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Digitally controlled oscillator
HFC DCO, een voormalige Nederlandse voetbalclub | wiki |
In a diesel engine, a glow plug (also spelled glowplug) is a heating device used to aid starting of the engine in cold weather. This device is a pencil-shaped piece of metal with an electric heating element at the tip.
A glowplug system consists of either a single glowplug in the inlet manifold, or one glowplug per cylinder. In older systems, the driver is required to manually activate the glowplug system and wait approximately 20 seconds before starting the engine. Newer systems automatically activate the glowplug(s) before the engine is started and have a quicker warm-up time.
Design
Glowplugs are typically used as starting-aid devices, when the engine is being cranked by a starter motor, and in most cases switched off when the engine has reached a defined minimum operating temperature. Diesel engines, unlike common spark-ignition engines, do not use spark plugs to ignite the air-fuel mixture. Instead, they rely solely on compression to raise the temperature of the air to a point where the fuel combusts spontaneously when introduced to the hot, high pressure air. When the engine's surroundings are cold, the air's thermal energy – that it has previously received from the starter motor's compression work – is absorbed by the cylinder head and engine block, and eventually transferred to the air surrounding the engine. When the temperature of the air surrounding the engine comes below a certain value, depending upon cylinder head design, (40 °C for precombustion chamber injected, 20 °C for swirl chamber injected, and 0 °C for direct injected engines), the engine loses too much compression heat to reliably initiate combustion, and the engine fails to start. Glow plugs are used to help overcome this issue by introducing additional heat energy into the combustion chambers.
A glowplug resembles a short metal pencil. The heating element is fitted into its tip. Glowplug filaments must be made of certain materials, such as platinum and iridium, that resist oxidation and high temperature. Certain diesel engines (especially direct-injection engines) do not use starting-aid devices such as glowplugs. Engines with a displacement of more than one litre per cylinder usually incorporate a flame-start system rather than glowplugs, if a starting aid system is required.
Activation method
For older vehicles, the driver needs to activate the glow plug for approximately 20 seconds before starting the engine. This is achieved by leaving the ignition switch in the "on" position, and only moving it to "start" once the glowplug has finished pre-heating the engine. Once the engine is running, some cars continue to use the glowplugs until the engine has reached its operating temperature, in order to reduce the diesel exhaust emissions. Similarly, some engines re-activate the glowplugs if the temperature of an engine under light loads reduces below a certain threshold, in order to improve the efficiency of the engine.
Many modern engines automatically activate the glowplugs when the operator unlocks the vehicle or opens the door to the car, thus simplifying the process and shortening the waiting time the operator has to wait before the engine will start. In addition, the time needed to pre-heat the engine is typically 6-8 seconds. Some vehicles include a warning light on the dashboard that extinguished once the engine was pre-heated.
Glow plugs for model engines
Glow plugs in small model engines are quite different to those discussed above for full-size diesel engines. Full-size engines only use the glow plug for starting. Model engines use a glow plug as an integral part of the ignition system for the methanol-based fuel used by these engines.
Model engine glow plugs are also used to ignite pyrotechnic devices such as flash powder and smoke generators.
See also
Block heater
References
Diesel engine technology | wiki |
Laura Bell may refer to:
Laura Bell (courtesan) (1829–1894), famous courtesan of Victorian England
Laura Anning Bell (1867–1950), British artist
Laura Bell (author) (21st century), American author
Laura Bell Bundy (born 1981), American actress
Laura Joyce Bell (1854–1904), English-American actress
Laura Bell (drag queen), Chilean drag queen who competed on the first and second season of The Switch Drag Race
See also
Laura Belli (born 1947), Italian actress and singer | wiki |
At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, four diving events were contested during a competition that took place at the Jamsil Indoor Swimming Pool, from 17 to 20 September and from 26 to 29 September, comprising 89 divers from 30 nations.
Medal summary
The events are named according to the International Olympic Committee labelling, but they appeared on the official report as "springboard diving" and "platform diving", respectively.
Men
Women
Medal table
Participating nations
Here are listed the nations that were represented in the diving events and, in brackets, the number of national competitors.
See also
Diving at the 1987 Pan American Games
Notes
References
1988 Summer Olympics events
1988
1988 in diving | wiki |
A hailstorm is a thunderstorm that produces hail.
Hailstorm may also refer to:
Hailstorm (Ross the Boss album), 2010
Microsoft HailStorm, the codename for a Microsoft service
Hailstorm, a 1994 album by Barathrum
Hailstorm, a cell-site simulator made by Harris Corporation
See also
Halestorm, an American rock band
Halestorm (album), their debut album
es:Granizada | wiki |
Carlo Vizzardelli – cardinale italiano
Giorgio William Vizzardelli – assassino seriale italiano | wiki |
A glow plug engine, or glow engine, is a type of small internal combustion engine typically used in model aircraft, model cars and similar applications. The ignition is accomplished by a combination of heating from compression, heating from a glow plug and the catalytic effect of the platinum within the glow plug on the methanol within the fuel.
History
German inventor Ray Arden invented the first glow plug for model engines in 1947.
Model glow plug design
The glow plugs used in model engines are significantly different from those used in full-size diesel engines. In full-size engines, the glow plug is used only for starting. In model engines, the glow plug is an integral part of the ignition system because of the catalytic effect of the platinum wire. The glow plug is a durable, mostly platinum, helical wire filament recessed into the plug's tip. When an electric current runs through the plug, or when exposed to the heat of the combustion chamber, the filament glows, enabling it to help ignite the special fuel used by these engines. Power can be applied using a special connector attaching to the outside of the engine, and may use a rechargeable battery or DC power source.
There are three types/shapes (at least) of glow plugs. The standard glow plug, which comes in long/standard and short (for smaller engines), in both open and idle-bar configurations, has a threaded tube that penetrates the combustion chamber to varying degrees. Due to the small size of the combustion chamber changing brands or styles of standard glow plug can affect the compression ratio. Turbo style (European/metric) and Nelson style (North American/English) glow plugs do not penetrate the combustion chamber. Instead they have an angled shoulder that seals against a matching surface at the bottom of the glow plug hole. As a Turbo or Nelson plug is installed and seals the combustion chamber, they create a smooth surface inside the head. This smooth surface is very desirable for high-performance application such as Control Line Speed events and also high-revving RC Cars. The design of Turbo/Nelson plugs allow switching between brands without the possibility of affecting compression. Turbo and Nelson plugs are not interchangeable as they have different threads and dimensions.
Fuel
Glow fuel generally consists of methanol with varying degrees of nitromethane content as an oxidizer for greater power, generally between 5% and 30% of the total blend. These volatiles are suspended in a base oil of castor oil, synthetic oil or a blend of both for lubrication and heat control. In varying degrees of overall content. The lubrication system is a "total loss" type, meaning that the oil is expelled from the exhaust after circulating through the engine. The fuel ignites when it comes in contact with the heating element of the glow plug. Between strokes of the engine, the wire remains hot, continuing to glow partly due to thermal inertia, but largely due to the catalytic combustion reaction of methanol remaining on the platinum filament. This keeps the filament hot, allowing it to ignite the next charge, thus sustaining the power cycle.
Some aircraft engines are designed to run on fuel with no nitromethane content whatsoever. Glow fuel of this type is referred to as "FAI fuel" after the aeronautical governing body of the same name, which requires such fuel in some competitions.
Starting
To start a glow engine, a direct current of around 3 amps and 1.5 volts is applied to the plug from a "glow plug igniter" or "glow driver", powered by a high current single cell rechargeable battery, or a purpose-built "power panel" running on a 12VDC source. The current heats the platinum filament, causing it to glow red hot, hence the name. The engine is then spun from the outside using a manual crank, built-in rope-based recoil starter, spring-loaded motor or purpose-built electric motor, or by hand, to introduce fuel to the chamber. Once the fuel has ignited and the engine is running, the electrical connection is no longer needed and can be removed. Each combustion keeps the glow plug filament hot, which along with the catalysis of methanol oxidation by the platinum, allows the ignition of the next charge in a self-sustaining power cycle.
The rechargeable battery may be of NiMH, NiCD, Li-ion, or lead-acid type. The higher fully-charged voltages of lead-acid (2.0) and Li-ion (4.2) cells, if applied directly to a regular 1.5 volt glow plug, will cause it to burn out instantaneously, so either a resistor of the proper value and wattage, or a high-power germanium transistor's base/emitter junction (in a series connection with one of the plug's terminals) can be used to limit the current through the plug to an appropriate level. Even with an appropriate power input, glow plugs can burn out at any time, and hobbyists are encouraged to carry spares.
Technically a glow plug engine is fairly similar to a diesel engine and hot bulb engine in that it uses internal heat to ignite the fuel, but since the ignition timing is not controlled by fuel injection (as in an ordinary diesel engine), or electrically (as in a spark ignition engine), it must be adjusted by changing fuel/air mixture and plug/coil design (usually through adjusting various inlets and controls on the engine itself.) A richer mixture will tend to cool the filament and so retard ignition, slowing the engine. A leaner mixture produces more power, but the engine is less well lubricated, which can cause overheating and detonation. This "configuration" can also be adjusted by using varying plug designs for a more exact thermal control. Of all internal combustion engine types, the glow plug engine most resembles the hot bulb engine, since on both types the ignition occurs due to a "hot spot" within the engine combustion chamber.
Glow plug engines can be designed for two-cycle operation (ignition every rotation) or four-cycle operation (ignition every two rotations). The two-cycle (or two-stroke) version produces more power, but the four-cycle engines have more low-end torque, are less noisy and have a lower-pitched, more realistic sound.
Considerations when using glow plugs
A glow plug engine must be operated with the correct glow plug temperature. Large engines can operate with lower temperatures, while smaller engines radiate heat to the air more quickly and require a hotter glow plug to maintain the correct temperature for ignition. The ambient temperature also dictates the best glow plug temperature; in cold weather, hotter plugs are needed. Since glow plug engines are air-cooled, an engine that "runs hot" can sometimes benefit from a lower plug temperature, although this may cause rougher idling and difficulty in tuning. The operating speed of the engine must also be considered; if the engine is to run at consistently high RPM, such as with an airplane or a car on a mostly straight track, a lower plug temperature is more efficient. If the engine is to operate at lower RPM, combustion will not heat the engine as much, and a hotter plug is required.
The fuel type and the fuel/air mixture must also be considered. The greater the nitromethane content in the fuel, the hotter the fuel will burn; high "nitro" fuels require cooler glow plugs. Lean mixtures (low fuel-to-air ratio) burn hotter than rich mixtures (higher fuel-to-air ratio) and operating temperatures can be raised to levels that can prematurely destroy the glow plug if too lean a mixture is used ("over-leaning").
If the engine slows down ("sags") when the battery power is removed, the plug temperature or the nitromethane content of the fuel should be increased, as the engine is not sufficiently hot. If the engine backfires when it is hand-cranked, it is operating too hot and the glow plug temperature or "nitro" content should be lowered.
Glow plugs have a limited lifetime and users are advised to have several replacement plugs on hand. Replacement plugs must be the correct type; plugs for turbo engines are not compatible with plugs for standard engines. The plugs should be tightened a quarter-turn past a snug fit to avoid over-tightening. Glow plugs, like all incandescent objects, are extremely hot, and glow plugs should never be removed when hot. Likewise, care must be taken when fueling because a hot glow plug can ignite fuel. Overheating of the battery can also be dangerous and only well-made connectors should be used.
Technical specifications
Turbo Glow Plug
Overall Length: 17mm (.67")
Diameter: .35" (9mm)
Thread size: M8x.75mm
Normal Glow Plug
Length: .8"
Diameter: 6.35mm
Threads: 1/4-32 UNEF (most often used thread specification for model engines)
See also
Nitro engine
Sources
All about glow plugs
How to Choose the Right Glow Plug
References
Model engines
Model aircraft | wiki |
LAJPW World Tag Team Championship est un championnat de catch (lutte professionnelle) de la (AJPW). Il est créé à la suite de l'unification du championnat du monde par équipe de la et le championnat international par équipe de la tous deux utilisé par l'AJPW.
Historique
Liens externes
Notes et références
Championnat de catch (AJPW) | wiki |
"Sing My Heart" is a song composed by Harold Arlen, with lyrics written by Ted Koehler. It was written in 1939 for the movie Love Affair and first sung by Irene Dunne.
Notable recordings
Will Osborne & His Orchestra - recorded for Decca on February 15, 1939 (catalog No. 2335B).
Ella Fitzgerald - Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Harold Arlen Songbook (1961)
Lena Horne - The Men in My Life (1988)
References
Songs with music by Harold Arlen
Songs with lyrics by Ted Koehler
1939 songs
Irene Dunne songs | wiki |
William Windsor may refer to:
William, Prince of Wales (born 1982), elder son of King Charles III and Diana, Princess of Wales
William de Windsor (–1384), English feudal lord
William Windsor, 2nd Baron Windsor (1498–1558), MP for Chipping Wycombe in 1529
Bobby Windsor (born 1948), British rugby union footballer
William Windsor (goat) (), known as "Billy", a military mascot goat
See also
Baron Windsor | wiki |
A thermal cutoff is an electrical safety device (either a thermal fuse or thermal switch) that interrupts electric current when heated to a specific temperature. These devices may be for one-time use (a thermal fuse), or may be reset manually or automatically (a thermal switch).
Thermal fuse
A thermal fuse is a cutoff which uses a one-time fusible link. Unlike a thermal switch which may automatically reset itself when the temperature drops, the thermal fuse is more like an electrical fuse: a single-use device that cannot be reset and must be replaced when it fails or is triggered. A thermal fuse is used when the overheating is a result of a rare occurrence, such as failure requiring repair (which would also replace the fuse) or replacement at the end of service life.
One mechanism is a small meltable pellet that holds down a spring. When the pellet melts, the spring is released, separating the contacts and breaking the circuit. The Tamura LE series, NEC Sefuse SF series, Microtemp G4A series, and Hosho Elmwood D series, for example, may use thermoplastic pellets that lose strength or melt at specific temperature.
Another mechanism is more similar to electrical fuse, a fusible element that melts when subjected to temperature above its threshold. The difference against electrical fuse is using the surrounding temperature, instead of the temperature generated by ohmic heating of the fusible element. The elements are conductive and usually consist of binary or ternary fusible alloy of tin, bismuth, antimony, indium, lead, and other metals.
Thermal fuses are usually found in heat-producing electrical appliances such as coffeemakers and hair dryers. They function as safety devices to disconnect the current to the heating element in case of a malfunction (such as a defective thermostat) that would otherwise allow the temperature to rise to dangerous levels, possibly starting a fire.
Unlike electrical fuses or circuit breakers, thermal fuses only react to excessive temperature and not to excessive current (unless the excessive current is sufficient to cause the thermal fuse itself to heat up to the trigger temperature). For example, in a surge protector thermal fuses may be wired in series with the varistors; when the varistors conduct, the fuse heats up and disconnects the power, which eliminates the risk of fire which can occur when the varistors are overloaded.
Thermal switch
A thermal switch (sometimes thermal reset or thermal cutout (TCO)) is a device which normally opens at a high temperature (often with a faint "plink" sound) and re-closes when the temperature drops. The thermal switch may be a bimetallic strip, often encased in a tubular glass bulb to protect it from dust or short circuit. Another common design uses a bimetallic shallow dome-shaped cap which "clicks" to an inside-out inverted cap shape when heated, such as the "Klixon" brand of thermal cutouts.
Unlike a thermal fuse, a thermal switch is usually reusable and is therefore suited to protecting against temporary situations which are common and user-correctable. Thermal switches are used in power supplies in case of overload, and also as thermostats, and overheat protection in some heating and cooling systems. They are found in virtually every refrigerator, microwave, clothes dryer, space heater, and many more appliances found throughout the home.
Another type of thermal switch is a PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistor; these thermistors have a "cutting off" temperature at which the resistance suddenly rises rapidly, limiting the current through the circuit. When used in conjunction with a thermistor relay, the PTC will switch off an electrical system at a desired temperature. Typical use is for motor overheat protection. These devices are not a true “switch” as they do not disengage completely and there is always some resistance across the switch. Devices also apply PTC tech as a PTC thermistor sensor, this is different from a cutout and can confuse amateur electronic technicians.
Thermal switches are included in turn signals on older vehicles, some light fixtures, particularly with recessed lights, where excessive heat is most likely to occur. This may lead to "cycling" (flashing), where a light turns off and back on every few minutes. Flashing incandescent Christmas lights take advantage of this effect. Some flasher bulbs interrupt power when heated, while other twinkle/sparkle mini-bulbs momentarily shunt current around the filament.
Thermal switches are part of the normal operation of older fluorescent light fixtures, where they are the major part of the starter module.
GE trademarked the name "Guardette" for the thermal protection switches used on their refrigeration compressors.
Thermal switches on microprocessors often stop only the fetching of instructions to execute, reducing the clock rate to zero until a lower temperature is reached, while maintaining power to the cache to prevent data loss (although a second switch, with a higher triggering temperature, usually turns off even the cache and forces the computer to reboot). This mitigates the impact of programs resembling power viruses on the processor's longevity, while still accommodating their possible legitimate uses; it can also make overclocking possible with less risk.
Manual reset
Some thermal switches must be reset manually after having tripped. This type is used when an automatic and unattended restart would create a hazardous condition, such as sudden startup of a powerful motor without warning. These types of thermal cutouts are usually reset by pressing a push-button by hand or with a special tool.
See also
Thermistor
References
External links
Explanation of thermal cutoff switch
Smart Thermostat for Electric Baseboard Heaters
Electric power systems components
Safety switches
Fuses | wiki |
In zoological nomenclature, an available name is a scientific name for a taxon of animals that has been published conforming to all the mandatory provisions of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature for the establishment of a zoological name.
For a name to be available, there are a number of general requirements it must fulfill: it must use only the Latin alphabet, be published in a timely fashion by a reputable source, etc. In some rare cases, a name which does not meet these requirements may nevertheless be available, for historical reasons.
All available names must refer to a type. For species-level names, the type is a specimen (a holotype or lectotype); for generic-level names, the type is a species name; for family-level names, the type is a genus name. This hierarchical system of typification provides a concrete empirical anchor for all zoological names.
An available name is not necessarily a valid name, because an available name may be in synonymy. However, a valid name must always be an available one.
Contrast to botany
Under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, this term is not used. In botany, the corresponding term is validly published name. The botanical equivalent of zoology's term "valid name" is correct name.
References
Zoological nomenclature | wiki |
Associations in English law are groups of people which are formed and act for a common purpose. In the United Kingdom, English and Scots law differ in the rules of contract and property, although a number of Acts of Parliament regarding associations are common to both jurisdictions. The five main types of association in English law are:
common law associations, that are not incorporated under any particular Act of Parliament, but exist merely through a contractual agreement; normally called unincorporated associations
trade unions, which are also formed by common law agreement, but are subject to special regulation under the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992
a partnership, which arises automatically when people act together for the purpose of profit, and is regulated by the Partnership Act 1890, or alternatively registered with limited liability for most partners under the Limited Partnerships Act 1907, or for all partners under the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000
trusts which are formed through consent of all involved, but are positively intended to be subjected to character
companies that are incorporated under the Companies Act 2006 by registration at Companies House, which can include,
companies with unlimited liability for their members
a private company limited liability for members according to the share capital they invest (an "Ltd")
a company with publicly traded shares (a "plc") and limited liability for members according to share capital
a company whose members' liability is limited to the amount they have guaranteed (often a charity)
See also
Voluntary association
English contract law
English trust law
UK partnership law
References
United Kingdom company law | wiki |
Converse () is an American lifestyle brand that markets, distributes, and licenses footwear, apparel, and accessories. Founded in 1908 as the Converse Rubber Shoe Company, it has been acquired by several companies before becoming a subsidiary of Nike, Inc. in 2003.
Converse initially produced winterized rubber-soled shoes and boots. During World War II, it shifted manufacturing to make footwear for the military. Initially, it was one of the few producers of athletic shoes and dominated the U.S. market, but lost its position in the 1970s as competitors presented their styles.
Converse's portfolio includes products under the Chuck Taylor All-Star, Cons, Jack Purcell, One Star, and Star Chevron trademarks. It frequently collaborates on special-edition product releases with other brands such as John Varvatos. As of 2019, Converse sold products through 109 company-owned retail stores in the United States and 63 stores in international markets. The growth of Converse as a casual fashion accessory contributed to $2.3 billion in revenue in 2022.
History
Early years
Forty-seven-year-old Marquis Mills Converse, a manager at a footwear manufacturing firm, opened the Converse Rubber Shoe Company in February 1908, in Malden, Massachusetts. The company was a rubber shoe manufacturer, providing winterized rubber-soled footwear for adults and children. By 1910, Converse was producing shoes daily, but it was not until 1915 that it began manufacturing athletic shoes.
In 1918, the Converse All-Star basketball shoe was introduced. Then in 1923, a basketball player named Charles H. "Chuck" Taylor walked into Converse complaining of sore feet. Converse gave him a job as a salesman and ambassador, promoting the shoes around the U.S., and in 1932 Taylor's signature was added to the All-Star patch on the high-topped sneakers. He continued this work until shortly before his death in 1969. Sales for the All-Star soared until 1929 when the company fell into bankruptcy.
1941–2001: War, rise, and bankruptcy
When the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, Converse shifted production to manufacturing rubberized footwear, outerwear, and protective suits for the military. The company resumed production of athletic footwear after the war's end. Popular during the 1950s and 1960s, Converse promoted an American image with its Converse Basketball Yearbook. Artist Charles Kerins created cover art that celebrated Converse's role in the lives of high school and college athletes.
Converse customized shoes for the New York Renaissance (the "Rens"), the first all-African-American professional basketball team. In 1962, center Wilt Chamberlain of the Philadelphia Warriors scored 100 points in a National Basketball Association (NBA) game while wearing a pair of Chucks, taking a 169–147 victory over the New York Knicks in Hershey, Pennsylvania, on March 2.
By the early 1970s, Converse had diversified to include manufacturing sporting goods and industrial products. Converse was acquired by the Eltra Corporation in 1972, and bought out one of its biggest competitors at the time, PF Flyers, from B.F. Goodrich. However, federal courts ruled the sale a monopoly and the deal was subsequently broken up through anti-trust litigation. Converse only retained the trademark rights to the Jack Purcell line, which it still produces. The chevron and star insignia—a logo that remains on a large portion of Converse footwear other than the All Star—was created by Jim Labadini, an employee. Eltra was acquired by Allied Corporation in 1979.
Converse lost its athletic shoe monopoly from the 1970s' onward, as new competitors, including Puma, Adidas, and Nike, grew in popularity. A decade later, as Reebok introduced new designs and technology to the sports market, Converse was no longer the official shoe of the NBA. Although canvas-rubber shoes regained popularity in the 1980s as casual footwear, Converse eventually became too dependent on the "All Stars" basketball brand, whose market collapsed by 1989–1990. By 2000, Converse was slipping repeatedly into receivership as debt piled up yearly.
Converse filed for bankruptcy on January 22, 2001. On March 30, its last manufacturing plants in the U.S. closed down, as production fully moved overseas. In April 2001, Footwear Acquisitions, led by Marsden Cason and Bill Simon, purchased the brand from bankruptcy and added industry partners Jack Boys, Jim Stroesser, Lisa Kempa, and David Maddocks to lead the turnaround. During this period, Converse moved its headquarters from North Reading, Massachusetts, to North Andover, Massachusetts. The company was located in the town of North Andover for 13 years.
Acquisition by Nike and new headquarters
In July 2003, Nike paid to acquire Converse. Around 2010, Nike relaunched the footwear, taking advantage of the wave of 1980s revival. The company also expanded the Converse brand to include apparel and accessories, akin to Nike's other brands.
In January 2013, Converse announced plans for a new headquarters building. It was constructed near North Station in downtown Boston, on the Lovejoy Wharf, as part of a site overhaul and restoration of public waterfront access. The 10-story office building includes a permanent music recording studio, gym with separate yoga studio, and a retail store.
Litigation
Starting in July 2008, Converse sent around 180 cease-and-desist letters to over 30 companies that they claimed were violating the Chuck Taylor All Star trademark and selling so-called look-alike sneakers.
In October 2014, Converse filed a lawsuit against 30 companies for allegedly infringing on its generic sneaker style's bumper toe, striped midsole, and toe cap. The brand argued that companies were violating an alleged common-law trademark by importing sneakers with similar elements. Several companies settled with Converse and they were dropped from the list.
In November 2015, Charles Bullock, chief administrative judge at the International Trade Commission, preliminarily ruled that several brands Converse filed against were violating Converse's outsole design trademarks, i.e. the pattern on the bottom of the sole of the shoe. Judge Bullock further ruled that while Skechers "Twinkle Toes" brands did share similarities to Converse, "Twinkle Toes" were different enough and marketed in a way for it not to be mistaken for Chuck Taylor All-Stars. Judge Bullock also ruled that most of the shoes sold by Highline United under the Ash brand did not infringe and that Converse did not have a valid common law mark for its midsole.
On June 23, 2016, the anniversary of the death of Chuck Taylor, the International Trade Commission ruled that Converse's alleged trade dress for the midsole design of a combined toe cap, toe bumper, and stripe was not entitled to trademark protection under the common law and found invalid Converse's federal trademark registration. The case was appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which ruled that the ITC had used the wrong test and remanded the case. On remand, the ITC ruled that Converse’s trade dress was protectable but not infringed.
Products
The Weapon
In 1986, Converse released "The Weapon" basketball shoe. Manufactured in two color schemes to match the kit colors of basketball teams, it has been available in both high-top and low-cut varieties. It had leather construction throughout, including the inside heel which was also heavily padded for comfort. The first endorsers of "The Weapon" were Larry Bird and Magic Johnson, who were prominently featured in a Converse commercial set in Bird's hometown of French Lick, Indiana in 1985. They were also worn by Axl Rose in the Guns N' Roses music video "Estranged".
Converse re-released "The Weapon" classic (which Kobe Bryant wore at least three times in 2002 and Andre Miller wore in 2002 from mid-August to early September) several times from 1999 to 2003 and after, "The Loaded Weapon" in 2003, "The Weapon 86" in 2008 (and the Poorman version in 2009, and the John Varvatos version in 2012), "The Weapon EVO" in 2009, and its successor "The Star Player EVO" (sometimes reduced to "The Star Plyr EVO" or "The Star Ply EVO") in 2010.
Chuck Taylor All Star II
A redesigned model of the Chuck Taylor All-Star, the Chuck Taylor II, was released in July 28, 2015. Incorporating Nike technology, it retains most of the original's outward appearance while employing newer materials for the insole.
Special editions
Several special editions of Converse shoes have been made, including DC Comics, Super Mario, Pink Floyd, AC/DC, Metallica, The Ramones, The Clash, Dr. Seuss, Sailor Jerry, Grateful Dead, Ozzy Osbourne, Jimi Hendrix, Miley Cyrus, Drew Brophy, Nirvana, Bad Meets Evil, Green Day, Gorillaz, Matt and Kim, Black Sabbath, and the Who.
Additionally, Converse have made an appearance in over 650 films, such as Back to the Future, I, Robot, Grease and Stand by Me. David Tennant (playing the Tenth Doctor) wore red and cream versions of Hi-top Converse on science-fiction show Doctor Who.
In July 2018, Converse teamed up with BT21, a millennial pop character created by South Korean hip-hop group BTS, to launch the special collaboration line of Chuck Taylor All-Stars featuring the illustrations of BT21 characters; it's currently available in limited quantities in Asia starting from July 27.
Sponsorships
In 2019, Converse returned to the performance basketball scene with the All-Star Pro BB. Kelly Oubre Jr. was the first player to try out the new product, which combined the traditional Converse silhouette with the contemporary Nike technology. Thereafter Converse signed more players: Draymond Green in March 2020, Natasha Cloud (the first WNBA player) in June 2020, Shai Gilgeous-Alexander in July 2020, and, more recently, Rudy Gay, P. J. Tucker, DeAndre' Bembry, De'Anthony Melton, Nickeil Alexander-Walker, Immanuel Quickley, Deividas Sirvydis, Jordan Clarkson, Josh Richardson, David Duke Jr., Brandon Williams. Some of the aforementioned players also wear other brands.
Former football (soccer) teams
Atlético Nacional (2001–2002)
Politehnica Timișoara (2006–2008)
Former Converse college teams
Marquette Golden Eagles – switched to Jordan when most famous alum, Dwyane Wade, signed with Jordan
Western Kentucky Hilltoppers – shoes only
Due to Converse withdrawing from performance basketball shoes, no college teams are wearing Converse shoes, and only recently, Asi Taulava, Kelly Oubre Jr., and others, as noted above, have once again endorsed the brand after it returned to the basketball court.
Skateboarding
Under the "CONS" name, Converse launched its skateboarding program in 2009 with a team of "ambassadors": Kenny Anderson, Anthony Pappalardo, Nick Trapasso, Sammy Baca, Ethan Fowler, Raymond Molinar, and Rune Glifberg. In 2012, the company added Jason Jessee and Mike Anderson to its ambassadors team.
In August 2012, Converse sponsored a skate event at Huntington Beach, California, U.S. Trapasso, Tom Remillard, Aaron Homoki, Greyson Fletcher, Ben Raemers, Ben Hatchell, Robbie Russo, and Ben Raybourn participated in the competition that was held. Raybourn eventually won the US$20,000 grand prize, and Homoki won the US$3,000 Best Trick contest.
As of July 2014, the CONS skateboard team consisted of original members Anderson, Trapasso, Baca, and Glifberg, while Jessee, Anderson, Julian Davidson, Remillard, Zered Basset, Ben Raemers, Jake Johnson, Eli Reed, Louie Lopez, Sage Elsesser, and Sean Pablo were subsequently added. Bassett filmed a new advertisement that was broadcast online in July 2014, in which he skateboarded through New York City in a newly launched skate shoe version of the Converse Weapon model, the "CONS Weapon Skate."
Philanthropy
A special collection called "1Hund (RED)", whereby fifteen percent of the profits are used to support HIV/AIDS prevention, was released by the brand. One hundred artists from around the world were chosen to create designs for the collection as part of the (RED) campaign. Professional skateboarder Anthony Pappalardo released a (RED) edition of his high-selling signature skate shoe model in February 2010. Pappalardo explains:
I got into woodworking about two years ago, through a buddy of mine who I used to skate with every day—he turned into a woodworker. So he gave me this scrap box of wood ... It just definitely started consuming me as skating did. I wanted to read about it, you know? Go on the internet and watch videos about it, and just learn anything and everything I could about woodworking. The first thing I ever made was a bench, and that's, kinda, what I've been making ever since. the cool thing about working with Product (RED) is just by doing the two things that I love, I'm also able to help people.
In 2012, Converse was listed as a partner in the (RED) campaign, together with other brands such as Nike, Inc., Girl, and Bugaboo. The campaign's mission is to prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from mother to child by 2015 (the campaign's byline is "Fighting For An AIDS Free Generation").
In the winter of 2018, Converse teamed up with several influential figures in the Los Angeles area to create a collection paying to those who help move the culture forward in the city. Among those selected by the Boston-based footwear brand for this L.A.-themed collection are Vince Staples, Dr. Woo, Rocket, BornXRaised, and Clot.
References
External links
1908 establishments in Massachusetts
1970s fashion
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion
Athletic shoe brands
Clothing brands of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Boston
Clothing companies established in 1908
Nike brands
Shoe companies of the United States
Sporting goods manufacturers of the United States
Sportswear brands
Skateboard shoe companies
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2001
2003 mergers and acquisitions | wiki |
American singer-songwriter Gregory Porter has released six studio albums, one collaborative album, two compilation albums, two live albums, one EP, and 18 singles.
Albums
Studio albums
Collaborative albums
Compilation albums
Live albums
EPs
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Promotional singles
Guest appearances
References
Discographies of American artists | wiki |
Devaki is the mother of Krishna in Hinduism.
Devaki may also refer to:
Devaki (1951 film)
Devaki (2005 film)
Devaki (2019 film) | wiki |
Rocky V is a 1990 American sports drama film directed by John G. Avildsen and written by and starring Sylvester Stallone. It is the sequel to Rocky IV (1985) and the fifth installment in the Rocky film series. It also stars Talia Shire, Burt Young, Sage Stallone, Tommy Morrison, and Burgess Meredith. In the film, a financially struggling Rocky Balboa (Stallone) agrees to train protégé Tommy Gunn (Morrison) at the gym once owned by Balboa's trainer, Mickey Goldmill (Meredith).
Development for the film began in 1989, after Stallone completed the screenplay. Avildsen, who directed the first installment, was soon confirmed to return and principal photography began in January 1990, being largely filmed on location around Philadelphia. The filmmakers encountered creative differences with United Artists and were disallowed to include darker elements of Stallone's original screenplay, who had envisioned Rocky V as the final film in the franchise. The film also marks the final appearances of Shire and Meredith in the franchise.
Rocky V was released in the United States on November 16, 1990. The film received negative reviews from critics, with criticism for its screenplay, characterization, continuity errors, and medical inaccuracies; Stallone later expressed regret over the outcome of the film. It is usually considered the worst film of the Rocky series. Rocky V also underperformed expectations at the box office, grossing $119.9 million worldwide, making it the lowest grossing film in the series. A sequel, Rocky Balboa, was released in 2006.
Plot
During the aftermath of his victory over Ivan Drago in Moscow, Rocky finds himself experiencing physical complications from the fight. Rocky, his wife Adrian, his brother-in-law Paulie, and his trainer Tony "Duke" Evers return to the United States where they are greeted by Rocky's son, Robert Jr. who is now 14. At a press conference, boxing promoter George Washington Duke attempts to goad Rocky into fighting his boxer, Union Cane, who is the top-rated challenger, but Rocky declines.
After returning home, Rocky and Adrian discover they are bankrupt after Paulie was fooled into signing a "power of attorney" over to Rocky's accountant, who squandered all of his money on real estate deals gone sour and failed to pay Rocky's taxes over the previous six years. His mansion has been mortgaged by $400,000, but his attorney tells Rocky that it is fixable with a few more fights. Rocky initially accepts the fight with Cane, but Adrian urges him to see a doctor, and he is diagnosed with cavum septum pellucidum.
Reluctantly, Rocky retires from boxing. His home and belongings are sold to pay the debt and the Balboas move back to their old working-class neighborhood in Philadelphia. Rocky visits Mighty Mick's Gym (willed to his son by his old trainer Mickey Goldmill), which has fallen into disrepair. Seeing a vision of himself and Mickey from years past, Rocky draws inspiration to become a trainer himself and reopens the gym.
Rocky and Paulie meet a young fighter from Oklahoma named Tommy Gunn. Rocky agrees to become his manager. Training him gives Rocky a sense of purpose, and Tommy rises to become a top contender. Distracted with Tommy's training, Rocky neglects Robert, who is being bullied at school. After learning to defend himself, Robert falls in with the wrong crowd and becomes withdrawn from his family.
Union Cane wins the vacant world heavyweight title. Still wanting to do business with Rocky, Washington showers Tommy with luxuries and promises him that he is the only path to a shot at the title. Rocky insists dealing with Washington will end badly, causing Tommy to desert him. Adrian attempts to comfort Rocky but Rocky vents his frustrations by telling her his life had a new meaning by training Tommy. Adrian tells Rocky that Tommy never had his heart and that was something he could never learn. Realizing that his family is his top priority, Rocky apologizes to Adrian and the two embrace. Rocky then apologizes to Robert and they mend their relationship.
Tommy defeats Cane for the heavyweight title with a first-round knockout, but is jeered by spectators for leaving Rocky and hounded by reporters after the fight. Tommy gives all the credit for his success to George Washington Duke, which only fans the flames of contempt for Tommy by the fans and media. They insist that Cane was nothing but a "paper champion", because Cane did not win the title from Balboa.
Washington convinces Tommy that he needs to secure a fight with Rocky to refute the notion that he is not the real champion. Washington and Tommy show up at the local bar with a live television crew to goad Rocky into accepting a title fight. Rocky declines and tries to reason with him, but Tommy calls him weak, prompting Paulie to stand up for Rocky. When Tommy punches Paulie, Rocky challenges Tommy to a street fight on the spot; despite Duke's objections, Tommy accepts.
Rocky initially knocks Tommy to the ground with a flurry of punches, but Tommy gets up and attacks Rocky from behind. Rocky is beaten down by Tommy, seeing nightmarish visions of Drago, before a vision of Mickey urges him to get up and continue the fight. When Robert and Adrian see the brawl being televised, they rush to the back alley to cheer for Rocky. With Robert, Paulie, Adrian and the neighborhood crowd cheering him on, Rocky makes use of his street-fighting skills and defeats Tommy.
While Tommy is escorted away by the police, Washington threatens to sue Rocky if he touches him. After a brief hesitation, Rocky knocks him onto the hood of a car, defiantly replying "Sue me for what?"
Months later, Rocky and Robert climb up the Rocky Steps, see his statue, and are about to go inside and explore the Philadelphia Museum of Art when Rocky gives his son Rocky Marciano's cufflink, given to him years earlier as a gift from Mickey.
Cast
Sylvester Stallone as Robert "Rocky" Balboa, "The Italian Stallion": Heavyweight Champion of the World, who suffers from brain damage caused by the head-trauma he received at the hands of Ivan Drago in the previous film. Because of his injuries, Rocky is forced to officially retire from boxing. After moving back to Philadelphia, Rocky trains and manages underdog boxer Tommy Gunn and helps him to rise to fame.
Talia Shire as Adrian Balboa: Rocky's wife and support throughout his life and his boxing career.
Burt Young as Paulie Pennino: Rocky's friend, and brother-in-law.
Sage Stallone as Robert "Rocky" Balboa Jr.: Rocky and Adrian's only son, who gets involved with the wrong crowds during his father's absence, throughout the training and mentoring of Tommy Gunn.
Tommy Morrison as Tommy "The Machine" Gunn: Underdog boxer, who rises to fame under Rocky's training. Throughout his career he is called Rocky's "shadow", and angrily seeks out another manager. After his achievements as Heavyweight Champion, and the public's continued dis-appreciation for him, he fights Rocky in an unofficial street fight, and loses.
Burgess Meredith as Mickey Goldmill: Rocky's deceased friend, manager and trainer, a former bantamweight fighter from the 1920s and the owner of the local boxing gym. Burgess appears in new footage, filmed as a flashback to before Rocky's second fight with Apollo.
Richard Gant as George Washington Duke: Loud and obnoxious boxing promoter, who repeatedly tries to convince Rocky to re-enter the ring. He becomes Tommy Gunn's manager during his shot at the Heavyweight Champion title.
Tony Burton as Tony "Duke" Evers: Rocky's friend, and former trainer and manager of Apollo Creed.
Paul J. Micale as Father Carmine (uncredited)
Michael Williams as Union Cane: Reigning Heavyweight Champion of the World who wants to fight legendary Rocky, and eventually fights Tommy Gunn. Williams was also a real-life boxer. He and Morrison were to have an actual match about a month after Rocky V was released, but it was canceled when Williams was hurt. The match was being hyped as "The Real Cane vs. Gunn Match."
The film has cameos by sportswriters and boxing analysts, including Al Bernstein, Stan Hochman and Al Meltzer, and sportscaster Stu Nahan, who was the ringside announcer in every Rocky movie except the sixth. Dolph Lundgren and Carl Weathers appear as Ivan Drago and Apollo Creed in archival footage, uncredited. Mr. T appears as his Rocky III character Clubber Lang in archival footage, uncredited. Hulk Hogan, from his Rocky III role as Thunderlips, appears in a still shot during the film's end credits sequence taken from the staredown the two engaged in during said film, also uncredited.
Jodi Letizia, who played street kid Marie in the original Rocky (1976), was supposed to reprise her role. Her character was shown to have ended up as Rocky predicted she would: a prostitute, but the scene ended up on the cutting room floor. She can briefly be seen during the street fight at the end. The character reappears in Rocky Balboa (2006) as a bartender and confidante to the aging Rocky. Actress Geraldine Hughes took over the role.
Kevin Connolly, who gained success as Eric Murphy on HBO's Entourage, was in his first acting role as neighborhood bully Chickie.
Production
Filming
Filming began in mid-January 1990. Some of the fight sequences were filmed at The Blue Horizon in Philadelphia, a venue which was a mecca for boxing in the city during the 1970s.
The Rocky statue, which was commissioned for Rocky III, had since been gifted to the city of Philadelphia and moved to the entrance of the Spectrum, and so had to be moved back to the Philadelphia Museum of Art for the filming.
Scenes with Mickey, played by Burgess Meredith, were trimmed in the final film when Rocky fights Tommy. Mickey appeared in ghost form on top of the railway bridge, giving words of encouragement. In the final film, this was made into flashbacks. The speech Mickey gives to Rocky in the flashback sequence is based on an interview with Cus D'Amato given in 1985, shortly after Mike Tyson's first professional bout.
As a promotional gimmick, replicas of the golden glove necklace featured so prominently in the film were distributed to moviegoers at the Hollywood premiere of Rocky V at Grauman's Chinese Theatre.
Professional wrestling veteran Terry Funk helped choreograph much of the street fight between Rocky and Tommy Gunn.
In the original script, Rocky is killed during the final fight with Tommy, dying in Adrian's arms in the street. According to Stallone, the director and the studio had second thoughts. Eventually, Stallone rewrote the ending, saying that he decided to change it because Rocky was supposed to be about perseverance and redemption, and having him die in a street brawl would be against the roots of the series.
Continuity
In the years following the film's release, Stallone acknowledged that the injury which forces Rocky to retire, referenced in the film as a potentially lethal form of 'brain damage', was inaccurate. Stallone stated that having discussed the story with many boxing medical professionals, the injury Rocky suffered was a milder form of brain damage, similar to that of a long term concussion that many boxers suffer from and by modern-day standards are still able to gain licenses to box. It would not have prevented Rocky from gaining a license to box nor killed him.
Tony Burton briefly reprises his role as Duke at the beginning of the film. However, during his scenes, Rocky refers to him as "Tony". In the credits, Burton is credited as playing "Tony", as opposed to "Duke" (possibly to avoid confusion with the George Washington Duke character). Rocky V is the third time in the series to do so, with the first being Rocky II as Apollo asked "What are you afraid of, Tony?", and the second time during Rocky IV after receiving a pep talk in the former Soviet Union, "Thanks, Tony." Rocky Balboa names Burton's character "Duke Evers".
Sage Stallone, Sylvester's real-life son, portrays his character's son in the film. In Rocky IV, he was portrayed as a nine-year-old child whereas Sage was 14 at the time of filming, making him a teenager in Rocky V, despite it taking place just days after the events of Rocky IV.
Music
Soundtrack
The soundtrack album is not the original motion picture score, but rather has music from and inspired by the film. This soundtrack features Joey B. Ellis, MC Hammer, 7A3, MC Tab, Rob Base, and Bill Conti. Most of the soundtrack album contains rap music, rather than the Bill Conti score. Also, two of the scores from Rocky IV were featured in this film's trailer, but were not present in the actual film or soundtrack. "The Measure of a Man" was written by Alan Menken, Elton John, Tim Rice and performed by John.
Like Rocky IV, a full version of "Gonna Fly Now" with lyrics is not heard in the film. However an instrumental horn version is played during the early scene where Rocky gets off the airplane, and at the end of the movie after Rocky defeats Tommy, another instrumental version is heard. In addition, a solo piano version is heard during several scenes including where Balboa speaks with his son upon his return from Russia, and during the scenes where his property is being auctioned.
Reception
Box office
Anticipated to be one of the big hits of the 1990 holiday season, Rocky V finished third in its opening weekend, trailing Dances with Wolves and Home Alone, and never recovered. The film earned US$14 million on its opening weekend and $41 million in total in the US and Canada, about one-third of its predecessor's take. Rocky V however made almost twice as much overseas with a gross of $79 million, for a total of $120 million worldwide.
Critical response
Rocky V has a 31% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 39 reviews, with the site consensus, "Rocky Vs attempts to recapture the original's working-class grit are as transparently phony as each of the thuddingly obvious plot developments in a misguided installment that sent the franchise flailing into longterm limbo." It also has a score of 55 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
In 1999, Time placed the film on a list of the 100 worst ideas of the 20th century.
The Los Angeles Times regarded it as the best of the Rocky sequels.
Sylvester Stallone has publicly expressed hatred towards Rocky V, giving it a 0 out of 10.
Accolades
It was nominated for seven Golden Raspberry Awards in 1990 including Worst Picture, Worst Actor and Worst Screenplay for Stallone, Worst Actress for Shire, Worst Supporting Actor for Young, Worst Director for Avildsen and Worst Original Song for "The Measure of a Man".
Other media
Sequel
Sixteen years later, Stallone wrote, directed and starred in the film Rocky Balboa. Stallone suggested that advances in medical science during the period between the films had shown that the injuries mentioned in Rocky V were less debilitating than once thought, and that he would receive a "clean bill of health" by the time of Rocky Balboa, allowing him to box again. The film grossed over $70 million at the US box office, and $85 million abroad, and received largely positive reviews.
Video games
In 2002, a video game called Rocky, based on the first five Rocky films, was released by Rage Software.
A sequel was released by in 2004 by Venom Games called Rocky Legends, which further expanded on the story of the first four films.
References
External links
1990 films
1990s sports drama films
American sequel films
American sports drama films
American boxing films
Films scored by Bill Conti
Films about bullying
Films directed by John G. Avildsen
Films produced by Robert Chartoff
Films produced by Irwin Winkler
Films set in 1985
Films set in Moscow
Films set in Philadelphia
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Pennsylvania
Rocky (film series) films
Films with screenplays by Sylvester Stallone
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
United Artists films
1990 drama films
Films about father–son relationships
1990s English-language films
1990s American films | wiki |
In thermodynamics, a departure function is defined for any thermodynamic property as the difference between the property as computed for an ideal gas and the property of the species as it exists in the real world, for a specified temperature T and pressure P. Common departure functions include those for enthalpy, entropy, and internal energy.
Departure functions are used to calculate real fluid extensive properties (i.e. properties which are computed as a difference between two states). A departure function gives the difference between the real state, at a finite volume or non-zero pressure and temperature, and the ideal state, usually at zero pressure or infinite volume and temperature.
For example, to evaluate enthalpy change between two points h(v1,T1) and h(v2,T2) we first compute the enthalpy departure function between volume v1 and infinite volume at T = T1, then add to that the ideal gas enthalpy change due to the temperature change from T1 to T2, then subtract the departure function value between v2 and infinite volume.
Departure functions are computed by integrating a function which depends on an equation of state and its derivative.
General expressions
General expressions for the enthalpy H, entropy S and Gibbs free energy G are given by
Departure functions for Peng–Robinson equation of state
The Peng–Robinson equation of state relates the three interdependent state properties pressure P, temperature T, and molar volume Vm. From the state properties (P, Vm, T), one may compute the departure function for enthalpy per mole (denoted h) and entropy per mole (s):
where is defined in the Peng-Robinson equation of state, Tr is the reduced temperature, Pr is the reduced pressure, Z is the compressibility factor, and
Typically, one knows two of the three state properties (P, Vm, T), and must compute the third directly from the equation of state under consideration. To calculate the third state property, it is necessary to know three constants for the species at hand: the critical temperature Tc, critical pressure Pc, and the acentric factor ω. But once these constants are known, it is possible to evaluate all of the above expressions and hence determine the enthalpy and entropy departures.
References
Correlated terms
Residual property (physics)
Thermodynamics
Fluid mechanics
Equations | wiki |
In mechanical engineering, a parallel force system is a situation in which two forces of equal magnitude act in the same direction within the same plane, with the counter force in the middle. An example of this is a see saw. The children are applying the two forces at the ends, and the fulcrum in the middle gives the counter force to maintain the see saw in neutral position. Another example are the major vertical forces on an airplane in flight (see image at right).
References
Force
Classical mechanics
Mechanics
Mechanical engineering | wiki |
Engineers Australia (EA) is an Australian professional body and not-for-profit organisation whose purpose is to advance the science and practice of engineering for the benefit of the community. Engineers Australia is Australia's recognized organization for accreditation of professional engineering qualifications under the Washington Accord. As of 2022, EA has 115,000 members, which includes 31,000 students.
History
The association began after World War I, following recognition of the need for a single body to represent engineers, rather than multiple smaller associations. The first council meeting of this single body was held in 1919, electing Professor William Warren of the University of Sydney as the first President. This formed The Institution of Engineers Australia. On 1 May 1926 the Institution was incorporated as a company limited by guarantee. Twelve years later, on 10 March 1938 His Majesty King George the Sixth granted a charter of incorporation to the Institution, reconstituting it as a body corporate and politic by Royal Charter.
The Institution of Engineers Australia is now known as Engineers Australia (EA). Engineers Australia wholly owns two subsidiaries, Engineering Education Australia and EngInsure. Engineers Australia previously had a publishing subsidiary Engineers Media which published the organisation's main magazine. Engineers Media ceased operations at the end of August 2015 after the magazine "create" was outsourced to a commercial publisher, Mahlab Media.
Membership
Membership is open to a variety of occupations. Membership is a requirement to seek credentials such as "Chartered".
Membership types
Engineers Australia has the following membership types:
Student: free for students studying engineering
Graduate: for people who have completed an accredited or recognised engineering qualification
Member: same as graduate but with 3 years experience in industry
Fellow: same as member but with evidence of eminence
Occupational categories
The occupational categories are:
Professional engineer, hold a 4-year engineering degree
Engineering technologist, hold a 3-year engineering degree
Engineering associate, hold a 2-year advanced diploma or associate engineering degree
Engineering manager, for overseas engineers whose qualifications don’t fit one of the three other categories
Membership for non-engineers
Affiliate: open to people who don't hold formal engineering qualifications, but have an active interest in the engineering profession
Companion: same as an Affiliate, with evidence of eminence
Credentials and other statuses
Chartered: In Australia, the Chartered credential the highest available technical credential for a member, and is exclusive to Engineers Australia. Chartered is nationally and internationally recognised.
Honorary Fellow: same as Fellow, a person who has rendered conspicuous service to the Australian People, or in recognition of outstanding achievement, or is a distinguished person as determined by the Board of EA. Honary Fellows must be living, and there is a cap of 200.
Notable Fellows
Notable Fellows of Engineers Australia include:
Derek Abbott
Rose Amal
Eliathamby Ambikairajah
Matt Barrie
Walter Bassett
Bill Bradfield
Ted Brown
Guillermo Capati
Branko Celler
Ross Dunning
Alan Finkel
Julie Hammer
Donald Hector
Malcolm Kinnaird
David Knox
John Moore
Andrew Parfitt
Karen Reynolds
David James Skellern
Chandreshekar Sonwane
Alex Zelinsky
Migration skills assessment
Engineers Australia is the designated assessing authority for engineering occupations as listed by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection.
Governance
The National Congress is a representative body of some 35 members, which elects and monitors the Board of Engineers Australia. The responsibilities and structure of National Congress are determined by the Royal Charter and By-laws. The Board is Engineers Australia's governing body. It has six members and its role is comparable to that of a company board. It appoints and liaises with the Chief Executive Officer, sets regulations and policies, sets strategic directions, and monitors the organisation's financial sustainability and performance. Each of Engineers Australia's nine divisions is led by a division committee of the division members. A division committee is responsible to and under the direction of the Board. A division group delivers specific services to the members of the Division, within a specific field of practice, area of interest or geographic area. Each of Engineers Australia's nine colleges is led by a College Board of the college members. College Boards are under the direction of the Board.
The patron of Engineers Australia is the Governor-General of Australia, David Hurley.
Regulatory schemes
There is no formal system of regulation for engineers throughout Australia. Engineering services are regulated under a variety of Acts in ad hoc areas, many of which relate to engineers in the building and construction industry. There are also many pieces of subordinate legislation, such as regulations, by-laws and orders-in-council that impose various prescriptive standards and incur unnecessary costs to the engineering industry in complying. In Queensland, persons who are not registered with the Board of Professional Engineers Queensland are prohibited from offering or providing professional engineering services. The only exception is for individuals who practise under the direct supervision of registered professional engineers.
Registers
State register
Queensland is currently the only Australian jurisdiction to apply a comprehensive registration system for engineers. The Queensland Minister for Public Works and Information and Communication Technology appointed Engineers Australia on 1 July 2008 as one of the Approved Assessment entities for assessing applicants for Registration with the Board of Professional Engineers of Queensland.
National register
The National Engineering Register (NER) has been created by Engineers Australia to provide a means of presenting registered engineers and their services to the public. It also provides assurance to consumers that engineers engaged from the NER meet the high standards of professionalism expected in the engineering profession. It is the largest Engineering Register in the country delivering a uniform national benchmark standard of professionalism in the broadest areas of engineering practice, both general and special.
The NER is a publicly searchable database providing a national system of ‘registration’ for the engineering profession in Australia of professional engineers, engineering technologists and engineering associates in both the private and public sectors. It is expected that the NER will facilitate access to existing State/Territory registers and to new registers, as and when they are developed. The NER is aimed at removing any current inconsistencies across State/Territory jurisdictions.
The NER caters for nine (9) general and ten (10) special areas of practice aligned to demonstrated professional competence and experience. Registration on the 10 special areas of practice will be restricted to Chartered members of Engineers Australia and registrants who have successfully completed Engineers Australia's Chartered assessment process.
Registrants on the NER will be able to confirm the following eligibility criteria. the remaining
A recognised qualification
Relevant professional practice
Currency of continuing professional development (CPD)
The benefit of Professional Indemnity Insurance (PII)
A commitment to ethical practice
International register
Chartered members of Engineers Australia can apply to join the:
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) register
International Professional Engineers Agreement (IPEA) register
The APEC register allows use post-nominals APECEngineer and the IPEA allows the use of the post-nominals IntPE(Aus).
Continuing professional development
The Board expects Chartered Members and Registrants to maintain records of continuing Professional Development (CPD) activities that extend or update their knowledge, skill or judgment in their area or areas of engineering practice. An individual's CPD records must demonstrate a minimum of 150 hours of structured CPD in the last three years. To maintain Chartered Status, registrants must complete Continuing Professional Development (CPD), which is subject to review every five years.
Code of ethics
Since its inception, Engineers Australia has had a Code of Ethics and disciplinary processes that enable it to take action against members who breach that Code. The membership by-laws require the professional regulation of members.
Chartered members and registrants on the various registers are specifically required to practice in accordance with the Code of Ethics.
Sustainability
Engineers Australia believes that sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Complaints - professional conduct
Engineers Australia has a detailed and regulated process for handling complaints against members and office bearers. Complaints against members of Engineers Australia are handled in accordance with Division 4 of the General Regulations 2016. If the person is not a member, then Engineers Australia has no authority to commence an investigation or take any action regarding the person's professional conduct. Engineers Australia is also not able to offer legal advice in relation to contractual or common law disputes or criminal matters and the complaints process will not result in financial restitution or compensation.
Position statements
One of Engineers Australia's core activities is to make its position known on policies, inquiries and other government initiative. Engineers Australia draws upon the intellectual capital of the membership of Engineers Australia when drafting position statements and developing submissions.
Annual report and financials
In accordance with By-law 20.2, an Annual Report is presented by the Board each year for the business of the Annual General Meeting of Engineers Australia.
Lobbying
Engineers Australia engages third-party political lobbyists in various jurisdictions. For example, in South Australia, Engineers Australia engages MCM Strategic Communications.
Publications
Create magazine was introduced on 12 August 2015. It is a magazine that showcases the profession, achievements, impacts and future thinking of engineering. EHA Magazine is published quarterly covering industrial and engineering heritage first published in December 2013.
Engineering heritage recognition program
Engineering Heritage Australia, a special interest group within Engineers Australia, runs a program that recognises historically significant engineering works. Such works have a plaque on display, with a brief summary of the significance of the work. The program was established in 1984 with two categories of awards, "National Engineering Landmark" and "Historic Engineering Marker". In 2009 these were renamed "Engineering Heritage National Landmark" and "Engineering Heritage Marker"; in 2011 and 2012 the awards were renamed and a third category added. The current awards are:
Engineering Heritage Marker
Engineering Heritage National Marker
Engineering Heritage International Marker
there were 222 registered sites. Lists of the sites are available from Engineers Australia's web site.
Awards
Since its formation in 1919, EA have been conferring awards. This role was enshrined in a Royal Charter, granted in 1938. In 1950, the Board created Engineers Australia’s General Prize Fund. Today it is called the Engineers Australia Excellence Awards
The Peter Nicol Russell Memorial Medal is the most prestigious award conferred by Engineers Australia. It is presented each year for notable contribution to the science and/or practice of engineering in Australia.
The Professional Engineer of the Year is the most prestigious national Engineering award given to a practicing engineer for his or her exceptional contributions to Engineering in the evaluated year. Each major city branch of Engineers of Australia first selects the best professional engineers in the city and surroundings and some of these winners are nominated for the national award, and the national winner is selected by a national committee of Engineers Australia.
See also
Amalgamated Engineer Union
Australasian Society of Engineers
References
External links
Official web site
Engineering societies based in Australia
Organizations established in 1919
1919 establishments in Australia | wiki |
An elegy is a poem of serious reflection, and in English literature usually a lament for the dead. However, according to The Oxford Handbook of the Elegy, "for all of its pervasiveness ... the 'elegy' remains remarkably ill defined: sometimes used as a catch-all to denominate texts of a somber or pessimistic tone, sometimes as a marker for textual monumentalizing, and sometimes strictly as a sign of a lament for the dead".
History
The Greek term ἐλεγείᾱ (elegeíā; from , , ‘lament’) originally referred to any verse written in elegiac couplets and covering a wide range of subject matter (death, love, war). The term also included epitaphs, sad and mournful songs, and commemorative verses. The Latin elegy of ancient Roman literature was most often erotic or mythological in nature. Because of its structural potential for rhetorical effects, the elegiac couplet was also used by both Greek and Roman poets for witty, humorous, and satirical subject matter.
Other than epitaphs, examples of ancient elegy as a poem of mourning include Catullus' Carmen 101, on his dead brother, and elegies by Propertius on his dead mistress Cynthia and a matriarch of the prominent Cornelian family. Ovid wrote elegies bemoaning his exile, which he likened to a death.
Literature
English
In English literature, the more modern and restricted meaning, of a lament for a departed beloved or tragic event, has been current only since the sixteenth century; the broader concept was still employed by John Donne for his elegies written in the early seventeenth century. That looser concept is especially evident in the Old English Exeter Book (circa 1000 CE), which contains "serious meditative" and well-known poems such as "The Wanderer", "The Seafarer", and "The Wife's Lament". In those elegies, the narrators use the lyrical "I" to describe their own personal and mournful experiences. They tell the story of the individual rather than the collective lore of his or her people as epic poetry seeks to tell. By the time of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others, the term had come to mean "serious meditative poem":
A famous example of elegy is Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1750).
Other languages
In French, perhaps the most famous elegy is Le Lac (1820) by Alphonse de Lamartine.
In Germany, the most famous example is Duino Elegies by Rainer Maria Rilke (1922).
In Spain, one of the capital works in Spanish is Coplas a la muerte del maestre don Rodrigo (Stanzas About the Death of His Father), written between 1460 and 1470 by Jorge Manrique.
Music
"Elegy" (French: élégie) may denote a type of musical work, usually of a sad or somber nature. A well-known example is the Élégie, Op. 10, by Jules Massenet. This was originally written for piano, as a student work; then he set it as a song; and finally it appeared as the "Invocation", for cello and orchestra, a section of his incidental music to Leconte de Lisle's Les Érinnyes. Other examples include the Elegy Op. 58 of Edward Elgar and the Elegy for Strings of Benjamin Britten. Though not specifically designated an elegy, Samuel Barber's Adagio for Strings has an elegiac character.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Genres of poetry
Poetic forms
Laments | wiki |
The Norsemen (or Norse people) were a North Germanic ethnolinguistic group of the Early Middle Ages, during which they spoke the Old Norse language. The language belongs to the North Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages and is the predecessor of the modern Germanic languages of Scandinavia. During the late eighth century, Scandinavians embarked on a large-scale expansion in all directions, giving rise to the Viking Age. In English-language scholarship since the 19th century, Norse seafaring traders, settlers and warriors have commonly been referred to as Vikings. Historians of Anglo-Saxon England distinguish between Norse Vikings (Norsemen) from Norway who mainly invaded and occupied the islands north and north-west of Britain, Ireland and western Britain, and Danish Vikings, who principally invaded and occupied eastern Britain.
Modern descendants of Norsemen are the Danes, Icelanders, Faroe Islanders, Norwegians, and Swedes, who are now generally referred to as "Scandinavians" rather than Norsemen.
History of the terms Norseman and Northman
The word Norseman first appears in English during the early 19th century: the earliest attestation given in the third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary is from Walter Scott's 1817 Harold the Dauntless. The word was coined using the adjective norse, which was borrowed into English from Dutch during the 16th century with the sense 'Norwegian', and which by Scott's time had acquired the sense "of or relating to Scandinavia or its language, esp[ecially] in ancient or medieval times". As with modern use of the word viking, therefore, the word norseman has no particular basis in medieval usage.
The term Norseman does echo terms meaning 'Northman', applied to Norse-speakers by the peoples they encountered during the Middle Ages. The Old Frankish word ("Northman") was Latinised as and was widely used in Latin texts. The Latin word then entered Old French as . From this word came the name of the Normans and of Normandy, which was settled by Norsemen in the tenth century.
The same word entered Hispanic languages and local varieties of Latin with forms beginning not only in n-, but in l-, such as (apparently reflecting nasal dissimilation in local Romance languages). This form may in turn have been borrowed into Arabic: the prominent early Arabic source al-Mas‘ūdī identified the 844 raiders on Seville not only as Rūs but also .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written in Old English, distinguishes between the pagan Norwegian Norsemen (Norðmenn) of Dublin and the Christian Danes (Dene) of the Danelaw. In 942, it records the victory of King Edmund I over the Norse kings of York: "The Danes were previously subjected by force under the Norsemen, for a long time in bonds of captivity to the heathens".
Other names
In modern scholarship, Vikings is a common term for attacking Norsemen, especially in connection with raids and monastic plundering by Norsemen in the British Isles, but it was not used in this sense at the time. In Old Norse and Old English, the word simply meant 'pirate'.
The Norse were also known as , ashmen, by the Germans, (Norse) by the Gaels and (Danes) by the Anglo-Saxons.
The Gaelic terms (Norwegian Viking or Norwegian), (Danish Viking or Danish) and (foreign Gaelic) were used for the people of Norse descent in Ireland and Scotland, who assimilated into the Gaelic culture. Dubliners called them Ostmen, or East-people, and the name Oxmanstown (an area in central Dublin; the name is still current) comes from one of their settlements; they were also known as , or Lake-people.
The Slavs, the Arabs and the Byzantines knew them as the Rus' or (), probably derived from various uses of , i.e. "related to rowing", or from the area of Roslagen in east-central Sweden, where most of the Northmen who visited the Eastern Slavic lands originated.
Archaeologists and historians of today believe that these Scandinavian settlements in the East Slavic lands formed the names of the countries of Russia and Belarus.
The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians (, meaning "sworn men"), and the Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard.
Modern Scandinavian usage
Modern Scandinavian languages have a common word for Norsemen: the word (, , , or in the definite plural) is used for both ancient and modern people living in the Nordic countries and speaking one of the North Germanic languages.
Geography
The British conception of the Vikings' origins was inaccurate. Those who plundered Britain lived in what is today Denmark, Scania, the western coast of Sweden and Norway (up to almost the 70th parallel) and along the Swedish Baltic coast up to around the 60th latitude and Lake Mälaren. They also came from the island of Gotland, Sweden. The border between the Norsemen and more southerly Germanic tribes, the Danevirke, today is located about south of the Danish–German border. The southernmost living Vikings lived no further north than Newcastle upon Tyne, and travelled to Britain more from the east than from the north.
The Norse Scandinavians established polities and settlements in what are now Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales), Ireland, Iceland, Russia, Belarus, France, Sicily, Belgium, Ukraine, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Poland, Greenland, Canada, and the Faroe Islands.
Notable Norse people
Aud the Deep-Minded ( CE), ship captain and early settler of Iceland
Harald Bluetooth (died CE), king of Denmark and Norway, namesake of the Bluetooth wireless technology
Bolli Bollason (born CE), prominent Icelandic warrior and member of the Varangian Guard
Freydís Eiríksdóttir (born CE), explorer and early colonist of Vinland
Erik the Red ( CE), Norwegian explorer and founder of the first settlement in Greenland
Leif Erikson ( CE), Icelandic explorer thought to have been the first European to have set foot on continental North America
Estrid ( CE), powerful Swedish magnate and matriarch
Harald Fairhair ( CE), the first King of Norway
Gunnborga ( CE), Swedish runemaster responsible for the Hälsingland Rune Inscription 21
Hildr Hrólfsdóttir ( CE), Norwegian skald known for her poetry concerning the banishment of her father Rolv Nevia, the Viking jarl of Trondheim
Olaf the White ( CE), Viking sea-king, King of Dublin, and husband of Aud the Deep-Minded
Ragnar Lodbrok ( CE), legendary Viking hero and king
Þorbjörg Lítilvölva ( CE), renowned seeress of Norse colonial Greenland
Gunnlaugr ormstunga ( CE), Icelandic skald who widely served in Iceland, Norway, Ireland, Orkney, and Sweden
Raud the Strong ( CE), Norwegian blót priest and seafaring warrior
Steinunn Refsdóttir ( CE), Icelandic skald known for her verses taunting the Christian missionary Þangbrandr
Rusla ( CE), a.k.a. the "Red Woman", legendary Norwegian pirate fleet leader
Steinvör Sighvatsdóttir (died 1271 CE), influential Icelandic matriarch and skald
Egill Skallagrímsson (), Icelandic war poet, sorcerer, berserker, farmer, and anti-hero of Egil's Saga
Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241), Icelandic historian, poet, politician, and lawspeaker of the Althing whose work comprises a major source of Norse mythology
Thorkell the Tall ( CE), semi-legendary Scanian lord and Jomsviking
Veborg (died CE), legendary shield-maiden known for her role in the Battle of Bråvalla
See also
Danes (Germanic tribe)
Geats
Goths
Gotlander
Haplogroup I-M253
Norse-Gaels
Swedes (Germanic tribe)
Notes
References
North Germanic peoples
Norsemen | wiki |
JaRon Maurice Rush (born April 12, 1979) is an American professional basketball coach and former player. A small forward from Kansas City, Missouri, he played college basketball for the UCLA Bruins. Undrafted in the 2000 NBA draft, Rush played two seasons professionally for the Los Angeles Stars of the American Basketball Association (ABA) and the Roanoke Dazzle of the NBA Development League (D-League).
Career
Rush played at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he and Dan Gadzuric were both named the team's most valuable freshman in 1999. He was also named to the Pacific-10 Conference All-Freshman team. In his sophomore year, he hit a jumper with three seconds remaining to defeat then-No. 1-ranked Stanford in a 94–93 overtime road upset. Believing he would be a first-round pick, he declared for the 2000 NBA Draft but was not selected. The Los Angeles Daily News later called Rush "UCLA's poster child for an ill-advised exit."
Rush was drafted in the ABA in 2000 by the Kansas City Knights. He was traded before the start of the season to the Los Angeles Stars, where he played the 2000–2001 season. He entered into rehab for alcoholism in 2001. He was the final cut of the Seattle SuperSonics of the National Basketball Association during their 2001 training camp. He played 14 games for the Roanoke Dazzle in the D-League and averaged just 1.8 points before being granted his unconditional release in December 2001. He was signed to the Knights' practice squad in January 2002 before being cut in February for missing practice. He went into rehab again and retired from basketball that year. Rush accepted a job as freshman girls B-team basketball coach at Blue Valley Northwest High School in 2006. He was employed at a public relations firm in 2007 while finishing college.
He played high school basketball at The Pembroke Hill School, leading the team to three state championships. The state titles were eventually stripped after AAU Coach Myron Piggie pleaded guilty to a conspiracy charge for paying $35,500 to five high school players on his Kansas City-based team from 1996-98. The players, aside from JaRon and his younger brother Kareem, were Corey Maggette, Korleone Young and Andre Williams.
Rush won the James A. DiRenna Award as the best basketball player in the Kansas City metro area, winning it outright as a sophomore and junior, and sharing the award with Victor Williams of Wyandotte High School (and later Oklahoma State) as a senior.
Personal
Rush's younger brothers Kareem and Brandon are also professional basketball players. With ex-girlfriend Sarah Hofstra, he had a son, Shea, who was born during his senior year in high school. In 2013, Shea made the basketball team as a high school freshman at The Barstow School in Kansas City. Rush, who is living in Kansas City, meets with his son regularly and they enjoy playing basketball together. His son committed to play for North Carolina and head coach Roy Williams in 2016.
References
External links
UCLA Bruins profile
1979 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
Basketball players from Kansas City, Missouri
McDonald's High School All-Americans
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
Roanoke Dazzle players
Small forwards
UCLA Bruins men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople | wiki |
Mendelian traits in humans are human traits that are substantially influenced by Mendelian inheritance. Most — if not all — Mendelian traits are also influenced by other genes, the environment, immune responses, and chance. Therefore no trait is purely Mendelian, but many traits are almost entirely Mendelian, including canonical examples, such as those listed below. Purely Mendelian traits are a minority of all traits, since most phenotypic traits exhibit incomplete dominance, codominance, and contributions from many genes. If a trait is genetically influenced, but is not well characterized by Mendelian inheritance, it is often labeled as non-Mendelian.
Examples
Albinism (recessive)
Achondroplasia
Alkaptonuria
Ataxia telangiectasia
Brachydactyly (shortness of fingers and toes)
Colour blindness (monochromatism, dichromatism, anomalous trichromatism, tritanopia, deuteranopia, protanopia)
Cystic fibrosis
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Ectrodactyly
Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
Fabry disease
Galactosemia
Gaucher's disease
Haemophilia
Hereditary breast–ovarian cancer syndrome
Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer
HFE hereditary haemochromatosis
Huntington's disease
Hypercholesterolemia
Krabbe disease
Lactase persistence (dominant)
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
Marfan syndrome
Niemann–Pick disease
Phenylketonuria
Porphyria
Retinoblastoma
Sickle-cell disease
Sanfilippo syndrome
Tay–Sachs disease
Wet (dominant) or dry (recessive) earwax – dry is found mostly in Asians and Native Americans
References
Further reading
External links
OMIM Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
Myths of Human Genetics
Human genetics | wiki |
Robert Edward Lee (July 4, 1935 - March 4, 2017) was an American football player who played with the Boston Patriots. He played college football at the University of Missouri. After college, Lee went into the American Football League for the 1960 season with the Patriots. He died on March 4, 2017, at the age of 81.
References
1935 births
2017 deaths
Hickman High School alumni
American football guards
Missouri Tigers football players
Boston Patriots players
Players of American football from Missouri
Burials at Memorial Park Cemetery (Columbia, Missouri) | wiki |
The plastid (Greek: πλαστός; plastós: formed, molded – plural plastids) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. They are considered to be intracellular endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Examples include chloroplasts (used for photosynthesis), chromoplasts (used for pigment synthesis and storage), and leucoplasts (non-pigmented plastids that can sometimes differentiate).
The event which led to permanent endosymbiosis in the Archaeplastida clade (of land plants, red algae, and green algae) probably occurred with a cyanobiont (a symbiotic cyanobacteria) related to the genus Gloeomargarita, around 1.5 billion years ago. A later primary endosymbiosis event occurred in photosynthetic Paulinella amoeboids about 90–140 million years ago. This plastid belongs to the "PS-clade" (of the cyanobacteria genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus). Secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis has also occurred, in a wide variety of organisms; additionally, some organisms sequester ingested plastids in a process that is known as kleptoplasty.
A. F. W. Schimper was the first to name and provide a clear definition of plastids. They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color. They are also the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cells of autotrophic eukaryotes. They possess a double-stranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of the circular chromosome of prokaryotic cells. Even in organisms where the plastids have lost their photosynthetic properties, the plastid is kept because of its essential role in the production of molecules like the isoprenoids.
In land plants
In land plants, plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. For example, the components of the plant cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the epidermal cells from palmitic acid, which is synthesized in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll tissue. All plastids are derived from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly divide by binary fission, but more mature chloroplasts also have this capacity.
Plant proplastids (undifferentiated plastids) may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they perform in the cell. They may develop into any of the following variants:
Chloroplasts: typically green plastids used for photosynthesis.
Etioplasts are the precursors of chloroplasts
Chromoplasts: coloured plastids for pigment synthesis and storage
Gerontoplasts: control the dismantling of the photosynthetic apparatus during plant senescence
Leucoplasts: colourless plastids for monoterpene synthesis; leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids:
Amyloplasts: for starch storage and detecting gravity (for geotropism)
Elaioplasts: for storing fat
Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein
Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols
Depending on their morphology and function, plastids have the ability to differentiate, or redifferentiate, between these and other forms.
Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 10–250 kilobase plastome. The number of genome copies per plastid is variable, ranging from more than 1000 in rapidly dividing cells, which, in general, contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. The plastome contains about 100 genes encoding ribosomal and transfer ribonucleic acids (rRNAs and tRNAs) as well as proteins involved in photosynthesis and plastid gene transcription and translation. However, these proteins only represent a small fraction of the total protein set-up necessary to build and maintain the structure and function of a particular type of plastid. Plant nuclear genes encode the vast majority of plastid proteins, and the expression of plastid genes and nuclear genes is tightly co-regulated to coordinate proper development of plastids in relation to cell differentiation.
Plastid DNA exists as large protein-DNA complexes associated with the inner envelope membrane and called 'plastid nucleoids'. Each nucleoid particle may contain more than 10 copies of the plastid DNA. The proplastid contains a single nucleoid located in the centre of the plastid. The developing plastid has many nucleoids, localized at the periphery of the plastid, bound to the inner envelope membrane. During the development of proplastids to chloroplasts, and when plastids convert from one type to another, nucleoids change in morphology, size and location within the organelle. The remodelling of nucleoids is believed to occur by modifications to the composition and abundance of nucleoid proteins.
Many plastids, particularly those responsible for photosynthesis, possess numerous internal membrane layers.
In plant cells, long thin protuberances called stromules sometimes form and extend from the main plastid body into the cytosol and interconnect several plastids. Proteins, and presumably smaller molecules, can move within stromules. Most cultured cells that are relatively large compared to other plant cells have very long and abundant stromules that extend to the cell periphery.
In 2014, evidence of possible plastid genome loss was found in Rafflesia lagascae, a non-photosynthetic parasitic flowering plant, and in Polytomella, a genus of non-photosynthetic green algae. Extensive searches for plastid genes in both Rafflesia and Polytomella yielded no results, however the conclusion that their plastomes are entirely missing is still controversial. Some scientists argue that plastid genome loss is unlikely since even non-photosynthetic plastids contain genes necessary to complete various biosynthetic pathways, such as heme biosynthesis.
In spite of the loss of the plastid genome in the Rafflesiaceae, the plastids still occur as "shells" without DNA content. This looks suggestively reminiscent of hydrogenosomes in various organisms.
In algae and protists
Plastid types in algae and protists include:
Chloroplasts: found in the green algae (plants) and other organisms who derived their ones from the green algae.
Muroplasts: also known as cyanoplasts or cyanelles, the plastids of glaucophyte algae are similar to plant chloroplasts, except that they have a peptidoglycan cell wall that is similar to that of prokaryote.
Rhodoplasts: the red plastids found in red algae, that allow them to photosynthesize to a depth of up to 268 m. The chloroplasts of plants differ from the rhodoplasts in their ability to synthesize starch, which is stored in the form of granules within the plastids. In red algae, floridean starch is synthesized and stored outside the plastids in the cytosol.
Secondary and tertiary plastids: from endosymbiosis of green algae and red algae.
Leucoplast: in algae, the term is used for all unpigmented plastids. Their function differs from the leucoplasts of plants.
Apicoplast: the non-photosynthetic plastids of Apicomplexa derived from secondary endosymbiosis.
The plastid of photosynthetic Paulinella species is often referred to as the 'cyanelle' or chromatophore, and is used in photosynthesis; it had a much more recent endosymbiotic event about 90–140 million years ago, and is the only other known primary endosymbiosis event of cyanobacteria.
Etioplasts, amyloplasts and chromoplasts are plant-specific and do not occur in algae. Plastids in algae and hornworts may also differ from plant plastids in that they contain pyrenoids.
Inheritance
Most plants inherit the plastids from only one parent. In general, angiosperms inherit plastids from the female gamete, whereas many gymnosperms inherit plastids from the male pollen. Algae also inherit plastids from only one parent. The plastid DNA of the other parent is, thus, completely lost.
In normal intraspecific crossings (resulting in normal hybrids of one species), the inheritance of plastid DNA appears to be quite strictly 100% uniparental. In interspecific hybridisations, however, the inheritance of plastids appears to be more erratic. Although plastids inherit mainly maternally in interspecific hybridisations, there are many reports of hybrids of flowering plants that contain plastids of the father.
Approximately 20% of angiosperms, including alfalfa (Medicago sativa), normally show biparental inheritance of plastids.
DNA damage and repair
Plastid DNA of maize seedlings is subject to increased damage as the seedlings develop. The DNA is damaged in oxidative environments created by photo-oxidative reactions and photosynthetic/respiratory electron transfer. Some DNA molecules are repaired while DNA with unrepaired damage appears to be degraded to non-functional fragments.
DNA repair proteins are encoded by the cell's nuclear genome but can be translocated to plastids where they maintain genome stability/integrity by repairing the plastid's DNA. As an example, in chloroplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens, a protein employed in DNA mismatch repair (Msh1) interacts with proteins employed in recombinational repair (RecA and RecG) to maintain plastid genome stability.
Origin
Plastids are thought to be endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The primary endosymbiotic event of the Archaeplastida is hypothesized to have occurred around 1.5 billion years ago and enabled eukaryotes to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Three evolutionary lineages in the Archaeplastida have since emerged in which the plastids are named differently: chloroplasts in green algae and/or plants, rhodoplasts in red algae, and muroplasts in the glaucophytes. The plastids differ both in their pigmentation and in their ultrastructure. For example, chloroplasts in plants and green algae have lost all phycobilisomes, the light harvesting complexes found in cyanobacteria, red algae and glaucophytes, but instead contain stroma and grana thylakoids. The glaucocystophycean plastid—in contrast to chloroplasts and rhodoplasts—is still surrounded by the remains of the cyanobacterial cell wall. All these primary plastids are surrounded by two membranes.
The plastid of photosynthetic Paulinella species is often referred to as the 'cyanelle' or chromatophore, and had a much more recent endosymbiotic event about 90–140 million years ago; it is the only known primary endosymbiosis event of cyanobacteria outside of the Archaeplastida. The plastid belongs to the "PS-clade" (of the cyanobacteria genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus), which is a different sister clade to the plastids belonging to the Archaeplastida.
In contrast to primary plastids derived from primary endosymbiosis of a prokaryoctyic cyanobacteria, complex plastids originated by secondary endosymbiosis in which a eukaryotic organism engulfed another eukaryotic organism that contained a primary plastid. When a eukaryote engulfs a red or a green alga and retains the algal plastid, that plastid is typically surrounded by more than two membranes. In some cases these plastids may be reduced in their metabolic and/or photosynthetic capacity. Algae with complex plastids derived by secondary endosymbiosis of a red alga include the heterokonts, haptophytes, cryptomonads, and most dinoflagellates (= rhodoplasts). Those that endosymbiosed a green alga include the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes (= chloroplasts). The Apicomplexa, a phylum of obligate parasitic protozoa including the causative agents of malaria (Plasmodium spp.), toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii), and many other human or animal diseases also harbor a complex plastid (although this organelle has been lost in some apicomplexans, such as Cryptosporidium parvum, which causes cryptosporidiosis). The 'apicoplast' is no longer capable of photosynthesis, but is an essential organelle, and a promising target for antiparasitic drug development.
Some dinoflagellates and sea slugs, in particular of the genus Elysia, take up algae as food and keep the plastid of the digested alga to profit from the photosynthesis; after a while, the plastids are also digested. This process is known as kleptoplasty, from the Greek, kleptes, thief.
Plastid development cycle
In 1977 J.M Whatley proposed a plastid development cycle which said that plastid development is not always unidirectional but is instead a complicated cyclic process. Proplastids are the precursor of the more differentiated forms of plastids, as shown in the diagram to the right.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Transplastomic plants for biocontainment (biological confinement of transgenes) — Co-extra research project on coexistence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains
Tree of Life Eukaryotes
Organelles
Plant physiology
Photosynthesis
Endosymbiotic events | wiki |
Neidpath may refer to:
Neidpath Castle, Scotland
Neidpath, Saskatchewan, Canada | wiki |
Tolu-e-Islam may refer to:
Tulu'i Islam a poem, written by Muhammad Iqbal.
Tolu-e-Islam (magazine)
Tolu-e-Islam (organization) | wiki |
Data classification may refer to:
Data classification (data management)
Data classification (business intelligence)
Classification (machine learning), classification of data using machine learning algorithms
Assigning a level of sensitivity to classified information
In computer science, the data type of a piece of data
See also
Classification (disambiguation)
Categorization | wiki |
A fanfare is a flourish of music for brass instruments.
Fanfare may also refer to:
Music
Fanfare Records, a former British record label
Fanfares (album), a 2012 album by GoGo Penguin
Fanfare (Skids album) (1982)
Fanfare (Jonathan Wilson album) (2013)
"Fanfare" (Davichi song)
"Fanfare" (song), a 2020 single by Twice
"Fanfare", a 2018 track by Toby Fox from Deltarune Chapter 1 OST from the video game Deltarune
Fanfare (magazine), an American classical music magazine
Other uses
Fanfare (ballet), a 1953 ballet by Jerome Robbins
Fanfare (company), a former American technology company
Fanfare (decoy), a torpedo decoy
Fanfare (film), a 1958 Dutch comedy film
French destroyer Fanfare
Fanfare, a sculpture by Neil Dawson
See also
Fanfare band, a musical ensemble composed of percussion instruments, bugles, natural horns and natural trumpets
Fanfare trumpet, a long trumpet build | wiki |
Alast ( and Arabic) may refer to:
Alast-e Olya
Alast-e Sofla
The "day of Alast" ("Am I not your Lord?” ()), verse 172 of Sura 7 of the Quran: see Covenant (religion)#Islam | wiki |
In operations research and engineering, a criticality matrix is a representation (often graphical) of failure modes along with their probabilities and severities.
Example
For example, an aircraft might have the following matrix:
Industrial engineering | wiki |
Nilkamal Limited is a plastic products manufacturer based in Mumbai, India. It is the world's largest manufacturer of moulded furniture and Asia's largest processor of plastic moulded products. Their product range consists mainly of custom plastic mouldings, plastic furniture, crates and containers. The company also has a chain of retail stores under the @home brand.
History
Nilkamal was incorporated on 5 December 1985 as Creamer Plastic. The company changed its name to Nilkamal Plastic on 23 August 1990. In Year 2004 Company Changed Names to Nilkamal Ltd. The company has manufacturing facilities in Samba, Greater Noida, Pondicherry, Barjora, Sinnar, Nashik and Silvassa. The company also has joint manufacturing ventures in Bangladesh (Nilkamal Padma Plastics) and Sri Lanka (Nilkamal Eswaran Plastics). In 2011, the company also began production of mattresses with manufacturing units in Hosur and Dankuni.
@home
@home is a chain of retail stores owned by Nilkamal Plastics.
@home has 20 stores in 14 cities in India.
Sponsorship
In September 2017 it was announced that Nilkamal had agreed to become the co-sponsor of Mohun Bagan A.C for the period between July 2018.The sponsorship deal with Nilkamal Limited happened for a sum of 20 million ( 2 Crore) and will continue until the end of the season.
See also
Supreme Industries - notable competitor
References
Manufacturing companies established in 1981
Manufacturing companies based in Mumbai
Furniture companies of India
Plastics companies of India
Retail companies of India
Furniture retailers of India
Indian brands
1981 establishments in Maharashtra
Indian companies established in 1981
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange | wiki |
Code-Zero or variant, may refer to:
Code-Zero, a Japanese-only Square-Enix videogame for the Sharp X68000, see List of Enix games#C
Code 0 sail, a type of spinnaker
Code 0 (Network Unreachable), a response code for IP in IP
See also
Code to Zero, novel | wiki |
Webview or embedded browser control is a web browser that is embedded in a native app to display web content.
Purposes
For app users, web content embedded in an app ensures a seamless experience.
For app developers, webview offers a simple way of rendering a web page within the app.
List of webviews
Most major computing platforms, such as Android, iOS, or UWP come with a default webview.
WebView may refer to:
WebView, an Android framework based on Blink
WebView 2, a Microsoft Edge framework based on Blink
WebView, an older Microsoft Edge framework based on EdgeHTML
WebView, a legacy Microsoft Internet Explorer framework based on MSHTML
WebView, an Apple framework based on WebKit
WebView, the embedded browser component in JavaFX
In-app browsers
Some apps, for example, social network apps, use in-app browsers to display web content. Often, these come with additional features similar to standard web browsers, for example, the address bar.
Internally, these can use the platform-default webview component, or even their own. As such, they can be seen as an example of webview usage or halfway between webview and a standalone web browser.
Controversies
Dedicated web browsers usually come with security and privacy features. Users have control over what level of privacy and security they prefer. For embedded browsers, the control is much lower. The privacy risks might be even more critical for in-app browsers which circumvent app store policies to prevent keystroke monitoring and tracking. | wiki |
Lambrequin is a French word for various applications of textiles. and in English may refer to:
An ornamental motif, especially associated with French Rouen faience of c. 1690 to 1750
Mantling in heraldry
In interior design (North America only), types of pelmet or valances, hangings around beds or windows | wiki |
In Win32 application programming, WindowProc (or window procedure) is a user-defined callback function that processes messages sent to a window. This function is specified when an application registers its window class and can be named anything (not necessarily WindowProc).
Message handling
The window procedure is responsible for handling all messages that are sent to a window. The function prototype of WindowProc is given by:
LRESULT CALLBACK WindowProc(HWND hwnd, UINT uMsg, WPARAM wParam, LPARAM lParam)
hwnd is a handle to the window to which the message was sent and uMsg identifies the actual message. wParam and lParam are parameters whose meaning depends on the message. An application should identify the message and take the required action.
Default processing
Hundreds of different messages are produced as a result of various events taking place in the system, and typically, an application processes only a small fraction of these messages. In order to ensure that all messages are processed, Windows provides a default window procedure called DefWindowProc that provides default processing for messages that the application itself does not process.
An application usually calls DefWindowProc at the end of its own WindowProc function so that whatever messages it has not processed are passed on to the default procedure.
See also
Event loop
External links
"Writing the Window Procedure" at Microsoft Learn
DefWindowProc at Microsoft Learn
Events (computing)
Microsoft application programming interfaces | wiki |
A CR-1 visa is a United States immigrant visa that allows a spouse of a US citizen to enter the US as a conditional permanent resident (hence the abbreviation "CR"). The Department of State issues the CR-1 to spouses who have been married for less than two years; spouses who have been married longer receive the IR-1 visa.
A sponsor files for a CR-1 visa by submitting Form I-130, Petition for Alien Relative.
Eligibility requirements
To petition for a CR-1 spousal visa, the US petitioner must be a US citizen or lawful permanent resident, and in order to sign the affidavit of support, the petitioner must be at least 18 years old. Being legally married to the alien beneficiary is a requirement. Evidence of an immigrant's financial support is also needed to show they are not likely to rely on the U.S government.
References
United States visas by type | wiki |
Bambusa aurinuda is a species of Bambusa bamboo.
Distribution
Bambusa aurinuda is commonly found in the Tonkin vicinity of Vietnam.
Description
Bambusa aurinuda is a Perennial and caespitose plant with rather short rhizomes. Its culms are erect, and allows it to grow up to a height of 800–1100 cm long. Its stem grows up to 40–100 mm in diameter. Its stem is woody. The surface of the leaf blade is leaf-blade surface is considered puberulous and sparsely hairy; It is hairy abaxially.
References
aurinuda
Flora of Vietnam | wiki |
PITCHf/x is a system created and maintained by Sportvision that tracks the speeds and trajectories of pitched baseballs. This system, which made its debut in the 2006 Major League Baseball (MLB) postseason, is installed in every MLB stadium. The data from the system is often used by broadcasters to show a visual representation of the pitch and whether or not a pitch entered the strike zone. PITCHf/x is also used to determine the type of pitch thrown, such as a fastball, curveball or slider. MLB uses the data from PITCHf/x in its Zone Evaluation System which is used to grade and provide feedback to umpires. Sabermetric analysts note that umpire accuracy has improved after the technology was introduced to MLB.
Usage
PITCHf/x is a system using three permanently mounted cameras in the stadium to track the speed and location of a pitched baseball from the pitcher's mound to home plate with an accuracy of better than one mile per hour and one inch. With PITCHf/x, statistics such as the pitcher with the fastest fastball, or the pitcher with the sharpest-breaking curve, etc., can be analyzed. It calculates the movement of pitches caused by the Magnus force.
The PITCHf/x data is used in MLB's online Gameday webcast to show the path and speed of each pitch, as well as the location with respect to the strike zone as the pitch crossed the front of home plate. Gameday presents two values from PITCHf/x to characterize the deflection of the pitch trajectory. The BRK quantity represents the amount of bend in the trajectory at its greatest distance from a straight line. A curveball will have a larger value of BRK than a fastball. The PFX quantity represents the deflection of the baseball due to the spin and drag forces from the path it would have taken under the influence of gravity alone. For example, a fastball would have a small value for BRK but a large value for the spin displacement PFX because of the rising action of the fastball caused by backspin. Conversely, a curveball or slider will have a significant break measurement, but lower spin displacement.
Major League Baseball Advanced Media, which owns the data used in Gameday, releases the data every day in XML format. Several privately owned websites display this information, often with sorting functions and visual displays.
According to University of Illinois professor Alan M. Nathan, the PITCHf/x system allows analysts to "record with unprecedented precision such quantities as the pitch speed and the location at home plate. But even more importantly,
we have measures of quantities that we never had before. As a result, we now have new and novel ways to study the art of pitching."
PITCHf/x data is generally consistent across ballparks, but there have been instances of apparent discrepancies in the data gathered at certain ballparks. (For example, a pitcher's fastball speed might be 1–2 mph faster at home than on the road.) PITCHf/x uses algorithms to automatically classify every pitch by type, but these algorithms are imprecise.
For the 2017 season, PITCHf/x was deprecated and replaced by TrackMan, a component of Major League Baseball's Statcast platform.
See also
Sabermetrics
Statcast
References
Baseball mass media | wiki |
Mohamad Kdouh (calciatore 1993) – calciatore libanese
Mohamad Kdouh (calciatore 1997) – calciatore libanese | wiki |
Dichanthelium acuminatum, the tapered rosette grass, is a species of grass from the genus Dichanthelium, in North America.
Dichanthelium acuminatum forms a hybridization complex with other Dichanthelium species such as D. dichotomum, D. sphaerocarpon, D. ovale, and D. aciculare.
Dichanthelium acuminatum has been successfully raised in cultivation for seed production.
References
acuminatum
Grasses of North America | wiki |
Camphor is a chemical compound.
Camphor may also refer to:
Camphor (album), a 2002 David Sylvian album
Camphor Hall, a residence hall at Dillard University
Alexander Priestly Camphor (1865–1919), American Missionary Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church and namesake of Camphor Hall
Camphor tree, a common name for the evergreen Camphora officinarum
See also
Camphora (disambiguation)
Kämpfer, a Japanese light novel series | wiki |
Basis trading is a financial trading strategy which consists of the purchase of a particular financial instrument or commodity and the sale of its related derivative (for example the purchase of a particular bond and the sale of a related futures contract).
Basis trading is done when the investor feels that the two instruments are mispriced relative to one other and that the mispricing will correct itself so that the gain on one side of the trade will more than cancel out the loss on the other side of the trade. In the case of such a trade taking place on a security and its related futures contract, the trade will be profitable if the purchase price plus the net cost of carry is less than the futures price.
Basis of futures
Basis can be defined as the difference between the spot price of a given cash market asset and the price of its related futures contract. There will be a different basis for each delivery month for each contract. Usually, basis is defined as cash price minus futures price, however, the alternative definition, future price minus cash, is also used. A basis trade profits from the closing of an unwarranted gap between the futures contract and the associated cash market instrument.
See also
Basis swap
References
Derivatives (finance) | wiki |
Progesterone test may refer to:
Quantification of the content of progesterone in a sample
Progestin challenge | wiki |
Wells Fargo Tower est le nom de plusieurs bâtiments de la banque américaine Wells Fargo, dont les gratte-ciel situés à :
Birmingham, aux États-Unis.
, aux États-Unis.
Baltimore, aux États-Unis.
Voir aussi | wiki |
Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are rare in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period.
Classical and Late Antique translations
Greek texts and versions
The books of the Bible were not originally written in Latin. The Old Testament was written in Hebrew (with some parts in Greek and Aramaic) and the New Testament in Greek. The Septuagint, still used in the Greek Orthodox church, is a Jewish translation of the Old Testament into Koine Greek completed in the 2nd or 3rd century BC in Alexandria for Jews who spoke Greek as their primary language.
The whole Christian Bible was therefore available in Koine Greek by about 100 AD; so were numerous apocryphal Gospels. Deciding which books should be included in the Biblical canon took about another two centuries; some differences remain between churches to the present day. The Septuagint also included some books that are not in the Hebrew Bible.
Other early versions
The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and also gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians.
Vetus Latina, or the Old Latin
Usage of the Vetus Latina as the backbone of the church and liturgy continued well into the Twelfth Century. Perhaps the most complete, and certainly the largest surviving example is Codex Gigas, which can be seen in its entirety online. Housed in the National Library of Sweden, the massive Bible opens with the Five Books of Moses and ends with Third Book of Kings.
Latin Vulgate, or Jerome's Revision of the Vetus Latina
When Jerome's revision, or update of the Vetus Latina, was read aloud in the churches in North Africa, riots and protests erupted since the new readings differed - the turn of the phrase - from the more familiar reading in the Vetus Latina. Jerome's Latin Vulgate did not take complete traction among the churches in the West until the time of Charlemagne, when he sought to standardize script, texts, and rites within Western Christendom.
Early medieval vernacular translations
During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had as yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early Middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms. Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.
Innocent III, "heretical" movements and "translation controversies"
Church attitudes toward written translations and the use of the vernacular in Mass varied by the translation, the date and location. For example, whereas the acts of Saint-Gall contain a reference to the use of a vernacular interpreter in Mass as early as the seventh century, and the 813 Council of Tours acknowledge the need for translation and encouraged such, in 1079, Duke Vratislaus II of Bohemia asked Pope Gregory VII for permission to use Old Church Slavonic translations of the liturgy, to which Gregory did not consent.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, demand for vernacular translations came from groups outside the Roman Catholic Church such as the Waldensians, and Cathars. This was probably related to the increased urbanization of the twelfth-century, as well as increased literacy among educated urban populations.
A well-known group of letters from Pope Innocent III to the diocese of Metz, where the Waldensians were active, is sometimes taken by post-reformation scholars as evidence that Bible translations were forbidden by the church, especially since Innocent's first letter was later incorporated into canon law.
Margaret Deanesly's study of this matter in 1920 was influential in maintaining this notion for many years, but later scholars have challenged its conclusions. Leonard Boyle has argued that, on the contrary, Innocent was not particularly concerned with the translations, but rather with their use by unauthorized and uneducated preachers. "There is not in fact the slightest hint that Innocent ever spoke in any way, hypothetically or not, of suppressing the translations at all." The thirteenth-century chronicler Alberic of Trois Fontaines does say that translations were burned in Metz in 1200, and Deanesly understood this to mean it was ordered by Innocent in his letters from the previous year, but Boyle pointed out that nowhere in the letters did Innocent actually prohibit the translations. While the documents are inconclusive about the fate of the specific translations in question and their users, Innocent’s general remarks suggest a rather permissive attitude toward translations and vernacular commentaries provided that they are produced and used within the scope of Christian teachings or with church oversight.
There is no evidence of any official decision to universally disallow translations following the incident at Metz until the Council of Trent, at which time the Reformation threatened the Catholic Church, and the rediscovery of the Greek New Testament presented new problems for translators. However, some specific translations were condemned, and regional bans were imposed during the Albigensian Crusade: Toulouse in 1229, Taragona in 1234 and Beziers in 1246. Pope Gregory IX incorporated Innocent III’s letter into his Decretals and instituted these bans presumably with the Cathars in mind as well as the Waldensians, who continued to preach using their own translations, spreading into Spain and Italy, as well as the Holy Roman Empire. Production of Wycliffite Bibles would later be officially banned in England at the Oxford Synod in the face of Lollard anticlerical sentiment, but the ban was not strictly enforced and since owning earlier copies was not illegal, books made after the ban are often simply inscribed with a date prior to 1409 to avoid seizure.
As Rosemarie Potz McGerr has argued, as a general pattern, bans on translation responded to the threat of strong heretical movements; in the absence of viable heresies, a variety of translations and vernacular adaptations flourished between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries with no documented institutional opposition at all.
Still, translations came late in the history of the European vernaculars and were relatively rare in many areas. According to the Cambridge History of the Bible, this was mainly because "the vernacular appeared simply and totally inadequate. Its use, it would seem, could end only in a complete enfeeblement of meaning and a general abasement of values. Not until a vernacular is seen to possess relevance and resources, and, above all, has acquired a significant cultural prestige, can we look for acceptable and successful translation." The cost of commissioning translations and producing such a large work in manuscript was also a factor; the three copies of the Vulgate produced in 7th century Northumbria, of which the Codex Amiatinus is the only survivor, are estimated to have required the skins of 1,600 calves. Manuscript copies of the Bible historiale and, even more so, the usually lushly illuminated Bible moralisée were large, deluxe manuscripts, which only the wealthiest nobility (such as the French royal family) could afford.
Notable medieval vernacular Bibles by language, region and type
English
There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations (from the Latin) surviving, including the Old English Hexateuch, Wessex Gospels and the Book of Psalms, partly in prose and partly in a different verse version. Others, now missing, are referred to in other texts, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which he is said to have completed shortly before his death around the year 735. Alfred the Great had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular about 900, and in about 970 an inter-linear translation was added in red to the Lindisfarne Gospels. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the Wessex Gospels. According to the historian Victoria Thompson, "although the Church reserved Latin for the most sacred liturgical moments almost every other religious text was available in English by the eleventh century".
After the Norman Conquest, the Ormulum, produced by the Augustinian monk Orm of Lincolnshire around 1150, includes partial translations of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles from Latin into the dialect of East Midland. The manuscript is written in the poetic meter iambic septenarius.
Richard Rolle of Hampole (or de Hampole) was an Oxford-educated hermit and writer of religious texts. In the early 14th century, he produced English glosses of Latin Bible text, including the Psalms. Rolle translated the Psalms into a Northern English dialect, but later copies were written in Southern English dialects. Around the same time, an anonymous author in the West Midlands region produced another gloss of the Psalms — the West Midland Psalms.
In the early years of the 14th century, a French copy of the Book of Revelation was anonymously translated into English, and there were English versions of various French paraphrases and moralized versions.
In the late 14th century, John Wycliffe and perhaps Nicholas Hereford produced the first complete English language Bible. Wycliffe's Bible was revised in the last years of the 14th century, resulting in two major editions, the second more numerous than the first, both circulating widely despite their official prohibition at the Oxford Synod.
Western Continental Europe
The first French translation dates from the thirteenth century, as does the first Catalan Bible, and the Spanish Biblia Alfonsina. The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod of 1407-08, and was associated with the movement of the Lollards, often accused of heresy. The Malermi Bible was an Italian translation printed in 1471. In 1478, there was a Catalan translation in the dialect of Valencia. The Welsh Bible and the Alba Bible, a Jewish translation into Castilian, date from the 15th century.
French
Prior to the thirteenth century, the Narbonne school of glossators was an influential center of European Biblical translation, particularly for Jewish scholarship according to some scholars.
Translations of individual books of the Bible and verse adaptations survive from the twelfth century, but the first prose Bible collections date from the mid thirteenth. These include the Acre Bible, an Old Testament produced in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, likely for King Louis IX of France, the Anglo-Norman Bible and a glossed, complete translation of the Paris Bible known simply as the “Thirteenth-Century Bible” or “Old French Bible,” often referred to by the French title “Bible du XIIIe siècle” first coined by Samuel Berger.
Completed with prologues in 1297 by Guyart des Moulins, the Bible historiale was by far the predominant medieval translation of the Bible into French throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It translates from the Latin Vulgate significant portions from the Bible accompanied by selections from the Historia Scholastica by Peter Comestor (d. ca. 1178), a literal-historical commentary that summarizes and interprets episodes from the historical books of the Bible and situates them chronologically with respect to events from pagan history and mythology. In many copies, Guyart’s translation has been supplemented with some individual biblical books from the ‘’Bible du XIIIe siècle’’.
(Castilian) Spanish
The Biblia alfonsina, or Alfonsine Bible, is a 1280 translation of the Bible into Castilian Spanish. It represents the earliest Spanish translation of the Vulgate as well as the first translation into a European language. The work was commissioned by Alfonso X and carried out under the Toledo School of Translators. Only small fragments of the work survive today.
The Biblia de Alba or Alba Bible, is a translation of the Old Testament into Castilian Spanish from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin. It was commissioned by John II of Castile and Luis González de Guzmán, Master of the Order of Calatrava. The Alba Bible was completed between 1422 and 1433.
German
An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. In the late Middle Ages, Deanesly thought that Bible translations were easier to produce in Germany, where the decentralized nature of the Empire allowed for greater religious freedom. However, these translations were seized and burned by inquisitors whenever they were found. Altogether there are 13 medieval German translations before the Luther Bible. In 1466, Johannes Mentelin published the first printed Bible in the German language, the Mentelin Bible, one of the first printed books in the German language and also the first printed vernacular Bible. The Mentelin Bible was reprinted in the southern German region a further thirteen times by various printers up until the Luther Bible. About 1475 Günther Zainer of Augsburg printed an illustrated German edition of the Bible, with a second edition in 1477.
Czech
All medieval translations of the Bible into Czech were based on the Latin Vulgate. The Psalms were translated into Czech before 1300 and the gospels followed in the first half of the 14th century. The first translation of the whole Bible into Czech was done around 1360. Until the end of the 15th century this translation was revisioned and edited three times. After 1476 the first printed Czech New Testament was published in Pilsen. In 1488 the Prague Bible was published as the oldest Czech printed Bible, thus the Czech language became the fifth language in which the entire Bible was printed (after Latin, German, Italian and Catalan).
Eastern Europe
Some fragments of the Bible were probably translated into Lithuanian when that country was converted to Christianity in the 14th century. A Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in the mid 15th century, of which only fragments remain.
László Báthory translated the Bible into Hungarian circa 1456, but no contemporary copies have survived. However, the 16th century is most likely a copy of Báthory's work in the 15th century.
Other Germanic and Slavonic languages
The earliest translation into a vernacular European language other than Latin or Greek was the Gothic Bible, by Ulfilas, an Arian who translated from the Greek in the 4th century in Italy.
The translation into Old Church Slavonic by Cyril and Methodius dates to the late 9th century though whether Cyril had to invent the Glagolitic alphabet for the purpose remains controversial. Versions of Church Slavonic language remain the liturgical languages of the Slavic Eastern Orthodox churches, though subject to some modernization.
Arabic
In the 10th century, Saadia Gaon translated the Old Testament in Arabic. Ishaq ibn Balask of Cordoba translated the gospels into Arabic in 946. Hafs ibn Albar made a translation of the Psalms in 889.
Poetic and pictorial works
Throughout the Middle Ages, Bible stories were always known in the vernacular through prose and poetic adaptations, usually greatly shortened and freely reworked, especially to include typological comparisons between Old and New Testaments. Some parts of the Bible stories were paraphrased in verse by Anglo-Saxon poets, e.g. Genesis and Exodus, and in French by Hermann de Valenciennes, Macé de la Charité, Jehan Malkaraume and others. Among the most popular compilations were the many varying versions of the Bible moralisée, Biblia pauperum and Speculum Humanae Salvationis. These were increasingly in the vernacular, and often illustrated. 15th century blockbook versions could be relatively cheap, and appear in the prosperous Netherlands to have included among their target market parish priests who would use them for instruction.
Historical works
Historians also used the Bible as a source and some of their works were later translated into a vernacular language: for example Peter Comestor's popular commentaries were incorporated into Guyart des Moulins French translation, the Bible historiale and the Middle English Genesis and Exodus, and were an important source for a vast array of biblically-themed poems and histories in a variety of languages. It was the convention of many if not most historical chronicles to begin at Creation and include a few biblical events as well as secular ones from Roman and local history before reaching their real subject; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle follows this convention.
Notes
Sources
Berger, Samuel. (1884) ‘’La Bible française au moyen âge: étude sur les plus anciennes versions de la Bible écrites en prose de langue d'oï’’l. Paris: Imprimerie nationale.
Biller, Peter and Anne, eds. (1994). Hudson. Heresy and Literacy, 1000-1530. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Boyle, Leonard E. (1985) "Innocent III and Vernacular Versions of Scripture", in The Bible in the Medieval World: essays in memory of Beryl Smalley, ed. Katherine Walsh and Diana Wood, (Studies in Church History; Subsidia; 4.) Oxford: Published for the Ecclesiastical History Society by Blackwell
Deanesly, Margaret (1920) The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Biblical Versions. Cambridge: University Press
Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (1998) "Holiness and Obedience: denouncement of twelfth-century Waldensian lay preaching", in The Devil, Heresy, and Witchcraft in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Jeffrey B. Russell, ed. Alberto Ferreiro. Leiden: Brill
Lampe, G. W. H. (1975) The Cambridge History of the Bible, vol. 2: The West from the Fathers to the Reformation. Cambridge: University Press
Masson, Gustave (1866). “Biblical Literature in France during the Middle Ages: Peter Comestor and Guiart Desmoulins.” ‘’The Journal of Sacred Literature and Biblical Record’’ 8: 81-106.
McGerr, Rosemarie Potz (1983). “Guyart Desmoulins, the Vernacular Master of Histories, and His ‘’Bible Historiale’’.” ‘’Viator’’ 14: 211-244.
Nobel, Pierre (2001). “Early Biblical Translators and their Readers: the Example of the ‘’Bible d'Acre and the Bible Anglo-Normande’’.” ‘’Revue de linguistique romane ‘’66, no. 263-4 (2002): 451-472.
Salvador, Xavier-Laurent (2007). ‘’Vérité et Écriture(s).’’ Bibliothèque de grammaire et de linguistique 25. Paris: H. Champion.
Sneddon, Clive R. (2002). “The 'Bible Du XIIIe Siècle': Its Medieval Public in Light of its Manuscript Tradition.” ‘’Nottingham Medieval Studies’’ 46: 25-44.
Walther, Ingo F. and Wolf, Norbert (2005) Masterpieces of Illumination (Codices Illustres), Köln: Taschen
Wilson, Adrian, and Wilson, Joyce Lancaster (1984) A Medieval Mirror: "Speculum humanae salvationis", 1324-1500 . Berkeley: University of California Press online edition Includes a full set of woodcut pictures with notes from the Speculum Humanae Salvationis in Chapter 6.
Bible versions and translations
Medieval literature | wiki |
A trademark is a word, phrase, symbol, design or combination thereof that uniquely identifies a product or service. It may also refer to:
Trademark symbol, the typographical ™ symbol which is used to identify a trademark.
Senses of "trademark symbol"
Brand, sometimes used interchangeably with "trademark"
Collective trade mark
Colour trademark
Community Trade Mark
Genericized trademark
Hologram trademark
International Trademark Association
Logo, sometimes used interchangeably with "trademark"
Magnificat (trademark)
Patent and Trademark Office (disambiguation)
Registered trademark symbol
Trademark attorney
Trade-Mark Cases
Trademark classification
Trademark dilution
Trademark distinctiveness
Trademark examiner
Trademark infringement
Trademark of Quality
Trademark Official Gazette
Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
Trademark troll
Unregistered trademark
Other senses of "trademark"
Trademark look
Trademark argument
Trademark (computer security)
TradeMark, a skyscraper
Trademark (band), an electropop band
Trademark Gamers, game
Trademark (group), German male vocal trio
"Trademark", later "My Trade Mark", a song by Cardiacs from Toy World
"Trademark", a song by Relient K from Two Lefts Don't Make a Right...but Three Do
"My Trademark", a song by Bug Prentice from Leader of the Starry Skies – A Loyal Companion
See also
Copyright symbol
Service mark symbol
Service mark
Copyright
Patent | wiki |
Bathysauropsis is the only genus in the lizard greeneye family, Bathysauropsidae.
Species
The currently recognized species in this genus are:
Bathysauropsis gracilis (Günther, 1878) (black lizardfish)
Bathysauropsis malayanus (Fowler, 1938)
References
Aulopiformes | wiki |
Women Bathing or Bathers (French - Baigneuses) is a c.1900 oil on canvas painting by Paul Cézanne, now in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen. Individual or grouped male or female bathers were a major theme in his work from the 1870s onwards, most notably his so-called Big Bathers.
See also
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
References
1900 paintings
Paintings by Paul Cézanne
Paintings in the collection of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek
Nude art
Bathing in art | wiki |
Leave Me Alone (singel The Veronicas)
Leave Me Alone (singel Michaela Jacksona)
Leave Me Alone (singel Jerry’ego Cantrella) | wiki |
Улица Ме́дню ( — в переводе Глухариная) — название улиц в городах Латвии:
Улица Медню — улица в Риге.
Улица Медню — улица в Алуксне.
Улица Медню — улица в Даугавпилсе.
Улица Медню — улица в Екабпилсе.
Улица Медню — улица в Лиепае.
Улица Медню — улица в Огре.
Улица Медню — улица в Саласпилсе.
Улица Медню — улица в Цесисе.
Улица Медню — улица в Юрмале. | wiki |
Волошки — название населённых пунктов.
Украина
Волошки — село в Ковельском районе Волынской области.
Волошки — село в Компанеевском районе Кировоградской области.
Волошки — село в Ровненском районе Ровненской области. | wiki |
"Demon to Lean On" is a song by American rock band Wavves, released on January 29, 2013, as the third single from the group's fourth album, Afraid of Heights (2013).
Charts
References
2013 songs
2013 singles
Warner Records singles
Wavves songs
Song recordings produced by John Hill (record producer) | wiki |
Ugu may refer to:
Telfairia occidentalis, a plant native to Africa
People with the surname
Catherine Ugwu (born 1964), British executive producer, creative director, and consultant for ceremonies and large-scale events
Chima Ugwu (born 1973), Nigerian shot-putter
Gozie Ugwu (born 1993), English footballer
See also
Ugu (disambiguation) | wiki |
Mink Trapping is an American book that details tips on how to trap animals. It was published on August 6, 1906.
Summary
One of Harding's Pleasure & Profit Books, a collection of mink trapping instructions and tips from the author and other trappers in the United States and Canada, including photographs and illustrations.
The book gives information on where and how to set for mink, including land, water, blind sets, baits and scent to use, methods in Northern and Southern states, size and care of skins.
Excerpts and illustrations
Chapter 2, Mink And Their Habits, page 23
"I have had a world of experience trapping but very limited at catching, says an Arkansas trapper, yet plenty of both to be fully capable of solving the question as to whether or not mink are afraid of the scent of iron. It is simply this. Some mink are positively afraid of it and some are positively not so."
Chapter 14, Many Good Methods, page 113
"The mink is very cunning and hard to catch in a steel trap unless you know how and where to set, which is about the only secret there is in catching mink. I have had people write to know what scent I used and how I set traps. A man can learn better methods as long as he traps—experience is the best teacher and unless he is willing to work hard he will never make a successful trapper of any kind of game." – Moses Bone
Chapters (First Edition 1906)
1. General Information
2. Mink and Their Habits
3. Size and Care of Skins
4. Good and Lasting Baits
5. Bait and Scent
6. Places to Set
7. Indian Methods
8. Mink Trapping on the Prairie
9. Southern Methods
10. Northern Methods
11. Unusual Ways
12. Illinois Trapper's Method
13. Experienced Trapper's Ways
14. Many Good Methods
15. Salt Set
16. Log and Other Sets
17. Points for the Young Trapper
18. Proper Size Traps
19. Deadfalls
20. Steel Traps
Review
Hunter-Trader-Trapper Magazine, Vol 15, No. 1, Oct 1907
MINK TRAPPING – While this book has only been upon the market about one year the first edition is nearly sold and the second is being printed and bound. While this book contains less than 200 pages 5x7 inches it is by far the best book for mink trappers ever produced. The author in his introduction says: "While there are some excellent mink trappers no one man has studied out all the methods, for the conditions under which the trapper in the South makes his largest catches would probably be of little to the trapper of the Far North, where snow covers the ground the greater part of year. Conditions along the Atlantic are than the Pacific, and as well the used by thousands of trappers along Mississippi and its tributaries differ the Eastern or Western Coast trapper, for the mink's food is not the same along fresh inland waters as the coast or salt water. The methods published are from all of the country, and many experienced trappers tell of their best methods, so that it makes no difference in what part of you live, something will be found of to trap in your section. Most of the articles are taken from those published in the H-T-T with slight correction."
Publication
First published by A. R. Harding Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio, August 6, 1906 (copyright), later editions are currently available in hardcover and paperback.
References
External links
Internet Archive – Mink Trapping by A. R. Harding, scanned image
Project Gutenberg – Mink Trapping by Arthur Robert Harding, free eBook
Fur-Fish-Game, Mink Trapping by A. R. Harding, paperback
Amazon.com – Mink Trapping by A. R. Harding, various editions
Animal trapping
Fur trade
Hunting
1906 non-fiction books | wiki |
The needle through thumb is the name of a magic trick which is meant to give the illusion that the magician is actually stabbing his own thumb using several sewing needles.
Effect
The performer shows his thumb to the audience, showing that it is not simply a fake thumb. They then cover their thumb with a handkerchief. They take out a sewing needle, and show it to the audience in order to prove that it is not fake. The magician slowly stabs the first needle into his thumb. The process continues until the magician's thumb has so many needles that they cannot take it anymore. They take out the needles one by one, and then remove the handkerchief, showing that the thumb has magically become healed.
History
This trick was seen in the once seen special on Fox known as Breaking the Magician's Code: Magic's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed. The trick was shown by magician Val Valentino.
See also
Needle-through-arm
Magic tricks | wiki |
A fencepost, fence post or fencing post is a vertical element upholding a fence.
Fence post may also refer to:
Steel fence post
Tumblewheel, a movable fence post
Fence post error, a mathematical problem
Peruvian Fence Post, a cactus plant
See also
Agricultural fencing
Fencepost limestone
Post (disambiguation)
Post pounder, also called fence driver
Roundpole fence | wiki |
Newton Artemis Fido "Newt" Scamander is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the Fantastic Beasts film series.
Initially, Newt Scamander was only mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone as the author of the book Fantastic Beasts and Where To Find Them, which was used as a textbook for Care of Magical Creatures by Harry Potter and his classmates. In 2001, J. K. Rowling wrote a real-version of fictional textbook under the pseudonym "Newt Scamander". In the film series inspired by the book, Newt Scamander is the main character and is portrayed by Eddie Redmayne.
Newt Scamander is an introverted British wizard and magizoologist. His help is often sought by his former professor Albus Dumbledore in the mission to defeat the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald. Newt ends up playing a vital role in the downfall of Grindelwald, during which Newt meets and fall in love with his future wife Tina.
Redmayne's portrayal of the character received mixed reactions from critics.
Character development
Describing Newt as an outsider, Rowling said, "My heroes are always people who feel themselves to be set apart, stigmatised or othered. That's at the heart of most of what I write, and it's certainly at the heart of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them.
Newt Scamander grows attached to magical beasts since childhood and eventually becomes a magizoologist. He feels extremely connected to all his magical creatures and beasts, and always defends them.
Presumably, Rowling created the character's name by combining terms related to animals — The nickname "Newt" is the name of a lizard-like creature. The first middle name "Artemis" is the name of the Greek goddess of hunt, wilderness and wild animals. The second middle name "Fido" literally means "I trust" in Latin, highlighting the fact that Newt Scamander is in Hufflepuff, the Hogwarts house of loyalty; "Fido" is also a common name for a pet dog. The last name "Scamander" sounds a lot like "Salamander" which are small fire-dwelling lizards in the wizarding world.
Harry Potter and Newt Scamander are rather different kinds of protagonists — Harry was reckless, daring and short-tempered at times; Newt usually remained calm and cool. Harry was a born leader and made lifelong, unbreakable friendships at Hogwarts; Newt was a loner and always thought of himself to be alone because his one close friendship with Leta Lestrange ended due to "rocky circumstances". However, Newt and Harry share similar traits also as they were both brave, humble, loyal, protector of underdogs, at odds with the Ministry of Magic, and both fought for the right thing. Both Harry and Newt were "chosen" to fight evils - Harry was chosen by his fate (and convinced by Dumbledore) and an extremely reluctant Newt was also convinced by Dumbledore to fight Grindelwald.
Newt is also somewhat similar to Hermione Granger as both of them are intelligent, deductive and crusaders, with "extraordinary luggage".
Character biography
Early life
Born in England on 24 February 1897, Newt Scamander developed interest towards magical beasts and creatures from a young age as his mother bred hippogriffs. Sorted into Hufflepuff at Hogwarts at the age of eleven, Newt develops a close friendship with a Slytherin girl named Leta Lestrange, who is in the same year as him and shares both - his interest in magical beasts and his inferiority of being an outsider. Newt and Leta explore magical creatures together and enjoy each other's company, gradually falling in love. One of Leta's experiment involving a Jarvey accidentally endangers human life. Newt takes the blame for Leta's actions and is expelled from Hogwarts instead of her. Therefore, Newt turns bitter towards Leta but still remains much in love with her. Albus Dumbledore, Newt's Defence Against the Dark Arts professor at that time, strongly argues on his beloved student's behalf. Newt is still expelled but is allowed to keep his wand because of Dumbledore's influence.
Around 1914 to 1918, Newt serves on the Eastern front during the First World War in a confidential Ministry of Magic program involving Ukrainian Ironbelly dragons. However, the program is cancelled as the dragons respond only to Newt, whilst trying to eat all others. Newt later joins the Ministry and receives several promotions there due to his knowledge about magical creatures, eventually becoming a magizoologist. However, Newt's career choice is not appreciated by his family. In 1918, Newt is insisted and convinced by Augustus Worme to use his extensive knowledge about magical beasts and write a book on them. Newt begins to travel among international locations to conduct research on magical beasts and creatures, for his book.
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
In 1926, Newt Scamander makes a brief stop over in New York with the motive of releasing Frank the Thunderbird into its habitat. Newt carries with him a magically expanded suitcase in which he carries several magical beasts from his voyage around the world. In a chain of chaotic events, Newt's suitcase is accidentally switched with the suitcase of Muggle (or No-maj) aspiring baker Jacob Kowalski; Jacob opens the suitcase and accidentally lets out the magical beasts. Newt teams up with Jacob, American ex-auror Porpentina "Tina" Goldstein, and Tina's Legilimens sister Queenie, to round up all the escaped creatures. Newt faces complications from MACUSA (Magical Congress of the United States of America) but nonetheless succeeds in rounding up all the escaped creatures with Jacob, Tina and Queenie's help. When Queenie learns of Newt's past through her Legillimency, she advises him to move on, describing Leta Lestrange as a "taker".
Newt encounters a destructive and emotionally disturbed obscurial teenager Credence Barebone, whom Newt comforts and consoles with his kindness. When MACUSA aurors attack Credence and presumably kill him, Newt is the only one who notices that a tiny wisp of the obscurus flees (implying that Credence survived). Newt exposes that MACUSA auror Percival Graves is the infamous and dangerous dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald in disguise; Grindelwald is arrested. Newt prevents the exposure of wizarding world to the No-maj community by using his thunderbird to disperse a potion which removes all the No-maj's memories about the Obscurial battle. Newt receives respect and apology from MACUSA. Newt bids Jacob an emotional farewell before the latter willingly steps into the rain of obliviating potion. Newt argues on Tina's behalf and justifies her mistake because of which she had been fired; thereafter, Tina gets back her job as an auror. A week later, Newt anonymously gifts Jacob some silver Occamy shells to help him sanction a loan and fulfill his dream of opening a bakery. Newt bids farewell to Tina and promises to deliver a copy of his book to her in person, before he boards a ship to England and leaves.
Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald
In 1927, Newt Scamander's book Fantastic Beasts and Where To Find Them has become a bestseller and an approved Hogwarts textbook. In the meantime, Grindelwald has escaped custody. Albus Dumbledore secretly meets Newt and asks him to track and save Credence (now known by everyone to be alive). Newt is disappointed to learn from Queenie that Tina is dating someone after mistakenly thinking that Newt is engaged to Leta Lestrange, whereas Leta is actually engaged to Newt's elder brother Theseus. Learning that Tina is also searching for Credence in Paris, Newt goes there as well with Jacob (who has regained memories about the wizarding. Due to an international travel ban placed on him by the Ministry, Newt bribes a Portkey tout and illegally reaches Paris with Jacob. Both follow a wizard named Yusuf Kama, only to find Tina being held hostage by Kama. Unexpectedly, Kama faints due to an eye parasite and Newt frees himself, Jacob and Tina.
Newt and Tina infiltrate the French Ministry of Magic to uncover information about Credence's past. Gradually, Newt tells Tina that he is not engaged to Leta. He awkwardly tries to confess to Tina that he has fallen in love with her but nervously blurts that she has "eyes of a salamander", leaving Tina heartfelt. At the Lestrange family tomb, as Leta comes clean about a past mistake of hers to protect Credence from Yusuf Kama, Newt consoles a remorseful Leta as a good friend. Newt chooses to join the fight against Grindelwald after a destructive rally of Grindelwald's followers, during which Queenie and Credence join Grindelwald under manipulation while Leta sacrifices her life to save others. At Hogwarts, Newt presents Dumbledore with a vial stolen from Grindelwald by Newt's niffler, containing a blood pact Grindelwald and Dumbledore made in their youth that prevents them from dueling each other; Dumbledore believes it can be destroyed.
Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore
In 1932, Newt Scamander nurses a pregnant Qilin, who births twins. Grindelwald's acolytes kill the mother Qilin and capture one of the twins, whom Grindelwald slaughters to gain precognition. However, Newt saves the younger Qilin twin and keeps him safe.
Albus Dumbledore entrusts Newt to form and lead a group to thwart Grindelwald's plans of world domination. Newt forms a team consisting of his auror brother Theseus, Muggle friend Jacob Kowalski, Ilvermorny Charms professor Eulalie "Lally" Hicks, his assistant Bunty and Yusuf Kama. Newt presents Jacob with a wand as per Dumbledore's orders, much to Jacob's surprise and joy. Newt, Jacob, Lally and Theseus are all shocked when Grindelwald is acquitted of all charges and is also allowed to stand in the upcoming election as a candidate. After Theseus is stunned and abducted by Grindelwald's acolytes, Newt infiltrates German prison Erkstag and rescues his brother. At Hog's head, Dumbledore reveals to Newt that Credence Barebone is actually the illegitimate son of his younger brother Aberforth Dumbledore. Newt attempts to comfort a guilt-ridden Dumbledore but in vain. However before leaving, Newt tells Dumbledore that he has a chance to correct his mistakes.
Newt, Theseus, Jacob, Lally, Bunty and Dumbledore reach Bhutan where the election for the new supreme mugwump is held. Grindelwald manipulates the election and deceitfully wins. But with Credence's help, Newt exposes that the Qilin which chose Grindelwald was already dead, reanimated through necromancy. Newt releases the remaining alive Qilin, which chooses Vicência Santos as the new Supreme Mugwump. Enraged and defeated, Grindelwald flees, but not before his and Dumbledore's blood pact is broken in a chain of spells. Dumbledore sincerely thanks Newt for all his help; Aberforth accepts a dying Credence and takes him home. As Queenie regrets joining Grindelwald and renounces the dark side, she and Jacob marry. Newt attends the wedding as Jacob's best man. Newt is heartfelt and speechless to see his love-interest Tina there as well. The two reunite and attend the wedding together.
Later life
After the end of the Global Wizarding war, Newt and Tina marry at some point of time. Newt creates the Werewolf Register and the Ban on Experimental Breeding. Newt also works for the Dragon Research and Restraint Bureau. In 1979, he is awarded The Order of Merlin - Second Class for his services to magizoology. A Chocolate Frog Card is named after him. His grandson Rolf Scamander - a naturalist by profession - goes on to marry Luna Lovegood. Soon, Newt becomes the great-grandfather of twins Lorcan and Lysander.
As depicted in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Newt Scamander visits Hogwarts in 1993 or 1994 for some unknown reason, thus appearing on the Marauder's Map. Newt writes A Children's Anthology of Monsters, an edition for younger readers. As of 2017, Newt Scamander is still "alive and well".
Reception
The character received mixed reaction. Newt Scamander was chosen by IGN as their fifteenth favourite Harry Potter character, who said that Newt has very quickly established himself as a "very different sort of hero".
Cultural critic Jonathan McIntosh praised the character, stating that he "performs a refreshingly atypical form of masculinity." Joshua Hansen from MuggleNet liked Newt Scamander more than Harry Potter and said, "Don't get me wrong, Harry is still dear to my heart [...] But when ranking whom I prefer, the man with the lizard for a name definitely takes the cake." An editor from Looper approved of how Newt's character helped the Hufflepuff house to "step into the limelight". Reviewer from The Guardian enjoyed Newt Scamander's personality and said, "All pigeon-toed angles and stuttering rushes of enthusiasm, [Eddie Redmayne's] great gift to the character is a crippling diffidence."
Eddie Redmayne, the actor who portrayed Newt Scamander throughout the films, also received positive reception. For his role in Fantastic Beasts and Where To Find Them, Redmayne received the Best Actor Award from Empire Awards.
Many critics disapproved of Redmayne interpretation of the character. Helen O'Hara from Empire wrote, "[...] he's so disconnected and withdrawn that he barely shifts facial expression from friendly blankness for the first half hour, when we really need him to guide us around." Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times described Newt Scamander as "charmless". Charles Bramesco of Polygon criticised how Newt Scamander has "been remanded to the margins of his own franchise".
Characterisation
Outward appearance
Newt Scamander is a tall wizard with brown hair and hazel eyes.
Newt almost always wears his single-breasted, close-fitting, peacock blue overcoat, which covers his body down to his knees. Newt's primary dressing-manner also includes his dark brown suit jacket and trousers, burnt-orange waistcoat, ivory-white shirt, small bow tie and calf high leather boots which are weather-beaten and worn from his travels across the world. The various pockets in Newt's coat contain various potions and elixirs for Newt as a magizoologist always remains prepared.
Occasionally, he is also seen wearing his woollen black-and-yellow Hufflepuff scarf.
Personality
Eddie Redmayne expressed his thoughts about Newt Scamander possibly being on the autism spectrum. Socially awkward, slightly eccentric and introverted around humans, Newt feels more comfortable around animals and connects better with them. Newt's relationships with his magical beasts sometimes takes precedence over his relationships with other human beings. However, Newt does not lack empathy towards humans as his beliefs about the power of Muggles and his remarkable friendship with Muggle Jacob Kowalski "mirrors a certain Albus Dumbledore".
Newt is not afraid to show weakness, vulnerability or emotions. He attempts to avoid violence when possible, such as when he consoles the violently disturbed obscurial Credence Barebone by his kind, understanding and sympathetic nature. Newt is praised by his former headmaster Albus Dumbledore for always doing the right thing without seeking power or glory.
Newt has a scientist's eye and the thirst for knowledge about magical creatures, with the motive of protecting them and educating others about them. Newt "bumbles" into the heart of danger, especially if a mysterious species is involved. Newt is fascinated by all sorts of magical creatures - those which wizards and witches are deeply terrified by.
Magical abilities and skills
Newt's expertise in Charms is seen as he is able to perform a highly-advanced Undetectable Extension Charm on the interior of his suitcase to expand the space within and hold innumerable magical creatures of different native habitats. He is also able to cast Atmospheric Charms to create separate natural habitats inside the suitcase for the magical beasts to survive. He is even able to create a magical bubble to contain and sustain an obscurus even after the death of its host. He could also successfully use a tracking spell, which he used to trace Tina.
Newt is particularly gifted in Herbology and Healing as he is capable of preparing medicinal remedies from magical plants and potions - such as when he swiftly creates a poultice through plants and contents of various bottles to control Jacob's severe reaction of Murtlap bite. Newt also looked after magical flora and was familiar with their properties, keeping several potted plants on a shelf in his shed in the magically expanded suitcase.
Polyjuice Potion is regarded as a potion highly difficult to make. Since Newt was successfully able to brew the potion, it suggests that he is skilled in potion-making as well.
Newt Scamander's wand is made up of rather unusual contents: The wood of the wand is made out of Tropical Lime Tree, while shell and bone are used as cores of the wand. Newt's boggart is an office desk, because what he fears most is having to work in an office. When Rowling was asked by a fan regarding the form of Newt's patronus, she left it unrevealed for suspense.
Film portrayal
In the film series, Newt Scamander is portrayed by Eddie Redmayne. Both J. K. Rowling and David Heyman stated that Eddie Redmayne was their "first and only choice" for portraying Newt Scamander. "Not only does he look as if he lives in 1926, but he has all the elements required to be Newt: he's smart, funny, utterly British, and immensely sympathetic [...]" said David Heyman.
Redmayne chose the character's wand himself from a number of different designs because he loved that it was "very simple" and "made of organic materials". Redmayne took the Patronus quiz on Pottermore twice and both the times got the same result - a Basset Hound patronus.
During Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald, a teenaged Newt Scamander is portrayed by British child artist Joshua Shea.
References
Harry Potter characters
Fantastic Beasts characters
Film characters introduced in 2016
Male characters in film
Fictional English people
Fictional ethologists
Fictional cryptozoologists
Fictional biologists
Fictional wizards
Fictional writers | wiki |
A page address register (PAR) contains the physical addresses of pages currently held in the main memory of a computer system. PARs are used in order to avoid excessive use of an address table in some operating systems. A PAR may check a page's number against all entries in the PAR simultaneously, allowing it to retrieve the pages physical address quickly. A PAR is used by a single process and is only used for pages which are frequently referenced (though these pages may change as the process's behaviour changes in accordance with the principle of locality). An example computer which made use of PARs is the Atlas.
See also
Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)
Virtual memory
Computer memory | wiki |
Black Catholic History Month is an annual declared month that highlights the contributions of Black (and especially African-American) Catholics to events in history and contemporary society. It is celebrated during November in the United States and elsewhere, coinciding with the feasts of All Saints' Day (November 1), All Souls' Day (2), St Martin de Porres (3); the birth of St Augustine (13); and the death of Zumbi of Palmares (20).
The commemoration began in 1990 at the behest of the National Black Catholic Clergy Caucus during their annual meeting held that year at Fordham University in New York City. They voted in favor of the proposal on July 24.
References
African-American Roman Catholicism
History of Catholicism in the United States
Post–civil rights era in African-American history
November observances
Commemorative months
History of Catholicism in Africa
Recurring events established in 1990 | wiki |
Me... Jane is a 2011 children's picture book written and illustrated by Patrick McDonnell. The book tells the story of a young Jane Goodall and her toy chimpanzee, Jubilee, as they explore the world. The book was a recipient of a 2012 Caldecott Honor for its illustrations. In 2014, an animated adaptation, narrated by Katherine Kellgren and animated by Paul and Sandra Fierlinger, was released by Weston Woods. In 2015, it won the Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Children's Video.
References
2011 children's books
American picture books
Caldecott Honor-winning works
Jane Goodall | wiki |
Lisa Long, cestista statunitense
Lisa Long, attrice statunitense | wiki |
Blake Hood is an American actor. His best known roles include Mark Driscoll on The CW's 90210 and Kyle Abbott on the CBS Daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless.
Filmography
References
External links
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors
Living people
1985 births | wiki |
The Humber Bridge, near Kingston upon Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, is a single-span road suspension bridge, which opened to traffic on 24 June 1981. When it opened, the bridge was the longest of its type in the world; it was not surpassed until 1998, with the completion of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, and is now the twelfth-longest.
The bridge spans the Humber (an estuary formed by the rivers Trent and Ouse), between Barton-upon-Humber on the south bank and Hessle on the north bank, connecting the East Riding of Yorkshire with North Lincolnshire. Both sides of the bridge were in the non-metropolitan county of Humberside until its dissolution in 1996. The bridge can be seen for miles around, from as far as Patrington in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and from out to sea miles off the coast. It is a Grade I listed building.
By 2006, the bridge carried an average of 120,000 vehicles per week. The toll was £3.00 each way for cars (higher for commercial vehicles), which made it the most expensive toll crossing in the United Kingdom. In April 2012, the toll was halved to £1.50 each way after the UK government deferred £150 million from the bridge's outstanding debt.
History
Before the bridge, commuters crossed the Humber on the Humber Ferry from Corporation Pier at Hull and New Holland Pier at New Holland, Lincolnshire, or by road via the M62 (from 1976), M18 (from 1979) and M180 motorways, crossing, by way of the Ouse Bridge, the River Ouse near Goole (connected to the Humber). Until the mid-1970s the route south was via the single-carriageway A63 and the A614 (via grid-locked Thorne) where it met the busy A18 and crossed the Stainforth and Keadby Canal at Keadby Bridge, a swing bridge, which formed a bottleneck on the route, and on through Finningley and Bawtry, meeting the east–west A631.
The journey was along straight single-carriageway roads across foggy moors interrupted by bottlenecks for most of the journey to Blyth, Nottinghamshire, where it met the A1, and the accident rate was high. Debates in Parliament were held on the low standard of the route across the windswept plains around Goole. It was not unexpected that under these conditions, a Humber Bridge, with connecting dual-carriageway approach roads and grade-separated junctions, would seem worthwhile. By the time the bridge opened, much of this inferior route had been transformed by dualling of the A63 and its bypasses, extending the M62 and the connecting of the M18 from Thorne to Wadworth. The obvious need for a Humber Bridge had been reduced by the late 1970s with the improvements of the motorway infrastructure in the region. Although welcome, these improvements detracted from the need for vehicles to cross a bridge from Hessle to Barton. The Humber Bridge was a victim of the success of the M62 before it opened. A hovercraft service, Minerva and Mercury, linked Hull Pier and Grimsby Docks from February to October 1969 but suffered relatively frequent breakdowns.
Act of Parliament
Plans for a bridge were drawn up in the 1930s and revised in 1955, but work did not begin until 27 July 1972. The Humber Bridge Act, promoted by Kingston Upon Hull Corporation, was passed in 1959. This established the Humber Bridge Board to manage and raise funds to build the bridge and buy the land required for the approach roads.
1966 Kingston upon Hull North by-election
The allocation of funds proved impossible until the 1966 Kingston upon Hull North by-election. Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson prevailed upon his Minister of Transport Barbara Castle to sanction the building of the bridge. Dismay at the long wait for a crossing led to Christopher Rowe writing a protest song, "The Humber Bridge".
Design
The consulting engineers for the project were Freeman Fox & Partners (now Arcadis NV). Sir Ralph Freeman had produced the first ideas in 1927 and in the early 1930s the cost of the project was estimated at £1.725 million and that the bridge would be unlikely to recoup the construction or maintenance costs. In 1935 he had an idea for a suspension bridge for the Humber Tunnel Executive Committee. Sir Gilbert Roberts produced more ideas in 1955 for a bridge with a central span, costing £15 million, to be paid for by East Riding County Council and Lindsey County Council. When it became likely that a bridge would be constructed, Imperial College-educated Bernard Wex OBE (1922–1990) produced the design in 1964 that was actually built. The bridge was built to last 120 years. In 1985 Wex was awarded the Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers. In the 1950s he had helped to design High Marnham Power Station. He was a former UK chairman of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineers and helped to found the Steel Construction Institute in 1976.
The architect was R. E. Slater ARIBA. The administration building (for the tolls) was designed by Parker & Rosner. The landscaping was designed by Prof Arnold Weddle. Wind tunnel testing took place at the National Maritime Institute (now part of BMT Limited) at Teddington, and the road deck was designed for wind speeds up to , but storms featuring considerably lower wind speeds have been cited as grounds for emergency repairs in recent years.
Construction
The main contractor for the steel superstructure was British Bridge Builders (the same grouping as for the Forth and Severn Road Bridges comprising Sir William Arrol & Co., then a unit of NEI Cranes Ltd, Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company, and Redpath Dorman Long Ltd). The contractor for the concrete towers, anchorages and sub-structure was John Howard & Co Ltd of Chatham, Kent, which was later bought by Amec. Concrete was chosen for the towers, instead of steel, partly due to cost, but also to suit the landscape.
Work began on the southern approach road in July 1972 by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe. The approach road to the A1077 junction, by Costain Civil Engineering, began in September 1976. It included a span from the southern anchorage of seven pre-stressed concrete box sections and the A1077 junction, costing £4.25 million. Work on the bridge substructure (foundations) began in March 1973. To reduce heat of hydration in the concrete, which produces calcium silicate hydrate from belite, as much as 60 per cent of the Portland cement was replaced with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). It took longer to build the southern anchorage due to a diaphragm wall design due to there not being enough shallow bedrock. The main southern approach roads from Barton to the M180 motorway junction at Barnetby were built in the late 1970s by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe, opening in 1978.
The towers were constructed by slipforming and the north tower was completed by May 1974. The southern foundations were completed in September 1975, with the pier completed in March 1976, and the southern tower was completed by September 1976; the bridge had been planned to open in 1976. The northern tower and anchorage was built on solid chalk but the southern tower and anchorage were built on fissured Kimmeridge Clay, from the southern shore and built with a difficult caisson design. The subcontractor for the concrete was Tileman & Co. of Shipston-on-Stour, south Warwickshire.
Cable spinning took place between September 1977 and July 1979. Each cable weighs , with 37 strands of 404 lengths of cable. The cable on the northern span has four extra strands. Each cable can take a load of . The deck is of box girder form, the box sections around each. The first box sections were assembled in June 1975 and put into the main span on 9 November 1979. The toll buildings and north approach road were built by A. F. Budge of Retford, Nottinghamshire, costing £2.9 million. Work began on the administration building in November 1976. The toll system was manufactured by Plessey Controls of Poole, Dorset. Corrosion resistance on the steelwork was provided by Camrex Corrosion of Bellshill, North Lanarkshire. The road was laid by Tarmac Roadstone of Wolverhampton with mastic asphalt. In 2017, the bridge was designated a Grade I listed building.
A-frames
At road level the deck was fastened to the towers through four rocking A-frames, to allow for movement caused by the catenary supporting the deck from above deflecting with the weight of passing traffic, from thermal expansion, and from changes in wind loading. The devices catered for a maximum deflection of 2 metres. By 2011 it was noticed that the pivot-pin bearings carrying the frames had worn, allowing them to drop towards the support structure. Each frame was replaced by two new components: a vertical linkage to cater for longitudinal movement and a sliding bearing for lateral displacement.
Opening
The bridge opened to traffic on 24 June 1981. It was opened officially by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 July 1981, in a ceremony that included a prayer of dedication by the Archbishop of York and a fly-past by the Red Arrows.
World record
With a centre span of and a total length of , the Humber Bridge was the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world for 17 years, until the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge opened in Japan on 5 April 1998.
Local benefits
The road-distance between Hull and Grimsby fell by nearly ; the town of Scunthorpe and environs were relieved of the passing traffic between the two.
Bridge statistics
The bridge's surface takes the form of a dual carriageway with a lower-level foot and cycle path on both sides. There is a permanent speed limit on the full length of the bridge.
Each tower consists of a pair of hollow vertical concrete columns, each tall and tapering from square at the base to at the top. The bridge is designed to tolerate constant motion and bends more than in winds of . The towers, although vertical, are farther apart at the top than the bottom due to the curvature of the earth.
The total length of the suspension cable is .
The north tower is on the bank and has foundations down to . The south tower is in the water, and descends to as a consequence of the shifting sandbanks that make up the estuary.
The bridge held the record for the world's longest single-span suspension bridge for 17 years, from its opening in July 1981 until the opening of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in April 1998. In 2022 it became the twelfth longest, single-span suspension bridge. The central span, at , is the longest in Britain and in the Western Hemisphere. It remains the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world that can be crossed on foot or by bicycle.
The bridge is crossed twice during the annual Humber Bridge Half Marathon in June, and Hull Marathon in September.
Toll update project
In July 2013, work began on introducing a new electronic tolling system. The existing Humber Bridge toll system was largely the same as it was when the bridge opened in 1981. The computer system was over 15 years old, absorbed an increasing amount of maintenance, and needed to be replaced. The project would decrease waiting times and was welcomed by business and transport leaders.
In the first phase, the toll booths and the toll plaza canopy were replaced, and in the second phase, writing, testing and setting up the new toll system was completed. From 2015 bridge users could set up an account with the bridge and pay into it. Account holders receive a device called the HumberTAG, a small electronic tag that enables the system to recognise the bridge user; the toll is automatically deducted from the user's account. Two central lanes through the plaza are free-flowing; they do not have booths and account holders are able to cross the bridge without stopping.
Incidents and suicides
During construction of the bridge, the road deck sections were floated up on barges then hoisted into place by cables. During one of these lifting operations some of the cables on two of the road deck sections failed, leaving the sections hanging at an angle. The sections were subsequently installed.
On more than 200 occasions, people have jumped or fallen from the bridge since it was opened in 1981; only five people have survived. Between 1990 and February 2001 the Humber Rescue Team launched its boat 64 times to deal with people falling or jumping off the bridge. Notable incidents include the cases of a West Yorkshire woman and her two-year-old daughter who fell off the bridge in 2005 and that of a man jumping from the bridge to his death on the A63 road below in September 2006.
Plans were announced on 26 December 2009 to construct a suicide barrier along the walkways of the bridge; design constraints were cited as the reason for not installing barriers during the construction of the bridge.
In May 2017, a YouTuber with the username 'Night Scape', along with a small group, illegally scaled the bridge without safety equipment. The group of young men climbed up the structure to the top of the bridge using the suspension wires as handholds. Humberside Police and the Humber Bridge Board are reviewing the security measures.
On 3 April 2021, the Humber Bridge was closed to pedestrians and cyclists following an unspecified 'recent incident'. The decision came after multiple deaths at the bridge in the month of March. Following the death of one individual that month, a petition calling for increased safety measures to 'secure' the bridge had gained thousands of signatures. Concerns were raised over how the change will affect those who commute on foot or by bike. On 6 May 2021, the bridge was reopened to pedestrians and cyclists between the hours of 0500 and 2100; only pre-registered users could use the bridge outside of those hours. In addition, more CCTV and notices were erected, and more staff assigned to patrol the crossing.
Finances
The bridge had a toll charge of £1.50 for cars from 1 April 2012, until for six months it was £3.00 and the only trunk road British toll bridge to charge motorcycles (£1.20). In 2004 many motorcyclists held a slow-pay protest, taking off gloves and helmets and paying the toll in large denomination bank notes. Police reported that the protest caused a queue long.
In 1996, Parliament passed the Humber Bridge (Debts) Act 1996 to reorganise the board's liabilities to ensure the bridge could be safely maintained. Much of the interest on the debt was suspended and deferred in a refinancing which saw no write off – the balance was to be paid using tolls.
In 2006, Shona McIsaac, Labour MP for Cleethorpes, tabled a Private Member's Bill, the Humber Bridge Bill. The Bill would have made amendments to the Act of 1959 "requiring the Secretary of State to give directions to members of the Humber Bridge Board regarding healthcare and to review the possibility of facilitating journeys across the Humber Bridge in relation to healthcare". The aim was to allow patients travelling between the banks for medical treatment to cross without paying the toll and to allow the Secretary of State for Transport to appoint two members of the board to represent the interests of the NHS. Even though the Bill received cross-party support (it was co-sponsored by Shadow Home Secretary David Davis and supported by all other MPs representing North Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire) it ran out of time later that year.
A protest at the bridge on 1 September 2007 was supported by the local Cancer Patients Involvement Group, the Road Haulage Association, Diana Wallis (MEP for Yorkshire and the Humber) and local business and council representatives. The government responded to the petition on 14 January 2008, stating that "Concessions or exemptions from tolls on the Humber Bridge are a matter for the Humber Bridge Board".
In October 2008, a joint campaign was launched by the Scunthorpe Telegraph, Hull Daily Mail and Grimsby Telegraph to abolish the toll. The papers' campaign, A Toll Too Far, was launched after a mooted increase in the toll, receiving much support from councillors and MPs serving Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire. The campaign was to stave off a potential increase, secure a reduction to £1.00 and ultimately to be abolished. Thousands of readers backed the campaign with a paper and an online petition.
A public inquiry into the tolls was held in March 2009 by independent inspector Neil Taylor. In July 2009, the Department for Transport announced that it had decided not to allow the proposed increase. Transport Minister Sadiq Khan said he did not believe it was right for the tolls to be raised in the current economic climate. In October 2009, the government approved a £6 million grant for maintenance costs, which meant that there would be no toll increase before 2011 at the earliest, by which time tolls would have been frozen for five years.
The board applied again to the Department of Transport in September 2010, to raise the tolls from April 2011 but the government ordered a public inquiry into the application. A three-day public inquiry was held in Hull in early March 2011. Following the recommendation by the planning inspector, the government gave approval, on 14 June 2011, for the increase. The toll was raised on 1 October 2011, at which point it became the most expensive in the United Kingdom. The Severn Bridge/Second Severn Crossing charged £5.70 for Wales-bound traffic.
In the 2011 Autumn Statement on 29 November, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, announced that the government had agreed to reduce the debt on the bridge by £150 million, which would allow the toll for cars to be halved to £1.50. Following the government accepting the agreement, between the four local councils, to meet a portion of the debt if revenues proved insufficient, the Transport Secretary, Justine Greening, confirmed the reduction on 29 February 2012, with effect from April.
Image gallery
References
External links
Humber Bridge Board
Humber Rescue, based underneath the bridge
Bridges completed in 1981
Bridges in Lincolnshire
Bridges in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Concrete bridges in the United Kingdom
Hessle
Humber
Humberside
Borough of North Lincolnshire
Suspension bridges in the United Kingdom
Toll bridges in England
Transport in Kingston upon Hull
Tourist attractions in the East Riding of Yorkshire
World record holders
Grade I listed bridges
Grade I listed buildings in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Grade I listed buildings in Lincolnshire | wiki |
Victory Games may refer to:
Victory Games (Avalon Hill) (1982–1991), an American board game developer, a subsidiary of Avalon Hill Games
Victory Games (EA) (2012–2013), an American video game developer, a subsidiary of Electronic Arts | wiki |
R. nivalis may refer to:
Ranunculus nivalis, a flowering plant species
Rubus nivalis, a raspberry species
Rumex nivalis, a herb species | wiki |
A Stradivarius is one of the violins, violas, cellos and other string instruments built by members of the Italian family Stradivari, particularly Antonio Stradivari (Latin: Antonius Stradivarius), during the 17th and 18th centuries. They are considered some of the finest instruments ever made, and are extremely valuable collector's items.
According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. The many blind experiments from 1817 to as recently as 2014 have found no difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis.
The fame of Stradivarius instruments is widespread, appearing in numerous works of fiction.
Construction
Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as Vuillaume, who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments. The woods used included spruce for the top, willow for the internal blocks and linings, and maple for the back, ribs, and neck. Stradivari and Giuseppe Guarneri's violins differ in their tonal quality, like red or white wine. The Stradivari's sound is described as more "direct and precise", responding to the slightest touch with refined direction and elegance.
There has been conjecture that the wood used may have been treated with several types of minerals, both before and after construction of a violin. Scientists at National Taiwan University have detected trace amounts of aluminum, copper, and calcium in wood from Stradivari violins. The traces may have come from chemical preservatives applied by loggers to the wood they sold. As well, the violin makers applied varnishes to their instruments. Potassium borate (borax) may have been used to protect against woodworm. Sodium and potassium silicate may have been used to prevent mildew, rotting and insect damage. Simone Fernando Sacconi suggested that Vernice bianca, an egg tempera varnish composed of gum arabic, honey, and egg white, may have been used.
French chemist Jean-Philippe Echard and his co-workers have studied varnishes on Stradivarius violins. He reported in 2010 that even when varnish is no longer visible to the human eye on the surface of older violins, it can be detected within the top layers of cells. A lower layer of varnish is found within the topmost wood cells while an upper rests upon the wood. Echard's findings suggest that Stradivari used a mixture of common Cremonese resin, oil, and pigment as a varnish, rather than making his own. Echard did not find traces of specialized ingredients such as protein materials, gums, or fossil amber.
A comparative study published in PLOS One in 2008 found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials. These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments.
Market value
A Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's "Long Pattern" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices. The 1697 "Molitor" Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to Napoleon (it actually belonged to a general in his army, Marshal Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor, 1er Comte Molitor), sold in 2010 at Tarisio Auctions to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers for $3,600,000, at the time a world record.
Depending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari's "golden period" from 1700 to about 1725 can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his "Lady Blunt" violin from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million (it is named after Lord Byron's granddaughter Lady Anne Blunt, who owned it for 30 years). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami appeal. In Spring 2014 the "Macdonald" viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with Sotheby's via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45 million. The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold.
Vice magazine reported in May 2013 that "in recent years, Stradivarius investment funds have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher".
Stradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly, as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. The General Kyd Stradivarius was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who found it and handed it over to the police. The Sinsheimer/Iselin was stolen in Hanover, Germany in 2008 and recovered in 2009. The Lipinski Stradivarius was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The Ames Stradivarius was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015.
A number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the Karpilowsky, stolen in 1953. the Davidoff-Morini, stolen in 1995, and the Le Maurien, stolen in 2002.
Comparisons in sound quality
The Stradivarius instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many blind experiments from 1817 to as recent as 2014 have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis. In a particularly famous test on a BBC Radio 3 programme in 1977, the violinists Isaac Stern and Pinchas Zukerman and the violin expert and dealer Charles Beare tried to distinguish between the "Chaconne" Stradivarius, a 1739 Guarneri del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius. Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not double-blind (in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly.
In a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker . One of Rhonheimer's violins, made with wood that the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority (113) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius. Analysis of the treated wood revealed a accompanied by relatively little change in the speed of sound. According to this analysis, treatment improves the sound radiation ratio to the level of cold-climate wood considered to have superior resonance.
In a double-blind test in 2012 published in the study "Player preferences among new and old violins", expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room. In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that "the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons" and "I could tell slight differences in the instruments... but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others." Modern violins were rated as having better sound-carrying qualities and were preferred again in a study in 2017.
While many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, Christian Tetzlaff formerly played "a quite famous Strad", but switched to a violin made in 2002 by Stefan-Peter Greiner. He states that the listener cannot tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for Bach and better than a Stradivarius for "the big Romantic and 20th-century concertos."
Theories and reproduction attempts
Some maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities. Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented – and debunked – including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals.
A more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global low temperatures during the Little Ice Age associated with unusually low solar activity of the Maunder Minimum, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood. Further evidence for this "Little Ice Age theory" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments. Two researchers – University of Tennessee tree-ring scientist Henri Grissino-Mayer and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist – published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal Dendrochronologia.
In 2008, researchers from the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with X-rays, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood.
Yet another possible explanation is that maple wood used was sourced from the forests of northern Croatia. This wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local luthiers and craftsfolk for musical instruments.
Some research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. Joseph Nagyvary reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained "borax, fluorides, chromium and iron salts." He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood's component tracheids had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the Venice lagoon before Stradivarius used it.
Steven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a CT scan of a Stradivari known as the "Betts". Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument.
Instruments
While only about 650 original Stradivari instruments (harps, guitars, violas, cellos, violins) survive, thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read "Stradivarius". The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari.
Sound preservation
According to a 2019 article in The New York Times, the Museo del Violino in the city of Cremona, Italy is undertaking a landmark project to preserve the sound of Stradivarius instruments. In January 2019, four musicians will record an extensive set of scales and arpeggios in different techniques to showcase the sounds produced by two violins, a viola, and a cello. These recordings, known as the "Stradivarius Sound Bank", will be part of a permanent collection at the Museo del Violino that will allow future generations to hear Stradivarius instruments. To facilitate these recordings, "the city's mayor, Gianluca Galimberti, implored Cremona's citizens to avoid any sudden and unnecessary sounds."
References
Further reading
How Many Strads?, Ernest N. Doring, William Lewis & Son, Chicago, 1945
Violin Iconography of Antonio Stradivari 1644–1737, Herbert K. Goodkind, Larchmont, New York, 1972.
External links
A FourDoc (short on-line documentary) about a group of violin makers making a violin in the original spec of the maurin Stradivarius in just five days
Cozio.com Online database of instruments by Antonio Stradivari.
Instruments by Antonio Stradivari on the MIMO online database
String instruments
Stradivari instruments
de:Antonio Stradivari#Stradivaris Instrumente | wiki |
The first point of Aries, also known as the cusp of Aries, is the location of the vernal equinox (March equinox), used as a reference point in celestial coordinate systems. In diagrams using such coordinate systems, it is often indicated with the symbol ♈︎. Named for the constellation of Aries, it is one of the two points on the celestial sphere at which the celestial equator crosses the ecliptic, the other being the first point of Libra, located exactly 180° from it. Due to precession of the equinoxes since the positions were originally named in antiquity, the position of the Sun when at the vernal equinox is now in Pisces; when it is at the Autumnal equinox (September equinox), it is in Virgo (as of J2000).
Along its yearly path through the zodiac, the Sun meets the celestial equator from south to north at the first point of Aries, and from north to south at the first point of Libra. The first point of Aries is considered to be the celestial "prime meridian" from which right ascension is calculated.
History
The choice of starting position from which to measure the Sun's motion across celestial sphere is arbitrary. The equinoxes are preferred as an equinox marks the point in time when the Sun has neither northern nor southern declination but is crossing the celestial equator. Of the two possible equinoxes the ancient Greeks chose the March equinox as the starting point. This coincided with the festival of Hilaria, a time of optimism and beginnings where farmers began to sow or observed the first growth and blossoming of trees and summer crops. The naming of Aries is late in the Babylonian zodiac where the equinox was in its earliest tradition marked as in the early Middle Bronze Age by actual coincidence with the Pleiades. The time also corresponds to the time of castration of male calves, mules and donkeys, Sanguia on the vernal equinox and marked the start of spring proper.
The first point of Aries is so called because, when Hipparchus defined it in 130 BCE, it was located in the western extreme of the constellation of Aries, near its border with Pisces and the star γ Arietis. Due to the Sun's eastward movement across the sky throughout the year, this western end of Aries was the point at which the Sun entered the constellation, hence the name first point of Aries.
Definition
Due to Earth's axial precession, this point gradually moves westwards at a rate of about one degree every 72 years. This means that, since the time of Hipparchus, it has shifted across the sky by about 30°, and is currently located within Pisces, near its border with Aquarius. The Sun now appears in Aries from late April until mid-May, though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of the northern spring.
The first point of Aries is important to the fields of astronomy, nautical navigation and astrology. Navigational ephemeris tables record the geographic position of the first point of Aries as the reference for position of navigational stars. Due to the slow precession of the equinoxes, the zenith view (above a location) of constellations at a time of year from a given location have slowly moved west (by using solar epochs the drift is known). The tropical Zodiac is similarly affected and no longer corresponds with the constellations (the Cusp of Libra today is located within Virgo). In sidereal astrology, by contrast, the first point of Aries remains aligned with the Aries constellation.
See also
Ras Hammel "the head of the ram"
References
Astronomy
Astronomical coordinate systems
Dynamics of the Solar System
Time in astronomy
Constellations
Technical factors of Western astrology | wiki |
S. nivalis may refer to:
Sagina nivalis, a pearlwort species
Salix nivalis, a willow species
Saxifraga nivalis, a saxifrage species | wiki |
Orion is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous and recognizable constellations in the night sky. It is named after Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Its brightest stars are the blue-white Rigel (Beta Orionis) and the red Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis).
Characteristics
Orion is bordered by Taurus to the northwest, Eridanus to the southwest, Lepus to the south, Monoceros to the east, and Gemini to the northeast. Covering 594 square degrees, Orion ranks twenty-sixth of the 88 constellations in size. The constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 26 sides. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and . The constellation's three-letter abbreviation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Ori".
Orion is most visible in the evening sky from January to April, winter in the Northern Hemisphere, and summer in the Southern Hemisphere. In the tropics (less than about 8° from the equator), the constellation transits at the zenith.
In the period May–July (summer in the Northern Hemisphere, winter in the Southern Hemisphere), Orion is in the daytime sky and thus invisible at most latitudes. However, for much of Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere's winter months, the Sun is below the horizon even at midday. Stars (and thus Orion, but only the brightest stars) are then visible at twilight for a few hours around local noon, just in the brightest section of the sky low in the North where the Sun is just below the horizon. At the same time of day at the South Pole itself (Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station), Rigel is only 8° above the horizon, and the Belt sweeps just along it. In the Southern Hemisphere's summer months, when Orion is normally visible in the night sky, the constellation is actually not visible in Antarctica because the sun does not set at that time of year south of the Antarctic Circle.
In countries close to the equator (e.g., Kenya, Indonesia, Colombia, Ecuador), Orion appears overhead in December around midnight and in the February evening sky.
Navigational aid
Orion is very useful as an aid to locating other stars. By extending the line of the Belt southeastward, Sirius (α CMa) can be found; northwestward, Aldebaran (α Tau). A line eastward across the two shoulders indicates the direction of Procyon (α CMi). A line from Rigel through Betelgeuse points to Castor and Pollux (α Gem and β Gem). Additionally, Rigel is part of the Winter Circle asterism. Sirius and Procyon, which may be located from Orion by following imaginary lines (see map), also are points in both the Winter Triangle and the Circle.
Features
Orion's seven brightest stars form a distinctive hourglass-shaped asterism, or pattern, in the night sky. Four stars—Rigel, Betelgeuse, Bellatrix, and Saiph—form a large roughly rectangular shape, at the center of which lies the three stars of Orion's Belt—Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka. Descending from the "belt" is a smaller line of three stars, Orion's Sword (the middle of which is in fact not a star but the Orion Nebula), also known as the hunter's sword.
Many of the stars are luminous hot blue supergiants, with the stars of the belt and sword forming the Orion OB1 association. Standing out by its red hue, Betelgeuse may nevertheless be a runaway member of the same group.
Bright stars
Betelgeuse, also designated Alpha Orionis, is a massive M-type red supergiant star nearing the end of its life. It is the second brightest star in Orion, and is a semiregular variable star. It serves as the "right shoulder" of the hunter it represents (assuming that he is facing the observer). It is generally the eleventh brightest star in the night sky, but this has varied between being the tenth brightest to the 23rd brightest by the end of 2019. The end of its life is expected to result in a supernova explosion that will be highly visible from Earth, possibly outshining the Earth's moon and being visible during the day. This is most likely to occur within the next 100,000 years.
Rigel, also known as Beta Orionis, is a B-type blue supergiant that is the sixth brightest star in the night sky. Similar to Betelgeuse, Rigel is fusing heavy elements in its core and will pass its supergiant stage soon (on an astronomical timescale), either collapsing in the case of a supernova or shedding its outer layers and turning into a white dwarf. It serves as the left foot of Orion, the hunter.
Bellatrix is designated Gamma Orionis by Johann Bayer. It is the twenty-seventh brightest star in the night sky. Bellatrix is considered a B-type blue giant, though it is too small to explode in a supernova. Bellatrix's luminosity is derived from its high temperature rather than a large radius. Bellatrix marks Orion's left shoulder and it means the "female warrior", and is sometimes known colloquially as the "Amazon Star". It is the closest major star in Orion at only 244.6 light years.
Mintaka is designated Delta Orionis, despite being the faintest of the three stars in Orion's Belt. Its name means "the belt". It is a multiple star system, composed of a large B-type blue giant and a more massive O-type main-sequence star. The Mintaka system constitutes an eclipsing binary variable star, where the eclipse of one star over the other creates a dip in brightness. Mintaka is the westernmost of the three stars of Orion's Belt, as well as the northernmost.
Alnilam is designated Epsilon Orionis and is named for the Arabic phrase meaning "string of pearls". It is the middle and brightest of the three stars of Orion's Belt. Alnilam is a B-type blue supergiant; despite being nearly twice as far from the Sun as the other two belt stars, its luminosity makes it nearly equal in magnitude. Alnilam is losing mass quickly, a consequence of its size. It is the farthest major star in Orion at approximately 2,000 light years.
Alnitak, meaning "the girdle", is designated Zeta Orionis, and is the easternmost star in Orion's Belt. It is a triple star system, with the primary star being a hot blue supergiant and the brightest class O star in the night sky.
Saiph is designated Kappa Orionis by Bayer, and serves as Orion's right foot. It is of a similar distance and size to Rigel, but appears much fainter. It means the "sword of the giant"
Meissa is designated Lambda Orionis, forms Orion's head, and is a multiple star with a combined apparent magnitude of 3.33. Its name means the "shining one".
Belt
Orion's Belt or The Belt of Orion is an asterism within the constellation. It consists of the three bright stars Zeta (Alnitak), Epsilon (Alnilam), and Delta (Mintaka). Alnitak is around 800 light years away from earth and is 100,000 times more luminous than the Sun and shines with magnitude 1.8; much of its radiation is in the ultraviolet range, which the human eye cannot see. Alnilam is approximately 2,000 light years away from Earth, shines with magnitude 1.70, and with ultraviolet light is 375,000 times more luminous than the Sun. Mintaka is 915 light years away and shines with magnitude 2.21. It is 90,000 times more luminous than the Sun and is a double star: the two orbit each other every 5.73 days. In the Northern Hemisphere, Orion's Belt is best visible in the night sky during the month of January around 9:00 pm, when it is approximately around the local meridian.
Just southwest of Alnitak lies Sigma Orionis, a multiple star system composed of five stars that have a combined apparent magnitude of 3.7 and lying 1150 light years distant. Southwest of Mintaka lies the quadruple star Eta Orionis.
Sword
Orion's Sword contains the Orion Nebula, the Messier 43 nebula, the Running Man Nebula, and the stars Theta Orionis, Iota Orionis, and 42 Orionis.
Head
Three stars comprise a small triangle that marks the head. The apex is marked by Meissa (Lambda Orionis), a hot blue giant of spectral type O8 III and apparent magnitude 3.54, which lies some 1100 light years distant. Phi-1 and Phi-2 Orionis make up the base. Also nearby is the very young star FU Orionis.
Club
Stretching north from Betelgeuse are the stars that make up Orion's club. Mu Orionis marks the elbow, Nu and Xi mark the handle of the club, and Chi1 and Chi2 mark the end of the club. Just east of Chi1 is the Mira-type variable red giant U Orionis.
Shield
West from Bellatrix lie six stars all designated Pi Orionis (π1 Ori, π2 Ori, π3 Ori, π4 Ori, π5 Ori and π6 Ori) which make up Orion's shield.
Meteor showers
Around 20 October each year the Orionid meteor shower (Orionids) reaches its peak. Coming from the border with the constellation Gemini as many as 20 meteors per hour can be seen. The shower's parent body is Halley's Comet.
Deep-sky objects
Hanging from Orion's belt is his sword, consisting of the multiple stars θ1 and θ2 Orionis, called the Trapezium and the Orion Nebula (M42). This is a spectacular object that can be clearly identified with the naked eye as something other than a star. Using binoculars, its clouds of nascent stars, luminous gas, and dust can be observed. The Trapezium cluster has many newborn stars, including several brown dwarfs, all of which are at an approximate distance of 1,500 light-years. Named for the four bright stars that form a trapezoid, it is largely illuminated by the brightest stars, which are only a few hundred thousand years old. Observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory show both the extreme temperatures of the main stars—up to 60,000 kelvins—and the star forming regions still extant in the surrounding nebula.
M78 (NGC 2068) is a nebula in Orion. With an overall magnitude of 8.0, it is significantly dimmer than the Great Orion Nebula that lies to its south; however, it is at approximately the same distance, at 1600 light-years from Earth. It can easily be mistaken for a comet in the eyepiece of a telescope. M78 is associated with the variable star V351 Orionis, whose magnitude changes are visible in very short periods of time. Another fairly bright nebula in Orion is NGC 1999, also close to the Great Orion Nebula. It has an integrated magnitude of 10.5 and is 1500 light-years from Earth. The variable star V380 Orionis is embedded in NGC 1999.
Another famous nebula is IC 434, the Horsehead Nebula, near ζ Orionis. It contains a dark dust cloud whose shape gives the nebula its name.
NGC 2174 is an emission nebula located 6400 light-years from Earth.
Besides these nebulae, surveying Orion with a small telescope will reveal a wealth of interesting deep-sky objects, including M43, M78, as well as multiple stars including Iota Orionis and Sigma Orionis. A larger telescope may reveal objects such as the Flame Nebula (NGC 2024), as well as fainter and tighter multiple stars and nebulae. Barnard's Loop can be seen on very dark nights or using long-exposure photography.
All of these nebulae are part of the larger Orion molecular cloud complex, which is located approximately 1,500 light-years away and is hundreds of light-years across. It is one of the most intense regions of stellar formation visible within our galaxy.
History and mythology
The earliest known depiction linked to the constellation of Orion is a prehistoric (Aurignacian) mammoth ivory carving found in a cave in the Ach valley in West Germany in 1979. Archaeologists estimate that it is 32,000 to 38,000 years old. The distinctive pattern of Orion is recognized in numerous cultures around the world, and many myths are associated with it. Orion is used as a symbol in the modern world.
Ancient Near East
The Babylonian star catalogues of the Late Bronze Age name Orion , "The Heavenly Shepherd" or "True Shepherd of Anu" – Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms. The Babylonian constellation is sacred to Papshukal and Ninshubur, both minor gods fulfilling the role of 'messenger to the gods'. Papshukal is closely associated with the figure of a walking bird on Babylonian boundary stones, and on the star map the figure of the Rooster is located below and behind the figure of the True Shepherd—both constellations represent the herald of the gods, in his bird and human forms respectively.
In ancient Egypt, the stars of Orion were regarded as a god, called Sah. Because Orion rises before Sirius, the star whose heliacal rising was the basis for the Solar Egyptian calendar, Sah was closely linked with Sopdet, the goddess who personified Sirius. The god Sopdu is said to be the son of Sah and Sopdet. Sah is syncretized with Osiris, while Sopdet is syncretized with Osiris' mythological wife, Isis. In the Pyramid Texts, from the 24th and 23rd centuries BC, Sah is one of many gods whose form the dead pharaoh is said to take in the afterlife.
The Armenians identified their legendary patriarch and founder Hayk with Orion. Hayk is also the name of the Orion constellation in the Armenian translation of the Bible.
The Bible mentions Orion three times, naming it "Kesil" (כסיל, literally – fool). Though, this name perhaps is etymologically connected with "Kislev", the name for the ninth month of the Hebrew calendar (i.e. November–December), which, in turn, may derive from the Hebrew root K-S-L as in the words "kesel, kisla" (כֵּסֶל, כִּסְלָה, hope, positiveness), i.e. hope for winter rains.: Job 9:9 ("He is the maker of the Bear and Orion"), Job 38:31 ("Can you loosen Orion's belt?"), and Amos 5:8 ("He who made the Pleiades and Orion").
In ancient Aram, the constellation was known as Nephîlā′, the Nephilim are said to be Orion's descendants.
Greco-Roman antiquity
In Greek mythology, Orion was a gigantic, supernaturally strong hunter, born to Euryale, a Gorgon, and Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea. One myth recounts Gaia's rage at Orion, who dared to say that he would kill every animal on Earth. The angry goddess tried to dispatch Orion with a scorpion. This is given as the reason that the constellations of Scorpius and Orion are never in the sky at the same time. However, Ophiuchus, the Serpent Bearer, revived Orion with an antidote. This is said to be the reason that the constellation of Ophiuchus stands midway between the Scorpion and the Hunter in the sky.
The constellation is mentioned in Horace's Odes (Ode 3.27.18), Homer's Odyssey (Book 5, line 283) and Iliad, and Virgil's Aeneid (Book 1, line 535)
Middle East
In medieval Muslim astronomy, Orion was known as al-jabbar, "the giant". Orion's sixth brightest star, Saiph, is named from the Arabic, saif al-jabbar, meaning "sword of the giant".
China
In China, Orion was one of the 28 lunar mansions Sieu (Xiù) (宿). It is known as Shen (參), literally meaning "three", for the stars of Orion's Belt. (See Chinese constellations)
The Chinese character 參 (pinyin shēn) originally meant the constellation Orion (); its Shang dynasty version, over three millennia old, contains at the top a representation of the three stars of Orion's belt atop a man's head (the bottom portion representing the sound of the word was added later).
India
The Rigveda refers to the Orion Constellation as Mriga (The Deer).
Nataraja, 'the cosmic dancer', is often interpreted as the representation of Orion. Rudra, the Rigvedic form of Shiva, is the presiding deity of Ardra nakshatra (Betelgeuse) of Hindu astrology.
The Jain Symbol carved in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, India in 1st century BCE has striking resemblance with Orion.
Bugis sailors identified the three stars in Orion's Belt as tanra tellué, meaning "sign of three".
European folklore
In old Hungarian tradition, "Orion" is known as (magic) Archer (Íjász), or Reaper (Kaszás). In recently rediscovered myths, he is called Nimrod (Hungarian "Nimród"), the greatest hunter, father of the twins "Hunor" and "Magor". The "π" and "o" stars (on upper right) form together the reflex bow or the lifted scythe. In other Hungarian traditions, "Orion's belt" is known as "Judge's stick" (Bírópálca).
In Scandinavian tradition, "Orion's belt" was known as Frigg's Distaff (friggerock) or Freyja's distaff.
The Finns call Orion's belt and the stars below it Väinämöisen viikate (Väinämöinen's scythe). Another name for the asterism of Alnilam, Alnitak and Mintaka is Väinämöisen vyö (Väinämöinen's Belt) and the stars "hanging" from the belt as Kalevanmiekka (Kaleva's sword).
In Siberia, the Chukchi people see Orion as a hunter; an arrow he has shot is represented by Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri), with the same figure as other Western depictions.
Americas
The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three stars in the belt of Orion Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburón Island.
The same three stars are known in Spain and most of Latin America as "Las tres Marías" (Spanish for "The Three Marys").
In Puerto Rico, the three stars are known as the "Los Tres Reyes Magos" (Spanish for The three Wise Men).
The Ojibwa (Chippewa) Native Americans call this constellation Kabibona'kan, the Winter Maker, as its presence in the night sky heralds winter.
To the Lakota Native Americans, Tayamnicankhu (Orion's Belt) is the spine of a bison. The great rectangle of Orion is the bison's ribs; the Pleiades star cluster in nearby Taurus is the bison's head; and Sirius in Canis Major, known as Tayamnisinte, is its tail. Another Lakota myth mentions that the bottom half of Orion, the Constellation of the Hand, represented the arm of a chief that was ripped off by the Thunder People as a punishment from the gods for his selfishness. His daughter offered to marry the person who can retrieve his arm from the sky, so the young warrior Fallen Star (whose father was a star and whose mother was human) returned his arm and married his daughter, symbolizing harmony between the gods and humanity with the help of the younger generation. The index finger is represented by Rigel; the Orion Nebula is the thumb; the Belt of Orion is the wrist; and the star Beta Eridani is the pinky finger.
Austronesian
The seven primary stars of Orion make up the Polynesian constellation Heiheionakeiki which represents a child's string figure similar to a cat's cradle.
Precolonial Visayans referred to it as "balatik" (ballista) as it resembles a trap of the same name which fires arrows by itself and is usually used for catching pigs from the bush.
In Māori tradition, the star Rigel (known as Puanga or Puaka) is closely connected with the celebration of Matariki. The rising of Matariki (the Pleiades) and Rigel before sunrise in midwinter marks the start of the Māori year.
Contemporary symbolism
The imagery of the belt and sword has found its way into popular western culture, for example in the form of the shoulder insignia of the 27th Infantry Division of the United States Army during both World Wars, probably owing to a pun on the name of the division's first commander, Major General John F. O'Ryan.
The film distribution company Orion Pictures used the constellation as its logo.
Depictions
In artistic renderings, the surrounding constellations are sometimes related to Orion: he is depicted standing next to the river Eridanus with his two hunting dogs Canis Major and Canis Minor, fighting Taurus. He is sometimes depicted hunting Lepus the hare. He sometimes is depicted to have a lion's hide in his hand.
There are alternative ways to visualise Orion. From the Southern Hemisphere, Orion is oriented south-upward, and the belt and sword are sometimes called the saucepan or pot in Australia and New Zealand. Orion's Belt is called Drie Konings (Three Kings) or the Drie Susters (Three Sisters) by Afrikaans speakers in South Africa and are referred to as les Trois Rois (the Three Kings) in Daudet's Lettres de Mon Moulin (1866). The appellation Driekoningen (the Three Kings) is also often found in 17th- and 18th-century Dutch star charts and seaman's guides. The same three stars are known in Spain, Latin America, and the Philippines as "Las Tres Marías" (The Three Marys), and as "Los Tres Reyes Magos" (The three Wise Men) in Puerto Rico.
Even traditional depictions of Orion have varied greatly. Cicero drew Orion in a similar fashion to the modern depiction. The Hunter held an unidentified animal skin aloft in his right hand; his hand was represented by Omicron2 Orionis and the skin was represented by the 5 stars designated Pi Orionis. Kappa and Beta Orionis represented his left and right knees, while Eta and Lambda Leporis were his left and right feet, respectively. As in the modern depiction, Delta, Epsilon, and Zeta represented his belt. His left shoulder was represented by Alpha Orionis, and Mu Orionis made up his left arm. Lambda Orionis was his head and Gamma, his right shoulder. The depiction of Hyginus was similar to that of Cicero, though the two differed in a few important areas. Cicero's animal skin became Hyginus's shield (Omicron and Pi Orionis), and instead of an arm marked out by Mu Orionis, he holds a club (Chi Orionis). His right leg is represented by Theta Orionis and his left leg is represented by Lambda, Mu, and Epsilon Leporis. Further Western European and Arabic depictions have followed these two models.
Future
Orion is located on the celestial equator, but it will not always be so located due to the effects of precession of the Earth's axis. Orion lies well south of the ecliptic, and it only happens to lie on the celestial equator because the point on the ecliptic that corresponds to the June solstice is close to the border of Gemini and Taurus, to the north of Orion. Precession will eventually carry Orion further south, and by AD 14000, Orion will be far enough south that it will no longer be visible from the latitude of Great Britain.
Further in the future, Orion's stars will gradually move away from the constellation due to proper motion. However, Orion's brightest stars all lie at a large distance from the Earth on an astronomical scale—much farther away than Sirius, for example. Orion will still be recognizable long after most of the other constellations—composed of relatively nearby stars—have distorted into new configurations, with the exception of a few of its stars eventually exploding as supernovae, for example Betelgeuse, which is predicted to explode sometime in the next million years.
See also
EURion constellation
Hubble 3D (2010), IMAX film with an elaborate CGI "fly-through" of the Orion Nebula
Orion (Chinese astronomy)
Orion correlation theory
Orvandil
Urania
Winter Hexagon
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton Universitl Press, Princeton. .
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Orion
Melbourne Planetarium: Orion Sky Tour
Views of Orion from other places in our Galaxy
The clickable Orion
Star Tales – Orion
Deep Widefield image of Orion
Constellations of Words. Orion
Beautiful Astrophoto: Zoom Into Orion
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Orion)
Constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
Equatorial constellations | wiki |
A remote collision, in CSMA/CD computer networks, is a collision that occurs when a frame having length less than minimum length and with an incorrect frame check sequence, is transmitted. This frame causes a collision at the remote end which will not be detected by the transmitter.
Ethernet | wiki |
Back pain is pain felt in the back. It may be classified as neck pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected. The lumbar area is the most common area affected. An episode of back pain may be acute, subacute or chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate to the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet, and may include numbness or weakness in the legs and arms.
The majority of back pain is nonspecific and idiopathic. Common underlying mechanisms include degenerative or traumatic changes to the discs and facet joints, which can then cause secondary pain in the muscles and nerves and referred pain to the bones, joints and extremities. Diseases and inflammation of the gallbladder, pancreas, aorta and kidneys may also cause referred pain in the back. Tumors of the vertebrae, neural tissues and adjacent structures can also manifest as back pain.
Back pain is common; approximately nine of ten adults experience it at some point in their lives, and five of ten working adults experience back pain each year. Some estimate that as many of 95% of people will experience back pain at some point in their lifetime. It is the most common cause of chronic pain and is a major contributor to missed work and disability. For most individuals, back pain is self-limiting. Most people with back pain do not experience chronic severe pain but rather persistent or intermittent pain that is mild or moderate. In most cases of herniated disks and stenosis, rest, injections or surgery have similar general pain-resolution outcomes on average after one year. In the United States, acute low back pain is the fifth most common reason for physician visits and causes 40% of missed work days. It is the single leading cause of disability worldwide.
Classification
Back pain is classified in terms of duration of symptoms.
Acute back pain lasts <6 weeks
Subacute back pain lasts between 6 and 12 weeks.
Chronic back pain lasts for greater than 12 weeks.
Causes
There are many causes of back pain, including blood vessels, internal organs, infections, mechanical and autoimmune causes. Approximately 90 percent of people with back pain are diagnosed with nonspecific, idiopathic acute pain with no identifiable underlying pathology. In approximately 10 percent of people, a cause can be identified through diagnostic imaging. Fewer than two percent of cases are attributed to secondary factors, with metastatic cancers and serious infections, such as spinal osteomyelitis and epidural abscesses, accounting for approximately one percent.
Nonspecific
In as many as 90 percent of cases, no physiological causes or abnormalities on diagnostic tests can be found. Nonspecific back pain can result from back strain or sprains, which can cause peripheral injury to muscle or ligaments. Many patients cannot identify the events or activities that may have caused the strain. The pain can present acutely but in some cases can persist, leading to chronic pain.
Chronic back pain in people with otherwise normal scans can result from central sensitization, in which an initial injury causes a longer-lasting state of heightened sensitivity to pain. This persistent state maintains pain even after the initial injury has healed. Treatment of sensitization may involve low doses of antidepressants and directed rehabilitation such as physical therapy.
Spinal disc disease
Spinal disc disease occurs when the nucleus pulposus, a gel-like material in the inner core of the vertebral disc, ruptures. Rupturing of the nucleus pulposus can lead to compression of nerve roots. Symptoms may be unilateral or bilateral, and correlate to the region of the spine affected. The most common region for spinal disk disease is at L4–L5 or L5–S1. The risk for lumbar disc disease is increased in overweight individuals because of the increased compressive force on the nucleus pulposus, and is twice as likely to occur in men. A 2002 study found that lifestyle factors such as night-shift work and lack of physical activity can also increase the risk of lumbar disc disease.
Severe spinal-cord compression is considered a surgical emergency and requires decompression to preserve motor and sensory function. Cauda equina syndrome involves severe compression of the cauda equina and presents initially with pain followed by motor and sensory. Bladder incontinence is seen in later stages of cauda equina syndrome.
Degenerative disease
Spondylosis, or degenerative arthritis of the spine, occurs when the intervertebral disc undergoes degenerative changes, causing the disc to fail at cushioning the vertebrae. There is an association between intervertebral disc space narrowing and lumbar spine pain. The space between the vertebrae becomes more narrow, resulting in compression and irritation of the nerves.
Spondylolithesis is the anterior shift of one vertebra compared to the neighboring vertebra. It is associated with age-related degenerative changes as well as trauma and congenital anomalies.
Spinal stenosis can occur in cases of severe spondylosis, spondylotheisis and age-associated thickening of the ligamentum flavum. Spinal stenosis involves narrowing of the spinal canal and typically presents in patients greater than 60 years of age. Neurogenic claudication can occur in cases of severe lumbar spinal stenosis and presents with symptoms of pain in the lower back, buttock or leg that is worsened by standing and relieved by sitting.
Vertebral compression fractures occur in four percent of patients presenting with lower back pain. Risk factors include age, female gender, history of osteoporosis, and chronic glucocorticoid use. Fractures can occur as a result of trauma but in many cases can be asymptomatic.
Infection
Common infectious causes of back pain include osteomyelitis, septic discitis, paraspinal abscess and epidural abscess. Infectious causes that lead to back pain involve various structures surrounding the spine.
Osteomyelitis is the bacterial infection of the bone. Vertebral osteomyelitis is most commonly caused by staphylococci. Risk factors include skin infection, urinary tract infection, IV catheter use, IV drug use, previous endocarditis and lung disease.
Spinal epidural abscess is commonly caused by severe infection with bacteremia. Risk factors include recent administration of epidurals, IV drug use or recent infection.
Cancer
Spread of cancer to the bone or spinal cord can lead to back pain. Bone is one of the most common sites of metastatic lesions. Patients typically have a history of malignancy. Common types of cancer that present with back pain include multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia, spinal cord tumors, primary vertebral tumors and prostate cancer. Back pain is present in 29% of patients with systemic cancer. Unlike other causes of back pain that commonly affect the lumbar spine, the thoracic spine is most commonly affected. The pain can be associated with systemic symptoms such as weight loss, chills, fever, nausea and vomiting. Unlike other causes of back pain, neoplasm-associated back pain is constant, dull, poorly localized and worsens with rest. Metastasis to the bone also increases the risk of spinal-cord compression or vertebral fractures that require emergency surgical treatment.
Autoimmune
Inflammatory arthritides such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus can all cause varying levels of joint destruction. Among the inflammatory arthritides, ankylosing spondylitis is most closely associated with back pain because of the inflammatory destruction of the bony components of the spine. Ankylosing spondylitis is common in young men and presents with a range of possible symptoms such as uveitis, psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease.
Referred pain
Back pain can also be referred from another source. Referred pain occurs when pain is felt at a location different than the source of the pain. Disease processes that can present with back pain include pancreatitis, kidney stones, severe urinary tract infections and abdominal aortic aneurysms.
Risk factors
Heavy lifting, obesity, sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise can increase the risk of back pain. Cigarette smokers are more likely to experience back pain than are nonsmokers. Poor posture and weight gain in pregnancy are also risk factors for back pain. In general, fatigue can worsen pain.
A few studies suggest that psychosocial factors such as work-related stress and dysfunctional family relationships may correlate more closely with back pain than do structural abnormalities revealed in X-rays and other medical imaging scans.
While back pain physical effects can range from muscle aching to a shooting, burning, or stabbing sensation. It can radiate pain down the legs and have pain increased by bending, twisting, lifting, standing, or walking. While the physical effects of back pain are always at the forefront back pain also has other psychological effects. Back pain has been linked to depression, anxiety, stress, and avoidance behaviors due to mentally not being able to cope with the physical pain. Both acute and chronic back pain can be associated with psychological distress in the form of anxiety (worries, stress) or depression (sadness, discouragement). Psychological distress is a common reaction to the suffering aspects of acute back pain, even when symptoms are short-term and not medically serious.
Diagnosis
Initial assessment of back pain consists of a history and physical examination. Important characterizing features of back pain include location, duration, severity, history of prior back pain and possible trauma. Other important components of the patient history include age, physical trauma, prior history of cancer, fever, weight loss, urinary incontinence, progressive weakness or expanding sensory changes, which can indicate a medically urgent condition.
Physical examination of the back should assess for posture and deformities. Pain elicited by palpating certain structures may be helpful in localizing the affected area. A neurologic exam is needed to assess for changes in gait, sensation and motor function.
Determining if there are radicular symptoms, such as pain, numbness or weakness that radiate down limbs, is important for differentiating between central and peripheral causes of back pain. The straight leg test is a maneuver used to determine the presence of lumbosacral radiculopathy, which occurs when there is irritation in the nerve root that causes neurologic symptoms such as numbness and tingling. Non-radicular back pain is most commonly caused by injury to the spinal muscles or ligaments, degenerative spinal disease or a herniated disc. Disc herniation and foraminal stenosis are the most common causes of radiculopathy.
Imaging of the spine and laboratory tests is not recommended during the acute phase. This assumes that there is no reason to expect that the patient has an underlying problem. In most cases, the pain subsides naturally after several weeks. People who seek diagnosis through imaging are typically less likely to receive a better outcome than are those who wait for the condition to resolve.
Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the preferred modality for the evaluation of back pain and visualization of bone, soft tissue, nerves and ligaments. X-rays are a less costly initial option offered to patients with a low clinical suspicion of infection or malignancy, and they are combined with laboratory studies for interpretation.
Imaging is not needed for the majority of patients with back pain. In cases of acute back pain, MRI is recommended for those with major risk factors or clinical suspicion of cancer, spinal infection or severe progressive neurological deficits. For patients with subacute to chronic back pain, MRI is recommended if minor risk factors exist for cancer, ankylosing spondylitis or vertebral compression fracture, or if significant trauma or symptomatic spinal stenosis is present.
Early imaging studies during the acute phase do not improve care or prognosis. Imaging findings are not correlated with severity or outcome.
Laboratory studies
Laboratory studies are employed when there are suspicions of autoimmune causes, infection or malignancy. Laboratory testing may include white blood cell (WBC) count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and C-reactive protein (CRP).
Elevated ESR could indicate infection, malignancy, chronic disease, inflammation, trauma or tissue ischemia.
Elevated CRP levels are associated with infection.
Red flags
Imaging is not typically needed in the initial diagnosis or treatment of back pain. However, if there are certain "red flag" symptoms present, plain radiographs (X-ray), CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging may be recommended. These red flags include:
History of cancer
Unexplained weight loss
Immunosuppression
Urinary infection
Intravenous drug use
Prolonged use of corticosteroids
Back pain not improved with conservative management
History of significant trauma
Minor fall or heavy lift in a potentially osteoporotic or elderly individual
Acute onset of urinary retention, overflow incontinence, loss of anal sphincter tone, or fecal incontinence
Saddle anesthesia
Global or progressive motor weakness in the lower limbs
Prevention
Moderate-quality evidence exists that suggests that the combination of education and exercise may reduce an individual's risk of developing an episode of low back pain. Lesser-quality evidence points to exercise alone as a possible deterrent to the risk of the condition.
Management
Nonspecific pain
Patients with uncomplicated back pain should be encouraged to remain active and to return to normal activities.
The management goals when treating back pain are to achieve maximal reduction in pain intensity as rapidly as possible, to restore the individual's ability to function in everyday activities, to help the patient cope with residual pain, to assess for side effects of therapy and to facilitate the patient's passage through the legal and socioeconomic impediments to recovery. For many, the goal is to keep the pain at a manageable level to progress with rehabilitation, which then can lead to long-term pain relief. Also, for some people the goal is to use nonsurgical therapies to manage the pain and avoid major surgery, while for others surgery may represent the quickest path to pain relief.
Not all treatments work for all conditions or for all individuals with the same condition, and many must try several treatment options to determine what works best for them. The present stage of the condition (acute or chronic) is also a determining factor in the choice of treatment. Only a minority of people with back pain (most estimates are 1–10%) require surgery.
Nonmedical
Back pain is generally first treated with nonpharmacological therapy, as it typically resolves without the use of medication. Superficial heat and massage, acupuncture and spinal manipulation therapy may be recommended.
Heat therapy is useful for back spasms or other conditions. A review concluded that heat therapy can reduce symptoms of acute and subacute low-back pain.
Regular activity and gentle stretching exercises is encouraged in uncomplicated back pain and is associated with better long-term outcomes. Physical therapy to strengthen the muscles in the abdomen and around the spine may also be recommended. These exercises are associated with better patient satisfaction, although they have not been shown to provide functional improvement. However, one review found that exercise is effective for chronic back pain but not for acute pain. Exercise should be performed under the supervision of a healthcare professional.
Massage therapy may provide short-term pain relief, but not functional improvement, for those with acute lower back pain. It may also offer short-term pain relief and functional improvement for those with long-term (chronic) and subacute lower pack pain, but this benefit does not appear to be sustained after six months of treatment. There do not appear to be any serious adverse effects associated with massage.
Acupuncture may provide some relief for back pain. However, further research with stronger evidence is needed.
Spinal manipulation appears to provide similar effects to other recommended treatments for chronic low back pain. There is no evidence it is more effective than other therapies or sham, or as an adjunct to other treatments, for acute low back pain
"Back school" is an intervention that consists of both education and physical exercises. There is no strong evidence supporting the use of back school for treating acute, subacute, or chronic non-specific back pain.
Insoles appear to be an ineffective treatment intervention.
While traction for back pain is often used in combination with other approaches, there appears to be little or no impact on pain intensity, functional status, global improvement or return to work.
Medication
If nonpharmacological measures are ineffective, medication may be administered.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are typically attempted first. NSAIDs have been proven more effective than placebo, and are usually more effective than paracetamol (acetaminophen).
Long-term use of opioids has not been tested to determine whether it is effective or safe for treating chronic lower back pain. For severe back pain not relieved by NSAIDs or acetaminophen, opioids may be used. Opioids may not be better than NSAIDs or antidepressants for chronic back pain with regard to pain relief and gain of function.
Skeletal muscle relaxers may also be used. Their short-term use has been proven effective in the relief of acute back pain. However, the evidence of this effect has been disputed, and these medications do have negative side effects.
For patients with nerve root pain and acute radiculopathy, there is evidence that a single dose of steroids, such as dexamethasone, may provide pain relief.
Epidural corticosteroid injection (ESI) is a procedure in which steroid medications are injected into the epidural space. The steroid medications reduce inflammation and thus decrease pain and improve function. ESI has long been used to both diagnose and treat back pain, although recent studies have shown a lack of efficacy in treating low back pain.
Surgery
Surgery for back pain is typically used as a last resort, when serious neurological deficit is evident. A 2009 systematic review of back surgery studies found that, for certain diagnoses, surgery is moderately better than other common treatments, but the benefits of surgery often decline in the long term.
Surgery may sometimes be appropriate for people with severe myelopathy or cauda equina syndrome. Causes of neurological deficits can include spinal disc herniation, spinal stenosis, degenerative disc disease, tumor, infection, and spinal hematomas, all of which can impinge on the nerve roots around the spinal cord. There are multiple surgical options to treat back pain, and these options vary depending on the cause of the pain.
When a herniated disc is compressing the nerve roots, hemi- or partial- laminectomy or discectomy may be performed, in which the material compressing on the nerve is removed. A mutli-level laminectomy can be done to widen the spinal canal in the case of spinal stenosis. A foraminotomy or foraminectomy may also be necessary, if the vertebrae are causing significant nerve root compression. A discectomy is performed when the intervertebral disc has herniated or torn. It involves removing the protruding disc, either a portion of it or all of it, that is placing pressure on the nerve root. Total disc replacement can also be performed, in which the source of the pain (the damaged disc) is removed and replaced, while maintaining spinal mobility. When an entire disc is removed (as in discectomy), or when the vertebrae are unstable, spinal fusion surgery may be performed. Spinal fusion is a procedure in which bone grafts and metal hardware is used to fix together two or more vertebrae, thus preventing the bones of the spinal column from compressing on the spinal cord or nerve roots.
If infection, such as a spinal epidural abscess, is the source of the back pain, surgery may be indicated when a trial of antibiotics is ineffective. Surgical evacuation of spinal hematoma can also be attempted, if the blood products fail to break down on their own.
Pregnancy
About 50% of women experience low back pain during pregnancy. Some studies have suggested that women who have experienced back pain before pregnancy are at a higher risk of experiencing back pain during pregnancy. It may be severe enough to cause significant pain and disability in as many as one third of pregnant women. Back pain typically begins at approximately 18 weeks of gestation and peaks between 24 and 36 weeks. Approximately 16% of women who experience back pain during pregnancy report continued back pain years after pregnancy, indicating that those with significant back pain are at greater risk of back pain following pregnancy.
Biomechanical factors of pregnancy shown to be associated with back pain include increased curvature of the lower back, or lumbar lordosis, to support the added weight on the abdomen. Also, the hormone relaxin is released during pregnancy, which softens the structural tissues in the pelvis and lower back to prepare for vaginal delivery. This softening and increased flexibility of the ligaments and joints in the lower back can result in pain. Back pain in pregnancy is often accompanied by radicular symptoms, suggested to be caused by the baby pressing on the sacral plexus and lumbar plexus in the pelvis.
Typical factors aggravating the back pain of pregnancy include standing, sitting, forward bending, lifting and walking. Back pain in pregnancy may also be characterized by pain radiating into the thigh and buttocks, nighttime pain severe enough to wake the patient, pain that is increased at night or pain that is increased during the daytime.
Local heat, acetaminophen (paracetamol) and massage can be used to help relieve pain. Avoiding standing for prolonged periods of time is also suggested.
Economics
Although back pain does not typically cause permanent disability, it is a significant contributor to physician visits and missed work days in the United States, and is the single leading cause of disability worldwide. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons report approximately 12 million visits to doctor's offices each year are due to back pain. Missed work and disability related to low back pain costs over $50 billion each year in the United States. In the United Kingdom in 1998, approximately £1.6 billion per year was spent on expenses related to disability from back pain.
References
External links
Pain
Bones of the vertebral column
Human back | wiki |
Self-policing is another term for self-governance, a group or community autonomously managing their own affairs.
Self-policing may also refer to:
Emotional self-regulation
Industry self-regulation
Self-control, in sociology / psychology
Self-regulatory organizations, in business and finance | wiki |
Dan Dunn was the first fictional character to appear in an American comic book.
Dan Dunn may also refer to:
Dan Dunn (painter), American improvisational artist
Dan Dunn (writer) (born 1968), American comedy writer | wiki |
A spare wheel cover or spare tire cover is an accessory that covers the spare wheel mounted on external part of a car or van. On 4x4 vehicles the spare wheel is normally rear mounted and is often printed with a dealer's name or something more fun. Covers can be hard shells or soft vinyl covers. Spare wheel cover protects spare tires from the dirt and the sun's harmful UV rays in areas with many days of sunshine. Spare wheel covers need to be removed once in a while and cleaned.
Photo gallery
References
Automotive accessories | wiki |
Volleyball drills are specialized exercises that enhance teams and players volleyball skills. There are numerous volleyball drills that teams and players can utilize in order to improve and further develop their skills in all areas of the game such as passing, serving, attacking, setting, blocking, and digging. From beginners to well-seasoned players, drills can help all players gain repetitions in various skills and positions; the more repetitions, the better a player can become.
Serving drills
“Around the World” is a serving drill, and its purpose is for players to practice serving to the six different zones on the court. Being able to serve and target any area on the court is a valuable skill to have, especially when playing an opponent.
Rules of “Around the World”
Split the volleyball team in half into two teams, half of the team goes to one side of the court, and the other half goes to the opposite side of the court.
Each team will then designate one person to sit in zone 1 on the side of the court they will be serving the ball to.
The teams will then serve to zone 1 on the court in order for their teammate sitting in zone 1 to catch the ball.
Once the teammate that is sitting on the court has caught the volleyball, they will run to the other side of the court where the team is, and a different teammate will run to the other side of the court and sit in zone 2.
Repeat the steps above until the teammate sitting in zone 2 has caught the ball. Continue these steps through zone 6 on the court.
The first team to serve all six zones on the court and have their teammates catch the ball in those areas wins the drill.
Serve-receive/passing drills
Servers vs. Passers is a drill that gives teams the opportunity to practice their serve-receive skills. The goal of this drill is to improve the skills of passers and encourage aggressive serving.
Rules of "Servers vs. Passers"
Select three players on the team to be passers. The passers will go to areas 1, 6, and 5 on one side of the court.
Select a target to be in the setter position, area 2, on the court.
The rest of the players will be the servers on the opposite side of the court from the passers. The servers will serve to the other side of the court.
The passers will pass the served balls to the target in the setter position.
The goal of the drill is to pass directly to the target in the setter position within a one-foot radius of the target. If the passers can pass the served ball within a one-foot radius of the target, this is considered a “good” pass and the passers will get a point.
If the passers cannot pass the ball within a one-foot radius of the target or the server gets an ace, the servers will get a point. The first group (either servers or passers) to get to ten points (or any point value you choose) will win the drill.
Setting drills
A popular setting drill is called the “Front-Back Challenge." The purpose of this drill is for the
setter to feel comfortable adjusting to last minute directions on where to set the ball, as well as practice consistently setting the ball to any of the front row hitters: outside, middle, and right side.
Rules of "Front-Back Challenge"
A setter goes to zone 2.
Have players stand in as targets in the outside hitter position, middle hitter position, and right side hitter position.
The coach tosses balls to the setter (or a passer passes to the setter).
The coach yells out “front” or “back” before the ball reaches the setter. If “front” is called out, the setter must set the ball in front of him/herself to either the middle hitter or outside hitter. If “back” is called out, the setter must back set the ball to the right side hitter.
Have the setter complete 30 set balls in the correct direction.
Blocking drills
Blocking is a key component in the game of volleyball, and is the first line of defense against an attack. A drill that allows players to work on their blocking skills is called "Blocking Various Attacks]." The purpose of this drill is to teach blockers to block a variety of attacks that will come from the opponents side of the court.
Rules of "Blocking Various Attacks"
Put 3 blockers on one side of the net in left front, middle front, and right front.
Have the coach stand on a large block on the other side of the net in the front row directly across from the blockers.
The coach will slap the ball and turn and raise their shoulder in the angle of any of the blockers and hit the ball.
The blockers will penetrate their hands over the net in order to block the attack. If the coach angles towards the outside, the outside blocker and middle blocker will block the left side together. If the coach angles towards the middle, the middle blocker will block. The player could also put up a triple block (the middle blocker, outside blocker, and right side blocker all block the middle front attack together). If the coach angles towards the right side, the right side blocker and middle block will put up a double block on the right side of the net.
To make this drill more game like, replace the coach on the block with an actual setter and 3 hitters on the opposite side of the net.
Digging drills
Digging is another key component in that it is the second line of defense against an attack in the game of volleyball. A drill that allows players to hone their defensive digging skills is called "Digging Drill". The purpose of this drill is for players to practice absorbing the ball.
Rules of "Digging Drill"
Put 3 players on the court in back row defensive positions in right back, middle back, and left back.
Have another player standing in the as a target in the setter position.
Have the coach positioned on the same side of the court in the front left or front right position facing the 3 back row defensive players.
The coach will hit down balls at various speeds to the back row players.
The back row players will have to dig the ball to the target position.
References
External links
Volleyball Drill Types at Volleyball Expert
Volleyball Advisors
Volleyball Drills Archive at USCA
Volleyball drills on video
Drills | wiki |
A sled, skid, sledge, or sleigh is a land vehicle that slides across a surface, usually of ice or snow. It is built with either a smooth underside or a separate body supported by two or more smooth, relatively narrow, longitudinal runners similar in principle to skis. This reduces the amount of friction, which helps to carry heavy loads.
Some designs are used to transport passengers or cargo across relatively level ground. Others are designed to go downhill for recreation, particularly by children, or competition. (Compare cross-country skiing with its downhill cousin.) Shades of meaning differentiating the three terms often reflect regional variations depending on historical uses and prevailing climate.
In British English, sledge is the general term, and more common than sled. Toboggan is sometimes used synonymously with sledge but more often to refer to a particular type of sledge without runners. Sleigh refers to a moderate to large-sized, usually open-topped vehicle to carry passengers or goods, and typically drawn by horses, dogs, or reindeer.
In American usage sled remains the general term but often implies a smaller device, often for recreational use. Sledge implies a heavier sled used for moving freight or massive objects. Sleigh refers more specifically than in Britain to a vehicle which is essentially a cold-season alternative to a carriage or wagon and has seating for passengers; what can be called a dog-sleigh in Britain is known only as a dog-sled in North America.
In Australia, where there is limited snow, sleigh and sledge are given equal preference in local parlance.
Etymology
The word sled comes from Middle English , which itself has the origins in Middle Dutch word slēde, meaning 'sliding' or 'slider'. The same word shares common ancestry with both sleigh and sledge. The word sleigh, on the other hand, is an anglicized form of the modern Dutch word and was introduced to the English language by Dutch immigrants to North America.
Operation
Sleds are especially useful in winter but can also be drawn over wet fields, muddy roads, and even hard ground if one helps them along by greasing the blades ("grease the skids") with oil or alternatively wetting them with water. For an explanation of why sleds and other objects glide with various degrees of friction ranging from very little to fairly little friction on ice, icy snow, wet snow, and dry snow, see the relevant sections in the articles on ice and ice skating. The traditional explanation of the pressure of sleds on the snow or ice producing a thin film of water and this enabling sleds to move on ice with little friction is insufficient.
Various types of sleds are pulled by animals such as reindeer, horses, mules, oxen, or dogs.
History
The people of Ancient Egypt are thought to have used sledges (aka "skids") extensively in the construction of their public works, in particular for the transportation of heavy obelisks over sand.
Sleds and sledges were found in the Oseberg "Viking" ship excavation. The sledge was also highly prized, because – unlike wheeled vehicles – it was exempt from tolls.
Until the late 19th century, a closed winter sled, or vozok, provided a high-speed means of transport through the snow-covered plains of European Russia and Siberia. It was a means of transport preferred by royals, bishops, and boyars of Muscovy. Several royal vozoks of historical importance have been preserved in the Kremlin Armoury.
Man-hauled sledges were the traditional means of transport on British exploring expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic regions in the 19th and early 20th centuries, championed for example by Captain Scott. Dog sleds were used by most others, such as Roald Amundsen.
Modern sleds
Transport
Some of these originally used draft animals but are now more likely to be pulled by an engine (snowmobile or tractor). Some use human power.
The word "motor sled" is colloquial term for a snowmobile
The Inuit qamutiik is uniquely adapted for travel on the sea ice.
The pulk (or ahkio) is a traditional sled of the Lapland region, used for expeditions, mountain rescue, and cold weather military units to haul equipment, supplies, and passengers.
Rescue toboggan, developed from the pulk
Stone boat, a farm vehicle used for moving heavy objects such as stones or haybales; can be towed by a tractor.
Today some people use kites to tow exploration sleds.
Recreation
There are several types of recreational sleds designed for sliding down snowy hills (sledding):
Toboggan, an elongated sled without runners, usually made from wood or plastic, but sometimes made from sheet metal.
Saucer, a round sled curved like a saucer (see also flying saucer), also without runners and usually made out of plastic or metal
Flexible Flyer, a steerable wooden sled with thin metal runners
Kicksled or spark, a human-powered sled
Inflatable sled or tube, a plastic membrane filled with air to make a very lightweight sled, like an inner tube
Foam slider, a flat piece of durable foam with handles and a smooth underside
Backcountry sled, a deep, steerable plastic sled to kneel on with pads and a seat belt
Airboard, a snow bodyboard, i.e. an inflatable single-person sled
Competition
A few types of sleds are used only for a specific sport:
Bobsled (British: bobsleigh), an aerodynamic composite-bodied vehicle on lightweight runners
Luge and the skeleton, tiny one or two-person sleds with runners
Other
A cutter is an open, lightweight, horse-drawn sleigh that usually holds no more than two people. It was developed in the United States around 1800. Historic styles were often quite decorative. About 1920, cutter racing began in the American Rocky Mountain west, first using a simple homemade chariot on skis, later replaced by a bicycle-wheeled chariot that was also pulled over snow.
Troika, a traditional Russian vehicle drawn by three horses, usually a sled, but it may also be a wheeled carriage.
A sled or "stone boat", seen in truck and tractor pulling and horse pulling. A flat sled able to carry increasing amounts of weight to determine the maximum load the animal or machine can pull.
See also
Snowboard
Luge
Travois, a frame used to drag loads over land, i.e. another horse-drawn transport method without wheels
References
External links
Animal-powered vehicles
Human-powered vehicles
Racing vehicles
Sledding
Sliding vehicles
Snow
Sports equipment | wiki |
Like a Stranger may refer to:
Like a Stranger (album), an album by Johnny O
Like a Stranger (EP), an EP by Kitten
"Like a Stranger", a song by The Psychedelic Furs from the album Mirror Moves
"Like a Stranger", a song by Kitten from their self-titled album
See also
"Like Strangers", a song popularized by The Everly Brothers in 1960 | wiki |
Dancewear is clothing commonly worn by dancers. Items of dancewear include:
arm warmers
dance belts
dance shoes
legwarmers
leotards and unitards
pointe shoes
skirts
tights
tutus
See also
Dance costume
Sportswear
References
Dancewear
Dancewear | wiki |
A Shoulder tap is a bid for attention, but by extension it may refer to
Shoulder tap (alcohol), an act in which a minor asks an adult to purchase alcohol for him or her
Shoulder tap, another term for an inter-processor interrupt on a multiprocessor system
It can also refer to:
Shoulder tap (Yonkyō), an aikido move | wiki |
A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. In short, ticker symbols are arrangements of symbols or characters (generally Latin letters or digits) representing specific assets or securities listed on a stock exchange or traded publicly. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both. "Ticker symbol" refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine.
Interpreting the symbol
Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market. A stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, and to make it easy to recognize by traders and investors.
The allocation of symbols and formatting conventions is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the company name where possible. For example, US-based computer company stock Apple Inc. traded on the NASDAQ exchange has the symbol AAPL, while the motor company Ford's stock that is traded on the New York Stock Exchange has the single-letter ticker F. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes; for example, Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA. In Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBC's stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005.
Symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a phonetic spelling of the company "XON" as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was "XOM". Symbols are sometimes reused. In the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since March of 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously been used by Vivendi which had delisted and given up the symbol.
To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known. On many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker.
Other identifiers
Although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks, and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes. The most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number (ISIN). An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO 6166. Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN code is a 12-character alpha-numerical code that does not contain information characterizing financial instruments, but serves for uniform identification of a security at trading and settlement.
The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange (if any) on which it trades; it is, therefore, not a replacement for the ticker symbol. For instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide and is priced in five foreign currencies; it has the same ISIN on each (DE0007100000), though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, typically the three- or four-letter exchange code (such as the Market Identifier Code), will have to be specified in addition to the ISIN.
Symbol for stock market indices
While usually a stock ticker identifies a security that can be traded, stock market indices are also sometimes assigned a symbol, even though they can generally not be traded. Symbols for indices are usually distinguished by adding a symbol in front of the name, such as a circumflex (or 'caret') or a dot. For example, Reuters lists the Nasdaq Composite index under the symbol .IXIC.
Symbols by country
Australia
In Australia the Australian Securities Exchange uses the following conventions:
Three character base symbol with the first and third character being alphanumeric and the second alphabetic. ETFs and ETMFs can be either 3 or 4 characters. Exchange-traded warrants and exchange-traded options are six characters. ETOs can have numbers in the sixth character.
Canada
In Canada the Toronto Stock Exchange TSX and the TSXV use the following special codes after the ticker symbol:
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, prior to 1996, stock codes were known as EPICs, named after the London Stock Exchange's Exchange Price Information Computer (e.g.: "MKS" for Marks and Spencer). Following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics (TIDM), but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL (Stock Exchange Daily Official List) number or their ISIN (International Securities Identification Number).
United States
In the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poor's (S&P) to bring a national standard to investing. Previously, a single company could have many ticker symbols as they varied between the dozens of individual stock markets. The term ticker refers to the noise made by the ticker tape machines once widely used by stock exchanges.
The S&P system was later standardized by the securities industry and modified as the years passed. Stock symbols for preferred stock have not been standardized.
Some companies use a well-known product as their ticker symbol. Belgian brewer AB InBev, the brewer of Budweiser beer, uses "BUD" (symbolizing its premier product in the United States) as its three-letter ticker for American Depository Receipts. Its rival, the Molson Coors Brewing Company, uses a similarly beer-related symbol, "TAP". Likewise, Southwest Airlines pays tribute to its headquarters at Love Field in Dallas through its "LUV" symbol. Cedar Fair Entertainment Company, which operates large amusement parks in the United States, uses "FUN" as its symbol. Harley-Davidson uses "HOG", an abbreviation for the corporate-sponsored Harley Owners Group. Yamana Gold uses "AUY", because on the periodic table of elements, "Au" is the symbol for gold. Sotheby's (the famous auction house) uses the symbol "BID". Petco uses the symbol "WOOF," a reference to the sound made by dogs.
While most symbols come from the company's name, sometimes it happens the other way around. Tricon Global, owner of KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell, adopted the symbol "YUM" to represent its corporate mission when the company was spun out of PepsiCo in 1997. In 2002, the company changed its name to match its symbol, adopting the name Yum! Brands.
Symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Before the 1999 merger with Mobil, Exxon used a phonetic spelling of the company "XON" as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was "XOM". After Hewlett-Packard merged with Compaq, the new firm took on the ticker symbol "HPQ". (The former symbols were HWP and CPQ.) AT&T's ticker symbol is "T"; accordingly, the company is referred to simply as "Telephone" on Wall Street (the T symbol is so well known that when SBC purchased the company, it took the AT&T name, capitalizing on its history and keeping the desired single letter symbol).
Some examples of US Stock symbols include:
A – Agilent Technologies
AAPL – Apple
BRK.(A/B) - Berkshire Hathaway (Class A or B shares marked by a letter following period, BRK.A or BRK.B)
C – Citigroup
GOOG – Alphabet (parent company of Google)
HOG – Harley-Davidson
HPQ - Hewlett-Packard
INTC – Intel
KO – The Coca-Cola Company
LUV - Southwest Airlines (after their main hub at Love Field)
MMM – 3M (originally known as Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing)
MSFT – Microsoft
T - AT&T
TGT – Target Corporation
TXN – Texas Instruments
XOM - ExxonMobil
WOOF - Petco
WMT – Walmart
Formerly, a glance at a U.S. stock symbol and its appended codes would allow an investor to determine where a stock trades; however, in July 2007, the SEC approved a rule change allowing companies moving from the New York Stock Exchange to the Nasdaq to retain their three-letter symbols; DirecTV was one of the first companies to make this move. When first implemented, the rule change did not apply to companies with one or two-letter symbols, but subsequently any stock was able to move from the NYSE to the Nasdaq without changing its symbol. CA Technologies, which traded under the symbol CA before it was acquired in 2018, moved from the NYSE to the Nasdaq in April 2008 and kept its two-letter symbol.
Single-letter NYSE ticker symbols
A: Agilent Technologies (previously used by Anaconda Copper, American Medical Buildings, Attwoods and Astra AB)
B: Barnes Group (previously used by Bankers Utilities Corporation and Baldwin Lima Hamilton)
C: Citigroup (previously used by Chrysler)
D: Dominion Energy (previously used by Douglas Aircraft Company and Dart Industries)
E: Eni (previously used by Erie Lackawanna Railway and Transco Energy Co.)
F: Ford
G: Genpact (previously used by Greyhound Dial Corporation and Gillette)
H: Hyatt (previously used by Hupp Corporation, Hardee's, Harcourt General, Helm Resources and Realogy)
J: Jacobs Engineering Group (previously used by J Net Enterprises and Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey)
K: Kellogg's
L: Loews Corporation (previously used by Liberty Financial Companies, Sinclair Oil Corp, and Liberty Media)
M: Macy's Inc (previously used by Marcor)
O: Realty Income Corporation (previously used by Odetics)
R: Ryder (previously used by Uniroyal and LF Rothschild)
S: SentinelOne (previously used by Sprint Corporation and Sears)
T: AT&T (previously used by AT&T Corporation)
U: Unity Software (previously used by US Airways)
V: Visa (previously used by Vivendi, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, Irving Bank, Vivra and Viking General)
W: Wayfair (previously used by Westvaco)
X: US Steel
Y: Alleghany Corporation
Unassigned letters:
I: previously used by Intelsat, Itel Corporation, and First Interstate Bancorp
N: previously used by Inco and NetSuite
P: previously used by Pandora and Phillips Petroleum Company.
Q: previously used by Quintiles and Qwest
Z: previously used by Woolworth Corporation
Single-letter NASDAQ ticker symbols
Z: Zillow
Unassigned letters:
A–Y
Other countries
In countries where Arabic script is used, and in East Asia, transliterated Latin script versions of company names may be confusing to an unpracticed Western reader; stock symbols provide a simple means of clear communication in the workplace. Many Asian countries use numerical or alphanumerical ticker symbols of only digits and Roman letters to facilitate international trade.
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China – 01398 [Hong Kong]
HSBC – 00005 [Hong Kong]; in the London Stock Exchange, it is HSBA, for Hong Kong Shanghai Bank, Class A)
DBS Bank – D05 [Singapore]
Jardine C&C – C07 [Singapore]
TonenGeneral Sekiyu KK – 5012 [Japan]
Toshiba Corp – 6502 [Japan]
China CITIC Bank Corp Ltd – 601998 [Shanghai – China]
Hubei Golden Ring Co Ltd – 000615 [Shenzhen – China]
ASUSTeK – 2357 [Taiwan]
Chunghwa Telecom Co Ltd – 2412 [Taiwan]
Saudi Electricity Company - 5110 [Saudi Arabia]
See also
CUSIP
Market identification code
Option symbol
SEDOL
ISIN
Wertpapierkennnummer
References
Financial metadata
Encodings
Stock market
Security identifier types | wiki |
Jungle Patrol may refer to:
Jungle Patrol (1944 film), 1944 Australian documentary
Jungle Patrol (1948 film), 1948 American film | wiki |
Blitzer may refer to:
People
Barry Blitzer (1929–2010), American television writer
Wolf Blitzer (born 1948), American journalist
David Blitzer (disambiguation)
Other uses
blitzer (gridiron football), a player performing the blitz (gridiron football)
Blitzers, a South Korean boy band
See also
Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment, U.S. company
Blitzerman, a fictional character from Disney's The Incredibles
Blitzar, a kind of pulsar that will become a black hole if it stops spinning
Blitz (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Kupa is a small river in northern Lithuania and a left tributary of the Lėvuo. At first it flows to north but then near Juodupė town turns to the west. It flows through Kupiškis; the name of the town is derived from name of the river.
References
Rivers of Lithuania | wiki |
Black Scorpion may refer to:
Scorpion, an animal of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida
Films and TV
The Black Scorpion (film), a 1957 film about giant scorpions, with special effects by Willis O'Brien
Black Scorpion (film), a 1995 film produced by Roger Corman and starring Joan Severance
Black Scorpion II: Aftershock, a 1997 sequel to Black Scorpion that also starred Joan Severance
Black Scorpion (TV series), a 2001 TV series based on the Black Scorpion movies, starring Michelle Lintel
Video games
Black Scorpion, an armored supervillain from the video game City of Heroes
People
Benjamin Adekunle (1936–2014), Nigerian Army officer nicknamed Black scorpion
Black Scorpion (performer) (born 1979), freak show/sideshow performer from Austin, TX
Sport
The Black Scorpion (professional wrestling), a professional wrestling gimmick | wiki |
A seed bank is a repository of preserved seeds.
Seed bank may also refer to:
The store of viable plant seed in an ecosystem; for example:
Soil seed bank, the viable seed present in the soil
Canopy seed bank, the viable seed stored in the canopy of a serotinous tree or shrub | wiki |
Aerobic means "requiring air," in which "air" usually means oxygen.
Aerobic may also refer to
Aerobic exercise, prolonged exercise of moderate intensity
Aerobics, a form of aerobic exercise
Aerobic respiration, the aerobic process of cellular respiration
Aerobic organism, a living thing with an oxygen-based metabolism
See also
Anaerobic (disambiguation) | wiki |
Entry Level is the lowest level in the National Qualifications Framework in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Qualifications at this level recognise basic knowledge and skills and the ability to apply learning in everyday situations under direct guidance or supervision. Learning at this level involves building basic knowledge and skills and is not usually geared towards specific occupations.
Entry Level qualifications can be taken at three levels (Entry 1, Entry 2 and Entry 3) and are available on a broad range of subjects. They are targeted at a range of learners, including adult learners, candidates on taster sessions, underachievers and ones with learning difficulties.
The level after Entry Level in the National Qualifications Framework is Level 1, which includes GCSE grades D-G (or 3-1 for reformed GCSEs) and Level 1 DiDA.
Examples of Entry Level qualifications
Entry Level Certificate
Entry Level Functional Skills
See also
National Qualifications Framework
References
Educational qualifications in the United Kingdom
School qualifications
School examinations | wiki |
Dalechampia capensis is a species of shrub. It is known by the common names inzula or wild hop.
It is native to Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Eswatini, Tanzania, and Zambia. The species is eaten by larval Byblia ilithyia and Eurytela dryope.
References
Plukenetieae
Flora of Southern Africa | wiki |
Postgraduate or graduate education refers to academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree.
The organization and structure of postgraduate education varies in different countries, as well as in different institutions within countries. While the term "graduate school" or "grad school" is typically used in North America, "postgraduate" is often used in countries such as Australia, Bangladesh, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.
Graduate degrees can include master's degrees, doctoral degrees, and other qualifications such as graduate certificates and professional degrees. A distinction is typically made between graduate schools (where courses of study vary in the degree to which they provide training for a particular profession) and professional schools, which can include medical school, law school, business school, and other institutions of specialized fields such as nursing, speech–language pathology, engineering, or architecture. The distinction between graduate schools and professional schools is not absolute since various professional schools offer graduate degrees and vice versa.
Producing original research is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities, natural sciences and social sciences. This research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In graduate programs that are oriented toward professional training (e.g., MPA, MBA, JD, MD), the degrees may consist solely of coursework, without an original research or thesis component. Graduate students in the humanities, sciences and social sciences often receive funding from their university (e.g., fellowships or scholarships) or a teaching assistant position or other job; in the profession-oriented grad programs, students are less likely to get funding, and the fees are typically much higher.
Although graduate school programs are distinct from undergraduate degree programs, graduate instruction (in the US, Australia, and other countries) is often offered by some of the same senior academic staff and departments who teach undergraduate courses. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is less common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. At the Ph.D. level, though, it is quite common to take courses from a wider range of study, for which some fixed portion of coursework, sometimes known as a residency, is typically required to be taken from outside the department and University of the degree-seeking candidate, to broaden the research abilities of the student.
Types of postgraduate qualification
There are two main types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level: academic and vocational degrees.
Degrees
The term degree in this context means the moving from one stage or level to another (from French degré, from Latin dē- + gradus), and first appeared in the 13th century.
History
Although systems of higher education date back to ancient India, ancient Greece, ancient Rome and ancient China, the concept of postgraduate education depends upon the system of awarding degrees at different levels of study, and can be traced to the workings of European medieval universities, mostly Italian. University studies took six years for a bachelor's degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue master's or doctor's degrees.
The degrees of master (from Latin magister) and doctor (from Latin doctor) were for some time equivalent, "the former being more in favour at Paris and the universities modeled after it, and the latter at Bologna and its derivative universities. At Oxford and Cambridge a distinction came to be drawn between the Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Theology and the Faculty of Arts in this respect, the title of Doctor being used for the former, and that of Master for the latter." Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the doctorate came to be thought of as higher than the master's.
The main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach ("doctor" comes from Latin docere, "to teach").
Definition
In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows:
Master's degrees. These are sometimes placed in a further hierarchy, starting with degrees such as the Master of Arts (from Latin Magister artium; M.A.) and Master of Science (from Latin Magister scientiae; M.Sc.) degrees, then the Master of Philosophy degree (from Latin Magister philosophiae; M.Phil.), and finally the Master of Letters degree (from Latin Magister litterarum; M.Litt.) (all formerly known in France as DEA or DESS before 2005, and nowadays Masters too). In the UK, master's degrees may be taught or by research: taught master's degrees include the Master of Science and Master of Arts degrees which last one year and are worth 180 CATS credits (equivalent to 90 ECTS European credits), whereas the master's degrees by research include the Master of Research degree (M.Res.) which also lasts one year and is worth 180 CATS or 90 ECTS credits (the difference compared to the Master of Science and Master of Arts degrees being that the research is much more extensive) and the Master of Philosophy degree which lasts two years. In Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher master's degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower master's degree. In many fields such as clinical social work, or library science in North America, a master's is the terminal degree. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree (M.Arch.) can last to three and a half years to satisfy professional requirements to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree (M.B.A.) can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a knowledgeable business leader.
Doctorates. These are often further divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree (from Latin Doctor philosophiae; Ph.D. or D.Phil.), a Doctor of Psychology degree (from Latin Doctor psychologia; Psy.D.), or as a Doctor of Science degree (from Latin Doctor scientiae; D.Sc.). The Doctor of Science degree can also be awarded in specific fields, such as a Doctor of Science in Mathematics degree (from Latin Doctor scientiarum mathematic arum; D.Sc.Math.), a Doctor of Agricultural Science degree (from Latin Doctor scientiarum agrariarum; D.Sc.Agr.), a Doctor of Business Administration degree (D.B.A.), etc. In some parts of Europe, doctorates are divided into the Doctor of Philosophy degree or "junior doctorate," and the "higher doctorates" such as the Doctor of Science degree, which is generally awarded to highly distinguished professors. A doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is little distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the UK, Doctor of Philosophy degrees are often equivalent to 540 CATS credits or 270 ECTS European credits, but this is not always the case as the credit structure of doctoral degrees is not officially defined.
In some countries such as Finland and Sweden, there is the degree of Licentiate, which is more advanced than a master's degree but less so than a doctorate. Credits required are about half of those required for a doctoral degree. Coursework requirements are the same as for a doctorate, but the extent of original research required is not as high as for doctorate. Medical doctors for example are typically licentiates instead of doctors.
In the UK and countries whose education systems were founded on the British model, such as the US, the master's degree was for a long time the only postgraduate degree normally awarded, while in most European countries apart from the UK, the master's degree almost disappeared. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, and this practice spread to the UK. Conversely, most European universities now offer master's degrees parallelling or replacing their regular system, so as to offer their students better chances to compete in an international market dominated by the American model.
In the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ 5 or QCF 8.
Honorary degrees
Most universities award honorary degrees, usually at the postgraduate level. These are awarded to a wide variety of people, such as artists, musicians, writers, politicians, businesspeople, etc., in recognition of their achievements in their various fields. (Recipients of such degrees do not normally use the associated titles or letters, such as "Dr.")
Non-degree qualifications
Postgraduate education can involve studying for qualifications such as postgraduate certificates and postgraduate diplomas. They are sometimes used as steps on the route to a degree, as part of the training for a specific career, or as a qualification in an area of study too narrow to warrant a full degree course.
Argentina
Admission
In Argentina, the admission to a Postgraduate program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of any undergraduate course, called in Argentina "carrera de grado" (v.gr. Licenciado, Ingeniero or Lawyer degree). The qualifications of 'Licenciado', 'Ingeniero', or the equivalent qualification in Law degrees (a graduate from a "carrera de grado") are similar in content, length and skill-set to a joint first and second cycles in the qualification framework of the Bologna Process (that is, Bachelor and Master qualifications).
Funding
While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.
Degree requirements
Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a postgraduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The Master and Doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a postgraduate committee. This committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution.
Australia
Types of postgraduate degrees
Programmes are divided into coursework-based and research-based degrees. Coursework programs typically include qualifications such as
Graduate certificate, six-month full-time coursework
Graduate diploma, twelve-month full-time coursework
Master (of Arts, Science or other discipline). 1 year to 2 years of full-time study for coursework and research master's and 3 to 4 years of full-time study for extended master's degrees (which can allow the use of the word doctor in their title, such as Doctor of Medicine and Juris Doctor). Research master's ends in the submission of a thesis.
Doctor of philosophy, 3 to 4 years full-time study. Also ends in the submission of a thesis.
Higher doctorate, awarded usually ten or more years after the completion of PhD (which is a pre-requisite of higher doctorate) after submission of a research portfolio that is of a higher standard than that required for the awarding of a PhD.
Admission
Generally, the Australian higher education system follows that of its British counterpart (with some notable exceptions). Entrance is decided by merit, entrance to coursework-based programmes is usually not as strict; most universities usually require a "Credit" average as entry to their taught programmes in a field related to their previous undergraduate. On average, however, a strong "Credit" or "Distinction" average is the norm for accepted students. Not all coursework programs require the student to already possess the relevant undergraduate degree, they are intended as "conversion" or professional qualification programs, and merely any relevant undergraduate degree with good grades is required.
Ph.D. entrance requirements in the higher ranked schools typically require a student to have postgraduate research honours or a master's degree by research, or a master's with a significant research component. Entry requirements depend on the subject studied and the individual university. The minimum duration of a Ph.D. programme is two years, but completing within this time span is unusual, with Ph.D.s usually taking an average of three to four years to be completed.
Most of the confusion with Australian postgraduate programmes occurs with the research-based programmes, particularly scientific programmes. Research degrees generally require candidates to have a minimum of a second-class four-year honours undergraduate degree to be considered for admission to a Ph.D. programme (M.Phil. are an uncommon route). In science, a British first class honours (3 years) is not equivalent to an Australian first class honours (1 year research postgraduate programme that requires a completed undergraduate (pass) degree with a high grade-point average). In scientific research, it is commonly accepted that an Australian postgraduate honours is equivalent to a British master's degree (in research). There has been some debate over the acceptance of a three-year honours degree (as in the case of graduates from British universities) as the equivalent entry requirement to graduate research programmes (M.Phil., Ph.D.) in Australian universities. The letters of Honours programmes also added to the confusion. For example: B.Sc. (Hons) are the letters gained for postgraduate research honours at the University of Queensland. B.Sc. (Hons) does not indicate that this honours are postgraduate qualification. The difficulty also arises between different universities in Australia—some universities have followed the UK system.
Professional programs
There are many professional programs such as medical and dental school require a previous bachelors for admission and are considered graduate or Graduate Entry programs even though they culminate in a bachelor's degree. Example, the Bachelor of Medicine (MBBS) or Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent).
There has also been some confusion over the conversion of the different marking schemes between British, US, and Australian systems for the purpose of assessment for entry to graduate programmes. The Australian grades are divided into four categories: High Distinction, Distinction, Credit, and Pass (though many institutions have idiosyncratic grading systems). Assessment and evaluation based on the Australian system is not equivalent to British or US schemes because of the "low-marking" scheme used by Australian universities. For example, a British student who achieves 70+ will receive an A grade, whereas an Australian student with 70+ will receive a Distinction which is not the highest grade in the marking scheme.
Funding
The Australian government usually offer full funding (fees and a monthly stipend) to its citizens and permanent residents who are pursuing research-based higher degrees. There are also highly competitive scholarships for international candidates who intend to pursue research-based programmes. Taught-degree scholarships (certain master's degrees, Grad. Dip., Grad. Cert., D.Eng., D.B.A.) are almost non-existent for international students. Domestic students have access to tuition subsidy through the Australian Government's FEE-Help loan scheme. Some students may be eligible for a Commonwealth Supported Place (CSP), via the HECS-Help scheme, at a substantially lower cost.
Degree requirements
Requirements for the successful completion of a taught master's programme are that the student pass all the required modules. Some universities require eight taught modules for a one-year programme, twelve modules for a one-and-a-half-year programme, and twelve taught modules plus a thesis or dissertation for a two-year programme. The academic year for an Australian postgraduate programme is typically two semesters (eight months of study).
Requirements for research-based programmes vary among universities. Generally, however, a student is not required to take taught modules as part of their candidacy. It is now common that first-year Ph.D. candidates are not regarded as permanent Ph.D. students for fear that they may not be sufficiently prepared to undertake independent research. In such cases, an alternative degree will be awarded for their previous work, usually an M.Phil. or M.Sc. by research.
Brazil
Admission
In Brazil, a Bachelor's, Licenciate or Technologist degree is required in order to enter a graduate program, called pós-graduação. Generally, in order to be accepted, the candidate must have above average grades and it is highly recommended to be initiated on scientific research through government programs on undergraduate areas, as a complement to usual coursework.
Funding
The competition for public universities is very large, as they are the most prestigious and respected universities in Brazil. Public universities do not charge fees for undergraduate level/course. Funding, similar to wages, is available but is usually granted by public agencies linked to the university in question (i.e. FAPESP, CAPES, CNPq, etc.), given to the students previously ranked based on internal criteria.
Degree requirements
There are two types of postgraduate; lato sensu (Latin for "in broad sense"), which generally means a specialization course in one area of study, mostly addressed to professional practice, and stricto sensu (Latin for "in narrow sense"), which means a master’s degree or doctorate, encompassing broader and profound activities of scientific research.
Lato sensu graduate degrees: degrees that represent a specialization in a certain area and take from 1 to 2 years to complete. It can sometimes be used to describe a specialization level between a master's degree and an MBA. In that sense, the main difference is that the Lato Sensu courses tend to go deeper into the scientific aspects of the study field, while MBA programs tend to be more focused on the practical and professional aspects, being used more frequently to Business, Management and Administration areas. However, since there are no norms to regulate this, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time.
Stricto sensu graduate degrees: degrees for those who wish to pursue an academic career.
Masters: 2 years for completion. Usually serves as additional qualification for those seeking a differential on the job market (and maybe later a doctorate), or for those who want to pursue a doctorate. Most doctoral programs in Brazil require a master's degree (stricto sensu), meaning that a lato sensu degree is usually insufficient to start a doctoral program.
Doctorate: 3–4 years for completion. Usually used as a stepping stone for academic life.
Canada
In Canada, the Schools and Faculties of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies (CAGS) or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures (ACES). The Association brings together 58 Canadian universities with graduate programs, two national graduate student associations, and the three federal research-granting agencies and organizations having an interest in graduate studies. Its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to an annual conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding, and professional development.
Types of programs
Graduate certificates (sometimes called "postgraduate certificates")
Master's degree (course-based, thesis-based and available in part-time and full-time formats)
Doctoral degree (available in part-time and full-time formats)
Admission
Admission to a graduate certificate program requires a university degree (or in some cases, a diploma with years of related experience). English speaking colleges require proof of English language proficiency such as IELTS. Some colleges may provide English language upgrading to students prior to the start of their graduate certificate program.
Admission to a master's (course-based, also called "non-thesis") program generally requires a bachelor's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher (note that different schools have different letter grade conventions, and this requirement may be significantly higher in some faculties), and recommendations from professors. Admission to a high-quality thesis-type master's program generally requires an honours bachelor or Canadian bachelor with honours, samples of the student's writing as well as a research thesis proposal. Some programs require Graduate Record Exams (GRE) in both the general examination and the examination for its specific discipline, with minimum scores for admittance. At English-speaking universities, applicants from countries where English is not the primary language are required to submit scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Nevertheless, some French speaking universities, like HEC Montreal, also require candidates to submit TOEFL score or to pass their own English test.
Admission to a doctoral program typically requires a master's degree in a related field, sufficiently high grades, recommendations, samples of writing, a research proposal, and an interview with a prospective supervisor. Requirements are often set higher than those for a master's program. In exceptional cases, a student holding an honours BA with sufficiently high grades and proven writing and research abilities may be admitted directly to a Ph.D. program without the requirement to first complete a master's. Many Canadian graduate programs allow students who start in a master's to "reclassify" into a Ph.D. program after satisfactory performance in the first year, bypassing the master's degree.
Students must usually declare their research goal or submit a research proposal upon entering graduate school; in the case of master's degrees, there will be some flexibility (that is, one is not held to one's research proposal, although major changes, for example from premodern to modern history, are discouraged). In the case of Ph.D.s, the research direction is usually known as it will typically follow the direction of the master's research.
Master's degrees can be completed in one year but normally take at least two; they typically may not exceed five years. Doctoral degrees require a minimum of two years but frequently take much longer, although not usually exceeding six years.
Funding
Graduate students may take out student loans, but instead they often work as teaching or research assistants. Students often agree, as a condition of acceptance to a programme, not to devote more than twelve hours per week to work or outside interests.
Funding is available to first-year masters students whose transcripts reflect exceptionally high grades; this funding is normally given in the second year.
Funding for Ph.D. students comes from a variety of sources, and many universities waive tuition fees for doctoral candidates.
Funding is available in the form of scholarships, bursaries and other awards, both private and public.
Degree requirements
Graduate certificates require between eight and sixteen months of study. The length of study depends on the program. Graduate certificates primarily involve coursework. However, some may require a research project or a work placement.
Both master's and doctoral programs may be done by coursework or research or a combination of the two, depending on the subject and faculty. Most faculties require both, with the emphasis on research, and with coursework being directly related to the field of research.
Master's and doctoral programs may also be completed on a part-time basis. Part-time graduate programs will usually require that students take one to two courses per semester, and the part-time graduate programs may be offered in online formats, evening formats, or a combination of both.
Master's candidates undertaking research are typically required to complete a thesis comprising some original research and ranging from 70 to 200 pages. Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign-language credits. Some faculties require candidates to defend their thesis, but many do not. Those that do not, often have a requirement of taking two additional courses, at minimum, in lieu of preparing a thesis.
Ph.D. candidates undertaking research must typically complete a thesis, or dissertation, consisting of original research representing a significant contribution to their field, and ranging from 200 to 500 pages. Most Ph.D. candidates will be required to sit comprehensive examinations—examinations testing general knowledge in their field of specialization—in their second or third year as a prerequisite to continuing their studies, and must defend their thesis as a final requirement. Some faculties require candidates to earn sufficient credits in a third or fourth foreign language; for example, most candidates in modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, and Mandarin, while candidates in pre-modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, Classical Chinese, and Classical Japanese.
At English-speaking Canadian universities, both master's and Ph.D. theses may be presented in English or in the language of the subject (German for German literature, for example), but if this is the case an extensive abstract must be also presented in English. , a thesis may be presented in French. One exception to this rule is McGill University, where all work can be submitted in either English or French, unless the purpose of the course of study is acquisition of a language.
French-speaking universities have varying sets of rules; some (e.g. HEC Montreal) will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors (usually in English).
The Royal Military College of Canada is a bilingual University, and allows a thesis to be in either English or French, but requires the abstract to be in both official languages.
France
The écoles doctorales ("Doctoral schools") are educational structures similar in focus to graduate schools, but restricted at PhD level. These schools have the responsibilities of providing students with a structured doctoral training in a disciplinary field. The field of the school is related to the strength of the university: while some have two or three schools (typically "Arts and Humanities" and "Natural and Technological Sciences"), others have more specialized schools (History, Aeronautics, etc.).
A large share of the funding offered to junior researchers is channeled through the école doctorale, mainly in the shape of three-years "Doctoral Fellowships" (contrats doctoraux). These fellowships are awarded after submitting a biographical information, undergraduate and graduate transcripts where applicable, letters of recommendation, and research proposal, then an oral examination by an Academical Committee.
Specific context
Prior to 2004, when the European system of LMD Bologna process was founded, the French equivalent of a Post Graduate degree was called a "Maitrise."
For historical reasons dating back to the French Revolution of 1789, France has a dual education system, with Grandes Écoles on one side, and universities on the other hand, with the Grandes Écoles . Some Grandes écoles deliver the French diplôme d'ingénieur, which is ranked as a master's degree.
France ranks a professional doctorate in health sciences (i.e. physician, surgeon, pharmacist, dentist, veterinarian diplomas) as equivalent to a master's degree in any other discipline, to account for the difficulty gap between getting a medical degree and getting non health related doctoral degrees, the latter requiring original research.
Admission
There are 87 public universities in France, and also some private universities, and they are based upon the European education ladder including bachelors, Masters, and Ph.D.s. Students gain each degree though the successful completion of a predetermined number of years in education, gaining credits via the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS).
There are over 300 doctoral programs that collaborate with 1200 research laboratories and centers. Each degree has a certain set of national diplomas that are all of equal value, irrespective of where they were issued. There are also other diplomas that are exclusive to France and are very hard to attain.
Admission to a doctoral program requires a master's degree, both research-oriented and disciplinary focused. High marks are required (typically a très bien honour, equating a cum laude), but the acceptance is linked to a decision of the School Academical Board.
Germany
The traditional and most common way of obtaining a doctorate in Germany is by doing so individually under supervision of a single professor (Doktorvater or Doktormutter) without any formal curriculum. During their studies, doctoral students are enrolled at university while often being employed simultaneously either at the university itself, at a research institute or at a company as a researcher.
Working in research during doctoral studies is, however, not a formal requirement.
With the establishment of Graduiertenkollegs funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), the German Research Foundation, in the early 1990s, the concept of a graduate school was introduced to the German higher education system. Unlike the American model of graduate schools, only doctoral students participate in a Graduiertenkolleg. In contrast to the traditional German model of doctoral studies, a Graduiertenkolleg aims to provide young researchers with a structured doctoral training under supervision of a team of professors within an excellent research environment. A Graduiertenkolleg typically consists of 20-30 doctoral students, about half of whom are supported by stipends from the DFG or another sponsor. The research programme is usually narrowly defined around a specific topic and has an interdisciplinary aspect. The programme is set up for a specific period of time (up to nine years if funded by the DFG). The official English translation of the term Graduiertenkolleg is Research Training Group.
In 2006, a different type of graduate school, termed Graduiertenschule ("graduate school"), was established by the DFG as part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. They are thematically much broader than the focused Graduiertenkollegs and consist often of 100-200 doctoral students.
Germany and the Netherlands introduced the Bologna process with a separation between Bachelor and Master programmes in many fields, except for education studies, law and other specially regulated subjects.
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland higher education is operated by the Higher Education Authority.
Nigeria
Admission to a postgraduate degree programme in Nigeria requires a bachelor's degree with at least a Second Class Lower Division (not less than 2.75/5). Admission to Doctoral programmes requires an Academic master's degree with a minimum weighted average of 60% (B average or 4.00/5). In addition to this, applicants may be subjected to written and oral examinations depending on the school. Most universities with high numbers of applicants have more stringent admission processes.
Postgraduate degrees in Nigeria include M.A., M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Eng., LL.M, M.Arch., M.Agric., M.Phil., PhD. The master's degree typically take 18–36 months with students undertaking coursework and presenting seminars and a dissertation. The doctoral degree is for a minimum of 36 months and may involve coursework alongside the presentation of seminars and a research thesis. Award of postgraduate degrees requires a defence of the completed research before a panel of examiners comprising external and internal examiners, Head of Department, Departmental Postgraduate Coordinator, Representative(s) of Faculty and Postgraduate School, and any other member of staff with a PhD in the department/faculty.
United Kingdom
The term "graduate school" is used more widely by North American universities than by those in the UK. However, in addition to universities set up solely for postgraduate studies such as Cranfield University, numerous universities in the UK have formally launched 'Graduate Schools', including the University of Birmingham, Durham University, Keele University, the University of Nottingham, Bournemouth University, Queen's University Belfast and the University of London, which includes graduate schools at King's College London, Royal Holloway and University College London. They often coordinate the supervision and training of candidates for research master's programmes and for doctorates.
Admission
Admission to undertake a research degree in the UK typically requires a strong bachelor's degree or Scottish M.A. (at least lower second, but usually an upper second or first class). In some institutions, doctoral candidates are initially admitted to a Masters in Research Philosophy (M.Phil. or M.Res.), then later transfer to a Ph.D./D.Phil. if they can show satisfactory progress in their first 8–12 months of study. Candidates for the degree of Doctor of Education (Ed.D) are typically required to hold a good bachelor's degree as well as an appropriate master's degree before being admitted.
Funding
Funding for postgraduate study in the UK is awarded competitively, and usually is disseminated by institution (in the form of a certain allocation of studentships for a given year) rather than directly to individuals. There are a number of scholarships for master's courses, but these are relatively rare and dependent on the course and class of undergraduate degree obtained (usually requiring at least a lower second). Most master's students are self-funded.
Funding is available for some Ph.D./D.Phil. courses. As at the master's level, there is more funding available to those in the sciences than in other disciplines. Such funding generally comes from Research Councils such as the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), Medical Research Council (MRC) and others. Masters students may also have the option of a Postgraduate loan introduced by the UK Government in 2016.
For overseas students, most major funding applications are due as early as twelve months or more before the intended graduate course will begin. This funding is also often highly competitive. The most widely available, and thus important, award for overseas students is the Overseas Research Student (ORS) Award, which pays the difference in university fees between an overseas student and a British or EU resident. However, a student can only apply for one university for the ORS Award, often before they know whether they have been accepted. As of the 2009/2010 academic year, the HEFCE has cancelled the Overseas Research Student Award scheme for English and Welsh universities. The state of the scheme for Scottish and Northern Irish universities is currently unclear.
Students studying part-time for a master's degree can apply for income-based Jobseeker's Allowance provided their timetabled hours are fewer than 16 hours per week. This also entitles the student to housing benefit provided by their local council. Full-time students (of any type) are not normally eligible for state benefits, including during vacation time.
United States
Admission
While most graduate programs will have a similar list of general admission requirements, the importance placed on each type of requirement can vary drastically between graduate schools, departments within schools, and even programs within departments. The best way to determine how a graduate program will weigh admission materials is to ask the person in charge of graduate admissions at the particular program being applied to.
Admission to graduate school requires a bachelor's degree. High grades in one's field of study are important—grades outside the field less so. Traditionally in the past, the Graduate Record Examination standardized test was required by almost all graduate schools, however, programs in multiple disciplines are removing the GRE requirement for their admission process. Some programs require other additional standardized tests (such as the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) and Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Subject Tests) to apply to their institutions. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, the GRE exam has moved to an online format, and some programs are waiving the GRE, arguing the new format is unfair or too difficult for test-takers. In addition, good letters of recommendation from undergraduate instructors are often essential, as strong recommendation letters from mentors or supervisors of undergraduate research experience provide evidence that the applicant can perform research and can handle the rigors of a graduate school education.
Within the sciences and some social sciences, previous research experience may be important. By contrast, within most humanities disciplines, an example of academic writing normally suffices. Many universities require a personal statement (sometimes called Statement of purpose or Letter of Intent), which may include indications of the intended area(s) of research; how detailed this statement is or whether it is possible to change one's focus of research depends strongly on the discipline and department to which the student is applying.
Some schools set minimum GPAs and test scores below which they will not accept any applicants; this reduces the time spent reviewing applications. On the other hand, many other institutions often explicitly state that they do not use any sort of cut-offs in terms of GPA or the GRE scores. Instead, they claim to consider many factors, including past research achievements, the compatibility between the applicant's research interest and that of the faculty, the statement of purpose and the letters of reference, as stated above. Some programs also require professors to act as sponsors. Finally, applicants from non-English speaking countries often must take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
At most institutions, decisions regarding admission are not made by the institution itself but the department to which the student is applying. Some departments may require interviews before making a decision to accept an applicant. Most universities adhere to the Council of Graduate Schools' Resolution Regarding Graduate Scholars, Fellows, Trainees, and Assistants, which gives applicants until April 15 to accept or reject offers that contain financial support.
Non-degree seeking
In addition to traditional "degree-seeking" applications for admission, many schools allow students to apply as "non-degree-seeking". Admission to the non-degree-seeking category is usually restricted primarily to those who may benefit professionally from additional study at the graduate level. For example, current elementary, middle, and high school teachers wishing to gain re-certification credit most commonly apply as non-degree-seeking students.
Degree requirements
Graduate students often declare their intended degree (master's or doctorate) in their applications. In some cases, master's programs allow successful students to continue toward the doctorate degree. Additionally, doctoral students who have advanced to candidacy but not filed a dissertation ("ABD", for "all but dissertation") often receive master's degrees and an additional master's called a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or a Candidate of Philosophy (C.Phil.) degree. The master's component of a doctorate program often requires one or two years.
Many graduate programs require students to pass one or several examinations in order to demonstrate their competence as scholars. In some departments, a comprehensive examination is often required in the first year of doctoral study, and is designed to test a student's background undergraduate-level knowledge. Examinations of this type are more common in the sciences and some social sciences but relatively unknown in most humanities disciplines.
Most graduate students perform teaching duties, often serving as graders and tutors. In some departments, they can be promoted to lecturer status, a position that comes with more responsibility.
Doctoral students generally spend roughly their first two to three years taking coursework and begin research by their second year if not before. Many master's and all specialist students will perform research culminating in a paper, presentation, and defense of their research. This is called the master's thesis (or, for Educational Specialist students, the specialist paper). However, many US master's degree programs do not require a master's thesis, focusing instead primarily on coursework or on "practicals" or "workshops". Some students complete a final culminating project or "capstone" rather than a thesis. Such "real-world" experience may typically require a candidate work on a project alone or in a team as a consultant, or consultants, for an outside entity approved or selected by the academic institution and under faculty supervision.
In the second and third years of study, doctoral programs often require students to pass more examinations. Programs often require a Qualifying Examination ("Quals"), a Ph.D. Candidacy Examination ("Candidacy"), or a General Examination ("Generals") designed to test the students' grasp of a broad sample of their discipline, or one or several Special Field Examinations ("Specials") which test students in their narrower selected areas of specialty within the discipline. If these examinations are held orally, they may be known colloquially as "orals." For some social science and many humanities disciplines, where graduate students may or may not have studied the discipline at the undergraduate level, these exams will be the first set, and be based either on graduate coursework or specific preparatory reading (sometimes up to a year's work in reading).
In all cases, comprehensive exams normally must be passed to be allowed to proceed on to the dissertation. Passing such examinations allows the student to begin doctoral research, and rise to the status of a doctoral candidate, while failing usually results in the student leaving the program or re-taking the test after some time has passed (usually a semester or a year). Some schools have an intermediate category, passing at the master's level, which allows the student to leave with a master's without having completed a master's thesis.
The doctoral candidate primarily performs his or her research over the course of three to eight years. In total, the typical doctoral degree takes between four and eight years from entering the program to completion, though this time varies depending upon the department, dissertation topic, and many other factors. For example, astronomy degrees take five to six years on average, but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather, while theoretical astronomy degrees take five. In some disciplines, doctoral programs can average seven to ten years. Archaeology, which requires long periods of research, tends towards the longer end of this spectrum. The increase in length of the degree is a matter of great concern for both students and universities, though there is much disagreement on potential solutions to this problem.
Traditionally, doctoral programs were only intended to last three to four years and, in some disciplines (primarily the natural sciences), with a helpful advisor, and a light teaching load, it is possible for the degree to be completed in that amount of time. However, increasingly many disciplines, including most humanities, set their requirements for coursework, languages and the expected extent of thesis research by the assumption that students will take five years minimum or six to seven years on average; competition for jobs within these fields also raises expectations on the length and quality of theses considerably.
Though there is substantial variation among universities, departments, and individuals, humanities and social science doctorates on average take somewhat longer to complete than natural science doctorates. These differences are due to the differing nature of research between the humanities and some social sciences and the natural sciences and to the differing expectations of the discipline in coursework, languages, and length of dissertation. However, time required to complete a doctorate also varies according to the candidate's abilities and choice of research. Some students may also choose to remain in a program if they fail to win an academic position, particularly in disciplines with a tight job market; by remaining a student, they can retain access to libraries and university facilities, while also retaining an academic affiliation, which can be essential for conferences and job-searches.
After the doctorate degree, a second training period is available for students in fields such as life sciences, called a postdoctoral fellowship.
Funding
In general, there is less funding available to students admitted to master's degrees than for students admitted to Ph.D. or other doctoral degrees. Many departments, especially those in which students have research or teaching responsibilities, offer tuition-forgiveness and a stipend that pays for most expenses. At some elite universities, there may be a minimum stipend established for all Ph.D. students, as well as a tuition waiver. The terms of these stipends vary greatly, and may consist of a scholarship or fellowship, followed by teaching responsibilities. At many elite universities, these stipends have been increasing, in response both to student pressure and, especially, to competition among the elite universities for graduate students.
In some fields, research positions are more coveted than teaching positions because student researchers are typically paid to work on the dissertation they are required to complete anyway, while teaching is generally considered a distraction from one's work. Research positions are more typical of science disciplines; they are relatively uncommon in humanities disciplines, and where they exist, rarely allow the student to work on their own research. Science PhD students can apply for individual NRSA fellowships from the NIH or fellowships from private foundations. US universities often also offer competitive support from NIH-funded training programs. One example is the Biotechnology Training Program – University of Virginia. Departments often have funds for limited discretionary funding to supplement minor expenses such as research trips and travel to conferences.
A few students can attain funding through dissertation improvement grants funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), or through similar programs in other agencies. Many students are also funded as lab researchers by faculty who have been funded by private foundations or by the NSF, National Institutes of Health (NIH), or federal "mission agencies" such as the Department of Defense or the Environmental Protection Agency. The natural sciences are typically well funded, so that most students can attain either outside or institutional funding, but in the humanities, not all do. Some humanities students borrow money during their coursework, then take full-time jobs while completing their dissertations. Students in the social sciences are less well funded than are students in the natural and physical sciences, but often have more funding opportunities than students in the humanities, particularly as science funders begin to see the value of social science research.
Funding differs greatly by departments and universities; some universities give five years of full funding to all Ph.D. students, though often with a teaching requirement attached; other universities do not. However, because of the teaching requirements, which can be in the research years of the Ph.D., even the best funded universities often do not have funding for humanities or social science students who need to do research elsewhere, whether in the United States or overseas. Such students may find funding through outside funders such as private foundations, such as the German Marshall Fund or the Social Science Research Council (SSRC).
Foreign students are typically funded the same way as domestic (US) students, although federally subsidized student and parent loans and work-study assistance are generally limited to U.S. citizens and nationals, permanent residents, and approved refugees. Moreover, some funding sources (such as many NSF fellowships) may only be awarded to domestic students. International students often have unique financial difficulties such as high costs to visit their families back home, support of a family not allowed to work due to immigration laws, tuition that is expensive by world standards, and large fees: visa fees by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, and surveillance fees under the Student and Exchange Visitor Program of the United States Department of Homeland Security.
Graduate employee unions
At many universities, graduate students are employed by their university to teach classes or do research. While all graduate employees are graduate students, many graduate students are not employees. MBA students, for example, usually pay tuition and do not have paid teaching or research positions. In many countries graduate employees have collectively organized labor unions in order to bargain a contract with their university.
In the United States there are many graduate employee unions at public universities. The Coalition of Graduate Employee Unions lists 25 recognized unions at public universities on its website. Private universities, however, are covered under the National Labor Relations Act rather than state labor laws and until 2001 there were no recognized unions at private universities.
Many graduate students see themselves as akin to junior faculty, but with significantly lower pay. Many graduate students feel that teaching takes time that would better be spent on research, and many point out that there is a vicious circle in the academic labor economy. Institutions that rely on cheap graduate student labor have no need to create expensive professorships, so graduate students who have taught extensively in graduate school can find it immensely difficult to get a teaching job when they have obtained their degree. Many institutions depend heavily on graduate student teaching: a 2003 report by agitators for a graduate student union at Yale, for instance, claims that "70% of undergraduate teaching contact hours at Yale are performed by transient teachers: graduate teachers, adjunct instructors, and other teachers not on the tenure track." The state of Michigan leads in terms of progressive policy regarding graduate student unions with five universities recognizing graduate employee unions: Central Michigan University, Michigan State University, the University of Michigan, Wayne State University, and Western Michigan University.
The United Auto Workers (under the slogan "Uniting Academic Workers") and the American Federation of Teachers are two international unions that represent graduate employees. Private universities' administrations often oppose their graduate students when they try to form unions, arguing that students should be exempt from labor laws intended for "employees". In some cases, unionization movements have met with enough student opposition to fail. At the schools where graduate employees are unionized, which positions are unionized vary. Sometimes only one set of employees will unionize (e.g. teaching assistants, residential directors); at other times, most or all will. Typically, fellowship recipients, usually not employed by their university, do not participate.
When negotiations fail, graduate employee unions sometimes go on strike. While graduate student unions can use the same types of strikes that other unions do, they have also made use of teach-ins, work-ins, marches, rallies, and grade strikes. In a grade strike, graduate students refuse to grade exams and papers and, if the strike lasts until the end of the academic term, also refuse to turn in final grades. Another form of job action is known as "work-to-rule", in which graduate student instructors work exactly as many hours as they are paid for and no more.
See also
Undergraduate education
Bologna Process Qualifications framework
List of fields of doctoral studies
Postdoctoral researcher
Doctorate
Doctor of Philosophy
EURODOC (European Council of Doctoral Candidates and junior researchers)
History of higher education in the United States#Graduate schools
List of fields of doctoral studies
List of postgraduate-only institutions
Professional association
Professional certification
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
J.A. Burns. "Master of Arts" (The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909)
E.A. Pace. "Doctor" (The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909)
William G. Bowen & Neil L. Rudenstine, In Pursuit of the Ph.D. (Princeton UP, 1992; ).
Growth of the Ph.D., Discusses innovations in doctoral training.
Educational stages
Higher education
Postgraduate schools | wiki |
Norman or Norm Foster may refer to:
Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank (born 1935), English architect and designer
Norman Foster (bass) (1925–2000), American operatic bass and actor
Norman Foster (cricketer) (1878–1960), Australian cricketer
Norman Foster (director) (1903–1976), American film director and actor
Norm Foster (ice hockey) (born 1965), Canadian ice hockey goaltender
Norman Foster (military officer), British Army officer and Chief of the Nigerian Army (GOC)
Norm Foster (playwright) (born 1949), Canadian playwright
Norm Foster (politician) (1921–2006), Australian politician
Norman Foster (rugby league) (1907–1999), English rugby league footballer of the 1930s for England and Keighley
See also
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr. (1915–2011), American physicist | wiki |
Decoration may refer to:
Decorative arts
A house painter and decorator's craft
An act or object intended to increase the beauty of a person, room, etc.
An award that is a token of recognition to the recipient intended for wearing
Other uses
Cake decorating, the art of making a usually ordinary cake visually interesting
Christmas decoration, festive decorations used at Christmas time
Decorations (John Ireland), a set of three pieces for piano solo composed in 191213 by John Ireland
Decorator pattern, a design pattern used in object-oriented programming
In-glaze decoration, a method of decorating ceramics - decoration applied before firing
On-glaze decoration, a method of decorating ceramics - decoration applied after glazing
In-mould decoration, a method of decorating moulded plastics
Interior design, the internal finishing of a building
Link decoration, the style of visual appearance of hyperlinks
Name decoration, a technique used in most programming languages
State decoration, an object such as a medal or insignia that is awarded to certain people
Syntax decoration, a form of enriched text presentation or syntax highlighting
Text decoration, text attributation with styles like italics, boldface, underlines
USB decoration, a decorative device that uses the Universal Serial Bus connector
Web decoration, conspicuous silk structure in the webs of some spiders
Window decoration, in computing are the window's visual elements drawn by a window manager
Interior decorating, a process by which a person creates an emotionally and intellectually pleasing space for themselves and others to enjoy
See also
Decorator (disambiguation) | wiki |
A steam accumulator is an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure. It is a type of energy storage device. It can be used to smooth out peaks and troughs in demand for steam. Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy storage in solar thermal energy projects. An example is the PS10 solar power tower plant near Seville, Spain and one planned for the "solar steam train" project in Sacramento, California.
History
It was invented in 1874 by the Scottish engineer Andrew Betts Brown.
Charge
The tank is about half-filled with cold water and steam is blown in from a boiler via a perforated pipe near the bottom of the drum. Some of the steam condenses and heats the water. The remainder fills the space above the water level. When the accumulator is fully charged the condensed steam will have raised the water level in the drum to about three-quarters full and the temperature and pressure will also have risen.
Discharge
Steam can be drawn off as required, either for driving a steam turbine or for process purposes (e.g. in chemical engineering), by opening a steam valve on top of the drum. The pressure in the drum will fall but the reduced pressure causes more water to boil and the accumulator can go on supplying steam (while gradually reducing pressure and temperature) for some time before it has to be re-charged.
Pressure and temperature
This steam table shows the relationship between pressure and temperature in a boiler or steam accumulator:
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
See also
Fireless locomotive
References
Sources
Everyman's Encyclopaedia 1931, volume 2, page 543
External links
Steam Accumulators A complete overview of the need for steam storage to meet peak load demands in specific industries, including the design, construction and operation of a steam accumulator, with calculations - Spirax Sarco
Boilers
Energy storage | wiki |
William Matheson may refer to:
William Matheson (scholar), Scottish Gaelic scholar, academic, and minister
William John Matheson, American industrialist
William Drummond Matheson, Canadian World War I flying ace
See also
Wilhelm Matheson, Norwegian judge | wiki |
Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happens in the center of the crowd, generally closer to the stage, in an area called the "mosh pit". It is intended to be energetic and full of body contact.
The dance style originated in the hardcore punk scenes of California and Washington, D.C., around 1980. Through the 1980s it spread to other branches of punk rock as well as grunge and thrash metal, which exposed it to the mainstream. Since then, moshing has occasionally been performed to energetic music within a wide variety of genres, including alternative rock, electronic dance music and hip hop, while remaining a staple in heavy metal shows.
Variations of moshing exist, including "pogoing", "circle pits", and "wall of death". Dancing can be done alone as well as in groups.
While moshing is seen as a form of positive fan feedback or expression of enjoyment, it has also drawn criticism over dangerous excesses in its violence. Injuries and even deaths have been reported in the crush of mosh pits.
History
Etymology
The term mosh came into use in the early 1980s American hardcore scene in Washington, D.C. Early on, the dance was frequently spelled mash in fanzines and record liner notes, but pronounced mosh, as in the 1982 song "Total Mash" by the D.C.-based hardcore band Scream. H.R. of the band Bad Brains, regarded as a band that "put moshing on the map," used the term mash in lyrics and in concert stage banter to both incite and to describe the aggressive and often violent dancing of the scene. To "mash it up" was to go wild with the frenzy of the music. Due to his Jamaican-accented pronunciation of the word, fans heard this as mosh instead.
By the mid-1980s, the term was appearing in print with its current spelling. By the time thrash metal band Anthrax used the term in their song "Caught in a Mosh", the word was already a mainstay of hardcore and thrash scenes. Scott Ian and Charlie Benante of Anthrax and Stormtroopers of Death have both been credited with the term originating from Vinnie Stigma of the New York hardcore band Agnostic Front. Through the mainstream success of bands like Anthrax, Stormtroopers of Death, and multiple thrash metal bands in the late 1980s, the term came into the popular vernacular.
Origins
The first dance identifiable as moshing may have originated in Orange County, California, during the first wave of American hardcore. Examples of this early moshing can be seen in the documentaries Another State of Mind, Urban Struggle, The Decline of Western Civilization, and American Hardcore, as well as footage from the shows of the era. Dave Wood, an avid concert-goer and roadie of The Weirdos, popularized moshing at a show at The Roxy in 1977. At the time, California hardcore punk bands such as Black Flag and Fear were becoming popular in Orange County. Jerry Roach's club, the Cuckoo's Nest in Costa Mesa, was known as the "birthplace of slam dancing". Fear's 1981 musical performance on Saturday Night Live also helped to expose moshing to a much wider audience.
Crossover into mainstream genres
By the end of the 1980s, the initial wave of American hardcore punk had waned and split into other subgenres. The Seattle-based grunge movement was among the many styles of music that directly evolved from hardcore. Through the mainstream success of several grunge bands, the word mosh entered the popular North American vocabulary and the dance spread to many other music genres. According to John Linnell of They Might Be Giants, "it didn’t matter what kind of music you were playing or what kind of band you were; everybody moshed to everything. It was just kind of the enforced rule of going to concerts."
Variations
The pogo was the first form of moshing. According to The Filth and the Fury, it was invented by Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious in 1976.
A circle pit is a form of moshing in which participants run in a circular motion around the edges of the pit, often leaving an open space in the centre.
A wall of death is a form of moshing which sees the audience divide down the middle into two halves either side of the venue, before each side runs towards the other, slamming the two sides together. According to Noisecreep, the consensus is that it was invented by American hardcore punk band Sick of it All. However, the band's vocalist Lou Koller has stated that he merely revived the practice in 1996, as he often saw a similar act performed in the 1980s New York hardcore scene. Loudwire senior writer Graham Hartmann referred to it as "Perhaps the most bad ass and dangerous ritual you can experience in a mosh pit". Venues will often ask bands not to organize the Wall of Death themselves due to the inherent risk involved and liability.
Hardcore dancing is a term that covers multiple style of moshing including windmilling two stepping, floorpunching, picking up pennies, axehandling, bucking, and wheelbarrowing. The practice began in New York City in the 1980s.
Crowd killing is when a mosher moshes against the crowd around the sides of the pit. According to Kerrang! writer Amanda van Poznak it is generally looked down upon.
Physical properties of emergent behavior
Researchers from Cornell University studied the emergent behavior of crowds at mosh pits by analyzing online videos, finding similarities with models of 2-D gases in equilibrium. Simulating the crowds with computer models, they found out that a simulation dominated by flocking parameters produced highly ordered behavior, forming vortices like those seen in the videos.
Opposition, criticism and controversy
The American post-hardcore band Fugazi opposed slamdancing at their live shows. Members of Fugazi were reported to single out and confront specific members of the audience, politely asking them to stop hurting other audience members, or hauling them on stage to apologize on the microphone.
Consolidated, an industrial dance group of the 1990s, stood against moshing. On their third album, Play More Music, they included the song "The Men's Movement", which proclaimed the inappropriate nature of slamdancing. The song consisted of audio recordings during concerts from the audience and members of Consolidated, arguing about moshing.
In the 1990s, the Smashing Pumpkins took a stance against moshing, following two incidents which resulted in fatalities. At a 1996 Pumpkins concert in Dublin, Ireland, 17-year-old Bernadette O'Brien was crushed by moshing crowd members and later died in the hospital, despite warnings from the band that people were getting hurt. At another concert, singer Billy Corgan said to the audience:
Another fan died at a Smashing Pumpkins concert in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, on September 24, 2007. The 20-year-old male was dragged out of the mosh pit, unconscious, to be pronounced dead at a hospital after first-aid specialists attempted to save him.
Reel Big Fish's 1998 album Why Do They Rock So Hard? included their mosh-criticizing song "Thank You for Not Moshing", which contained lyrics that suggested that at least some individuals in the mosh pit were simply bullies who were finding conformity in the violence.
Mike Portnoy, founder and ex-drummer of Dream Theater, and Avenged Sevenfold where he briefly filled in after the death of The Rev, criticized moshing in an interview published on his website:
Sixteen-year-old Jessica Michalik was an Australian girl who died as a result of asphyxiation after being crushed in a mosh pit during the 2001 Big Day Out festival during a performance by nu metal band Limp Bizkit. At that same festival, post-hardcore band At The Drive-In ended their set early after only three songs due to the audience's moshing.
Groove metal group Five Finger Death Punch had an incident when, during the song "White Knuckles" at a concert in Hartford, Connecticut, a young man received a compound fracture on his ankle in a mosh pit. Ivan Moody, the band's lead singer, stopped the show, leaped into the crowd with Zoltan Bathory, the band's rhythm guitarist, and carried the injured fan onto the stage, from where he was taken to the hospital. Moody has been quoted as saying: "I looked him square in the face and asked him if he was okay, or if there was anything I could do for him. He looked over at me, still in shock, and said 'You guys fucking rock!
Moody stated "I've felt bad because of what has happened. I miss the old Pantera kids who would just throw each other. Just respect other people; come on." Bathory stated: "Because he broke his leg I threw down my guitar. We just finished when he broke his leg, and I came out and I stayed with him until the paramedics picked him up. These are my people and that's how it is."
Joey DeMaio of American heavy metal band Manowar has been known to temporarily stop concerts upon seeing moshing and crowd surfing, claiming it is dangerous to other fans.
Former Slipknot percussionist Chris Fehn spoke about the state of audience interaction following the onstage incident and subsequent legal issues involving Lamb of God’s Randy Blythe, who was eventually found not guilty of criminal wrongdoing in the death of a concertgoer, despite being held "morally responsible". Fehn briefly addressed the Blythe situation, stating "I think, especially in America, moshing has turned into a form of bullying. The big guy stands in the middle and just trucks any small kid that comes near him. They don’t mosh properly anymore. It sucks because that’s not what it’s about. Those guys need to be kicked out. A proper mosh pit is a great way to be as a group and dance, and just do your thing."
See also
Headbanging
Crowd surfing
Skank (dance)
Stage diving
Praisepit, a colloquial name given to a mosh pit which occurs at a Pentecostal Christian church service
References
External links
MTV: The Social History of the Mosh Pit (2002)
How to Mosh in a Mosh Pit on wikiHow (detailed listing of steps to follow, tips, and warnings)
"Crowd Surfing and Moshing" at Safeconcerts (includes information on injuries sustained)
Syllabus-free dance
Heavy metal subculture
Punk
Hardcore punk
Grunge
Articles containing video clips
Thrash metal
Hardcore hip hop
Hardcore (electronic dance music genre) | wiki |
Personnel groupings are groups of players used in American football to identify the different types of skill position players on the field of play for an offense. Personnel groupings, also known as personnel packages, are commonly denoted using a two-digit numerical system that identifies the type of offensive personnel, and the number of each type of personnel. Teams use personnel groupings in order to set a base for most of their plays, as well as being able to send out players in a timely manner during a game.
Formations
The groupings used in different formations can vary depending on what the coach and offense want to do, but there are generally different types of personnel used for either a running or passing play. However, given their complementary nature, it is not uncommon to pass out of a run personnel grouping or vice versa. The goal is to create favorable match-ups and force the defense to adjust and react while controlling the clock.
Numerical naming
Usually, personnel groupings are differentiated using a numerical system to set apart the running backs, tight ends and wide receivers. When naming a personnel grouping, a specific number system is used to refer to the number of running backs and tight ends on the field. For example, if there are one running back and two tight ends on the field, the grouping is called 12 personnel. If there are two running backs and one tight end, the grouping is referred to as 21 personnel. The number of wide receivers on the field is inferred, based on the fact that eleven offensive players are allowed on the field, including five linemen and the quarterback. Defenses are able to substitute players that will allow them to match up more favorably against the personnel group that is used by the offense. In 2013, NFL teams used 11 personnel on 51.62% of offensive plays, meaning that there were three wide receivers on the field. Over the past few years, the NFL has transitioned to a more pass-heavy league, which explains a league average that has a personnel grouping with multiple passing options for the quarterback.
Examples from the NFL
The NFL and the sport itself are always changing and teams are constantly trying to gain a competitive advantage by adapting and executing new concepts. One of the most popular offensive schemes is the West Coast offense, popularized by three time Super Bowl–winning coach Bill Walsh. This offense requires short and intermediate passing plays that will then require the defense to react and adjust accordingly, thus allowing a team to run the ball and have more success in that area of its offense. Within the West Coast offense, personnel groupings are very prevalent and due to a high volume of passing plays within the offense a lot of skill positions that can catch and give the quarterback multiple options to go to with the ball are important. Personnel groupings give teams ability to create plays that give them success and, as the West Coast offense has proven with its many different iterations that teams have used, the ability to win games.
References
American football terminology | wiki |
A power flash is a flash of light caused by arcing electrical discharges from damaged electrical equipment, most often severed or arcing power lines. They are often caused by strong winds, especially those from tropical cyclones and tornadoes, and occasionally by intense downbursts and derechoes. Storm spotters and meteorologists use these flashes to spot tornadoes which would otherwise be invisible due to rain or darkness. They can be distinguished from lightning by the fact that they originate at ground level, the blue or green color of the flash, and depending on distance, the sound of high-voltage lines shorting out.
See also
Electric discharge
Electric arc
References
External links
Power Flashes in a Giant Tornado
Lightning dictionary
Tornado
Electric arcs
Electrical phenomena
Weather hazards | wiki |
This is a list of Michigan Wolverines football players in the NFL Draft.
Key
Selections
Notable undrafted players
Note: No drafts held before 1936
References
Michigan
Michigan Wolverines NFL draft | wiki |
Undrest. is an American clothing brand owned by WEARUNDER, Inc. based in the Garment District of Downtown Los Angeles, California. The company represents a growing group of clothing companies that embrace the idea of progressive labor policies that include production, development, and manufacturing all within the United States. Its main garment line consists of high end intimate apparels made of 100% U.S. grown Supima cotton, knit and manufactured in "sweatshop free" garment contract facilities in Los Angeles, California. The main line includes babydolls, bedjackets, boy shorts, camisoles, chemises, nightshirts, panties, and bralettes.
History
Undrest. launched its first collection in January 2007 for the spring/summer 2007. Maria Paz Navales is the founder and designer. Her inspiration for the line comes from various elements such as a 1940s Austrian bodysuit, colors inspired by Spanish flamenco posters from the 1930s, Harper's Bazaar magazine covers from the 1920s illustrated by artist/designer Erté, and from her travels to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, being exposed to the local lingerie fashions.
References
External links
Undrest. Company Web Site
Companies based in Los Angeles County, California
2000s fashion
Clothing brands of the United States | wiki |
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