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In mathematics, a stuck unknot is a closed polygonal chain that is topologically equal to the unknot but cannot be deformed to a simple polygon by rigid motions of the segments.
Similarly a stuck open chain is an open polygonal chain such that the segments may not be aligned by moving rigidly its segments. Topologically such a chain can be unknotted, but the limitation of using only rigid motions of the segments can create nontrivial knots in such a chain.
Consideration of such "stuck" configurations arises in the study of molecular chains in biochemistry.
References
Knots (knot theory) | wiki |
XMPlay is a freeware audio player for Windows. Initially released in 1998, it is often used as a reference player for tracker audio files.
Overview
Developed by Un4seen Developments in 1998, it originally only supported the XM file format of Fast Tracker II, from where the name "XMPlay" originates.
XMPlay is able to handle many tracker file formats, as well as widely used music formats such as MP3, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, Opus, WAV, WMA, as well as many less common formats, through plug-ins found on the website. Plugins from the Winamp audio player can also be used to extend XMPlay's capabilities.
XMPlay is very powerful yet lightweight software: the whole package only takes up less than 360 KB.
The software also offers typical audio player features, such as being able to play internet radio streams, organizing music files into playlists and the visualization of sounds generated by real-time animations.
Changing the look of the software is also available through skins.
Another notable feature that XMPlay has is that it can handle true gapless playback between files.
Engine
XMPlay's engine for processing audio files is available as a separate program library under the name of BASS or BASSMOD (only for tracker files) or BASSASIO (Steinberg's ASIO protocol).
These libraries can also be used on non-Windows operating systems, they are free for non-commercial use, with commercial use needing to pay a fee for a license (with the exception of BASSMOD, which doesn't require a license).
For the Unix audio player, "X Multimedia System" (XMMS), a MOD playing plug-in based on BASSMOD is available.
See also
MO3
References
External links
XMplay version history and changelogs
Windows media players
Windows-only freeware
Media players | wiki |
The Middleweight class in the boxing at the 2010 Commonwealth Games competition is a class. Middleweights were limited to those boxers weighing less than .
27 boxers competed.
Like all Olympic boxing events, the competition was a straight single-elimination tournament. Both semifinal losers were awarded bronze medals, so no boxers competed again after their first loss. Bouts consisted of four rounds of two minutes each, with one-minute breaks between rounds. Punches scored only if the white area on the front of the glove made full contact with the front of the head or torso of the opponent. Five judges scored each bout; three of the judges had to signal a scoring punch within one second for the punch to score. The winner of the bout was the boxer who scored the most valid punches by the end of the bout.
Medalists
Tournament
Middleweight Bracket
References
Boxing at the 2010 Commonwealth Games | wiki |
Oculus Touch is the motion controller system used by Reality Labs in their Rift CV, Rift S, Quest, and Quest 2 virtual reality systems. Three iterations of the controllers have been developed; the first for use in the original Oculus Rift, which uses external tracking, and the second one for use with the Rift S and the Oculus Quest, which use inside-out tracking, and the third, for use with the Meta Quest 2, resembling the second models, but with a similar grip and button layout to the first.
Hardware
The Oculus Touch consists of a pair of handheld units, each featuring an analog stick, three buttons, and two triggers, (one commonly used for grabbing and the other for shooting or firing), along with the first and third iterations having a dedicated thumbrest. and features a system for detecting finger gestures the user may make while holding them. The ring in each controller contains a set of infrared LEDs, which allows the controllers to be fully tracked in 3D space by the Oculus Rift's Constellation tracking system or the Oculus Insight tracking system in later models, allowing them to be represented in the virtual environment. Each controller features a rumble motor for haptic feedback and is powered by a single AA alkaline cell. The fourth iteration adopted infrared cameras to track themselves around your space.
Products
First iteration
The first iteration of Oculus Touch was revealed on June 11, 2015, with a prototype called the Half Moon. The prototype used the same infrared LED tracking technology as the Oculus Rift and included inward-facing sensors which could detect common hand gestures.
Since the Oculus Rift was initially shipped without motion controllers, the Oculus Touch was first released as a standalone accessory for the Rift. Pre-orders for Oculus Touch began on October 10, 2016, with priority granted until October 27 to those who had originally pre-ordered the Oculus Rift. The device was finally released on December 6, 2016. Besides the two controllers, this standalone bundle included an extra Constellation sensor, to accompany the one included with the first release of the Oculus Rift. Later, in August 2017, the standard Rift bundle was modified, the Oculus Touch, with its second sensor, became an integral part of the Oculus Rift bundle.
Second iteration
A second iteration of the controller was released in March 2019, included with both the Oculus Rift S and the Oculus Quest. The most prominent modification is that, now designed to work with the Oculus Insight inside-out tracking system, the controllers' IR rings were moved to the top of the device facing the user to ensure their visibility from the headset's tracking cameras. Due to an oversight, the first batch of these controllers made it to developers and even retail including an "easter egg" message inside the controllers.
Third iteration
A third iteration was included with the Meta Quest 2, including a similar design to the first Oculus Touch controllers, but with a white color, better ergonomics, and improved battery life along with enhanced haptics. This iteration brought back the dedicated thumb rest after it was removed from the second iteration of the Oculus Touch controllers. This iteration also features a snap mechanism for the battery latch as opposed to the magnetic battery latch on the first and second revision to prevent the battery door randomly slipping off during intense gameplay. The controller has been criticized for being less accurate than the previous revision.
Touch Pro
The fourth iteration of Oculus Touch—branded as Touch Pro—was unveiled in October 2022. They are included with the Meta Quest Pro and are also available as an optional accessory for the Quest 2. They have a smaller form factor than the existing Oculus Touch controllers, accomplished primarily by replacing the infrared sensor ring with cameras used for on-board motion tracking. As a result, they no longer experience degraded accuracy when outside of the headset's line-of-sight. To facilitate this feature, the controllers now include Qualcomm Snapdragon 662 processors. The controller also has a pressure sensor designed to detect pinching gestures, and rechargeable batteries.
References
American inventions
Oculus VR
Products introduced in 2016
Game controllers | wiki |
General Grover may refer to:
Cuvier Grover (1828–1885), Union Army brigadier general and brevet major general
John Grover (British Army officer) (1897–1979), British Army major general
Malcolm Henry Grover (1858–1945), British Indian Army general | wiki |
Malpolon is a genus of snakes, containing the following species:
Malpolon insignitus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1827) – eastern Montpellier snake
Malpolon moilensis (Reuss, 1834) – False cobra
Malpolon monspessulanus (Hermann, 1804) – Montpellier snake
References
External links
Psammophiidae
Snakes of Africa
Reptiles of Europe
Snake genera
Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger | wiki |
Razzia – sinonimo di saccheggio
Razzia – film diretto da Werner Klingler
Razzia – film diretto da Nabil Ayouch | wiki |
Victoria Dam may refer to:
Victoria Dam (Cape Town)
Victoria Dam (Sri Lanka), the largest hydroelectric dam in Sri Lanka
Victoria Dam (Western Australia), a dam in Australia | wiki |
This is a list of notable female mixed martial arts fighters in alphabetical order.
A
Mariya Agapova - (UFC, Invicta)
Jessica Aguilar - (UFC, Bellator, WSOF)
Hitomi Akano - (M-1, Strikeforce, Pancrase, JEWELS, Smackgirl, Invicta)
Alexandra Albu - (UFC)
Irene Aldana - (UFC, Invicta)
JJ Aldrich - (UFC, Invicta)
Reiko Amano
Alyse Anderson - (OneFC)
Megan Anderson - (Invicta, UFC)
Jessica Andrade - (UFC)
Nina Ansaroff - (UFC, Invicta)
Viviane Araújo - (UFC)
Glena Avila
Julia Avila - (UFC, Invicta)
Diana Avsaragova - (Bellator)
B
Jorina Baars - (OneFC)
Maycee Barber - (UFC, Legacy)
Shayna Baszler - (EliteXC, ShoXC, Strikeforce, Invicta, UFC)
Diana Belbiţă - (UFC)
Amanda Bell - (Invicta, Bellator)
DeAnna Bennett - (Invicta, UFC)
Julia Berezikova - (M-1, SFL)
Lucie Bertaud - (Bellator, Titan FC)
Jemyma Betrian
Erin Blanchfield - (UFC, Invicta)
Arlene Blencowe - (Bellator)
Mara Romero Borella - (UFC, Invicta)
Poliana Botelho - (XFC, UFC)
Amber Brown - (Invicta, KOTC, Pancrase)
Annalisa Bucci - (KOTC, Bellator)
Alexandra Buch - (JEWELS)
Julia Budd - (Bellator, Invicta, Strikeforce)
C
Priscila Cachoeira - (UFC)
Joanne Calderwood - (UFC, Invicta, CWFC, SFL)
Cynthia Calvillo - (UFC, LFA)
Gina Carano - (EliteXC, Strikeforce)
Ariane Carnelossi - (UFC)
Cortney Casey - (UFC, XFC)
Alex Chambers - (JEWELS, Invicta, UFC)
Liz Carmouche - (UFC, Strikeforce, Invicta, Bellator)
Macy Chiasson - (UFC)
Jennifer Chieng - (Bellator, Invicta)
Katlyn Chookagian - (UFC, CFFC)
Monika Chochlikova - (Bellator)
Hannah Cifers - (UFC)
Jasminka Cive - (KSW, Invicta)
Heather Clark - (UFC, Bellator, XFC)
Marloes Coenen - (DREAM, Strikeforce, Invicta, Smackgirl, Shooto, Bellator)
Mayra Conde - (Smackgirl)
Alexa Conners - (Invicta)
Amanda Cooper - (UFC, Invicta)
Bethe Correia - (Jungle Fight, UFC)
Tracy Cortez - (Invicta, UFC)
Kim Couture - (Strikeforce, XFC)
Ashley Cummins - (Invicta)
Kailin Curran - (UFC)
Cris Cyborg - (EliteXC, Strikeforce, Invicta, UFC, Bellator)
D
Sarah D'Alelio - (Invicta, BAMMA USA, Pancrase)
Aisling Daly - (Invicta, Bellator, Cage Rage, CWFC, UFC)
Cindy Dandois - (UFC, Invicta, Rizin FF, PFL)
Sunna Davíðsdóttir - (Invicta)
Alexis Davis - (UFC, Strikeforce, Invicta)
Jillian DeCoursey - (Invicta)
Jéssica Delboni - (Invicta)
Mackenzie Dern - (Legacy, UFC)
Shana Dobson - (UFC)
Julia Dorny - (IMMAF)
Emily Ducote - (Bellator, Invicta)
Milana Dudieva - (UFC, Invicta)
Faith Van Duin - (Invicta)
Jessamyn Duke - (UFC, Invicta)
Norma Dumont - (UFC)
E
Stephanie Eggink - (Invicta, XFC)
Lisa Ellis - (Smackgirl, Invicta, Bellator, DEEP, UFC)
Bolormaa "Esui" Erdenebileg - (JEWELS)
Jodie Esquibel - (Invicta, UFC)
Carla Esparza - (UFC, Invicta, Bellator, XFC)
Sijara Eubanks - (UFC, Invicta)
Ashlee Evans-Smith - (UFC, WSOF)
Tonya Evinger - (EliteXC, ShoXC, Invicta, Titan FC, UFC)
Jessica Eye - (UFC, Bellator)
F
Genah Fabian - (PFL)
Melinda Fabian - (UFC)
Stamp Fairtex - (OneFC)
Kalindra Faria - (UFC)
Christine Ferea - (Invicta)
Jan Finney - (Strikeforce, ShoXC, KOTC, PFC)
Manon Fiorot - (UFC)
Stephanie Frausto - (Bellator, Invicta, TPF)
Jinh Yu Frey - (UFC, Invicta, Rizin FF, Road FC)
Ania Fucz
Megumi Fujii - (Sengoku, Bellator, JEWELS, Shooto, Smackgirl, VTJ)
Emi Fujino - (Sengoku, JEWELS, Smackgirl, WSOF)
G
Cláudia Gadelha - (UFC, Invicta)
Sheila Gaff - (M-1, CWFC, UFC, XFC-i)
Priscilla Hertati Lumban Gaol - (One FC)
Gabi Garcia - (Rizin FF)
Stephanie Geltmacher - (Invicta, Bellator)
Alexa Grasso - (UFC, Invicta)
Alida Gray - (WSOF, Invicta)
Minna Grusander - (Invicta)
Ediane Gomes - (KOTC, Invicta)
Pearl Gonzalez - (UFC, Invicta)
Zoila Frausto Gurgel - (Invicta, Bellator, Strikeforce, TPF, RFA)
H
Claire Haigh
Seo Hee Ham - (UFC, Smackgirl, DEEP, JEWELS, Road FC, One)
Ayaka Hamasaki - (JEWELS, Rizin, Invicta, Shooto)
Kay Hansen - (UFC, Invicta)
Janay Harding - (Bellator)
Heather Hardy - (Bellator)
Kayla Harrison - (PFL)
Takayo Hashi - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, Strikeforce, Invicta)
Angela Hill - (UFC, Invicta)
Itsuki Hirata (One)
Felice Herrig - (UFC, Bellator, XFC)
Munah Holland - (Bellator, Invicta)
Holly Holm - (Bellator, Legacy, UFC)
Barb Honchak - (Invicta, KOTC, UFC)
Ikuma Hoshino - (Smackgirl, Shooto)
Yumiko Hotta - (DEEP, VTJ)
I
Daria Ibragimova - (Invicta)
Mai Ichii - (DEEP, JEWELS, Smackgirl)
Mizuki Inoue - (JEWELS, DEEP, Invicta)
Kikuyo Ishikawa - (JEWELS, Pancrase)
Saori Ishioka - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, Pancrase, DEEP)
J
Sharon Jacobson - (Invicta)
Virna Jandiroba - (UFC, Invicta)
Joanna Jędrzejczyk - (UFC, CWFC)
Adrienna Jenkins - (WEC, HOOKnSHOOT, Bellator)
Liana Jojua - (UFC, Kunlun)
Jocelyn Jones-Lybarger - (UFC, Invicta, RFA, KOTC)
Ana Julaton - (OneFC, Bellator)
K
Emily Kagan - (UFC, Invicta)
Mari Kaneko - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, DEEP)
Katja Kankaanpää - (CWFC, Invicta)
Anita Karim - (OneFC)
Nadia Kassem - (UFC)
Sarah Kaufman – (Invicta, KOTC, PFC, Strikeforce, UFC)
Julie Kedzie - (KOTC, ShoXC, Strikeforce, EliteXC, UFC)
Amanda Kelly - (CWFC)
Pannie Kianzad - (UFC, CWFC, Invicta)
Denise Kielholtz - (Bellator)
Ji Yeon Kim - (UFC)
Kyoko Kimura - (Pancrase)
Justine Kish - (RFA, UFC)
Asami Kodera - (Smackgirl, JEWELS)
Syuri Kondo - (UFC)
Yuuki Kondo - (Smackgirl)
Karolina Kowalkiewicz - (UFC, Invicta, KSW)
Rena Kubota - (JEWELS, Rizin FF)
Yana Kunitskaya - (Invicta, UFC)
Mina Kurobe - (JEWELS, Shooto)
L
Aspen Ladd - (Invicta, UFC)
Lina Länsberg - (UFC)
Alejandra Lara - (Bellator)
Tara LaRosa - (Invicta, Smackgirl)
Andrea Lee - (Invicta, LFA, UFC)
Angela Lee - (ONE)
Victoria Lee - (ONE)
Katharina Lehner - (Invicta, Bellator)
Amber Leibrock - (Invicta, Bellator)
Lei'D Tapa - (Rizin)
Valérie Létourneau - (UFC, Bellator)
Becky Levi - (DEEP)
Su Jeong Lim
Juliana Lima - (UFC, Invicta)
Ariane Lipski - (UFC, KSW)
Loma Lookboonmee - (UFC, Invicta)
Amanda Lucas - (DEEP)
M
Ilima-Lei Macfarlane - (Bellator)
Angela Magaña - (UFC)
Veronica Macedo - (UFC)
Valesca Machado - (Invicta)
Tomo Maesawa - (JEWELS, Rizin)
Jennifer Maia - (Invicta, Cage Warriors, UFC)
Bea Malecki - (UFC)
Randa Markos - (RFA, UFC)
Christina Marks - (UFC)
Miranda Maverick - (Invicta, UFC)
Elaina Maxwell - (Strikeforce)
Gina Mazany - (UFC)
Sabina Mazo - (UFC)
Molly McCann - (UFC, Cage Warriors)
Liz McCarthy - (Invicta)
Danni McCormack - (Bellator)
Leah McCourt - (Bellator, Cage Warriors)
Sara McMann - (Titan FC, Invicta, UFC)
Kaline Medeiros - (Bellator, Invicta)
Vanessa Melo - (UFC)
Randi Miller - (Invicta)
Reina Miura - (DEEP, Rizin)
Roxanne Modafferi - (KOTC, Strikeforce, Cage Warriors, Shooto, Smackgirl, JEWELS, Invicta, UFC)
Yasuko Mogi - (Shooto, Smackgirl, JEWELS)
Marina Mokhnatkina - (Fight Nights Global, Bellator)
Nicco Montaño - (UFC, KOTC)
Janaisa Morandin - (Invicta)
Sarah Moras - (UFC, Invicta, CWFC)
Peggy Morgan - (Invicta, UFC)
Maryna Moroz - (UFC, XFC-i)
Jamie Moyle - (UFC, Invicta)
Lauren Mueller - (UFC)
Lauren Murphy - (UFC, Invicta)
Serin Murray - (Smackgirl)
N
Mika Nagano - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, DEEP)
Jujeath Nagaowa - (OneFC)
Miriam Nakamoto - (Invicta)
Rose Namajunas - (UFC, Invicta)
Michelle Nicolini - (OneFC)
Agnieszka Niedźwiedź - (Invicta, Cage Warriors)
Talita Nogueira - (Bellator)
Sakura Nomura - (JEWELS)
Amanda Nunes - (Invicta, Strikeforce, UFC)
O
Saori Oshima - (Shooto, Jewels)
Ann Osman - (OneFC)
Rachael Ostovich - (Bellator, UFC, Invicta)
Lena Ovchynnikova - (Bellator, SFL)
Hatice Ozyurt - (Bellator, BAMMA)
P
Raquel Pa'aluhi - (Invicta)
Stephanie Ielö Page
Si Woo Park - (Road FC, Jewels)
Julianna Peña - (UFC)
Jessica Penne - (Invicta, Bellator, UFC)
Raquel Pennington - (Invicta, UFC)
Viviane Pereira - (XFC-i, UFC)
Elizabeth Phillips - (UFC, Invicta)
Ritu Phogat - (OneFC)
Livia von Plettenberg - (Invicta)
Vanessa Porto - (Invicta, Jungle Fight, Bellator)
Lucie Pudilova - (UFC)
Debi Purcell - (KOTC, ShoXC, Smackgirl)
R
Jessica Rakoczy - (Bellator, TPF, UFC)
Germaine de Randamie - (UFC, Strikeforce)
Alyona Rassohyna - (OneFC)
Bec Rawlings - (UFC, Invicta)
Elena Reid - (Bellator)
Marion Reneau - (UFC, TPF)
Amanda Ribas - (UFC)
Nicdali Rivera-Calanoc - (Invicta)
Angela Rivera-Parr
Gillian Robertson - (UFC)
Irina Rodina
Cassie Rodish - (Invicta)
Karina Rodríguez - (Invicta)
Marina Rodriguez - (UFC)
Montana De La Rosa - (UFC, Legacy)
Jessica Rose-Clark - (UFC, Invicta, Titan)
Ronda Rousey - (KOTC, UFC, Strikeforce)
Montserrat Ruiz - (UFC, Invicta)
S
Aya Saeid Saber - (OneFC, Kunlun)
Sumie Sakai
Colleen Schneider - (Strikeforce, SFL)
Sarah Schneider - (Invicta, PFC)
Lacey Schuckman - (Strikeforce, Invicta, Cage Warriors)
Sabriye Şengül - (Bellator)
Rosi Sexton - (Bellator, ShoXC, UFC, CWFC)
Marina Shafir (Invicta)
Antonina Shevchenko (UFC)
Valentina Shevchenko (UFC, Legacy)
Satoko Shinashi - (Shooto, Smackgirl, DEEP, RoadFC)
Dayana Silva - (Bellator)
Mayra Bueno Silva - (UFC)
Tessa Simpson - (Invicta)
Leslie Smith - (Invicta, Bellator, UFC)
Tiffany van Soest - (Invicta)
Pam Sorenson - (Invicta, KOTC)
Simona Soukupova - (Invicta)
Ketlen Souza - (Invicta)
Livia Renata Souza - (Invicta, UFC)
Lisa Spangler - (Invicta)
Felicia Spencer - (Invicta, UFC)
Christine Stanley - (Invicta)
Julija Stoliarenko - (UFC, Invicta)
Tatiana Suarez - (UFC)
Naho Sugiyama - (Invicta, JEWELS)
Shizuka Sugiyama - (JEWELS, DEEP, Rizin)
T
Chommanee Sor Taehiran
Yoko Takahashi - (EliteXC, Smackgirl)
Yasuko Tamada - (JEWELS, Shooto, Smackgirl, DEEP, Invicta)
Keiko Tamai - (Smackgirl, ShoXC)
Jennifer Tate - (ShoXC)
Miesha Tate - (UFC, Strikeforce)
Danielle Taylor - (UFC, KOTC)
Lauren Taylor - (UFC, Invicta, Legacy)
Tharoth Sam - (OneFC)
Herica Tiburcio - (Invicta)
Tecia Torres - (UFC, Invicta)
Jeet Toshi - (OneFC)
Erin Toughill - (Smackgirl, PFC)
Yuka Tsuji - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, DEEP)
Charmaine Tweet - (Invicta)
V
Paige VanZant - (UFC, Invicta)
Kerry Vera - (Bellator, Strikeforce)
Ana Carolina Vidal - (Invicta)
Polyana Viana - (UFC)
Ketlen Vieira - (UFC)
W
Brogan Walker-Sanchez - (Invicta)
Michelle Waterson - (UFC, Invicta, Strikeforce, KOTC)
Emily Whitmire - (UFC)
Danyelle Wolf - (UFC)
Wu Yanan - (UFC, Kunlun)
X
Xiong Jingnan - (OneFC, Kunlun)
Y
Megumi Yabushita - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, Pancrase, Shooto)
Yoko Yamada - (Smackgirl, JEWELS)
Mei Yamaguchi - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, VTJ, DEEP, OneFC)
Hiroko Yamanaka - (Smackgirl, JEWELS, Invicta, Strikeforce)
Yan Xiaonan - (UFC, Road FC)
Miyuu Yamamoto - (Rizin)
Duda Yankovich - (Invicta)
Ashley Yoder - (Invicta, UFC)
Kaitlin Young - (Invicta, EliteXC)
Shanna Young - (Invicta, UFC)
Z
Denice Zamboanga - (OneFC)
Alesha Zappitella - (Invicta)
Cat Zingano - (Invicta, UFC)
Weili Zhang - (UFC, Kunlun)
See also
List of male mixed martial artists
List of undefeated mixed martial artists
List of female boxers
List of female kickboxers
Ultimate Fighting Championship Pound for Pound rankings
Female mixed martial artists
Female mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists, Female | wiki |
Electrodeposition may refer to:
Electroplating, a process that uses electric current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that they form a coherent metal coating on an electrode.
Electrophoretic deposition, a term for a broad range of industrial processes which includes electrocoating, e-coating, cathodic electrodeposition, anodic electrodeposition and electrophoretic coating, or electrophoretic painting
Underpotential deposition, a phenomenon of electrodeposition of a species (typically reduction of a metal cation to a solid metal) at a potential less negative than the equilibrium (Nernst) potential for the reduction of this metal | wiki |
The Human Flame is a supervillain in DC Comics' main shared universe. He is mostly known as an enemy of Martian Manhunter.
Publication history
He first appeared in Detective Comics #274 (December 1959), and was created by Jack Miller and Joe Certa.
The character was not used again for 48 years, before reappearing to play an important role in Final Crisis. The writer, Grant Morrison, explained why they picked such an obscure character:
Human Flame is the featured character in the six-issue limited series Final Crisis Aftermath: Run!, written by Lilah Sturges, with art by Freddie Williams.
Fictional character biography
Michael Miller, the Human Flame, was a minor villain who, early in his career, was captured by the Martian Manhunter and incarcerated. He was the first actual supervillain the Manhunter faced.
After this one-off appearance, he was not seen in publication for nearly fifty years. In 2008's Justice League of America (vol. 2), he was seen robbing a bank, leading to a reluctant confrontation with Red Arrow and Hawkgirl. It was stated in this issue that in the context of the DC Universe that eight years had passed since his arrest in Detective Comics #274.
Final Crisis
He enlisted with Libra and the Secret Society of Super Villains. As a reward for joining him, Libra promised him power and his heart's desire: "revenge against the Martian Manhunter".
Following the events of Salvation Run, the Martian Manhunter was released from his imprisonment on Cygnus 4019 by Libra at the behest of the Human Flame. Preaching about granting the Society's wildest dreams, Libra stabs the Manhunter with his flaming staff while the Human Flame looks on, his wish having been the first granted by Libra. He films the murder to post on the internet later. While dying, Martian Manhunter telepathically attacked the super villains present with visions of their deaths by their arch-rivals with Vandal Savage imagining being killed by Manhunter himself. The Human Flame is ignored and cowers from the side.
The Human Flame is given a new upgraded suit by Libra. The helmet Libra shoves onto Human Flame's head emits the Anti-Life Equation turning Human Flame into a mindless drone known as a Justifier. Libra even used the Human Flame amongst other Justifiers to persuade Lex Luthor to swear an allegiance to Darkseid or be turned into a Justifier. The Human Flame was among the Justifiers under Lex Luthor's control that were fighting the Female Furies.
In the limited series Final Crisis Aftermath: Run!, the Human Flame had a wife and child, but was divorced. The Human Flame tries to hide while pursued by the Kyrgyzstani Mafia for stealing a cache of money, the villains that Libra enslaved during the Final Crisis, and the Justice League members John Stewart and Firestorm. His costume is badly damaged during a fight with the mob, and the Human Flame seeks out Heat Wave, hoping to purchase one of his signature flamethrower guns. Heat Wave refuses, denouncing him as "pathetic", and gives him a harsh beating. Wounded and unable to afford health care, the Human Flame visits General Immortus who turns him over to Professor Milo. Milo fixes his injuries, and adds cybernetic parts, adding strength and invulnerability, and implanted flamethrowers in his chest, mouth and arms. However, to ensure the Human Flame's loyalty, Immortus has his flamethrowers rigged to cause intense pain whenever he uses them, and orders him to kill Immortus' foe, N-Emy (whom General Immortus blamed for stealing something from him).
The Human Flame later attempts some freelance jobs, stealing from a bank with the help of Seductress (one of the augmented henchmen and lover of Immortus himself) and swaying her to his side, but he's quickly discovered and charged with treason by Milo and Immortus, who try to shut down his powers with a remote control. With Seductress rushing again to his aid, the Human Flame is able to escape destroying the remote but injuring himself in the process.
Human Flame discovers that his new cyborg body has uncanny recuperative abilities that fix the broken jaw suffered during his escape. He fights his former allies successfully, killing them all until Immortus shuts down his powers with a secondary, wireless remote. The Human Flame then regains his powers by sheer will (even the augmented powers), badly burning Immortus. He then tortures Professor Milo to get further augmentations to put him on par with the Justice League and everyone else wanting vengeance against him. Milo sends him to S.T.A.R. Labs to get himself infused with atomic energy in a new experimental process. There, Human Flame and Seductress are attacked by a Hyper-Griffin, thus alerting S.T.A.R.'s security (actually one lone scientist) who agrees to give Human Flame the energy infusion to dispatch the Hyper-Griffin, although the energy infusion is temporary unless Human Flame can reach a nearby nuclear power plant and bathe in its energies, even though he risks death and a deadly meltdown. Despite the risks, he leaves Seductress behind and dupes John Stewart into dunking him in the main reactor. As a result, the nuclear plant is engulfed in a fiery explosion.
Despite the magnitude of the explosion, so powerful that the assembled heroes barely manage to contain it with their maximum efforts, Flame emerges as a fiery, radioactive being, in a molten approximation of a human body, able to increase his mass and density. Calling himself the Inhuman Flame, he rampages through the city until he increases his mass to such a degree that he becomes basically immobile. Realizing that the Flame, in his quest for power, hadn't even taken into account the idea of becoming "smaller", Firestorm, Red Tornado, and John Stewart take him to outer space, tethered to heat-dispersing rod to sap his thermic-based powers. As a final revenge, and to add insult to injury, Stewart creates a cell-phone construct and takes a photo of the captive Human Flame, stressing the similarities to Martian Manhunter's fate.
DC Universe
In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". Human Flame was seen at the second-best western hotel where the Legion of Doom Villains Mixer was being held at.
Powers and abilities
When he first appears, Human Flame has no powers, but wears a costume with twelve flame-throwing nozzles on the chest.
As a part of the Run series, he is shown being turned into a cyborg with an enhanced physique, partial body armor and a series of flame-spewing nozzles implanted in his chest, belly, face, mouth and hands. He further enhances his body by an experimental radioactive infusion process: as a result, he gains a metahuman body composed of molten material, able to increase his mass and density at will and radiate high temperature radiations. In this new form he's shown to be unable, whether due to a physical limitation or simply because he is incapable of thinking that way, to reduce his increased mass, becoming in a short while a behemoth so heavy and dense that he loses the ability to move.
Throughout his attempt to escape the heroes hunting him, he was represented as an incompetent crook who gets lucky because nobody expects anything of him, allowing him to evade capture as they cannot predict his methods, although his fixation on acquiring more power and anger at his own view of life's mistreatment of him eventually allow the heroes to catch up with him.
In other media
Human Flame appears in Harley Quinn. He is seen in the episode "Something Borrowed, Something Green" as one of the villains attending the wedding of Poison Ivy and Kite Man.
References
External links
FINAL CRISIS FLASHBACK: Libra & Human Flame, Comic Book Resources, June 5, 2008
Human Flame at the DC Database Project
Comics characters introduced in 1959
DC Comics cyborgs
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics male supervillains
Fictional murderers
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities | wiki |
"Fonds" pode ser:
La Chaux-de-Fonds, municípío suíço de Neuchatel
Ruillé-Froid-Fonds, comuna francesa de Mayenne
Fonds-Verrettes, comuna haitiana do Oeste
La Chaux-de-Fonds/Le Locle, Urbanismo relojoeiro
Condado de Fond du Lac, condado do Wisconsin
La Bâtie-des-Fonds, comuna francesa de Drôme
Fond du Lac, cidade do Wisconsin
Trois-Fonds, comuna francesa de Creuse
Fonds-des-Nègres, comuna haitiana de Nippes
Ver também
Fonda
Desambiguações de topônimos | wiki |
HomeMovie.Com is a video sharing and photo sharing website. It is usually used by individuals for easy online video recording, video editing, online video storage and online video sharing. Unlike other video sharing companies, HomeMovie.Com specializes in helping users with editing and sharing long-form video (videotapes) instead of short video clips. HomeMovie.Com is one of only two companies with a web-based video recording feature.
Features
HomeMovie.Com's StashSpace service is free, and also has a subscription-based premium service that allows for unlimited storage and sharing of a user's video at higher quality levels.
A user has multiple options to add video to the user's account. One can either record video directly from a digital camcorder; upload digital video files in .wmv, .avi, .mov, .mp4, .divX, .3gp, .3g2 format; add mobile video to the account; make a video slideshow of one's photos; or send in videotapes to be professionally transferred to digital for $7 per videotape. Accepted formats include VHS, VHS-C, Hi8, Digital8, DV, miniDV, and Beta Max
Photos can be imported into a user's account. Simple editing tools exist to rotate, sharpen, blur and increase contrast of the original photo.
Videos are presented in an Interactive DVD-Style format. One can create scenes by selecting start and end points for different sections within a video. Each section, or "scene", includes a customizable thumbnail image, and the ability to create a scene name and appropriate "tags" for future searching and organization.
Private Video Sharing is conducted privately through individual email invitations to friends and family. Visitors do not need to create an account to watch a user's video
Public Sharing is accomplished through a "StashFeed"—A public video feed that can be added to a MySpace or other social networking account or blog. As a user publishes movies with the feed, this widget is automatically updated, and can hold up to 10 individual movies at any time.
Keyword tagging searching exists for easy management and mashing of photos and videos
Video can be converted for Video iPod playback with Premium Accounts.
Video SnapShots can be co-mingled with digital pictures to create PhotoAlbums set to music.
History
John Larsen founded HomeMovie.Com in 2000, and his partner Lars Krumme joined him in early 2002. Prior to 2004, the company was also known as Home Movie Corporation, or HomeMovie.Com. It is currently offering its web-based Tools through StashSpace.com.
HomeMovie.Com was the first company to offer consumer video to DVD transfer services for under $100, starting in 2000. At that time, DVDs were still a new commodity, with blank DVD media costing $45/DVD and Pioneer A01 DVD Authoring Drives in the $4,000 to $5,000 range. Competitors at that time included Life Clips, based in Massachusetts, and Yes Video, based in California.
The company's first online video editing platform was publicly launched in March 2001. They added full-length video streaming of consumer videos in 2003 through the launch of StreamingDVD. The current version of their web-based media management software was initially launched in fall of 2004 and has gone through three major updates since then.
Operation Enduring Love
In February, 2005, HomeMovie.Com launched Operation Enduring Love, a special program for family with loved ones deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. Operation Enduring Love allowed friends and family to share up to 30 minutes of video footage free through the HomeMovie.Com website. The charitable effort was co-sponsored with CenturyTel, and recognized by many members of Congress, including U.S. Senator Patty Murray (WA), U.S. Senator Elizabeth Dole (NC), U.S. Senator Saxby Chambliss (GA), U.S. Congressman Doc Hastings (WA), U.S. Congressman Adam Smith (WA), and U.S. Congressman Walter B. Jones (NC).
In June 2005, Operation Enduring Love was recognized by U.S. Senator Patty Murray and received one of her annual "Golden Tennis Shoes" recognitions. Senator Murray stated: "Operation Enduring Love is a unique way to help connect our service members overseas with their families here at home. It's a touching example of how technology can bridge the distance and help unite the many families who are sacrificing for our country."
In October, 2010, the company launched a new website at MemoryHub.Com, and added photo scanning, slide scanning, negative scanning and film transfer services to their array of video conversion services.
Professional services
In conjunction with their Consumer video editing service, HomeMovie.Com has also aimed its service at professional videographers a service aimed at professional videographers, and have worked with over 3,000 professional wedding and event videographers since 2000.
In 2003, HomeMovie.Com launched its Streaming WeddingDVD service for its customers, whereby full-length DVDs of weddings were streamed in their entirety over the Internet. It was the first effort to stream long-form video over the Internet in an Interactive DVD-Style format. In December 2004, HomeMovie.Com launched a partnership with the WeddingChannel.com to promote full-length video sharing of Weddings to brides across the country.
See also
Flickr
Kodak EasyShare Gallery
Online media center
Photo sharing
Video hosting service
Video sharing
References
External links
HomeMovie.Com's MemoryHub website
HomeMovie.Com's StashSpace website
File sharing communities | wiki |
Urgent may refer to:
Urgent (American band), a 1980s band from New York City
Urgent (Canadian band), a 1980s band from Toronto, Ontario, Canada
"Urgent" (song), a 1981 song by Foreigner
Urgent! Records, a former record company
See also
Urge (disambiguation)
Urgency (disambiguation)
Urgenta, 3468 Urgenta, minor planets
Urgenda (portmanteau of urgent and agenda), Dutch NGO | wiki |
Reux (België), een gehucht in Conneux, deelgemeente van de Belgische stad Ciney
Reux (Frankrijk), een gemeente in Frankrijk | wiki |
The food vs. feed competition is the competition for resources, such as land, between growing crops for human consumption and growing crops for animals.
The term food vs. feed competition is also used in the livestock industry to compare crop inputs (including space required) vs. protein outputs. For example, crops for people to eat require less land and other resources than crops for animals to eat so people can eat them.
In a circular agriculture system, wasted food (no longer edible by humans) can be provided to livestock, which in turn feed humans.
See also
Environmental impact of meat production
Agricultural productivity
Environmental vegetarianism
Precision fermentation
Economics of veganism
Feed conversion ratio
Fish meal
Food security
Food race
Food vs. fuel
Meat alternative
References
Food and the environment | wiki |
The name Chaba (, ) has been used to name four tropical cyclones in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. The name was contributed by Thailand and refers to the Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).
Typhoon Chaba (2004) (T0416, 19W) – A strong super typhoon that devastated Japan in 2004.
Typhoon Chaba (2010) (T1014, 16W, Katring) – approached Japan.
Typhoon Chaba (2016) (T1618, 21W, Igme) – A super typhoon that affected South Korea and Japan in October 2016.
Typhoon Chaba (2022) (T2203, 04W, Caloy) – made landfall in southwestern Guangdong province, China; 26 people were killed when an offshore crane vessel split in half during the storm and sank
Pacific typhoon set index articles | wiki |
NFL QB Club 2001, also known as NFL Quarterback Club 2001, is an American football game for the Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast. Part of the NFL Quarterback Club series, it is the last title in the series to be released for the N64 and DC. The game follows in the footsteps of the previous three titles on both consoles, with a full on NFL football simulation with all the teams, players and stats. The game cartridge was red, unlike the usual gray color for N64 cartridges.
Game Modes
Modes include Exhibition, Season, Practice & Pro Bowl, with the option for players to play past NFL Super Bowl games or create their own custom simulation.
Custom Options
The player can also create their own team and players, a full play book, and sign or trade players pre-season.
Reception
The Nintendo 64 version received "mixed" reviews, while the Dreamcast version received "generally unfavorable reviews", according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
2000 video games
Dreamcast games
High Voltage Software games
NFL Quarterback Club
Nintendo 64 games
North America-exclusive video games
Acclaim Entertainment games
Video games developed in the United States | wiki |
Personal service may refer to:
Personal service sector of the economy, which delivers services rather than goods
Service of process, delivery of court documents to a person
Personal Services, 1987 comedy film set in a brothel
Taxation
Personal service corporation in United States tax law
IR35, United Kingdom tax law for individuals paid through personal service companies | wiki |
Return of service can refer to:
Service of process
In tennis, a response to a serve | wiki |
Isotherm may refer to:
Isotherm (contour line) a type of equal temperature at a given date or time on a geographic map
Isotherm in thermodynamics, a curve on a P-V diagram for an isothermal process
Moisture sorption isotherm a curve giving the functional relationship between humidity and equilibrium water content of a material for a constant temperature
Sorption isotherm a curve giving the functional relationship between adsorbate and adsorbent in a constant-temperature adsorption process
cs:Izotermický děj#Izoterma | wiki |
Podolí is a district in Prague located south of the city centre, on the right (east) riverbank. It borders Vyšehrad in the north, Pankrác (a part of Nusle and Krč districts) in the east and Braník in the south. The river Vltava separates Podolí from Smíchov and Hlubočepy on the other riverbank.
Notable buildings of the district include neoclassical Podolí Waterworks completed in 20th century, Church of St. Michael the Archangel which is one of the oldest churches in the whole city or Podolí Swimming Stadium.
Districts of Prague
Prague 4 | wiki |
Isobar may refer to:
Isobar (meteorology), a line connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level on the maps.
Isobaric process, a process taking place at constant pressure
Isobar (nuclide), one of multiple nuclides with the same mass but with different numbers of protons (or, equivalently, different numbers of neutrons).
See also
Isosurface | wiki |
Kreda may refer to:
Kreda, a clan of the Daza people of North Africa
Kréda (horse), a variant of the Dongola horse breed
Lake Kreda, a lake in Slovenia
Kreda, a word in some Slavic languages referring to chalk or to the Cretaceous
See also
Creda | wiki |
General Ruggles may refer to:
Colden Ruggles (1869–1933), U.S. Army brigadier general
Daniel Ruggles (1810–1897), Confederate States Army brigadier general
George D. Ruggles (1833–1904), U.S. Army brigadier general
See also
Harold Ruggles-Brise (1864–1927), British Army major general | wiki |
Lone Survivor is a 2013 war film based on the Marcus Luttrell book.
Lone Survivor may also refer to:
Lone Survivor (book), a 2007 book by Marcus Luttrell with Patrick Robinson
Lone Survivor Foundation, an organization founded by Marcus Luttrell
Lone Survivor (video game), a 2012 survival horror video game, unrelated to the book and film
A single indigenous man in Brazil, commonly called the "Man of the Hole", who was the last survivor of his tribe
See also
Sole Survivor (disambiguation)
Survivor (disambiguation)
Surviving (disambiguation)
Lone (disambiguation) | wiki |
The roughscale sole (Clidoderma asperrimum) is an edible flatfish of the family Pleuronectidae. It is a demersal fish that lives on sandy, muddy bottoms at depths from , though it is most commonly found at depths of between . It can reach in length and can weigh up to . Its native habitat is the northern Pacific, from the coasts of China and Japan, across the Bering Sea to Alaska, Canada and the Californian coast of America.
Diet
The roughscale sole's diet consists of zoobenthos organisms such as marine invertebrates and fish.
References
roughscale sole
Fish of the North Pacific
roughscale sole | wiki |
Mighty Times can refer to:
Mighty Times: The Legacy of Rosa Parks, a 2002 documentary film directed by Robert Houston
Mighty Times: The Children's March, a 2004 documentary film, also directed by Robert Houston | wiki |
The United States Constitution was first printed by Dunlap & Claypoole in 1787, during the Constitutional Convention. From the original printing, 13 original copies are known to exist.
Dunlap & Claypoole
The Constitutional Convention's printers, Dunlap & Claypoole, printed the drafts and final copies of the United States Constitution. John Dunlap and David C. Claypoole had printed for Congress since 1775, including the first copies of the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation, and were designated Congress's official printer in 1778. During the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Dunlap & Claypoole printed 820 draft copies and 500 final copies at a total cost of $420.
John Dunlap received the first draft of the Constitution from the Committee of Detail for printing as a seven-page broadside on August 4, 1787, and was turned around in two days for the Convention's members. Copies of this first draft exist in the separately collected papers of the Convention, James Madison, and David Brearley.
In early September, the Constitution was referred to the Committee of "Stile and arrangements" for revisions, with new copies of this second draft printed on September 12 for the convention's members. The Convention read the amended report the next day. Extant copies of this four-folio and penultimate draft of the Constitution rest in the papers of Madison and Brearley, as well as those of George Washington (Library of Congress), each with markings made over the next three days.
Three days following the second draft's printing, the Convention, with its business concluded, ordered a printing of 500 copies of the third and final draft on September 15, to be dated September 17, 1787, when the Convention's proceedings and its engrossed Constitution were to be signed. Apart from interlineations, the printed and engrossed versions are identical. The Constitutional Congress sent the Convention's report for state ratification on September 28. The Congress's records indicate orders of 200 additional copies in close proximity to their resolution.
In the final Constitution's printing, Dunlap & Claypoole produced 500 copies of a six-page broadside with Caslon small-pica type. Its sole typographical error mistakenly spelled out a number in Article Five but was corrected in subsequent reprints.
Extant final copies
There are 13 extant original copies of the Constitution in known existence, two of which are owned privately. The final printings were rarely auctioned in the 200 years since their printing.
See also
Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence
ConstitutionDAO
List of most expensive books and manuscripts
References
Bibliography
Drafting of the United States Constitution
1787 in the United States | wiki |
Half-sword, in 14th- to 16th-century fencing with longswords, refers to the technique of gripping the central part of the sword blade with the left hand in order to execute more forceful thrusts against armoured and unarmoured opponents. The term is a translation of the original German Halbschwert. The technique was also referred to as mit dem kurzen Schwert, "with the shortened sword" in German.
Half-sword is used for leverage advantage when wrestling with the sword, as well as for delivering a more accurate and powerful thrust. Both of these are critical when fighting in plate armour because a slice or a cleaving blow from a sword is virtually useless against iron or steel plate. Most medieval treatises show armoured combat as consisting primarily of fighting at the half-sword; the best options against an armoured man being a strong thrust into less-protected areas such as the armpits or throat or, even better, the same against a man who has already been cast to the ground.
Some weapons may have been modified specifically for this purpose, sporting what is called a ricasso. Some longswords had a short ricasso, usually too close to the cross and hilt of the blade for practical use in half-swording except as a point of extra leverage in a thrust. The ricasso on larger swords, such as the two-handed sword, provided a longer area more fitting for gripping during half-swording. Filippo Vadi suggests that a sword be sharp only at the tip. It has been suggested that some swords were left unsharpened in a part of the sword a hand's breadth wide about halfway down the blade in order to facilitate this technique.
In Italian and English, "half sword" refers to a crossing of the sword in the middle of the blade, and by extension the relatively close range at which this takes place.
References
Swordsmanship | wiki |
Off the Hook may refer to:
Music
Off the Hook (compilation album), in the Now That's What I Call Music! series, 2002
Off the Hook (Xscape album), 1995
"Off the Hook" (Hardwell and Armin van Buuren song), 2015
"Off the Hook" (Jody Watley song), 1998
"Off the Hook", a song by CSS from Cansei de Ser Sexy, 2005
"Off the Hook", a song by the Rolling Stones from The Rolling Stones No. 2, 1965
Television
Off the Hook (TV series), a 2009 British sitcom
Off the Hook: Extreme Catches, a 2012 American reality series
"Off the Hook" (Arrested Development), an episode
"Off the Hook" (The Closer), an episode
"Off the Hook" (Happy Tree Friends), an episode
"Off the Hook" (The Real Housewives of Atlanta), an episode
Other uses
Off the Hook (radio program), an American hacker-oriented talk program
Off the Hook, Pearl and Marina, a fictional pop duo in the Splatoon video game series | wiki |
The Lisfranc ligament is one of several ligaments which connects the medial cuneiform bone to the second metatarsal. Sometimes, the term Lisfranc ligament refers specifically to the ligament that connects the superior, lateral surface of the medial cuneiform to the superior, medial surface of the base of the second metatarsal.
Structure
The Lisfranc ligament connects the medial cuneiform bone to the second metatarsal. It is a complex of 3 ligaments: the dorsal Lisfranc ligament, the interosseous Lisfranc ligament, and the plantar Lisfranc ligament.
Variation
In 20% of people, there are two bands of each component of the ligament, usually of the dorsal Lisfranc ligament or the plantar Lisfranc ligament.
Function
The Lisfranc ligament maintains proper alignment between the metatarsal bones and the tarsal bones. It acts as a shock absorber during the weight bearing phase of the bipedal gait cycle. It also compensates for the lack of an intermetatarsal ligament between the first metatarsal bone and the second metatarsal bone.
Clinical significance
The Lisfranc ligament is injured or disrupted in the Lisfranc fracture. Trauma to the midfoot is caused by direct and indirect impact forces. Direct force involves an object landing on the surface on the foot. Indirect force involves twisting of the foot, usually an impact to the heel while the foot is pointed down toward the ground. A mild form of this injury results in a widening of the gap between the first and second metatarsals. An extreme form of the a Lisfranc fracture causes a complete dislocation of the metatarsals from the tarsal bones. When the alignment of the midfoot is affected joint cartilage is quickly damaged.
History
Eponym
The ligament and the fracture are named after the Napoleonic army surgeon, Jacques Lisfranc de St. Martin.
References
External links
orthoinfo.aaos.org
Ligaments | wiki |
Keyhole Markup Language (wordt gebruikt door Google Earth)
KiSS Markup Language | wiki |
Maintaining a common nuisance is a legal term for anyone knowingly using or renting out a place for people to make, sell, or use illegal drugs. It can also be used against someone manufacturing or distributing alcohol in an illegal manner at a location.
References
Legal terminology | wiki |
MMHI may stand for:
Mendota Mental Health Institute — Wisconsin hospital
Michael & Michael Have Issues — television series | wiki |
The Hippoglossinae are a subfamily of fish in the family Pleuronectidae. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek words hippos, "horse", and glossa, "tongue".
Genera
Clidoderma
Hippoglossus
Reinhardtius
Verasper
Pleuronectidae
Fish subfamilies | wiki |
Een andere naam voor apotheose
Apotheosis (Foulds), een concerto gecomponeerd door John Foulds
Apotheosis (band), een Belgisch technoband | wiki |
A jackass is a male donkey, or a person who is rude or foolish.
Jackass may also refer to:
Entertainment
Jackass (franchise), an American reality series
Jackass: The Movie, the first film in the Jackass film series
Jackass: The Game, a 2007 video game based on the Jackass television show and film series
Jackass Mail, 1942 American film
Music
"Jack-Ass" (song), a 1997 song by Beck
"Jackass", a 2000 song by Green Day from Warning
"Jackass", a 2001 song by Bloodhound Gang from the movie Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back
Places
Jackass Aeropark, an airport
Jackass Ski Bowl, alpine ski area in northern Idaho (1967–73), now Silver Mountain
Jackass Mountain, an infamous stretch of the Cariboo Road through the Fraser Canyon in British Columbia, Canada
Jackass Hill, an elevation in New York.
Jackass Flats, Nevada, former nuclear-test site
Jackass Lane, a street in Anchorage, Alaska whose name was changed in the 1980s due to frequent street sign thefts
Other
Jackass penguin, an alternative name for the African penguin, Spheniscus demersus
Laughing jackass, a bird, now laughing kookaburra
Jackass morwong, a fish
Jackass, an insult for a obnoxious rude person
Jackass-barque, ship type
Jackass rabbit, better known as jackrabbit
See also
Jerkass, a phrase that Homer Simpson says, specifically "Outta my way, Jerkass!" | wiki |
A debtor in possession or DIP in United States bankruptcy law is a person or corporation who has filed a bankruptcy petition, but remains in possession of property upon which a creditor has a lien or similar security interest. A debtor becomes the debtor in possession after filing the bankruptcy petition. A corporation which continues to operate its business under Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings is a debtor in possession.
Under certain circumstances, the debtor in possession may be able to keep the property by paying the creditor the fair market value, as opposed to the contract price. For example, where the property is a personal vehicle which has depreciated since the time of the purchase, and which the debtor needs to find or continue employment to pay off his debts, the debtor may pay the creditor for the fair market value of the car to keep it.
See also
Debtor-in-possession financing
Seniority (financial)
Bail out (finance)
Default (finance)
Distressed securities
Insolvency
Liquidation
Bankruptcy alternatives
Notes
United States bankruptcy law | wiki |
Hanging is killing a person by suspending them from the neck with a noose or ligature. Hanging has been a common method of capital punishment since the Middle Ages, and is the primary execution method in numerous countries and regions. The first known account of execution by hanging is in Homer's Odyssey. Hanging is also a method of suicide.
The past and past participle of hang in this sense is hanged rather than hung.
Methods of judicial hanging
There are numerous methods of hanging in execution which instigate death either by cervical fracture or by strangulation.
Short drop
The short drop is a method of hanging in which the condemned prisoner stands on a raised support such as a stool, ladder, cart, or other vehicle, with the noose around the neck. The support is then moved away, leaving the person dangling from the rope.
Suspended by the neck, the weight of the body tightens the noose around the neck effecting strangulation and death. This typically takes 10–20 minutes.
Before 1850, the short drop was the standard method of hanging, and it is still common in suicides and extrajudicial hangings (such as lynchings and summary executions) which do not benefit from the specialised equipment and drop-length calculation tables used in the newer methods.
Pole method
A short-drop variant is the Austro-Hungarian "pole" method, called (literally: strangling gallows), in which the following steps take place:
The condemned is made to stand before a specialized vertical pole or pillar, approximately in height.
A rope is attached around the condemned's feet and routed through a pulley at the base of the pole.
The condemned is hoisted to the top of the pole by means of a sling running across the chest and under the armpits.
A narrow-diameter noose is looped around the prisoner's neck, then secured to a hook mounted at the top of the pole.
The chest sling is released, and the prisoner is rapidly jerked downward by the assistant executioners via the foot rope.
The executioner stands on a stepped platform approximately high beside the condemned. The executioner would place the heel of his hand beneath the prisoner's jaw to increase the force on the neck vertebrae at the end of the drop, then manually dislocate the condemned's neck by forcing the head to one side while the neck vertebrae were under traction.
This method was later also adopted by the successor states, most notably by Czechoslovakia, where the "pole" method was used as the single type of execution from 1918 until the abolition of capital punishment in 1990. Nazi war criminal Karl Hermann Frank, executed in 1946 in Prague, was among approximately 1,000 condemned people executed in this manner in Czechoslovakia.
Standard drop
The standard drop involves a drop of between and came into use from 1866, when the scientific details were published by Irish doctor Samuel Haughton. Its use rapidly spread to English-speaking countries and those with judicial systems of English origin.
It was considered a humane improvement on the short drop because it was intended to be enough to break the person's neck, causing immediate unconsciousness and rapid brain death.
This method was used to execute condemned Nazis under United States jurisdiction after the Nuremberg Trials including Joachim von Ribbentrop and Ernst Kaltenbrunner. In the execution of Ribbentrop, historian Giles MacDonogh records that: "The hangman botched the execution and the rope throttled the former foreign minister for 20 minutes before he expired." A Life magazine report on the execution merely says: "The trap fell open and with a sound midway between a rumble and a crash, Ribbentrop disappeared. The rope quivered for a time, then stood tautly straight."
Long drop
The long drop process, also known as the measured drop, was introduced to Britain in 1872 by William Marwood as a scientific advance on the standard drop. Instead of everyone falling the same standard distance, the person's height and weight were used to determine how much slack would be provided in the rope so that the distance dropped would be enough to ensure that the neck was broken, but not so much that the person was decapitated. Careful placement of the eye or knot of the noose (so that the head was jerked back as the rope tightened) contributed to breaking the neck.
Prior to 1892, the drop was between four and 10 feet (about one to three metres), depending on the weight of the body, and was calculated to deliver an energy of , which fractured the neck at either the 2nd and 3rd or 4th and 5th cervical vertebrae. This force resulted in some decapitations, such as the infamous case of Black Jack Ketchum in New Mexico Territory in 1901, owing to a significant weight gain while in custody not having been factored into the drop calculations. Between 1892 and 1913, the length of the drop was shortened to avoid decapitation. After 1913, other factors were also taken into account, and the energy delivered was reduced to about . The decapitation of Eva Dugan during a botched hanging in 1930 led the state of Arizona to switch to the gas chamber as its primary execution method, on the grounds that it was believed more humane. One of the more recent decapitations as a result of the long drop occurred when Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti was hanged in Iraq in 2007. Accidental decapitation also occurred during the 1962 hanging of Arthur Lucas, one of the last two individuals to be put to death in Canada.
Nazis executed under British jurisdiction, including Josef Kramer, Fritz Klein, Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath, were hanged by Albert Pierrepoint using the variable-drop method devised by Marwood. The record speed for a British long-drop hanging was seven seconds from the executioner entering the cell to the drop. Speed was considered to be important in the British system as it reduced the condemned's mental distress.
As suicide
Hanging is a common suicide method. The materials necessary for suicide by hanging are readily available to the average person, compared with firearms or poisons. Full suspension is not required, and for this reason, hanging is especially commonplace among suicidal prisoners (see suicide watch). A type of hanging comparable to full suspension hanging may be obtained by self-strangulation using a ligature around the neck and the partial weight of the body (partial suspension) to tighten the ligature. When a suicidal hanging involves partial suspension the deceased is found to have both feet touching the ground, e.g., they are kneeling, crouching or standing. Partial suspension or partial weight-bearing on the ligature is sometimes used, particularly in prisons, mental hospitals or other institutions, where full suspension support is difficult to devise, because high ligature points (e.g., hooks or pipes) have been removed.
In Canada, hanging is the most common method of suicide, and in the U.S., hanging is the second most common method, after self-inflicted gunshot wounds. In the United Kingdom, where firearms are less easily available, in 2001 hanging was the most common method among men and the second most commonplace among women (after poisoning).
Those who survive a suicide-via-hanging attempt, whether due to breakage of the cord or ligature point, or being discovered and cut down, face a range of serious injuries, including cerebral anoxia (which can lead to permanent brain damage), laryngeal fracture, cervical spine fracture (which may cause paralysis), tracheal fracture, pharyngeal laceration, and carotid artery injury.
As human sacrifice
There are some suggestions that the Vikings practiced hanging as human sacrifices to Odin, to honour Odin's own sacrifice of hanging himself from Yggdrasil. In Northern Europe, it is widely speculated that the Iron Age bog bodies, many who show signs of having been hanged were examples of human sacrifice to the gods.
Medical effects
A hanging may induce one or more of the following medical conditions, some leading to death:
Closure of carotid arteries causing cerebral hypoxia
Closure of the jugular veins
Breaking of the neck (cervical fracture) causing traumatic spinal cord injury or even unintended decapitation
Closure of the airway
The cause of death in hanging depends on the conditions related to the event. When the body is released from a relatively high position, the major cause of death is severe trauma to the upper cervical spine. The injuries produced are highly variable. One study showed that only a small minority of a series of judicial hangings produced fractures to the cervical spine (6 out of 34 cases studied), with half of these fractures (3 out of 34) being the classic "hangman's fracture" (bilateral fractures of the pars interarticularis of the C2 vertebra). The location of the knot of the hanging rope is a major factor in determining the mechanics of cervical spine injury, with a submental knot (hangman's knot under the chin) being the only location capable of producing the sudden, straightforward hyperextension injury that causes the classic "hangman's fracture".
According to Historical and biomechanical aspects of hangman's fracture, the phrase in the usual execution order, "hanged by the neck until dead", was necessary. By the late 19th century that methodical study enabled authorities to routinely employ hanging in ways that would predictably kill the victim quickly.
The side, or subaural knot, has been shown to produce other, more complex injuries, with one thoroughly studied case producing only ligamentous injuries to the cervical spine and bilateral vertebral artery disruptions, but no major vertebral fractures or crush injuries to the spinal cord. Death from a "hangman's fracture" occurs mainly when the applied force is severe enough to also cause a severe subluxation of the C2 and C3 vertebra that crushes the spinal cord and/or disrupts the vertebral arteries. Hangman's fractures from other hyperextension injuries (the most common being unrestrained motor vehicle accidents and falls or diving injuries where the face or chin suddenly strike an immovable object) are frequently survivable if the applied force does not cause a severe subluxation of C2 on C3.
In the absence of fracture and dislocation, occlusion of blood vessels becomes the major cause of death, rather than asphyxiation. Obstruction of venous drainage of the brain via occlusion of the internal jugular veins leads to cerebral oedema and then cerebral ischemia. The face will typically become engorged and cyanotic (turned blue through lack of oxygen). There will be the classic sign of strangulation, petechiae, little blood marks on the face and in the eyes from burst blood capillaries. The tongue may protrude.
Compromise of the cerebral blood flow may occur by obstruction of the carotid arteries, even though their obstruction requires far more force than the obstruction of jugular veins, since they are seated deeper and they contain blood in much higher pressure compared to the jugular veins. Where death has occurred through carotid artery obstruction or cervical fracture, the face will typically be pale in colour and not show petechiae. Many reports and pictures exist of actual short-drop hangings that seem to show that the person died quickly, while others indicate a slow and agonising death by strangulation.
When cerebral circulation is severely compromised by any mechanism, arterial or venous, death occurs over four or more minutes from cerebral hypoxia, although the heart may continue to beat for some period after the brain can no longer be resuscitated. The time of death in such cases is a matter of convention. In judicial hangings, death is pronounced at cardiac arrest, which may occur at times from several minutes up to 15 minutes or longer after hanging. During suspension, once the prisoner has lapsed into unconsciousness, rippling movements of the body and limbs may occur for some time which are usually attributed to nervous and muscular reflexes. In Britain, it was normal to leave the body suspended for an hour to ensure death.
After death, the body typically shows marks of suspension: bruising and rope marks on the neck. Sphincters will relax spontaneously and urine and faeces will be evacuated. Forensic experts may often be able to tell if hanging is suicide or homicide, as each leaves a distinctive ligature mark. One of the hints they use is the hyoid bone. If broken, it often means the person has been murdered by manual strangulation.
Notable practices across the globe
Hanging has been a method of capital punishment in many countries, and is still used by many countries to this day. Long-drop hanging is mainly used by former British colonies, while short-drop and suspension hanging is common in Iran.
Afghanistan
Hanging is the most used form of capital punishment in Afghanistan.
Australia
Capital punishment was a part of the legal system of Australia from the establishment of New South Wales as a British penal colony, until 1985, by which time all Australian states and territories had abolished the death penalty; in practice, the last execution in Australia was the hanging of Ronald Ryan on 3 February 1967, in Victoria.
During the 19th century, crimes that could carry a death sentence included burglary, sheep theft, forgery, sexual assaults, murder and manslaughter. During the 19th century, there were roughly eighty people hanged every year throughout the Australian colonies for these crimes.
Bangladesh
Hanging is the only method of execution in Bangladesh, ever since its independence.
Brazil
Death by hanging was the customary method of capital punishment in Brazil throughout its history. Some important national heroes like Tiradentes (1792) were killed by hanging. The last man executed in Brazil was the slave Francisco, in 1876. The death penalty was abolished for all crimes, except for those committed under extraordinary circumstances such as war or military law, in 1890.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria's national hero, Vasil Levski, was executed by hanging by the Ottoman court in Sofia in 1873. Every year since Bulgaria's liberation, thousands come with flowers on the date of his death, 19 February, to his monument where the gallows stood. The last execution was in 1989, and the death penalty was abolished for all crimes in 1998.
Canada
Historically, hanging was the only method of execution used in Canada and was in use as possible punishment for all murders until 1961, when murders were reclassified into capital and non-capital offences. The death penalty was restricted to apply only for certain offences to the National Defence Act in 1976 and was completely abolished in 1998. The last hangings in Canada took place on 11 December 1962.
Egypt
In 1955, Egypt hanged three Israelis on charges of spying. In 1982 Egypt hanged three civilians convicted of the assassination of Anwar Sadat. In 2004, Egypt hanged five militants on charges of trying to kill the Prime Minister. To this day, hanging remains the standard method of capital punishment in Egypt, which executes more people each year than any other African country.
Germany
In the territories occupied by Nazi Germany from 1939 to 1945, strangulation hanging was a preferred means of public execution, although more criminal executions were performed by guillotine than hanging. The most commonly sentenced were partisans and black marketeers, whose bodies were usually left hanging for long periods. There are also numerous reports of concentration camp inmates being hanged. Hanging was continued in post-war Germany in the British and US Occupation Zones under their jurisdiction, and for Nazi war criminals, until well after (western) Germany itself had abolished the death penalty by the German constitution as adopted in 1949. West Berlin was not subject to the Grundgesetz (Basic Law) and abolished the death penalty in 1951. The German Democratic Republic abolished the death penalty in 1987. The last execution ordered by a West German court was carried out by guillotine in Moabit prison in 1949. The last hanging in Germany was the one ordered of several war criminals in Landsberg am Lech on 7 June 1951. The last known execution in East Germany was in 1981 by a pistol shot to the neck.
Hungary
The prime minister of Hungary, during the 1956 Revolution, Imre Nagy, was secretly tried, executed by hanging, and buried unceremoniously by the new Soviet-backed Hungarian government, in 1958. Nagy was later publicly exonerated by Hungary. Capital punishment was abolished for all crimes in 1990.
India
All executions in India since independence have been carried out by hanging, although the law provides for military executions to be carried out by firing squad. In 1949, Nathuram Godse, who had been sentenced to death for the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, was the first person to be executed by hanging in independent India.
The Supreme Court of India has suggested that capital punishment should be given only in the "rarest of rare cases".
Since 2001, eight people have been executed in India. Dhananjoy Chatterjee, the 1991 rapist and murderer was executed on 14 August 2004 in Alipore Jail, Kolkata. Ajmal Kasab, the lone surviving terrorist of the 2008 Mumbai attacks was executed on 21 November 2012 in Yerwada Central Jail, Pune. The Supreme Court of India had previously rejected his mercy plea, which was then rejected by the President of India. He was hanged one week later. Afzal Guru, a terrorist found guilty of conspiracy in the December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament, was executed by hanging in Tihar Jail, Delhi on 9 February 2013. Yakub Memon was convicted over his involvement in the 1993 Bombay bombings by Special Terrorist and Disruptive Activities court on 27 July 2007. His appeals and petitions for clemency were all rejected and he was finally executed by hanging on 30 July 2015 in Nagpur jail. In March 2020, four prisoners convicted of rape and murder were executed by hanging in Tihar Jail.
Iran
Death by hanging is the primary means of capital punishment in Iran, which carries out one of the highest numbers of annual executions in the world. The method used is the short drop, which does not break the neck of the condemned, but rather causes a slower death due to strangulation. It is legal for murder, rape, and drug trafficking unless the criminal pays diyya to the victim's family, thus attaining their forgiveness (see Sharia). If the presiding judge deems the case to be "causing public outrage", he can order the hanging to take place in public at the spot where the crime was committed, typically from a mobile telescoping crane which hoists the condemned high into the air. On 19 July 2005, two boys, Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, aged 15 and 17 respectively, who had been convicted of the rape of a 13-year-old boy, were hanged at Edalat (Justice) Square in Mashhad, on charges of homosexuality and rape. On 15 August 2004, a 16-year-old girl, Atefeh Sahaaleh (also called Atefeh Rajabi), was executed for having committed "acts incompatible with chastity".
At dawn on 27 July 2008, the Iranian government executed 29 people at Evin Prison in Tehran. On 2 December 2008, an unnamed man was hanged for murder at Kazeroun Prison, just moments after he was pardoned by the murder victim's family. He was quickly cut down and rushed to a hospital, where he was successfully revived.
The conviction and hanging of Reyhaneh Jabbari caused international uproar as she was sentenced to death in 2009 and hanged on 25 October 2014 for murdering a former intelligence officer; according to Jabbari's testimony she stabbed him during an attempt at rape and then another person killed him.
Iraq
Hanging was used under the regime of Saddam Hussein, but was suspended along with capital punishment on 10 June 2003, when a coalition led by the United States invaded and overthrew the previous regime. The death penalty was reinstated on 8 August 2004.
In September 2005, three murderers were the first people to be executed since the restoration. Then on 9 March 2006, an official of Iraq's Supreme Judicial Council confirmed that Iraqi authorities had executed the first insurgents by hanging.
Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death by hanging for crimes against humanity on 5 November 2006, and was executed on 30 December 2006 at approximately 6:00 a.m. local time. During the drop, there was an audible crack indicating that his neck was broken, a successful example of a long-drop hanging.
Barzan Ibrahim, the head of the Mukhabarat, Saddam's security agency, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, former chief judge, were executed on 15 January 2007, also by the long-drop method, but Barzan was decapitated by the rope at the end of his fall.
Former vice-president Taha Yassin Ramadan had been sentenced to life in prison on 5 November 2006, but the sentence was changed to death by hanging on 12 February 2007. He was the fourth and final man to be executed for the 1982 crimes against humanity on 20 March 2007. The execution went smoothly.
At the Anfal genocide trial, Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (alias Chemical Ali), former defence minister Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay, and former deputy Hussein Rashid Mohammed were sentenced to hang for their role in the Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds on 24 June 2007. Al-Majid was sentenced to death three more times: once for the 1991 suppression of a Shi'a uprising along with Abdul-Ghani Abdul Ghafur on 2 December 2008; once for the 1999 crackdown in the assassination of Grand Ayatollah Mohammad al-Sadr on 2 March 2009; and once on 17 January 2010 for the gassing of the Kurds in 1988; he was hanged on 25 January.
On 26 October 2010, Saddam's top minister Tariq Aziz was sentenced to hang for persecuting the members of rival Shi'a political parties. His sentence was commuted to indefinite imprisonment after Iraqi president Jalal Talabani did not sign his execution order and he died in prison in 2015.
On 14 July 2011, US forces transferred condemned prisoners Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay and two of Saddam's half-brothers, Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti and Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti, to Iraqi authorities for execution. The Iraqi High Tribunal had sentenced Saddam's half-brothers to death on 11 March 2009 for their roles in the executions of 42 traders who were accused of manipulating food prices. None of the three men were executed.
It is alleged that Iraq's government keeps the execution rate secret, and hundreds may be carried out every year. In 2007, Amnesty International stated that 900 people were at "imminent risk" of execution in Iraq.
Israel
Although Israel has provisions in its criminal law to use the death penalty for extraordinary crimes, it has been used only twice, and only one of those executions was by hanging. On 31 May 1962, Nazi leader Adolf Eichmann was executed by hanging.
Japan
All executions in Japan are carried out by hanging.
On 23 December 1948, Hideki Tojo, Kenji Doihara, Akira Mutō, Iwane Matsui, Seishirō Itagaki, Kōki Hirota, and Heitaro Kimura were hanged at Sugamo Prison by the U.S. occupation authorities in Ikebukuro in Allied-occupied Japan for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace during the Asian-Pacific theatre of World War II.
On 27 February 2004, the mastermind of the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway, Shoko Asahara, was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. On 25 December 2006, serial killer Hiroaki Hidaka and three others were hanged in Japan. Long-drop hanging is the method of carrying out judicial capital punishment on civilians in Japan, as in the cases of Norio Nagayama, Mamoru Takuma, and Tsutomu Miyazaki. In 2018 Shoko Asahara and several of his cult members were hanged for committing the 1995 sarin gas attack.
Jordan
Death by hanging is the traditional method of capital punishment in Jordan. On 14 August 1993, Jordan hanged two Jordanians convicted of spying for Israel. Sajida al-Rishawi, "The 4th bomber" of the 2005 Amman bombings, was executed by hanging alongside Ziad al-Karbouly on 4 February 2015 in retribution for the immolation of Jordanian pilot Muath Al-Kasasbeh.
Lebanon
Lebanon hanged two men in 1998 for murdering a man and his sister. However, capital punishment ended up being altogether suspended in Lebanon, as a result of staunch opposition by activists and some political factions.
Liberia
On 16 February 1979, seven men convicted of the ritual killing of the popular Kru traditional singer Moses Tweh, were publicly hanged at dawn in Harper.
Malaysia
Hanging is the traditional method of capital punishment in Malaysia and has been used to execute people convicted of murder and drug trafficking. The Barlow and Chambers execution was carried out as a result of new tighter drug regulations.
Portugal
The last person executed by hanging in Portugal was Francisco Matos Lobos on 16 April 1842. Before that, it had been a common death penalty.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, hanging is the most common form of execution.
Russia
Hanging was commonly practised in the Russian Empire during the rule of the Romanov Dynasty as an alternative to impalement, which was used in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Hanging was abolished in 1868 by Alexander II after serfdom, but was restored by the time of his death and his assassins were hanged. While those sentenced to death for murder were usually pardoned and sentences commuted to life imprisonment, those guilty of high treason were usually executed. This also included the Grand Duchy of Finland and Kingdom of Poland under the Russian crown. Taavetti Lukkarinen became the last Finn to be executed this way. He was hanged for espionage and high treason in 1916.
The hanging was usually performed by short drop in public. The gallows were usually either a stout nearby tree branch, as in the case of Lukkarinen, or a makeshift gallows constructed for the purpose.
After the October Revolution in 1917, capital punishment was, on paper, abolished, but continued to be used unabated against people perceived to be enemies of the regime. Under the Bolsheviks, most executions were performed by shooting, either by firing squad or by a single firearm. In 1943, hanging was restored primarily for German servicemen and native collaborators for atrocities committed against Soviet POWs and civilians. The last to be hanged were Andrey Vlasov and his companions in 1946.
Singapore
In Singapore, long-drop hanging is currently used as a mandatory punishment for crimes such as drug trafficking, murder and some types of kidnapping. It has also been used for punishing those convicted of unauthorised discharging of firearms.
Sri Lanka
Hanging was abolished in Sri Lanka in 1956, but in 1959 it was brought back and later halted in 1978. In 1975, the day before the execution of Maru Sira, he had been overdosed by the prison guards to prevent him from escaping. On the day of his execution he was unconscious, so when he was brought to the gallows, he was slumped over on the trapdoor with a noose around his neck, and when the executioner pulled the lever, his execution was botched and he strangled.
Syria
Syria has publicly hanged people, such as two Jews in 1952, Israeli spy Eli Cohen in 1965, and a number of Jews accused of spying in 1969.
According to a 19th-century report, members of the Alawite sect centred on Lattakia in Syria had a particular aversion towards being hanged, and the family of the condemned was willing to pay "considerable sums" to ensure its relations were impaled, instead of being hanged. As far as Burckhardt could make out, this attitude was based upon the Alawites' idea that the soul ought to leave the body through the mouth, rather than leave it in any other fashion.
United Kingdom
As a form of judicial execution in England, hanging is thought to date from the Anglo-Saxon period. Records of the names of British hangmen begin with Thomas de Warblynton in the 1360s; complete records extend from the 16th century to the last hangmen, Robert Leslie Stewart and Harry Allen, who conducted the last British executions in 1964.
Until 1868 hangings were performed in public. In London, the traditional site was at Tyburn, a settlement west of the City on the main road to Oxford, which was used on eight hanging days a year, though before 1865, executions had been transferred to the street outside Newgate Prison, Old Bailey, now the site of the Central Criminal Court.
Three British subjects were hanged after World War II after having been convicted of having helped Nazi Germany in its war against Britain. John Amery, the son of prominent British politician Leo Amery, became an expatriate in the 1930s, moving to France. He became involved in pre-war fascist politics, remained in what became Vichy France following France's defeat by Germany in 1940 and eventually went to Germany and later the German puppet state in Italy headed by Benito Mussolini. Captured by Italian partisans at the end of the war and handed over to British authorities, Amery was accused of having made propaganda broadcasts for the Nazis and of having attempted to recruit British prisoners of war for a Waffen SS regiment later known as the British Free Corps. Amery pleaded guilty to treason charges on 28 November 1945 and was hanged at Wandsworth Prison on 19 December 1945. William Joyce, an American-born Irishman who had lived in Britain and possessed a British passport, had been involved in pre-war fascist politics in the UK, fled to Nazi Germany just before the war began to avoid arrest by British authorities and became a naturalised German citizen. He made propaganda broadcasts for the Nazis, becoming infamous under the nickname Lord Haw Haw. Captured by British forces in May 1945, he was tried for treason later that year. Although Joyce's defence argued that he was by birth American and thus not subject to being tried for treason, the prosecution successfully argued that Joyce's pre-war British passport meant that he was a subject of the British Crown and he was convicted. After his appeals failed, he was hanged at Wandsworth Prison on 3 January 1946. Theodore Schurch, a British soldier captured by the Nazis who then began working for the Italian and German intelligence services by acting as a spy and informer who would be placed among other British prisoners, was arrested in Rome in March 1945 and tried under the Treachery Act 1940. After his conviction, he was hanged at HM Prison Pentonville on 4 January 1946.
The Homicide Act 1957 created the new offence of capital murder, punishable by death, with all other murders being punishable by life imprisonment.
In 1965, Parliament passed the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act, temporarily abolishing capital punishment for murder for five years. The Act was renewed in 1969, making the abolition permanent. With the passage of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and the Human Rights Act 1998, the death penalty was officially abolished for all crimes in both civilian and military cases. Following its complete abolition, the gallows were removed from Wandsworth Prison, where they remained in full working order until that year.
The last woman to be hanged was Ruth Ellis on 13 July 1955, by Albert Pierrepoint who was a prominent hangman in the 20th century in England. The last hangings in Britain took place in 1964, when Peter Anthony Allen was executed at Walton Prison in Liverpool. Gwynne Owen Evans was executed by Harry Allen at Strangeways Prison in Manchester. Both were executed for the murder of John Alan West.
Hanging was also the method used in many colonies and overseas territories.
Silken rope
In the UK, some felons were traditionally executed by hanging with a silken rope:
Hereditary peers who committed capital offences, as anticipated by the fictional Duke of Denver, brother of Lord Peter Wimsey. The Duke was accused of murder in the novel Clouds of Witness, and this execution would have been his fate, after conviction by his peers in a trial in the House of Lords. It has been claimed that the execution of Earl Ferrers in 1760 – the only time a peer was hanged after trial by the House of Lords – was carried out with the normal hempen rope instead of a silk one. The writ of execution does not specify a silk rope be used, and The Newgate Calendar makes no mention of the use of such an item – an unusual omission given its highly sensationalist nature.
Those who have the Freedom of the City of London.
United States
Hanging was one means by which Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony enforced religious and intellectual conformity on the whole community. The best known hanging carried out by the Puritans, Mary Dyer was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs.
Capital punishment in the U.S. varies from state to state; it is outlawed in some states but used in most others. However, the death penalty under federal law is applicable in every state. Hanging is no longer used as a method of execution.
When Black pastor Denmark Vesey of the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church was suspected of plotting to launch a slave rebellion in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, 35 people, including Vesey, were judged guilty by a city-appointed court and were subsequently hanged, and the church was burned down.
The largest mass execution in the United States, of 38 Sioux Indians sentenced to death after being charged for engaging in massacres of white settlers, was carried out by hanging in Mankato, Minnesota in 1862. Originally, 303 had been sentenced to hang, but the convictions were reviewed by President Abraham Lincoln and the sentences of all but 38 were commuted. A total of 40 suspected Unionists were hanged in Gainesville, Texas in October 1862. On 7 July 1865, four people involved in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln—Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt—were hanged at Fort McNair in Washington, D.C.
While relatively uncommon, hanging in chains has also been practiced (mainly during the colonial era), the first being a slave after the New York Slave Revolt of 1712. The last hanging in chains was in 1913, of John Marshall in West Virginia for murder. The last public hanging in the United States (not including lynching, one of the last of which was Michael Donald in 1981) took place on 14 August 1936, in Owensboro, Kentucky. Rainey Bethea was executed for the rape and murder of 70-year-old Lischa Edwards. The execution was presided over by the first female sheriff in Kentucky, Florence Shoemaker Thompson.
In California, Clinton Duffy, who served as warden of San Quentin State Prison between 1940 and 1952, presided over ninety executions. He began to oppose the death penalty, and after his retirement, wrote a memoir entitled Eighty-Eight Men and Two Women in support of the movement to abolish the death penalty. The book documents several hangings gone wrong and describes how they led his predecessor, Warden James B. Holohan, to persuade the California Legislature to replace hanging with the gas chamber in 1937.
Various methods of capital punishment have been replaced by lethal injection in most states and the federal government. Many states that offered hanging as an option have since eliminated the method. Condemned murderer Victor Feguer became the last inmate to be executed by hanging in the state of Iowa on 15 March 1963. Hanging was the preferred method of execution for capital murder cases in Iowa until 1965, when the death penalty was abolished and replaced with life imprisonment without parole. Barton Kay Kirkham was the last person to be hanged in Utah, preferring it over execution by firing squad. No subsequent inmate in Utah had been hanged by the time the option was replaced with lethal injection in 1980. Laws in Delaware were changed in 1986 to specify lethal injection, except for those convicted before 1986 (who were still allowed to choose hanging). If a choice was not made, or the convict refused to choose injection, then hanging would become the default method. This was the case in the 1996 execution of Billy Bailey, the most recent hanging in American history; since then, no Delaware prisoner fit the category, and the state's gallows were later dismantled.
Upright Jerker
The "Upright Jerker" is a method of hanging, that originated from the United States in the late 19th century, where the person to be hanged is jerked into the air by weights and pulleys. It proved to be ineffective at breaking the neck of the condemned and use of the method ceased in late 1930s.
Inverted hanging, the "Jewish" punishment
A completely different principle of hanging is to hang the convicted person from their legs, rather than from their neck, either as a form of torture, or as an execution method. In late medieval Germany, this came to be primarily associated with Jewish thieves, called the . The jurist Ulrich Tengler, in his highly influential from 1509, describes the procedure as follows, in the section :
showed that originally, this type of inverted hanging between two dogs was not a punishment specifically for Jews. Esther Cohen writes:
In Spain 1449, during a mob attack against the Marranos (Jews nominally converted to Christianity), the Jews resisted, but lost and several of them were hanged up by the feet. The first attested German case for a Jew being hanged by the feet is from 1296, in present-day Soultzmatt. Some other historical examples of this type of hanging within the German context are one Jew in Hennegau 1326, two Jews hanged in Frankfurt 1444, one in Halle in 1462, one in Dortmund 1486, one in Hanau 1499, one in Breslau 1505, one in Württemberg 1553, one in Bergen 1588, one in Öttingen 1611, one in Frankfurt 1615 and again in 1661, and one condemned to this punishment in Prussia in 1637.
The details of the cases vary widely: In the 1444 Frankfurt cases and the 1499 Hanau case, the dogs were dead prior to being hanged, and in the late 1615 and 1661 cases in Frankfurt, the Jews (and dogs) were merely kept in this torture for half an hour, before being garroted from below. In the 1588 Bergen case, all three victims were left hanging till they were dead, ranging from 6 to 8 days after being hanged. In the Dortmund 1486 case, the dogs bit the Jew to death while hanging. In the 1611 Öttingen case, the Jew "Jacob the Tall" thought to blow up the with gunpowder after having burgled it. He was strung up between two dogs, and a large fire was made close to him, and he expired after half an hour under this torture. In the 1553 Württemberg case, the Jew chose to convert to Christianity after hanging like this for 24 hours; he was then given the mercy to be hanged in the ordinary manner, from the neck, and without the dogs beside him. In the 1462 Halle case, the Jew Abraham also converted after 24 hours hanging upside down, and a priest went up on a ladder and baptised him. For two more days, Abraham was left hanging, while the priest argued with the city council that a true Christian should not be punished in this way. On the third day, Abraham was granted a reprieve, and was taken down, but died 20 days later in the local hospital having meanwhile suffered in extreme pain. In the 1637 case, where the Jew had murdered a Christian jeweller, the appeal to the empress was successful, and out of mercy, the Jew was condemned to be merely pinched with glowing pincers, have hot lead dripped into his wounds, and then be broken alive on the wheel.
Some of the reported cases may be myths, or wandering stories. The 1326 Hennegau case, for example, deviates from the others in that the Jew was not a thief, but was suspected (even though he was a convert to Christianity) of having struck an al fresco painting of Virgin Mary, so that blood had begun to seep down the wall from the painting. Even under all degrees of judicial torture, the Jew denied performing this sacrilegious act, and was therefore exonerated. Then a brawny smith demanded from him a trial by combat, because, supposedly, in a dream the Virgin herself had besought the smith to do so. The court accepted the smith's challenge, he easily won the combat against the Jew, who was duly hanged up by the feet between two dogs. To add to the injury, one let him be slowly roasted as well as hanged. This is a very similar story to one told in France, in which a young Jew threw a lance at the head of a statue of the Virgin, so that blood spurted out of it. There was inadequate evidence for a normal trial, but a frail old man asked for trial by combat, and bested the young Jew. The Jew confessed his crime, and was hanged by his feet between two mastiffs.
The features of the earliest attested case, that of a Jewish thief hanged by the feet in Soultzmatt in 1296 are also rather divergent from the rest. The Jew managed somehow, after he had been left to die, to twitch his body in such a manner that he could hoist himself up on the gallows and free himself. At that time, his feet were so damaged that he was unable to escape, and when he was discovered 8 days after he had been hanged, he was strangled to death by the townspeople.
As late as in 1699 Celle, the courts were sufficiently horrified at how the Jewish leader of a robber gang (condemned to be hanged in the normal manner) declared blasphemies against Christianity, that they made a ruling on the post mortem treatment of Jonas Meyer. After 3 days, his corpse was cut down, his tongue cut out, and his body was hanged up again, but this time from its feet.
Punishment for traitors
Guido Kisch writes that the first instance he knows where a person in Germany was hanged up by his feet between two dogs until he died occurred about 1048, some 250 years earlier than the first attested Jewish case. This was a knight called Arnold, who had murdered his lord; the story is contained in Adam of Bremen's History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. Another example of a non-Jew who suffered this punishment as a torture, in 1196 Richard, Count of Acerra, was one of those executed by Henry VI in the suppression of the rebelling Sicilians:
A couple of centuries earlier, in France 991, a viscount Walter nominally owing his allegiance to the French King Hugh Capet chose, on instigation of his wife, to join the rebellion under Odo I, Count of Blois. When Odo found out he had to abandon Melun after all, Walter was duly hanged before the gates, whereas his wife, the fomentor of treason, was hanged by her feet, causing much merriment and jeers from Hugh's soldiers as her clothes fell downwards revealing her naked body, although it is not wholly clear if she died in that manner.
Elizabethan maritime law
During Queen Elizabeth I's reign, the following was written concerning those who stole a ship from the Royal Navy:
Hanging by the ribs
In 1713, Juraj Jánošík, a semi-legendary Slovak outlaw and folk hero, was sentenced to be hanged from his left rib. He was left to slowly die.
The German physician Gottlob Schober (1670–1739), who worked in Russia from 1712, notes that a person could hang from the ribs for about three days prior to expiring, his primary pain being that of extreme thirst. He thought this degree of insensitivity was something peculiar to the Russian mentality.
The Dutch in Suriname were also in the habit of hanging a slave from the ribs, a custom amongst the African tribes from whom they were originally purchased. John Gabriel Stedman stayed in South America from 1772 to 1777 and described the method as told by a witness:
William Blake was specially commissioned to make illustrations to Stedman's narrative.
Grammar
The standard past tense and past participle form of the verb "hang", in this sense, is "hanged", although some dictionaries give "hung" as an alternative.
See also
Capital punishment
Death erection
Dule tree
Erotic asphyxiation
Executioner
Gallows
Hand of Glory
Hanging judge
Hanging tree (United States)
Hangman (game)
Hangman's knot
Jack Ketch
List of people who died by hanging
List of suicides
Lynching
Lynching in the United States
Suicide by hanging
References
Further reading
Jack Shuler, The Thirteenth Turn: A History of the Noose. New York: Public Affairs, 2014,
External links
A Case Of Strangulation Fabricated As Hanging
Obliquity vs. Discontinuity of ligature mark in diagnosis of hanging – a comparative study
Death Penalty Worldwide Academic research database on the laws, practice, and statistics of capital punishment for every death penalty country in the world.
Execution methods
Human positions | wiki |
Carriera
Venne selezionato dai Philadelphia Warriors scelta territoriale al Draft NBA 1952.
Palmarès
NCAA AP All-America First Team (1951)
Collegamenti esterni
Scheda su thedraftreview.com | wiki |
Вересне́ва ву́лиця — назва вулиць в різних населених пунктах України.
Вереснева вулиця — вулиця в міста Бровари.
Вереснева вулиця — вулиця в смт Велика Димерка.
Вереснева вулиця — вулиця в місті Київ.
Вереснева вулиця — вулиця в місті Луцьк.
Вулиці | wiki |
The tansy is a plant.
Tansy may also refer to:
Tansy beetle (Chrysolina graminis), a species of leaf beetle which feeds on tansy
Tansy cakes, medieval English dessert
Tansy Davies (born 1973), British composer
Tansy Rayner Roberts (born 1978), Australian fantasy writer
Tansy Saylor, a main character in Conjure Wife, a supernatural horror novel by Fritz Leiber
Tansy Taylor, in the film adaptation Night of the Eagle
Teton River (Montana), also known as the Tansy River
Tansy (film), a 1921 British silent drama | wiki |
Cet article décrit la phase de qualification pour les épreuves de tennis de table aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020.
Répartition des quotas
Épreuves
Simples messieurs
Simples dames
Par équipes messieurs
Par équipes dames
Double mixte
Notes et références
Tennis de table | wiki |
Public Garden may refer to:
Boston Public Garden
Public Garden (EP)
Public Gardens, Hyderabad, India
Cognac Public Garden, Cognac, France
Halifax Public Gardens, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Huangpu Park, Shanghai, China, formerly known as the Public Garden
See also
Garden (disambiguation)
Urban park | wiki |
Mising or Mishing may refer to:
Mising people
Mising language
See also
Missing (disambiguation)
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | wiki |
In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers.
Most people can tolerate a 3-4% decrease in total body water without difficulty or adverse health effects. A 5-8% decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness. Loss of over 10% of total body water can cause physical and mental deterioration, accompanied by severe thirst. Death occurs at a loss of between 15-25% of the body water. Mild dehydration is characterized by thirst and general discomfort and is usually resolved with oral rehydration.
Dehydration can cause hypernatremia (high levels of sodium ions in the blood) and is distinct from hypovolemia (loss of blood volume, particularly blood plasma).
Signs and symptoms
The hallmarks of dehydration include thirst and neurological changes such as headaches, general discomfort, loss of appetite, nausea, decreased urine volume (unless polyuria is the cause of dehydration), confusion, unexplained tiredness, purple fingernails, and seizures. The symptoms of dehydration become increasingly severe with greater total body water loss. A body water loss of 1-2%, considered mild dehydration, is shown to impair cognitive performance. While in people over age 50, the body's thirst sensation diminishes with age, a study found that there was no difference in fluid intake between young and old people. Many older people have symptoms of dehydration. Dehydration contributes to morbidity in the elderly population, especially during conditions that promote insensible free water losses, such as hot weather. A Cochrane review on this subject defined water-loss dehydration as "people with serum osmolality of 295 mOsm/kg or more" and found that the main symptom in the elderly (people aged over 65) was fatigue.
Cause
Risk factors for dehydration include but are not limited to: exerting oneself in hot and humid weather, habitation at high altitudes, endurance athletics, elderly adults, infants, children and people living with chronic illnesses.
Dehydration can also come as a side effect from many different types of drugs and medications.
In the elderly, blunted response to thirst or inadequate ability to access free water in the face of excess free water losses (especially hyperglycemia related) seem to be the main causes of dehydration. Excess free water or hypotonic water can leave the body in two ways – sensible loss such as osmotic diuresis, sweating, vomiting and diarrhea, and insensible water loss, occurring mainly through the skin and respiratory tract. In humans, dehydration can be caused by a wide range of diseases and states that impair water homeostasis in the body. These occur primarily through either impaired thirst/water access or sodium excess.
Diagnosis
Definition
Dehydration occurs when water intake does not replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea, and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries the risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid.
The term "dehydration" has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition of hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.
Prevention
For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, energy expenditure, age, sex, physical activity, environment, diet, and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response, additional water may be required. In athletes in competition, drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise.
In warm or humid weather, or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for sweating. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.
In most athletes exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of sodium in fluid replacement drinks has some theoretical benefits and poses little or no risk, so long as these fluids are hypotonic (since the mainstay of dehydration prevention is the replacement of free water losses).
Treatment
The most effective treatment for minor dehydration is widely considered to be drinking water and reducing fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Solid foods can contribute to fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea. Urine concentration and frequency will return to normal as dehydration resolves.
In some cases, correction of a dehydrated state is accomplished by the replenishment of necessary water and electrolytes (through oral rehydration therapy, or fluid replacement by intravenous therapy). As oral rehydration is less painful, non-invasive, inexpensive, and easier to provide, it is the treatment of choice for mild dehydration. Solutions used for intravenous rehydration must be isotonic or hypertonic. Pure water injected into the veins will cause the breakdown (lysis) of red blood cells (erythrocytes).
When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater or drinks with significant alcohol concentration will worsen dehydration. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater; this requires the kidneys to create more urine to remove the excess salt, causing more water to be lost than was consumed from seawater. If a person is dehydrated and taken to a medical facility, IVs can also be used.
For severe cases of dehydration where fainting, unconsciousness, or other severely inhibiting symptoms are present (the patient is incapable of standing or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is normal in all but the most extreme cases.
See also
Hydrational fluids
Terminal dehydration
Dryness (medical)
Hypernatremia
References
Further reading
External links
Definition of dehydration by the U.S. National Institutes of Health's MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia
Causes of death
Nutrition
Symptoms and signs
Wilderness medical emergencies | wiki |
Singpho may refer to:
Singpho people, also known as the Jingpo people
Singpho dialect, a dialect of the Jingpho language
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | wiki |
In the 2020s, the Belgium national football team played at the UEFA Euro 2020 and also played at the 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals.
Results
37 official matches played ():
2020
2021
2022
Forthcoming fixtures
The following matches are scheduled:
Notes
References
External links
football
2020s
2009–10 in Belgian football
2010–11 in Belgian football
2011–12 in Belgian football
2013–14 in Belgian football
2014–15 in Belgian football
2015–16 in Belgian football | wiki |
"Shut Down Turn Off" is a song by Australian band Little River Band, released in March 1978 as the lead single from the group's fourth studio album, Sleeper Catcher. The song peaked at number 16 on the Australian charts.
Track listing
Australian 7" (EMI 11691)
Side A. "Shut Down Turn Off" - 3:54
Side B. "Days On the Road" (Live from Rainbow Theatre, London.) - 5:17
Charts
References
1978 songs
1978 singles
Little River Band songs
Songs written by Glenn Shorrock
Song recordings produced by John Boylan (record producer)
EMI Records singles | wiki |
A box truss is a structure composed of three or more chords connected by transverse and/or diagonal structural elements.
Application
Box trusses are commonly used in certain types of aircraft fuselages, electric power pylons, large radio antennas, and many bridge structures. (For various truss arrangements used see truss bridge.)
By using what are in effect stiff panels in a cylindrical arrangement the resulting structure can have a high resistance to axial torsion (twisting along its long axis) and a higher resistance to buckling in its highly loaded sides.
When finished as an open structure the truss will be less subject to wind drag and to aeroelastic effects than would a completely enclosed structure.
Structural system | wiki |
Climbié may refer to:
Climbié, a book by Bernard Binlin Dadié
Victoria Climbié, a girl whose murder produced major changes in child protection policies in England | wiki |
A lemonade stand is a business that is commonly owned and operated by a child or children, to sell lemonade. The concept has become iconic of youthful summertime American culture to the degree that parodies and variations on the concept exist across media. The term may also be used to refer to stands that sell similar beverages like iced tea.
The stand may be a folding table, while the archetypical version is custom-made out of plywood or cardboard boxes. A paper sign on front advertises the lemonade stand.
Educational benefits
Lemonade stands are often viewed as a way for children to experience business at a young age. The ideas of profit, economic freedom, and teamwork are often attributed to traits lemonade stands can instill. However, unlike a real business, they benefit from free labor and rent, and may have a lack of expenses.
Legality
In some areas, lemonade stands are usually in technical violation of several laws, including operation without a business license or permit, lack of adherence to health codes, and sometimes child labor laws.
Prosecutions of lemonade stand operations are extremely rare, but have been known to occur, typically to public outcry. As an example, a child's lemonade stand was shut down in the town of Overton, Texas in June 2015. When the mother tried to get a permit, she was told she would be required to have her kitchen inspected.
In 2018, Country Time created Legal-Ade, which pays up to $300 of the legal fees for lemonade stands fined in 2017 or 2018, or for 2018 permits.
The New York Legislature took up a bill in 2019 that, if passed, will explicitly make lemonade stands operated by minors legal and exempt from most regulations. As of that summer, fourteen U.S. states explicitly allow operation of a lemonade stand without a permit.
See also
List of lemonade topics
References
Childhood in the United States
Business terms
Business models
Child labour
Americana
Lemonade | wiki |
Buzz Buzz – personaggio dei cartoni animati Disney
Buzz Buzz – personaggio della serie di videogiochi EarthBound
Buzz Buzz – 17º episodio della 3ª stagione della serie animata Il trenino Thomas
Pagine correlate
Buzz | wiki |
Susan Kodicek (born Zuzana Oprsalova; 25 September 1947 - 11 April 2011), also known as Hannah Kodicek, was a Czechoslovakian actress active during the period 1977-90. Her most prominent role was as Irina in Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy. She went on to work in children's entertainment in Britain, including children's puppet performances such as Pullover (1982), Sporting Bear (1982), Hobart's Hobbies (1982) and Foxtales (1985), various other television programmes, and a website. She wrote a book on theatre for children in 1977.
In 1994, Kodicek wrote and directed the film A Pin for the Butterfly, starring Hugh Laurie and Joan Plowright. The film was inspired by her memories of growing up in Stalinist Czechoslovakia.
She moved back to the Czech Republic in 2001. She died in 2011 of pancreatic cancer, aged 63.
References
1947 births
2011 deaths
Czech television actresses | wiki |
Inverted Brayton Cycle (IBC) (also known as Subatmospheric Brayton cycle) is another version of the conventional Brayton cycle but with a turbine positioned immediately in the inlet of the system.
Functionality
Incoming air may be heated up in the combustion chamber, in the heat exchanger, or the system may directly receive hot exhaust gas from an engine or some technological process. Been heated up in one of these ways, the gas expands in the turbine from pressure around the atmospheric to the subatmospheric one, after the turbine, created by the compressor located further in the gas duct. The gas should be cooled down in the heat-exchanger between the turbine and compressor to provide the difference in the work received in the turbine and the work needed for the compressor to maintain the subatmospheric pressure after the turbine. After the compressor, the gas is released to the atmosphere with the pressure close to the atmospheric one. Alternatively, the gas can be cooled down after the compressor again, as it gains some heat in the compression process, and then released. The heat received in the heat-exchangers between the turbine and compressor and after the compressor may be used for heating, providing the cogeneration mode of the system operation. The basic scheme of the IBC and temperature-enthalpy diagram are presented in figures 1 and 2. For external heat sources or high temperature storage systems, the closed process design of the inverted Brayton Cycle is also possible. The overall efficiency can thus be significantly increased.
References
Thermodynamic cycles | wiki |
Hostages are people seized by a criminal abductor in order to compel another party.
Hostages or The Hostages may also refer to:
Film
Hostages (1943 film), an American war film directed by Frank Tuttle
The Hostages (film), a 1975 British adventure film directed by David Eady
Hostages (1992 film), an American drama film directed by David Wheatley
Hostages (2017 film), a Georgian drama film directed by Rezo Gigineishvili
Television
Hostages (2022 TV series), a 2022 documentary series
Hostages (American TV series), a 2013 drama series
Hostages (Indian TV series), a 2019 drama web series
Hostages (Israeli TV series), an 2013 drama series
Other uses
Hostages (video game), a 1988 tactical shooter computer game
The Hostages (Laurens), an 1896 painting by Jean-Paul Laurens
See also
Hostage (disambiguation) | wiki |
"In the Still of the Night" is a popular song written by Cole Porter for the MGM film Rosalie sung by Nelson Eddy and published in 1937.
Two popular early recordings were by Tommy Dorsey (vocal by Jack Leonard) and by Leo Reisman (vocal by Lee Sullivan). Dorsey's charted on October 16, 1937 and peaked at No. 3. Reisman's charted on December 25, 1937 and peaked at No. 9.
The song has since become a standard and has been recorded by many artists.
Notable recordings
Chanticleer - Lost in the Stars (1996)
References
External links
"In The Still of the Night" at JazzStandards.com
"In The Still of the Night" at SecondHandSongs.com
Songs written by Cole Porter
1937 songs
Frank Sinatra songs
Al Bowlly songs | wiki |
Transportation in the U.S. State of Minnesota consists of a complex network of roadways, railways, waterways and airports. The transportation system is generally overseen by the Minnesota Department of Transportation, a cabinet-level agency of the state government. Additionally, regional governments such as the Metropolitan Council have authority over regional planning for the transportation system and local governments such as cities and counties oversee the local transportation network.
Ground transportation
Almost all north–south through railroads and long-distance four-lane freeways in Minnesota have a connection to Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area. Most east–west through routes do also, except for a northern corridor from the North Dakota border to the port of Duluth/Superior comprising two BNSF rail routes and U.S. Route 2, and a corridor across southern Minnesota from South Dakota to the Mississippi River and Wisconsin including I-90, Minnesota State Highway 60, U.S. Route 14, and the DM&E Railroad.
Highway transportation
Minnesota's major Interstate Highways are I-35, I-90, and I-94. I-535 is a spur route from Duluth to Superior, Wisconsin. In the Twin Cities I-35 splits into I-35W through Minneapolis and I-35E through St. Paul. I-94 has one spur, Interstate 394 from Minneapolis to the western suburbs, and two loop routes, Interstate 494 and Interstate 694, which form a beltway around the Twin Cities.
The interstate highways are part of a class of routes known as interregional corridors, which also includes U.S. Routes 2, 8, 10, 14, 52, 53, 61, 63, 169, and 212 and Minnesota State Highways 23, 34, 36, 60, 210, and 371. Interregional corridors represent two percent of the state's highways but account for one-third of all vehicle miles traveled. Less heavily traveled regional corridors include U.S. Routes 12, 59, 71, and 75, and a number of state highways.
The Minnesota Legislature identified many of the original trunk highways in the state in the state Constitution by constitutional amendment. A 1920 amendment laid out seventy routes connecting a number of cities. Today, these Constitutional Routes are made up of interstates, U.S. highways, and state highways. While these routes were identified by the legislature, many of the routes were vaguely described in law and effectively they cease to have major impact on the transportation system today.
Bus services
Transit buses
Regular route Bus transit systems exist in Rochester, Winona, Duluth, St. Cloud, East Grand Forks, Mankato (Mankato Transit System), Moorhead and the Minneapolis–St. Paul area. The last is served by the Metro Transit system, which has an extensive system with over 100 routes. Some portions of the Twin Cities region have opted out of service from Metro Transit and have created their own transit systems. SouthWest Transit and the Minnesota Valley Transit Authority are two major "opt out" transit providers that serve the southwestern and south-central portions of Scott, Dakota and Carver counties.
Many rural areas and smaller towns also have rural bus service, though many of those are dial-a-ride services instead of using fixed routes. All but four Minnesota counties have some form of public transit service.
Intercity bus lines
Intercity bus service on a skeletal network of lines is provided by Jefferson Lines, Greyhound Lines, and Megabus. Jefferson Lines, which is based in Minneapolis, provides the largest number of intercity bus routes and serves the largest number of cities. The other providers focus on providing express service with limited numbers of stops. The number of intercity bus routes has declined significantly since the early 1990s, and several routes went away when Greyhound restructured in the mid-2000s decade. Greyhound was founded in Hibbing, Minnesota, but cutbacks have led that city to be cut out of the normal intercity bus route network.
In addition to traditional intercity bus services, a network of independently operated long distance airport shuttles serving Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport has developed in recent years. Brainerd, Duluth, Mankato, Rochester, Saint Cloud, Eau Claire (WI), and La Crosse (WI) are all connected by daily scheduled shuttle service with the Minneapolis–Saint Paul airport. The shuttles provide transportation between area cities as well as serving airport passengers.
Railroads
Light rail
Decades before Metro Transit, the Twin City Rapid Transit Company operated streetcars in the Twin Cities area from the 1890s until 1954, when buses supplanted the streetcars. Light Rail in Minnesota currently consists of two lines, the Blue Line and Green Line, operated by Metro Transit. Completed in 2004, the Blue Line runs from the Mall of America, through the MSP airport via a tunnel, and along Hiawatha Avenue into downtown Minneapolis. The line has been very successful, receiving a 65% higher ridership than expected in its first year of service. The Green Line, which connects downtown Minneapolis to downtown St. Paul, opened to the public on June 14, 2014.
In the future, other light rail lines may be built. The Southwest Corridor light rail (an extension of the Green Line) from downtown Minneapolis to the southwest metro, was approved by the FTA to begin preliminary engineering in September 2011. In 2006, a constitutional amendment was passed that required sales and use taxes on motor vehicles to fund transportation, with at least 40% dedicated to public transit. A few years later, a regional sales tax was implemented in several counties in the Twin Cities area. It supplies the Counties Transit Improvement Board with funds to help operate and expand the region's bus and rail transit network.
Commuter and intercity rail
The Northstar Corridor line, envisioned to connect Minneapolis with St. Cloud along the BNSF Railway, started service on the first to Big Lake in November 2009.
The state is served by one intercity passenger rail line, Amtrak's Empire Builder, which stops daily in each direction at Winona, Red Wing, St. Paul, St. Cloud, Staples, and Detroit Lakes. The Northern Lights Express (NLX) is planned to restore service between Minneapolis and Duluth, which used to have train service until 1985.
Other regional rail projects have been proposed including Zip Rail to Rochester, MN, Minnesota Valley Line to Mankato, the Spine Line between St. Paul and Albert Lea, and the Dan Patch Corridor between Minneapolis and Northfield.
Freight rail
Major freight railroads in Minnesota include BNSF Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, Canadian National Railway, and Canadian Pacific Railway and its Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad and Soo Line Railroad subsidiaries. Principal ladings include coal from the Powder River Basin to ports and eastern power plants, grain and other agricultural products from farm to processors and ports, taconite (a form of iron ore) from the Iron Range in northeastern Minnesota to Lake Superior ports or on all-rail routes to steel mills, timber and forest products, and intermodal traffic.
Minnesota has had many more railroads and rail lines in the past, and reached a peak of over of rails around 1920. In 2007, there was almost exactly half as much track, . Most of the reduction occurred in the 1970s and 1980s.
Bicycle trails
A 2006 report stated that Minnesota had more miles of bike trails than any other state, and Metro Transit buses feature bike racks for combination commuters. A number of the bike trails are rail trails, utilizing the right-of-ways originally secured for railroads.
Minneapolis MN Public Transportation Statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 66 min. 19% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 14% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 8.3 km, while 20% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Water transportation
Much of Minnesota's early transportation followed the numerous rivers and lakes. Early European explorers and settlers followed the routes used by the voyageurs and coureurs des bois in the fur trading days, and later on steamboat services operated on the principal rivers. Commercial water transportation now is limited to the shipment of bulk commodities on two routes. Barges haul grain and other products down the Mississippi River system from the ports of Minneapolis (the head of navigation), St. Paul, Red Wing and Winona on the Mississippi, and Savage (on the Minnesota River), to downstream river ports, and to ports on the Gulf of Mexico for transshipment to ocean-going cargo ships. Cargo vessels known as lakers haul grain, coal, and iron ore from the Lake Superior ports of Duluth, Superior, Two Harbors, and Silver Bay, through Lake Superior to the lower Great Lakes, while ocean-going ships referred to as salties operate from the Twin Ports through the St. Lawrence Seaway to the Atlantic Ocean.
Air transportation
Minnesota’s principal airport is Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport (MSP), a major passenger and freight hub for Delta Air Lines. MSP is also a hub for Sun Country Airlines, and is served by most other domestic carriers. Large commercial jet service is also provided to and from Duluth International Airport and Rochester International Airport. Scheduled commuter service is available at Bemidji, Brainerd, Hibbing, International Falls, St. Cloud, and Thief River Falls.
See also
Plug-in electric vehicles in Minnesota
References | wiki |
Astelia fragrans, commonly known as bush lily, bush flax or kakaha, is the most common astelia species found in New Zealand. It grows from sea level to elevations of approximately 900 metres.
A. fragrans has long, sword-like green leaves, with midribs that can be red. In the centre of the plant, clumps of green flowers are produced between October and November. During summer yellow-orange fruit is created.
It was first described by William Colenso in 1883.
References
Asteliaceae
Flora of New Zealand
Taxa named by William Colenso
Plants described in 1883 | wiki |
"I'll Be Hard to Handle" is a 1932 song composed by Jerome Kern, with lyrics written by Bernard Dougall.
It was written for the musical Roberta, where it was introduced by Lyda Roberti. Roberta opened on Broadway in November 1933.
In the 1935 film version of Roberta, the song was sung by Ginger Rogers, who did an imitation of Roberti.
In the 1952 Technicolor version, Lovely to Look At, directed by Mervyn LeRoy, it was sung and danced by Ann Miller.
Notable recordings
Ella Fitzgerald - Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Jerome Kern Songbook (1963)
Rogers and Astaire
References
Songs with music by Jerome Kern
Ella Fitzgerald songs
1932 songs | wiki |
Haml (HTML abstraction markup language) — язык разметки для упрощённой генерации HTML. HAML компилируется в HTML.
Эквивалент Haml для CSS — это LESS или Sass.
Пример
!!!
%html{ html_attrs('ru') }
%head
%title Мой блог
%meta(http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8")
= stylesheet_link_tag "main"
%body
#header
%h1 Мой блог
%h2 Записи
#content
- @entries.each do |entry|
.entry
%h3.title= entry.title
%p.date= entry.posted.strftime("%A, %B %d, %Y")
%p.body= entry.body
#footer
%p.copyright
Все права защищены © Иван
Результат выполнения предыдущего кода. Данные наполнения взяты из объекта entries на бэкэнде:
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html lang='ru' xml:lang='ru' xmlns='http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml'>
<head>
<title>
Мой блог
</title>
<meta content='text/html; charset=utf-8' http-equiv='Content-Type' />
<link href="/stylesheets/main.css?" media="screen" rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" />
</head>
<body>
<div id='header'>
<h1>
Мой блог
</h1>
<h2>
Записи
</h2>
</div>
<div id='content'>
<div class='entry'>
<h3 class='title'>
Хеллоуин
</h3>
<p class='date'>
Четверг, 31 октября, 2006
</p>
<p class='body'>
Ох уже эти американские праздники.
</p>
</div>
<div class='entry'>
<h3 class='title'>
Новый язык ВКУСНЕЕ$
</h3>
<p class='date'>
Пятница, 11 августа, 2006
</p>
<p class='body'>
Haml — супер круто и жутко удобен. Моя Rails-душа наполнена счастьем.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id='footer'>
<p class='copyright'>
Все права защищены © Иван
</p>
</div>
</body>
</html>
Реализации
Официальная реализация Haml написана на Ruby.
Реализации на других языках:
PHP
phpHaml (PHP5)
Fammel (PHP)
pHAML (PHP)
phamlp (PHP)
Drupal filter module
.NET
NHaml (.NET)
MonoRail NHaml (ASP.NET)
NHaml (.NET)
Другие
JHaml (Java)
haml-js (JavaScript)
LuaHaml (Lua)
Text::Haml (Perl)
HamlPy (Python)
Scalate (Scala)
См. также
BBCode
Markaby
pHAML
Slim (язык)
Примечания
Ссылки
Официальный сайт
HAML на GitHub
рассылка Haml
Интервью с создателем Haml в Rails-подкасте
Языки разметки
Программное обеспечение с лицензией MIT
Свободное программное обеспечение, написанное на Ruby | wiki |
Mary Bruce (1282–1323) was the sister of Robert the Bruce, King of Scots.
Mary Bruce may also refer to:
Mary Bruce, Countess of Elgin (1778–1855), first wife of British diplomat Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin
Mary Grant Bruce (1878–1958), Australian children's author and journalist
Mary Louisa Bruce, Countess of Elgin (1819–1898) | wiki |
St Oswald's Vicarage may refer to:
St Oswald's Vicarage, Chester, Cheshire, England
St Oswald's Vicarage, Warton, Lancashire, England
See also
St. Oswalds Church, listing churches many of which will have an associated vicarage | wiki |
Eyes That See Not – cortometraggio del 1911 prodotto dalla Powers Picture Plays
Eyes That See Not – cortometraggio del 1912 diretto da Phillips Smalley e Lois Weber
Eyes That See Not – cortometraggio del 1915 prodotto dalla Essanay | wiki |
A genetic chimerism or chimera ( ) is a single organism composed of cells with more than one distinct genotype. In animals and human chimeras, this means an individual derived from two or more zygotes, which can include possessing blood cells of different blood types, subtle variations in form (phenotype) and, if the zygotes were of differing sexes, then even the possession of both female and male sex organs. Animal chimeras are produced by the merger of two (or more) embryos. In plant chimeras, however, the distinct types of tissue may originate from the same zygote, and the difference is often due to mutation during ordinary cell division. Normally, genetic chimerism is not visible on casual inspection; however, it has been detected in the course of proving parentage. In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera is called a hybrid.
Another way that chimerism can occur in animals is by organ transplantation, giving one individual tissues that developed from a different genome. For example, transplantation of bone marrow often determines the recipient's ensuing blood type.
Etymology
While German dermatologist Alfred Blaschko described Blaschko's lines in 1901, the genetic science took until the 1930s to approach a vocabulary for the phenomenon. The term genetic chimera has been used at least since the 1944 article of Belgovskii.
Animals
An animal chimera is a single organism that is composed of two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells that originated from different zygotes involved in sexual reproduction. If the different cells have emerged from the same zygote, the organism is called a mosaic. Innate chimeras are formed from at least four parent cells (two fertilised eggs or early embryos fused together). Each population of cells keeps its own character and the resulting organism is a mixture of tissues. Cases of human chimeras have been documented.
This condition is either innate or it is synthetic, acquired for example through the infusion of allogeneic blood cells during transplantation or transfusion.
In nonidentical twins, innate chimerism occurs by means of blood-vessel anastomoses. The likelihood of offspring being a chimera is increased if it is created via in vitro fertilisation. Chimeras can often breed, but the fertility and type of offspring depends on which cell line gave rise to the ovaries or testes; varying degrees of intersex differences may result if one set of cells is genetically female and another genetically male.
Tetragametic chimerism
Tetragametic chimerism is a form of congenital chimerism. This condition occurs through the fertilization of two separate ova by two sperm, followed by aggregation of the two at the blastocyst or zygote stages. This results in the development of an organism with intermingled cell lines. Put another way, the chimera is formed from the merging of two nonidentical twins (a similar merging presumably occurs with identical twins, but as their genotypes are not significantly distinct, the resulting individual would not be considered a chimera). As such, they can be male, female, or have mixed intersex characteristics.
As the organism develops, it can come to possess organs that have different sets of chromosomes. For example, the chimera may have a liver composed of cells with one set of chromosomes and have a kidney composed of cells with a second set of chromosomes. This has occurred in humans, and at one time was thought to be extremely rare although more recent evidence suggests that this is not the case.
This is particularly true for the marmoset. Recent research shows most marmosets are chimeras, sharing DNA with their fraternal twins. 95% of marmoset fraternal twins trade blood through chorionic fusions, making them hematopoietic chimeras.
Most chimeras will go through life without realizing they are chimeras. The difference in phenotypes may be subtle (e.g., having a hitchhiker's thumb and a straight thumb, eyes of slightly different colors, differential hair growth on opposite sides of the body, etc.) or completely undetectable. Chimeras may also show, under a certain spectrum of UV light, distinctive marks on the back resembling that of arrow points pointing downwards from the shoulders down to the lower back; this is one expression of pigment unevenness called Blaschko's lines.
Another case was that of Karen Keegan, who was also suspected (initially) of not being her children's biological mother, after DNA tests on her adult sons for a kidney transplant she needed, seemed to show she was not their mother.
The tetragametic state has important implications for organ or stem cell transplantation. Chimeras typically have immunologic tolerance to both cell lines.
Microchimerism
Microchimerism is the presence of a small number of cells that are genetically distinct from those of the host individual. Most people are born with a few cells genetically identical to their mothers' and the proportion of these cells goes down in healthy individuals as they get older. People who retain higher numbers of cells genetically identical to their mother's have been observed to have higher rates of some autoimmune diseases, presumably because the immune system is responsible for destroying these cells and a common immune defect prevents it from doing so and also causes autoimmune problems.
The higher rates of autoimmune diseases due to the presence of maternally-derived cells is why in a 2010 study of a 40-year-old man with scleroderma-like disease (an autoimmune rheumatic disease), the female cells detected in his blood stream via FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) were thought to be maternally-derived. However, his form of microchimerism was found to be due to a vanished twin, and it is unknown whether microchimerism from a vanished twin might predispose individuals to autoimmune diseases as well. Mothers often also have a few cells genetically identical to those of their children, and some people also have some cells genetically identical to those of their siblings (maternal siblings only, since these cells are passed to them because their mother retained them).
Symbiotic chimerism in anglerfish
Chimerism occurs naturally in adult Ceratioid anglerfish and is in fact a natural and essential part of their life cycle. Once the male achieves adulthood, it begins its search for a female. Using strong olfactory (or smell) receptors, the male searches until it locates a female anglerfish. The male, less than an inch in length, bites into her skin and releases an enzyme that digests the skin of both his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. While this attachment has become necessary for the male's survival, it will eventually consume him, as both anglerfish fuse into a single hermaphroditic individual. Sometimes in this process, more than one male will attach to a single female as a symbiote. In this case, they will all be consumed into the body of the larger female angler. Once fused to a female, the males will reach sexual maturity, developing large testicles as their other organs atrophy. This process allows for sperm to be in constant supply when the female produces an egg, so that the chimeric fish is able to have a greater number of offspring.
Germline chimerism
Germline chimerism occurs when the germ cells (for example, sperm and egg cells) of an organism are not genetically identical to its own. It has been recently discovered that marmosets can carry the reproductive cells of their (fraternal) twin siblings due to placental fusion during development. (Marmosets almost always give birth to fraternal twins.)
Artificial chimerism
An example of artificial chimerism in animals are the quail-chick chimeras. By utilizing transplantation and ablation in the chick embryo stage, the neural tube and the neural crest cells of the chick were ablated, and replaced with the same parts from a quail. Once hatched, the quail feathers were visibly apparent around the wing area, whereas the rest of the chick's body was made of its own chicken cells.
Humans
A major mechanisms of human chimerism is mosaicism, wherein there is a mutation of the genetic material in a cell, giving rise to a subset of cells that are different from the rest. Another mechanism is the fusion of more than one fertilized zygote in the early stages of prenatal development.
In artificial chimerism, an individual has one cell lineage that was inherited genetically at the time of the formation of the human embryo and the other that was introduced through a procedure, including organ transplantation or blood transfusion. Specific types of transplants that could induce this condition include bone marrow transplants and organ transplants, as the recipient's body essentially works to permanently incorporate the new blood stem cells into it.
In contrast, a human where each cell contains genetic material from two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera is called a human–animal hybrid.
Research
The first known primate chimeras are the rhesus monkey twins, Roku and Hex, each having six genomes. They were created by mixing cells from totipotent four-cell morulas; although the cells never fused, they worked together to form organs. It was discovered that one of these primates, Roku, was a sexual chimera; as four percent of Roku's blood cells contained two x chromosomes.
A major milestone in chimera experimentation occurred in 1984 when a chimeric sheep–goat was produced by combining embryos from a goat and a sheep, and survived to adulthood.
In August 2003, researchers at the Shanghai Second Medical University in China reported that they had successfully fused human skin cells and rabbit ova to create the first human chimeric embryos. The embryos were allowed to develop for several days in a laboratory setting, and then destroyed to harvest the resulting stem cells. In 2007, scientists at the University of Nevada School of Medicine created a sheep whose blood contained 15% human cells and 85% sheep cells.
On January 22, 2019 the National Society of Genetic Counselors released an article — Chimerism Explained: How One Person Can Unknowingly Have Two Sets of DNA, where they state “Tetragametic Chimerism, where a twin pregnancy evolves into one child, is currently believed to be one of the rarer forms. However, we know that 20 to 30% of singleton pregnancies were originally a twin or a multiple pregnancy. Due to this statistic, it is quite possible that tetragametic chimerism is more common than current data implies”.
Sponges
Chimerism has been found in some species of marine sponges. Four distinct genotypes have been found in a single individual, and there is potential for even greater genetic heterogeneity. Each genotype functions independently in terms of reproduction, but the different intra-organism genotypes behave as a single large individual in terms of ecological responses like growth.
Mice
Chimeric mice are important animals in biological research, as they allow for the investigation of a variety of biological questions in an animal that has two distinct genetic pools within it. These include insights into problems such as the tissue specific requirements of a gene, cell lineage, and cell potential.
The general methods for creating chimeric mice can be summarized either by injection or aggregation of embryonic cells from different origins. The first chimeric mouse was made by Beatrice Mintz in the 1960s through the aggregation of eight-cell-stage embryos. Injection on the other hand was pioneered by Richard Gardner and Ralph Brinster who injected cells into blastocysts to create chimeric mice with germ lines fully derived from injected embryonic stem cells (ES cells). Chimeras can be derived from mouse embryos that have not yet implanted in the uterus as well as from implanted embryos. ES cells from the inner cell mass of an implanted blastocyst can contribute to all cell lineages of a mouse including the germ line. ES cells are a useful tool in chimeras because genes can be mutated in them through the use of homologous recombination, thus allowing gene targeting. Since this discovery occurred in 1988, ES cells have become a key tool in the generation of specific chimeric mice.
Underlying biology
The ability to make mouse chimeras comes from an understanding of early mouse development. Between the stages of fertilization of the egg and the implantation of a blastocyst into the uterus, different parts of the mouse embryo retain the ability to give rise to a variety of cell lineages. Once the embryo has reached the blastocyst stage, it is composed of several parts, mainly the trophectoderm, the inner cell mass, and the primitive endoderm. Each of these parts of the blastocyst gives rise to different parts of the embryo; the inner cell mass gives rise to the embryo proper, while the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm give rise to extra embryonic structures that support growth of the embryo. Two- to eight-cell-stage embryos are competent for making chimeras, since at these stages of development, the cells in the embryos are not yet committed to give rise to any particular cell lineage, and could give rise to the inner cell mass or the trophectoderm. In the case where two diploid eight-cell-stage embryos are used to make a chimera, chimerism can be later found in the epiblast, primitive endoderm, and trophectoderm of the mouse blastocyst.
It is possible to dissect the embryo at other stages so as to accordingly give rise to one lineage of cells from an embryo selectively and not the other. For example, subsets of blastomeres can be used to give rise to chimera with specified cell lineage from one embryo. The Inner Cell Mass of a diploid blastocyst, for example, can be used to make a chimera with another blastocyst of eight-cell diploid embryo; the cells taken from the inner cell mass will give rise to the primitive endoderm and to the epiblast in the chimera mouse.
From this knowledge, ES cell contributions to chimeras have been developed. ES cells can be used in combination with eight-cell-and two-cell-stage embryos to make chimeras and exclusively give rise to the embryo proper. Embryos that are to be used in chimeras can be further genetically altered in order to specifically contribute to only one part of chimera. An example is the chimera built off of ES cells and tetraploid embryos, which are artificially made by electrofusion of two two-cell diploid embryos. The tetraploid embryo will exclusively give rise to the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm in the chimera.
Methods of production
There are a variety of combinations that can give rise to a successful chimera mouse and according to the goal of the experiment an appropriate cell and embryo combination can be picked; they are generally but not limited to diploid embryo and ES cells, diploid embryo and diploid embryo, ES cell and tetraploid embryo, diploid embryo and tetraploid embryo, ES cells and ES cells. The combination of embryonic stem cell and diploid embryo is a common technique used for the making of chimeric mice, since gene targeting can be done in the embryonic stem cell. These kinds of chimeras can be made through either aggregation of stem cells and the diploid embryo or injection of the stem cells into the diploid embryo. If embryonic stem cells are to be used for gene targeting to make a chimera, the following procedure is common: a construct for homologous recombination for the gene targeted will be introduced into cultured mouse embryonic stem cells from the donor mouse, by way of electroporation; cells positive for the recombination event will have antibiotic resistance, provided by the insertion cassette used in the gene targeting; and be able to be positively selected for. ES cells with the correct targeted gene are then injected into a diploid host mouse blastocyst. Then, these injected blastocysts are implanted into a pseudo pregnant female surrogate mouse, which will bring the embryos to term and give birth to a mouse whose germline is derived from the donor mouse's ES cells. This same procedure can be achieved through aggregation of ES cells and diploid embryos, diploid embryos are cultured in aggregation plates in wells where single embryos can fit, to these wells ES cells are added the aggregates are cultured until a single embryo is formed and has progressed to the blastocyst stage, and can then be transferred to the surrogate mouse.
Plants
Structure
The distinction between sectorial, mericlinal and periclinal plant chimeras are widely used.
Graft chimeras
These are produced by grafting genetically different parents, different cultivars or different species (which may belong to different genera). The tissues may be partially fused together following grafting to form a single growing organism that preserves both types of tissue in a single shoot. Just as the constituent species are likely to differ in a wide range of features, so the behavior of their periclinal chimeras is like to be highly variable. The first such known chimera was probably the Bizzaria, which is a fusion of the Florentine citron and the sour orange. Well-known examples of a graft-chimera are Laburnocytisus 'Adamii', caused by a fusion of a Laburnum and a broom, and "Family" trees, where multiple varieties of apple or pear are grafted onto the same tree. Many fruit trees are cultivated by grafting the body of a sapling onto a rootstock.
Chromosomal chimeras
These are chimeras in which the layers differ in their chromosome constitution. Occasionally, chimeras arise from loss or gain of individual chromosomes or chromosome fragments owing to misdivision. More commonly cytochimeras have simple multiple of the normal chromosome complement in the changed layer. There are various effects on cell size and growth characteristics.
Nuclear gene-differential chimeras
These chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced mutation of a nuclear gene to a dominant or recessive allele. As a rule, one character is affected at a time in the leaf, flower, fruit, or other parts.
Plastid gene-differential chimeras
These chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced mutation of a plastid gene, followed by the sorting-out of two kinds of plastid during vegetative growth. Alternatively, after selfing or nucleic acid thermodynamics, plastids may sort-out from a mixed egg or mixed zygote respectively. This type of chimera is recognized at the time of origin by the sorting-out pattern in the leaves. After sorting-out is complete, periclinal chimeras are distinguished from similar looking nuclear gene-differential chimeras by their non-mendelian inheritance. The majority of variegated-leaf chimeras are of this kind.
All plastid gene- and some nuclear gene-differential chimeras affect the color of the plasmids within the leaves, and these are grouped together as chlorophyll chimeras, or preferably as variegated leaf chimeras. For most variegation, the mutation involved is the loss of the chloroplasts in the mutated tissue, so that part of the plant tissue has no green pigment and no photosynthetic ability. This mutated tissue is unable to survive on its own, but it is kept alive by its partnership with normal photosynthetic tissue. Sometimes chimeras are also found with layers differing in respect of both their nuclear and their plastid genes.
Origins
There are multiple reasons to explain the occurrence of plant chimera during plant recovery stage:
(1) The process of shoot organogenesis starts form the multicellular origin.
(2) The endogenous tolerance leads to the ineffectiveness of the weak selective agents.
(3) A self-protection mechanism (cross protection). Transformed cells serve as guards to protect the untransformed ones.
(4) The observable characteristic of transgenic cells may be a transient expression of the marker gene. Or it may due to the presence of agrobacterium cells.
Detection
Untransformed cells should be easy to detect and remove to avoid chimeras. This is because it is important to maintain the stable ability of the transgenic plants across different generations. Reporter genes such as GUS and Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) are utilized in combination with plant selective markers (herbicide, antibody etc.) However, GUS expression depends on the plant development stage and GFP may be influenced by the green tissue autofluorescence. Quantitative PCR could be an alternative method for chimera detection.
Viruses
In 2012, the first example of a naturally-occurring RNA-DNA hybrid virus was unexpectedly discovered during a metagenomic study of the acidic extreme environment of Boiling Springs Lake that is in Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. The virus was named BSL-RDHV (Boiling Spring Lake RNA DNA Hybrid Virus). Its genome is related to a DNA circovirus, which usually infect birds and pigs, and a RNA tombusvirus, which infect plants. The study surprised scientists, because DNA and RNA viruses vary and the way the chimera came together was not understood.
Other viral chimeras have also been found, and the group is known as the CHIV viruses ("chimeric viruses").
Ethics and legislation
Ethics
The US and Western Europe have strict codes of ethics and regulations in place that expressly forbid certain subsets of experimentation using human cells, though there is a vast difference in the regulatory framework. Through the creation of human chimeras comes the question: where does society now draw the line of humanity? This question poses serious legal and moral issues, along with creating controversy. Chimpanzees, for example, are not offered any legal standing, and are put down if they pose a threat to humans. If a chimpanzee is genetically altered to be more similar to a human, it may blur the ethical line between animal and human. Legal debate would be the next step in the process to determine whether certain chimeras should be granted legal rights. Along with issues regarding the rights of chimeras, individuals have expressed concern about whether or not creating human chimeras diminishes the "dignity" of being human.
See also
Human chimera
46,XX/46,XY
Chimera (molecular biology)
Conjoined twins
Genetic chimerism in fiction
Half-sider budgerigar
Retron
Vanishing twin
X-inactivation (lyonization)
References
Further reading
Appel, Jacob M. "The Monster's Law", Genewatch, Volume 19, Number 2, March–April 2007.
Nelson, J. Lee (Scientific American, February 2008). Your Cells Are My Cells
Weiss, Rick (August 14, 2003). Cloning yields human-rabbit hybrid embryo . The Washington Post.
Weiss, Rick (February 13, 2005). U.S. Denies Patent for a too-human hybrid. The Washington Post.
External links
"Chimerism Explained"
Chimerism and cellular mosaicism, Genetic Home Reference, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health.
Chimera: Apical Origin, Ontogeny and Consideration in Propagation
Plant Chimeras in Tissue Culture
Ainsworth, Claire (November 15, 2003). "The Stranger Within". New Scientist . (Reprinted here )
Embryogenesis of chimeras, twins and anterior midline asymmetries
Natural human chimeras: A review
Reproduction
Intersex and medicine
Genetic anomalies
Twin | wiki |
Ork or ORK may refer to:
Ork (folklore), a mountain demon of Tyrol folklore
Ork (video game), a 1991 game for the Amiga and Atari ST systems
Ork (Warhammer 40,000), a fictional species in the Warhammer 40,000 universe
Ork!, a 2001 role-playing game
Cork Airport in Ireland
Orkney Islands
Ork, a character in the book The Scarecrow of Oz by L. Frank Baum
Ork, the home planet of the character Mork in the American television series Mork & Mindy
An alternate spelling of orc, the name of a fantasy creature popularized by J. R. R. Tolkien
See also
90482 Orcus, Anti-Pluto, a trans-Neptunian object from the Kuiper belt with a large moon
Orc (disambiguation) | wiki |
Colterol is a short-acting β2-adrenoreceptor agonist. Bitolterol, a prodrug for colterol, is used in the management of bronchospasm in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
References
Beta2-adrenergic agonists | wiki |
Skatestoppers are skate-deterrent or anti-skate devices placed on urban terrain features such as benches and handrails to discourage skateboarders grinding on the surfaces where they have been installed; they are a form of hostile architecture.
The name Skatestopper is a registered trademark of Intellicept of El Cajon, California, but in some skateboarding circles it has become a genericized term referring to any anti-skate device.
Design
The most basic design is an L-shaped bracket affixed at intervals along the grind-able structure. Early designs were made from nylon while more recent designs have been made from aluminum. At the same time more ornamental versions have been produced. The devices have been targeted for removal by skateboarders resulting in attempts to make them tamper resistant.
Criticism
Some have viewed skatestoppers as just another obstacle to be overcome and the presence of skatestoppers actually encourages them to stay in the location longer.
References
External links
Skating | wiki |
A crayon is a stick of colored wax, charcoal, chalk or other material used for writing and drawing.
Crayon may also refer to:
Crayon (band), American indiepop band
"Crayon" (song)", a 2012 song by G-Dragon
"Crayon", a song by Manitoba from his 2003 album Up in Flames
Crayons (album), a 2008 album by Donna Summer, or the title track
"Crayons" (song), a 2018 song by Cupcakke
Le crayon, a nickname for the Tour du Crédit Lyonnais
Crayon (film), 2010 Malaysian family drama film directed by Dean A. Burhanuddin
Crayon, Ohio, a community in the United States
Crayon Shin-chan, comedic comic and TV series by Yoshito Usui
Crayons (film), a 2016 Indian film
See also
Craiyon | wiki |
Sports City can refer to:
Multi-purpose stadiums | wiki |
Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School is a non-selective comprehensive state secondary school in Kingstanding; an inner-city suburb of Birmingham, England. It is named after Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman. This school accepts both sexes and accepts both Catholics and non-Catholics.
Notable pupils
Alison Hammond, actor and television presenter
References
External links
Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School official website
Secondary schools in Birmingham, West Midlands
Catholic secondary schools in the Archdiocese of Birmingham
Voluntary aided schools in England | wiki |
Advanced Level (A-Level) Mathematics is a qualification of further education taken in the United Kingdom (and occasionally other countries as well). In the UK, A-Level exams are traditionally taken by 17-18 year-olds after a two-year course at a sixth form or college. Advanced Level Further Mathematics is often taken by students who wish to study a mathematics-based degree at university, or related degree courses such as physics or computer science.
Like other A-level subjects, mathematics has been assessed in a modular system since the introduction of Curriculum 2000, whereby each candidate must take six modules, with the best achieved score in each of these modules (after any retake) contributing to the final grade. Most students will complete three modules in one year, which will create an AS-level qualification in their own right and will complete the A-level course the following year—with three more modules.
The system in which mathematics is assessed is changing for students starting courses in 2017 (as part of the A-level reforms first introduced in 2015), where the reformed specifications have reverted to a linear structure—with exams taken only at the end of the course in a single sitting.
In addition, while schools could choose freely between taking Statistics, Mechanics or Discrete Mathematics (also known as Decision Mathematics) modules with the ability to specialise in one branch of applied Mathematics in the older modular specification, in the new specifications, both Mechanics and Statistics were made compulsory, with Discrete Mathematics being made exclusive as an option to students pursuing a Further Mathematics course. The first assessment opportunity for the new specification is 2018 and 2019 for A-levels in Mathematics and Further Mathematics, respectively.
2000s specification
Prior to the 2017 reform, the basic A-Level course consisted of six modules, four pure modules (C1, C2, C3, and C4) and two applied modules in Statistics, Mechanics and/or Decision Mathematics. The C1 through C4 modules are referred to by A-level textbooks as "Core" modules, encompassing the major topics of mathematics such as logarithms, differentiation/integration and geometric/arithmetic progressions.
The two chosen modules for the final two parts of the A-Level are determined either by a student's personal choices, or the course choice of their school/college, though it commonly took the form of S1 (Statistics) and M1 (Mechanics).
Further mathematics
Students that were studying for (or had completed) an A-level in Mathematics had the opportunity to study an A-level in Further Mathematics, which required taking a further 6 modules to give a second qualification. The grades of the two A-levels will be independent of each other, with Further Mathematics requiring students to take a minimum of two Further Pure modules, one of which must be FP1, and the other either FP2 or FP3, which are simply extensions of the four Core modules from the normal Maths A-Level. Four more modules need to be taken; those available vary with different specifications.
Not all schools are able to offer Further Mathematics, due to a low student number (meaning that the course is not financially viable) or a lack of suitably experienced teachers. To fulfil the demand, extra tutoring is available, with providers such as the Further Mathematics Support Programme.
Some students had the opportunity to take a third maths qualification, "Additional Further Mathematics", which added more modules from those not used for Mathematics or Further Mathematics. Schools that offer this qualification usually only took this to AS-level, taking three modules, although some students went further, taking the extra six modules to gain another full A-Level qualification. Additional Further Mathematics is offered by Edexcel only, and a Pure Mathematics A-level is available for students who—on the Edexcel exam board—take the modules C1, C2, C3, C4, FP1 and either FP2 or FP3. No comparable qualification has been available since the 2017 reforms.
Results and statistics
Each module carried a maximum of 100 UMS points towards the total grade, and each module is also given a separate grade depending on its score. The number of points required for different grades were defined as follows:
The proportion of candidates acquiring these grades in 2007 are below:
Mathematics
Further mathematics
2017 specification
A new specification was introduced in 2017 for first examination in summer 2019. Under this specification, there are three papers which must all be taken in the same year. There are three overarching themes - “Argument, language and proof”, “Problem solving” and “Modelling” throughout the assessment.
Each board structures the three papers as follows:
AQA
Paper 1: Pure Mathematics
Paper 2: Content on Paper 1 plus Mechanics
Paper 3: Content on Paper 1 plus Statistics
Edexcel
Paper 1: Pure Mathematics 1
Paper 2: Pure Mathematics 2
Paper 3: Statistics and Mechanics
OCR
Paper 1: Pure Mathematics
Paper 2: Pure Mathematics and Statistics
Paper 3: Pure Mathematics and Mechanics
Grading
It was suggested by the Department for Education that the high proportion of candidates who obtain grade A makes it difficult for universities to distinguish between the most able candidates. As a result, the 2010 exam session introduced the grade A*—which serves to distinguish between the better candidates.
Prior to the 2017 reforms, the A* grade in maths was awarded to candidates who achieve an A (480/600) in their overall A Level, as well as achieving a combined score of 180/200 in modules Core 3 and Core 4. For the reformed specification, the A* is given by a more traditional grade boundary based on the raw mark achieved by the candidate over their papers.
The A* grade in further maths was awarded slightly differently. The same minimum score of 480/600 was required across all six modules. However, a 90% average (or a score of 270/300) had to be obtained across the candidate's best 'A2' modules. A2 modules included any modules other than those with a '1' (FP1, S1, M1 and D1 are not A2 modules, whereas FP2, FP3, FP4 (from AQA only), S2, S3, S4, M2, M3 and D2 are).
See also
A-level
Additional Mathematics
Further Mathematics
References
External links
Underground Mathematics (Resources on A-level mathematics)
Education in the United Kingdom
Mathematics education in the United Kingdom
Vocational education | wiki |
Orange Pear Apple Bear is a children's book written by award-winning author and illustrator Emily Gravett. Throughout the book only the four words "orange, pear, apple" and "bear" are used, with the exception of a single use of the word "there" on the last page, but are placed in a different order every time.
The book is aimed to help young children improve their reading and rhyming skills and was published by MacMillan in 2006.
2006 children's books
British picture books
Books about bears
Macmillan Publishers books | wiki |
In speech communication, intelligibility is a measure of how comprehensible speech is in given conditions. Intelligibility is affected by the level (loud but not too loud) and quality of the speech signal, the type and level of background noise, reverberation (some reflections but not too many), and, for speech over communication devices, the properties of the communication system. A common standard measurement for the quality of the intelligibility of speech is the Speech Transmission Index (STI). The concept of speech intelligibility is relevant to several fields, including phonetics, human factors, acoustical engineering, and audiometry.
Important Influences
Speech is considered to be the major method of communication between humans. Humans alter the way they speak and hear according to many factors, like the age, gender, native language and social relationship between talker and listener. Speech intelligibility may also be affected by pathologies such as speech and hearing disorders.
Finally, speech intelligibility is influenced by the environment or limitations on the communication channel. How well a spoken message can be understood in a room is influenced by the
background noise,
reverberation, and
frequency response of the room, as well as the
sound pressure level and
distortion of the sound reinforcement system
Noise levels and reverberation
Intelligibility is negatively impacted by background noise and too much reverberation. The relationship between sound and noise levels is generally described in terms of a signal-to-noise ratio. With a background noise level between 35 and 100 dB, the threshold for 100% intelligibility is usually a signal-to-noise ratio of 12 dB. 12 dB means that the signal should be roughly 4 times louder than the background noise. The speech signal ranges from about 200–8000 Hz, while human hearing ranges from about 20-20,000 Hz, so the effects of masking depend on the frequency range of the masking noise. Additionally, different speech sounds make use of different parts of the speech frequency spectrum, so a continuous background noise such as white or pink noise will have a different effect on intelligibility than a variable or modulated background noise such as competing speech, multi-talker or "cocktail party" babble, or industrial machinery.
Reverberation also affects the speech signal by blurring speech sounds over time. This has the effect of enhancing vowels with steady states, while masking stops, glides and vowel transitions, and prosodic cues such as pitch and duration.
The fact that background noise compromises intelligibility is exploited in audiometric testing involving spoken speech and some linguistic perception experiments as a way to compensate for the ceiling effect by making listening tasks more difficult.
Intelligibility standards
Word articulation remains high even when only 1–2% of the wave is unaffected by distortion.
Intelligibility with different types of speech
Lombard speech
The human brain automatically changes speech made in noise through a process called the Lombard effect. Such speech has increased intelligibility compared to normal speech. It is not only louder but the frequencies of its phonetic fundamental are increased and the durations of its vowels are prolonged. People also tend to make more noticeable facial movements.
Screaming
Shouted speech is less intelligible than Lombard speech because increased vocal energy produces decreased phonetic information. However, "infinite peak clipping of shouted speech makes it almost as intelligible as normal speech."
Clear speech
Clear speech is used when talking to a person with a hearing impairment. It is characterized by a slower speaking rate, more and longer pauses, elevated speech intensity, increased word duration, "targeted" vowel formants, increased consonant intensity compared to adjacent vowels, and a number of phonological changes (including fewer reduced vowels and more released stop bursts).
Infant-directed speech
Infant-directed speech—or baby talk—uses a simplified syntax and a small and easier-to-understand vocabulary than speech directed to adults Compared to adult directed speech, it has a higher fundamental frequency, exaggerated pitch range, and slower rate.
Citation speech
Citation speech occurs when people engage self-consciously in spoken language research. It has a slower tempo and fewer connected speech processes (e.g., shortening of nuclear vowels, devoicing of word-final consonants) than normal speech.
Hyperspace speech
Hyperspace speech, also known as the hyperspace effect, occurs when people are misled about the presence of environment noise. It involves modifying the F1 and F2 of phonetic vowel targets to ease perceived difficulties on the part of the listener in recovering information from the acoustic signal.
Notes
External links
Intelligibility conversion ALcons to STI and vice versa
Speech Quality and Evaluation (a chapter from a Master Thesis)
Sound
Hearing
Interpersonal communication | wiki |
EMLL 39th Anniversary Show may refer to:
EMLL 39th Anniversary Show (1), a professional wrestling major show on September 29, 1972, in Arena México Mexico City, Mexico
EMLL 39th Anniversary Show (2), a professional wrestling major show on October 20, 1972, in Arena México Mexico City, Mexico | wiki |
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Northern Ireland.
Northern Ireland – one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the northeast of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. At the time of the 2001 UK Census, its population was 1,685,000, constituting about 30% of the island's total population and about 3% of the population of the United Kingdom.
Northern Ireland was created as a distinct division of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, although its constitutional roots lie in the 1800 Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland.
Northern Ireland was for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict — the Troubles — which was caused by divisions between Irish nationalists, who are predominantly Roman Catholic, and unionists, who are predominantly Protestant. Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom, while nationalists wish it to be politically reunited with the rest of Ireland. Since the signing of the "Good Friday Agreement" in 1998, most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have ceased their armed campaigns.
General reference
Common English country name: Northern Ireland
Official English country name: Northern Ireland
Common endonym:
Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann
Official endonym: Northern Ireland
Adjectival: Northern Irish
Demonym: Northern Irishman or Northern Irishwoman, Ulsterman or Ulsterwoman
Geography of Northern Ireland
Geography of Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is: a constituent country of the United Kingdom. See Countries of the United Kingdom.
Location
Atlantic Ocean
Northern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
Eurasia (but not on the mainland)
Europe
Northern Europe and Western Europe
British Isles
Ireland (the northeastern sixth of the island)
Extreme points of Northern Ireland
Population of Northern Ireland: 1,759,000 (2008 est)
Area of Northern Ireland: 13 843 km² (5,345 square miles)
Places in Northern Ireland
Atlas of Northern Ireland
Environment of Northern Ireland
Climate of Northern Ireland
Department of the Environment
Geology of Northern Ireland
Protected areas of Northern Ireland
Special Areas of Conservation in Northern Ireland
National parks of Northern Ireland
List of Areas of Special Scientific Interest in Northern Ireland
Wildlife of Northern Ireland
Mammals of Northern Ireland
Natural geographic features of Northern Ireland
Coastal landforms of Northern Ireland
Islands of Northern Ireland
Boa Island
Cannon Rock
Coney Island, Lough Neagh
Copeland Islands
Derrywarragh Island
Devenish Island
Loughbrickland Crannóg
Lusty Beg Island
Lustymore Island
Ram's Island
Rathlin Island
White Island, County Fermanagh
Lakes ("loughs") in Northern Ireland
Mountains and hills of Northern Ireland
Hewitts in Northern Ireland
Marilyns in Northern Ireland
Rivers of Northern Ireland
World Heritage Sites in Northern Ireland
Regions of Northern Ireland
Administrative divisions of Northern Ireland
Administrative divisions of Northern Ireland
Municipalities of Northern Ireland
Capital of Northern Ireland: Belfast
List of settlements in Northern Ireland
Cities in Northern Ireland
Towns and villages in Northern Ireland
Demography of Northern Ireland
Demographics of Northern Ireland
Government and politics of Northern Ireland
Politics of Northern Ireland
Form of government:
Capital of Northern Ireland: Belfast
Taxation in Northern Ireland
Law and order in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland law
Capital punishment in Northern Ireland: There has been a history but currently none
Courts of Northern Ireland
List of High Court Judges of Northern Ireland
Crime in Northern Ireland
Prostitution in Northern Ireland
Founding laws of Northern Ireland
Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland
Government of Ireland Act 1920
Belfast Agreement ("Good Friday Agreement")
Northern Ireland Act 1998
Human rights in Northern Ireland
Freedom of religion in Northern Ireland
LGBT rights in Northern Ireland
Law enforcement in Northern Ireland
Police Service of Northern Ireland (formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary)
Segregation in Northern Ireland
Local government in Northern Ireland
Local government in Northern Ireland
Military of Northern Ireland
Political ideologies in Northern Ireland
Nationalists
Republicanism
Irish National Liberation Army
Irish Republican Army
Official IRA
Provisional IRA
Continuity IRA
Real IRA
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Ulster Defence Association (Ulster Freedom Fighters)
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Ulster Volunteer Force
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History of Northern Ireland
By period
The Troubles
The Troubles
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British Military Intelligence Systems in Northern Ireland
Chronology of the Northern Ireland Troubles
Claudy bombing
Combined Loyalist Military Command
Conflict Archive on the Internet
Corporals killings
Council of Ireland
Crumlin Road Gaol
Directory of the Northern Ireland Troubles
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Denis Donaldson
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Emergency Powers Act (Northern Ireland) 1926
Denis Faul
Pat Finucane
Five techniques
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Forced disappearance
Martin Galvin
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Guildford Four
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Michael McKevitt
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George Mitchell
Mitchell Principles
Murder triangle
NORAID
Northern Campaign (IRA)
Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association
Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973
Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention
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1998 Northern Ireland referendum
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Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997
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Saor Uladh
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Stakeknife
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By region
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By municipality
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Culture of Northern Ireland
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List of Irish people
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Other
Apprentice Boys of Derry
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Architecture of Northern Ireland
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Shopping centres in Northern Ireland
Victoria Square Shopping Centre
High-rise buildings in Northern Ireland
Obel Tower
Windsor House
Art in Northern Ireland
Art in Northern Ireland
Artists of Northern Ireland
Cinema of Northern Ireland
Cinema of Ireland
Cinema of the United Kingdom
Films set in Northern Ireland
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Irish dramatists
Music of Northern Ireland
Music of Northern Ireland
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List of Irish ballads
Billy Boys
The Boyne Water
Come Out Ye Black and Tans
Danny Boy
Four Green Fields
Ireland's Call
Lillibullero
Londonderry Air
The Men Behind the Wire
The Mountains of Mourne
The Patriot Game
There Were Roses
The Town I Loved So Well
The Sash
Star of the County Down
Cuisine of Northern Ireland
Cuisine of Northern Ireland
Barmbrack
Irish breakfast
Irish stew
Irish whiskey
Pork in Ireland
Potato bread
Soda bread
Ulster fry
Veda bread
Dulse
Yellowman (candy)
Language in Northern Ireland
Languages of Northern Ireland
Irish language in Northern Ireland
Pejoratives
Fenian
Millie
MOPE
Spide
Taig
West Brit
Hun
Orangie
Prod
Religion in Northern Ireland
Religion in Northern Ireland
Religious places
Abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland
Cathedrals in Ireland
Cemeteries in Northern Ireland
Cenotaphs in Northern Ireland
Religions in Northern Ireland
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Presbyterian Church in Ireland
Church House
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Moderator
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Roman Catholicism in Northern Ireland
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Roman Catholic dioceses of Ireland
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History of the Jews in Northern Ireland
Primates
Primate of All Ireland
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Sport in Northern Ireland
Sport in Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland cricket team
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Rugby in Northern Ireland
Rugby union in Northern Ireland
Irish rugby union system
Pro14
AIB League
Ireland national rugby union team
Special Olympics
2003 Special Olympics World Summer Games
Swim Ireland
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Economy and infrastructure of Northern Ireland
Economy of Northern Ireland
Economic rank (by nominal GDP):
Communications in Northern Ireland
Internet in Northern Ireland
Currency of the United Kingdom: Pound sterling
Tourism in Northern Ireland
Water supply and sanitation in Northern Ireland
Transport in Northern Ireland
Transport in Northern Ireland
Airports in Northern Ireland
Belfast International Airport
City of Derry Airport
George Best Belfast City Airport
Common Travel Area
Rail transport in Northern Ireland
Armagh rail disaster
History of rail transport in Ireland
Roads in Northern Ireland
List of A roads in Northern Ireland
List of B roads in Northern Ireland
Translink
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Ulsterbus
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Education in Northern Ireland
Boards of Education
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North Eastern Education and Library Board
South Eastern Education and Library Board
Southern Education and Library Board
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List of Irish learned societies
Union of Students in Ireland
Specific schools
Public schools in Northern Ireland
Primary schools in Northern Ireland
Secondary schools in Northern Ireland
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Universities in Northern Ireland
Types of schools
Grammar schools in the United Kingdom
Private school
Preparatory school
Health in Northern Ireland
Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland
Hospitals in Northern Ireland
See also
Outline of geography
Outline of the Republic of Ireland
Outline of the United Kingdom
BT postcode area
References
External links
1
Northern Ireland | wiki |
Vehicle ramming may refer to:
ram-raiding, a variation on burglary in which a vehicle is driven through the windows or doors of a closed shop so the perpetrators can loot it
traffic collisions
vehicle-ramming attack, deliberately ramming a motor vehicle into a building, crowd of people, or another vehicle | wiki |
The Children's Health Protection Advisory Committee (CHPAC) is an American government commission that provides recommendations to the United States government on regulations, research, and communications related to children's health.
History
CHPAC was created under Executive Order 13045 by President Bill Clinton in April 1997.
The committee has provided recommendations and advice on topics including water pollution, air pollution, chemical safety, risk assessment, environmental health, ADHD, childhood obesity, Asthma, child development, prenatal development, and child health.
The committee is composed of researchers, academics, business representatives, health care providers, environmentalists, state and tribal government employees, and members of the public. Committee members meet throughout the year and provide recommendations to the EPA Administrator as well as the U.S. Office of Children's Health Protection.
Members serve for three-year terms with a two-term limit.
References
External links
United States national commissions
Parliamentary committees on Healthcare | wiki |
War and Peace (; pre-reform Russian: ; ) is a literary work by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy that mixes fictional narrative with chapters on history and philosophy. It was first published serially, then published in its entirety in 1869. It is regarded as Tolstoy's finest literary achievement and remains an internationally praised classic of world literature.
The novel chronicles the French invasion of Russia and the impact of the Napoleonic era on Tsarist society through the stories of five Russian aristocratic families. Portions of an earlier version, titled The Year 1805, were serialized in The Russian Messenger from 1865 to 1867 before the novel was published in its entirety in 1869.
Tolstoy said that the best Russian literature does not conform to standards and hence hesitated to classify War and Peace, saying it is "not a novel, even less is it a poem, and still less a historical chronicle". Large sections, especially the later chapters, are philosophical discussions rather than narrative. He regarded Anna Karenina as his first true novel.
Composition history
Tolstoy began writing War and Peace in 1863, the year that he finally married and settled down at his country estate. In September of that year, he wrote to Elizabeth Bers, his sister-in-law, asking if she could find any chronicles, diaries or records that related to the Napoleonic period in Russia. He was dismayed to find that few written records covered the domestic aspects of Russian life at that time, and tried to rectify these omissions in his early drafts of the novel. The first half of the book was written and named "1805". During the writing of the second half, he read widely and acknowledged Schopenhauer as one of his main inspirations. Tolstoy wrote in a letter to Afanasy Fet that what he had written in War and Peace is also said by Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Representation. However, Tolstoy approaches "it from the other side."
The first draft of the novel was completed in 1863. In 1865, the periodical (The Russian Messenger) published the first part of this draft under the title 1805 and published more the following year. Tolstoy was dissatisfied with this version, although he allowed several parts of it to be published with a different ending in 1867. He heavily rewrote the entire novel between 1866 and 1869. Tolstoy's wife, Sophia Tolstaya, copied as many as seven separate complete manuscripts before Tolstoy considered it ready for publication. The version that was published in had a very different ending from the version eventually published under the title War and Peace in 1869. Russians who had read the serialized version were eager to buy the complete novel, and it sold out almost immediately. The novel was immediately translated after publication into many other languages.
It is unknown why Tolstoy changed the name to War and Peace. He may have borrowed the title from the 1861 work of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: ("War and Peace" in French). The title may also be a reference to the Roman Emperor Titus, (reigned 79-81 AD) described as being a master of "war and peace" in The Twelve Caesars, written by Suetonius in 119. The completed novel was then called ( in new-style orthography; in English War and Peace).
The 1805 manuscript was re-edited and annotated in Russia in 1893 and has been since translated into English, German, French, Spanish, Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, Albanian, Korean, and Czech.
Tolstoy was instrumental in bringing a new kind of consciousness to the novel. His narrative structure is noted not only for its god's eye point of view over and within events, but also in the way it swiftly and seamlessly portrayed an individual character's view point. His use of visual detail is often comparable to cinema, using literary techniques that resemble panning, wide shots and close-ups. These devices, while not exclusive to Tolstoy, are part of the new style of the novel that arose in the mid-19th century and of which Tolstoy proved himself a master.
The standard Russian text of War and Peace is divided into four books (comprising fifteen parts) and an epilogue in two parts. Roughly the first half is concerned strictly with the fictional characters, whereas the latter parts, as well as the second part of the epilogue, increasingly consist of essays about the nature of war, power, history, and historiography. Tolstoy interspersed these essays into the story in a way that defies previous fictional convention. Certain abridged versions remove these essays entirely, while others, published even during Tolstoy's life, simply moved these essays into an appendix.
Realism
The novel is set 60 years before Tolstoy's day, but he had spoken with people who lived through the 1812 French invasion of Russia. He read all the standard histories available in Russian and French about the Napoleonic Wars and had read letters, journals, autobiographies and biographies of Napoleon and other key players of that era. There are approximately 160 real persons named or referred to in War and Peace.
He worked from primary source materials (interviews and other documents), as well as from history books, philosophy texts and other historical novels. Tolstoy also used a great deal of his own experience in the Crimean War to bring vivid detail and first-hand accounts of how the Imperial Russian Army was structured.
Tolstoy was critical of standard history, especially military history, in War and Peace. He explains at the start of the novel's third volume his own views on how history ought to be written.
Language
Although the book is mainly in Russian, significant portions of dialogue are in French. It has been suggested that the use of French is a deliberate literary device, to portray artifice while Russian emerges as a language of sincerity, honesty, and seriousness. It could, however, also simply represent another element of the realistic style in which the book is written, since French was the common language of the Russian aristocracy, and more generally the aristocracies of continental Europe, at the time. In fact, the Russian nobility often knew only enough Russian to command their servants; Tolstoy illustrates this by showing that Julie Karagina, a character in the novel, is so unfamiliar with her country's native language that she has to take Russian lessons.
The use of French diminishes as the book progresses. It is suggested that this is to demonstrate Russia freeing itself from foreign cultural domination, and to show that a once-friendly nation has turned into an enemy. By midway through the book, several of the Russian aristocracy are eager to find Russian tutors for themselves.
Background and historical context
The novel spans the period from 1805 to 1820. The era of Catherine the Great was still fresh in the minds of older people. Catherine had made French the language of her royal court. For the next 100 years, it became a social requirement for the Russian nobility to speak French and understand French culture.
The historical context of the novel begins with the execution of Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien in 1805, while Russia is ruled by Alexander I during the Napoleonic Wars. Key historical events woven into the novel include the Ulm Campaign, the Battle of Austerlitz, the Treaties of Tilsit, and the Congress of Erfurt. Tolstoy also references the Great Comet of 1811 just before the French invasion of Russia.
Tolstoy then uses the Battle of Ostrovno and the Battle of Shevardino Redoubt in his novel, before the occupation of Moscow and the subsequent fire. The novel continues with the Battle of Tarutino, the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, the Battle of Vyazma, and the Battle of Krasnoi. The final battle cited is the Battle of Berezina, after which the characters move on with rebuilding Moscow and their lives.
Principal characters
The novel tells the story of five families—the Bezukhovs, the Bolkonskys, the Rostovs, the Kuragins, and the Drubetskoys.
The main characters are:
The Bezukhovs
Count Kirill Vladimirovich Bezukhov: the father of Pierre
Count Pyotr Kirillovich ("Pierre") Bezukhov: The central character and often a voice for Tolstoy's own beliefs or struggles. Pierre is the socially awkward illegitimate son of Count Kirill Vladimirovich Bezukhov, who has fathered dozens of illegitimate sons. Educated abroad, Pierre returns to Russia as a misfit. His unexpected inheritance of a large fortune makes him socially desirable.
The Bolkonskys
Prince Nikolai Andreich Bolkonsky: The father of Andrei and Maria, the eccentric prince possesses a gruff exterior and displays great insensitivity to the emotional needs of his children. Nevertheless, his harshness often belies hidden depth of feeling.
Prince Andrei Nikolayevich Bolkonsky: A strong but skeptical, thoughtful and philosophical in the Napoleonic Wars.
Princess Elisabeta "Lisa" Karlovna Bolkonskaya (also Lise) – née Meinena. Wife of Andrei. Also called "little princess".
Princess Maria Nikolayevna Bolkonskaya: Sister of Prince Andrei, Princess Maria is a pious woman whose father attempted to give her a good education. The caring, nurturing nature of her large eyes in her otherwise plain face is frequently mentioned. Tolstoy often notes that Princess Maria cannot claim a radiant beauty (like many other female characters of the novel) but she is a person of very high moral values and of high intelligence.
The Rostovs
Count Ilya Andreyevich Rostov: The pater-familias of the Rostov family; hopeless with finances, generous to a fault. As a result, the Rostovs never have enough cash, despite having many estates.
Countess Natalya Rostova: The wife of Count Ilya Rostov, she is frustrated by her husband's mishandling of their finances, but is determined that her children succeed anyway
Countess Natalya Ilyinichna "Natasha" Rostova: A central character, introduced as "not pretty but full of life", romantic, impulsive and highly strung. She is an accomplished singer and dancer.
Count Nikolai Ilyich "Nikolenka" Rostov: A hussar, the beloved eldest son of the Rostov family.
Sofia Alexandrovna "Sonya" Rostova: Orphaned cousin of Vera, Nikolai, Natasha, and Petya Rostov and is in love with Nikolai.
Countess Vera Ilyinichna Rostova: Eldest of the Rostov children, she marries the German career soldier, Berg.
Pyotr Ilyich "Petya" Rostov: Youngest of the Rostov children.
The Kuragins
Prince Vasily Sergeyevich Kuragin: A ruthless man who is determined to marry his children into wealth at any cost.
Princess Elena Vasilyevna "Hélène" Kuragina: A beautiful and sexually alluring woman who has many affairs, including (it is rumoured) with her brother Anatole.
Prince Anatole Vasilyevich Kuragin: Hélène's brother, a handsome and amoral pleasure seeker who is secretly married yet tries to elope with Natasha Rostova.
Prince Ippolit Vasilyevich (Hippolyte) Kuragin: The younger brother of Anatole and perhaps most dim-witted of the three Kuragin children.
The Drubetskoys
Prince Boris Drubetskoy: A poor but aristocratic young man driven by ambition, even at the expense of his friends and benefactors, who marries Julie Karagina for money and is rumored to have had an affair with Hélène Bezukhova.
Princess Anna Mihalovna Drubetskaya: The impoverished mother of Boris, whom she wishes to push up the career ladder.
Other prominent characters
Fyodor Ivanovich Dolokhov: A cold, almost psychopathic officer, he ruins Nikolai Rostov by luring him into an outrageous gambling debt after unsuccessfully proposing to Sonya Rostova. He is also rumored to have had an affair with Hélène Bezukhova and he provides for his poor mother and hunchbacked sister.
Adolf Karlovich Berg: A young German officer, who desires to be just like everyone else and marries the young Vera Rostova.
Anna Pavlovna Scherer: Also known as Annette, she is the hostess of the salon that is the site of much of the novel's action in Petersburg and schemes with Prince Vasily Kuragin.
Maria Dmitryevna Akhrosimova: An older Moscow society lady, good-humored but brutally honest.
Amalia Evgenyevna Bourienne: A Frenchwoman who lives with the Bolkonskys, primarily as Princess Maria's companion and later at Maria's expense.
Vasily Dmitrich Denisov: Nikolai Rostov's friend and brother officer, who unsuccessfully proposes to Natasha.
Platon Karataev: The archetypal good Russian peasant, whom Pierre meets in the prisoner-of-war camp.
Osip Bazdeyev: a Freemason who convinces Pierre to join his mysterious group.
Bilibin: A diplomat with a reputation for cleverness, an acquaintance of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky.
In addition, several real-life historical characters (such as Napoleon and Prince Mikhail Kutuzov) play a prominent part in the book. Many of Tolstoy's characters were based on real people. His grandparents and their friends were the models for many of the main characters; his great-grandparents would have been of the generation of Prince Vassily or Count Ilya Rostov.
Plot summary
Book One
The novel begins in July 1805 in Saint Petersburg, at a soirée given by Anna Pavlovna Scherer, the maid of honour and confidante to the dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. Many of the main characters are introduced as they enter the salon. Pierre (Pyotr Kirilovich) Bezukhov is the illegitimate son of a wealthy count, who is dying after a series of strokes. Pierre is about to become embroiled in a struggle for his inheritance. Educated abroad at his father's expense following his mother's death, Pierre is kindhearted but socially awkward, and finds it difficult to integrate into Petersburg society. It is known to everyone at the soirée that Pierre is his father's favorite of all the old count's illegitimate progeny. They respect Pierre during the soiree because his father, Count Bezukhov, is a very rich man, and as Pierre is his favorite, most aristocrats think that the fortune of his father will be given to him even though he is illegitimate.
Also attending the soirée is Pierre's friend, Prince Andrei Nikolayevich Bolkonsky, husband of Lise, a charming society favourite. He is disillusioned with Petersburg society and with married life; feeling that his wife is empty and superficial, he comes to hate her and all women, expressing patently misogynistic views to Pierre when the two are alone. Pierre does not quite know what to do with this, and is made uncomfortable witnessing the marital discord. Pierre had been sent to St Petersburg by his father to choose a career for himself, but he is quite uncomfortable because he cannot find one and everybody keeps on asking about this. Andrei tells Pierre he has decided to become to Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich Kutuzov in the coming war (The Battle of Austerlitz) against Napoleon in order to escape a life he cannot stand.
The plot moves to Moscow, Russia's former capital, contrasting its provincial, more Russian ways to the more European society of Saint Petersburg. The Rostov family is introduced. Count Ilya Andreyevich Rostov and Countess Natalya Rostova are an affectionate couple but forever worried about their disordered finances. They have four children. Thirteen-year-old Natasha (Natalia Ilyinichna) believes herself in love with Boris Drubetskoy, a young man who is about to join the army as an officer. The mother of Boris is Anna Mikhaylovna Drubetskaya who is a childhood friend of the countess Natalya Rostova. Boris is also the godson of Count Bezukhov (Pierre's father). Twenty-year-old Nikolai Ilyich pledges his love to Sonya (Sofia Alexandrovna), his fifteen-year-old cousin, an orphan who has been brought up by the Rostovs. The eldest child, Vera Ilyinichna, is cold and somewhat haughty but has a good prospective marriage to a Russian-German officer, Adolf Karlovich Berg. Petya (Pyotr Ilyich) at nine is the youngest; like his brother, he is impetuous and eager to join the army when of age.
At Bald Hills, the Bolkonskys' country estate, Prince Andrei departs for war and leaves his terrified, pregnant wife Lise with his eccentric father Prince Nikolai Andreyevich and devoutly religious sister Maria Nikolayevna Bolkonskaya, who refuses to marry the son of a wealthy aristocrat on account of her devotion to her father and suspicion that the young man would be unfaithful to her.
The second part opens with descriptions of the impending Russian-French war preparations. At the Schöngrabern engagement, Nikolai Rostov, now an ensign in the hussars, has his first taste of battle. Boris Drubetskoy introduces him to Prince Andrei, whom Rostov insults in a fit of impetuousness. He is deeply attracted by Tsar Alexander's charisma. Nikolai gambles and socializes with his officer, Vasily Dmitrich Denisov, and befriends the ruthless Fyodor Ivanovich Dolokhov. Bolkonsky, Rostov and Denisov are involved in the disastrous Battle of Austerlitz, in which Prince Andrei is badly wounded as he attempts to rescue a Russian standard.
The Battle of Austerlitz is a major event in the book. As the battle is about to start, Prince Andrei thinks the approaching "day [will] be his Toulon, or his Arcola", references to Napoleon's early victories. Later in the battle, however, Andrei falls into enemy hands and even meets his hero, Napoleon. But his previous enthusiasm has been shattered; he no longer thinks much of Napoleon, "so petty did his hero with his paltry vanity and delight in victory appear, compared to that lofty, righteous and kindly sky which he had seen and comprehended". Tolstoy portrays Austerlitz as an early test for Russia, one which ended badly because the soldiers fought for irrelevant things like glory or renown rather than the higher virtues which would produce, according to Tolstoy, a victory at Borodino during the 1812 invasion.
Book Two
Book Two begins with Nikolai Rostov returning on leave to Moscow accompanied by his friend Denisov, his officer from his Pavlograd Regiment. He spends an eventful winter at home. Natasha has blossomed into a beautiful young woman. Denisov falls in love with her and proposes marriage, but is rejected. Nikolai meets Dolokhov, and they grow closer as friends. Dolokhov falls in love with Sonya, Nikolai's cousin, but as she is in love with Nikolai, she rejects Dolokhov's proposal. Nikolai meets Dolokhov some time later. The resentful Dolokhov challenges Nikolai at cards, and Nikolai loses every hand until he sinks into a 43,000 ruble debt. Although his mother pleads with Nikolai to marry a wealthy heiress to rescue the family from its dire financial straits, he refuses. Instead, he promises to marry his childhood crush and orphaned cousin, the dowry-less Sonya.
Pierre Bezukhov, upon finally receiving his massive inheritance, is suddenly transformed from a bumbling young man into the most eligible bachelor in Russian society. Despite knowing that it is wrong, he is convinced into marriage with Prince Kuragin's beautiful and immoral daughter Hélène (Elena Vasilyevna Kuragina). Hélène, who is rumored to be involved in an incestuous affair with her brother Anatole, tells Pierre that she will never have children with him. Hélène is also rumored to be having an affair with Dolokhov, who mocks Pierre in public. Pierre loses his temper and challenges Dolokhov to a duel. Unexpectedly (because Dolokhov is a seasoned dueller), Pierre wounds Dolokhov. Hélène denies her affair, but Pierre is convinced of her guilt and leaves her. In his moral and spiritual confusion, Pierre joins the Freemasons. Much of Book Two concerns his struggles with his passions and his spiritual conflicts. He abandons his former carefree behavior and enters upon a philosophical quest particular to Tolstoy: how should one live a moral life in an ethically imperfect world? The question continually baffles Pierre. He attempts to liberate his serfs, but ultimately achieves nothing of note.
Pierre is contrasted with Prince Andrei Bolkonsky. Andrei recovers from his near-fatal wound in a military hospital and returns home, only to find his wife Lise dying in childbirth. He is stricken by his guilty conscience for not treating her better. His child, Nikolai, survives.
Burdened with nihilistic disillusionment, Prince Andrei does not return to the army but remains on his estate, working on a project that would codify military behavior to solve problems of disorganization responsible for the loss of life on the Russian side. Pierre visits him and brings new questions: where is God in this amoral world? Pierre is interested in panentheism and the possibility of an afterlife.
Pierre's wife, Hélène, begs him to take her back, and trying to abide by the Freemason laws of forgiveness, he agrees. Hélène establishes herself as an influential hostess in Petersburg society.
Prince Andrei feels impelled to take his newly written military notions to Saint Petersburg, naively expecting to influence either the Emperor himself or those close to him. Young Natasha, also in Saint Petersburg, is caught up in the excitement of her first grand ball, where she meets Prince Andrei and briefly reinvigorates him with her vivacious charm. Andrei believes he has found purpose in life again and, after paying the Rostovs several visits, proposes marriage to Natasha. However, Andrei's father dislikes the Rostovs and opposes the marriage, insisting that the couple wait a year before marrying. Prince Andrei leaves to recuperate from his wounds abroad, leaving Natasha distraught. Count Rostov takes her and Sonya to Moscow in order to raise funds for her trousseau.
Natasha visits the Moscow opera, where she meets Hélène and her brother Anatole. Anatole has since married a Polish woman whom he abandoned in Poland. He is very attracted to Natasha and determined to seduce her, and conspires with his sister to do so. Anatole succeeds in making Natasha believe he loves her, eventually establishing plans to elope. Natasha writes to Princess Maria, Andrei's sister, breaking off her engagement. At the last moment, Sonya discovers her plans to elope and foils them. Natasha learns from Pierre of Anatole's marriage. Devastated, Natasha makes a suicide attempt and is left seriously ill.
Pierre is initially horrified by Natasha's behavior but realizes he has fallen in love with her. As the Great Comet of 1811–12 streaks across the sky, life appears to begin anew for Pierre. Prince Andrei coldly accepts Natasha's breaking of the engagement. He tells Pierre that his pride will not allow him to renew his proposal.
Book Three
With the help of her family, and the stirrings of religious faith, Natasha manages to persevere in Moscow through this dark period. Meanwhile, the whole of Russia is affected by the coming confrontation between Napoleon's army and the Russian army. Pierre convinces himself through gematria that Napoleon is the Antichrist of the Book of Revelation. Old Prince Bolkonsky dies of a stroke knowing that French marauders are coming for his estate. No organized help from any Russian army seems available to the Bolkonskys, but Nikolai Rostov turns up at their estate in time to help put down an incipient peasant revolt. He finds himself attracted to the distraught Princess Maria.
Back in Moscow, the patriotic Petya joins a crowd in audience of Tzar Alexander and manages to snatch a biscuit thrown from the balcony window of the Cathedral of the Assumption by the Tzar. He is nearly crushed by the throngs in his effort. Under the influence of the same patriotism, his father finally allows him to enlist.
Napoleon himself is the main character in this section, and the novel presents him in vivid detail, both personally and as both a thinker and would-be strategist. Also described are the well-organized force of over four hundred thousand troops of the French Grande Armée (only one hundred and forty thousand of them actually French-speaking) that marches through the Russian countryside in the late summer and reaches the outskirts of the city of Smolensk. Pierre decides to leave Moscow and go to watch the Battle of Borodino from a vantage point next to a Russian artillery crew. After watching for a time, he begins to join in carrying ammunition. In the midst of the turmoil he experiences first-hand the death and destruction of war; Eugène's artillery continues to pound Russian support columns, while Marshals Ney and Davout set up a crossfire with artillery positioned on the Semyonovskaya heights. The battle becomes a hideous slaughter for both armies and ends in a standoff. The Russians, however, have won a moral victory by standing up to Napoleon's reputedly invincible army. The Russian army withdraws the next day, allowing Napoleon to march on to Moscow. Among the casualties are Anatole Kuragin and Prince Andrei. Anatole loses a leg, and Andrei suffers a grenade wound in the abdomen. Both are reported dead, but their families are in such disarray that no one can be notified.
The Rostovs have waited until the last minute to abandon Moscow, even after it became clear that Kutuzov had retreated past Moscow. The Muscovites are being given contradictory instructions on how to either flee or fight. Count Fyodor Rostopchin, the commander in chief of Moscow, is publishing posters, rousing the citizens to put their faith in religious icons, while at the same time urging them to fight with pitchforks if necessary. Before fleeing himself, he gives orders to burn the city. However, Tolstoy states that the burning of an abandoned city mostly built of wood was inevitable, and while the French blame the Russians, these blame the French. The Rostovs have a difficult time deciding what to take with them, but in the end, Natasha convinces them to load their carts with the wounded and dying from the Battle of Borodino. Unknown to Natasha, Prince Andrei is amongst the wounded.
When Napoleon's army finally occupies an abandoned and burning Moscow, Pierre takes off on a quixotic mission to assassinate Napoleon. He becomes anonymous in all the chaos, shedding his responsibilities by wearing peasant clothes and shunning his duties and lifestyle. The only people he sees are Natasha and some of her family, as they depart Moscow. Natasha recognizes and smiles at him, and he in turn realizes the full scope of his love for her.
Pierre saves the life of a French officer who enters his home looking for shelter, and they have a long, amicable conversation. The next day Pierre goes into the street to resume his assassination plan, and comes across two French soldiers robbing an Armenian family. When one of the soldiers tries to rip the necklace off the young Armenian woman's neck, Pierre intervenes by attacking the soldiers, and is taken prisoner by the French army.
Book Four
After his capture, Pierre believes he will be executed. In the end he is spared, but witnesses, with horror, the execution of other prisoners. Pierre becomes friends with a fellow prisoner, Platon Karataev, a Russian peasant with a saintly demeanor. In Karataev, Pierre finally finds what he has been seeking: an honest person of integrity, who is utterly without pretense. Pierre discovers meaning in life simply by interacting with him. After witnessing French soldiers sacking Moscow and shooting Russian civilians arbitrarily, Pierre is forced to march with the Grand Army during its disastrous retreat from Moscow in the harsh Russian winter. After months of tribulation—during which the fever-plagued Karataev is shot by the French—Pierre is finally freed by a Russian raiding party led by Dolokhov and Denisov, after a small skirmish with the French that sees the young Petya Rostov killed in action.
Meanwhile, Andrei has been taken in and cared for by the Rostovs, fleeing from Moscow to Yaroslavl. He is reunited with Natasha and his sister Maria before the end of the war. In an internal transformation, he loses the fear of death and forgives Natasha in a last act before dying.
Nikolai becomes worried about his family's finances, and leaves the army after hearing of Petya's death. There is little hope for recovery. Given the Rostovs' ruin, he does not feel comfortable with the prospect of marrying the wealthy Marya Bolkonskaya, but when they meet again they both still feel love for each other. As the novel draws to a close, Pierre's wife Hélène dies from an overdose of an abortifacient (Tolstoy does not state it explicitly but the euphemism he uses is unambiguous). Pierre is reunited with Natasha, while the victorious Russians rebuild Moscow. Natasha speaks of Prince Andrei's death and Pierre of Karataev's. Both are aware of a growing bond between them in their bereavement. With the help of Princess Maria, Pierre finds love at last and marries Natasha.
Epilogue in two parts
First part
The first part of the epilogue begins with the wedding of Pierre and Natasha in 1813. Count Rostov dies soon after, leaving his eldest son Nikolai to take charge of the debt-ridden estate. Nikolai finds himself with the task of maintaining the family on the verge of bankruptcy. Although he finds marrying women for money repugnant, Nikolai gives in to his love for Princess Maria and marries her.
Nikolai and Maria then move to her inherited estate of Bald Hills with his mother and Sonya, whom he supports for the rest of their lives. Nikolai and Maria have children together, and also raise Prince Andrei's orphaned son, Nikolai Andreyevich (Nikolenka) Bolkonsky.
As in all good marriages, there are misunderstandings, but the couples – Pierre and Natasha, Nikolai and Maria – remain devoted. Pierre and Natasha visit Bald Hills in 1820. There is a hint in the closing chapters that the idealistic, boyish Nikolenka and Pierre would both become part of the Decembrist Uprising. The first epilogue concludes with Nikolenka promising he would do something with which even his late father "would be satisfied" (presumably as a revolutionary in the Decembrist revolt).
Second part
The second part of the epilogue contains Tolstoy's critique of all existing forms of mainstream history. The 19th-century Great Man Theory claims that historical events are the result of the actions of "heroes" and other great individuals; Tolstoy argues that this is impossible because of how rarely these actions result in great historical events. Rather, he argues, great historical events are the result of many smaller events driven by the thousands of individuals involved (a summation which he earlier, in Part III chapter 1, compared to calculus, and the sum of infinitesimals). He then goes on to argue that these smaller events are the result of an inverse relationship between necessity and free will, necessity being based on reason and therefore explicable through historical analysis, and free will being based on consciousness and therefore inherently unpredictable. Tolstoy also ridicules newly emerging Darwinism as overly simplistic, comparing it to plasterers covering over the windows, icons, and scaffolding with plaster, impressed with the smooth result. He wrestles with the tension between our consciousness of freedom and the apparent need for necessity to develop laws of science and history, saying at times that the first is as real as the second, and yet that its reality would destroy the second. He concludes that just as astronomy had to adopt the Copernican hypothesis of the earth's movement, not because it fits our immediate perceptions, but to avoid absurdities, so too must historical science accept some conception of necessary laws of human action, even though we feel free in our ordinary lives. In an appendix, he tries to further resolve the tension with the suggestion that we are most free, or feel most free, in arbitrary acts affecting us alone, but less free in acts affecting other people, where moral or other principles force or forbid certain responses.
Philosophical chapters
War and Peace is Tolstoy's longest work, consisting of 361 chapters. Of those, 24 are philosophical chapters with the author's comments and views, rather than narrative:
Book 3:
Part 10 - Chapters 19, 20 and 33
Part 11 - Chapter 1
Book 4:
Part 13 - Chapter 8
Part 14 - Chapters 1, 2 and 18
Epilogue:
Part 1 - Chapters 1 to 4
Part 2
Reception
The novel that made its author "the true lion of the Russian literature" (according to Ivan Goncharov) enjoyed great success with the reading public upon its publication and spawned dozens of reviews and analytical essays, some of which (by Dmitry Pisarev, Pavel Annenkov, Dragomirov and Strakhov) formed the basis for the research of later Tolstoy scholars. Yet the Russian press's initial response to the novel was muted, with most critics unable to decide how to classify it. The liberal newspaper Golos (The Voice, April 3, #93, 1865) was one of the first to react. Its anonymous reviewer posed a question later repeated by many others: "What could this possibly be? What kind of genre are we supposed to file it to?.. Where is fiction in it, and where is real history?"
Writer and critic Nikolai Akhsharumov, writing in (#6, 1867) suggested that War and Peace was "neither a chronicle, nor a historical novel", but a genre merger, this ambiguity never undermining its immense value. Annenkov, who praised the novel too, was equally vague when trying to classify it. "The cultural history of one large section of our society, the political and social panorama of it in the beginning of the current century", was his suggestion. "It is the [social] epic, the history novel and the vast picture of the whole nation's life", wrote Ivan Turgenev in his bid to define War and Peace in the foreword for his French translation of "The Two Hussars" (published in Paris by in 1875).
In general, the literary left received the novel coldly. They saw it as devoid of social critique, and keen on the idea of national unity. They saw its major fault as the "author's inability to portray a new kind of revolutionary intelligentsia in his novel", as critic Varfolomey Zaytsev put it. Articles by D. Minayev, Vasily Bervi-Flerovsky and N. Shelgunov in magazine characterized the novel as "lacking realism", showing its characters as "cruel and rough", "mentally stoned", "morally depraved" and promoting "the philosophy of stagnation". Still, Mikhail Saltykov-Schedrin, who never expressed his opinion of the novel publicly, in private conversation was reported to have expressed delight with "how strongly this Count has stung our higher society". Dmitry Pisarev in his unfinished article "Russian Gentry of Old" (, , #2, 1868), while praising Tolstoy's realism in portraying members of high society, was still unhappy with the way the author, as he saw it, 'idealized' the old nobility, expressing "unconscious and quite natural tenderness towards" the Russian dvoryanstvo. On the opposite front, the conservative press and "patriotic" authors (A. S. Norov and P. A. Vyazemsky among them) were accusing Tolstoy of consciously distorting 1812 history, desecrating the "patriotic feelings of our fathers" and ridiculing dvoryanstvo.
One of the first comprehensive articles on the novel was that of Pavel Annenkov, published in #2, 1868 issue of Vestnik Evropy. The critic praised Tolstoy's masterful portrayal of man at war, marveled at the complexity of the whole composition, organically merging historical facts and fiction. "The dazzling side of the novel", according to Annenkov, was "the natural simplicity with which [the author] transports the worldly affairs and big social events down to the level of a character who witnesses them." Annekov thought the historical gallery of the novel was incomplete with the two "great raznotchintsys", Speransky and Arakcheyev, and deplored the fact that the author stopped at introducing to the novel "this relatively rough but original element". In the end the critic called the novel "the whole epoch in the Russian fiction".
Slavophiles declared Tolstoy their "" and pronounced War and Peace "the Bible of the new national idea". Several articles on War and Peace were published in 1869–70 in Zarya magazine by Nikolay Strakhov. "War and Peace is the work of genius, equal to everything that the Russian literature has produced before", he pronounced in the first, smaller essay. "It is now quite clear that from 1868 when the War and Peace was published the very essence of what we call Russian literature has become quite different, acquired the new form and meaning", the critic continued later. Strakhov was the first critic in Russia who declared Tolstoy's novel to be a masterpiece of a level previously unknown in Russian literature. Still, being a true Slavophile, he could not fail to see the novel as promoting the major Slavophiliac ideas of "meek Russian character's supremacy over the rapacious European kind" (using Apollon Grigoryev's formula). Years later, in 1878, discussing Strakhov's own book The World as a Whole, Tolstoy criticized both Grigoriev's concept (of "Russian meekness vs. Western bestiality") and Strakhov's interpretation of it.
Among the reviewers were military men and authors specializing in war literature. Most assessed highly the artfulness and realism of Tolstoy's battle scenes. N. Lachinov, a member of the Russky Invalid newspaper staff (#69, April 10, 1868) called the Battle of Schöngrabern scenes "bearing the highest degree of historical and artistic truthfulness" and totally agreed with the author's view on the Battle of Borodino, which some of his opponents disputed. The army general and respected military writer Mikhail Dragomirov, in an article published in (The Military Almanac, 1868–70), while disputing some of Tolstoy's ideas concerning the "spontaneity" of wars and the role of commander in battles, advised all the Russian Army officers to use War and Peace as their desk book, describing its battle scenes as "incomparable" and "serving for an ideal manual to every textbook on theories of military art."
Unlike professional literary critics, most prominent Russian writers of the time supported the novel wholeheartedly. Goncharov, Turgenev, Leskov, Dostoevsky and Fet have all gone on record as declaring War and Peace the masterpiece of Russian literature. Ivan Goncharov in a July 17, 1878 letter to Pyotr Ganzen advised him to choose for translating into Danish War and Peace, adding: "This is positively what might be called a Russian Iliad. Embracing the whole epoch, it is the grandiose literary event, showcasing the gallery of great men painted by a lively brush of the great master ... This is one of the most, if not the most profound literary work ever". In 1879, unhappy with Ganzen having chosen Anna Karenina to start with, Goncharov insisted: "War and Peace is the extraordinary poem of a novel, both in content and execution. It also serves as a monument to Russian history's glorious epoch when whatever figure you take is a colossus, a statue in bronze. Even [the novel's] minor characters carry all the characteristic features of the Russian people and its life." In 1885, expressing satisfaction with the fact that Tolstoy's works had by then been translated into Danish, Goncharov again stressed the immense importance of War and Peace. "Count Tolstoy really mounts over everybody else here [in Russia]", he remarked.
Fyodor Dostoevsky (in a May 30, 1871 letter to Strakhov) described War and Peace as "the last word of the landlord's literature and the brilliant one at that". In a draft version of The Raw Youth he described Tolstoy as "a historiograph of the , or rather, its cultural elite". "The objectivity and realism impart wonderful charm to all scenes, and alongside people of talent, honour and duty he exposes numerous scoundrels, worthless goons and fools", he added. In 1876 Dostoevsky wrote: "My strong conviction is that a writer of fiction has to have most profound knowledge—not only of the poetic side of his art, but also the reality he deals with, in its historical as well as contemporary context. Here [in Russia], as far as I see it, only one writer excels in this, Count Lev Tolstoy."
Nikolai Leskov, then an anonymous reviewer in (The Stock Exchange Herald), wrote several articles praising highly War and Peace, calling it "the best ever Russian historical novel" and "the pride of the contemporary literature". Marveling at the realism and factual truthfulness of Tolstoy's book, Leskov thought the author deserved the special credit for "having lifted up the people's spirit upon the high pedestal it deserved". "While working most elaborately upon individual characters, the author, apparently, has been studying most diligently the character of the nation as a whole; the life of people whose moral strength came to be concentrated in the Army that came up to fight mighty Napoleon. In this respect the novel of Count Tolstoy could be seen as an epic of the Great national war which up until now has had its historians but never had its singers", Leskov wrote.
Afanasy Fet, in a January 1, 1870 letter to Tolstoy, expressed his great delight with the novel. "You've managed to show us in great detail the other, mundane side of life and explain how organically does it feed the outer, heroic side of it", he added.
Ivan Turgenev gradually re-considered his initial skepticism as to the novel's historical aspect and also the style of Tolstoy's psychological analysis. In his 1880 article written in the form of a letter addressed to Edmond Abou, the editor of the French newspaper , Turgenev described Tolstoy as "the most popular Russian writer" and War and Peace as "one of the most remarkable books of our age". "This vast work has the spirit of an epic, where the life of Russia of the beginning of our century in general and in details has been recreated by the hand of a true master ... The manner in which Count Tolstoy conducts his treatise is innovative and original. This is the great work of a great writer, and in it there’s true, real Russia", Turgenev wrote. It was largely due to Turgenev's efforts that the novel started to gain popularity with the European readership. The first French edition of the War and Peace (1879) paved the way for the worldwide success of Leo Tolstoy and his works.
Since then many world-famous authors have praised War and Peace as a masterpiece of world literature. Gustave Flaubert expressed his delight in a January 1880 letter to Turgenev, writing: "This is the first class work! What an artist and what a psychologist! The first two volumes are exquisite. I used to utter shrieks of delight while reading. This is powerful, very powerful indeed." Later John Galsworthy called War and Peace "the best novel that had ever been written". Romain Rolland, remembering his reading the novel as a student, wrote: "this work, like life itself, has no beginning, no end. It is life itself in its eternal movement." Thomas Mann thought War and Peace to be "the greatest ever war novel in the history of literature." Ernest Hemingway confessed that it was from Tolstoy that he had been taking lessons on how to "write about war in the most straightforward, honest, objective and stark way." "I don't know anybody who could write about war better than Tolstoy did", Hemingway asserted in his 1955 Men at War. The Best War Stories of All Time anthology.
Isaac Babel said, after reading War and Peace, "If the world could write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy." Tolstoy "gives us a unique combination of the 'naive objectivity' of the oral narrator with the interest in detail characteristic of realism. This is the reason for our trust in his presentation."
English translations
War and Peace has been translated into many languages. It has been translated into English on several occasions, starting with Clara Bell working from a French translation. The translators Constance Garnett and Aylmer and Louise Maude knew Tolstoy personally. Translations have to deal with Tolstoy's often peculiar syntax and his fondness for repetitions. Only about 2 percent of War and Peace is in French; Tolstoy removed the French in a revised 1873 edition, only to restore it later. Most translators follow Garnett retaining some French; Briggs and Shubin use no French, while Pevear-Volokhonsky and Amy Mandelker's revision of the Maude translation both retain the French fully.
List of English translations
(Translators listed.)
Translation of draft of 1863:
Andrew Bromfield (HarperCollins, 2007). Approx. 400 pages shorter than English translations of the finished novel
Full translations:
Clara Bell (New York: Gottsberger, 1886). Translated from a French version
Nathan Haskell Dole (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Leo Wiener (Boston: Dana Estes & Co., 1904)
Constance Garnett (London: Heinemann, 1904)
Aylmer and Louise Maude (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922–23)
Revised by George Gibian (Norton Critical Edition, 1966)
Revised by Amy Mandelker (Oxford University Press, 2010)
Rosemary Edmonds (Penguin, 1957; revised 1978)
Ann Dunnigan (New American Library, 1968)
Anthony Briggs (Penguin, 2005)
Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (Random House, 2007)
Daniel H. Shubin (self-published, 2020)
Abridged translation:
Princess Alexandra Kropotkin (Doubleday, 1949)
Comparing translations
In the Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English, academic Zoja Pavlovskis-Petit has this to say about the translations of War and Peace available in 2000: "Of all the translations of War and Peace, Dunnigan's (1968) is the best. ... Unlike the other translators, Dunnigan even succeeds with many characteristically Russian folk expressions and proverbs. ... She is faithful to the text and does not hesitate to render conscientiously those details that the uninitiated may find bewildering: for instance, the statement that Boris's mother pronounced his name with a stress on the o – an indication to the Russian reader of the old lady's affectation."
On the Garnett translation Pavlovskis-Petit writes: "her ...War and Peace is frequently inexact and contains too many anglicisms. Her style is awkward and turgid, very unsuitable for Tolstoi." On the Maudes' translation she comments: "this should have been the best translation, but the Maudes' lack of adroitness in dealing with Russian folk idiom, and their style in general, place this version below Dunnigan's." She further comments on Edmonds's revised translation, formerly on Penguin: "[it] is the work of a sound scholar but not the best possible translator; it frequently lacks resourcefulness and imagination in its use of English. ... a respectable translation but not on the level of Dunnigan or Maude."
Adaptations
Film
The first Russian adaptation was () in 1915, which was directed by Vladimir Gardin and starred Gardin and the Russian ballerina Vera Karalli. Fumio Kamei produced a version in Japan in 1947.
The 208-minute-long American 1956 version was directed by King Vidor and starred Audrey Hepburn (Natasha), Henry Fonda (Pierre) and Mel Ferrer (Andrei). Audrey Hepburn was nominated for a BAFTA Award for best British actress and for a Golden Globe Award for best actress in a drama production.
The critically acclaimed, four-part and 431-minutes long Soviet War and Peace, by director Sergei Bondarchuk, was released in 1966 and 1967. It starred Ludmila Savelyeva (as Natasha Rostova) and Vyacheslav Tikhonov (as Andrei Bolkonsky). Bondarchuk himself played the character of Pierre Bezukhov. It involved thousands of extras and took six years to finish the shooting, as a result of which the actors' age changed dramatically from scene to scene. It won an Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film for its authenticity and massive scale. Bondarchuk's film is considered to be the best screen version of the novel. It attracted some controversy due to the number of horses killed during the making of the battle sequences and screenings were actively boycotted in several US cities by the ASPCA.
Television
War and Peace (1972): The BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) made a television serial based on the novel, broadcast in 1972–73. Anthony Hopkins played the lead role of Pierre. Other lead characters were played by Rupert Davies, Faith Brook, Morag Hood, Alan Dobie, Angela Down and Sylvester Morand. This version faithfully included many of Tolstoy's minor characters, including Platon Karataev (Harry Locke).
(2000): French TV production of Prokofiev's opera War and Peace, directed by François Roussillon. Robert Brubaker played the lead role of Pierre.
War and Peace (2007): produced by the Italian Lux Vide, a TV mini-series in Russian & English co-produced in Russia, France, Germany, Poland and Italy. Directed by Robert Dornhelm, with screenplay written by Lorenzo Favella, Enrico Medioli and Gavin Scott. It features an international cast with Alexander Beyer playing the lead role of Pierre assisted by Malcolm McDowell, Clémence Poésy, Alessio Boni, Pilar Abella, J. Kimo Arbas, Ken Duken, Juozapas Bagdonas and Toni Bertorelli.
On 8 December 2015, Russian state television channel Russia-K began a four-day broadcast of a reading of the novel, one volume per day, involving 1,300 readers in over 30 cities.
War & Peace (2016): The BBC aired a six-part adaptation of the novel scripted by Andrew Davies on BBC One in 2016, with Paul Dano playing the lead role of Pierre.
Music
English progressive rock band Yes's song "The Gates of Delirium" from their 1974 album Relayer was inspired by War and Peace.
Opera
Initiated by a proposal of the German director Erwin Piscator in 1938, the Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev composed his opera War and Peace (Op. 91, libretto by Mira Mendelson) based on this epic novel during the 1940s. The complete musical work premièred in Leningrad in 1955. It was the first opera to be given a public performance at the Sydney Opera House (1973).
Theatre
The first successful stage adaptations of War and Peace were produced by Alfred Neumann and Erwin Piscator (1942, revised 1955, published by Macgibbon & Kee in London 1963, and staged in 16 countries since) and R. Lucas (1943).
A stage adaptation by Helen Edmundson, first produced in 1996 at the Royal National Theatre with Richard Hope as Pierre and Anne-Marie Duff as Natasha, was published that year by Nick Hern Books, London. Edmundson added to and amended the play for a 2008 production as two 3-hour parts by Shared Experience, again directed by Nancy Meckler and Polly Teale. This was first put on at the Nottingham Playhouse, then toured in the UK to Liverpool, Darlington, Bath, Warwick, Oxford, Truro, London (the Hampstead Theatre) and Cheltenham.
A musical adaptation by OBIE Award-winner Dave Malloy, called Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 premiered at the Ars Nova theater in Manhattan on October 1, 2012. The show is described as an electropop opera, and is based on Book 8 of War and Peace, focusing on Natasha's affair with Anatole. The show opened on Broadway in the fall of 2016, starring Josh Groban as Pierre and Denée Benton as Natasha. It received twelve Tony Award nominations including Best Musical, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Original Score, and Best Book of a Musical.
A stage adaptation by Carlos Be in Spanish, first produced by LaJoven and directed by José Luis Arellano. Its premiere is scheduled for January 2023 at the Círculo de Bellas Artes of Madrid.
Radio
The BBC Home Service broadcast an eight-part adaptation by Walter Peacock from 17 January to 7 February 1943 with two episodes on each Sunday. All but the last instalment, which ran for one and a half hours, were one hour long. Leslie Banks played Pierre while Celia Johnson was Natasha.
In December 1970, Pacifica Radio station WBAI broadcast a reading of the entire novel (the 1968 Dunnigan translation) read by over 140 celebrities and ordinary people.
A dramatised full-cast adaptation in 20 parts, edited by Michael Bakewell, was broadcast by the BBC between 30 December 1969 and 12 May 1970, with a cast including David Buck, Kate Binchy and Martin Jarvis.
A dramatised full-cast adaptation in ten parts was written by Marcy Kahan and Mike Walker in 1997 for BBC Radio 4. The production won the 1998 Talkie award for Best Drama and was around 9.5 hours in length. It was directed by Janet Whitaker and featured Simon Russell Beale, Gerard Murphy, Richard Johnson, and others.
On New Year's Day 2015, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a dramatisation over 10 hours. The dramatisation, by playwright Timberlake Wertenbaker, was directed by Celia de Wolff and starred Paterson Joseph and John Hurt. It was accompanied by a Tweetalong: live tweets throughout the day that offered a playful companion to the book and included plot summaries and entertaining commentary. The Twitter feed also shared maps, family trees and battle plans.
See also
Leo Tolstoy bibliography
List of historical novels
Volkonsky House
War and Peas
Mir
References
External links
English Text
English translation with commentary by the Maudes at the Internet Archive
English translation at Gutenberg
War and Peace, from Marxists.org
War and Peace, from RevoltLib.com
War and Peace, from TheAnarchistLibrary.org
War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy (1863-1869). Illustrated by A. Apsit (1911-1912)
Searchable version of the gutenberg text in multiple formats SiSU
A searchable online version of Aylmer Maude's English translation of War and Peace
English Audio
Commentaries
Homage to War and Peace Searchable map, compiled by Nicholas Jenkins, of places named in Tolstoy's novel (2008).
Birth, death, balls and battles by Orlando Figes. This is an edited version of an essay found in the Penguin Classics new translation of War and Peace (2005).
Summaries
Chapter Summaries for War and Peace
SparkNotes Study Guide for War and Peace
In Current Events
Radio documentary about 1970 marathon reading of War and Peace on WBAI, from Democracy Now! program, December 6, 2005
Russian Text Online
Full text of War and Peace in modern Russian orthography
1869 Russian novels
Epic novels
Freemasonry in fiction
Russian historical novels
Novels set during the Napoleonic Wars
Russian novels adapted into television shows
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in 19th-century Russia
Russian novels adapted into films
Russian philosophical novels
Works about the French invasion of Russia
Works originally published in The Russian Messenger
Russian-language novels | wiki |
Clifford the Big Red Dog is a series of children's books written by Norman Bridwell.
Clifford the Big Red Dog may also refer to:
Clifford (character), the central character of Clifford the Big Red Dog
Film
Clifford's Really Big Movie, 2004 animated movie
Clifford the Big Red Dog (film), 2021 live-action/CGI movie
TV
Clifford the Big Red Dog (2000 TV series), 2000 animated TV series
Clifford's Puppy Days, 2003 animated TV series
Clifford the Big Red Dog (2019 TV series), 2019 animated TV series
See also
Clifford (disambiguation) | wiki |
Les glàndules paratiroides (o, senzillament, paratiroides) són petites glàndules endocrines al coll que produeixen l'hormona paratiroidal. Els éssers humans tenen quatre glàndules paratiroides, que normalment es troben darrere de la glàndula tiroide, i, en rars casos, dins de la glàndula tiroide o al pit. Les glàndules paratiroides controlen la quantitat de calci en la sang i dins dels ossos.
Glàndules
Sistema endocrí | wiki |
The USDA Forest Service has created two national junior ranger programs: Junior Forest Ranger Adventure Guide and Junior Snow Ranger. The Junior Forest Rangers is a program allows children to, after completing a booklet of activities related to outdoor skills, conservation, and forest fire prevention, receive a Junior Forest Rangers or Snow Ranger patch and certificate. The Junior Forest Ranger program is also available in Spanish. The forest service also maintains a webpage with kid friendly activities.
The Junior Forest Rangers program began in 1953, when a Smokey Bear plush toy produced by Ideal Toys and sold by Macy's department store came with a card that allowed children to contact Smokey and become a Junior Forest Ranger. In 1955 there were 500,000 Junior Forest Rangers, and Smokey Bear was receiving so much mail that in 1965 he was given his own zip code.
The Forest Service re-launched the Junior Forest Rangers program in 2006 with a redesigned booklet, now called an "Adventure Guide."
References
United States Forest Service
Environmental education in the United States
Outdoor education organizations | wiki |
Powassan encephalitis, caused by the Powassan virus (POWV), a flavivirus also known as the deer tick virus, is a form of arbovirus infection that results from tick bites. It can occur as a co-infection with Lyme disease since both are transmitted to humans by the same species of tick. There has been a surge in the number of cases and geographic range in the last decade. In the United States, cases have been recorded in the northeast. The disease was first isolated from the brain of a boy who died of encephalitis in Powassan, Ontario, in 1958. The disease is a zoonosis, an animal disease, usually found in rodents and ticks, with spillover transmission to humans. The virus is antigenically related to the Far Eastern tick-borne encephalitis viruses.
Presentation
Symptoms manifest within 7–10 days and include fever, headache, partial paralysis, confusion, nausea and even coma.
Diagnosis
Treatment
There is currently no established treatment.
Prognosis
Half of all cases results in permanent neurological damage and 10-15% result in death.
References
External links
Viral encephalitis
Tick-borne diseases | wiki |
Joint custody is a court order whereby custody of a child is awarded to both parties. In the United States, there are two forms of joint custody, joint physical custody (called also "shared parenting" or "shared custody") and joint legal custody. In joint physical custody, the lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court-ordered parenting schedule with equal or close to equal parenting time. In joint legal custody, both parents share the ability to make decisions about the child, regarding e.g. education, medical care and religion, and both can access their children's educational and health records.
It is possible for a court to make separate determinations of legal and physical custody. It is common to combine joint legal custody with sole physical custody and visitation, but the opposite is rare. In joint physical custody both parents are custodial parents and neither parent is a non-custodial parent.
Joint custody is distinct from sole custody. In sole physical custody, the child's lives primarily in the home of one parent while the children may have visitation with the other parent. In sole legal custody, one parent is assigned the exclusive right to make decisions concerning the children's important life activities, such as choice of school or doctor, and authorization of medical treatment or counseling. Joint custody is different from split custody, an arrangement in which one parent has sole custody over some of the parents' children, and the other parent has sole custody over the other children.
History
In England, prior to the nineteenth century, common law considered children to be the property of their father. However, the economic and social changes that occurred during the nineteenth century lead to a shift in ideas about the dynamics of the family. Industrialization separated the home and the workplace, keeping fathers away from their children in order to earn wages and provide for their family. Conversely, mothers were expected to stay in the home and care for the household and the children. Important social changes such as women's suffrage and child development theories allowed for ideas surrounding the importance of maternal care.
There has been a major shift which is favoring joint custody in the United States court system, which began in the mid-1980s. This change has shifted the emphasis from having the need for the child to have an attachment to one "psychological" parent to the need to have an ongoing relationship between both parents.
Originally, joint legal custody meant joint custody. In this joint legal custody arrangement, the child's parents shared responsibility over discussing issues related to the child-rearing. In these arrangements with joint legal custody, one of the parents was awarded physical custody, which designated them as the primary parent, or one of the parents was allowed to determine the primary residence of the children. Though this implied that both parents had a "significant period" of time with the children, it did nothing to ensure this factor, which meant that the parent without primary custody of the child could end up having little opportunity to see his or her children.
In many U.S. states, joint custody is increasingly used with the presumption of equal shared parenting, however, in most states, it is still viewed as creating a necessity to provide each of the parents with "significant periods" of physical custody to ensure the children "frequent and continuing contact" with both parents.
Shared parenting legislation
A number of states have considered or passed laws that create a rebuttable legal presumption in favor of shared parenting in a custody case.
Joint legal custody
Joint legal custody grants parents joint decision-making rights for important decisions that affect their minor children. The parents jointly decide how to raise their children in matters of schooling, spirituality, social events, sports religion, medical concerns, and other important decisions. Both parents have equal decision-making status where the welfare and safety of the children is concerned. This generally means that both parents must be involved for major legal matters concerning their children, but that ordinary "day-to-day" matters and issues are left to the discretion of the parent who is providing physical care for the children at the time the decision is made. Also, with joint legal custody, both parents share the ability to access to their children's records, including educational records, health records, and other records.
Joint legal custody can be combined with either joint physical custody or with sole physical custody and visitation rights. In a custody order, it's common for one parent to have physical custody and the other parent to have some sort of visitation rights, but legal custody is awarded separately. Thus, even when one parent is the primary custodian, joint legal custody may be awarded to both parents.
Advantages
When parents have joint legal custody to share important decision-making that affect their child, both parents may be more proactive in their child's upbringing, and the parents may experience less animosity and negativity in their co-parenting relationship. Parents may also communicate more effectively with each other, and they may exhibit feelings of well-being as a result of their working together to make decisions based on their child's needs. Proponents argue that it is good for children to see that their parents can work together, and over time joint legal custody has the potential to reverse some of the emotional effects of divorce on the children.
Disadvantages
Joint legal custody arrangements may be problematic when one parent attempts to control the majority of decisions in the child's life without regard to the other parent. Attempts to share decision-making may then cause one or both parents to become combative and argue over every decision that needs to be made about their children, resulting in significant stress to the parents and their children.
Joint physical custody
In joint physical custody, also known as shared parenting, the child has a legal residence or domicile in both parents' homes, and the lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court-ordered "parenting plan" or "parenting schedule"). In some states joint physical custody means equal or close to equal shared parenting time, while other states define it as an obligation to provide each of the parents with "significant periods" of parenting time so as to assure the child of "frequent and continuing contact" with both parents. For example, states such as Alabama, California, and Texas do not necessarily require joint physical custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time, whereas states such as Arizona, Georgia, and Louisiana do require joint custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time where feasible. Courts generally have not clearly defined what "significant periods" and "frequent and continuous contact" mean, which requires parents to litigate to find out. In some states, however, courts have provided a clear definition, for instance, in Nevada, the Supreme Court has defined joint physical custody as an arrangement where each parent has at least 40% of the parenting time on a yearly basis.
Frequency
In 2005/06, about 5 percent of American children ages 11 to 15 lived in a joint physical custody arrangement versus sole physical custody.
Laws
States tend to have one of three approaches to joint physical custody.
A rebuttable presumption in favor of shared parenting as being in the best interest of the child, so that this is the default option with exceptions made when there is child abuse or neglect. In 2018, Kentucky became the first state to enact a shared parenting presumption law.
Specification of joint physical custody as an option on par with sole custody, without a legal presumption either way. As examples, Arizona passed such a law in 2012, Missouri in 2016 and Virginia in 2018.
No mention of joint physical custody as a suitable option, although a judge may still grant it if both parents agree or if the judge consider it to be in the best interest of the child.
Parenting schedules
There are many different parenting schedules that gives the child equal time with each parent. Some common examples are:
The 2-2-5-5 schedule, where the child spends every Monday and Tuesday with one parent, every Wednesday and Thursday with the other parent, and then every other weekend, as follows:
The 2-2-3 schedule, where the child spends e.g. Monday and Tuesday with parent #1, Wednesday and Thursday with parent #2, Friday to Sunday with parent #1, the next Monday and Tuesday with parent #2, the next Wednesday and Thursday with parent #1, and the following weekend Friday to Sunday with parent #2, and so on.
The 3-4-4-3 schedule, where the child always spends the same three days with one parent, such as Sunday through Tuesday, and another three days with the other parent, such as Wednesday through Friday, and every other Saturday with each parent.
Alternating every 2 days
Every other week.
Splitting longer periods of time between the parents, such as two weeks or a month. If the periods are very long, such as a year, it is typically called alternating custody.
Children may spend all weekends and some holidays with one parent, but most weekdays with the other parent. This can be useful if the parents live far from each other, or, if one parent always work on weekends.
Bird's nest custody
Bird's nest custody is an uncommon form of joint physical custody in which, rather than having the children go from one parent's house to the other parent's house, the parents move in and out of the house in which the children constantly reside. The goal of this arrangement is to shift the burden of upheaval and moving between homes onto the parents rather than the children. However, due to the high cost of maintaining three households, one for each parent and one for the children, it's rarely a viable option in a custody case.
Advantages
Unless one of the parents is abusive, neglectful and/or mentally ill, the children tend to fare better in a joint physical custody arrangement.
Children benefit from having both parents involved in their upbringing, and joint physical custody facilitate that. Children in a joint custody arrangement are more likely to have outcomes similar to children from intact families, and to fare better than children in sole custody arrangements. It allows for children to be exposed to both parents as role-models, something that is not necessarily ensured by other custody arrangements.
Children in joint physical custody report higher self-esteem and lower levels of behavioral issues and greater overall post-divorce adjustment as opposed to children in sole custody arrangements. They also report greater levels of satisfaction with the division of time between their parents and children, feeling less torn between their parents, and feeling closer to both parents. Children that have easygoing, adaptable temperaments are more likely to benefit from the transitions that they experience with a shared parenting arrangement.
Even when there is conflict between the parents, children benefit from joint physical custody. Parents in joint physical custody arrangements report lower levels of conflict with one another, as compared to those in sole custody arrangements. Joint physical custody is associated with more positive parental relationships, effective parenting, and lower inter-parental conflict; key factors that ensure a child's well-being following divorce.
Children in joint physical custody arrangements are more likely to have better relationships with their families, better performance in their schools, higher levels of self-esteem, and fewer conduct and emotional issues.
Disadvantages
Joint physical custody is harmful when there is a parent with major deficits in how they care for their children, such as parents who neglect or abuse their children, and those from whom children would need protection and distance even in intact families.
Joint physical custody is not suitable when a child has a relationship with only one of the parents and no prior relationship with the other parent, or only a peripheral relationship. Different parenting plans will then better serve the goal of establishing and building the new parent-child relationship.
If the parents live far from each other, joint physical custody means more traveling time for the child compared to sole physical custody, both between the parents and between one of their homes and their school.
Some commentators believe that infants and preschoolers do not benefit from joint custody arrangements due to the importance of a consistent routine and the security of a primary attachment figure at that age. However, a consensus report published in an American Psychological Association journal that was endorsed by experts on attachment, early child development, and divorce, has rejected that perspective.
Another concern that may be raised by joint physical custody is that the children's parents are in frequent contact with each other than in other custodial arrangements, and that contact may increase conflict and thereby negatively impact all parties involved, including the children. However, numerous studies have found that joint physical custody reduces the levels of conflict.
Some critics of joint physical custody express concern that frequent ping-pong moves back and forth between their parents' homes will have a negative emotional impact on children, and that the children may develop the feeling that there is "Mom's House" and "Dad's House", and no residence that a child may consider to be "my home".
Advocates
Based on scientific research, there are many advocates for joint physical custody as being in the best interest of children, with exceptions for child abuse and neglect. These advocates include non-custodial mothers and fathers; grandparents, step-parents and other family members of non-custodial parents; children's rights advocates; family court reform advocates who see sole custody as a disruptive practice pitting one parent against the other; mental health professionals who consider joint physical custody as the best prevention against parental alienation; women who view it as a gender equality issue; father's rights advocates; domestic violence experts; academic scientists who have conducted studies and found that children with shared parenting have better on physical health, mental health and social relationships; and psychologists, therapists, politicians and others who are familiar with those studies.
In 2014, a group of 110 scientists endorsed a consensus report supporting the view that shared parenting should be the norm for parenting plans for children of all ages, including very young children. In 2018, scientists and practitioners at the conference of the International Council on Shared Parenting called upon governments and professional associations to identify shared parenting as a fundamental right of the child.
In the United States, the oldest shared parenting advocacy organization is the Children's Rights Council, founded in 1985. The leading national organization is the National Parents Organization, with state affiliates in California, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah and Virginia. To dispel the myth that it is only fathers that advocate for joint physical custody, Leading Women for Shared Parenting is a one-issue organization with a diverse membership of scientists, lawyers, psychologists, domestic violence experts, children's rights advocates, politicians and others.
Opponents
While many women and women's organizations are in favor of legislation making shared parenting the default option when there are two loving and competent parent, there are also some that are against it. For example, the National Organization for Women, the League of Women Voters, the Breastfeeding Coalition, the National Council of Jewish Women and UniteWomen were all opposed to the 2016 shared parenting bill in Florida, successfully urging governor Rick Scott to veto it.
Family lawyers and bar associations have lobbied hard against shared parenting legislation, They have succeeded in preventing such legislation in North Dakota, Florida, Hawaii and Minnesota., convincing the governors to veto such legislation in the three latter states. When Australia implemented its shared parenting law, child custody litigation dropped by 72%, and there is fear that the same could happen in the United States.
See also
References
Child custody
Children's rights
Family law
Fathers' rights movement
Gender equality
Marriage, unions and partnerships in the United States
Mothers' rights
Parenting
Paternity | wiki |
Fermented milk products or fermented dairy products, also known as cultured dairy foods, cultured dairy products, or cultured milk products, are dairy foods that have been fermented with lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Leuconostoc. The fermentation process increases the shelf life of the product while enhancing its taste and improving the digestibility of its milk. There is evidence that fermented milk products have been produced since around 10,000 BC. A range of different Lactobacilli strains has been grown in laboratories allowing for many cultured milk products with different flavors and characteristics.
Products
Many different types of cultured milk products can be found around the world including milk, cheese, yogurt, other cultured dairy foods, ice cream and more.
Soured milk
Soured cream
Comparison chart
* Streptococcus lactis has been renamed to Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis
See also
List of dairy products
List of yogurt-based dishes and beverages
References
External links
Milk
Sour foods | wiki |
Orthe may refer to:
Orthe (series), series of science fiction novels by British writer Mary Gentle
Orthe (Thessaly), town of Perrhaebia in ancient Thessaly
Canton of Orthe et Arrigans, an administrative division of the Landes department, southwestern France | wiki |
Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and preventing corrosion.
In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen, hydrogen or hydroxide. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal and results in a distinctive orange coloration. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term "degradation" is more common. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including mechanical strength, appearance, and permeability to liquids and gases.
Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area, more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material's corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.
The chemistry of corrosion is complex; it can be considered an electrochemical phenomenon. During corrosion at a particular spot on the surface of an object made of iron, oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as an anode. The electrons released at this anodic spot move through the metal to another spot on the object, and reduce oxygen at that spot in presence of H+(which is believed to be available from carbonic acid () formed due to dissolution of carbon dioxide from air into water in moist air condition of atmosphere. Hydrogen ion in water may also be available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the atmosphere). This spot behaves as a cathode.
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte, or when the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (the cathode) corrodes at a slower rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of metal(s) to use is readily determined by following the galvanic series. For example, zinc is often used as a sacrificial anode for steel structures. Galvanic corrosion is of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere water (containing salts) contacts pipes or metal structures.
Factors such as relative size of anode, types of metal, and operating conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.) affect galvanic corrosion. The surface area ratio of the anode and cathode directly affects the corrosion rates of the materials. Galvanic corrosion is often prevented by the use of sacrificial anodes.
Galvanic series
In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room-temperature seawater), one metal will be either more noble or more active than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the "tug-of-war" at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in the same direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of materials in the medium of interest. This hierarchy is called a galvanic series and is useful in predicting and understanding corrosion.
Corrosion removal
Often it is possible to chemically remove the products of corrosion. For example, phosphoric acid in the form of naval jelly is often applied to ferrous tools or surfaces to remove rust. Corrosion removal should not be confused with electropolishing, which removes some layers of the underlying metal to make a smooth surface. For example, phosphoric acid may also be used to electropolish copper but it does this by removing copper, not the products of copper corrosion.
Resistance to corrosion
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others (for some examples, see galvanic series). There are various ways of protecting metals from corrosion (oxidation) including painting, hot-dip galvanization, cathodic protection, and combinations of these.
Intrinsic chemistry
The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion is thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on Earth and have long been valued. More common "base" metals can only be protected by more temporary means.
Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing, it happens at an acceptably slow rate. An extreme example is graphite, which releases large amounts of energy upon oxidation, but has such slow kinetics that it is effectively immune to electrochemical corrosion under normal conditions.
Passivation
Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of corrosion products, known as a passive film, on the metal's surface that act as a barrier to further oxidation. The chemical composition and microstructure of a passive film are different from the underlying metal. Typical passive film thickness on aluminium, stainless steels, and alloys is within 10 nanometers. The passive film is different from oxide layers that are formed upon heating and are in the micrometer thickness range – the passive film recovers if removed or damaged whereas the oxide layer does not. Passivation in natural environments such as air, water and soil at moderate pH is seen in such materials as aluminium, stainless steel, titanium, and silicon.
Passivation is primarily determined by metallurgical and environmental factors. The effect of pH is summarized using Pourbaix diagrams, but many other factors are influential. Some conditions that inhibit passivation include high pH for aluminium and zinc, low pH or the presence of chloride ions for stainless steel, high temperature for titanium (in which case the oxide dissolves into the metal, rather than the electrolyte) and fluoride ions for silicon. On the other hand, unusual conditions may result in passivation of materials that are normally unprotected, as the alkaline environment of concrete does for steel rebar. Exposure to a liquid metal such as mercury or hot solder can often circumvent passivation mechanisms.
Corrosion in passivated materials
Passivation is extremely useful in mitigating corrosion damage, however even a high-quality alloy will corrode if its ability to form a passivating film is hindered. Proper selection of the right grade of material for the specific environment is important for the long-lasting performance of this group of materials. If breakdown occurs in the passive film due to chemical or mechanical factors, the resulting major modes of corrosion may include pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking.
Pitting corrosion
Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high concentrations of species such as chloride which compete as anions, can interfere with a given alloy's ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will remain protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical points. Corrosion at these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause corrosion pits of several types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only nucleate under fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when conditions return to normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of oxygen and locally the pH decreases to very low values and the corrosion rate increases due to an autocatalytic process. In extreme cases, the sharp tips of extremely long and narrow corrosion pits can cause stress concentration to the point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter; a thin film pierced by an invisibly small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are especially dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure fails. Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in passivated alloys, but it can be prevented by control of the alloy's environment.
Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion-produced compounds.
Weld decay and knifeline attack
Stainless steel can pose special corrosion challenges, since its passivating behavior relies on the presence of a major alloying component (chromium, at least 11.5%). Because of the elevated temperatures of welding and heat treatment, chromium carbides can form in the grain boundaries of stainless alloys. This chemical reaction robs the material of chromium in the zone near the grain boundary, making those areas much less resistant to corrosion. This creates a galvanic couple with the well-protected alloy nearby, which leads to "weld decay" (corrosion of the grain boundaries in the heat affected zones) in highly corrosive environments. This process can seriously reduce the mechanical strength of welded joints over time.
A stainless steel is said to be "sensitized" if chromium carbides are formed in the microstructure. A typical microstructure of a normalized type 304 stainless steel shows no signs of sensitization, while a heavily sensitized steel shows the presence of grain boundary precipitates. The dark lines in the sensitized microstructure are networks of chromium carbides formed along the grain boundaries.
Special alloys, either with low carbon content or with added carbon "getters" such as titanium and niobium (in types 321 and 347, respectively), can prevent this effect, but the latter require special heat treatment after welding to prevent the similar phenomenon of "knifeline attack". As its name implies, corrosion is limited to a very narrow zone adjacent to the weld, often only a few micrometers across, making it even less noticeable.
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion occurring in confined spaces (crevices), to which the access of the working fluid from the environment is limited. Formation of a differential aeration cell leads to corrosion inside the crevices. Examples of crevices are gaps and contact areas between parts, under gaskets or seals, inside cracks and seams, spaces filled with deposits, and under sludge piles.
Crevice corrosion is influenced by the crevice type (metal-metal, metal-non-metal), crevice geometry (size, surface finish), and metallurgical and environmental factors. The susceptibility to crevice corrosion can be evaluated with ASTM standard procedures. A critical crevice corrosion temperature is commonly used to rank a material's resistance to crevice corrosion.
Hydrogen grooving
In the chemical industry, hydrogen grooving is the corrosion of piping at grooves created by the interaction of a corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. For example, when sulfuric acid () flows through steel pipes, the iron in the steel reacts with the acid to form a passivation coating of iron sulfate () and hydrogen gas (). The iron sulfate coating will protect the steel from further reaction; however, if hydrogen bubbles contact this coating, it will be removed. Thus, a groove can be formed by a travelling bubble, exposing more steel to the acid, causing a vicious cycle. The grooving is exacerbated by the tendency of subsequent bubbles to follow the same path.
High-temperature corrosion
High-temperature corrosion is chemical deterioration of a material (typically a metal) as a result of heating. This non-galvanic form of corrosion can occur when a metal is subjected to a hot atmosphere containing oxygen, sulfur ("sulfidation"), or other compounds capable of oxidizing (or assisting the oxidation of) the material concerned. For example, materials used in aerospace, power generation, and even in car engines must resist sustained periods at high temperature, during which they may be exposed to an atmosphere containing the potentially highly-corrosive products of combustion.
Some products of high-temperature corrosion can potentially be turned to the advantage of the engineer. The formation of oxides on stainless steels, for example, can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room and high temperatures in hostile conditions. Such high-temperature corrosion products, in the form of compacted oxide layer glazes, prevent or reduce wear during high-temperature sliding contact of metallic (or metallic and ceramic) surfaces. Thermal oxidation is also commonly used to produce controlled oxide nanostructures, including nanowires and thin films.
Microbial corrosion
Microbial corrosion, or commonly known as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), is a corrosion caused or promoted by microorganisms, usually chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metallic and non-metallic materials, in the presence or absence of oxygen. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are active in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic); they produce hydrogen sulfide, causing sulfide stress cracking. In the presence of oxygen (aerobic), some bacteria may directly oxidize iron to iron oxides and hydroxides, other bacteria oxidize sulfur and produce sulfuric acid causing biogenic sulfide corrosion. Concentration cells can form in the deposits of corrosion products, leading to localized corrosion.
Accelerated low-water corrosion (ALWC) is a particularly aggressive form of MIC that affects steel piles in seawater near the low water tide mark. It is characterized by an orange sludge, which smells of hydrogen sulfide when treated with acid. Corrosion rates can be very high and design corrosion allowances can soon be exceeded leading to premature failure of the steel pile. Piles that have been coated and have cathodic protection installed at the time of construction are not susceptible to ALWC. For unprotected piles, sacrificial anodes can be installed locally to the affected areas to inhibit the corrosion or a complete retrofitted sacrificial anode system can be installed. Affected areas can also be treated using cathodic protection, using either sacrificial anodes or applying current to an inert anode to produce a calcareous deposit, which will help shield the metal from further attack.
Metal dusting
Metal dusting is a catastrophic form of corrosion that occurs when susceptible materials are exposed to environments with high carbon activities, such as synthesis gas and other high-CO environments. The corrosion manifests itself as a break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. The suspected mechanism is firstly the deposition of a graphite layer on the surface of the metal, usually from carbon monoxide (CO) in the vapor phase. This graphite layer is then thought to form metastable M3C species (where M is the metal), which migrate away from the metal surface. However, in some regimes no M3C species is observed indicating a direct transfer of metal atoms into the graphite layer.
Protection from corrosion
Various treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys are extremely vulnerable to corrosion, such as those used in neodymium magnets, which can spall or crumble into powder even in dry, temperature-stable indoor environments unless properly treated to discourage corrosion.
Surface treatments
When surface treatments are used to deter corrosion, great care must be taken to ensure complete coverage, without gaps, cracks, or pinhole defects. Small defects can act as an "Achilles' heel", allowing corrosion to penetrate the interior and causing extensive damage even while the outer protective layer remains apparently intact for a period of time.
Applied coatings
Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are the most common anti-corrosion treatments. They work by providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between the damaging environment and the structural material. Aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues, there may be tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high temperature. Platings usually fail only in small sections, but if the plating is more noble than the substrate (for example, chromium on steel), a galvanic couple will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly than an unplated surface would. For this reason, it is often wise to plate with active metal such as zinc or cadmium. If the zinc coating is not thick enough the surface soon becomes unsightly with rusting obvious. The design life is directly related to the metal coating thickness.
Painting either by roller or brush is more desirable for tight spaces; spray would be better for larger coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications. Flexible polyurethane coatings, like Durabak-M26 for example, can provide an anti-corrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane. Painted coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary.
Nowadays, organic coatings made using petroleum based polymer are being replaced with many renewable source based organic coatings. Among various vehicles or binders, polyurethanes are the most explored polymer in such a attempts.
Reactive coatings
If the environment is controlled (especially in recirculating systems), corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it. These chemicals form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods make the system less sensitive to scratches or defects in the coating, since extra inhibitors can be made available wherever metal becomes exposed. Chemicals that inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in hard water (Roman water systems are famous for their mineral deposits), chromates, phosphates, polyaniline, other conducting polymers and a wide range of specially designed chemicals that resemble surfactants (i.e. long-chain organic molecules with ionic end groups).
Anodization
Aluminium alloys often undergo a surface treatment. Electrochemical conditions in the bath are carefully adjusted so that uniform pores, several nanometers wide, appear in the metal's oxide film. These pores allow the oxide to grow much thicker than passivating conditions would allow. At the end of the treatment, the pores are allowed to seal, forming a harder-than-usual surface layer. If this coating is scratched, normal passivation processes take over to protect the damaged area.
Anodizing is very resilient to weathering and corrosion, so it is commonly used for building facades and other areas where the surface will come into regular contact with the elements. While being resilient, it must be cleaned frequently. If left without cleaning, panel edge staining will naturally occur. Anodization is the process of converting an anode into cathode by bringing a more active anode in contact with it.
Biofilm coatings
A new form of protection has been developed by applying certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in highly corrosive environments. This process increases the corrosion resistance substantially. Alternatively, antimicrobial-producing biofilms can be used to inhibit mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria.
Controlled permeability formwork
Controlled permeability formwork (CPF) is a method of preventing the corrosion of reinforcement by naturally enhancing the durability of the cover during concrete placement. CPF has been used in environments to combat the effects of carbonation, chlorides, frost and abrasion.
Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel pipelines and tanks; steel pier piles, ships, and offshore oil platforms.
Sacrificial anode protection
For effective CP, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the metal surface has a uniform potential. With a uniform potential, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is halted. For galvanic CP systems, the anode material corrodes under the influence of the steel, and eventually it must be replaced. The polarization is caused by the current flow from the anode to the cathode, driven by the difference in electrode potential between the anode and the cathode. The most common sacrificial anode materials are aluminum, zinc, magnesium and related alloys. Aluminum has the highest capacity, and magnesium has the highest driving voltage and is thus used where resistance is higher. Zinc is general purpose and the basis for galvanizing.
A number of problems are associated with sacrificial anodes. Among these, from an environmental perspective, is the release of zinc, magnesium, aluminum and heavy metals such as cadmium into the environment including seawater. From a working perspective, sacrificial anodes systems are considered to be less precise than modern cathodic protection systems such as Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) systems. Their ability to provide requisite protection has to be checked regularly by means of underwater inspection by divers. Furthermore, as they have a finite lifespan, sacrificial anodes need to be replaced regularly over time.
Impressed current cathodic protection
For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver enough current to provide complete protection. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC power source (such as a cathodic protection rectifier). Anodes for ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes of various specialized materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide or platinum coated titanium or niobium coated rod and wires.
Anodic protection
Anodic protection impresses anodic current on the structure to be protected (opposite to the cathodic protection). It is appropriate for metals that exhibit passivity (e.g. stainless steel) and suitably small passive current over a wide range of potentials. It is used in aggressive environments, such as solutions of sulfuric acid. Anodic protection is an electrochemical method of corrosion protection by keeping metal in passive state
Rate of corrosion
The formation of an oxide layer is described by the Deal–Grove model, which is used to predict and control oxide layer formation in diverse situations. A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight loss method. The method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal or alloy to the corrosive environment for a specified time followed by cleaning to remove corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss of weight. The rate of corrosion (R) is calculated as
where k is a constant,
W is the weight loss of the metal in time t, A is the surface area of the metal exposed, and ρ is the density of the metal (in g/cm3).
Other common expressions for the corrosion rate is penetration depth and change of mechanical properties.
Economic impact
In 2002, the US Federal Highway Administration released a study titled "Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States" on the direct costs associated with metallic corrosion in the US industry. In 1998, the total annual direct cost of corrosion in the US was ca. $276 billion (ca. 3.2% of the US gross domestic product). Broken down into five specific industries, the economic losses are $22.6 billion in infrastructure; $17.6 billion in production and manufacturing; $29.7 billion in transportation; $20.1 billion in government; and $47.9 billion in utilities.
Rust is one of the most common causes of bridge accidents. As rust displaces a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent components. It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus River Bridge in 1983, when support bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support. Three drivers on the roadway at the time died as the slab fell into the river below. The following NTSB investigation showed that a drain in the road had been blocked for road re-surfacing, and had not been unblocked; as a result, runoff water penetrated the support hangers. Rust was also an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed within a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers who were on the bridge at the time.
Similarly, corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced concrete bridges. Measuring instruments based on the half-cell potential can detect the potential corrosion spots before total failure of the concrete structure is reached.
Until 20–30 years ago, galvanized steel pipe was used extensively in the potable water systems for single and multi-family residents as well as commercial and public construction. Today, these systems have long ago consumed the protective zinc and are corroding internally, resulting in poor water quality and pipe failures. The economic impact on homeowners, condo dwellers, and the public infrastructure is estimated at 22 billion dollars as the insurance industry braces for a wave of claims due to pipe failures.
Corrosion in nonmetals
Most ceramic materials are almost entirely immune to corrosion. The strong chemical bonds that hold them together leave very little free chemical energy in the structure; they can be thought of as already corroded. When corrosion does occur, it is almost always a simple dissolution of the material or chemical reaction, rather than an electrochemical process. A common example of corrosion protection in ceramics is the lime added to soda-lime glass to reduce its solubility in water; though it is not nearly as soluble as pure sodium silicate, normal glass does form sub-microscopic flaws when exposed to moisture. Due to its brittleness, such flaws cause a dramatic reduction in the strength of a glass object during its first few hours at room temperature.
Corrosion of polymers
Polymer degradation involves several complex and often poorly understood physiochemical processes. These are strikingly different from the other processes discussed here, and so the term "corrosion" is only applied to them in a loose sense of the word. Because of their large molecular weight, very little entropy can be gained by mixing a given mass of polymer with another substance, making them generally quite difficult to dissolve. While dissolution is a problem in some polymer applications, it is relatively simple to design against.
A more common and related problem is "swelling", where small molecules infiltrate the structure, reducing strength and stiffness and causing a volume change. Conversely, many polymers (notably flexible vinyl) are intentionally swelled with plasticizers, which can be leached out of the structure, causing brittleness or other undesirable changes.
The most common form of degradation, however, is a decrease in polymer chain length. Mechanisms which break polymer chains are familiar to biologists because of their effect on DNA: ionizing radiation (most commonly ultraviolet light), free radicals, and oxidizers such as oxygen, ozone, and chlorine. Ozone cracking is a well-known problem affecting natural rubber for example. Plastic additives can slow these process very effectively, and can be as simple as a UV-absorbing pigment (e.g. titanium dioxide or carbon black). Plastic shopping bags often do not include these additives so that they break down more easily as ultrafine particles of litter.
Corrosion of glass
Glass is characterized by a high degree of corrosion-resistance. Because of its high water-resistance it is often used as primary packaging material in the pharma industry since most medicines are preserved in a watery solution. Besides its water-resistance, glass is also robust when exposed to certain chemically aggressive liquids or gases.
Glass disease is the corrosion of silicate glasses in aqueous solutions. It is governed by two mechanisms: diffusion-controlled leaching (ion exchange) and hydrolytic dissolution of the glass network. Both mechanisms strongly depend on the pH of contacting solution: the rate of ion exchange decreases with pH as 10−0.5pH whereas the rate of hydrolytic dissolution increases with pH as 100.5pH.
Mathematically, corrosion rates of glasses are characterized by normalized corrosion rates of elements NRi (g/cm2·d) which are determined as the ratio of total amount of released species into the water Mi (g) to the water-contacting surface area S (cm2), time of contact t (days) and weight fraction content of the element in the glass fi:
.
The overall corrosion rate is a sum of contributions from both mechanisms (leaching + dissolution) NRi=NRxi+NRh.
Diffusion-controlled leaching (ion exchange) is characteristic of the initial phase of corrosion and involves replacement of alkali ions in the glass by a hydronium (H3O+) ion from the solution. It causes an ion-selective depletion of near surface layers of glasses and gives an inverse square root dependence of corrosion rate with exposure time. The diffusion-controlled normalized leaching rate of cations from glasses (g/cm2·d) is given by:
,
where t is time, Di is the i-th cation effective diffusion coefficient (cm2/d), which depends on pH of contacting water as Di = Di0·10–pH, and ρ is the density of the glass (g/cm3).
Glass network dissolution is characteristic of the later phases of corrosion and causes a congruent release of ions into the water solution at a time-independent rate in dilute solutions (g/cm2·d):
,
where rh is the stationary hydrolysis (dissolution) rate of the glass (cm/d).
In closed systems the consumption of protons from the aqueous phase increases the pH and causes a fast transition to hydrolysis. However, a further saturation of solution with silica impedes hydrolysis and causes the glass to return to an ion-exchange, e.g. diffusion-controlled regime of corrosion.
In typical natural conditions normalized corrosion rates of silicate glasses are very low and are of the order of 10−7–10−5 g/(cm2·d). The very high durability of silicate glasses in water makes them suitable for hazardous and nuclear waste immobilisation.
Glass corrosion tests
There exist numerous standardized procedures for measuring the corrosion (also called chemical durability) of glasses in neutral, basic, and acidic environments, under simulated environmental conditions, in simulated body fluid, at high temperature and pressure, and under other conditions.
The standard procedure ISO 719 describes a test of the extraction of water-soluble basic compounds under neutral conditions: 2 g of glass, particle size 300–500 μm, is kept for 60 min in 50 mL de-ionized water of grade 2 at 98 °C; 25 mL of the obtained solution is titrated against 0.01 mol/L HCl solution. The volume of HCl required for neutralization is classified according to the table below.
The standardized test ISO 719 is not suitable for glasses with poor or not extractable alkaline components, but which are still attacked by water, e.g. quartz glass, B2O3 glass or P2O5 glass.
Usual glasses are differentiated into the following classes:
Hydrolytic class 1 (Type I):
This class, which is also called neutral glass, includes borosilicate glasses (e.g. Duran, Pyrex, Fiolax).
Glass of this class contains essential quantities of boron oxides, aluminium oxides and alkaline earth oxides. Through its composition neutral glass has a high resistance against temperature shocks and the highest hydrolytic resistance. Against acid and neutral solutions it shows high chemical resistance, because of its poor alkali content against alkaline solutions.
Hydrolytic class 2 (Type II):
This class usually contains sodium silicate glasses with a high hydrolytic resistance through surface finishing. Sodium silicate glass is a silicate glass, which contains alkali- and alkaline earth oxide and primarily sodium oxide and Calcium oxide.
Hydrolytic class 3 (Type III):
Glass of the 3rd hydrolytic class usually contains sodium silicate glasses and has a mean hydrolytic resistance, which is two times poorer than of type 1 glasses.
Acid class DIN 12116 and alkali class DIN 52322 (ISO 695) are to be distinguished from the hydrolytic class DIN 12111 (ISO 719).
See also
References
Further reading
Glass chemistry
Metallurgy | wiki |
Sate padang, more commonly referred to as Padang satay is a speciality satay from Minangkabau cuisine, made from beef cut into small cubes with spicy sauce on top. Its main characteristic is the thick yellow sauce made from rice flour mixed with beef and offal broth, turmeric, ginger, garlic, coriander, galangal root, cumin, curry powder and salt. In Medan, many Sate Padang use not only beef but also chicken, goat, lamb and mutton. Also in Medan, fried shallot is served on top of sate padang, and lontong as the side.
There are three types of Sate padang, which are Sate Padang Panjang, Sate Payakumbuh and Sate Pariaman. The three types are differentiated by the colour of their sauce. Sate Padang Panjang usually has yellow-coloured sauce, Sate Payakumbuh has brown-coloured sauce, while Sate Pariaman has red-coloured sauce. Since the sauces are made differently, the taste of both sate differ.
Fresh beef is boiled twice in a large drum filled with water to make the meat soft and juicy. Then the meat is sliced into parts and spices are sprinkled on the meat. The broth is then used to make the sauce, mixed with 19 kinds of spices which have been smoothed and stirred with various kinds of chili. All seasonings are then put together and cooked for 15 minutes. The sate will be grilled just before serving, using coconut shell charcoal.
See also
Satay
Sate kambing
Sate taichan
Padang cuisine
Sources and references
Padang
Indonesian cuisine
Padang cuisine | wiki |
Aerial may refer to:
Music
Aerial (album), by Kate Bush
Aerials (song), from the album Toxicity by System of a Down
Bands
Aerial (Canadian band)
Aerial (Scottish band)
Aerial (Swedish band)
Recreation and sport
Aerial (dance move)
Aerial (skateboarding)
Front aerial, gymnastics move performed in acro dance
Technology
Aerial (radio), a radio antenna or transducer that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves
Aerial (television), an over-the-air television reception antenna
Other uses
Aerial, Georgia, a community in the United States
Aerial (magazine), a poetry magazine
Aerials (film), a 2016 Emirati science-fiction film
Aerial, a TV ident for BBC Two from 1997 to 2001
See also
Airborne (disambiguation)
Antenna (disambiguation) | wiki |
Bullfighting is a physical contest that involves a bullfighter attempting to subdue, immobilize, or kill a bull, usually according to a set of rules, guidelines, or cultural expectations.
There are several variations, including some forms which involve dancing around or leaping over a cow or bull or attempting to grasp an object tied to the animal's horns. The best-known form of bullfighting is Spanish-style bullfighting, practiced in Spain, Portugal, Southern France, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Peru. The Spanish Fighting Bull is bred for its aggression and physique, and is raised free-range with little human contact.
The practice of bullfighting is controversial because of a range of concerns including animal welfare, funding, and religion. While some forms are considered a blood sport, in some countries, for example Spain, it is defined as an art form or cultural event, and local regulations define it as a cultural event or heritage. Bullfighting is illegal in most countries, but remains legal in most areas of Spain and Portugal, as well as in some Hispanic American countries and some parts of southern France.
History
Bullfighting traces its roots to prehistoric bull worship and sacrifice in Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean region. The first recorded bullfight may be the Epic of Gilgamesh, which describes a scene in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu fought and killed the Bull of Heaven ("The Bull seemed indestructible, for hours they fought, till Gilgamesh dancing in front of the Bull, lured it with his tunic and bright weapons, and Enkidu thrust his sword, deep into the Bull's neck, and killed it"). Bull-leaping was portrayed in Crete and myths related to bulls throughout Greece.
The cosmic connotations of the ancient Iranian practice of Bull sacrifice are reflected in Zoroaster's Gathas and the Avesta. The killing of the sacred bull (tauroctony) is the essential central iconic act of the Iranian Mithras, which was commemorated in the mithraeum wherever Roman soldiers were stationed. The oldest representation of what seems to be a man facing a bull is on the Celtiberian tombstone from Clunia and the cave painting El toro de hachos, both found in Spain.
Bullfighting is often linked to Rome, where many human-versus-animal events were held as competition and entertainment, the Venationes. These hunting games spread to Africa, Asia, and Europe during Roman times. There are also theories that it was introduced into Hispania by the Emperor Claudius, as a substitute for gladiators, when he instituted a short-lived ban on gladiatorial combat. The latter theory was supported by Robert Graves (picadors are related to warriors who wielded the javelin, but their role in the contest is now a minor one limited to "preparing" the bull for the matador.) Spanish colonists took the practice of breeding cattle and bullfighting to the American colonies, the Pacific, and Asia. In the 19th century, areas of southern and southwestern France adopted bullfighting, developing their distinctive form.
Religious festivities and royal weddings were celebrated by fights in the local plaza, where noblemen would ride competing for royal favor, and the populace enjoyed the excitement. In the Middle Ages across Europe, knights would joust in competitions on horseback. In Spain, they began to fight bulls.
In medieval Spain bullfighting was considered a noble sport and reserved for the rich, who could afford to supply and train their horses. The bull was released into a closed arena where a single fighter on horseback was armed with a lance. This spectacle was said to be enjoyed by Charlemagne, Alfonso X the Wise and the Almohad caliphs, among others. The greatest Spanish performer of this art is said to have been the knight El Cid. According to a chronicle of the time, in 1128 "... when Alfonso VII of León and Castile married Berengaria of Barcelona daughter of Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona at Saldaña among other celebrations, there were also bullfights."
In the time of Emperor Charles V, Pedro Ponce de Leon was the most famous bullfighter in Spain and a renovator of the technique of killing the bull on a horse with blindfolded eyes. Juan de Quirós, the best Sevillian poet of that time, dedicated to him a poem in Latin, of which Benito Arias Montano transmits some verses.
Francisco Romero, from Ronda, Spain, is generally regarded as having been the first to introduce the practice of fighting bulls on foot around 1726, using the muleta in the last stage of the fight and an estoc to kill the bull. This type of fighting drew more attention from the crowds. Thus the modern corrida, or fight, began to take form, as riding noblemen were replaced by commoners on foot. This new style prompted the construction of dedicated bullrings, initially square, like the Plaza de Armas, and later round, to discourage the cornering of the action.
The modern style of Spanish bullfighting is credited to Juan Belmonte, generally considered the greatest matador of all time. Belmonte introduced a daring and revolutionary style, in which he stayed within a few centimeters of the bull throughout the fight. Although extremely dangerous (Belmonte was gored on many occasions), his style is still seen by most matadors as the ideal to be emulated.
Styles
Originally, at least five distinct regional styles of bullfighting were practised in southwestern Europe: Andalusia, Aragon–Navarre, Alentejo, Camargue, Aquitaine. Over time, these have evolved more or less into standardized national forms mentioned below. The "classic" style of bullfighting, in which the rule is kill the bull is the style practiced in Spain and many Latin American countries.
Bullfighting stadia are named "bullrings". There are many historic bullrings; the oldest are the 1700s Spanish plazas of Sevilla and Ronda. The largest bullring is the Plaza México in Mexican capital which seats 48,000 people.
Spanish
Spanish-style bullfighting is called corrida de toros (literally "coursing of bulls") or la fiesta ("the festival"). In the traditional corrida, three matadores each fight two bulls, each of which is between four and six years old and weighs no less than 460 kg (1,014 lb). Each matador has six assistants: two picadores (lancers mounted on horseback), three banderilleros – who along with the matadors are collectively known as toreros (bullfighters) – and a mozo de espadas (sword page). Collectively they comprise a cuadrilla (entourage). In Spanish the more general torero or diestro (literally 'right-hander') is used for the lead fighter, and only when needed to distinguish a man is the full title matador de toros used; in English, "matador" is generally used for the bullfighter.
Structure
The modern corrida is highly ritualized, with three distinct stages or tercios ("thirds"); the start of each being announced by a bugle sound. The participants enter the arena in a parade, called the paseíllo, to salute the presiding dignitary, accompanied by band music. Torero costumes are inspired by 17th-century Andalusian clothing, and matadores are easily distinguished by the gold of their traje de luces ("suit of lights"), as opposed to the lesser banderilleros, who are also known as toreros de plata ("bullfighters of silver").
Tercio de Varas
The bull is released into the ring, where he is tested for ferocity by the matador and banderilleros with the magenta and gold capote ("cape"). This is the first stage, the tercio de varas ("the lancing third"). The matador confronts the bull with the capote, performing a series of passes and observing the behavior and quirks of the bull.
Next, a picador enters the arena on horseback armed with a vara (lance). To protect the horse from the bull's horns, the animal wears a protective, padded covering called peto. Prior to 1930, the horses did not wear any protection. Often the bull would disembowel the horse during this stage. Until the use of protection was instituted, the number of horses killed during a fiesta generally exceeded the number of bulls killed.
At this point, the picador stabs just behind the morrillo, a mound of muscle on the fighting bull's neck, weakening the neck muscles and leading to the animal's first loss of blood. The manner in which the bull charges the horse provides important clues to the matador about the bull such as which horn the bull favors. As a result of the injury and also the fatigue of striving to injure the armoured heavy horse, the bull holds its head and horns slightly lower during the following stages of the fight. This ultimately enables the matador to perform the killing thrust later in the performance. The encounter with the picador often fundamentally changes the behavior of a bull; distracted and unengaging bulls will become more focused and stay on a single target instead of charging at everything that moves, conserving their diminished energy reserves.
Tercio de Banderillas
In the next stage, the tercio de banderillas ("the third of banderillas"), each of the three banderilleros attempts to plant two banderillas, sharp barbed sticks, into the bull's shoulders. These anger and agitate the bull reinvigorating him from the aplomado (literally 'leadened') state his attacks on the horse and injuries from the lance left him in. Sometimes a matador will place his own banderillas. If so, he usually embellishes this part of his performance and employs more varied maneuvers than the standard al cuarteo method commonly used by banderilleros.
Tercio de Muerte
In the final stage, the tercio de muerte ("a third of death"), the matador re-enters the ring alone with a smaller red cloth, or muleta, and a sword. It is a common misconception that the color red is supposed to anger the bull; the animals are functionally colorblind in this respect: the bull is incited to charge by the movement of the muleta. The muleta is thought to be red to mask the bull's blood, although the color is now a matter of tradition. The matador uses his muleta to attract the bull in a series of passes, which serve the dual purpose of wearing the animal down for the kill and creating sculptural forms between man and animal that can fascinate or thrill the audience, and which when linked together in a rhythm create a dance of passes, or faena. The matador will often try to enhance the drama of the dance by bringing the bull's horns especially close to his body. The faena refers to the entire performance with the muleta.
The faena is usually broken down into tandas, or "series", of passes. The faena ends with a final series of passes in which the matador, using the cape, tries to maneuver the bull into a position to stab it between the shoulder blades going over the horns and thus exposing his own body to the bull. The sword is called estoque, and the act of thrusting the sword is called an estocada. During the initial series, while the matador in part is performing for the crowd, he uses a fake sword (estoque simulado). This is made of wood or aluminum, making it lighter and much easier to handle. The estoque de verdad (real sword) is made out of steel. At the end of the tercio de muerte, when the matador has finished his faena, he will change swords to take up the steel one. He performs the estocada with the intent of piercing the heart or aorta, or severing other major blood vessels to induce a quick death if all goes according to plan. Often this does not happen and repeated efforts must be made to bring the bull down, sometimes the matador changing to the 'descabello', which resembles a sword, but is actually a heavy dagger blade at the end of a steel rod which is thrust between the cervical vertebrae to sever the spinal column and induce instant death. Even if the descabello is not required and the bull falls quickly from the sword one of the banderilleros will perform this function with an actual dagger to ensure the bull is dead.
If the matador has performed particularly well, the crowd may petition the president by waving white handkerchiefs to award the matador an ear of the bull. If his performance was exceptional, the president will award two ears. In certain more rural rings, the practice includes an award of the bull's tail. Very rarely, if the public and the matador believe that the bull has fought extremely bravely – and the breeder of the bull agrees to have it return to the ranch – the event's president may grant a pardon (indulto). If the indulto is granted, the bull's life is spared; it leaves the ring alive and is returned to its home ranch for treatment and then to become a semental, or seed-bull, for the rest of its life.
Recortes
Recortes, a style of bullfighting practiced in Navarre, La Rioja, north of Castile and Valencia, has been much less popular than the traditional corridas. But recortes have undergone a revival in Spain and are sometimes broadcast on TV.
This style was common in the early 19th century. Etchings by painter Francisco de Goya depict these events.
Recortes differ from corridas in the following manners:
The bull is not physically injured. Drawing blood is rare, and the bull is allowed to return to his pen at the end of the performance.
The men are dressed in common street clothes rather than traditional bullfighting dress.
Acrobatics are performed without the use of capes or other props. Performers attempt to evade the bull solely through the swiftness of their movements.
Rituals are less strict, so the men have the freedom to perform stunts as they please.
Men work in teams, but with less role distinction than with corridas.
Teams compete for points awarded by a jury.
Since horses are not used, and performers are not professionals, recortes are less costly to produce.
Comic bullfighting
Comical spectacles based on bullfighting, called espectáculos cómico-taurinos or charlotadas, are still popular in Spain and Mexico. Troupes include El empastre or El bombero torero.
Encierros
An encierro, or running of the bulls, is an activity related to a bullfighting fiesta. Before the events that are held in the ring, people (usually young men) run in front of a small group of bulls that have been let loose, on a course of a sectioned-off subset of a town's streets.
Toro embolado
A toro embolado (in Spanish), bou embolat (in Catalan), roughly meaning "bull with balls", is a festive activity held at night and typical of many towns in Spain (mainly in the Valencian Community and Southern Catalonia). Balls of flammable material are attached to a bull's horns. The balls are lit and the bull is set free in the streets at night; participants dodge the bull when it comes close. It can be considered a variant of an encierro (correbous in Catalan). This activity is held in a number of Spanish towns during their local festivals.
Portuguese
Most Portuguese bullfights are held in two phases: the spectacle of the cavaleiro, and the pega. In the cavaleiro, a horseman on a Portuguese Lusitano horse (specially trained for the fights) fights the bull from horseback. The purpose of this fight is to stab three or four bandeiras (small javelins) into the back of the bull.
In the second stage, called the pega ("holding"), the forcados, a group of eight men, challenge the bull directly without any protection or weapon of defense. The frontman provokes the bull into a charge to perform a pega de cara or pega de caras (face grab). The frontman secures the animal's head and is quickly aided by his fellows who surround and secure the animal until he is subdued. Forcados are dressed in a traditional costume of damask or velvet, with long knitted hats as worn by the campinos (bull headers) from Ribatejo.
The bull is not killed in the ring and, at the end of the corrida, leading oxen are let into the arena, and two campinos on foot herd the bull among them back to its pen. The bull is usually killed out of sight of the audience by a professional butcher. Some bulls, after an exceptional performance, are healed, released to pasture and used for breeding.
In the Portuguese Azores islands, there is a form of bullfighting called tourada à corda, in which a bull is led on a rope along a street, while players taunt and dodge the bull, who is not killed during or after the fight, but returned to pasture and used in later events.
Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP) ceased to broadcast bullfights in Portugal since 2021.
French
Since the 19th century, Spanish-style corridas have been increasingly popular in Southern France where they enjoy legal protection in areas where there is an uninterrupted tradition of such bull fights, particularly during holidays such as Whitsun or Easter. Among France's most important venues for bullfighting are the ancient Roman arenas of Nîmes and Arles, although there are bull rings across the South from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic coasts. Bullfights of this kind follow the Spanish tradition and even Spanish words are used for all Bullfighting related terms. Minor cosmetic differences exist such as music. This is not to be confused with the bloodless bullfights referred to below which are indigenous to France.
Course camarguaise (course libre)
A more indigenous genre of bullfighting is widely common in the Provence and Languedoc areas, and is known alternately as "course libre" or "course camarguaise". This is a bloodless spectacle (for the bulls) in which the objective is to snatch a rosette from the head of a young bull. The participants, or raseteurs, begin training in their early teens against young bulls from the Camargue region of Provence before graduating to regular contests held principally in Arles and Nîmes but also in other Provençal and Languedoc towns and villages. Before the course, an abrivado—a "running" of the bulls in the streets—takes place, in which young men compete to outrun the charging bulls. The course itself takes place in a small (often portable) arena erected in a town square. For a period of about 15–20 minutes, the raseteurs compete to snatch rosettes (cocarde) tied between the bulls' horns. They do not take the rosette with their bare hands but with a claw-shaped metal instrument called a raset or crochet (hook) in their hands, hence their name. Afterward, the bulls are herded back to their pen by gardians (Camarguais cowboys) in a bandido, amidst a great deal of ceremony. The stars of these spectacles are the bulls.
Course landaise
Another type of French 'bullfighting' is the "course landaise", in which cows are used instead of bulls. This is a competition between teams named cuadrillas, which belong to certain breeding estates. A cuadrilla is made up of a teneur de corde, an entraîneur, a sauteur, and six écarteurs. The cows are brought to the arena in crates and then taken out in order. The teneur de corde controls the dangling rope attached to the cow's horns and the entraîneur positions the cow to face and attack the player. The écarteurs will try, at the last possible moment, to dodge around the cow and the sauteur will leap over it. Each team aims to complete a set of at least one hundred dodges and eight leaps. This is the main scheme of the "classic" form, the course landaise formelle. However, different rules may be applied in some competitions. For example, competitions for Coupe Jeannot Lafittau are arranged with cows without ropes.
At one point, it resulted in so many fatalities that the French government tried to ban it but had to back down in the face of local opposition. The bulls themselves are generally fairly small, much less imposing than the adult bulls employed in the corrida. Nonetheless, the bulls remain dangerous due to their mobility and vertically formed horns. Participants and spectators share the risk; it is not unknown for angry bulls to smash their way through barriers and charge the surrounding crowd of spectators. The course landaise is not seen as a dangerous sport by many, but écarteur Jean-Pierre Rachou died in 2003 when a bull's horn tore his femoral artery.
Non-bloodsport variations
In Bolivia, bulls are not killed nor injured with any sticks. The goal of Bolivian toreros is to provoke the bull with taunts without getting harmed themselves.
In El Seibo Province of the Dominican Republic bullfights are not about killing or harming the animal, but taunting and evading it until it is tired.
In Canada, Portuguese-style bullfighting was introduced in 1989 by Portuguese immigrants in the town of Listowel in southern Ontario. Despite objections and concerns from local authorities and a humane society, the practice was allowed as the bulls were not killed or injured in this version. In the nearby city of Brampton, Portuguese immigrants from the Azores practice "tourada a corda" (bullfight by rope).
Jallikattu is a traditional spectacle in Tamil Nadu, India as a part of Pongal celebrations on Mattu Pongal day. A breed of bos indicus (humped) bulls, called "Jellicut" are used. During jallikattu, a bull is released into a group of people, and participants attempt to grab the bull's hump and hold onto it for a determined distance, length of time, or with the goal of taking a pack of money tied to the bull's horns. The goal of the activity is more similar to bull riding (staying on).
American Freestyle Bullfighting is a style of bullfighting developed in American rodeo. The style was developed by the rodeo clowns who protect bull riders from being trampled or gored by a loose bull. Freestyle bullfighting is a 70-second competition in which the bullfighter (rodeo clown) avoids the bull by means of dodging, jumping, and use of a barrel. The bullfighter is then scored points based on his performance.
In California's Central Valley, the historically Portuguese community has developed a form of bullfight in which the bull is taunted by a matador, but the lances are tipped with fabric hook and loop (e.g. Velcro) and they are aimed at hook-and-loop covered pads secured to the bull's shoulder. Fights occur from May through October around traditional Portuguese holidays. While California outlawed bullfighting in 1957, this type of bloodless bullfighting is still allowed if carried out during religious festivals or celebrations.
In Tanzania, bullfighting was introduced by the Portuguese to Zanzibar and to Pemba Island, in modern Tanzania, where it is known as mchezo wa ngombe. Similar to the Portuguese Azorean tourada a corda, the bull is restrained by a rope, generally neither bull nor player is harmed, and the bull is not killed at the end of the fight.
In Zhejiang, China, guanniu is a traditional form of bullfighting in which contestants attempt to physically wrestle a bull to the ground.
Hazards
Spanish-style bullfighting is normally fatal for the bull, but it is also dangerous for the matador. The danger for the bullfighter is essential; if there is no danger, it is not considered bullfighting in Spain. Matadors are usually gored every season, with picadors and banderilleros being gored less often. With the discovery of antibiotics and advances in surgical techniques, fatalities are now rare, although over the past three centuries 534 professional bullfighters have died in the ring or from injuries sustained there. Most recently, Iván Fandiño died of injuries he sustained after being gored by a bull on June 17, 2017 in Aire-sur-l'Adour, France.
Some matadors, notably Juan Belmonte, have been seriously gored many times: according to Ernest Hemingway, Belmonte's legs were marred by many ugly scars. A special type of surgeon has developed, in Spain and elsewhere, to treat cornadas, or horn-wounds.
The bullring has a chapel where a matador can pray before the corrida, and where a priest can be found in case a sacrament is needed. The most relevant sacrament is now called "Anointing of the Sick"; it was formerly known as "Extreme Unction", or the "Last Rites".
The media often reports the more horrific of bullfighting injuries, such as the September 2011 goring of matador Juan José Padilla's head by a bull in Zaragoza, resulting in the loss of his left eye, use of his right ear, and facial paralysis. He returned to bullfighting five months later with an eyepatch, multiple titanium plates in his skull, and the nickname 'The Pirate'.
Until the early twentieth century, the horses were unprotected and were commonly gored and killed, or left close to death (intestines destroyed, for example). The horses used were old and worn-out, with little value. Starting in the twentieth-century horses were protected by thick blankets and wounds, though not unknown, were less common and less serious.
However, the danger lurks not only from a bull, but also from other causes, such as too weak infrastructure. One of such cases happened in 2022 in Colombia, when several people were killed and more than 300 were injured after a stand collapsed during the bullfight. The incident happened in El Espinal, Tolima, in central Colombia.
Cultural aspects
Many supporters of bullfighting regard it as a deeply ingrained, integral part of their national cultures; in Spain, bullfighting is nicknamed la fiesta nacional ("the national fiesta." Notice that fiesta can be translated as celebration, festival, party among other words). The aesthetic of bullfighting is based on the interaction of the man and the bull. Rather than a competitive sport, the bullfight is more of a ritual of ancient origin, which is judged by aficionados based on artistic impression and command. American author Ernest Hemingway wrote of it in his 1932 non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "Bullfighting is the only art in which the artist is in danger of death and in which the degree of brilliance in the performance is left to the fighter's honor." Bullfighting is seen by some as a symbol of Spanish national culture.
The bullfight is regarded as a demonstration of style, technique, and courage by its participants and as a demonstration of cruelty and cowardice by its critics. While there is usually no doubt about the outcome, the bull is not viewed by bullfighting supporters as a sacrificial victim — it is instead seen by the audience as a worthy adversary, deserving of respect in its own right.
Those who oppose bullfighting maintain that the practice is a sadistic tradition of torturing and killing a bull amidst pomp and pageantry. Supporters of bullfights, called "aficionados", claim to respect the bulls, that the bulls live better than other cattle, and that bullfighting is a grand tradition, a form of art important to their culture.
Women in bullfighting
Conchita Cintrón was a Peruvian female bullfighter who began her career in Portugal before being active in Mexican and other South American bullfights. Patricia McCormick began bullfighting as a professional Matadora in January 1952, and was the first American to do so. Bette Ford was the first American woman to fight on foot in the Plaza México, the world's largest bullfight arena.
In 1974, Angela Hernandez (also known as Angela Hernandez Gomez and just Angela), of Spain, won a case in the Spanish Supreme Court allowing women to be bullfighters in Spain; a prohibition against women doing so was put in place in Spain in 1908. Cristina Sánchez de Pablos, of Spain, was one of the first female bullfighters to gain prominence; she debuted as a bullfighter in Madrid on 13 February 1993.
Popularity, controversy, and criticism
Popularity
In Spain and Latin America, opposition to bullfighting is referred to as the antitaurino movement. In a 2012 poll, 70% of Mexican respondents wanted bullfighting to be prohibited.
France
A February 2018 study commissioned by the 30 millions d'amis foundation and conducted by the Institut français d'opinion publique (IFOP) found that 74% of the French wanted to prohibit bullfighting in France, with 26% opposed. In September 2007, these percentages were still 50-50, with those favouring a ban growing to 66% in August 2010 and those opposed shrinking to 34%. The survey found a correlation between age and opinion; younger survey participants were more likely to support a ban.
Spain
Despite its slow decrease in popularity among younger generations, bullfighting remains a widespread cultural activity throughout Spain. A 2016 poll reported that 58% of Spaniards aged 16 to 65 opposed bullfighting against 19% who supported it. The support was lower among the younger population, with only 7% of respondents aged 16 to 24 supporting bullfighting, vs. 29% support within 55 to 65 age group. According to the same poll 67% of respondents felt "little to not at all" proud to live in a country where bullfighting was a cultural tradition (84% among 16 to 24 age group).
Between 2007 and 2014, the number of corridas held in Spain decreased by 60%. In 2007 there were 3,651 bullfighting and bull-related events in Spain but by 2018, the number of bullfights had decreased to 1,521, a historic low. A September 2019 Spanish government report showed that only 8% of the population had attended a bull-related event in 2018; of this percentage, 5.9% attended a bullfight while the remainder attended other bull-related events, such as the running of the bulls. When asked to gauge their interest in bullfighting on a scale of 0 through 10, only 5.9% responded with 9–10. A majority of 65% of responded with 0–2; among those aged 15–19, this figure was 72.1%, and for those aged 20–24, it reached 76.4%. With a fall in attendance, the bullfighting sector has come under financial stress, as many local authorities have reduced subsidies because of public criticism.
When the COVID-19 pandemic hit Spain and the country entered into lockdown in March 2020, all bullfighting events were cancelled indefinitely. In mid-May 2020, the bullfighting industry, alike other sectors of Spanish economy, demanded that the government compensate them for their losses, estimated at €700 million. This prompted outrage, and more than 100,000 people signed a petition launched by AnimaNaturalis urging the government not to rescue "spectacles based on the abuse and mistreatment of animals" with taxpayer money at a time when people were struggling to survive and public finances were already heavily strained. A 29–31 May 2020 YouGov survey commissioned by HuffPost showed that 52% of the 1,001 Spaniards questioned wanted to ban bullfighting, 35% were opposed, 10% did not know and 2% refused to answer. A strong majority of 78% answered that corridas should no longer be partially subsidised by the government, with 12% favoring subsidies and 10% undecided. When asked whether bullfighting was culture or mistreatment, 40% replied that it is mistreatment alone, 18% replied that it is culture alone and 37% replied that it is both. Of the respondents, 53% had never attended a corrida.
Perú
Outside of Spain, the country in which bullfighting has enjoyed the most popularity even today is Peru. The Plaza de toros de Acho, the oldest bullring in the Americas and second oldest in the world after La Maestranza in Spain (not counting the Roman Empire-era Arles Amphitheatre in France), serves as the premier bullring in the country and is classified as a national historic monument. The bullfighting fair held in honor of the annual Señor de los Milagros festival takes place at the plaza on Sundays through October and November. During the fair, Lima brings in some of the world's most lauded talent (the bill for 2019 included Andrés Roca Rey, Sebastian Castella, and Jose Mari Manzanares) The best bullfighter of the year is awarded the Escapulario de Oro (Golden Scapular), while the " Escapulario de Plata" Silver Scapular goes to the provider of the best bull. Sometimes either or both scapulars may go not awarded.
Animal welfare
RSPCA assistant director for public affairs David Bowles said: "The RSPCA is strongly opposed to bullfighting. It is an inhumane and outdated practice that continues to lose support, including from those living in the countries where this takes place such as Spain, Portugal and France."
The bullfighting guide The Bulletpoint Bullfight warns that bullfighting is "not for the squeamish," advising spectators to "be prepared for blood." The guide details prolonged and profuse bleeding caused by horse-mounted lancers, the charging by the bull of a blindfolded, armored horse who is "sometimes doped up, and unaware of the proximity of the bull", the placing of barbed darts by banderilleros and the matador's fatal sword thrust. The guide stresses that these procedures are a normal part of bullfighting and that death is rarely instantaneous. The guide further warns those attending bullfights to "Be prepared to witness various failed attempts at killing the animal before it lies down."
Alexander Fiske-Harrison, who trained as a bullfighter to research for his book on the topic (and trained in biological sciences and moral philosophy before that) has pointed out that the bull lives three times longer than do cattle reared exclusively for meat, and lives wild during that period in meadows and forests which are funded by the premium the bullfight's box office adds on to the price of their meat, should be taken into account when weighing concerns about both animal welfare and the environment. He also speculated that the adrenalizing nature of the 30-minute spectacle may reduce the bull's suffering even below that of the stress and anxiety of queueing in the abattoir. However, zoologist and animal rights activist Jordi Casamitjana argues that the bulls do experience a high degree of suffering and "all aspects of any bullfight, from the transport to the death, are in themselves causes of suffering."
Funding
The question of public funding is particularly controversial in Spain, since widely disparaged claims have been made by supporters and opponents of bullfighting. According to government figures, bullfighting in Spain generates €1.6 billion a year and 200,000 jobs, 57,000 of which are directly linked to the industry. Furthermore, bullfighting is the cultural activity that generates the most tax revenue for the Spanish state (€45 million in VAT and over €12 million in social security).
According to a poll, 73% of Spaniards oppose public funding for bullfighting activities.
Critics often claim that bullfighting is financed with public money. However, though bullfighting attracts 25 million spectators annually, it represents just 0.01% of state subsidies allocated to cultural activities, and less than 3% of the cultural budget of regional, provincial and local authorities. The bulk of subsidies is paid by town halls in localities where there is a historical tradition and support for bullfighting and related events, which are often held free of charge to participants and spectators. The European Union does not subsidize bullfighting but it does subsidize cattle farming in general, which also benefits those who rear Spanish fighting bulls.
In 2015, 438 of 687 members of the European Parliament voted in favour of amending the 2016 E.U. budget to indicate that the "Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) appropriations or any other appropriations from the budget should not be used for the financing of lethal bullfighting activities."
Politics
In the late 19th and early 20th century, some Spanish regeneracionista intellectuals protested against what they called the policy of pan y toros ("bread and bulls"), an analogue of Roman panem et circenses. Such belief was part of the wider current of thought known as anti-flamenquismo, a campaign against the popularity of both bullfighting and flamenco music, which were believed to be "oriental" elements of Spanish culture that were responsible for Spain's perceived culture gap compared to the rest of Europe. In Francoist Spain, bullfights received great governmental support, as they were considered a demonstration of greatness of the Spanish nation and received the name of fiesta nacional. Bullfighting was therefore highly associated with the regime. After Spain's transition to democracy, popular support for bullfighting declined.
Opposition to bullfighting from Spain's political parties is typically highest among those on the left. PSOE, the main centre-left political party, has distanced itself from bullfighting but refuses to ban it, while Spain's largest left-wing political party Podemos has repeatedly called for referendums on the matter and has shown disapproval of the practise. PP, the largest conservative party, strongly supports bullfighting and has requested large public subsidies for it. The government of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero was the first to oppose bullfighting, prohibiting children under 14 from attending events and imposing a six-year ban on live bullfights broadcast on state-run national television, although the latter measure was reversed after Zapatero's party lost in the 2011 elections.
Despite its long history in Barcelona, bullfighting was outlawed across the Catalonia region in 2010 following a campaign led by an animal-rights civic platform called "Prou!" ("Enough!" in Catalan). Critics have argued that the ban was motivated by issues of Catalan separatism and identity politics. In October 2016, the Constitutional Court ruled that the regional Catalan Parliament did not have the authority to ban events that are legal in Spain.
The Spanish Royal Family is divided on the issue. Former queen consort Sofía of Spain disapproves of bullfights, but former king Juan Carlos occasionally presided over bullfights from the royal box. Their daughter Princess Elena is well-known for her support of the practise and often attends bullfights.
Pro-bullfighting supporters include former prime minister Mariano Rajoy and his party (Partido Popular), as well as most leaders of the opposition PSOE party, including former prime minister Felipe Gonzalez and the current presidents of Andalusia, Extremadura and Castilla–La Mancha.
Religion
Bullfighting is thought to have been practised since prehistoric times throughout the entire Mediterranean coast, but it survives only in Iberia and in part of France. During the Arab rule of Iberia, the ruling class tried to ban bullfighting, considering it a pagan celebration and heresy. In the 16th century, Pope Pius V banned bullfighting for its ties to paganism and for the danger that it posed to the participants. Anyone who would sponsor, watch or participate in a bullfight was to be excommunicated by the church. Spanish and Portuguese bullfighters kept the tradition alive covertly, and Pius's successor Pope Gregory XIII relaxed the church's position. However, Pope Gregory advised bullfighters to not use the sport as means of honoring Jesus Christ or the saints, as was typical in Spain and Portugal.
Although Pope Francis' statement that "every act of cruelty towards any creature is 'contrary to human dignity'", in his 2015 encyclical letter, Laudato si', does not mention bullfighting as such, it has been taken as supporting religious opposition to bullfighting.
Bullfighting has been intertwined with religion and religious folklore in Spain at a popular level, particularly in the areas in which it has been most popular. Bullfighting events are celebrated during festivities celebrating local patron saints, along with other activities, games and sports. The bullfighting world is also inextricably linked to iconography related to religious devotion in Spain, with bullfighters seeking the protection of Mary and often becoming members of religious brotherhoods.
Media prohibitions
State-run Spanish TVE had cancelled live coverage of bullfights in August 2007 until September 2012, claiming that the coverage was too violent for children and that live coverage violated a voluntary, industry-wide code attempting to limit "sequences that are particularly crude or brutal." In a October 2008 statement to Congress, Luis Fernández, the president of Spanish state broadcaster TVE, confirmed that the station would no longer broadcast live bullfights because of high production costs and a lack of advertiser support. However, the station continued to broadcast Tendido Cero, a bullfighting magazine programme. Other regional and private channels kept broadcasting it with good audiences. Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy's government lifted the ban, and live bullfights were shown at the traditional 6:00 p.m. time on TVE as of September 2012.
A television station in Costa Rica stopped the broadcast of bullfights in January 2008 over concerns that they were too violent for minors.
Declaration as cultural patrimony
A growing list of Spanish, Portuguese and South American cities and regions have formally declared their bullfighting celebrations as part of their protected cultural patrimony or heritage. Most of these declarations have been enacted in reaction to the 2010 ban in Catalonia. In April 2012, the Andalusian city of Seville declared bullfighting to be part of the city's cultural heritage.
Laws
Pre-20th century
In November 1567, Pope Pius V issued a papal bull titled De Salute Gregis forbidding the fighting of bulls and other beasts as a voluntary risk to life which endangered the soul of the combatants. However it was rescinded eight years later by his successor, Pope Gregory XIII, at the request of King Philip II.
Chile banned bullfighting shortly after gaining independence in 1818, but the Chilean rodeo (which involves horseriders in an oval arena blocking a female cow against the wall without killing it) is still legal and has even been declared a national sport.
Bullfighting was introduced in Uruguay in 1776 by Spain and abolished by Uruguayan law in February 1912; thus the Plaza de toros Real de San Carlos, built in 1910, only operated for two years. Bullfighting was also introduced in Argentina by Spain, but after Argentina's independence, the event drastically diminished in popularity and was abolished in 1899 under law 2786.
Bullfighting was present in Cuba during its colonial period from 1514 to 1898, but was abolished by the United States military under the pressure of civic associations in 1899, right after the Spanish–American War of 1898. The prohibition was maintained after Cuba gained independence in 1902. Bullfighting was also banned for a period in Mexico in 1890; consequently some Spanish bullfighters moved to the United States to transfer their skills to the American rodeos.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, bullfighting in Spain was banned at several occasions (for instance by Philip V), but always reinstituted later by other governments.
Bullfighting had some popularity in the Philippines during Spanish rule, though foreign commentators derided the quality of local bulls and toreros. Bullfighting was noted in the Philippines as early as 1619, when it was among the festivities in celebration of Pope Urban III's authorisation of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. Following the Spanish–American War, the Americans suppressed the custom in the Philippines under the tenure of Governor General Leonard Wood, and it was replaced with a now-popular Filipino sport, basketball.
20th century onwards
Bullfighting is now banned in many countries; people taking part in such activity would be liable for terms of imprisonment for animal cruelty. "Bloodless" variations, though, are often permitted and have attracted a following in California, Texas, and France. In southern France, however, the traditional form of the corrida still exists and it is protected by French law. However, in June 2015 the Paris Court of Appeals removed bullfighting/"la corrida" from France's cultural heritage list. While it is not very popular in Texas, bloodless forms of bullfighting occur at rodeos in small Texas towns.
Several cities around the world (especially in Catalonia) have symbolically declared themselves to be Anti-Bullfighting Cities, including Barcelona in 2006.
Colombia
The issue of bullfighting has been controversial and problematic in Colombia in recent years. Bullfighting with killing bulls in the ring is legal in Colombia. In 2013, Gustavo Petro, then mayor of the Colombian capital city of Bogotá, had de facto prohibited bullfighting by refusing to lease out bullrings to bullfighting organisers. But the Constitutional Court of Colombia ruled that this violated the right to expression of the bullfighters, and ordered the bullrings to be reopened. The first bullfight in Bogotá in four years happened on 22 January 2017 amid clashes between antitaurino protesters and police. Petro, who was elected as president of Colombia in 2022, promised in his campaign to end any show involving animals.
After a bullring collapse in June 2022 occurred in the municipality of El Espinal in the Tolima department, resulting in the deaths of four people and injured hundreds, opened a new debate on the legality and safety of the corralejas and bullfights throughout the country. A bill presented that year on July 21 by Deputy Juan Carlos Lozada, from the Liberal Party, was approved by the First Commission of the Chamber in the first debate, and is based on eliminating bullfighting practices in the national territory. However, the bill foundered when it was passed to Congress. Animalists questioned the lack of support from the progressive bench.
In the early hours of December 15, after several hours of hard debate between the government and opposition benches, the Senate of the Republic approved in a second debate the project of Law 085 of 2022, proposed by Senator Andrea Padilla of the Alianza Verde, which seeks a ban on bullfights in Colombia. However, consensus was achieved by leaving out the prohibition of cockfighting and corralejas, key points of the initiative. As of December 26, 2022, the proposal goes to the third debate, which will take place in the House of Representatives.
Costa Rica
In Costa Rica the law prohibits the killing of bulls and other animals in public and private shows. However, there are still bullfights, called "Toros a la Tica", that are televised from Palmares and Zapote at the end and beginning of the year. Volunteer amateur bullfighters (improvisados) confront a bull in a ring and try to provoke him into charging and then run away. In a December 2016 survey, 46.4% of respondents wanted to outlaw bullfights while 50.1% thought they should continue. The bullfights do not include spears or any other device to harm the bull and resemble the running of the bulls in Pamplona, the difference being that the Costa Rican event takes place in an arena rather than in the streets, as in Pamplona.
Ecuador
Ecuador staged bullfights to the death for over three centuries as a Spanish colony. On 12 December 2010, Ecuador's president Rafael Correa announced that in an upcoming referendum, the country would be asked whether to ban bullfighting; in the referendum, held in May 2011, the Ecuadorians agreed on banning the final killing of the bull that happens in a corrida. This means the bull is no longer killed before the public, and is instead taken back inside the barn to be killed at the end of the event. The other parts of the corrida are still performed the same way as before in the cities that celebrate it. This part of the referendum is applied on a regional level, meaning that in regions where the population voted against the ban, which are the same regions where bullfighting is celebrated the most, killing the animal publicly in the bullfighting plaza is still performed. The main bullfighting celebration of the country, the Fiesta Brava in Quito was still allowed to take place in December 2011 after the referendum under these new rules.
France
In 1951, bullfighting in France was legalised by §7 of Article 521-1 of the French penal code in areas where there was an 'unbroken local tradition'. This exemption applies to Nîmes, Arles, Alès, Bayonne, Carcassonne, and Fréjus, amongst others. In 2011, the French Ministry of Culture added corrida to the list of 'intangible heritage' of France, but after much controversy silently removed it from its website again. Animal rights activists launched a lawsuit to make sure it was completely removed from the heritage list and thus not given extra legal protection; the Administrative Appeals Court of Paris ruled in their favour in June 2015. In a separate case, the Constitutional Council ruled on 21 September 2012 that bullfighting did not violate the French Constitution.
Honduras
In Honduras, under Article 11 of 'Decree no. 115-2015 ─ Animal Protection and Welfare Act' that went into effect in 2016, dog and cat fights and duck races are prohibited, while 'bullfighting shows and cockfights are part of the National Folklore and as such allowed'. However, 'in bullfighting shows, the use of spears, swords, fire or other objects that cause pain to the animal is prohibited.'
India
Jallikattu, a type of bull-taming or bull-riding event, is practiced in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. A bull is released into a crowd of people. Participants attempt to grab the bull's hump and either hold on for a determined distance or length of time or attempt to liberate a packet of money tied to the bull's horns. The practice was banned in 2014 by India's Supreme Court over concerns that bulls are sometimes mistreated prior to jallikattu events. Animal welfare investigations into the practice revealed that some bulls are poked with sticks and scythes, some have their tails twisted, some are force-fed alcohol to disorient them, and in some cases chili powder and other irritants are applied to bulls' eyes and genitals to agitate the animals. The 2014 ban was suspended and reinstated several times over the years. In January 2017, the Supreme Court upheld their previous ban and various protests arose in response. Due to these protests, on 21 January 2017, the Governor of Tamil Nadu issued a new ordinance that authorized the continuation of jallikattu events. On 23 January 2017 the Tamil Nadu legislature passed a bi-partisan bill, with the accession of the Prime Minister, exempting jallikattu from the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1960). Jallikattu is legal in Tamil Nadu, but another organization may challenge the mechanism by which it was legalized, as the Animal Welfare Board of India claims that the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly does not have the power to override Indian federal law, meaning that the state law could possibly once again be nullified and jallikattu banned.
Mexico
Bullfighting has been banned in four Mexican states: Sonora in 2013, Guerrero in 2014, Coahuila in 2015, and Quintana Roo in 2019. It was banned "indefinitely" in Mexico City in 2022.
Panama
Law 308 on the Protection of Animals was approved by the National Assembly of Panama on 15 March 2012. Article 7 of the law states: 'Dog fights, animal races, bullfights – whether of the Spanish or Portuguese style – the breeding, entry, permanence and operation in the national territory of all kinds of circus or circus show that uses trained animals of any species, are prohibited.' Horse racing and cockfighting were exempt from the ban.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua prohibited bullfighting under a new Animal Welfare Law in December 2010, with 74 votes in favour and 5 votes against in Parliament.
Portugal
Queen Maria II of Portugal prohibited bullfighting in 1836 with the argument that it was unbefitting for a civilised nation. The ban was lifted in 1921, but in 1928 a law was passed that forbade the killing of the bull during a fight. In practice, bulls still frequently die after a fight from their injuries or by being slaughtered by a butcher.
In 2001, matador Pedrito de Portugal controversially killed a bull at the end of a fight after spectators encouraged him to do so by chanting "Kill the bull! Kill the bull!" The crowds gave Pedrito a standing ovation, hoisted him on their shoulders and paraded him through the streets. Hours later the police arrested him and charged him with a fine, but they released him after crowds of angry fans surrounded the police station. A long court case ensued, finally resulting in Pedrito's conviction in 2007 with a fine of €100,000. In 2002, the Portuguese government gave Barrancos, a village near the Spanish border where bullfighting fans stubbornly persisted in encouraging the killing of bulls during fights, a dispensation from the 1928 ban.
Various attempts have been made to ban bullfighting in Portugal, both nationally (in 2012 and 2018) and locally, but so far unsuccessful. In July 2018, animalist party PAN presented a proposal at the Portuguese Parliament to abolish all types of bullfighting in the country. Left-wing party Left Bloc voted in favour of the proposal but criticised its lack of solutions to the foreseen consequences of the abolition. The proposal was however categorically rejected by all other parties, that cited freedom of choice and respect for tradition as arguments against it.
Spain
The parliament of the Spanish region of Catalonia voted in favour of a ban on bullfighting in 2009, which went into effect in 2012. The Spanish national parliament passed a law in 2013 stating that bullfighting is an 'indisputable' part of Spain's 'cultural heritage'; this law was used by the Spanish Constitutional Court in 2016 to overturn the Catalan ban of 2012. When the island of Mallorca adopted a law in 2017 that prohibited the killing of a bull during a fight, this law was also declared partially unconstitutional by the Spanish Constitutional Court in 2018, as the judges ruled that the death of the bull was part of the essence of a corrida.
Canary Islands
In 1991, the Canary Islands became the first Spanish Autonomous Community to ban bullfighting, when they legislated to ban spectacles that involve cruelty to animals, with the exception of cockfighting, which is traditional in some towns in the Islands; bullfighting was never popular in the Canary Islands. Some supporters of bullfighting and even Lorenzo Olarte Cullen, Canarian head of government at the time, have argued that the fighting bull is not a "domestic animal" and hence the law does not ban bullfighting. The absence of spectacles since 1984 would be due to lack of demand. In the rest of Spain, national laws against cruelty to animals have abolished most blood sports, but specifically exempt bullfighting.
Catalonia
On 18 December 2009, the parliament of Catalonia, one of Spain's seventeen Autonomous Communities, approved by majority the preparation of a law to ban bullfighting in Catalonia, as a response to a popular initiative against bullfighting that gathered more than 180,000 signatures. On 2010, with the two main parties allowing their members a free vote, the ban was passed 68 to 55, with 9 abstentions. This meant Catalonia became the second Community of Spain (first was Canary Islands in 1991), and the first on the mainland, to ban bullfighting. The ban took effect on 1 January 2012, and affected only the one remaining functioning Catalan bullring, the Plaza de toros Monumental de Barcelona.
It did not affect the correbous, a traditional game of the Ebro area (south of Catalonia) where lighted flares are attached to a bull's horns. The correbous are seen mainly in the municipalities in the south of Tarragona, with the exceptions of a few other towns in other provinces of Catalonia. The name correbous is essentially Catalan and Valencian; in other parts of Spain they have other names.
A movement emerged to revoke the ban in the Spanish congress, citing the value of bullfighting as "cultural heritage". The proposal was backed by the majority of parliamentarians in 2013.
In October 2016 the Spanish Constitutional Court ruled that the regional Catalan Parliament had no competence to ban any kind of spectacle that is legal in Spain.
Galicia
In Galicia, bullfighting has been banned in many cities by the local governments. Bullfighting has never had an important following in the region.
United States
Bullfighting was outlawed in California in 1957, but the law was amended in response to protests from the Portuguese community in Gustine. Lawmakers determined that a form of "bloodless" bullfighting would be allowed to continue, in affiliation with certain Christian holidays. Though the bull is not killed as with traditional bullfighting, it is still intentionally irritated and provoked and its horns are shaved down to prevent injury to people and other animals present in the ring, but serious injuries still can and do occur and spectators are also at risk. The Humane Society of the United States has expressed opposition to bullfighting in all its forms since at least 1981.
Puerto Rico banned bullfighting and the breeding of bulls for fights by Law no. 176 of 25 July 1998.
In literature, film, and the arts
Death in the Afternoon, Ernest Hemingway's treatise on Spanish bullfighting
The Dangerous Summer, Ernest Hemingway's chronicle of the bullfighting rivalry between Luis Miguel Dominguín and his brother-in-law Antonio Ordóñez
The Sun Also Rises, a novel by Ernest Hemingway, includes many accounts of bullfighting.
Bullfighter from Brooklyn (1953), autobiography by matador Sidney Franklin
Into The Arena: The World Of The Spanish Bullfight (2011), book by Alexander Fiske-Harrison about his time in Spain as an aficionado in 2009 and as a bullfighter in 2010.
The Wild Man (2001), novel by Patricia Nell Warren about a non-conformist gay torero, set in 1960s Fascist Spain.
Shadow of a Bull (1964), novel by Maia Wojciechowska about a bullfighter's son, Manolo Olivar
The Bullfighters (1945), film starring the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy.
The Story of a Matador, David L. Wolper's 1962 documentary about the life of matador Jaime Bravo
Talk to Her, film by Pedro Almodóvar, contains subplot concerning female matador who is gored during a bullfight. The director was criticized for shooting footage of a bull being actually killed during a bullfight staged especially for the film.
Ricardo Montalbán portrayed bullfighters in Santa (1943), The Hour of Truth (1945), Fiesta (1947), and Columbo episode "A Matter of Honor" (1976).
Ferdinand, an animated film covering the adventures of Ferdinand the bull as he is raised and trained to become a bull in the ring.
The opera Carmen features a bullfighter as a major character, a well-known song about him, and a bullfight off-stage at the climax.
Llanto por Ignacio Sánchez Mejías ("Lament for Ignacio Sánchez Mejías", 1935), a poem by Federico García Lorca.
Blood and Sand, a movie starring Tyrone Power and Rita Hayworth
¡Que viva México!, a film directed by Sergei Eisenstein, has a segment featuring a bullfight.
Take a Bow, music video revolved around famous bullfighter Madonna (1994).
The Book of Life, an animated movie about a bullfighter who wants to be a musician
References
External links
The Last Arena: In Search Of The Spanish Bullfight—Blog and online resource by British author and former bullfighter Alexander Fiske-Harrison
David Villena, A Critique of Mario Vargas Llosa’s Putative Justifications of Bullfighting, Journal of Animal Ethics
Animal welfare
Animal rights
Baiting (blood sport)
Animal killing
Cruelty to animals
Articles containing video clips
Traditional sports
Ritual slaughter | wiki |
Bruce Alford may refer to:
Bruce Alford Jr. (born 1945), American football kicker
Bruce Alford Sr. (1922–2010), American football end
See also
Bryce Alford (born 1995), American basketball player | wiki |
St Deiniol's Church may mean:
St Deiniol's Church, Criccieth
St Deiniol's Church, Hawarden
St Deiniol's Church, Itton, Monmouthshire
St Deiniol's Church, Llanddaniel Fab
St Deiniol's Church, Worthenbury, Wrexham County Borough
See also
St Deiniol's Library | wiki |
Condé Nast is a major American magazine publisher. Condé Nast may also refer to:
Condé Montrose Nast (1873–1942), founder of the publisher
Condé Nast Building, the publisher's headquarters, in Times Square | wiki |
Whey is a dairy manufacturing byproduct.
Whey may also refer to:
Whey (unit), a unit of weight for butter and cheese
WHEY, a radio station in Michigan, United States
See also
Curds and whey (disambiguation)
Way (disambiguation)
Wei (disambiguation)
Wey (disambiguation) | wiki |
A coal shovel is a shovel designed for shoveling coal, coke or similar fuels, and on occasions does a double duty removing ash from the fireplace, firebox or furnace.
A large coal shovel is used by the fireman of a coal-fired steam locomotive unless an automatic stoker is used.
Smaller coal shovels of similar shape are used to stoke domestic fireplaces.
Mechanical hand tools
Coal
Shovels | wiki |
Nehalem may refer to:
Nehalem (people), or Tillamook, a Native American tribe
Nehalem language, or Tillamook language, the language spoken by the Nehalem (Tillamook) tribe
Places
Oregon, United States
Nehalem Bay, a bay in Tillamook County
Nehalem Bay State Airport, an airport near Nehalem Bay
Nehalem Bay State Park, a state park which includes Nehalem Spit and Nehalem Beach
Nehalem Highway, a state highway
Nehalem, Oregon, a city in Tillamook County
Nehalem River, a river
Other uses
Nehalem (microarchitecture), an Intel processor microarchitecture | wiki |
A Stanislaw Lem Reader is a collection of writings by and about Polish science fiction writer Stanisław Lem, one of the world's most widely read science-fiction writers.<ref>{{cite book | title= An introduction to Roadside Picnic | author = Arkady Strugatsky | author2 = Boris Strugatsky| publisher = Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc | location = New York | year = 1976| author2-link = Boris Strugatsky | author-link = Arkady Strugatsky }}</ref> The book comprises an introduction by Canadian literary scholar Peter Swirski, two interviews by Swirski with Lem, and Swirski's translation of Lem's essay, "30 Years Later".
Contents
The book is described as an "eclectic collection" on its back cover. It begins with Swirski's introduction titled "Stanislaw Lem: A Stranger in a Strange Land", an overview of Lem's literary work. The title is an allusion to Robert Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange Land, stressing the uniqueness of Lem's original perceptions of the contemporary civilization, his aesthetics and philosophy. Peter Butko described this overview as "condensed and insightful".
The second item is "Reflections on Literature, Philosophy, and Science", a personal interview of Swirski with Lem carried out in 1992, mostly focused on Lem's views on literature.
The third item is 30 Years Later, Swirski's translation of Lem's essay Trzydzieści lat później first published in Polish popular science magazine ("Knowledge and Life") in 1991. It is the second afterword (After the "Twenty Years Later") to Lem's Summa Technologiae. Apart from the critical remarks on futurology, its significant part is the discussion of the technology of virtual reality predicted in Summa Technologiae under the term fantomatyka ("fantomatics"), a part of his bitter philosophical dispute with Polish philosopher Leszek Kołakowski. Lem also discusses which of his futurological predictions came true.
The fourth item, "Lem in Nutshell", is Swirski's written interview with Lem carried out in 1994, mostly focused on Lem's views on science and philosophy.
Comparing the second and fourth chapters (interviews), Butko notes that the "first is less formal and more conversational", while the second one is "deeper" and more scholarly. Unlike Jurich, who thinks the first interview was more focused on literature, and second more on science and philosophy, Butko concludes that both interviews have a similar focus on "the relationship of literature with philosophy and science".
The book concludes with the bibliography section. It lists Lem's books, published both in Polish and English, and articles and essays translated into English – in the chronological order of first publications. It also includes a comprehensive list of critical literature on Lem in English – alphabetically ordered by author.
Reviews
The book was positively reviewed by Butko, who concluded that "Swirski's book is small in volume, but dense in ideas [and] is indispensable reading for any Stanislaw Lem reader." Jurich was more critical, noting that while the book gives English readers "the opportunity to discover aspects of Lem not otherwise accessible [to those who do not read Polish]" it is also "far more frustrating than it is interesting or significantly informative", arguing that the book provides "too little insight into Lem's thought and art."
See alsoRozmowy ze Stanisławem Lemem'', a Polish-language in-depth book-length interview with Lem
Bibliography of Stanisław Lem#Interviews, other interviews with Lem
References
1997 non-fiction books
Works by Stanisław Lem
Books of interviews | wiki |
Water Street may refer to:
Water Street, Hong Kong
Water Street (constituency) around Water Street, Hong Kong
Water Street, Milwaukee
Water Street, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated village
Water Street (Augusta, Maine)
Water Street (St. John's), Newfoundland and Labrador
Water Street (Tampa), a neighborhood in Tampa, Florida
Water Street, Vancouver, British Columbia
Water Street (poems), a book of poetry by James Merrill
Water Street (album), a 2008 music album by Sweatshop Union
See also
Water Street Music Hall, a concert hall in Rochester, New York
Water Street Mission, rescue mission in Manhattan, New York
55 Water Street, office building in Manhattan, New York | wiki |
The Frizzle is a breed of chicken with characteristic curled or frizzled plumage. While the frizzle gene can be seen in many breeds, such as the Pekin and Polish, the Frizzle is recognised as a distinct breed in a number of European countries and Australia. In the United States frizzled chickens are not considered a breed, and at shows are judged by the standards of the breed they belong to.
History
The origin of the Frizzle is unknown. The frizzle gene is thought to have originated in Asia; frizzled chickens have been reported from the Far East since the eighteenth century. The Frizzle breed is the result of breeder selection for exhibition. It is recognised in nine European countries: Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom.
Characteristics
The gene for the curling of the feathers is incompletely dominant over normal plumage; not all members of the breed have frizzled feathers. Frizzled birds are heterozygous for the gene; when two are bred, the offspring inherit the gene in the usual Mendelian 1:2:1 ratio: 50% are heterozygous and frizzled like the parents, 25% have normal feathering, and 25% are "over-frizzled", with brittle feathers resembling pipe-cleaners. The Frizzle has a single comb and is clean-legged – without feathers on the shanks. It is a good forager and is hardy.
Four colours are recognised in the Entente Européenne standard: black, blue, cuckoo and white. The Poultry Club of Great Britain recognises nineteen colours for both standard and bantam sizes; not all of them are currently bred. The Australian Poultry Standards recognise black, blue, buff, white, Columbian, red and "any recognised colour".
Genetics
Research suggests that the frizzled phenotype comes from a mutation within the keratin gene KRT75. A deletion that removed part of exon 5 and intron 5 ameliorated the splice site. This caused a 69 bp deletion of the KRT75 gene.
Use
The Frizzle is reared exclusively for exhibition. It is a good layer of white or tinted eggs, and frequently gets broody.
References
Chicken breeds | wiki |
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