, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Spain, Ukraine, Uruguay and USA.
Preparation
Free practice tests, answer keys and student instructions are available on the official website, along with links to other practice materials.
See also
CaMLA
CaMLA English Placement Test (EPT)
Examination for the Certificate of Competency in English (ECCE)
Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English (ECPE)
MTELP Series
Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB)
Michigan English Test (MET)
Cambridge English Language Assessment
English as a Foreign or Second Language
References
External links
Official website
ESOL
CaMLA assessments
English-language education
English as a second or foreign language
Standardized tests for English language | wiki |
The Turbit is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Turbits, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia).
The breed is known for its peaked crest, short beak and frill of feathers on its breast.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
References
Pigeon breeds
External links
Turbit Pigeon: Breed Guide - Pigeonpedia | wiki |
Weird Worlds can refer to:
Weird Worlds (comics), a science fiction anthology by DC Comics.
Weird Worlds, a series of magazines put out by Scholastic Publishing in the late 1970s/early 1980s.
Weird Worlds: Return to Infinite Space, a science fiction computer game unrelated to the aforementioned comics. | wiki |
The Devon Rex is a tall-eared, short-haired breed of cat that emerged in England during the late 1950s. They are known for their slender bodies, wavy coat, and large ears. This breed of cat is capable of learning difficult tricks but can be hard to motivate.
Breed history
The Devon Rex is a breed of cat with a curly, very soft short coat similar to that of the Cornish Rex. They are often thought of as one of the most hypoallergenic cats available because of their type of coat. However, they are technically not hypoallergenic.
The first Devon was discovered by Beryl Cox in Buckfastleigh, Devon, UK, in 1959. The breed was initially thought to be linked with the Cornish Rex; however, test mating proved otherwise.
Appearance
Hair
Cats have three types of hair: guard hair, awn hair, and down hair. The Devon Rex's coat is unusual because there is little guard hair.
The curl in Devon Rex fur is caused by a different mutation and gene than that of the Cornish Rex and German Rex, and breeding of a Devon with either of those cats results in cats without rexed (curled) fur. Devons, which are medium-sized cats, are often called "pixie cats" because of their unique appearance.
Other characteristics
Their uncommonly large, slightly rounded ears are set low on the sides of their wide heads, their eyes are large, and their noses are slightly upturned. Unlike most cats, their whiskers are very short and often curled to such an extent that it may appear as if they have no whiskers. Their body type is distinctly lightly built. Their long, sturdy legs are well suited for long leaps, and their toes are unusually large.
Many Devon rex cats also have hereditary myopathy, which is caused by a genetic variant known as COLQ and it appears anytime from 3 to 23 weeks of age. Typically, there is a chance that the myopathy in the cats might stabilize, however, most of the time, the condition worsens and the Devon rex cats die from laryngospasm, after obstructing their larynx with food.
Personality
The typical Devon is active, mischievous, playful, and very people-oriented. They have been described as a cross between a cat, a dog and a monkey (or, more famously, as "a monkey in a cat suit"). They are high-jumpers and will try to occupy any space large enough to admit them. With this trait, they are often found in odd nooks and crannies of a closet, shelf, or laundry basket. Devons prefer to be in high places and will go to great lengths to get to the highest spot in a room. They are relatively easy to take care of. Most Devons also have one central person to whom they devote their love, and on whom they will most often lie and rub. They like to playfully nip, and love to play throughout their lives.
They are a very intelligent breed; the typical Devon Rex can be trained to walk on a leash, fetch or perform all manner of tricks usually associated with canines, like jump, heel and tag to name a few.
Another common trait is their show of affection: they have a particular penchant for being close to the head or neck of their human companions and can often be found mounted upon one's shoulder or nestled into the cranny created by the neck and shoulder when one is prone. The Devon Rex is a faithful companion and will usually follow the object of their affection from room to room, waiting for the opportunity to leap onto their arms, lap, or shoulder.
Gallery
See also
Cornish Rex
German Rex
Selkirk Rex
LaPerm
Sphynx cat
References
Science and technology in Devon
Rex cat breeds
Cat breeds originating in England
Cat breeds | wiki |
Portable Character Set is a set of 103 characters which, according to the POSIX standard, must be present in any character set. Compared to ASCII, the Portable Character Set lacks some control characters, and does not prescribe any particular value encoding.
The Portable Character Set is a superset of the Basic Execution Character Set as defined by ANSI C.
References
Character sets
POSIX | wiki |
This is a list of characters in the CBS television drama Cold Case.
Main characters
Lilly Rush
Lillian "Lilly" Rush was known as the only female homicide detective in Philadelphia, until the later arrival of Lennie Desalle, then Josie Sutton, and finally Kat Miller. She specialized in working cold cases alongside her partner, Scotty Valens.<ref name="LoBrutto">Vincent LoBrutto, TV in the USA: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas(2018), p. 170.</ref> According to Lilly, "People shouldn't be forgotten, even if they're my kind of people. Maybe, they don't have a lot of money, they don't have lawyers, but they matter".
Lilly was raised on welfare by an alcoholic mother, Ellen Rush, who often neglected her. Her father, Paul Cooper, left the family when Lilly was six. Lilly was left to fend for herself and care for her younger sister, Christina Rush. The family lived in Kensington, a rough part of Philadelphia.
At the age of ten, Lilly had been sent out late at night by her mother to buy alcohol, and a man brutally attacked and robbed her. Suffering a broken jaw, among other injuries, young Lilly was nursed by Ray Williams. The detective that apprehended the man that attacked Lilly was Lt. John Stillman. Lt Stillman became a mentor and father figure after capturing her attacker when she was a child. After joining the police force, Stillman followed her career and chose her for Homicide when she passed her detective exam ("The Long Blue Line"/"Into the Blue").
As a child Lilly would have nightmares so her mother would read to her The Velveteen Rabbit.
Lilly has a contentious relationship with her sister. At the end of season seven, after rescuing her sister ("Shattered") Lilly discovers that she is now an aunt to Christina's baby daughter.
Her first homicide investigation was in 1999. The victim was Vaughn Bubley.
Shortly after Lilly's change from on-the-line jobs to cold cases, her partner, Chris Lassing, transfers out because of his diabetic condition, leading to Scotty being promoted to Homicide and becoming Lilly's partner.
She thinks rationally but at the same time she also has the necessary compassion to deal appropriately with victims and their families. While cold and unyielding with criminals and suspects, she can be devoted to a fault in her concern for the suffered close ones of the victims. In the last episode of the first season ("Lovers Lane'') she is visited at her home at three o'clock in the morning by the distressed partner of a victim. While her romantic interest is waiting for her in the apartment, she takes time to comfort the man. As a result, her romantic partner breaks up with her, pointing out her too strong devotion to help other people as a reason.
Lilly solves the most difficult cases in order to seek the truth after all these years in hopes of giving the victim's family and the victims themselves, justice. She often works long hours on these cases. Because of this, her relationships with men are relatively shaky and her family can best be described as dysfunctional.
One of Lilly's most challenging cases was that of a serial killer who stalked his victims like wild animals. One of the victim's bodies from 1985, Janet Lambert, is found by hikers in a wildlife preserve. The investigation quickly leads Lilly and the cold case squad to the grisly discovery of 8 more decapitated bodies. Soon, suspicion falls on George Marks, who gets brought into the interview room. During interrogation, he manages to get most of the team members agitated until Lilly is finally brought in to get George to confess to these gruesome murders. Instead, George hints about Lilly's dark secret as being the real reason why she became a cop. By this, he was referring to her being attacked as a child, which she rarely discussed. Months later, when Lilly finally confronted George with evidence that he murdered not only the victims from their previous encounter, but his own mother as well, George forced Lilly into reliving her attack before their shootout, which ended his life.
In 2007, shortly after the death of her mother Ellen Rush, Lilly interviewed a victim, Kim Jacobi, only to be ambushed by the person who had murdered Kim's family the year before. The entire Homicide department was held hostage for a short time, with Detectives Scotty Valens and Kat Miller outside the building and under orders from the SWAT team not to break their perimeter. Scotty broke this order and approached Lilly's location in an observation room, where she was attempting to negotiate with the killer. Using a code word they had established that morning, Scotty shot the killer from the blind side of a two-way mirror in the interview room, but not before he shot Lilly in the chest. While undergoing surgery, Lilly apparently sees her late mother before her. She eventually recovers in time to convince John Stillman to reopen the Jack Raymes case, and credits Scotty for saving her life.
In May 2009, while working on the Kate Butler Case, Lilly is involved in a car accident in which her vehicle was pushed off a bridge and into the river forty feet below.
However, later on, Lilly begins stalking Moe Kitchner, who is responsible for the accident. He is eventually killed by the victim's father.
Months later, the FBI is trying to recruit her.
Scotty Valens
Detective Scotty Valens is a Philadelphia homicide detective and Lilly Rush's partner. He transferred to Homicide from West Detectives in the fall of 2003, replacing Lilly's first partner Chris Lassing. Young, cocky, and full of himself at first, he nonetheless quickly earned the rest of the squad's respect. He appeared on a crossover episode of CSI: NY'' called "Cold Reveal".
Son of a Cuban father, Ramiro, and a Puerto Rican mother, Rosa. Episode 1.16, "Volunteers", states he was born some time in the 1970s, likely making him the youngest detective in the squad (with the possible exception of Kat Miller). It was further revealed in the 2005 episode "The Promise" that he was 28 when he transferred to Homicide, giving him a birth date sometime in 1975. Scotty is mentioned as having a number of siblings though only one, his older brother Mike, has appeared on the show.
Scotty's Granddad had ALS. He used to be a boxer, but at the end he couldn't even hold up a spoon. He suffered for weeks before he died. Scotty went to soccer camp as a kid. As a kid his late girlfriend Elisa lived 6 blocks away from Scotty. Has stated he had a girlfriend that bit her nails and it drove him crazy.
He has been shown to have a short temper at times, but is a very loyal partner to Lilly. Like Lilly, he also has difficulty with personal relationships.
In the second season, his girlfriend, Elisa dies. Her death is ruled as a suicide, as she has suffered from schizophrenia, but Scotty does not believe this, as Elisa had been afraid of heights, and would be unlikely to jump off a bridge on her own. He later had an intimate relationship with Lilly's sister Christina, which severely strained his friendship with Lilly for its duration, and he may still have a soft spot for Christina. He also had a brief affair with ADA Thomas in season five as well as another fellow officer but stopped it when her husband confronted him about their relationship.
Scotty's rogue attitude has worked against him more than once. In the episode "Offender", he identified a suspect to a vigilante father that allowed the father to find and nearly kill said suspect. In the season four finale, during a hostage situation in the police squad room, he disobeys a S.W.A.T. commanders' orders and enters the building. He ends up shooting the gunman, drawing the interest of Internal Affairs, who question whether or not the shooting followed protocol (as well as bringing up the Burrell case). They ordered Scotty to take a month's unpaid leave as punishment, but Lt. John Stillman overruled them, taking the leave for himself in order to ensure Scotty stayed on the force.
In season seven, Scotty learns his mother was assaulted, but she refuses to say more or even press charges. Investigating on his own, Scotty realizes his mother was actually raped and goes on a personal quest to find the perpetrator.
John Stillman
Lieutenant John Stillman is the Chief of the Homicide Division in Philadelphia also the Commander of the Cold Case Squad.
A Vietnam combat veteran with some war-era stress as seen in the episode "Honor" he has shown himself to be stern but caring boss. His daughter was once assaulted, but survived and gave him a grandson. Due to his commitment to the job, his marriage was very strained and finally ended in divorce. He is an Irish-American (as is John Finn, the actor who portrays him). His older brother is a Catholic priest.
When he was young detective, Stillman worked the case of the assault of a ten-year-old Lilly Rush. He found the man who attacked. Lt Stillman became a mentor and father figure after capturing her attacker when she was a child. After joining the police force, Stillman followed her career and chose her for Homicide when she passed her detective exam. ("The Long Blue Line" / "Into the Blue")
The squad commander and occasionally a mentor and confidant to Lilly. In the fifth season (beginning in September 2007), he took the month's unpaid leave meant for Scotty Valens, in order to keep him on the force. Stillman, having reflected on his place in the police force during his suspension, later decided to retire, though later was inspired to return to duty when Lilly convinced him to help in a case ("Family 8108").
Will Jeffries
Will Jeffries is a veteran police officer and the most senior detective in the Philadelphia Police Department's Homicide unit.
His childhood home life was suggested to be an abusive one, however, he was a talented football player until he injured his knee senior year, putting an end to any hope of playing professionally. At sixteen, he was caught stealing by store owner Henry "Pops" Walters, who put him to work in his store as penance. Pops would help Jeffries put his life on a better track.
On November 22, 1963, Jeffries was playing touch football at recess when he found out President John F. Kennedy had been assassinated.
Will is a country music fan, even working as a radio DJ in college. Will was married to Mary Jeffries for several years. He would later recall they had some difficulty after he returned from Vietnam.
Mary was killed in a hit and run in 1995 while changing a tire on the road. Ever since this, he has become very involved in Road Safety. He was told who the prime suspect was in his wife’s death. On that night – exactly nine years after losing his wife, he went to find the man, Isaac Keller. He dragged the man outside an empty bar and held his gun to the man’s head. He forced the man to tell him exactly why he did it and said that he had no right to live. He then realised that this wasn't the right way out and left the scene.
He has been investigating cold cases for many years, and especially enjoys tending to those cases where the black community has become the victims. One case especially stands out for him. When he was just a young boy, he stumbled across the body of Zeke Williams. But as time back then had it, he could not tell anyone as this would automatically make him the prime suspect, and being a black man, he had tough racial discrimination against him. The case went unsolved for 42 years, until one day, Will decided to open the case again, and soon it was solved for good.
Will is second in charge of the squad and takes this responsibility very seriously. He has had a number of opportunities to show his true colours. This has caused a few problems however. In one particular case, with Will in charge, the team disagreed with each other quite a lot. He was forced to get to know each team member. He knew who was better at what kind of job and who got along with whom. This not only helps him, but, in the long run, it helps the whole team.
He is very close to Lt. John Stillman. They have worked together for a long time. He has also befriended Det. Nick Vera. The two are partners for most of the time.
Overall, Will is a shy person. He still has not removed his wedding ring. Det. Vera and Valens have often urged him to get out into the dating world again, but he refuses every time. He was happy with his wife, and he does not want to lose her loving memory. However, over the last few cases, he has had a few women after him. He is quite confused over this, but is willing to see where this will go. He feels very uncomfortable when Nick questions him about this, and denies that it is a date – almost as though it is the wrong thing to do.
Detective Will Jeffries takes the law very seriously. He will do everything in his power to put the culprit behind bars. When working on one particular case, Will became so angry with ADA William Danner, who had wrongfully prosecuted Andre Tibbs, consigning him to death row, that he punched him in the face.
Nick Vera
Detective Nick Vera is a Philadelphia homicide detective and part of the cold case squad. Nick Vera was born in the late 1960s. In 1989, Vera joined the police department and was first posted to the 9th District. By 1998, Vera had made detective.
Chris Lassing
Chris Lassing was Lilly Rush's partner until the fall of 2003. Nicknamed 'Lass' by Lilly, he was a competent, hard-working detective but never quite shared Lilly's passion for cold cases. A smoker, he was also married and therefore wasn't fond of the long hours Lilly insisted on putting in. He later transferred out due to problems with diabetes. He was replaced by Scotty Valens, several weeks later.
Lassing appeared only in the first, second, and fourth episodes.
Kat Miller
Kat Miller is the fourth female homicide detective in Philadelphia, after Lilly Rush and brief stints by Lennie Desalle and Josie Sutton. She joined the squad in the fall of 2005.
Recurring characters
Detective Josie Sutton (Sarah Brown) (Season 3) is a second generation cop, her father having been killed in a line of duty when she was a child. She joined the squad at the start of the third season, following rumors of an affair with her sergeant at another precinct (rumors which proved to be false). This incident left her with something of a reputation which led to a less than warm welcome when she arrived, particularly from Vera. She tended to be hard on witnesses and suspects more often than the other detectives. Her time with the squad was no more than a few months, after which she took a personal leave and then apparently transferred out. This may have been caused by Scotty's advances, and her discomfort after the scandal with her former sergeant.
Detective Lennie Desalle (Sonya Leslie) (Season 2) was the second female homicide detective in Philadelphia, after Lilly Rush. She joined the squad in the spring of 2005. She was called to the scene when the skulls of nine women were found buried in the back yard of a house formerly owned by Simone Marks (Episode: "The Woods"). Lennie was part of the investigation into the murder of Simone, who was killed in the house in 1972, as well as the manhunt for George, who was still at large. After George was killed in a stand-off with Lilly, Lennie took down the pictures and information that the detectives had posted on George's victims. In the episode "Torn", Lilly said there were two female Homicide detectives (herself and Miller), suggesting Lennie was no longer in Homicide at that point.
Christina Rush (Nicki Aycox) (Seasons 2, 7) is Lilly's rebellious and irresponsible younger sister, who has long had a difficult relationship with Lilly. Christina becomes involved with Lilly's partner Scotty Valens against Lilly's wishes. Lilly still shows concern for her sister but is often frustrated by Christina's irresponsible behavior. It is revealed that the Christina ruined her relationship with Lilly when she slept with her fiance, Patrick. Something she tells Scotty very vaguely but still upsets Lilly to even hear him brought up. After Scotty learned she was linked to a credit card scam, Christina abruptly left without saying goodbye to him or Lilly and did not return until Season 7. She wanted Lily to co-sign a home rental agreement, but Lilly refused because she didn't trust her sister. Christina was revealed to be involved with a prescription drug fraud ring, and the leader of the ring was the father of her baby daughter. He later abducted her on suspicion she was informing Lilly about the group (she wasn't) but Lilly rescued her and her daughter and took down the ring's leader and his sidekick.
Ellen Rush (Meredith Baxter) (Seasons 3-4) is Lilly and Christina's alcoholic mother, who raised her children on welfare and often neglected them due to her drinking and promiscuity. She was first seen apparently sober in Season Three when she asked Lilly to be her Maid of Honor as she was getting married - for the fourth time. One year later, her husband had left her and Lilly was left to bail her out of jail after a particularly bad bender and then take care of her after she was diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver due to years of alcohol abuse. Despite all this, Lilly and her mom bonded during what little time they had together before Ellen's sudden death in the Season Four finale.
Paul Cooper (Raymond J. Barry) (Seasons 6-7) is Lilly's father, who left the family when Lilly was six because of a toxic relationship with Lilly's mother and probably her drinking habit. He remarried to a woman named Celeste and relocated to Haddonfield, New Jersey, where he was an avid chess player. He and Celeste had two children, Maggie and Finn. Lilly only reconnected with Paul in season six (episode 06.11, "Wings"), though the two discussed several letters Paul sent to Lilly when she was sixteen. Paul carried a lot of guilt for leaving her, though he believed leaving her mother was the right thing to do because "some people just shouldn't stay together." In a letter to his daughter Paul admitted that he, like his ex-wife, was an alcoholic. Lilly agreed to meet Paul's family - her stepmother and half-siblings - but used work as an excuse to get out of it several times, whether she was actually working or not. When she finally did join the family for dinner, Celeste made it clear that she wanted Lilly and Paul to stop all the drama because, no matter how they all came together, they were family. Neither Paul nor Lilly brought up Christina in conversation, implying he was not Christina's father. In episode 07.21, "Almost Paradise", Lilly entered Paul's home to find Christina in the kitchen with him. Lilly stormed out but later met with Christina at a diner. Whether Paul is Christina's father or not, the two rarely talk.
Finn Cooper (Brett Davern) (Season 7) is Paul's teenage son and Lilly's half-brother. Sometime after learning of Lilly's existence, he got himself arrested on a drunk and disorderly conduct charge in order to be taken to where she worked. Lilly told him there were easier ways if he wanted to see her and the two apparently began meeting soon after, with Lilly telling him more about their father's past. Months later, Finn stole Paul's car and ran away to Atlantic City after the two had an argument. Lilly would later help Paul find Finn, at which point Finn announced his intention to become a cop like her, rather than going to college.
Moe Kitchener (Daniel Baldwin) (Seasons 6-7) was an instructor at the Pennsylvania Military Institute in 2005, when female student Kate Butler was murdered by a fellow cadet. Moe assisted in covering up the crime by burying her body in Philly. When her remains were found four years later, Moe again tried to cover up the crime by running Lilly's car off a bridge. Lilly survived, however, and Moe was arrested. Lilly was later outraged when Moe was granted bail shortly thereafter, and began to wage a campaign of retaliation against Moe. Using her influence as a cop, she prevented him from obtaining a loan after he was dismissed from P.M.I., she had traffic officers place a boot on his car, and arranged to have him arrested on a DUI charge. Moe was later found dead in his car from a gunshot to the head. Lilly was questioned about the murder until Hank Butler, Kate's father, confessed to shooting Moe for his role in covering up his daughter's murder.
Deputy Commissioner Pat Doherty (Keith Szarabajka) (Seasons 6-7) is A high-ranking, political-minded police officer in the pocket of corrupt city councilman Grover Boone. Doherty freely admitted to never liking Stillman, but it wasn't until Stillman questioned Boone about the murder of a man who'd run against him, that Stillman truly earned Doherty's enmity. Doherty retaliated by having his former driver (now an officer in Internal Affairs) follow Jeffries to investigate evidence of Jeffries accepting bribes. Stillman learned of this investigation after Jeffries was shot, but later presented evidence to Doherty that cleared his name. He also warned Doherty, that he would "beat the ever-loving crap" out of Doherty, should he ever make trouble for someone under Stillman's command again. Months later Homcide was placed under Doherty's authority, bringing it, and Stillman, even further under his scrutiny. In Jurisprudence, Doherty ordered Stillman to back off an off-the-books investigation into the death of a teenager held in dormitory for fear of department fallout. Because Stillman refused to back down, Doherty pulled rank and forced a transfer on Detective Kat Miller removing Miller from Stillman's unit. Stillman managed to pull some strings with of the Department brass and get Miller reinstated to Homicide a few weeks later, however. It is later revealed that Doherty's dislike of Stillman was based on having arrested Doherty's son Matt on a drug charge years earlier. After Matt reformed, got married and became a father, Doherty acknowledged that the arrest had changed his son for the better, and eased up on Stillman. Sadly, months later, Matt was found to be an accessory to the death of a young woman in the Badlands in 1993, and that Doherty, fearing his son may have been involved, had suppressed evidence. Matt later confessed while Doherty was forced to answer for his actions to his superiors. What punishment he faced is unclear.
Joseph Shaw (Kenny Johnson) (Seasons 3-4) is a counselor who worked with troubled youths, an attempt was made on his life just before he was about to testify after he witnessed a murder. After he was presumed dead, Joseph went into hiding until Lilly discovered him alive a year later. The two began a relationship, though it was hindered by Lilly's trust issues (as well as the return of her ex, Ray Williams, into her life). Joseph eventually realized Lilly couldn't love him the way he loved her and ended their relationship.
Ray Williams (Brennan Elliott) (Season 4) is a biker who had been involved with Lilly in the past, even having asked her to marry him at one point. He re-entered her life twice on the show, once while she was dating Joseph, which led to some friction between the two. When last seen, he told her he was leaving for California.
Dr. Frannie Ching (Susan Chuang) (Seasons 1-4) is a medical examiner who helped the squad in some cases. She joins to the crime lab replacing Dr. Barnsley. Although the victims have died several years ago, she is able to examine the dead bodies and find new evidence. In the episode "Baby Blues", she asked for the detectives to reopen the case of Iris Felice.
Louie Amante (Doug Spinuzza) (Seasons 1, 4-5, 7) is a CSI who usually works with the squad on cases involving fire or explosives. Several of the squad attended Louie's wedding in 2010, where they investigated the mysterious death of the bride's former fiancee two years earlier. Suspicion passed between the bride, members of her family, and even Louie himself, before the death was found to be a suicide.
ADA Jason Kite (Josh Hopkins) (Seasons 1-2, 3) is a persistent Assistant DA who was involved in a short-lived relationship with Lilly in the first season, which ended after he realized he would always come second to her job. He only appeared in one more episode after breaking it off with her. After a few drinks in the third season, Lilly left a message on Kite's voice-mail taking responsibility for the failure of their relationship.
ADA Alexandra Thomas (Bonnie Root) (Seasons 4-5) is an assistant DA who worked with the squad. She first came to their attention when she prosecuted a pedophile whose victims had included Scotty's brother. She and Scotty have clashed several times, largely due to Thomas being concerned with "the big picture" whereas Scotty is more concerned with individual victims. There had been hints of sexual tension between the two for some time, however, finally culminating in the two having an affair during the fifth season. Their relationship took a turn for the worse when her office disclosed that a serial bomber's intended target had survived, which led to another bomb which nearly killed the man's wife and daughter. Scotty blamed Thomas for this and she hasn't been seen on the show since. Given that Scotty started dating Frankie Lafferty months later, it's safe to say her relationship with Scotty is over.
ADA Curtis Bell (Jonathan LaPaglia) (Seasons 6-7) is an assistant DA who first assisted the squad with the murder of a promising politician. Bell often appears disorganized and forgetful, leading both detectives and suspects to underestimate him, until he surprises them with effective and timely information. In episode 6.15 "Witness Protection", he gives Miller very important information that helps to solve the case. In episode 6.17 "Officer Down", we learn his dad was a cop who was killed in the line of duty and in episode 6.18 "Mind Games", we learn he has a daughter and a difficult relationship with his ex-wife. In the sixth season finale, he asks Miller out and she accepts. The two begin a quiet relationship over the next several months. Bell is a single father of a young daughter and has had some custody issues with his ex (whom he refers to as "the soul-crusher"). Bell tends to socialize with the squad far more than Kite or Thomas did. His relationship with Miller deteriorates for a time due to their differing views on Miller's own custody battle with her ex, but they eventually reconcile.
Frankie Rafferty (Tania Raymonde) (Season 6) is a lab technician who works in the identification unit and begins flirting with Scotty when he stops by one day regarding a case. The two quickly start dating, however Frankie never tells Scotty she is married. Her husband Billy, from whom she is separated, finds out about Scotty and leaves harassing phone calls and even vandalizes his car, not knowing Scotty is a cop. Though Scotty is understandably upset with Frankie for not telling him about Billy, the two start to get past it, until Frankie decides to try and work things out with her husband, instead. Frankie and Billy eventually divorce, but Scotty is reluctant to try again with Frankie, suggesting things between them may be over for good.
Detective Eddie Saccardo (Bobby Cannavale) (Seasons 5-6, 7) is an uncouth but effective cop working Undercover, Saccardo first assisted the squad in investigating the murder of a reformed ex-convict. The rest of the squad grew to like Eddie, with the exception of Lilly, who seemed put off at every turn. Tensions eased slightly between the two of them weeks later, however, when they worked together to find a young woman's lost son. They later began dating for a few episodes, until he had to leave for a long term assignment. He met up with Lilly the following year while still undercover and the two rekindled their relationship. His undercover work meant any type of long-term relationship was impossible, however, and Lilly would be drawn towards FBI agent Ryan Cavanaugh months later. However, not much came from her attraction towards Ryan, but neither he nor Eddie are mentioned again near the series finale.
Detective Gil Sherman (Kevin McCorkle) (Seasons 1, 2, 3) is the Head of the Fugitive Squad. Formerly worked Homicide with Lt. Stillman. After hiding years of alcoholism through the late 1980s to mid 1990s, he left Homicide to enter rehab. Sherman shows up when a fugitive case intersects with a cold case investigation or to provide information on a case he previously worked on.
Detective Anna Mayes (Robin Weigert) (Seasons 1, 2, 3) is an old friend and colleague of Scotty's from West Detectives, Anna has assisted the squad on a few cases. She also had to deliver the bad news when the body of Elisa, Scotty's girlfriend, was found in the Schuylkill River.
Detective Pierson (James Hanlon) (Season 7) is a detective investigating the assault of several women in the seventh season. When evidence suggested Scotty's mother (see below) was one of the victims, Pierson quietly provided Scotty with information on the case.
Toni Halstead (Sonja Sohn) (Season 4-5) is an African-American nurse and single mother of teenage Andre, both of whom are neighbors to Vera. Their paths first crossed in a dispute over the noise from Andre's playing basketball outside Vera's apartment. After making peace, Vera began dating Toni and started to become a father figure to Andre. Toni broke things off after Vera's long working hours left little time for Andre, but a chance encounter led to the two of them rekindling their relationship. A later episode suggested Vera has since been cutting back on his long working hours to spend more time with them. Toni was not seen again after she and Vera reconciled. A later episode established that although she eventually moved in with Vera, things didn't work out and Vera eventually had to find a new place to live.
Andre Halstead (Oren Williams) (Season 4) is Toni Halstead's son who first meet Nick Vera when he was playing basketball outside Vera's apartment.
Elisa (Marisol Nichols) (Season 1) was Scotty's girlfriend during the first and early second season. She had some emotional problems and in an apparent suicide she would die. Scotty refused at first to believe it was a suicide, jumping on any alternate explanation, however unlikely, but Elisa's suicide appears to have been just that.
Mike Valens (Nestor Carbonell) (Season 4) is Scotty's older brother, he was sexually assaulted by a coach as a child. He initially denied the incident had occurred but eventually, after a bout of depression, agreed to testify against the coach when Scotty convinced him to do so. Young Mike was played by Lorenzo James Henrie.
Ramiro Valens (Ismael 'East' Carlo) (Season 7) is Scotty's father. He approached his son for help after Rosa was injured in a purse-snatching.
Rosa Valens (Terri Hoyos) (Season 7) is Scotty's mother who was victim of a robbery but eventually speaking with another victim confirms Scotty's suspicions that his mother was the victim of a serial rapist, who was caught and arrested by Scotty soon after.
Lindsey Dunlay (Bahni Turpin) (Season 1, 3) is social worker specializing in children and a friend of Lilly's since high school. She has twice asked the squad to help troubled teenagers by investigating the murders of their parents. She later returned to take custody of an abandoned baby found in the squad.
Ryan Cavanaugh (Johnny Messner) (Season 7) is an FBI Agent who helped Lilly to identify the serial killer Paul Shepard. After having caught Sam, Ryan helped Lilly with another case (Ep. "Free Love").
Diane Yates (Susanna Thompson) (Season 7) is another FBI and former PPD cop. In 1980, she was in the drive-in with her boyfriend Barry Jensen when he was shot. Diane goes to Philadelphia because her mother has a stroke. Stillman keeps her company at the hospital and comforts her when she passes away.
George Marks (John Billingsley) (Season 2) was a serial killer of hideous intelligence, George was one of the few killers on the show to outwit Lilly and the squad, getting away with several murders over several years. Already troubled even as a child, his deranged mother, who suffered from hysterical blindness allowed a rapist to sexually assault him to save herself during a home invasion. Immediately after, George's mother became his first victim, using the gun the rapist knocked out of George's mother's hands. As an adult, George would cultivate a twisted obsession with strong women, using his position as a filing clerk with the Philadelphia Police Department to find examples of them in police reports (i.e. women who had been assaulted but had fought back against their attackers). Disguising himself as a cop, George would take these women (and on one occasion, a 14-year-old girl) into the woods, force them to strip down to their underwear, then proceed to hunt them using a pair of night vision goggles (much in the style of actual serial killer Robert Hansen) and an Arisaka Model 38 rifle. He implies to Vera and Jeffries that on occasion he would break the toes of his victims or cut off their feet to see how far they could run afterwards. He would collect their heads as trophies, burying their bodies in the woods and burying the heads in the backyard of his childhood home. He would also fit the eye sockets of the skulls with black glass deer eyes, presumably as a gesture to make his victims see what was done to him in the house. Though the squad quickly recognized George as being responsible for the murders, they were unable to get him to confess, or find enough evidence to convict him. Instead, he merely taunted them with personal information he had read from their police files, before walking away unpunished. During the interrogation, however, George developed a fixation with Lilly and, months later, would lure her to his home. It was here that he forced her to relive the assault that she experienced as a child, when her alcoholic mother forced her to go out into the night to buy alcohol for her whereupon along the way she was attacked and robbed. She then broke him down when she stripped away his god complex to show that in the woods he was still "a little boy whose mother didn't love him". It was then that both realised they were somewhat both cut from the same cloth, with George knowing he had found a worthy executioner as he pulled a gun on her and demanded she shoot him or else he would shoot her. A tense standoff would end with Lilly firing upon George, shooting him three times in the chest, killing him instantly. The entire ordeal would still haunt her months later.
References
Cold Case
Cold Case
Cold Case | wiki |
Lake Mackay, known as Wilkinkarra to the Indigenous Pintupi people, is the largest of hundreds of ephemeral salt lakes scattered throughout the Pilbara and northern parts of the Goldfields-Esperance region of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It is located within the Great Sandy Desert.
The lake is the largest in Western Australia and has a surface area of . Its elevation ranges between and above mean sea-level.
Description
Lake Mackay is the fourth largest lake in Australia. It measures approximately east-west and north-south. The darker areas of the lakebed are indicative of some form of desert vegetation or algae, some moisture within the soils of the dry lake, and the lowest elevations where pooling of water occurs. In this arid environment, salts and other minerals are carried to the surface through capillary action caused by evaporation, thereby producing the white reflective surface. Visible are various brown hills scattered across the eastern half of the lake and east-west-oriented sand ridges south of the lake.
Known as Wilkinkarra to the local Indigenous population, the lake features prominently in the Aboriginal Dreaming narratives of the Western Desert. The main mythological accounts of its origins can be clustered into three distinct themes, all of which contain references to a fierce bushfire that devastated the land and formed the lake.
Explorer David Carnegie in 1897 predicted the lake's existence when he passed by it to the west as quoted in his book Spinifex and Sand.
It was given its present name after Donald George Mackay.
The lake was the birthplace of prominent Indigenous artist Linda Syddick Napaltjarri, and the area in which artist Ronnie Tjampitjinpa grew up.
Namesakes
The Northern Territory locality of Lake Mackay, whose boundaries include the lake, was named after it in 2007.
Mackay Lacus, one of the lakes on Saturn's moon Titan, is named after Lake Mackay.
Gallery
See also
List of lakes of Australia
Lake Mackay hare-wallaby
References
Lakes of the Pilbara (Western Australia)
Lakes of the Kimberley (Western Australia)
Great Sandy Desert
Mackay, Lake
Saline lakes of the Northern Territory | wiki |
Festivus is a secular holiday occurring on December 23
Festivus may also refer to:
The Festivus, a seashell periodical
Festivus Film Festival, a former film festival in Denver
See also
Festivus Maximus or Super Bowl XXXV
"The Strike" (Seinfeld), the 1997 episode of Seinfeld that introduced the holiday | wiki |
The following is about the qualification rules and the quota allocation for the speed skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics.
Qualification rules
A total quota of 166 athletes were allowed to compete at the Games. Countries were assigned quotas based on their performance during the 2021–22 ISU Speed Skating World Cup in the autumn of 2021. Each nation was permitted to enter a maximum of three athletes per gender for all events apart from the women's 5000m, men's 10000m and mass start events, for which they could enter a maximum of two athletes per event. Additionally, each nation is permitted to send at most 7 speed skating athletes per gender in total, or 8 when the nation is qualified for all events for the gender, or 9 when the nation is qualified with the maximum quota in every event for the gender.
Qualification times
The following qualification times were released on July 1, 2021, and were unchanged from 2018. Skaters had the time period of July 1, 2021 – January 16, 2022 to achieve qualification times at valid International Skating Union (ISU) events.
Maximum entries by country per event
Maximum quotas per event
Men
Women
Qualification timeline
Qualification summary
On 22 December 2021, the ISU published their list of provisional allocations for each race and the total maximum allocation for each NOC. NOCs will inform the ISU how many quotas they will use by 16 January 2022, at which point either withdrawal or reallocation will be done to get to 166 total athletes. The final entries were revealed on January 24, 2022.
Points Ranking
Men's 500m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 8 races
Men's 1000m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 4 races
Men's 1500m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 4 races
Men's 5000m and 10000m
The qualification points ranking for the men's 5000m and 10000m are combined.
The top 14 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the 5000m. The top 8 athletes, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the 10000m.
After all 4 races
Men's Mass Start
The top 24 athletes, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the mass start. The next 8 athletes will be on the reserve list.
Up to six additional starting positions for the mass start will be made available during the games, given in reserve order, with priority given to countries that do not yet have an entry. However, only skaters that already took part in another event will be eligible.
After all 3 races
Men's Team pursuit
The top six nations will earn a quota for the Team pursuit.
After all 3 races
Women's 500m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 8 races
Women's 1000m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 4 races
Women's 1500m
The top 20 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
After all 4 races
Women's 3000m and 5000m
The qualification points ranking for the women's 3000m and 5000m are combined.
The top 14 athletes, with a maximum of 3 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the 3000m. The top 8 athletes, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the 5000m.
After all 4 races
Women's Mass Start
The top 24 athletes, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country in the mass start. The next 8 athletes will be on the reserve list.
Up to six additional starting positions for the mass start will be made available during the games, given in reserve order, with priority given to countries that do not yet have an entry. However, only skaters that already took part if another event will be eligible.
After all 3 races
Women's Team pursuit
The top six nations will earn a quota for the Team pursuit.
After all 3 races
Time Ranking
Men's 500m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Three quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance.
After all 8 races
Men's 1000m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Three quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance.
After all 4 races
Men's 1500m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Seven quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance, quotas achieved from points by Germany and Japan were refused.
After all 4 races
Men's 5000m
The top 6 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. One quota from the reserve list was available, green shading indicates acceptance
After all 3 races
Men's 10000m
The top 4 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes will form the reserve list.
After the only race has been held
Men's Team pursuit
The top 2 nations not qualified through the point ranking will earn a quota.
The top 3 unqualified nations will form the reserve list.
After all 3 races
Women's 500m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Four quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance
After all 8 races
Women's 1000m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Three quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance
After all 4 races
Women's 1500m
The top 10 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Three quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance
After all 4 races
Women's 3000m
The top 6 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes, including athletes who could not qualify through the time ranking because their NOC already has 2 quotas, will form the reserve list. Two quotas from the reserve list were available, green shading indicates acceptance
After all 3 races
Women's 5000m
The top 4 athletes not qualified through the point ranking, with a maximum of 2 per NOC, will earn a quota for their country.
The top 8 unqualified athletes will form the reserve list.
After the only race has been held
Women's Team pursuit
The top 2 nations not qualified through the point ranking will earn a quota.
The top 3 unqualified nations will form the reserve list.
After all 3 races
References
Qualification
Qualification for the 2022 Winter Olympics | wiki |
Elbow pain is a discomfort located in the elbow, as the name explicitly states. The most common cause of elbow pain is inflamed tissues in the region. A common treatment is physical therapy. Symptoms may worsen when the inflamed elbow is not used for a great period of time. Painkillers can also assist with healing.
References
Elbow
Pain | wiki |
A shareholder (in the United States often referred to as stockholder) of a corporation is an individual or legal entity (such as another corporation, a body politic, a trust or partnership) that is registered by the corporation as the legal owner of shares of the share capital of a public or private corporation. Shareholders may be referred to as members of a corporation. A person or legal entity becomes a shareholder in a corporation when their name and other details are entered in the corporation's register of shareholders or members, and unless required by law the corporation is not required or permitted to enquire as to the beneficial ownership of the shares. A corporation generally cannot own shares of itself.
The influence of a shareholder on the business is determined by the shareholding percentage owned. Shareholders of a corporation are legally separate from the corporation itself. They are generally not liable for the corporation's debts, and the shareholders' liability for company debts is said to be limited to the unpaid share price unless a shareholder has offered guarantees. The corporation is not required to record the beneficial ownership of a shareholding, only the owner as recorded on the register. When more than one person is on the record as owners of a shareholding, the first one on the record is taken to control the shareholding, and all correspondence and communication by the company will be with that person.
Shareholders may have acquired their shares in the primary market by subscribing to the IPOs and thus provided capital to the corporation. However, most shareholders acquire shares in the secondary market and provided no capital directly to the corporation. Shareholders may be granted special privileges depending on a share class. The board of directors of a corporation generally governs a corporation for the benefit of shareholders.
Shareholders are considered by some to be a subset of stakeholders, which may include anyone who has a direct or indirect interest in the business entity. For example, employees, suppliers, customers, the community, etc., are typically considered stakeholders because they contribute value or are impacted by the corporation.
Types
A beneficial shareholder is the person or legal entity that has the economic benefit of ownership of the shares, while a nominee shareholder is the person or entity that is on the corporation's register of members as the owner while being in reality that person acts for the benefit or at the direction of the beneficial owner, whether disclosed or not.
Primarily, there are two types of shareholders.
Ordinary shareholders
An individual or legal entity that owns ordinary shares of a company (in the United States commonly referred as common stock) is usually referred to as an ordinary shareholder. This type of shareholding is the most common. Ordinary shareholders have the right to influence decisions concerning the company by participating at general meetings of the company and in the election of directors and can file class action lawsuits, when warranted.
Preference shareholders
Preference shareholders are owners of preference shares (in the United States commonly referred as preferred stock). They are paid a fixed rate of dividend, which is paid in priority to the dividend to be paid to the ordinary shareholders. Preference shareholders usually do not have voting rights in the company.
Rights
Subject to the applicable laws, the rules of the corporation and any shareholders' agreement, shareholders may have the right:
To sell their shares.
To vote on the directors nominated by the board of directors.
To nominate directors (although this is very difficult in practice because of minority protections) and propose shareholder resolutions.
To vote on mergers and changes to the corporate charter.
To dividends if they are declared.
To access certain information; for publicly traded companies, this information is normally publicly available.
To sue the company for violation of fiduciary duty.
To purchase new shares issued by the company.
To vote on & file shareholder resolutions.
To vote on management proposals.
To what assets remain after a liquidation.
The above-mentioned rights can be generally classified into (1) cash-flow rights and (2) voting rights. While the value of shares is mainly driven by the cash-flow rights that they carry ("cash is king"), voting rights can also be valuable. The value of shareholders' cash-flow rights can be computed by discounting future free cash flows. The value of shareholders' voting rights can be computed by four methods:
The difference between voting shares and non-voting shares (dual-class approach).
The difference between the price paid in a block-trade transaction and the subsequent price paid in a smaller transaction on exchanges (block-trade approach).
The implied voting value obtained from option prices.
The excess lending fee over voting events.
See also
Beneficial ownership
Business valuation
Class action
Class A share
Class B share
Corporate governance
Employee stock ownership
Investor
Real party in interest
Shareholder value
Social ownership
Street name securities
References
Business terms
Stock market | wiki |
I Ching or Yijing is a Chinese classic text.
I Ching may also refer to:
I Ching (monk) (635–713), a Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk
I Ching (comics), fictional, blind martial artist published by DC Comics
I Ching (band), band from London
I Ching divination, cleromancy method using I Ching
See also
Yijing (disambiguation) | wiki |
IEEE 802.3ab est à la fois une norme et un groupe de travail du sous-comité IEEE 802.3 chargé du développement et de la spécification du standard 1000BASE-T avec lequel elle se confond. Celle-ci a été ratifiée en 1999 et est maintenant dépassée par le standard 10GBASE-T spécifié par l'amendement IEEE 802.3an .
Présentation
IEEE 802.3ab spécifie la couche PHY et la sous-couche MAC (appartenant à la couche liaison de données dans le modèle OSI) pour une vitesse de transmission de 1000 Mbit/s sur une liaison à paires torsadées d'une longueur maximale de 100 mètres.
Cette norme autorise des liaisons avec du câble .
Voir aussi
Articles connexes
1000BASE-T
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3z
Liens externes
Groupe de travail IEEE 802.3
Sous-groupe de travail IEEE 802.3ab
Norme IEEE 802.3-2005 - Section 3 → Voir la clause 40 et suivantes
IEEE 802.3 | wiki |
This is a list of the horse breeds considered in Russia to be wholly or partly of Russian origin, including breeds from the Russian Federation and from the former Soviet Union. Some may have complex or obscure histories, so inclusion here does not necessarily imply that a breed is predominantly or exclusively Russian.
References
Livestock
Lists of Russian domestic animal breeds | wiki |
Parallel Education is a system in which boys and girls in Australia attend the same school, but are split into single sex classes for core subjects such as English, Maths, science, LOTE, and humanities. However, students will come together for drama, music and other social and cultural activities although a strict 30 cm personal space rule applies. Theoretically, this means that students will receive the best education while still being able to interact with the opposite sex.
Haileybury College, Melbourne currently operates Parallel Education at their five campuses with many other leading schools set to follow.
References
Gender and education
Educational administration | wiki |
Cueto () is a locality in the municipality of Santander (Cantabria, Spain), north of the capital.
Overview
Cueto faces northward toward the Atlantic Ocean and is mainly composed of high cliffs. Cueto is well known for its lighthouse, Faro de Cabo Mayor, built in 1839 by the engineer Felipe Bauzá.
In recent years, as Santander has grown, it has started to encompass neighboring areas. Cueto is not highly inhabited despite being only 4 kilometers from downtown Santander. According to the 2004 census, the population of Cueto is 8,905 inhabitants.
Bibliography
Historia del Lugar de Cueto I and Historia del Lugar de Cueto II By Matilde Camus
Santander, Spain
Towns in Spain | wiki |
Palmarès
Mondiali
Mosca 2010: bronzo nei 63 kg.
Nur-Sultan 2019: bronzo nei 62 kg.
Europei
Vilnius 2009: bronzo nei 63 kg.
Belgrado 2012: oro nei 67 kg.
Kaspijsk 2018: bronzo nei 65 kg.
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Козелье — топоним в Белоруссии:
Козелье — деревня в Мхиничском сельсовете Краснопольского района Могилёвской области.
Козелье — деревня в Яновском сельсовете Краснопольского района Могилёвской области. | wiki |
Below is a list of currently available tablet PCs grouped by their width, depth, height, screen size, and appropriate tablet case sizes.
The most popular presently available tablet computers are compared in the following table:
See also
List of iPad accessories
Mobile phone case
List of Unique PC Cases
References
Tablet computers | wiki |
The following comparison of accounting software documents the various features and differences between different professional accounting software, personal and small enterprise software, medium-sized and large-sized enterprise software, and other accounting packages. The comparison only focus considering financial and external accounting functions. No comparison is made for internal/management accounting, cost accounting, budgeting, or integrated MAS accounting.
Free and open source software
Proprietary software
Systems listed on a light purple background are no longer in active development.
Further details
See also
List of personal finance software
List of ERP software packages
Point of sale
Comparison of development estimation software
List of project management software
References
Accounting software
Lists of software
Accounting Software | wiki |
Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food is a 2010 nonfiction book by author Paul Greenberg. This work explores the state of commercial fishing and aquaculture. Greenberg frames his observations by commenting on the status of four specific fish: cod, salmon, bass, and tuna. Choosing four fish was a decision influenced by author Michael Pollan's selection of four plants in his book, The Botany of Desire.
The New York Times gave the book a positive review. David Helvarg gave the book a positive review on sfgate.com. The book was reviewed by The Los Angeles Times.
Publication data
Paul Greenberg Four Fish (2010) Penguin Books, hardcover: , 2011 paperback:
References
Fishing industry | wiki |
Courthouse Center can refer to:
United States
On the National Register of Historic Places:
Courthouse Center (Newark, Ohio)
Others:
Courthouse Center (Miami, Florida) | wiki |
The Tethys Ocean ( Tēthús), also called the Tethys Sea or the Neo-Tethys, was a prehistoric ocean during much of the Mesozoic Era and early Cenozoic Era, located between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia, before the opening of the Indian and Atlantic oceans during the Cretaceous Period.
It was preceded by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which lasted between the Cambrian and the Early Triassic, while the Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and lasted until the early Eocene (about 50 million years ago) when it completely closed. A portion known as the Paratethys formed during the Late Jurassic, was isolated during the Oligocene (34 million years ago) and lasted up to the Pliocene (about 5 million years ago), when it largely dried out. The ocean basins of Europe and Western Asia, namely the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea, are each remnants of the Paratethys Ocean.
Etymology
The sea was named after Tethys, who, in ancient Greek mythology, was a sea goddess, a sister and consort of Oceanus, mother of the Oceanid sea nymphs and of the world’s great rivers, lakes and fountains.
Terminology and subdivisions
The eastern part of the Tethys Ocean is sometimes referred to as Eastern Tethys. The western part of the Tethys Ocean is called Tethys Sea, Western Tethys Ocean, or Paratethys or Alpine Tethys Ocean. The Black, Caspian, and Aral seas are thought to be its crustal remains, though the Black Sea may, in fact, be a remnant of the older Paleo-Tethys Ocean.
The Western Tethys was not simply a single open ocean. It covered many small plates, Cretaceous island arcs, and microcontinents. Many small oceanic basins (Valais Ocean, Piemont-Liguria Ocean, Meliata Ocean) were separated from each other by continental terranes on the Alboran, Iberian, and Apulian plates. The high sea level in the Mesozoic flooded most of these continental domains, forming shallow seas.
As theories have improved, scientists have extended the "Tethys" name to refer to three similar oceans that preceded it, separating the continental terranes: in Asia, the Paleo-Tethys (Devonian–Triassic), Meso-Tethys (late Early Permian–Late Cretaceous), and Ceno-Tethys (Late-Triassic–Cenozoic) are recognized. None of the Tethys oceans should be confused with the Rheic Ocean, which existed to the west of them in the Silurian Period. To the north of the Tethys, the then-land mass is called Angaraland and to the south of it, it is called Gondwanaland.
Modern theory
From the Ediacaran (600 ) into the Devonian (360 ), the Proto-Tethys Ocean existed and was situated between Baltica and Laurentia to the north and Gondwana to the south.
From the Silurian (440 ) through the Jurassic periods, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean existed between the Hunic terranes and Gondwana. Over a period of 400 million years, continental terranes intermittently separated from Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere to migrate northward to form Asia in the Northern Hemisphere.
Triassic Period
About 250 Mya, during the Triassic, a new ocean began forming in the southern end of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. A rift formed along the northern continental shelf of Southern Pangaea (Gondwana). Over the next 60 million years, that piece of shelf, known as Cimmeria, traveled north, pushing the floor of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean under the eastern end of northern Pangaea (early / proto- Laurasia). The Neo-Tethys Ocean formed between Cimmeria and Gondwana, directly over where the Paleo-Tethys formerly rested.
Jurassic Period
During the Jurassic period about 150 Mya, Cimmeria finally collided with Laurasia and stalled, so the ocean floor behind it buckled under, forming the Tethys Trench. Water levels rose, and the western Tethys shallowly covered significant portions of Europe, forming the first Tethys Sea. Around the same time, Laurasia and Gondwana began drifting apart, opening an extension of the Tethys Sea between them which today is the part of the Atlantic Ocean between the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. As North and South America were still attached to the rest of Laurasia and Gondwana, respectively, the Tethys Ocean in its widest extension was part of a continuous oceanic belt running around the Earth between about latitude 30°N and the Equator. Thus, ocean currents at the time around the Early Cretaceous ran very differently from the way they do today.
Late Cretaceous
Between the Jurassic and the Late Cretaceous, which started about 100 Mya, Gondwana began breaking up, pushing Africa and India north across the Tethys and opening up the Indian Ocean.
Cenozoic
Throughout the Cenozoic (66 million to the dawn of the Neogene, 23 Mya), a combination of the northern migration of Africa and global sea levels falling eventually led to the connections between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans across the Tethys being closed off in what is now the Middle East during the Miocene. This decoupling occurred in two steps, first around 20 Mya and another around 14 Mya.
During the Oligocene (33.9 to 23 Mya), large parts of central and eastern Europe were covered by a northern branch of the Tethys Ocean, called the Paratethys. The Paratethys was separated from the Tethys with the formation of the Alps, Carpathians, Dinarides, Taurus, and Elburz mountains during the Alpine orogeny. During the late Miocene, the Paratethys gradually disappeared, and became an isolated inland sea.
Historical theory
In Chapter 13 of his 1845 book, Roderick Murchison described a distinctive formation extending from the Black Sea to the Aral Sea in which the creatures differed from those of the purely marine period that preceded them. The Miocene deposits of Crimea and Taman, (south of the Sea of Azov) are identical with formations surrounding the present Caspian Sea, in which the univalves of freshwater origin, are associated with forms of Cardiacae and Mytili that are common to partially saline or brackish waters. This distinctive fauna has been found throughout all the enormously developed Tertiary formations of the southern and south-eastern steppes.
On the accompanying map, Murchison shows the Aralo-Caspian Formation extending from close to the Danube delta across Crimea, up the east side of the Volga river to Samara, then south of the Urals to beyond the Aral Sea. Brackish and upper freshwater components (OSM) of the Miocene are now known to extend through the North Alpine foreland basin and onto the Swabian Jura with thickness of up to 250m; these were deposited in the Paratethys when the Alpine front was still 100km farther south.
In 1885, the Austrian palaeontologist Melchior Neumayr deduced the existence of the Tethys Ocean from Mesozoic marine sediments and their distribution, calling his concept Zentrales Mittelmeer and described it as a Jurassic seaway, which extended from the Caribbean to the Himalayas.
In 1893, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess proposed the hypothesis that an ancient and extinct inland sea had once existed between Laurasia and the continents which formed Gondwana II. He named it the Tethys Sea after the Greek sea goddess Tethys. He provided evidence for his theory using fossil records from the Alps and Africa. He proposed the concept of Tethys in his four-volume work Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth).
In the following decades during the 20th century, "mobilist" geologists such as Uhlig (1911), Diener (1925), and Daque (1926) regarded Tethys as a large trough between two supercontinents which lasted from the late Palaeozoic until continental fragments derived from Gondwana obliterated it.
After World War II, Tethys was described as a triangular ocean with a wide eastern end.
From 1920s to the 1960s, "fixist" geologists, however, regarded Tethys as a composite trough, which evolved through a series of orogenic cycles. They used the terms 'Paleotethys', 'Mesotethys', and 'Neotethys' for the Caledonian, Variscan, and Alpine orogenies, respectively. In the 1970s and '80s, these terms and 'Proto-Tethys', were used in different senses by various authors, but the concept of a single ocean wedging into Pangea from the east, roughly where Suess first proposed it, remained.
In the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics became established, and Suess's "sea" could clearly be seen to have been an ocean. Plate tectonics provided an explanation for the mechanism by which the former ocean disappeared: oceanic crust can subduct under continental crust.
Tethys was considered an oceanic plate by Smith (1971); Dewey, Pitman, Ryan and Bonnin (1973); Laubscher and Bernoulli (1973); and Bijou-Duval, Dercourt and Pichon (1977).
See also
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Historical oceans
Mesozoic paleogeography
Paleogene paleogeography
Permian paleogeography
Plate tectonics | wiki |
In geodynamics lower crustal flow is the mainly lateral movement of material within the lower part of the continental crust by a ductile flow mechanism. It is thought to be an important process during both continental collision and continental break-up.
Rheology
The tendency of the lower crust to flow is controlled by its rheology. Ductile flow in the lower crust is assumed to be controlled by the deformation of quartz and/or plagioclase feldspar as its composition is thought to be granodioritic to dioritic. With normal thickness continental crust and a normal geothermal gradient, the lower crust, below the brittle–ductile transition zone, exhibits ductile flow behaviour under geological strain rates. Factors that can vary this behaviour include: water content, thickness, heat flow and strain-rate.
Collisional belts
In some areas of continental collision, the lower part of the thickened crust that results is interpreted to flow laterally, such as in the Tibetan plateau, and the Altiplano in the Bolivian Andes.
References
Geodynamics | wiki |
William Viner may refer to:
William Litton Viner, organist and composer of church music
William Samuel Viner, Australian chess master | wiki |
Every Witch Way is a telenovela-formatted teen sitcom that originally aired on Nickelodeon from January 1, 2014, to July 30, 2015.
The first season aired as a "One Month Event", where the first 20-episode season aired every weeknight in January 2014. On March 13, 2014, Nickelodeon announced that they had commissioned a second season of Every Witch Way, that aired from July 7 to August 8. On July 31, 2014, Nickelodeon renewed the show for a third season, which premiered on January 5, 2015. On February 25, 2015, Nickelodeon renewed the show for a fourth season and announced a spin-off titled WITS Academy. It was announced on June 1, 2015, that the fourth season would be the final season. The series finale aired on July 30, 2015, with WITS Academy announced as its spinoff show following its conclusion to air in fall 2015. WITS Academy premiered on October 5, 2015, but was later canceled after one season.
Series overview
Season 1
Emma Alonso moves with her father Francisco to the suburbs of Miami, Florida, where she attends Iridium High. She later learns that she is a witch, and is also the "Chosen One", having great powers and abilities of her generation. Emma barely makes it through the school year with the help of Lily, the school nurse who is Emma's guardian; Andi Cruz, her best friend; Daniel Miller, a mutual crush, and the rest of the Sharks, Iridium High's swim team. There are obstacles along the way, too, including Maddie Van Pelt, the leader of the Panthers, a trio of the school's most popular girls, who is a newly profound witch and Daniel's ex-girlfriend, and the principal, Miss Torres, who is a 400-year-old witch and the old Chosen One. During the upcoming eclipse, she plans on taking Emma's powers, but fails after Maddie and Emma join forces, despite their differences, and send her away using a spell from the Hexoren, a book of spells that Emma inherited from her late mother. At the end of the season, Daniel and Emma become a couple; also, after defeating the principal, both witches think they lost their powers, but in reality, Emma still has them, and she keeps this a secret from Daniel in season 2.
Season 2
It is a new year at Iridium high. The Witches' Council, the head of the magic realm has come to tell Emma that she cannot date Daniel because he is a human and witches and humans cannot date; the only way she can date him is to give up her powers and become human, as her mother did to be with Francisco. But because of her title as the "Chosen One," Emma cannot do that, and at the same time, she doesn't want to go in the other direction. Maddie, who lost her powers at the end of the first season, refuses to accept this, so Sophie and Katie, the other Panthers, try to make her believe that she still has her powers with the help of Diego, a Churi Kanay (someone who has powers over the elements). The only reason Diego does this is because he hopes that she will notice him more. The truth is that Maddie's mother, Ursula, received her powers and is using them in attempt to make Francisco fall in love with her. Eventually, Maddie gets her powers back in the middle of the season and feels happy. During the season, Maddie and Diego realize that they have feelings for each other. In the season 2 finale, Diego gets Maddie out of a black hole and they kiss. After that, they start dating. Jax Novoa, a new student from Sydney, Australia, arrives at Iridium High and becomes the school's new heartthrob. Francisco has been promoted to the position as new principal and assigns Emma to help show Jax around. While doing so, she has no suspicions that he is a wizard, but she soon learns it later. Andi and Daniel are suspicious of him, but Jax, who has a mysterious past, shuts everyone out and starts to have feelings for Emma. While almost everyone is blinded by his bad side, Emma sees his vulnerable side, too, and she slowly starts to fall for him. Then there's the Fool Moon, a moon that occurs every twenty years and causes witches and wizards' powers to act oddly. The Fool Moon affects Desdemona, one member of the Witches' Council, who becomes evil and plans to take Emma's powers; also, Jax and E (Emma's evil clone who was made after Jax showed Emma a new cloning spell), plan to do so, but E is defeated before she could. At the end of season two, Jax reforms, and he, Daniel, and Emma get along.
Season 3
Summer is almost over for the Iridium High
students. Emma is working as a waitress at the Beachside Seven, the gang's new hangout spot, while Daniel works as a life guard there as well. Andi is determined to prove herself to the council and become a guardian, Jax is sent to Rebel Boot Camp, and Maddie and Diego try to fix the relationship between witches and kanays, who warred with each other in the past. A new girl named Mia Black moves to Miami to take revenge on all witches because Principal Torres killed her parents. Mia, who is a kanay like Diego, plans to destroy Emma and Maddie with the help of the Cristal de Caballero, a sacred gem of the Kanays used to makes a witches' power go haywire. Mia puts a spider seal on Daniel, making him evil and turn against Emma. Mia and Diego get into a kanay duel, resulting with Diego being under Mia's control temporarily . Andi's zombie and he also likes to have the decikd tango with Max's boyfriend, Phillip, gets out of the game with Hex's help. Desdemona and Agememnon try to overthrow Emma, while she tries to change Phillip into a human, using a forbidden spell. Emma and Mia get sucked into the game and have to work together to get out of there. At the end of the season finale, Emma has to make a decision, either to be with Jax or Daniel and she chooses Jax.
Season 4
Emma's decision to be with Jax triggers a Continuum Break on Daniel, where he shifts into a different life in the Everglades, and everyone except for Emma forgets who he is. Emma and the gang travel to the Everglades to take Daniel back to Miami to restore his memory, but Emma's explanation of the Continuum Break limits the time to have his memory restored to only five days, or else he'll disappear from existence forever, and Emma will not remember him as well. In the crossover with Talia in the Kitchen, Talia Parra's magic spices gave Daniel some of his memory back (only up until the day he and Emma met), but a kiss with Emma finally ends the Continuum Break, giving his entire memory back. However, in the finale, Emma realizes how Daniel misses his other life in the Everglades and triggers the Continuum Break again to make him happy.
Also in the season, Emma starts to miss her mom and wants her back, so she searches for a time manipulation spell so she can go back in time to save her mom. She steals the powers of other witches (the council, Maddie, the principal, and E), while also becoming more reckless with her powers and causing her friends to become mad at her. Eventually in the finale, she realizes her error and gives Maddie and the Council their powers back and changes her mind about traveling back in time.
Meanwhile, Jax's father, Jake, arrives at his home. This leads Jax to soon learn more about his family, as he meets his powerless long-lost sister, Jessie, who soon reveals that his mom, Liana, isn't dead. Jax believed that Jake was evil, but near the end of season 4, it is revealed that Liana is the actual evil witch. In the series finale, Jessie finally gets her powers, and with her help, Emma, Andi and Jax finally defeat Liana, who gets sucked through the portal into Limbo.
At the end of the finale. Emma and Andi visit the Novoas, with Jake saying that Jessie, now that she has her powers, will soon be attending the WITS Academy to learn how to use them. Then, after they see Daniel one last time in the Everglades, Emma announces that Andi will attend the WITS Academy as well to train to finally become a guardian. Andi packs (with Emma giving her the Hex), they arrive at school, and the series ends with Andi leaving through the portal for the academy, leading up to the Every Witch Way spin-off series.
Cast and characters
Main
Paola Andino as Emma Alonso: A new student at Iridium High, Emma is the main character of the series, and also a witch. She's the Chosen One, the most powerful witch, and her guardian is Lily, the school nurse. Her best friend is Andi, who wants to be her guardian one day. In season 3, she is a waitress at the Beachside Seven and becomes more independent with her powers. In the season 3 finale, she has to decide whom to be with: Jax or Daniel, but she chooses Jax over Daniel, which triggers a Continuum Break on Daniel in season 4. During the Break, Emma is the only one to remember Daniel, and she tries to restore his memory, but triggers the Break again in the series finale to make him happy. Emma also wanted to turn back time in season 4 to bring back her mom. However, she eventually realizes that it wasn't a good idea. Emma is still dating Jax at the end of the series.
Nick Merico as Daniel Miller: An athletic student at Iridium High and former- member of the Sharks. At the beginning, he has had a constant on-and-off relationship with Maddie Van Pelt despite holding an interest in Emma. Eventually, he fully breaks up with Maddie and begins to date Emma. He is also a human, not a wizard, thus making the Witch's Council pressure Emma into breaking up with him in season 2. He has a rivalry with Jax over Emma. In season 3, he is a lifeguard at the Beachside Seven, and soon gets Mia as his partner. This leads to her sending a spider bite him, making his 'inner wild' come out. Later, Mia removes the spider from Daniel because it made him very sick. At the end of season 3, Emma chooses Jax over Daniel, making a Continuum Break shift Daniel into another life in a sanctuary by the Everglades. Emma tries to restore his memory, but sends him back in the series finale to make him happy.
Paris Smith as Maddie Van Pelt: A witch who is the school's most popular student and head of a best friend group called The Panthers. She hated Emma in season 1 because she stole Daniel from her, but they become friends after everything they went through and because she soon develops feelings for Diego, who she ends up dating. She is the most fashionable girl at Iridium. She can come off as mean, but has a soft side and really cares about her friends and family.
Daniela Nieves as Andi Cruz: Emma's best friend, a tomboy who is a member of the Sharks. Other than Emma, Emma's magical flying spell book, the Hexoren, is as well her best friend, often babysitting him and bringing him to school and even the beach. She is great with tools and stands as one of the few able to block spells (using various devices of her creation). She also starts to become friends with Jax. In season 2, her virtual zombie boyfriend, Philip, comes out of the Zombie Apocalypse game; by season 3, he returns again and stays for good. She is the only human known that can understand the Hexoren. At the end of the series, Andi sets off to train to become a guardian at the WITS Academy.
Rahart Adams as Jax Novoa: A new student in season 2, who is a member of the Sharks and a rebel wizard who is impulsive with his powers, using them for his own interests in season 2. In season 2, he uses Emma to gain magic energy and take over the realm. She soon breaks up with him after Daniel shared a kiss with her. However, in season 3 and 4 he starts to use his powers not only for himself, but for other people. In season 3 Emma has to make a tough decision over whom to be with: Jax or Daniel. She chooses Jax and they stay together for all of season 4 happily. In season 4, Jax's world is turned upside down when he meets his long lost sister Jessie and she reveals that his mother isn't dead. When he figures out she is an evil witch trying to steal Emma's powers and take over the realm with him and Jessie, he remains loyal to Emma and gets Liana transported to Limbo. Limbo is a place where bad witches go and their bad souls are with them.
Tyler Alvares as Diego Rueda: Gigi's twin brother and Sharks member. He thought he was the last of the Churi Kanay (meaning "Son of Fire", who can control the elements), until Mia, a rebel Kanay, comes to Miami. His family owns The Seven, as well as the Beachside 7, and he is seen often working there. In season 2, he has an interest in Maddie, but Ursula does not approve, so he tries to impress Maddie in every way that he can. In season 3, Diego and Maddie are a couple, and they try to fix the bond between witches and Kanays. In season 4, Ursula starts liking Diego when he saves the Van Pelt Reunion from Jake.
Elizabeth Elias as Mia Black: A new girl in season 3. She is a rebel Kanay who wants all witches to be destroyed because one of them, who happens to be the Principal, killed her parents. Unlike Diego, she has been raised as Kanay since her birth so she wields her powers with a much greater ease and skill than Diego. She starts to actually fall for Daniel along the way through her scheme. Mia has a spider Kanay mark on her arm, which causes the persons 'inner wild' to come out. Mia also had the Cristal de Caballero, a magical crystal that belonged to her father. Like Jax in season 2, Mia changed after bonding with Emma in the Zombie Apocalypse video game they got trapped in during the season 3 finale. In season 4, the Continuum Break affects Mia as well, and she is Daniel's girlfriend in his other life in the Everglades.
Denise Wilson as Katie Rice: Member of the Panthers and one of Maddie's best friends. She wants to be the head Panther. Even though she acts popular, she is actually smart, and as well happens to have a 'geek side' where she would often refer to different fantasy and anime shows or games and LARPing. In season 3, Katie leaves the Panthers and becomes friend with Mia, although it was revealed she only did so to get information out of her.
Autumn Wendel as Sophie Johnson: Member of the Panthers and another one of Maddie's best friends. She is a little dimwitted and very gullible. Other than Emma (and now Andi), she is one of the only characters to tolerate Jax.
Zoey Burger as Gigi Rueda: Diego's twin sister, school news reporter known as "Miss Information". In season 2, because of a spell, Gigi becomes Desdemona's minion, but is freed by Jax and E (Evil Emma) later on. In season 3, she is a waitress at the Beachside Seven, but blogs more than works. She is kept out of the loop of the magic going around in Miami, even after finding out, quickly having her memory erased by Maddie, several times. She had a small crush on Jax when he first came to the school. Since Daniel (Mia in disguise) treated her nicely, she had a big crush on him as well.
Kendall Ryan Sanders as Tony Myers: A mathlete, amateur magician, and member of the Sharks, had a crush on Emma. He did not return for the second season because he is attending a "magic academy".
Maverick Moreno as Mac Davis: Member of the Sharks and Diego's best friend who doesn't shower. He did not return for the second season due to moving to Texas.
Recurring
Melissa Carcache as Lily Archer: The school's nurse and Emma's guardian witch, she is powerless and depends on a magic kit. She becomes a member of the Witches' Council in season 2. In season 3, when Jax graduated from Rebels Boot Camp, it seemed that his father was no longer qualified to be his guardian, so Lily was assigned to him.
Louis Tomeo as Robert Miller: Daniel's brother who is the oldest and leader of the Terrible 3 (T3) and their best inventor.
Jackie Frazey as Melanie Miller: Daniel's sister who is the middle child and only girl of the Terrible 3 as well as the smartest. She was only seen in Season 4 for 1 episode.
Jason Ian Drucker as Tommy Miller: Daniel's brother who is the youngest of the Terrible 3 and most hyperactive.
Katie Barbieri as Ursula Van Pelt: Maddie's mother who holds feelings for Francisco. In season 2, Maddie's powers lands on her, and she uses them to make Francisco fall in love with her, though they finally kiss in the series finale. Ursula doesn't like Diego because he is a Kanay, and doesn't accept him and Maddie dating; however, she finally accepts Diego when he saves the Van Pelt family reunion from Jake. Ursula also wants to prove herself as a hero to the council. Ursula is head of the Van Pelt Coven. In season 3, she adopts Philip.
Rene Lavan as Francisco Alonso: Emma's father; he becomes Iridium High's principal in season 2 due to former Principal Torres's defeat in the first season. He dislikes Daniel and he likes Jax. He does not know that Emma is a witch, though his wife was one. Francisco also has a hard time talking about his wife with Emma. He and Ursula kiss in the season 4 finale: although shown to not have feelings for her, he makes it clear that he does when he returns the kiss.
Mia Matthew's as Desdemona: Desdemona is a member of the Witches Council and Emma's new Guardian in season 2 while Lily is in training. In the season, the Fool Moon turns her evil, having her bent on destroying the magic world, but she is changed back to normal by the last light. She does not approve of Emma dating Daniel at first. She is the smartest of the council.
Todd Allen Durkin as Agamemnon: Leader of the Witches' Council, he is the only wizard in the council, and the supervisor of Rebels Boot Camp in season 3. He has a grand disliking for Jax. In season 4, he and the rest of the Council become powerless because Emma steals their powers, but they get them back in the finale. He becomes the headmaster of the WITs Academy in the spin-off with the same name.
Whitney Goin as Christine Miller: Daniel's mother.
Rafael de la Fuente as Coach Julio: Adopted son of the Principal and the coach of the Sharks, who is revealed to be a frog turned into a human.
Jimmie Bernal as Rick Miller: Daniel's father. He left after season 1.
Lisa Corrado as Ramona: Third member of the Witches' Council, she is held in Limbo by Desdemona until the end of the second season, when she is freed by Maddie and Diego. She did not return in season 3.
Richard Lawrence-O'Brian as Jake Novoa: Jax's father, he is a charming yet dangerous wizard who is obsessed with power. He seems evil, but he's just looking out for his kids. He is first introduced in season 2 when Jax is video chatting Jake. In season 4, Jake comes to Miami.
Julia Antonelli as Jessie Novoa: Jax's long-lost younger sister who is introduced in season 4. Jessie didn't have powers at the beginning, but she finally gets them in the series finale, thus leading her to attend the WITs Academy to learn how to use them.
Betty Monroe as Liana Woods/Novoa: Jax and Jessie's mother that was supposedly dead. She says that Jake is bad, but she has a secret of her own. Jake soon reveals that Liana is a witch. Liana was first introduced in season 2 when Jax was talking about her.
Liam Obergfoll as Philip Van Pelt: Andi's zombie boyfriend from a video game she hacked. He appeared in season 2, but was sent back because he was dangerous. He can understand what the Hexoren is saying, although not many people do. By season 3, he returns and Ursula adopts him, making him a Van Pelt. He is also turned into a human boy by Emma. He was only shown once in season 4 due to the actor playing Tyson Fucinelli on Talia in the Kitchen.
Ethan Estrada as Oscar: Diego and Gigi's cousin. A new character on season 3. Member of the H2O, a new group similar to the Terrible 3, he and his brother Hector had the T3 framed many times for doing their (the H2O's) pranks, but they were pranked in the season 3 finale.
Nicolas James as Hector: Diego and Gigi's cousin. Oscar's younger brother and member of the H2O, a new group similar to the Terrible 3, he and his brother Oscar had the T3 framed many times for doing their (the H2O's) pranks, but they were pranked in the season 3 finale.
Demetrius Daniels as Sebastian: Gigi's cameraman. In the season 2 finale, Jax turns him into a mouse when he went to the school to get a book from his locker. In season 3, Daniel gives Mia his locker and it is unknown if he ever got it back. Gigi once started a rumor about him dating Heather B, and later revealed that he has a girlfriend in season 4. Sebastian is shown to be very kind, as when Emma took his earbuds and phone in a panic, he allowed her with no questions asked.
Violet Green as Evil Emma "E": Emma's evil and rebellious clone. She was Jax's girlfriend and tricked him so he could help her destroy the magic realm and become the only witch alive, but Jax betrayed her and the real Emma shoved her and got her stuck in the portal to Limbo. When the Principal was brought back by Emma in the series finale, E followed along, returning as well. As a Chosen One clone, she has as much power as her creator. Tougher than the other Emma's clones, Emma had to fuse with her in Season 4 finale to prevent her to come back.
Michele Verdi as Principal Torres: The principal of Iridium High in season 1 and main antagonist who wanted the Chosen One's powers, but was dispatched in that season's finale. She is seen in a flashback in season 3 when she destroyed the Cristal de Cabarello and killed Mia's parents. A former Chosen One, she is the only character known to have killed other characters. She returns in season 4 so Emma can take her powers away.
no voice as The Hexoren: A sentient book of spells, nicknamed "Hex". He can fly, open up to a specific page on command, and somewhat communicate. Hex was first of the mother of Emma, but since she is dead Emma has the book. Hex is best friends with Andi, although he belongs to Emma, and in the series finale, Emma gives Andi the book to take with her to the WITs Academy, and there the friendship is continued between Andi and Hex
Broadcast
Every Witch Way premiered on July 7, 2014, on YTV in Canada and on July 14, 2014, on Nickelodeon in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In Australia, the series debuted on August 4, 2014, on Nickelodeon. The second season premiered on February 9, 2015. The first series also started broadcast on Irish channel RTÉ 2 in April 2015.
DVD releases
Reception
Critical
After a few episodes, Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media gave the show 2 stars, saying that Every Witch Way "devotes too much time and energy to Maddie's superficiality and spite to be considered a likable choice for this impressionable age group. And since none of Maddie's actions ever land her in hot water she can't work a spell to escape, kids never see her learn a lesson." She also notes it "suffers from some subpar acting and a low-budget look and feel, and the absence of even a laugh track", leaving it "unusually flat for a tween sitcom. And without the bells and whistles kids tend to like in their entertainment, there's nothing to distract them from the excessive superficiality and pettiness that plague many of the central characters".
Ratings
The premiere episode had an estimated 2.10 million viewers. The second episode drew 2.86 million viewers, giving a large increase in audience. The season one finale on January 30, 2014, had 2.60 million viewers, while the first season had a total average of 2.166 million viewers, and a top rating for the 4-11 demographic.
The season 2 episodes drew numerous viewers, however, its eighth episode, drew 1.71 million viewers, The one hour season two finale on August 8, 2014, had 1.70 million viewers, giving the second season a total average of 1.696 million viewers. The Spellbound special, which premiered on November 26, 2014, had 1.58 million viewers, earning a top rating in season 2 for the 18-49 demographic.
The season 3 premiere had 1.66 million viewers. The second episode of season 3 had 1.54 million viewers, causing a small drop until the third episode, which drew 1.56 million viewers. The season 3 finale drew 1.71 million viewers.
Season 4 premiered with 1.50 million viewers. The crossover with Talia in the Kitchen drew 1.16 million viewers during its first half. The 14th episode had 0.96 million viewers, an unusually small audience. The series finale on July 30, 2015, had 1.64 million viewers.
Awards and nominations
International broadcast
Spin-off
On February 25, 2015, Nickelodeon announced a spin-off titled WITS Academy. It is a daily strip about the comedic adventures of witches- and wizards-in-training based on the third season of Grachi, and it premiered on October 5, 2015, ending on October 30, 2015. It was announced by Daniela Nieves that the show was not renewed for a second season, thus making the season 1 finale its series finale. The series is created by Catharina Ledeboer, produced by Viacom International, and executive produced by Tatiana Rodriguez.
References
External links
2014 American television series debuts
2015 American television series endings
2010s American comedy-drama television series
2010s American high school television series
2010s American single-camera sitcoms
2010s American teen drama television series
2010s American teen sitcoms
2010s Nickelodeon original programming
YTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming
English-language television shows
Television shows set in Miami
Television about magic
Witchcraft in television
Wizards in television
American telenovelas
American television spin-offs
Latino sitcoms
Television series about teenagers
Grachi | wiki |
An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15 m long that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water. Smaller chunks of floating glacially-derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits". The sinking of the Titanic in 1912 led to the formation of the International Ice Patrol in 1914. Much of an iceberg is below the surface, which led to the expression "tip of the iceberg" to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen issue. Icebergs are considered a serious maritime hazard.
Icebergs vary considerably in size and shape. Icebergs that calve from glaciers in Greenland are often irregularly shaped while Antarctic ice shelves often produce large tabular (table top) icebergs. The largest iceberg in recent history, named B-15, was measured at nearly in 2000. The largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg measuring sighted west of Scott Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, by the USS Glacier on November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger than Belgium.
Etymology
The word iceberg is a partial loan translation from the Dutch word ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain, cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg.
Overview
Typically about one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water, which follows from Archimedes's Principle of buoyancy; the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m3 (57 lb/cu ft), and that of seawater about . The contour of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface.
The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Icebergs may reach a height of more than above the sea surface and have mass ranging from about 100,000 tonnes up to more than 10 million tonnes. Icebergs or pieces of floating ice smaller than 5 meters above the sea surface are classified as "bergy bits"; smaller than 1 meter—"growlers". The largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker Eastwind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have interior temperatures of .
Drift
A given iceberg's trajectory through the ocean can be modelled by integrating the equation
where m is the iceberg mass, v the drift velocity, and the variables f, k, and F correspond to the Coriolis force, the vertical unit vector, and a given force. The subscripts a, w, r, s, and p correspond to the air drag, water drag, wave radiation force, sea ice drag, and the horizontal pressure gradient force.
Icebergs deteriorate through melting and fracturing, which changes the mass m, as well as the surface area, volume, and stability of the iceberg. Iceberg deterioration and drift, therefore, are interconnected iceberg thermodynamics, and fracturing must be considered when modelling iceberg drift.
Winds and currents may move icebergs close to coastlines, where they can become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice), or drift into shallow waters, where they can come into contact with the seabed, a phenomenon called seabed gouging.
Bubbles
Air trapped in snow forms bubbles as the snow is compressed to form firn and then glacial ice. Icebergs can contain up to 10% air bubbles by volume. These bubbles are released during melting, producing a fizzing sound that some may call "Bergie Seltzer". This sound results when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As each bubble bursts it makes a "popping" sound and the acoustic properties of these bubbles can be used to study iceberg melt.
Stability
An iceberg may flip, or capsize, as it melts and breaks apart, changing the center of gravity. Capsizing can occur shortly after calving when the iceberg is young and establishing balance. Icebergs are unpredictable and can capsize anytime and without warning. Large icebergs that break off from a glacier front and flip onto the glacier face can push the entire glacier backwards for a few minutes, producing earthquakes that give off as much energy as an atomic bomb.
Color
Icebergs are generally white because they are covered in snow, but can be green, blue, yellow, black, striped, or even rainbow-colored. Seawater, algae and lack of air bubbles in the ice can create diverse colors. Sediment can create the dirty black coloration present in some icebergs.
Shape
In addition to size classification (Table 1), icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shapes. The two basic types of iceberg forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a flat top, much like a plateau, with a length-to-height ratio of more than 5:1.
This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island, can be quite large, as in the case of Pobeda Ice Island. Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular. The largest icebergs in the world are formed this way.
Non-tabular icebergs have different shapes and include:
Dome: An iceberg with a rounded top.
Pinnacle: An iceberg with one or more spires.
Wedge: An iceberg with a steep edge on one side and a slope on the opposite side.
Dry-dock: An iceberg that has eroded to form a slot or channel.
Blocky: An iceberg with steep, vertical sides and a flat top. It differs from tabular icebergs in that its aspect ratio, the ratio between its width and height, is small, more like that of a block than a flat sheet.
Monitoring and control
History
Prior to 1914 there was no system in place to track icebergs to guard ships against collisions. despite fatal sinkings of ships by icebergs. In 1907, SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, rammed an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but was still able to complete her voyage. The advent of steel ship construction led designers to declare their ships "unsinkable".
The April 1912 sinking of the Titanic, which killed 1,496 of its 2,223 passengers and crew, discredited this claim. For the remainder of the ice season of that year, the United States Navy patrolled the waters and monitored ice movements. In November 1913, the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea met in London to devise a more permanent system of observing icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed the International Ice Patrol (IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data on meteorology and oceanography to measure currents, ice-flow, ocean temperature, and salinity levels. They monitored iceberg dangers near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and provided the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community. The IIP published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg movement.
Technological development
Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness of radar in detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster evaluation of data. By the 1970s, ice-breaking ships were equipped with automatic transmissions of satellite photographs of ice in Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, drifting buoys were used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic and climate research. They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean temperature and currents.
Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) made it possible to acquire images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995, Canada launched RADARSAT-1. Developed by the Canadian Space Agency, it provides images of Earth for scientific and commercial purposes. This system was the first to use synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which sends microwave energy to the ocean surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. The European Space Agency launched ENVISAT (an observation satellite that orbits the Earth's poles) on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space Agency launched RADARSAT-2 in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and follows the same orbit path as RADARSAT-1.
Modern monitoring
Iceberg concentrations and size distributions are monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Center (NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay ice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.
The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than along at least one axis a name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used are as follows:
A – longitude 0° to 90° W (Bellingshausen Sea, Weddell Sea)
B – longitude 90° W to 180° (Amundsen Sea, Eastern Ross Sea)
C – longitude 90° E to 180° (Western Ross Sea, Wilkes Land)
D – longitude 0° to 90° E (Amery Ice Shelf, Eastern Weddell Sea)
The Danish Meteorological Institute monitors iceberg populations around Greenland using data collected by the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on the Sentinel-1 satellites.
Iceberg management
In Labrador and Newfoundland, iceberg management plans have been developed to protect offshore installations from impacts with icebergs.
Commercial use
In the late 2010s, a business from the UAE wanted to tow an iceberg from Antarctica to the Middle East, but the plan failed as the estimated cost of $200 million was too high. In 2019, a German company, Polewater, announced plans to tow Antarctic icebergs to places like South Africa.
Companies have used iceberg water in products such as bottled water, fizzy ice cubes and alcoholic drinks. For example, Iceberg Beer by Quidi Vidi Brewing Company is made from icebergs found around St. John's, Newfoundland. Although annual iceberg supply in Newfoundland and Labrador exceeds the total freshwater consumption of the United States, in 2016 the province introduced a tax on iceberg harvesting and imposed a limit on how much fresh water can be exported yearly.
Oceanography and ecology
The freshwater injected into the ocean by melting icebergs can change the density of the seawater in the vicinity of the iceberg. Fresh melt water released at depth is lighter, and therefore more buoyant, than the surrounding seawater causing it to rise towards the surface. Icebergs can also act as floating breakwaters, impacting ocean waves.
Icebergs contain variable concentrations of nutrients and minerals that are released into the ocean during melting. Iceberg-derived nutrients, particularly the iron contained in sediments, can fuel blooms of phytoplankton. Samples collected from icebergs in Antarctica, Patagonia, Greenland, Svalbard, and Iceland, however, show that iron concentrations vary significantly, complicating efforts to generalize the impacts of icebergs on marine ecosystems.
Recent large icebergs
Iceberg B15 calved from the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 and initially had an area of . It broke apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it, Iceberg B-15A, with an area of , was still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica. It has been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by ocean swell generated by an Alaskan storm 6 days earlier and away.
1987, Iceberg B-9,
1998, Iceberg A-38, about
1999, Iceberg B-17B , shipping alert issued December 2009.
2000, Iceberg B-15
2002, Iceberg C-19,
2002, Iceberg B-22,
2003 broke off, Iceberg B-15A,
2006, Iceberg D-16,
2010, Ice sheet, , broken off of Petermann Glacier in northern Greenland on August 5, 2010, considered to be the largest Arctic iceberg since 1962. About a month later, this iceberg split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next to Greenland. In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed off the Labrador coast.
2014, Iceberg B-31, , 2014
2017, Iceberg A-68, (Larsen C)
2018, Iceberg B-46,
2019, Iceberg D-28,
2021, Iceberg A-74 from the Brunt Ice Shelf,
2021, Iceberg A-76 from the Ronne Ice Shelf,
See also
List of recorded icebergs by area
Drift ice station
Ice calving
Ice drift
Polar ice cap
Polar ice pack (disambiguation)
Polynya
Sea ice
Seabed gouging by ice
Shelf ice
References
External links
Iceberg Finder Service for east coast of Canada
Icebergs of The Arctic and Antarctic
Bodies of ice
Ice in transportation
Oceanographical terminology | wiki |
The following is a list of all team-to-team transactions that have occurred in the National Basketball Association during the 2007–08 NBA season. It lists what team each player has been traded to, signed by, or claimed by, and for which players or draft picks, if applicable.
Retirement
Trades
Free Agency
The following is a list of player movement via free agency.
Released
Waived
Training camp cuts
All players listed did not make the final roster.
D-League Assignments
Each NBA team can assign their players with 2 years or less of experience to the team's affiliate NBA D-League team. Players with more than two years of experience may be assigned to the D-League with the players' consent.
Draft
First round
Round Two
Previous years draftees
See also
2007–08 NBA season
2007 NBA draft
2007 in sports
2008 in sports
References
Transactions
NBA transactions | wiki |
Testament: The Bible in Animation is a 1996 Welsh-Russian Christian animated series that was produced by and shown on Sianel 4 Cymru (S4C). It was also shown on the BBC. It featured animated versions of stories from the Bible, each story using its own unique style of animation, including stop-motion animation. It ran for one series of nine episodes in the United Kingdom and won one Emmy, with three nominations, in the United States. It includes the song "Adiemus" as its intro.
The show was produced by Christmas Films and S4C, who also created the 1992-1994 series Shakespeare: The Animated Tales and the 2000 film The Miracle Maker, sharing many of the same voice talents and styles of animation.
Series overview
Episodes
Voice cast
Joss Ackland − Noah, Samuel
John Alderton − Jonah
Roger Allam - Chief Magus
Adjoa Andoh − Ruth
Oona Beeson − Ishmael
Deborah Berlin − Isaac
Patrick Brennan − Narrator, Lot, Japhet
David Burke − God
Simon Callow − Merneptah
Anna Carteret − Miriam
Terry Dauncey − Shaphat
Alan Dobie − Saul
Rebecca Egan − Lady Potiphar
Philip Franks − Daniel
Hannah Gordon − Narrator
Emma Gregory − Atarah
Christopher Guard − Jonathan
Helen Gwyn − Hagar
Robert Hardy − Abraham
Robert Harper − Adam, Young Joseph
Simon Harris − Shem
Ciarán Hinds − Satan (Lucifer)
Steve Hodson − Nebuchadnezzar
David Holt − Michael
Kelly Hunter − Eve
Gerald James − Jacob
Martin Jarvis − Moses
Siriol Jenkins − Orpah
Iestyn Jones − Elisha
Hakeem Kae-Kazim − Ham
Polly Kemp − Michal
Rob Lane − Reuben
Jane Lapotaire − Sarah
Tony Leader − Aaron, Rameses, Eliab
Anton Lesser − Joseph
Simon Ludders − Simeon
Doreen Mantle − Naomi
John McAndrew − Benjamin
Colin McFarlane − God, Goliath
Paul McGann − David
T. P. McKenna − God
Ian McNeice − Ahab
Clive Merrison − Darius
Bill Nighy − Belshazzar
Richard O'Callaghan − Judah
Carolyn Pickles − Narrator
Christine Pritchard − Witch of Endor
Sue Roderick − Naamah
Ivor Roberts − Jethro
Clive Russell − Boaz
David Schofield − Elijah
Bryn Terfel - Elijah (vocal soloist)
Mark Straker − Angel
Jonathan Tafler − Levi, Pharaoh
Stephen Thorne − King of Nineveh
Philip Voss − Lord Potiphar
Victoria Wicks − Jezebel
Broadcast UK history
BBC2 (16 October 1996 – 11 December 1996, 6 January 1997 – 13 May 1997; repeated from 1998-2006 as part of BBC2's BBC Schools daytime strand also repeated occasionally as part of the BBC Learning Zone in 2001, 2003, 2004 and 2006)
S4C (11 October 1996 – 6 December 1996; in Welsh, as Testament: Y Beibl Wedi'i Animeiddio)
References
External links
1996 British television series debuts
1996 British television series endings
1990s British animated television series
S4C original programming
British children's animated drama television series
British television miniseries
Christian animation
Welsh-language television shows
English-language television shows
1990s Welsh television series
Television series based on the Bible
Children's education television series | wiki |
Pigment Yellow 13 is an organic compound and an azo compound. It is a widely used yellow pigment. It is also classified as a diarylide pigment, being derived from 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine. It is closely related to Pigment Yellow 12, wherein the two xylyl groups are replaced by phenyl.
References
Pigments
Organic pigments
Shades of yellow
Diarylide pigments | wiki |
Csehország
Záchlumí, település a Tachovi járásban
Záchlumí, település az Ústí nad Orlicí-i járásban | wiki |
Aaron ben Joseph of Beaugency was a French Bible commentator and rabbinical scholar, who flourished in the twelfth century at Beaugency, near Orléans. He was the contemporary of Rabbenu Tam (about 1110–75), with whom he maintained a scholarly correspondence.
References
12th-century French Jews
French biblical scholars
People from Loiret | wiki |
Aldo Scaramucci (1933-2014) – calciatore italiano
Barbara Scaramucci (1949) – giornalista, archivista e accademica italiana | wiki |
The 2008 World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) draft, the sixth WWE draft, took place at the AT&T Center in San Antonio, Texas on June 23. The draft took place live for three hours on Raw. Every WWE wrestler, announcer, commentator, and general manager were eligible to be drafted. Similar to the 2007 WWE draft, wrestlers from each brand competed in matches to win a random draft pick for their brand. Draft picks were kayfabe selected at random via a computer that was shown on the Raw titantron. Like the previous year, a supplemental draft took place on June 25, where draft selections were randomly conducted. The Draft featured the Raw brand randomly drafting ECW Champion Kane from the ECW brand. It also featured the ECW brand drafting WWE United States Champion Matt Hardy from the SmackDown brand. The final selection in the draft was conducted by the SmackDown brand, and they drafted WWE Champion Triple H from the Raw brand. Per pre-draft stipulations, all the three champions brought their respective titles to the brand to which they were drafted. The 2008 Draft was the last to take place in the Ruthless Aggression Era, as the era ended after the SummerSlam PPV.
Background
The draft was announced by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon on the May 26, 2008 episode of Raw. During the announcement, he stated that every WWE performer from all three brands, Raw, ECW, and SmackDown, were eligible to be drafted. On the June 16 episode of Raw, McMahon announced that his McMahon's Million Dollar Mania contest would take place on the same night as the WWE draft. During the contest, McMahon gave away one million dollars to WWE fans. McMahon telephoned fans, who had registered for the contest, at their homes and asked them for a password, which was revealed at the opening of the Raw broadcast. If their answer was correct, he awarded the fan a portion of one million dollars.
On June 24, WWE announced on its website that a supplemental draft would take place on June 25 at noon ET. The supplemental draft, like the previous year, was conducted randomly, with each brand receiving random draft selections. Wrestlers affected by the televised draft were exempt from the supplemental draft. Because professional wrestling is scripted, outcomes are usually predetermined. Unlike years past, during this draft, many employees in WWE were not told whether they were scripted to change brands.
Aside from the Million Dollar Mania contest, the draft was announced to help increase the television ratings of Raw, which had been declining since WrestleMania XXIV. Though the draft helps increase ratings, it is also used as a way to refresh the rosters and create new storylines.
Selections
There were 28 selections conducted in the draft overall. 11 selections were conducted on television, while 17 selections occurred during the supplemental draft. The Raw brand earned five televised selections through their representatives winning five different matches, while they received six supplemental selections. In total, the Raw brand drafted 11 representatives: five on television and six through the supplemental draft. The SmackDown brand earned five television selections through their representatives winning five different matches, while they received seven supplemental selections. In total, the SmackDown brand drafted 12 representatives: five on television and seven through the supplemental draft. The ECW brand earned one televised selection through their representative winning one match, while they received four supplemental selections. In total, the ECW brand drafted five representatives: one on television and four through the supplemental draft. The 28 included two commentators, two Divas, and 24 male wrestlers (two inactive wrestlers and 22 active wrestlers).
Televised draft
Matches
During the program, representatives from the Raw, ECW and SmackDown brands were involved in matches that determined which brand received a draft pick. Overall, there were 9 matches, in which Raw won four, ECW won one, SmackDown won three and one resulted in no winner.
Selections
Supplemental draft
Aftermath
Jim Ross, one of the draftees, was unaware he was to switch brands during the draft. After the draft, Ross was on the verge of quitting his job as a commentator for WWE, as he was angry at the fact he was leaving the Raw brand, where he had commentated for over ten years. Ross stated on his official blog that he was about to quit WWE, but he decided to continue to work for the company and make the best of working on SmackDown. After the Draft, the ECW brand was left without a world championship, after the ECW Champion Kane was drafted to Raw. As a result of pre-draft stipulations, champions took their championships to their new brand and made them property of that brand. SmackDown, however, lost their secondary championship, after United States Champion Matt Hardy was drafted to the ECW brand, in the process making the title ECW property, but gained another top-tier championship when WWE Champion Triple H was drafted to the SmackDown brand, in the process making the title SmackDown exclusive for the first time since 2005. The result of Triple H being drafted was the loss of the Raw brand's world championship. After the draft, the ECW Championship moved back to ECW when Mark Henry defeated Kane and Big Show in a Triple Threat match at Night of Champions, leaving Raw without any top-tier championships. On the June 30, 2008 episode of Raw, the Raw brand regained a world championship, after Money in the Bank contract holder, CM Punk, cashed in his contract and defeated the World Heavyweight Champion, Edge. Lastly, the United States Championship returned to SmackDown after Shelton Benjamin defeated Matt Hardy at The Great American Bash pay-per-view on July 20. Trevor Murdoch and Big Daddy V were both later released from WWE prior to their first appearances on SmackDown after being drafted. Chuck Palumbo was also later released from the WWE prior to his first appearance on Raw after being drafted. Big Daddy V died in 2014 of heart failure.
The draft helped increased the television ratings of Raw, which was one of the main purposes of the draft. The television rating for the three hours was 3.40 TVR, as it earned 2.78 TVR for the first hour, 3.46 TVR for the second hour, and 3.95 TVR for the final hour. In its regular time slot, the show would have garnered a 3.7 rating. Both ratings were higher than the week's previous rating of a 3.3 TVR.
See also
List of WWE personnel
Footnotes
References
General
Specific
External links
2008 WWE draft official website
Wwe Draft, 2008
WWE draft
ECW (WWE brand)
Professional wrestling in San Antonio
Events in San Antonio
2008 in Texas
June 2008 events in the United States
pl:WWE Draft#WWE Draft 2008 | wiki |
A medical emergency is an acute injury or illness that poses an immediate risk to a person's life or long-term health, sometimes referred to as a situation risking "life or limb". These emergencies may require assistance from another, qualified person, as some of these emergencies, such as cardiovascular (heart), respiratory, and gastrointestinal cannot be dealt with by the victim themselves. Dependent on the severity of the emergency, and the quality of any treatment given, it may require the involvement of multiple levels of care, from first aiders through emergency medical technicians, paramedics, emergency physicians and anesthesiologists.
Any response to an emergency medical situation will depend strongly on the situation, the patient involved, and availability of resources to help them. It will also vary depending on whether the emergency occurs whilst in hospital under medical care, or outside medical care (for instance, in the street or alone at home).
Response
Summoning emergency services
For emergencies starting outside medical care, a key component of providing proper care is to summon the emergency medical services (usually an ambulance), by calling for help using the appropriate local emergency telephone number, such as 999, 911, 111, 112 or 000. After determining that the incident is a medical emergency (as opposed to, for example, a police call), the emergency dispatchers will generally run through a questioning system such as AMPDS in order to assess the priority level of the call, along with the caller's name and location.
First aid and assisting emergency services
Those who are trained to perform first aid can act within the bounds of the knowledge they have, whilst awaiting the next level of definitive care.
Those who are not able to perform first aid can also assist by remaining calm and staying with the injured or ill person. A common complaint of emergency service personnel is the propensity of people to crowd around the scene of a victim, as it is generally unhelpful, making the patient more stressed, and obstructing the smooth working of the emergency services. If possible, first responders should designate a specific person to ensure that the emergency services are called. Another bystander should be sent to wait for their arrival and direct them to the proper location. Additional bystanders can be helpful in ensuring that crowds are moved away from the ill or injured patient, allowing the responder adequate space to work.
Legal protections for responders
To prevent the delay of life-saving aid from bystanders, many states of the USA have "Good Samaritan laws" which protect civilian responders who choose to assist in an emergency. In many situations, the general public may delay giving care due to fear of liability should they accidentally cause harm. Good Samaritan laws often protect responders who act within the scope of their knowledge and training, as a "reasonable person" in the same situation would act.
The concept of implied consent can protect first responders in emergency situations. A first responder may not legally touch a patient without the patient's consent. However, consent may be either expressed or implied:
If a patient is able to make decisions, they must give expressed, informed consent before aid is given.
However, if a patient is too injured or ill to make decisions – for example, if they are unconscious, have an altered mental status, or cannot communicate - implied consent applies. Implied consent means that treatment can be given, because it is assumed that the patient would want that care.
Usually, once care has begun, a first responder or first aid provider may not leave the patient or terminate care until a responder of equal or higher training (such as an emergency medical technician) assumes care. This can constitute abandonment of the patient and may subject the responder to legal liability. Care must be continued until the patient is transferred to a higher level of care; the situation becomes too unsafe to continue; or the responder is physically unable to continue due to exhaustion or hazards.
Unless the situation is particularly hazardous and is likely to further endanger the patient, evacuating an injured victim requires special skills, and should be left to the professionals of the emergency medical and fire service.
The chain of survival
The principles of the chain of survival apply to medical emergencies where the patient is not breathing and has no pulse. This involves four stages:
Early access
Early cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
Early defibrillation
Early advanced life support (ALS)
Clinical response
Within hospital settings, an adequate staff is generally present to deal with the average emergency situation. Emergency medicine physicians and anaesthesiologists have training to deal with most medical emergencies, and maintain CPR and Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) certifications. In disasters or complex emergencies, most hospitals have protocols to summon on-site and off-site staff rapidly.
Both emergency department and inpatient medical emergencies follow the basic protocol of Advanced Cardiac Life Support. Irrespective of the nature of the emergency, adequate blood pressure and oxygenation are required before the cause of the emergency can be eliminated. Possible exceptions include the clamping of arteries in severe hemorrhage.
Non-trauma emergencies
While the golden hour is a trauma treatment concept, two emergency medical conditions have well-documented time-critical treatment considerations: stroke and myocardial infarction (heart attack). In the case of stroke, there is a window of three hours within which the benefit of thrombolytic drugs outweighs the risk of major bleeding. In the case of a heart attack, rapid stabilization of fatal arrhythmias can prevent sudden cardiac arrest. In addition, there is a direct relationship between time-to-treatment and the success of reperfusion (restoration of blood flow to the heart), including a time-dependent reduction in the mortality and morbidity.
See also
List of medical emergencies
Rescue squad
Surgical emergency
References
Critical emergency medicine
Emergency medicine
es:Medicina de emergencia | wiki |
Neurophysiotherapy, or neurological physiotherapy, is a branch of physiotherapy which treats motor deficits arising from pathology in the nervous system.
See also
Bobath concept
Frenkel exercises
References
Physical therapy | wiki |
Subsets and Splits
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