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Jack's Family Restaurants, LP (doing business as Jack's) is an American fast food restaurant chain, headquartered and based in Birmingham, and is owned by AEA Investors. Restaurants feature sit-down dining, drive-thrus and takeout service. The menu features primarily burgers, fried chicken, breakfast and various other fast food items including french fries and soft drinks.
, there were 202 Jack's restaurants in operation; all corporate owned. The company opens new locations at a rate of 15 per year.
History
Jack's was founded on November 21, 1960, by Jack Caddell as a single walk-up stand in Homewood, Alabama, a suburb of Birmingham. This location still operates today after several remodels, the most recent in 2019, and is the chain's flagship store.
The original menu featured items such as fifteen-cent hamburgers and fries, twenty-cent shakes, and a twenty-cent "Fish-On-A-Bun." Jack's rapidly expanded and by the mid-1960s, they had more than a half dozen locations in the Birmingham metro area: the original Homewood store, Roebuck, 3rd Avenue West, Bessemer, Five Points West, Vestavia, Eastwood Mall, Alabaster and Center Point, and additional stores as far away as Mississippi and South Carolina.
In the mid to late 1970s, Jack's was expanding into south Alabama and the Florida panhandle. In the 1980s many of these locations began to close, but at least one individual was having success with Jack's. Benny LaRussa, primarily involved in the grocery business, had purchased a single franchise in the 1960s. In 1979, LaRussa abandoned groceries and purchased a franchise territory of 13 Jack's stores. From then until 1988 he expanded his territory to 33 stores. Then, in 1988, LaRussa purchased the total franchise rights to the Jack's concept. In 2015, Jack's was acquired by a fund managed by Onex Corporation, a private equity company based in Toronto, Canada.
On July 25, 2019, Onex announced that it had reached a deal to sell Jack's Family Restaurants in a deal expected to close in the third quarter of 2019. The deal finally closed in August 2019. Onex did not disclose the buyer or financial terms of the deal, but Restaurant Business Online reported that AEA Investors, a private equity firm based in New York, is the buyer of the restaurant chain.
Trademark design
Jack's restaurants were originally walk-up stands with a slanted roof and vertical orange and yellow stripes on each side. In the late 1960s, the chain began converting their walk-up stands to full, dine-in restaurants. Most upgraded restaurants featured faux stone walls.
The original signs were on 5 poles and featured "Jack's" in five individual white rectangles on top with the word "Hamburgers" on a separate sign underneath. A small round sign below had the price of the hamburgers, "15¢". Another sign that shared 3 poles and had "Fries 15¢ Shakes 20¢" written on it, and the final sign shared the opposite 3 poles and had "Self-Service" written on it. Several elements had their writing changed over time, and the last one in the chain, Dora, Al, was removed in 2019 during a remodel.
In the mid-1970s, Jack's began using new signage featuring the name written on an angle in white inside a red circle; the word "Hamburgers" was dropped. In the early 2000s, Jack's changed the logo from the original, all capital font to a mixed-case font. It still appears on the familiar red circle, but the circle is smaller so that the text extends outside of it.
See also
Milo's Hamburgers, another Alabama-based burger restaurant similar to Jack's
List of hamburger restaurants
References
External links
Official website
Companies based in Birmingham, Alabama
Restaurants in Birmingham, Alabama
Jefferson County, Alabama
Fast-food chains of the United States
Fast-food hamburger restaurants
Fast-food franchises
Regional restaurant chains in the United States
Restaurants established in 1960
1960 establishments in Alabama | wiki |
60 Second Assassin may refer to:
60 Second Assassin (film), a 1979 Taiwanese martial arts film
60 Second Assassin (rapper), an American rapper | wiki |
Kimmel can refer to:
People
Bobby Kimmel (born 1940), musician and recording artist
Bruce Kimmel (born 1947), music producer (Kritzerland Records)
Daniel M. Kimmel (born 1955), film critic
Dick Kimmel (born 1947), bluegrass musician and biologist
Doc Kimmel (1926-2022), American physician and politician
Eric Kimmel (born 1946), author
Frank Kimmel (born 1962), race car driver
Haven Kimmel (born 1965), American writer
Husband E. Kimmel (1882–1968), admiral
J. D. Kimmel (1929–2008), American football player
Jimmy Kimmel (born 1967), American actor, comedian, and talk show host
John C. Kimmel (born 1954), American racehorse trainer
Jon Kimmel (born 1960), American football player
Jonathan Kimmel (born 1976), American writer
Manning M. Kimmel (1832–1916), American Civil War officer
Manning Kimmel (1913–1944), U.S. naval officer
Manny Kimmel, underworld figure
Martin Kimmel (1916–2008), real estate developer
Michael Kimmel (born 1951), sociologist
Richard Kimmel, theatre director
Robert Kimmel, packaging engineer
Robert Kimmel Smith (born 1930), children's author
Ron Kimmel (born 1963), Israeli computer scientist
Sidney Kimmel (born 1928), film producer and clothing manufacturer
Tom Kimmel (born 1953), singer
Tõnis Kimmel (born 1977), architect
William Kimmel (1812–1886), politician
Places
Kimmel Township, Pennsylvania
Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts, Philadelphia, PA
Kimmel, Algeria
Other
Kimmel bread, rye bread with caraway seeds
Kimmel Eshkolot Architects, Israeli architecture firm
Kümmel (liqueur) or kimmel, a sweet, colorless liqueur
USS Charles J. Kimmel (DE-584), U.S. Navy destroyer escort
Kimmell
Dana Kimmell, American actress
German-language surnames | wiki |
In polymer science, precipitation polymerization is a heterogeneous polymerization process that begins initially as a homogeneous system in the continuous phase, where the monomer and initiator are completely soluble, but upon initiation the formed polymer is insoluble and thus precipitates.
After precipitation, the polymerization proceeds by absorption of monomer and initiator into the polymer particles.
A distinction should be made between precipitation and dispersion polymerization, due to the similarities. A dispersion polymerization is actually a type of precipitation polymerization, but the difference lies in the fact that precipitation polymerizations give larger and less regular particles, as a result of little or no stabilizer present.
References
Polymerization reactions
fr:Procédé de polymérisation#Polymérisation en dispersion | wiki |
De Champions League volleybal is het hoogste niveau in Europa in volleybal voor clubs in het seizoen 2006-2007.
Groepsfase
Groep A
Groep B
Groep C
Groep D
Playoffs met 12
Playoffs met 6
Halve Finales
Wedstrijd om plaats 3 en 4
Finale
Externe link
Officiële website
Volleybal in 2006
Volleybal in 2007 | wiki |
La course en ligne féminine aux championnats du monde de cyclisme sur route 2004 a lieu le à Vérone en Italie. Elle est remportée par l'Allemande Judith Arndt.
Classement
Course en ligne féminine aux championnats du monde de cyclisme sur route
Championnats du monde de cyclisme sur route 2004 | wiki |
This is an incomplete list of notable reefs.
Reefs
See also
Fringing reef
Recreational dive sites
Recreational diving
Southeast Asian coral reefs
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
References | wiki |
This is a list of Major Sites Protected for their Historical and Cultural Value at the National Level in the Province of Hainan, People's Republic of China.
|}
As well as sites protected at the national level, there are 108 sites in Hainan that are protected at the provincial level (see 海南省文物保护单位).
See also
Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China
Nandu River Iron Bridge
References
Hainan | wiki |
An athlete (also sportsman or sportswoman) is a person who competes in one or more sports that involve physical strength, speed, or endurance.
Athletes may be professionals or amateurs. Most professional athletes have particularly well-developed physiques obtained by extensive physical training and strict exercise accompanied by a strict dietary regimen.
Definitions
The word "athlete" is a romanization of the , athlētēs, one who participates in a contest; from ἄθλος, áthlos or ἄθλον, áthlon, a contest or feat. The primary definition of "sportsman" according to Webster's Third Unabridged Dictionary (1960) is, "a person who is active in sports: as (a): one who engages in the sports of the field and especially in hunting or fishing."
Physiology
Athletes involved in isotonic exercises have an increased mean left ventricular end-diastolic volume and are less likely to be depressed. Due to their strenuous physical activities, athletes are far more likely than the general population to visit massage salons and pay for services from massotherapists and masseurs. Athletes whose sport requires endurance more than strength usually have a lower calorie intake than other athletes.
"Athlete Genes"
While athleticism is largely influenced by environmental factors, it has been theorized that genetic expression may play a moderate role in an athlete's abilities as well. Exploring this claim, meta-analyses of studies regarding two specific genes, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene and ACTN3, concluded that certain variations in expression may have a moderate effect on athletic performance; the former being more prevalent in endurance-based events and the latter in power-based events. Further studies on these and other genetic polymorphisms linked to athletic performance were recommended.
Titles
"All-round athlete"
An "all-round athlete" is a person who competes in multiple sports at a high level. Examples of people who played more than one sport professionally include Jim Thorpe, Lionel Conacher, Deion Sanders, Danny Ainge, Babe Zaharias and Erin Phillips. Others include Ricky Williams, Bo Jackson and Damon Allen, each of whom was drafted both by Major League Baseball and by professional gridiron football leagues such as the NFL and the CFL. Another female example is Heather Moyse, a multiple Winter Olympic gold medalist in bobsled and member of the World Rugby Hall of Fame who also represented Canada internationally in track cycling and competed at university level in basketball and track and field. Japanese athletes such as Kazushi Sakuraba, Kazuyuki Fujita, Masakatsu Funaki and Naoya Ogawa have successfully performed in professional wrestling and competed in mixed martial arts.
"World's Greatest Athlete"
The title of "World's Greatest Athlete" traditionally belongs to the world's top competitor in the decathlon (males) and heptathlon (females) in track and field. The decathlon consists of 10 events: 100 meters, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400 meters, 110 m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin, and 1500 m. The heptathlon consists of seven events: the 100 m hurdles, high jump, shot put, 200 meters, long jump, javelin, and 800 meters. These competitions require an athlete to possess the whole spectrum of athletic ability in order to be successful including speed, strength, coordination, jumping ability, and endurance.
Although the title "World's Greatest Athlete" seems a natural fit for these two events, its traditional association with the decathlon/heptathlon officially began with Jim Thorpe. During the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden, Thorpe won the gold medal in the Decathlon (among others). Thorpe competed professionally in baseball, American football, and basketball; and competed collegiately in track and field, baseball, lacrosse, and did ballroom dancing. King Gustav V of Sweden, while awarding Thorpe the decathlon gold, said: "Sir, you are the greatest athlete in the world." That title has been associated with the decathlon event ever since.
See also
Athletics
Sportswear (activewear)
Outdoor enthusiast
Jock (athlete)
Athlete of the Year
Women's sports
Olympic Games athletes are also known as 'Olympians'
References
Sports occupations and roles
Sports terminology | wiki |
Boulevard Theatre or Boulevard Theater may refer to:
Boulevard theatre (aesthetic), a theatrical aesthetic which emerged from the boulevards of Paris's old city
Boulevard Theatre (Jackson Heights, New York), a historic playhouse and movie theater in Queens, New York
Boulevardteatern, the Boulevard Theatre in Södermalm, Stockholm
Soho#Raymond_Revuebar, the upstairs of the Raymond Revuebar in Soho, London
Boulevard Theater (Miami), a former movie theater, now nightclub, in Miami, Florida | wiki |
This list of reptiles of California includes the snakes, turtles and lizards found in the US state of California.
Endemic species.
Introduced species.
Lizards
Family Anguidae
Family Anniellidae
Family Crotaphytidae
Family Gekkonidae
Family Helodermatidae
Family Iguanidae
Family Phrynosomatidae
Family Scincidae
Family Teiidae
Family Xantusiidae
Family Lacertidae
Snakes
Family Boidae
Family Colubridae
Family Leptotyphlopidae
Family Typhlopidae
Family Viperidae
Turtles
Family Cheloniidae
Family Chelydridae
Family Dermochelyidae
Family Emydidae
Family Kinosternidae
Family Testudinidae
Family Trionychidae
References
External links
Reptiles
California | wiki |
Al-Bajjaria or Al-bujari (, ālbǧāryh) is a Levantine dish popular in Deir ez-Zor, usually offered at events and weddings have been named Bajjaria relative to the tribe Baggara.
Components
Al-bajjaria is a mutton lamb cooked only ghee and placed after cooking on a number of loaves of unleavened bread orsheet, which is cut and placed in the mince and placed aside some green onions and radish as a kind of ornamental.
Preparation
Add water with the addition of onions, salt, bay leaf, pepper red, cloves and cinnamon to give special food flavor, and after preparing is poured out in Manasef which is placed tandoor bread.
References
Arab cuisine
Levantine cuisine
Syrian cuisine | wiki |
William Mooney may refer to:
William Mooney (actor), American actor
William C. Mooney, U.S. Representative from Ohio
William Mooney (cricketer), Irish cricketer | wiki |
Eleanor Widener Dixon (18911966) was an American socialite and philanthropist. She was the daughter of George Dunton Widener and Eleanor Elkins Widener, and the younger sister of George Dunton Widener Jr. and Harry Elkins Widener.
She married Fitz Eugene Dixon in 1912, and they were divorced in 1936. They had a daughter, also named Eleanor Widener Dixon, and a son named Fitz Eugene Dixon Jr.
References
1891 births
1966 deaths
Widener family | wiki |
Grant Campbell may refer to:
Grant Campbell (musician) (born 1979), British singer-songwriter
Grant Campbell (politician) (1922–2008), Canadian Member of Parliament | wiki |
Wedding cake ("torta nuziale" in lingua inglese) può indicare:
Wedding Cake – montagna della contea di Muswellbrook, nel Nuovo Galles del Sud, in Australia
Wedding Cake – montagna nella contea di Trinity, in California, negli Stati Uniti d'America | wiki |
An Automated Charging Machine (ACM) is an electronic machine that provides the public with the ability to recharge a mobile device, often for a small fee. Similar to vending machines, ACMs take cash, then charge the connected devices, which may be cell phones, PDAs, or other handheld devices. Usually, these machines charge much faster than normal chargers would charge them; some provide a charge in as little as 10 minutes.
History
Public charging stations for mobile devices appeared around 2006. A variety of features have been introduced to these machines, including lockers, UV sanitation, and wirelessly updated advertising space. Since the introduction of the idea, an increasing number of companies are looking toward ACMs for vending and advertising revenue.
Locations
ACMs are generally deployed in areas with a high amount of foot traffic, similar to vending machines and ATMs. These places include airports, shopping malls, parks, clubs, supermarkets, campuses, and other popular locations. Though is it unknown how many ACMs are in use around the world, they can be found in a variety of countries including the United States, England, and China.
See also
Chargebox
Charging station
References
Vending machines
Charging stations | wiki |
Freestyle is a category of swimming competition, defined by the rules of the International Swimming Federation (FINA), in which competitors are subject to a few limited restrictions on their swimming stroke. Freestyle races are the most common of all swimming competitions, with distances beginning with and reaching , also known as the mile. The term 'freestyle stroke' is sometimes used as a synonym for 'front crawl', as front crawl is the fastest surface swimming stroke. It is now the most common stroke used in freestyle competitions.
The first Olympics held open water swimming events, but after a few Olympics, closed water swimming was introduced. The front crawl or freestyle was the first event that was introduced.
Technique
Freestyle swimming implies the use of legs and arms for competitive swimming, except in the case of the individual medley or medley relay events. The front crawl is most commonly chosen by swimmers, as this provides the greatest speed. During a race, the competitor circles the arms forward in alternation, kicking the feet up and down (flutter kick). Individual freestyle events can also be swum using one of the officially regulated strokes (breaststroke, butterfly, or backstroke). For the freestyle part of medley swimming competitions, however, one cannot use breaststroke, butterfly, or backstroke. Front crawl is based on the Trudgen that was improved by Richmond Cavill from Sydney, Australia. Cavill developed the stroke by observing a young boy from the Solomon Islands, Alick Wickham. Cavill and his brothers spread the Australian crawl to England, New Zealand and America, creating the freestyle used worldwide today. During the Olympic Games, front crawl is swum almost exclusively during freestyle. Some of the few rules state that swimmers must touch the end of the pool during each length and cannot push off the bottom, hang on the wall, or pull on the lane lines during the course of the race. However, other than this any form or variation of strokes is considered legal with the race. As with all competitive events, false starts can lead to disqualification of the swimmer.
New developments in the sport
Times have consistently dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new developments in the sport.
In the first four Olympics, swimming competitions were not held in pools, but in open water (1896 – the Mediterranean, 1900 – the Seine river, 1904 – an artificial lake, 1906 – the Mediterranean). The 1904 Olympics freestyle race was the only one ever measured at 100 yards, instead of the usual 100 meters. A 100-meter pool was built for the 1908 Olympics and sat in the center of the main stadium's track and field oval. The 1912 Olympics, held in the Stockholm harbor, marked the beginning of electronic timing.
Male swimmers wore full body suits up until the 1940s, which caused more drag in the water than their modern swimwear counterparts. Also, over the years, some design considerations have reduced swimming resistance, making the pool faster, namely: proper pool depth, elimination of currents, increased lane width, energy-absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic, and illumination designs.
The 1924 Olympics was the first to use the standard 50 meter pool with marked lanes. In freestyle events, swimmers originally dove from the pool walls, but diving blocks were eventually incorporated at the 1936 Olympics. The flip turn was developed in the 1950s, resulting in faster times. Lane design created in the early 1970s has also cut down turbulence in water, aiding in the more dynamic pool used today.
Rules and regulation
Freestyle means "any style" for individual swims and any style but breaststroke, butterfly, or backstroke for both the individual medley, and medley relay competitions. The wall has to be touched at every turn and upon completion. Some part of the swimmer must be above water at any time, except for the first 15 meters after the start and every turn. This rule was introduced (see History of swimming) to prevent swimmers from using the faster underwater swimming, such as the fish kick, to their advantage, or even swimming entire laps underwater. The exact FINA rules are:
Freestyle means that in an event so designated the swimmer may swim any style, except that in individual medley or medley relay events, freestyle means any style other than backstroke, breaststroke, or butterfly
Some part of the swimmer must touch the wall upon completion of each length and at the finish
Some part of the swimmer must break the surface of the water throughout the race, except it shall be permissible for the swimmer to be completely submerged during the turn and for a distance of not more than 15 meters after the start and each turn. By that point the head must have broken the surface.
Competitions
There are nine competitions used in freestyle swimming, both using either a long time (50 meter) or a short time (25 meter) pool. The United States also employs short time yards (25 yard pool). In the United States, it is common for swimmers to compete in a 25-yard pool during the Fall, Winter, and Spring, and then switch over to a 50-meter pool format during the Summer.
50 m freestyle (50 yards for short time yards)
100 m freestyle (100 yards for short time yards)
200 m freestyle (200 yards for short time yards)
400 m freestyle (500 yards for short time yards)
800 m freestyle (1000 yards for short time yards)
1500 m freestyle (1650 yards for short time yards)
4×50 m freestyle relay (4 x 50 yards for short time yards)
4 × 100 m freestyle relay (4 x 100 yards for short time yards)
4 × 200 m freestyle relay (4 x 200 yards for short time yards)
Young swimmers (typically 8 years old and younger) have the option to swim a 25 yard/meter freestyle event.
Freestyle is also part of the medley over the following distances:
100 m individual medley (short 25 m pool only)
200 m individual medley (200 yard individual medley in short time yards)
400 m individual medley (400 yards individual medley in short time yards)
4 × 100 m medley relay (4 x 100 yard medley relay in short time yards)
4 × 200 m medley relay (4 x 200 yard medley relay in short time yards)
In the long-distance races of the , some meets hosted by FINA (including the Olympics) only have the distance for women and the distance for men. However, FINA does keep records in the distance for women and the distance for men, and the FINA World Championships, as well as many other meets, have both distances for both sexes.
Olympic or long course world champions in freestyle
Men
Women
Further reading
See also
100 metre freestyle
List of world records in swimming
History of swimming
References
External links
Swim.ee: Detailed discussion of swimming techniques and speeds
How to learn efficient freestyle swimming
FINA World records list
Course Conversion Calculator at SwimCoachTools
Freestyle Swimming Stroke Explained in Detail
Swimming styles
bg:Свободен стил
he:שחייה תחרותית#חופשי | wiki |
Pronoun reversal or pronominal reversal is when children refer to themselves as "he", "she", "they", or "you", or by their own proper name (pronoun avoidance). While it may signal an autism-spectrum disorder when it persists for an unusual length of time, some degree of pronoun confusion can occur as a part of allistic speech development, and it is common in toddlers. Pronoun reversal is closely linked to echolalia: referring to themselves as they have heard others speak of them, resulting in the misapplication of pronouns.
For example:
Parent: What are you doing, Johnny?
Child: You're here.
Parent: Are you having a good time?
Child: You sure are.
As with many other autistic traits, if speech continues to develop more normally, this pronoun reversal might be expected to disappear. However, it can also be highly resistant to change. Some children require extensive training to stop pronoun reversal, even after they have stopped echolalia.
References
Tramontana & Stimbert, 1970
Davison, Neale & Kring, 2004
External links
Gold, Kevin and Brian Scassellati, "Grounded Pronoun Learning and Pronoun Reversal", Yale University (2006)
Autism
Pronouns | wiki |
Aural is an adjective: of or pertaining to the ear or sound.
Aural may also refer to:
Phnom Aural, a mountain in Cambodia
Laura Sippola (born 1974), Finnish musician also known as AURAL
See also
Oral (disambiguation) | wiki |
Dried cherries are a type of dried fruit. They consist of cherries which have been subjected to a drying process.
Production
One method for industrial production of dried cherries involves first dipping them in a boiling 0.5–2% solution of sodium carbonate (NaCO3) for up to 20 seconds, and then rinsing in cool water; this induces small cracks in the skin and speeds up the drying process. Some other possible materials for the dipping solution include ethyl oleate and oleyl alcohol; adding alkalis like potassium carbonate (K2CO3) to such a dip was shown to have no positive effect on drying time. Such results had already been demonstrated in scientific research by the 1940s. Dried cherries might also be produced by freeze drying or air drying. After drying, they typically have a moisture content of around 25%. Adding sulfur dioxide (SO2) may help to improve color and flavour retention over long periods of storage.
Sweet varieties recommended for drying include Lambert, Royal Ann, Napoleon, Van, or Bing; tart varieties recommended for drying include Early Richmond or Large Montmorency. The first recorded experiments attempting to dry Montmorency tart cherries were performed in the late 1970s by professors at Utah State University. After drying the cherries, they were rolled in sugar and then sampled as "snow cherries".
Culinary uses
People of the Crow Nation often use finely ground dried cherries in production of pemmican.
Medicinal value
As far back as ancient times, Pliny the Elder had recognised that dried cherries have a diuretic effect; he mentioned them briefly in his description of medicinal plants found in books XX-XXVII of the Naturalis Historia.
See also
List of cherry dishes
List of dried foods
References
Notes
Sources
Cherry dishes
Dried fruit | wiki |
William Pease may refer to:
William Pease (professor), American professor of medicine
William Harper Pease, American conchologist, shell collector and malacologist
William Edwin Pease, English businessman and politician
Billy Pease, English footballer | wiki |
This is the complete list of men's Olympic medalists in fencing.
Current program
Foil, individual
Foil, team
Épée, individual
Épée, team
Sabre, individual
Sabre, team
Discontinued events
Épée, Amateurs and Masters
Épée, Masters
Foil, Masters
Sabre, Masters
Singlestick
All-time medal table - Men's - 1896–2020
See also
Fencing at the 1906 Intercalated Games are no longer regarded as official Games by the International Olympic Committee
References
External links
International Olympic Committee results database
Fencing (men)
Fencing (men)
medalists
Olympic, men | wiki |
Ice drilling allows scientists studying glaciers and ice sheets to gain access to what is beneath the ice, to take measurements along the interior of the ice, and to retrieve samples. Instruments can be placed in the drilled holes to record temperature, pressure, speed, direction of movement, and for other scientific research, such as neutrino detection.
Many different methods have been used since 1840, when the first scientific ice drilling expedition attempted to drill through the Unteraargletscher in the Alps. Two early methods were percussion, in which the ice is fractured and pulverized, and rotary drilling, a method often used in mineral exploration for rock drilling. In the 1940s, thermal drills began to be used; these drills melt the ice by heating the drill. Drills that use jets of hot water or steam to bore through ice soon followed. A growing interest in ice cores, used for palaeoclimatological research, led to ice coring drills being developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and there are now many different coring drills in use. For obtaining ice cores from deep holes, most investigators use cable-suspended electromechanical drills, which use an armoured cable to carry electrical power to a mechanical drill at the bottom of the borehole.
In 1966, a US team successfully drilled through the Greenland ice sheet at Camp Century, at a depth of . Since then many other groups have succeeded in reaching bedrock through the two largest ice sheets, in Greenland and Antarctica. Recent projects have focused on finding drilling locations that will give scientists access to very old undisturbed ice at the bottom of the borehole, since an undisturbed stratigraphic sequence is required to accurately date the information obtained from the ice.
Goals of ice drilling
The first scientific ice drilling expeditions, led by Louis Agassiz from 1840 to 1842, had three goals: to prove that glaciers flowed, to measure the internal temperature of a glacier at different depths, and to measure the thickness of a glacier. Proof of glacier motion was achieved by placing stakes in holes drilled in a glacier and tracking their motion from the surrounding mountain. Drilling through glaciers to determine their thickness, and to test theories of glacier motion and structure, continued to be of interest for some time, but glacier thickness has been measured by seismographic techniques since the 1920s. Although it is no longer necessary to drill through a glacier to determine its thickness, scientists still drill shot holes in ice for these seismic studies. Temperature measurements continue to this day: modelling the behaviour of glaciers requires an understanding of their internal temperature, and in ice sheets, the borehole temperature at different depths can provide information about past climates. Other instruments may be lowered into the borehole, such as piezometers, to measure pressure within the ice, or cameras, to allow a visual review of the stratigraphy. IceCube, a large astrophysical project, required numerous optical sensors to be placed in holes 2.5 km deep, drilled at the South Pole.
Borehole inclination, and the change in inclination over time, can be measured in a cased hole, a hole in which a hollow pipe has been placed as a "liner" to keep the hole open. This allows the three-dimensional position of the borehole to be mapped periodically, revealing the movement of the glacier, not only at the surface, but throughout its thickness. To understand whether a glacier is shrinking or growing, its mass balance must be measured: this is the net effect of gains from fresh snow, minus losses from melting and sublimation. A straightforward way to determine these effects across the surface of a glacier is to plant stakes (known as ablation stakes) in holes drilled in the glacier's surface, and monitor them over time to see if more snow is accumulating, burying the stake, or if more and more of the stake is visible as the snow around it disappears. The discovery of layers of aqueous water and of several hundred mapped subglacial lakes, beneath the Antarctic ice sheet, led to speculation about the existence of unique microbial environments that had been isolated from the rest of the biosphere, potentially for millions of years. These environments can be investigated by drilling.
Ice cores are one of the most important motivations for drilling in ice. Since ice cores retain environmental information about the time the ice in them fell as snow, they are useful in reconstructing past climates, and ice core analysis includes studies of isotopic composition, mechanical properties, dissolved impurities and dust, trapped atmospheric samples, and trace radionuclides. Data from ice cores can be used to determine past variations in solar activity, and is important in the construction of marine isotope stages, one of the key palaeoclimatic dating tools. Ice cores can also provide information about glacier flow and accumulation rates. IPICS (International Partnership in Ice Core Sciences) maintains a list of key goals for ice core research. Currently these are to obtain a 1.5 million year old core; obtain a complete record of the last interglacial period; use ice cores to assist with the understanding of climate changes over long time scales; obtain a detailed spatial array of ice core climate data for the last 2,000 years; and continue the development of advanced ice core drilling technology.
Drilling design considerations
The constraints on ice drill designs can be divided into the following broad categories.
Ice removal method and project logistics
The ice must be cut through, broken up, or melted. Tools can be directly pushed into snow and firn (snow that is compressed, but not yet turned to ice, which typically happens at a depth of to ); this method is not effective in ice, but it is perfectly adequate for obtaining samples from the uppermost layers. For ice, two options are percussion drilling and rotary drilling. Percussion drilling uses a sharp tool such as a chisel, which strikes the ice to fracture and fragment it. More common are rotary cutting tools, which have a rotating blade or set of blades at the bottom of the borehole to cut away the ice. For small tools the rotation can be provided by hand, using a T-handle or a carpenter's brace. Some tools can also be set up to make use of ordinary household power drills, or they may include a motor to drive the rotation. If the torque is supplied from the surface, then the entire drill string must be rigid so that it can be rotated; but it is also possible to place a motor just above the bottom of the drill string, and have it supply power directly to the drill bit.
If the ice is to be melted instead of cut, then heat must be generated. An electrical heater built into the drill string can heat the ice directly, or it can heat the material it is embedded in, which in turn heats the ice. Heat can also be sent down the drill string; hot water or steam pumped down from the surface can be used to heat a metal drillhead, or the water or steam can be allowed to emerge from the drillhead and melt the ice directly. In at least one case a drilling project experimented with heating the drillhead on the surface, and then lowering it into the hole.
Many ice drilling locations are very difficult to access, and drills must be designed so that they can be transported to the drill site. The equipment should be as light and portable as possible. It is helpful if the equipment can be broken down so that the individual components can be carried separately, thus reducing the burden for hand-carrying, if required. Fuel, for steam or hot water drills, or for a generator to provide power, must also be transported, and this weight has to be taken into account as well.
Cuttings and meltwater
Mechanical drilling produces pieces of ice, either as cuttings, or as granular fragments, which must be removed from the bottom of the hole to prevent them from interfering with the cutting or percussing action of the drill. An auger used as the cutting tool will naturally move ice cuttings up its helical flights. If the drill's action leaves the ice chips on top of the drill, they can be removed by simply raising the drill to the surface periodically. If not, they can be brought to the surface by lowering a tool to scoop them up, or the hole can be kept full of water, in which case the cuttings will naturally float to the top of the hole. If the chips are not removed, they must be compacted into the walls of the borehole, and into the core if a core is being retrieved.
Cuttings can also be moved to the surface by circulating compressed air through the hole, either by pumping the air through the drillpipe and out at the drillhead, forcing the chips up in the space between the drill string and the borehole wall, or by reverse air circulation, in which the air flows up through the drill string. Compressed air will be heated by the compression, and it must be cooled before being pumped downhole, or it will cause melting of the borehole walls and the core. If the air is circulated by creating a vacuum, rather than pumping air in, ambient air carries the cuttings, so no cooling is needed.
A fluid can be used to circulate the cuttings away from the bit, or the fluid may be able to dissolve the cuttings. Rotary mineral drilling (through rock) typically circulates fluid through the entire hole, and separates solids from the fluid at the surface before pumping the fluid back down. In deep ice drilling it is usual to circulate the fluid only at the bottom of the hole, collecting cuttings in a chamber that is part of the downhole assembly. For a coring drill, the cuttings chamber can be emptied each time the drill is brought to the surface to retrieve a core.
Thermal drills will produce water, so there are no cuttings to dispose of, but the drill must be capable of working while submerged in water, or else the drill must have a method of removing and storing the meltwater while drilling.
Drill string logistics
The drilling mechanism must be connected to the surface, and there must be a method of raising and lowering the drill. If the drill string consists of pipes or rods that have to be screwed together, or otherwise assembled, as the hole gets deeper and the drill string lengthens, then there must be a way to hold the drill string in place as each length of rod or pipe is added or removed. If the hole is only a few metres deep, no mechanical assistance may be necessary, but drill strings can get very heavy for deep holes, and a winch or other hoisting system must be in place that is capable of lifting and lowering it.
A "trip" in drilling refers to the task of pulling a drill string completely out of the hole (tripping out) and then reinserting it back into the hole (tripping in). Tripping time is the time taken to trip in and out of the hole; it is important for a drill design to minimize tripping time, particularly for coring drills, since they must complete a trip for each core.
Borehole stability and permeability
The overburden pressure in a deep hole from the weight of the ice above will cause a borehole to slowly close up, unless something is done to counteract it, so deep holes are filled with a drilling fluid that is about the same density as the surrounding ice, such as jet fuel or kerosene. The fluid must have low viscosity to reduce tripping time. Since retrieval of each segment of core requires a trip, a slower speed of travel through the drilling fluid could add significant time to a project—a year or more for a deep hole. The fluid must contaminate the ice as little as possible; it must have low toxicity, for safety and to minimize the effect on the environment; it must be available at a reasonable cost; and it must be relatively easy to transport. The depth at which borehole closure prevents dry drilling is strongly dependent on the temperature of the ice; in a temperate glacier, the maximum depth might be , but in a very cold environment such as parts of East Antarctica, dry drilling to might be possible.
Snow and firn are permeable to air, water, and drilling fluids, so any drilling method that requires liquid or compressed air in the hole needs to prevent them from escaping into the surface layers of snow and firn. If the fluid is only used in the lower part of the hole, permeability is not an issue. Alternatively the hole can be cased down past the point where the firn turns to ice. If water is used as a drilling fluid, in cold enough temperatures, it will turn to ice in the surrounding snow and firn and seal the hole.
Power, torque, antitorque, and heat
Tools can be designed to be rotated by hand, via a brace or T-handle, or a hand crank gearing, or attached to a hand drill. Drills with powered rotation require an electrical motor at the rig site, which generally must have fuel, though in at least one case a drilling project was set up near enough to a permanent research station to run a cable to the research building for power. The rotation can be applied at the surface, by a rotary table, using a kelly, or by a motor in the drillhead, for cable-suspended drills; in the latter case the cable must carry power to the drillhead as well as support its weight. For rotary drills, gearing is required to reduce the engine's rotation to a suitable speed for drilling.
If torque is supplied at the bottom of the hole, the motor supplying it to the drillbit beneath it will have a tendency to rotate around its own axis, rather than imparting the rotation to the drillbit. This is because the drillbit will have a strong resistance to rotation since it is cutting ice. To prevent this, an anti-torque mechanism of some kind must be provided, typically by giving the motor some grip against the walls of the borehole.
A thermal drill that uses electricity to heat the drill head so that it melts the ice must bring power down the hole, just as with rotary drills. If the drillhead is heated by pumping water or steam down to the bottom of the hole, then no downhole power is needed, but a pump at the surface is required for hot water. The water or steam can be heated at the surface by a fuel-powered boiler. Solar power can also be used.
Directional control
Some drills which are designed to rest on their tip as they drill will lean to one side in the borehole, and the hole they drill will gradually drift towards the horizontal unless some method of counteracting this tendency is provided. For other drills, directional control can be useful in starting additional holes at depth, for example to retrieve additional ice cores.
Temperature
Many glaciers are temperate, meaning that they contain "warm ice": ice that is at melting temperature (0 °C) throughout. Meltwater in boreholes in warm ice will not refreeze, but for colder ice, meltwater is likely to cause a problem, and may freeze the drill in place, so thermal drills that operate submerged in the meltwater they produce, and any drilling method that results in water in the borehole, are difficult to use in such conditions. Drilling fluids, or antifreeze additives to meltwater, must be chosen to keep the fluid liquid at the temperatures found in the borehole. In warm ice, ice tends to form on cutters and the drillhead, and to pack into spaces at the bottom of the hole, slowing down drilling.
Core retrieval
To retrieve a core, an annulus of ice must be removed from around the cylindrical core. The core should be unbroken, which means that vibrations and mechanical shocks must be kept to a minimum, and changes in temperature which could cause thermal shock to the core must also be avoided. The core must be kept from melting caused by heat generated either mechanically from the drilling process, from the heat of compressed air if air is used as the drilling fluid, or from a thermal drill, and must not be contaminated by the drilling fluid. When the core is about to be retrieved, it is still connected to the ice beneath it, so some method of breaking it at the lower end must be provided, and of gripping it so it does not fall from the core barrel as it is brought to the surface, which must be done as quickly and safely as possible.
Most coring drills are designed to retrieve cores that are no longer than , so drilling must stop each time the hole depth is extended by that amount, so that the core can be retrieved. A drill string that must be assembled and disassembled in segments, such as pipe sections that must be screwed together, takes a long time to trip in and out; a cable which can be continuously winched up, or a drill string that is flexible enough to be coiled, significantly reduces tripping time. Wireline drills have a mechanism that allows the core barrel to be detached from the drill head and winched directly to the surface without having to trip out the drill string. Once the core is removed, the core barrel is lowered to the bottom of the hole and reattached to the drill.
Brittle ice
Over a depth range known as the brittle ice zone, bubbles of air are trapped in the ice under great pressure. When a core is brought to the surface, the bubbles can exert a stress that exceeds the tensile strength of the ice, resulting in cracks and spall. At greater depths, the ice crystal structure changes from hexagonal to cubic, and the air molecules move inside the crystals, in a structure called a clathrate. The bubbles disappear, and the ice becomes stable again.
The brittle ice zone typically returns poorer quality samples than for the rest of the core. Some steps can be taken to alleviate the problem. Liners can be placed inside the drill barrel to enclose the core before it is brought to the surface, but this makes it difficult to clean off the drilling fluid. In mineral drilling, special machinery can bring core samples to the surface at bottom-hole pressure, but this is too expensive for the inaccessible locations of most drilling sites. Keeping the processing facilities at very low temperatures limits thermal shocks. Cores are most brittle at the surface, so another approach is to break them into 1 m lengths in the hole. Extruding the core from the drill barrel into a net helps keep it together if it shatters. Brittle cores are also often allowed to rest in storage at the drill site for some time, up to a full year between drilling seasons, to let the ice gradually relax. Core quality in the brittle ice zone is much improved when a drilling fluid is used, as opposed to dry hole drilling.
Percussion drills
A percussion drill penetrates ice by repeatedly striking it to fracture and fragment it. The cutting tool is mounted at the bottom of the drill string (typically connected metal rods), and some means of giving it kinetic energy must be provided. A tripod erected over the hole allows a pulley to be set up, and a cable can then be used to repeatedly raise and drop the tool. This method is known as cable tool drilling. A weight repeatedly dropped on to a rigid drill string can also be used to provide the necessary impetus. The pulverized ice collects at the bottom of the borehole, and must be removed. It can be collected with a tool capable of scooping it from the bottom of the hole, or the hole can be kept full of water, so that the ice floats to the top of the hole, though this retards the momentum of the drill striking the ice, reducing its effectiveness. A percussion drilling tool that is not mechanically driven requires some method of raising the drill so it can be released, to fall on the ice. To do this efficiently with manual labour, it is usual to set up a tripod or other supporting scaffold, and a pulley to allow the drill string to be raised by a rope. This arrangement, known as a cable-tool rig, can also be used for mechanical drilling, with a motor raising the drill string and allowing it to fall. An alternative approach is to leave the drill string at the bottom of the borehole, and to raise and let fall a hammer weight onto the drill string.
The earliest scientific ice drilling expedition used percussion drilling; Louis Agassiz used iron rods to drill holes in the Unteraargletscher, in the Alps, in the summer of 1840. Cable-tool rigs have been used for ice drilling in more recent times; Soviet expeditions in the 1960s drilled with cable-tool rigs in the Caucasus and the Tien Shan range, and US projects have drilled on the Blue Glacier in Washington between 1969 and 1976, and on the Black Rapids Glacier in Alaska in 2002.
Two other percussion methods have been tried. Pneumatic drills have been used to drill shallow holes in ice in order to set blast charges, and rotary percussion drills, a type of drilling tool once in common use in the mining industry, have also been used for drilling blasting holes, but neither approach has been used for scientific investigations of ice. Percussion drilling is now rarely used for scientific ice drilling, having been overtaken by more effective techniques for both ice and mineral drilling.
Hand-operated mechanical drills
Spoon-borers
A soil sampling auger contains a pair of blades at the bottom of an enclosed cylinder; it can be driven and rotated by hand to pick up soft soil. A similar design, called a spoon-borer, has been used for ice drilling, though it is not effective in hard ice. A version used by Erich von Drygalski in 1902 had two half-moon cutting blades set into the base of the cylinder in such a way as to allow the ice cuttings to accumulate in the cylinder, above the blades.
Non-coring augers
Augers have long been used for drilling through ice for ice fishing. Augers can be rotated by hand, using a mechanism such as a T handle or a brace bit, or by attaching them to powered hand drills. Scientific uses for non-coring augers include sensor installation and determining ice thickness. Augers have a helical screw blade around the main drilling axis; this blade, called the "flighting", carries the ice cuttings up from the bottom of the hole. For drilling deeper holes, extensions can be added to the auger, but as the auger gets longer it becomes more difficult to rotate. With a platform such as a stepladder, a longer auger can be rotated from higher off the ground.
Commercially available ice augers for winter fishing, powered by petrol, propane, or battery power, are available for hole diameters from 4.5 in to 10 in. For holes deeper than 2 m a tripod can be used to winch the auger from the hole. A folding brace handle with an offset design is common; this allows both hands to contribute to the torque.
Coring augers
Augers that are capable of retrieving ice cores are similar to non-coring augers, except that the flights are set around a hollow core barrel. Augers have been devised that consist of the helical cutting blades and a space for a core, without the central supporting cylinder, but they are difficult to make sufficiently rigid. Coring augers typically produce cores with diameters in the range 75–100 mm, and with lengths up to 1 m. Coring augers were originally designed to be manually rotated, but over time they have been adapted for use with handheld drills or small engines.
As with non-coring augers, extensions can be added to drill deeper. Drilling deeper than 6 m requires more than one person because of the weight of the drill string. A clamp placed at the surface is useful for supporting the string, and a tripod and block and tackle can also be used for support and to increase the weight of string that can be handled. As the drill string gets longer, it takes more time to complete a trip to extract a core, since each extension rod must be separated from the drill string when tripping out, and re-attached when tripping in.
Drilling with a tripod or other method of handling a long drill string considerably extends the depth limit for the use of a coring auger. The deepest hole drilled by hand with an auger was 55 m, in the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf on Ellesmere Island, in 1960. Usually a hole deeper than 30 m will be drilled with other methods, because of the weight of the drill string and the long trip time required.
Modern coring augers have changed little in decades: an ice coring auger patented in the US in 1932 closely resembles coring augers in use eighty years later. The US military's Frost Effects Laboratory (FEL) developed an ice mechanics testing kit that included a coring auger in the late 1940s; the Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment (SIPRE), a successor organization, refined the design in the early 1950s, and the resulting auger, known as the SIPRE auger, is still in wide use. It was modified slightly by the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), another successor organization, in the 1960s, and is sometimes known as the CRREL auger for that reason. An auger developed in the 1970s by the Polar Ice Core Office (PICO), then based in Lincoln, Nebraska, is also still widely used. A coring auger designed at the University of Copenhagen in the 1980s was used for the first time at Camp Century, and since then has been frequently used in Greenland. In 2009, the US Ice Drilling Design and Operations group (IDDO) began work on an improved hand auger design and a version was successfully tested in the field during the 2012–2013 field season at WAIS Divide. As of 2017 IDDO maintains both 3-inch and 4-inch diameter versions of the new auger for the use of US ice drilling research programs, and these are now the most-requested hand augers provided by IDDO.
The Prairie Dog auger, designed in 2007, adds an outer barrel to the basic coring auger design. Cuttings are captured between the auger flights and the outer barrel, which has an anti-torque section to prevent it from rotating in the hole. The goal of the outer barrel is to increase the efficiency of chip collection, since it is common to see chips from a hand auger run fall back into the hole from the auger flights, which means the next run has to redrill through these cuttings. The outer barrel also makes the auger effective in warm ice, which could easily cause an auger with no outer barrel to jam. The outside barrel of the Prairie Dog is the same as the diameter of the PICO auger, and since the Prairie Dog's anti-torque blades do not perform well in soft snow and firn, it is common to start a hole with the PICO auger and then continue it with the Prairie Dog once dense firn is reached. The Prairie Dog is relatively heavy, and can require two drillers to handle it as it is being removed from the hole. The IDDO maintains a Prairie Dog drill for the use of US ice drilling research programs.
IDDO also provides a lifting system for use with hand augers, known as the Sidewinder. It is driven by an electric hand drill, which can be powered by a generator or by solar cells. The Sidewinder winds a rope around the hand auger as it is lowered into the hole, and assists in raising the auger back out of the hole. This extends the maximum practical depth for hand augering to about 40 m. Sidewinders have proved popular with researchers.
Piston drills
A piston drill consists of a flat disc at the bottom of a long rod, with three or four radial slots in the disc, each of which has a cutting edge. The rod is rotated by hand, using a brace handle; the ice comes through the slots and piles up on top of the disc. Pulling the drill out of the borehole brings the cuttings up on the disc. In the 1940s some patents for piston drill designs were filed in Sweden and the U.S., but these drills are now rarely used. They are less efficient than auger drills, since the drill must be periodically removed from the hole to get rid of the cuttings.
Hand core drills and mini drills
Some hand drills have been designed to retrieve cores without using auger flights to transport the cuttings up the hole. These drills typically have a core barrel with teeth at the lower end, and are rotated by a brace or T-handle, or by a small engine. The barrel itself can be omitted, so that the drill consists only of a ring with a cutting slot to cut the annulus around the core, and a vertical rod to attach the ring to the surface. A couple of small hand-held drills, or mini drills, have been designed to quickly collect core samples up to 50 cm long. A difficulty with all these designs is that as soon as cuttings are generated, if they are not removed they will interfere with the cutting action of the drill, making these tools slow and inefficient in use. A very small drill, known as the Chipmunk Drill, was designed by IDDO for use by a project in West Greenland in 2003 and 2004, and was subsequently used at the South Pole in 2013.
Rotary rigs using drillpipe
Rotary rigs used in mineral drilling use a string of drillpipe connected to a drillbit at the bottom of the hole, and to a rotary mechanism at the top of the hole, such as a top drive or rotary table and kelly. As the borehole deepens, drilling is paused periodically to add a new length of drill pipe at the top of the drill string. These projects have usually been undertaken with commercially available rotary rigs originally designed for mineral drilling, with adaptations to suit the special needs of ice drilling.
Dry drilling
When drilling in ice, the hole may be drilled dry, with no mechanism to dispose of the cuttings. In snow and firn this means that the cuttings simply compact into the walls of the borehole; and in coring drills they also compact into the core. In ice, the cuttings accumulate in the space between the drillpipe and the borehole wall, and eventually start to clog the drill bit, usually after no more than 1 m of progress. This increases the torque needed to drill, slows down progress, and can cause the loss of the drill. Dry core drilling generally produces a poor quality core that is broken into pieces.
In 1950, the French Expédition Polaires Françaises (EPF) drilled two dry holes in Greenland using a rotary rig, at Camp VI, on the west coast, and Station Centrale, inland, reaching 126 m and 151 m. Some shallow holes were also drilled that summer on Baffin Island, using a coring drill, and in the Antarctic, the Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE) drilled several holes between April 1950 and the following year, eventually reaching 100 m in one hole. The last expedition to try dry drilling in ice was the 2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE), which drilled three holes between July 1957 and January 1958. Since that time dry drilling has been abandoned as other drilling methods have proved to be more effective.
Air circulation
Several holes have been drilled in ice using direct air circulation, in which compressed air is pumped down the drillpipe, to escape through holes in the drillbit, and return up the annular space between the drillbit and the borehole, carrying the cuttings with it. The technique was first tried by the 1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition, in October 1956. There were problems with poor cuttings removal, and ice forming in the borehole, but the drill succeeded in reaching a depth of 86.5 m. Further attempts were made to use air circulation with rotary rigs by US, Soviet and Belgian expeditions, with a maximum hole depth of 411 m reached by a US team at Site 2 in Greenland in 1957. The last time a project used a conventional rotary rig with air circulation was 1961.
Fluid circulation
In mineral exploration, the most common drilling method is a rotary rig with fluid circulated down the drillpipe and back up between the drillpipe and the borehole wall. The fluid carries the cuttings to the surface, where the cuttings are removed, and the recycled fluid, known as mud, is returned to the hole. The first ice drilling project to try this approach was an American Geographical Society expedition to the Taku Glacier in 1950. Fresh water, drawn from the glacier, was used as the drilling fluid, and three holes were drilled, to a maximum depth of 89 m. Cores were retrieved, but in poor condition. Seawater has also been tried as a drilling fluid. The first time a fluid other than water was used with a conventional rotary rig was in late 1958, at Little America V, where diesel fuel was used for the last few metres of a 254 m hole.
Wireline
A wireline drill uses air or fluid circulation, but also has a tool that can be lowered into the drillpipe to retrieve a core without removing the drill string. The tool, called an overshot, latches onto the core barrel and pulls it up to the surface. When the core is removed, the core barrel is lowered back into the borehole and reattached to the drill. A wireline core drilling project was planned in the 1970s for the International Antarctic Glaciological Project, but was never completed, and the first wireline ice drilling project took place in 1976, as part of the Ross Ice Shelf Project (RISP). A hole was started in November of that year with a wireline drill, probably using air circulation, but problems with the overshot forced the project to switch to thermal drilling when the hole was 103 m deep. The RISP project reached over 170 m with another wireline drill the following season, and several 1980s Soviet expedition also used wireline drills, after starting the holes with an auger drill and casing the holes. The Agile Sub-Ice Geological (ASIG) drill, designed by IDDO to collect sub-glacial cores, is a recent wireline system; it was first used in the field in the 2016–2017 season, in West Antarctica.
Assessment
There are many disadvantages to using conventional rotary rigs for ice drilling. When a conventional rotary rig is used for coring, the entire drill string must be hoisted out of the borehole each time the core is retrieved; each length of pipe in turn must be unscrewed and racked. As the hole gets deeper, this becomes very time-consuming. Conventional rigs are very heavy, and since many ice drilling sites are not easily accessible these rigs place a large logistical burden on an ice drilling project. For deep holes, a drilling fluid is required to maintain pressure in the borehole and prevent the hole from closing up because of the pressure the ice is under; a drilling fluid requires additional heavy equipment to circulate and store the fluid, and to separate the circulated material. Any circulation system also requires the upper part of the hole, through the snow and firn, to be cased, since circulated air or fluid would escape through anything more permeable than ice. Commercial rotary rigs are not designed for extremely cold temperatures, and in addition to problems with components such as the hydraulics and fluid management systems, they are designed to operate outdoors, which is impractical in extreme environments such as Antarctic drilling.
Commercial rotary rigs can be effective for large-diameter holes, and can also be used for subglacial drilling into rock. They have also been used with some success for rock glaciers, which are challenging to drill because they contain a heterogeneous mixture of ice and rock.
Flexible drillstem rigs
Flexible drillstem rigs use a drill string that is continuous, so that it does not have to be assembled or disassembled, rod by rod or pipe by pipe, when tripping in or out. The drill string is also flexible, so that when out of the borehole it can be stored on a reel. The drill string may be a reinforced hose, or it may be steel or composite pipe, in which case it is known as a coiled-tubing drill. Rigs designed along these lines began to appear in the 1960s and 1970s in mineral drilling, and became commercially viable in the 1990s.
Only one such rig, the rapid air movement (RAM) system developed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison by Ice Coring and Drilling Services (ICDS), has been used for ice drilling. The RAM drill was developed in the early 2000s, and was originally designed for drilling shot holes for seismic exploration. The drill stem is a hose through which air is pumped; the air drives a turbine that powers a downhole rotary drill bit. Ice cuttings are removed by the exhaust air and fountain out of the hole. The compressor increases the temperature of the air by about 50°, and it is cooled again before being pumped downhole, with a final temperature about 10° warmer than the ambient air. This means it cannot be used in ambient temperatures warmer than −10 °C. To avoid ice forming in the hose, ethanol is added to the compressed air. The system, which includes a winch to hold 100 m of hose, as well as two air compressors, is mounted on a sled. It has successfully drilling hundreds of holes in West Antarctica, and was easily able to drill to 90 m in only 25 minutes, making it the fastest ice drill. It was also used by the Askaryan Radio Array project in 2010–2011 at the South Pole, but was unable to drill below 63 m there because of variations in the local characteristics of the ice and firn. It cannot be used in a fluid-filled hole, which limits the maximum hole depth for this design. The main problem with the RAM drill is a loss of air circulation in firn and snow, which might be addressed by using reverse air circulation, via a vacuum pump drawing air up through the hose. As of 2017 IDDO is planning a revised design for the RAM drill to reduce the weight of the drill, which is currently 10.3 tonnes.
Other flexible drill stem designs have been considered, and in some cases tested, but as of 2016 none had been successfully used in the field. One design suggested using hot water to drill via a hose, and replacing the drillhead with a mechanical drill for coring once the depth of interest is reached, using the hot water both to hydraulically power the down hole motor, and to melt the resulting ice cuttings. Another design, the RADIX drill, produces a very narrow hole (20 mm) and is intended for rapid drilling access holes; it uses a small hydraulic motor on a narrow hose. It was tested in 2015 but found to have difficulty with cuttings transport, probably because of the very narrow space available between the hose and the borehole wall.
Coiled-tubing designs have never been successfully used for ice drilling. Coring operations would be particularly difficult, since a coring drill must trip out and in for each core, which would lead to fatigue; the tubing is typically rated for a lifetime of only 100 to 200 trips.
Cable-suspended electromechanical drills
A cable-suspended drill has a downhole system, known as a sonde, to drill the hole. The sonde is connected to the surface by an armoured cable, which provides power and enables the drill to be winched in and out of the hole. Electromechanical (EM) cable-suspended drills have a cutting head, with blades that shave the ice as they rotate, like a carpenter's plane. The depth of penetration of the cut is adjusted by a device called a shoe, which is part of the cutting head. The ice cuttings are stored in a chamber in the sonde, either in the core barrel, above the core, or in a separate chamber, further up the drill.
The cuttings can be transported by auger flights or by fluid circulation. Drills that rely on auger flights and which are not designed to work in a fluid-filled hole are limited to depths at which borehole closure is not a problem, so these are known as shallow drills. Deeper holes have to be drilled with drilling fluid, but whereas circulation in a rotary drill takes the fluid all the way down and then up the borehole, cable-suspended drills only need to circulate the fluid from the drill head up to the cuttings chamber. This is known as bottom-hole circulation.
The upper part of the sonde has an antitorque system, which most commonly consists of three or four leaf-springs that press out against the borehole walls. Sharp edges on the leaf springs catch in the walls and provide the necessary resistance to prevent this part of the drill from rotating. At the point where the cable connects to the sonde, most drills include a slip ring, to allow the drill to rotate independently of the cable. This is to prevent torque damage to the cable if the anti-torque system fails. Coring drills may also have a weight that can be used as a hammer to assist in breaking the core, and a chamber for any instrumentation or sensors needed.
At the bottom of the sonde is the cutting head, and above this is the core barrel, with auger flights around it on shallow drills, and typically an outer barrel around that, usually with internal vertical ribs or some other way of providing additional impetus to the upward-bound cuttings on the flights. If there is a separate chip chamber it will be above the core barrel. The motor, with suitable gearing, is also above the core barrel.
Shallow drills can retrieve cores up to 300–350 m deep, but core quality is much improved if drilling fluid is present, so some shallow drills have been designed to work in wet holes. Tests reported in 2014 showed that wet drilling, with the top of the drilling fluid no deeper than 250 m, would maintain good core quality.
Drilling fluids are necessary for drilling deep holes, so the cable-suspended drills that are used for these projects use a pump to provide fluid circulation, in order to remove the cuttings from the bit. A few drills designed for use with drilling fluid also have auger flights on the inner barrel. As with shallow drills, the cuttings are stored in a chamber above the core. The circulation can be in either direction: down the inside of the drill string, and up between the core barrel and the borehole wall, or in the reverse direction, which has become the favoured approach in drill design as it gives better cuttings removal for a lower flow rate. Drills capable of reaching depths over 1500 m are known as deep drilling systems; they have generally similar designs to the intermediate systems that can drill from 400 m to 1500 m, but must have heavier and more robust systems such as winches, and have longer drills and larger drilling shelters. Core diameters for these drills have varied from 50 mm to 132 mm, and the core length from as short as 0.35 m up to 6 m. A common design feature of these deep drills is that they can be tipped to the horizontal to make it easier to remove the core and the cuttings. This reduces the required height of the mast, but requires a deep slot to be cut into the ice, to make room for the sonde to swing up.
The first cable-suspended electromechanical drill was invented by Armais Arutunoff for use in mineral drilling; it was tested in 1947 in Oklahoma, but did not perform well. CRREL acquired a reconditioned Arutunoff drill in 1963, modified it for drilling in ice, and in 1966 used it to extend a hole at Camp Century in Greenland to the base of the ice cap, at 1387 m, and 4 m further into the bedrock.
Many other drills have since been based on this basic design. A recent variation on the basic EM drill design is the Rapid Access Isotope Drill, designed by the British Antarctic Survey to drill dry holes to 600 m. This drill does not collect a complete ice core; instead it will collect ice cuttings, using a cutting head similar to a spoonborer. The resulting access hole will be used for temperature profiling, and along with the isotope results which will indicate the age of the ice, the data will be used for modeling the ice profile down to bedrock in order to determine the best place to drill to obtain the oldest possible undisturbed basal ice. The drill is expected to reach 600 m in 7 days of drilling, rather than the 2 months which would be needed to drill a core; the speed is because the cutters can be more aggressive as core quality is not an issue, and because the borehole is narrow which reduces power requirements for the winch.
Thermal drills
Thermal drills work by applying heat to the ice at the bottom of the borehole to melt it. Thermal drills in general are able to drill successfully in temperate ice, where an electromechanical drill is at risk of jamming because of ice forming in the borehole. When used in colder ice, some form of antifreeze is likely to be introduced into the borehole to prevent the meltwater from freezing in the drill.
Hot water and steam drills
Hot water can be used to drill in ice by pumping it down a hose with a nozzle at the end; the jet of hot water will quickly produce a hole. Letting the hose dangle freely will produce a straight hole; as the hole gets deeper the weight of the hose makes this hard to manage manually, and at a depth of about 100 m it becomes necessary to run the hose over a pulley and enlist some method to help lower and raise the hose, usually consisting of a hose reel, capstan, or some type of hose assist. Since the pressure in the hose is proportional to the square of the flow, hose diameter is one of the limiting factors for a hot-water drill. To increase flow rate beyond a certain point, the hose diameter must be increased, but this will require significant capacity increases elsewhere in the drill design. Hoses that are wrapped around a drum before being pressurized will exert constricting force on the drum, so the drums must be of robust design. Hoses must wrap neatly when spooling up, to avoid damage; this can be done manually for smaller systems, but for very large drills a level-wind system has to be implemented. The hose ideally should have the tensile strength to support its weight when spooling into the hole, but for very deep holes a supporting cable may need to be used to support the hose.
Steam can also be used in place of hot water, and does not need to be pumped. A handheld steam drill is able to rapidly drill short holes, for example for ablation stakes, and both steam and hotwater drills can be made light enough to be hand carried. A guide tube can be used to help keep the borehole straight.
In cold ice, a borehole drilled with hot water will close up as the water freezes. To avoid this, the drill can be run back down the hole, warming the water and hence the surrounding ice. This is a form of reaming. Repeated reamings will raise the temperature of the surrounding ice to the point where the borehole will stay open for longer periods. However, if the goal is to measure temperature in the borehole, then it is better to apply as little additional heat as possible to the surrounding ice, which means that a higher energy drill with a high water flow rate is desirable, since this will be more efficient. If there is a risk of the drill freezing in, a "back drill" can be included in the design. This is a mechanism which redirects the hot water jet upwards if the drill meets with resistance on tripping out. A separate hot water reamer can also be used, jetting hot water sideways onto the borehole walls as it passes.
Boreholes drilled with hot water are rather irregular, which makes them unsuitable for certain kinds of investigations, such as speed of borehole closure, or inclinometry measurements. The warm water from the nozzle will continue to melt the borehole walls as it rises, and this will tend to make the hole cone-shaped—if the hole is being drilled at a location with no surface snow or firn, such as an ablation zone in a glacier, then this effect will persist to the top of the borehole.
The water supply for a hot water drill can come from water at the surface, if available, or melted snow. The meltwater in the borehole can be reused, but this can only be done once the hole penetrates below the firn to the impermeable ice layer, because above this level the meltwater escapes. The pump to bring the meltwater back to the surface must be placed below this level, and in addition, if there is a chance that the borehole will penetrate to the base of the ice, the drilling project must plan for the likelihood that this will change the water level in the hole, and ensure that the pump is below the lowest likely level. Heating systems are usually adapted from the heaters used in the pressure washer industry.
When any thermal drilling method is used in dirty ice, the debris will accumulate at the bottom of the borehole, and start to impede the drill; enough debris, in the form of sand, pebbles, or a large rock, could completely stop progress. One way to avoid this is to have a nozzle angled at 45°; using this nozzle will create a side channel into which the obstructions will go. Vertical drilling can then start again, bypassing the debris. Another approach is to recirculate the water at the bottom of the hole, with an electrical heater embedded in the drill head and filters in the circulation. This can remove most of the small debris that impedes the drillhead.
A different problem with impure ice comes from contaminants brought in by the project, such as clothing and wood fibres, dust, and grit. Using snow from around the campsite to supply the drill with water is often necessary at the start of drilling, as the hole will not yet have reached the impermeable ice, so water cannot be pumped back up from the bottom of the hole; shoveling this snow into the drill's water supply will pass these contaminants through the drill mechanism, and can damage the pumps and valves. A fine filter is required to avoid these problems.
An early expedition using hot water drills was in 1955, to the Mer de Glace; Électricité de France used hot water to reach the base of the glacier, and also used equipment that sprayed multiple jets simultaneously to create a tunnel under the ice. More development work was done in the 1970s. Hot water drills are now capable of drilling very deep holes and capable of clean access for sub glacial lakes: for example, between 2012 and 2019 on the WISSARD/SALSA project, the WISSARD drill, a mid-sized hot water drill, drilled clean access up to 1 km at Lake Mercer in Antarctica; and between 2004 and 2011, a large hot water drill at the South Pole was used to drill 86 holes to a depth of 2.5 km to set strings of sensors in the boreholes, for the IceCube project. Hot water coring drills have also been developed but are susceptible to debris stopping forward motion in dirty ice.
An early steam drill was developed by F. Howorka in the early 1960s for work in the Alps. Steam drills are not used for holes deeper than 30 m, as they are quite inefficient due to thermal losses along the hose, and pressure losses with increasing depth under water. They are primarily used for quickly drilling shallow holes.
Hotpoints
Instead of using a jet of hot water or steam, thermal drills can also be constructed to provide heat to a durable drillhead, for example by pumping hot water down and back up again inside the drill string, and use that to melt the ice. Modern thermal drills use electrical power to heat the drillhead instead.
It is possible to drill with a hotpoint that consists of an electrical heating element, directly exposed to the ice; this means that the element must be able to work underwater. Some drills instead embed the heating element in a material such as silver or copper that will conduct the heat quickly to the hotpoint surface; these can be constructed so that the electrical connections are not exposed to water. Electrothermal drills require a cable to bring the power down the hole; the circuit can be completed via the drillpipe if one is present. A transformer is needed in the drill assembly since the cable must carry high voltage to avoid power dissipation. It is more difficult to arrange electrical power at a remote location than to generate heat via a gas boiler, so hotpoint drills are only used for boreholes up to a few hundred metres deep.
The earliest attempt to use heat to drill in ice was in 1904, when C. Bernard, drilling at the Tête Rousse Glacier, tried using heated iron bars to drill with. The ends of the bars were heated until incandescent, and lowered into the borehole. The first true hotpoint was used by Mario Calciati in 1942 on the Hosand Glacier. Calciati pumped hot water from the surface down the drillstem, and back up after it had passed through the drillhead. Other hotpoint designs have used electrical heating to heat the drillhead; this was done in 1948 by a British expedition to the Jungfraujoch, and by many other drill designs since then. Hotpoints do not produce cores, so they are used primarily for creating access holes.
Electrothermal coring drills
The development in the 1960s of thermal coring drills for intermediate depth holes was prompted by the problems associated with rotary coring drills, which were too costly to use for polar ice cores because of the logistical problems caused by their weight. The components of a thermal drill are generally the same as for a cable-suspended EM drill: both have a mast and winch, and an armoured cable to provide power downhole to a sonde, which includes a core barrel. No antitorque system is needed for a thermal drill, and instead of a motor that provides torque, the power is used to generate heat in the cutting head, which is ring shaped to melt an annulus of ice around the core. Some drills may also have a centralizer, to keep the sonde in the middle of the borehole.
The sonde of an electrothermal drill designed to run submerged in meltwater may consist almost entirely of the core barrel plus the heated cutting head (diagram (a) in the figure to the right). Alternative designs for use in colder ice (see diagram (b) at right) may have a compartment above the core barrel, and tubes that run down to just above the cutting head; a vacuum pump sucks up the meltwater. In these drills the meltwater must be emptied at the surface at the end of each coring run.
Another approach (see (c) at right) is to use a drilling fluid that is a mixture of ethanol and water, with the exact proportions determined by the ice temperature. In these drills there is a piston above the core barrel and at the start of a run the piston is at the bottom of the sonde, and the space above is filled with drilling fluid. As the drills cuts downwards, the core pushes the piston up, pumping the fluid down and out around the cutting head, where it mixes with the meltwater and prevents it from freezing. The piston is the only moving part, which simplifies the design; and the core barrel can take up much of the length of the sonde, whereas drills which suck out the meltwater in order to drill in a dry hole have to sacrifice a large section of the sonde for meltwater storage.
Thermal drills designed for temperate ice are light and straightforward to operate, which makes them suitable for use on high-altitude glaciers, though this also requires that the drill can be disassembled into components for human-powered transport to the most inaccessible locations, since helicopters may not be able to reach the highest glaciers.
Electrothermal drill designs date back to the 1940s. An electrothermal drill was patented in Switzerland in May 1946 by René Koechlin, and was used in Switzerland, and in 1948 a British expedition to the Jungfraujoch drilled to the bed of the glacier using an electrothermal design. Twenty electrothermal coring drills were designed between 1964 and 2005, though many designs were abandoned because of the higher performance of EM coring drills.
Autonomous probes
If the goal is to obtain instrument readings from within the ice, and there is no need to retrieve either the ice or the drill system, then a probe containing a long spool of cable and a hotpoint can be used. The hotpoint allows the probe to melt its way through the ice, unreeling the cable behind it. The meltwater will refreeze, so the probe cannot be recovered, but it can continue to penetrate the ice until it reaches the limit of the cable it carries, and send instrument readings back up through the cable to the surface. Known as Philberth probes, these devices were designed by Karl and Bernhard Philberth in the 1960s as a way to store nuclear waste in the Antarctic, but were never used for that purpose. Instead, they were adapted to use for glaciological research, reaching a depth of 1005 metres and sending temperature information back to the surface when tested in 1968 as part of the Expédition Glaciologique Internationale au Groenland (EGIG).
Because thermal probes support their weight on the ice at the bottom of the borehole, they lean slightly out of the vertical, and this means they have a natural tendency to stray away from a vertical borehole towards the horizontal. Various methods have been proposed to address this. A cone-shaped tip, with a layer of mercury above the tip, will cause additional heat transfer to the lower side of a slanting borehole, increasing the speed of melting on that side, and returning the borehole to the vertical. Alternatively the probe can be constructed to be supported by ice above its centre of gravity, by providing two heating rings, one of which is towards the top of the probe, and has a greater diameter than the rest of the probe. Giving this upper ring a slightly lower heating power will cause the probe to have more bearing pressure on the upper ring, which will give it a natural tendency to swing back to vertical if the borehole starts to deviate. The effect is called pendulum steering, by analogy with the tendency of a pendulum always to swing back towards a vertical position.
In the 1990s NASA combined the Philberth probe design with ideas drawn from hot-water drills, to design a cryobot probe that had hot water jets in addition to a hotpoint nose. Once the probe was submerged in a thin layer of meltwater, the water was drawn in and reheated, emerging at the nose as a jet. This design was intended to help move particulate matter away from the nose, as a hot-water drill tends to. A version with no analytical tools on board was built and field tested in Svalbard, Norway, in 2001. It penetrated to 23 m, successfully passing through layers of particulates.
Cryobots remain in good thermal contact with the surrounding ice throughout their descent, and in very cold ice this can drain a substantial fraction of their power budget, which is finite since they must carry their power source with them. This makes them unsuitable for investigating the Martian polar ice cap. Instead, NASA added a pump to the cryobot design, to raise meltwater to the surface, so that the probe, known as the SIPR (for Subsurface Ice Probe) descends in a dry hole. The lower gravity on Mars means that the overburden pressure on the ice cap is much less, and an open borehole is expected to be stable to a depth of 3 km, the expected depth of the ice cap. The meltwater can then be analyzed at the surface. Pumping through a vertical tube will cause mixing, so to ensure discrete samples for analysis at the surface, a large bore and a small bore tube are used; the small bore tube is used for sampling, and then its contents are allowed to return to the probe and are pumped back up the large bore tube for use in experiments that do not depend on stratigraphy, such as searches for living organisms. Leaving the analytical instruments on the surface reduces the necessary size of the probe, which helps make this design more efficient.
Along with the water transport tubes, a heated wire ensures that the water stays liquid all the way to the surface, and power and telemetry is also carried from the surface. To keep the hole vertical the probe can sense when it is deviating, and the jets of hot water are adjusted to compensate. The drill is expected to make use of solar power in operation, meaning it must be able to function on less than 100 W when in sunlight. A fully built version of the probe was successfully tested in Greenland in 2006, drilling to a depth of 50 m. NASA has proposed a similar design for drilling in the ice on Europa, a moon of Jupiter. Any such probe would have to survive temperatures of 500 °C while being sterilized to avoid biological contamination of the target environment.
Other drill types
Snow samplers
Snow samples are taken to measure the depth and density of the snow pack in a given area. Measurements of depth and density can be converted into a snow water equivalent (SWE) number, which is the depth of water that would result from converting the snow into water. Snow samplers are typically hollow cylinders, with toothed ends to help them penetrate the snow pack; they are used by pushing them into the snow, and then pulling them out along with the snow in the cylinder. Weighing the cylinder full of snow and subtracting the weight of the empty cylinder gives the snow weight; samplers usually have lengthwise slots to allow the depth of the snow to be recorded as well, though a sampler made of transparent material makes this unnecessary.
The sampler must grip the snow well enough to keep the snow inside the cylinder as it is removed from the snow, which is easier to accomplish with a smaller diameter cylinder; however, larger diameters give more accurate readings. Samples must avoid compacting the snow, so they have smooth inner surfaces (usually of anodized aluminium alloy, and sometimes waxed in addition) to prevent the snow from gripping the sides of the cylinder as it is pushed in. A sampler may penetrate light snow under its own weight; denser snow pack, firn, or ice, may require the user to rotate the sampler gently so that the cutting teeth are engaged. Pushing too hard without successfully cutting a dense layer may cause the sample to push the layer down; this situation can be identified because the snow level inside the sampler will be lower than the surrounding snow. Multiple readings are usually taken at each location of interest, and the results are averaged. Snow samplers are usually accurate to within about 5–10%.
The first snow sampler was developed by J.E. Church in the winter of 1908/1909, and the most common modern snow sampler, known as the Federal snow sampler, is based on Church's design, with some modifications by George D. Clyde and the U.S. Soil Conservation Service in the 1930s. It can be used for sampling snow up to 9 m in depth.
Penetration testers
Penetration testing involves inserting a probe into snow to determine the snow's mechanical properties. Experienced snow surveyors can use an ordinary ski pole to test snow hardness by pushing it into the snow; the results are recorded based on the change in resistance felt as the pole is inserted. A more scientific tool, invented in the 1930s but still in widespread use, is a ram penetrometer. This takes the form of a rod with a cone at the lower end. The upper end of the rod passes through a weight that is used as a hammer; the weight is lifted and released, and hits an anvil—a ledge around the rod which it cannot pass—which drives the rod into the snow. To take a measurement, the rod is placed on the snow and the hammer is dropped one or more times; the resulting depth of penetration is recorded. In soft snow a lighter hammer can be used to obtain more precise results; hammer weights range from 2 kg down to 0.1 kg. Even with lighter hammers, ram penetrometers have difficulty distinguishing thin layers of snow, which limits their usefulness with regard to avalanche studies, since thin and soft layers are often involved in avalanche formation.
Two lightweight tools are in wide use that are more sensitive than ram penetrometers. A snow micro-penetrometer uses a motor to drive a rod into snow, measuring the force required; it is sensitive to 0.01–0.05 newtons, depending on the snow strength. A SABRE probe consists of a rod that is inserted manually into snow; accelerometer readings are then used to determine the penetrative force needed at each depth, and stored electronically.
For testing dense polar snow, a cone penetrometer test (CPT) is use, based on the equivalent devices used for soil testing. CPT measurements can be used in hard snow and firn to depths of 5–10 m.
Rotary auger rigs
Commercially available rotary rigs have been used with large augers to drill in ice, generally for construction or for holes to gain access below the ice. Although they are unable to produce cores, they have been intermittently used by US and Soviet scientific expeditions in the Antarctic. In 2012, a British Antarctic Survey expedition to drill down to Lake Ellsworth, two miles below the surface of the Antarctic ice, used an Australian earth auger driven by a truck-mounted top drive to help drill two 300 m holes as part of the project, though in the event the project was delayed.
Powered augers designed to drill large holes through ice for winter fishing may be mounted on a snow vehicle, or a tractor or sled; hole diameters can be as high as 350 mm. These rigs have been produced commercially in both the US and the USSR, but are no longer in common use.
Flame-jet drills
A flame-jet drill, more usually used to drill through crystalline rocks, was used to drill through ice on the Ross Ice Shelf, in the 1970s. The drill burns fuel oil, and can be run under water as long as enough compressed air is available. It drills rapidly, but produces an irregular hole contaminated by soot and fuel oil.
Vibratory drills
A Soviet-designed drill used a motor to provide vertical vibration to the barrel of the drill at 50 Hz; the drill had an outer diameter of 0.4 m, and in tests at Vostok Station in the Antarctic drilled a 6.5 m hole, with a 1.2 m drilling run taking between 1 and 5 minutes to complete. The drill's steel edges compacted snow into the core, which helped it stick to the inside of the barrel when the drill was winched out of the hole.
Drilling system components
Cutters
Mechanical drills typically have three cutters, spaced evenly around the drill head. Two cutters leads to vibration and poorer ice core quality, and tests of drillheads with four cutters have produced unsatisfactory performance. Geometric design varies, but the relief angle, α, varies from 5–15°, with 8–10° the most common range in cold ice, and the cutting angle, , varies from 45° (the most common in cold ice) up to 90°. The safety angle, between the underside of the cutting blade and the ice, can be as low as 0.8° in successful drill designs. Different shapes for the end of the blade have been tried: flat (the most common design), pointed, rounded, and scoop shaped.
Cutters have to be made of extremely strong materials, and usually have to be sharpened after every 10–20 m of drilling. Tool steels containing carbon are not ideal because the carbon makes the steel brittle in temperatures below −20 °C. Sintered tungsten carbide has been suggested for use in cutters, since it is extremely hard, but the best tool steels are more cost effective: carbide cutters are fixed to the body of the cutting tool by cold pressing or brass soldering, and cannot easily be unmounted and sharpened in the field.
The cutting depth is controlled by mounting shoes on the bottom of the drill head; these ride on the ice surface and so limit how deep the cutter can penetrate in each revolution of the drill. They are most commonly mounted just behind the cutters, but this position can lead to ice accumulating in the gap between the cutter and the shoe. So far it has not proved possible to correct this by modifying the shoe design.
Drilling fluids
Drilling fluids are necessary for borehole stability in deep cores, and can also be used to circulate cuttings away from the bit. Fluids used include water, ethanol/water and water/ethylene glycol mixtures, petroleum fuels, non-aromatic hydrocarbons, and n-butyl acetate.
Water is the cheapest and cleanest option; it may be present on the glacial surface or may be created by thermal drilling. In cold ice some form of antifreeze is necessary, or heat must be reapplied by reaming the hole periodically.
Ethanol and water. Ethanol acts as an anti-freeze in water; at sufficient concentrations it can reduce the freezing temperature of the mixture to well below any temperature likely to be encountered in ice drilling. The concentration must be chosen to prevent the liquid freezing and also to maintain the borehole against the ice overburden pressure. Because the density of the mixture decreases with lower temperatures, vertical convection will develop in boreholes where temperatures decrease with depth, as the lighter mixture rises. This causes slush to form in the borehole, though successful drilling is still possible. Ethanol is one of the cheapest options for a drilling fluid, and requires less storage space than other options because in use it is diluted with water. A Soviet expedition left an 800 m borehole in Antarctica filled with ethanol and water at an ice temperature of −53 °C; after 11 months the borehole remained open and drilling was resumed with no problems. A problem with this option is that the mixture will penetrate cores that have cracks.
Ethylene glycol and water was used at Camp Century in 1966 in the lower part of the hole to dissolve the cuttings.
Petroleum fuels. This includes diesel, jet fuel, and kerosene. They are inexpensive and easily available, and were once in common use; disadvantages include flammability and the aromatics they contain, which are a health hazard.
Non-aromatic hydrocarbons. As of 2009 these had become the most commonly used drilling fluids; eliminating the aromatics resolved the health issues with these fluids. They are significantly more expensive than untreated petroleum fuels.
n-Butyl acetate. A widely used fuel in the 1990s, because it is a close match for the density of ice, this is now unpopular because it dissolves many materials, which prevents their use in the drilling equipment it comes in contact with. It is also flammable and corrosive, and protective clothing and in some cases masks may be necessary for people exposed to it.
ESTISOL-based fluids. ESTISOL is an ester, like n-butyl acetate, but it has no health concerns.
Densifiers are used in drilling fluids to adjust the density of the fluid to match the surrounding ice. Perchloroethylene and trichloroethylene were often used in early drilling programs, in combination with petroleum fuels. These have been phased out for health reasons. Freon was a temporary replacement, but has been banned by the Montreal Protocol, as has HCFC-141b, a hydrochlorofluorocarbon densifier used once Freon was abandoned. Future options for drilling fluids include low molecular weight esters, such as ethyl butyrate, n-propyl propionate, n-butyl butyrate, n-amyl butyrate and hexyl acetate; mixtures of various kinds of ESTISOL; and dimethyl siloxane oils.
Anti-torque
The two main requirements of an anti-torque system are that it should prevent rotation of the sonde, and it should allow easy movement of the drill up and down the borehole. Attempts have been made to design drills with counter-rotating components so that overall torque is minimized, but these have had limited success. Five kinds of anti-torque systems have been devised for use with cable-suspended EM drills, though not all are in current use, and some drills have used a combination of more than one design. The first drill to require an anti-torque system was used at Camp Century by CRREL in 1966; the drill incorporated a set of hinged friction blades that swung out from the sonde when the drill motor was started. These were found to have very weak friction against the borehole wall, and were ineffective; the drill had to be controlled carefully to prevent twisting the cable. No other drills have attempted to use this approach.
For the next deployment of the drill leaf springs were installed, and this has proved to be a more durable design. These are mounted vertically, with a curve outwards so that they are easily compressed by the borehole wall, and can slide up and down with the movement of the drill. They pass easily through any areas of irregularity in the borehole, but the edges of the springs cut into the borehole wall and prevent rotation. Leaf springs are very simple mechanically, with the additional benefit of being easy to adjust by changing the spacing between the end points. They can be placed anywhere on the drill that does not rotate, so they do not add length to the sonde. The shape is usually a fourth-order parabola, since this has been determined to provide the most even loading against the borehole wall. Leaf springs have been found to be so effective that they can prevent rotation even in heavy drills running at full power.
Skate antitorque systems have blades attached to vertical bars which are pushed against the borehole wall; the blades dig into the wall and provide the anti-torque. Skates can be built with springs which allow them to keep the blades pressed against the wall in an irregular borehole, and to prevent problems in narrower parts of the borehole. Although skates are a popular design for anti-torque and have been used with success, they have difficulty preventing rotation in firn and at boundaries between layers of different densities, and can cause problems when drilling with high torque. When they fail, they act as reamers, removing chips from the wall which can fall to the drillbit and interfere with drilling.
In the 1970s, the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition (JARE) group designed several drills using side-mill cutters. These are toothed gears that are driven from the rotation of the main drill motor via 45° spiral gears; their axis of rotation is horizontal, and they are placed so that the teeth cut four vertical slots in the borehole wall. Guide fins higher on the sonde travel in these slots and provide the antitorque. The design was effective at preventing rotation of the sonde, but it proved to be almost impossible to realign the guide fins with the existing slots when tripping in. Misalignment increased the chance of the drill getting stuck in the borehole; and there was also a risk of ice cuttings from the mill cutters jamming in between the drill and the borehole wall, causing the drill to get stuck. The system was used again in a drill developed in China in the 1980s and 1990s, but the problems inherent in the design are now considered insuperable and it is no longer in use.
The most recent anti-torque system design is the use of U-shaped blades, made of steel and fixed vertically to the sides of the sonde. Initial implementations ran into problems with thin blades bending too easily, and thick blades providing too much resistance to vertical movement of the sonde, but the final design can generate strong resistance to torque in both firn and ice.
Drills may be designed with more than one anti-torque system in order to take advantage of the different performance of the different designs in different kinds of snow and ice. For example, a drill may have skates to be used in hard firn or ice, but also have a leaf-spring system, which will be more effective in soft firn.
Breaking and retaining cores
In ice core drilling, when an annulus has been drilled around the core to be retrieved, the core is still attached to the ice sheet at its lower end, and this connection has to be broken before the core can be retrieved. One option is to use a collet, which is a tapered ring inside the cutting head. When the drill is pulled up, the collet compresses the core and holds it, with loose ice chips wedged in it increasing the compression. This breaks the core and holds it in the barrel once it has broken. Collets are effective in firn but less so in ice, so core dogs, also known as core catchers, are often used for ice cores.
A typical ice drill core dog has a dog-leg shape, and will be built into the drill head with the ability to rotate, and with a spring supplying some pressure against the core. When the drill is lifted, the sharp point of the core dog engages and rotates around, causing the core to break. Some core dogs have a shoulder to stop them from over-rotating. Most drill heads have three core dogs, though having only two core dogs is possible; the asymmetric shearing force helps break the core. The angle, , between the core dog point and the core, has been the subject of some investigation; a study in 1984 concluded that the optimum angle was 55°, and a later study concluded that the angle should be closer to 80°. Core catchers are made from hardened steel, and need to be as sharp as possible. The force required to break the core varies with temperature and depth, and in warm ice the core dogs may gouge grooves up the core before they catch and it breaks. Some drills may also include a weight that can be used as a hammer, to provide an impact to help in breaking the core.
For snow and firn, where the core material may be at risk of falling out of the bottom of the core barrel, a basket catcher is a better choice. These catchers consist of spring wires or thin pieces of sheet metal, placed radially around the bottom of the core barrel and pressed against the side of the barrel by the core as the drill descends around it. When the drill is lifted, the ends of the catcher engage with the core and break it from the base, and act as a basket to hold it in place while it is brought to the surface.
Casing
Casing, or lining a hole with a tube, is necessary whenever drilling operations require that the borehole be isolated from the surrounding permeable snow and firn. Uncased holes can be drilled with fluid by using a hose lowered into the hole, but this is likely to lead to increased drilling fluid consumption and environmental contamination from leaks. Steel casing was used in the 1970s, but rust from the casing caused damage to the drills, and the casing was not sealed, leading to fluid leaks. There were also problems with the casing tubes not being centered, which caused damage to the drill bit as it was lowered through the casing. Fibreglass and HDPE casing has become more common, with junctions sealed with PTFE tape, but leaks are frequent. Heat fusion welding for HDPE casing is a possible solution. To seal the bottom of the casing, water can be pumped to the bottom of the hole once the casing is set, or a thermal head can be used to melt ice around the casing shoe, creating a seal when the water freezes again. Another approach is to use a hotpoint drill, saturating the snow and firn with melted water, which will then freeze and seal the borehole.
Low-temperature PVC tubing is not suitable for permanent casing, since it cannot be sealed at the bottom, but it can be used to pass drilling fluid through the permeable zone. Its advantage is that it requires no connections since it can be coiled on a reel for deployment.
See also
History of ice drilling
Notes
References
Sources
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Koechlin, René: Patent CH240634 (A) – Procédé pour sonder les glaciers et installation pour sa mise en oeuvre. European Patent Office, 1 May 1946
Original publication as Translated by U.S. Joint Publications Research Service.
Renaud, A.; Mercanton, P.L. (1948) Les Sondages Sismiques de la Commission Helvétique des Glaciers. Publications du Bureau Central Seismologique International, Travaux Scientifique, Serie A. Fascicule 17, Communications presentées à la conférence de Union Geodesique et Geophysique International d'Oslo, August 1948.
Glaciology
Drilling technology | wiki |
Smittina is a genus of bryozoans belonging to the family Smittinidae.
The genus has cosmopolitan distribution.
Species:
Smittia incisa
Smittia levinseni
Smittia robusta
Smittia schlumbergeri
Smittia subtorquata
Smittia zuccari
Smittina abditavicularis
Smittina abyssicola
Smittina acaroensis
Smittina acicularis
Smittina acuminata
Smittina affinis
Smittina alata
Smittina alticollarita
Smittina altirostris
Smittina anecdota
Smittina antarctica
Smittina arctica
Smittina areolata
Smittina asymmetrica
Smittina aviculifera
Smittina azorensis
Smittina baccata
Smittina bassleri
Smittina bathydonta
Smittina bella
Smittina beringia
Smittina bidentata
Smittina brevis
Smittina canavarii
Smittina cervicornis
Smittina chilensis
Smittina confluens
Smittina confusa
Smittina cophia
Smittina cordata
Smittina coronata
Smittina crepidula
Smittina cribraria
Smittina crystallina
Smittina ctenocondyla
Smittina curta
Smittina curvirostrata
Smittina cylindrica
Smittina deangelisi
Smittina depressa
Smittina derwiesi
Smittina dieuzeidei
Smittina diffidentia
Smittina diplostoma
Smittina directa
Smittina discoidea
Smittina eagari
Smittina ectoproctolitica
Smittina emiliana
Smittina euparypha
Smittina excentrica
Smittina excertiaviculata
Smittina exclusa
Smittina exigua
Smittina ferruginea
Smittina fontensis
Smittina forata
Smittina forticula
Smittina fragaria
Smittina glebula
Smittina grandicella
Smittina grandifossa
Smittina granulata
Smittina granulosa
Smittina hanaishiensis
Smittina hatsushima
Smittina humilis
Smittina impellucida
Smittina imragueni
Smittina inarmata
Smittina incernicula
Smittina insulata
Smittina invisitata
Smittina isabelae
Smittina jacobensis
Smittina jacquelinae
Smittina jeddreysi
Smittina jordii
Smittina jullieni
Smittina kobjakovae
Smittina kukuiula
Smittina kussakini
Smittina labiatula
Smittina landsborovii
Smittina lebruni
Smittina lecointrei
Smittina leda
Smittina leptodentata
Smittina lobata
Smittina maccullochae
Smittina macgillivrayi
Smittina malleolus
Smittina malouinensis
Smittina marionensis
Smittina messiniensis
Smittina microtheca
Smittina migottoi
Smittina minima
Smittina minuscula
Smittina molarifera
Smittina monacha
Smittina mucronata
Smittina muliebris
Smittina multanguloporata
Smittina nitidissima
Smittina nodai
Smittina normani
Smittina obicullata
Smittina obicullatoidea
Smittina oblita
Smittina obscura
Smittina oculata
Smittina orbavicularia
Smittina ordinata
Smittina osburni
Smittina ovirotula
Smittina palisada
Smittina papillifera
Smittina parviovicellosa
Smittina personata
Smittina pileata
Smittina pliofistulata
Smittina pocilla
Smittina porelloides
Smittina porrigens
Smittina portiuscula
Smittina pouyetae
Smittina protrusa
Smittina pseudoacutirostris
Smittina pseudocompressa
Smittina pulchra
Smittina punctata
Smittina punctifera
Smittina puncturata
Smittina pupa
Smittina purpurea
Smittina remotorostrata
Smittina reptans
Smittina reticuloides
Smittina retifrons
Smittina rigida
Smittina rogickae
Smittina rosacea
Smittina rosefieldensis
Smittina salsa
Smittina scrupea
Smittina seguenzai
Smittina sextapuncta
Smittina sigillata
Smittina sitella
Smittina smitti
Smittina smittiana
Smittina smittiella
Smittina sordida
Smittina spathulifera
Smittina spiraminifera
Smittina stigmatophora
Smittina stricta
Smittina subcordata
Smittina terraenovae
Smittina thompsoni
Smittina torques
Smittina triangularis
Smittina tuberosa
Smittina tubulata
Smittina umbilicata
Smittina undulimargo
Smittina unicus
Smittina uruguayensis
Smittina uschakowi
Smittina uttleyi
Smittina vaciva
Smittina variavicularis
Smittina veleroa
Smittina volcanica
References
Bryozoan genera | wiki |
Reversal of Fortune is a 1990 film adaptation of the book of the same name by Alan Dershowitz.
Reversal of Fortune may also refer to:
Reversal of Fortune (2003 film), a South Korean film
Reversal of Fortune (2005 film), a documentary film about a homeless man who receives $100,000 anonymously
See also
"Reversals of Fortune", an episode of Gossip Girl | wiki |
The Final Countdown may refer to:
Film and Television
The Final Countdown (film), a 1980 science fiction film
"Final Countdown" (Outlaw Star), a 1998 episode of the anime Outlaw Star
Saraba Kamen Rider Den-O: Final Countdown, a 2008 Japanese film, the third film adaptation of Kamen Rider Den-O
"The Final Countdown", a 2010 episode of The IT Crowd
Music
The Final Countdown (album), a 1986 studio album by the Swedish rock band Europe
"The Final Countdown" (song), the titular 1986 hit single from the aforementioned album
Other uses
Final Countdown (video game), a 1990 action video game for the Amiga | wiki |
Siu haau () sauce is the primary barbecue sauce used in Cantonese cuisine. It generally contains garlic, honey, palm sugar, five spice powder, and pepper.
Siu haau is used during the barbecue-cooking process as opposed to a flavoring sauce after the food is made. It is not used for siu mei rotisserie-style cooking; dishes such as char siu each have their own sauce.
See also
Shacha sauce
List of Chinese sauces
List of sauces
References
External links
Siu haau sauce photo
Chinese condiments
Barbecue sauces
Chinese sauces | wiki |
The Mercury program was Project Mercury, the first successful American crewed spaceflight program, 1958–63.
Mercury Program may also refer to:
The Mercury Program, an American post-rock band formed 1997
Other uses
The Mercury Theatre on the Air, radio program
Mercury (TV series), TV program
See also
Mercury project (disambiguation)
Mercury (disambiguation) | wiki |
Anacropora reticulata est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Acroporidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Menaces
Liens externes
Notes et références
Acroporidae | wiki |
Murukku Tamil – முறுக்கு) is a savoury, crunchy snack originating from the Indian subcontinent. The name murukku derives from the Tamil word for "twisted", which refers to its shape. In India, murukku is especially common in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. It is called murkulu or janthukulu in Andhra Pradesh. It is also common in countries with substantial Indian and Sri Lankan diaspora communities, including Singapore, Fiji, Malaysia, and Myanmar (Burma). Murukku, called sagalay gway (; ) in Burmese, is a common snack and is used as a topping for a regional dish called dawei mont di.
Other names of the dish include chakkuli, Odisha: ଦାନ୍ତକଲି Dantkali murukku, chakali, chakri, chakralu, or జంతికలు jantikalu and .
Murukku is typically made from rice flour and urad dal flour. Chakli is a similar dish, typically made with an additional ingredient, Bengal gram (chickpea) flour.
It is the origin of the Tamil saying ('toothless grandfather wants murukku'), meaning someone wants something they cannot use; murukku is very hard and can actually break teeth and orthodontic devices.
Ingredients and preparation
Murukku is typically made from rice and urad dal (lentil) flour. The flours are mixed with water, salt, chilli powder, asafoetida and either sesame seeds or cumin seeds. The mix is kneaded into a dough, which is shaped into spiral or coil shapes either by hand or extruded using a mould. The spirals are then deep fried in vegetable oil.
Varieties
The dish has many variations, resulting from the types and proportions of flours used. Mullu Muruku has an uneven texture that gives it an extra crunch. 'Mullu' refers to thorns in Tamil and the snack derives its name from this. The Kai Murukku (literally, "hand murukku") is made by hand using a stiffer dough. Pakoda murukku is another ribbon-shaped variety of the snack. Attayampatti Kai Murukku, a town in Tamil Nadu, is known for its unique variety of murukkus, known as Manapparai murukku. This Manapparai murukku got famous because of Mr. Krishnan Iyer who prepared and sold this first in Manapparai. In 2010, the Tamil Nadu government applied for a geographical indication tag for Manapparai Murukku.
Gallery
Some of the murukku varieties include:
Kai murkku (Hand-woven murkku)
Manapaarai murukku
Mullu murukku or Magizhampoo murukku
Thenkuzhal murukku (Skinny murukku)
Oosi thenkuzhal murukku (Skinny murukku)
Coconut milk murukku (Thengaaippaal murukku )
Godhumai murukku (Wheat murukku)
Omapodi
Kaara murukku (Spicy murukku)
Poondu murukku (Garlic murukku)
Meen murruku (Fish-thorn shaped murukku)
Vattavruralai murukku (Ring murukku)
Vennai murukku (Butter murukku)
Kadalai Murukku (Besan murukku)
Arisi murukku (Rice murukku)
Achchu murukku or Achchappam (Sweet murukku)
Pudhina Murukku (Mint murukku)
Ezhumichai murukku(Lemon murukk)
Kelvaragu murukku (Ragi murukku)
Thirunelveli manoharam
Urulaikkizhangu murkku (Potato murukku)
Ulundhu murukku
Nei murukku (Ghee murukku)
Ravai murukku
Pulungal arisi murukku
See also
Jhilinga, a similar Nepalese dish made from rice flour
Manapparai Murukku
Chakli
References
External links
Tamil cuisine
Legume dishes
Articles containing video clips
Indian snack foods | wiki |
William Floyd (1734–1821) was an American farmer and signer of the Declaration of Independence for New York.
William Floyd may also refer to:
William Floyd (American football) (born 1972), American football player
William Floyd, editor of The Arbitrator, a New York City Atheist Magazine, unsuccessfully sued Harry Rimmer on the grounds that he had discovered five scientific errors in the Bible
William Floyd (mathematician)
See also
William Floyd School District, New York | wiki |
een vrouwelijke beoefenaar van sport;
de Sportster, een motorfiets geproduceerd door Harley-Davidson. | wiki |
Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases — міжнародний науковий журнал, спеціалізований на статтях, присвячених вивченню кліщів, переважно переносників хвороб людини і тварин, та власне цих хвороб.
Посилання
Сторінка Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases
Біологічні журнали
Англомовні журнали | wiki |
The eighth season of the animated comedy series Bob's Burgers began airing on Fox in the United States on October 1, 2017, and concluded on May 20, 2018.
On October 7, 2015, the series was renewed for an eighth production cycle, which premiered during the eighth broadcast season. The first episode "Brunchsquatch" was created with over 60 artists who are fans of the show and features a number of animation styles.
The season features guest appearances from Adam Driver, Jack McBrayer, Thomas Middleditch and Fred Savage.
Episodes
References
External links
Official website
2017 American television seasons
2018 American television seasons
Bob's Burgers seasons | wiki |
William Singleton may refer to:
William Singleton (politician) (died 1677), English politician
William Dean Singleton, American newspaper executive
William Henry Singleton, American slave, Union soldier and minister
See also
Billy Singleton, American basketball player | wiki |
A spiral fracture (a.k.a. torsion fracture) is a bone fracture occurring when torque (a rotating force) is applied along the axis of a bone. Spiral fractures often occur when the body is in motion while one extremity is planted. For example, a spiral fracture of the tibia (the shinbone) can occur in young children when they fall short on an extended leg while jumping. This occurrence is known as "toddler's fracture". Spiral fractures are also recognized as being suspicious in very young children since to obtain a fracture of this sort requires forceful twisting or jerking of the limbs. Child abuse (physical abuse) and certain conditions such as osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) are considered differentials when identifying spiral or torsion fractures.
References
External links
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/osteogenesis-imperfecta
Bone fractures | wiki |
Diabetic coma is a life-threatening but reversible form of coma found in people with diabetes mellitus.
Three different types of diabetic coma are identified:
Severe low blood sugar in a diabetic person
Diabetic ketoacidosis (usually type 1) advanced enough to result in unconsciousness from a combination of a severely increased blood sugar level, dehydration and shock, and exhaustion
Hyperosmolar nonketotic coma (usually type 2) in which an extremely high blood sugar level and dehydration alone are sufficient to cause unconsciousness.
In most medical contexts, the term diabetic coma refers to the diagnostical dilemma posed when a physician is confronted with an unconscious patient about whom nothing is known except that they have diabetes. An example might be a physician working in an emergency department who receives an unconscious patient wearing a medical identification tag saying DIABETIC. Paramedics may be called to rescue an unconscious person by friends who identify them as diabetic. Brief descriptions of the three major conditions are followed by a discussion of the diagnostic process used to distinguish among them, as well as a few other conditions which must be considered.
An estimated 2 to 15 percent of people with diabetes will have at least one episode of diabetic coma in their lifetimes as a result of severe hypoglycemia.
Types
Severe hypoglycemia
People with type 1 diabetes mellitus who must take insulin in full replacement doses are most vulnerable to episodes of hypoglycemia (low blood glucose levels). This can occur if a person takes too much insulin or diabetic medication, does strenuous exercise without eating additional food, misses meals, consumes too much alcohol, or consumes alcohol without food. It is usually mild enough to reverse by eating or drinking carbohydrates, but blood glucose occasionally can fall fast enough and low enough to produce unconsciousness before hypoglycemia can be recognized and reversed. Hypoglycemia can be severe enough to cause unconsciousness during sleep. Predisposing factors can include eating less than usual or prolonged exercise earlier in the day. Some people with diabetes can lose their ability to recognize the symptoms of early hypoglycemia.
Unconsciousness due to hypoglycemia can occur within 20 minutes to an hour after early symptoms and is not usually preceded by other illness or symptoms. Twitching or convulsions may occur. A person unconscious from hypoglycemia is usually pale, has a rapid heart beat, and is soaked in sweat: all signs of the adrenaline response to hypoglycemia. The individual is not usually dehydrated and breathing is normal or shallow. Their blood sugar level, measured by a glucose meter or laboratory measurement at the time of discovery, is usually low but not always severely, and in some cases may have already risen from the nadir that triggered the unconsciousness.
Unconsciousness due to hypoglycemia is treated by raising the blood glucose with intravenous glucose or injected glucagon.
Advanced diabetic ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), most typically seen in those with type 1 diabetes, is triggered by the build-up of chemicals called ketones. These are strongly acidic and a build-up can cause the blood to become acidic. When these levels get too high it essentially poisons the body and causes DKA.
If it progresses and worsens without treatment it can eventually cause unconsciousness, from a combination of a very high blood sugar level, dehydration and shock, and exhaustion. Coma only occurs at an advanced stage, usually after 36 hours or more of worsening vomiting and hyperventilation.
In the early to middle stages of ketoacidosis, patients are typically flushed and breathing rapidly and deeply, but visible dehydration, pale appearance from diminished perfusion, shallower breathing, and a fast heart rate are often present when coma is reached. However these features are variable and not always as described.
If the patient is known to have diabetes, the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis is usually suspected from the appearance and a history of 1–2 days of vomiting. The diagnosis is confirmed when the usual blood chemistries in the emergency department reveal a high blood sugar level and severe metabolic acidosis.
Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis consists of isotonic fluids to rapidly stabilize the circulation, continued intravenous saline with potassium and other electrolytes to replace deficits, insulin to reverse the ketoacidosis, and careful monitoring for complications.
Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma
Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma usually develops more insidiously than diabetic ketoacidosis because the principal symptom is lethargy progressing to obtundation, rather than vomiting and an obvious illness. Extremely high blood sugar levels are accompanied by dehydration due to inadequate fluid intake. Coma occurs most often in patients who have type 2 or steroid diabetes and have an impaired ability to recognize thirst and drink. It is classically a nursing home condition but can occur in all ages.
The diagnosis is usually discovered when a chemistry screen performed because of obtundation reveals an extremely high blood sugar level (often above 1800 mg/dl (100 mM)) and dehydration. The treatment consists of insulin and gradual rehydration with intravenous fluids.
Identifying the cause
Diabetic coma was a more significant diagnostic problem before the late 1970s, when glucose meters and rapid blood chemistry analyzers were not available in all hospitals. In modern medical practice, it rarely takes more than a few questions, a quick look, and a glucose meter to determine the cause of unconsciousness in a patient with diabetes. Laboratory confirmation can usually be obtained in half an hour or less. Other conditions that can cause unconsciousness in a person with diabetes are stroke, uremic encephalopathy, alcohol, drug overdose, head injury, or seizure.
Most patients do not reach the point of unconsciousness or coma in cases of diabetic hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, or severe hyperosmolarity before a family member or caretaker seeks medical help.
Treatment
Treatment depends upon the underlying cause:
Hypoglycemic diabetic coma: administration of the hormone glucagon to reverse the effects of insulin, or glucose given intravenously.
Ketoacidotic diabetic coma: intravenous fluids, insulin and administration of potassium and sodium.
Hyperosmolar diabetic coma: plenty of intravenous fluids, insulin, potassium and sodium given as soon as possible.
References
External links
Medical emergencies
Diabetes
Coma | wiki |
XM25 can be:
XM25 CDTE, a grenade launcher with computerized air burst rounds
XM25 Sniper Rifle | wiki |
Legal successor may refer to:
Legal successor (business), a successor company legally recognized as such
Legal successor (organization), a successor organization legally declared or recognized as such
Legal successor (property), a legal inheritor of a property or property rights
A state that inherited territory and population of another, see succession of states.
See also
Successor (disambiguation)
Succession (disambiguation)
Order of succession
:Category:Succession acts | wiki |
quip is a Brooklyn, New York-based startup that sells electric toothbrushes and other oral hygiene products. It was founded in February 2015 by Simon Enever and Bill May and officially launched that November. In November 2017, it raised $10 million in series A venture capital funding from prominent investors such as Demi Lovato and Sherpa Capital. A subsequent round of funding brought the company a further $40 million from Sherpa Capital in November 2018. This funding was announced shortly after quip began selling their toothbrushes in Target stores rather than only through an online subscription. By January 2019, the company had sold over 1 million toothbrushes and gained over 1 million subscribers.
Products
Toothbrushes
Electric toothbrushes
Available in plastic (blue, green, and magenta) and metal (copper, gold, silver, and slate). Limited editions were also produced by Quip in metal (all-pink, dark aqua, and light aqua). In 2018, quip collaborated with charity organization (PRODUCT)RED to produce an exclusive metal (RED) variant, with 15% of sales donated directly towards the Global Fund's programs. In June 2022, quip created a limited edition pride metal variant, with each brush featuring a unique rainbow gradient. A total of $50,000 was donated from the sales towards the Ali Forney Center to support homeless lgbt+ youth. Also in 2022, quip ran a contest to create a one of a kind brush featuring any design the winner requested.
Smart electric toothbrushes
Available in plastic (all-white) and metal (all-black and all-pink).
Rechargeable electric toothbrushes
Available in plastic (midnight blue).
Smart rechargeable electric toothbrushes
Available in plastic (ocean blue and sky blue) and metal (all-black and all-pink).
Kids electric toothbrushes
Available in rubber (blue, green, pink, and purple).
Kids smart electric toothbrushes
Available in rubber (all-yellow).
Toothpaste
Available in mint and watermelon flavors. Mint flavored travel size toothpaste is also available.
Floss
Quip produces mint flavored floss for use in both floss picks and floss string. They are both available in plastic (white) and metal (all-black, copper, gold, silver, and slate). The floss pick is also available in metal (all-pink). The floss is mint flavored and refillable. Quip also produces a water flosser in plastic (sky blue and white) and metal (all-black, copper, and slate).
Mouthwash
Dispensers are available in plastic (white) and metal (all-black, all-pink, copper, gold, silver, and slate). The mouthwash is mint flavored and refillable. The dispensers operate by a push button.
Gum
Dispensers are available in plastic (white) and metal (all-black, all-pink, copper, gold, silver, and slate). The gum is mint flavored, sugar free, refillable, and comes in packs of 90, 180, or 270 pieces.
References
External links
American companies established in 2015
Companies based in Brooklyn
Oral hygiene
2015 establishments in New York City
Subscription services | wiki |
Cackalacky is a mildly spiced sweet potato-based table condiment from Pittsboro, North Carolina, U.S.
See also
Hot sauce
References
http://www.bonappetit.com/blogsandforums/blogs/bafoodist/2008/09/americas-foodiest-small-town-p.html (See "Chapel Hill's answer to Tabasco")
https://web.archive.org/web/20061018144142/http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/show_sp/episode/0,1976,FOOD_9994_37278,00.html
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/29/AR2005072902133_pf.html
http://www.lynnseldon.com/article596.html (See "The Un-Ketchup" Excerpted from Our State Magazine)
https://web.archive.org/web/20071010060932/http://www.specialtyfood.com/do/news/ViewSpecialtyFoodNewsArticle?id=20677
http://www.hotsauceblog.com/hotsaucearchives/cackalacky-declared-%e2%80%9cthe-un-hot-sauce%e2%80%9d/
https://web.archive.org/web/20071021210419/http://www.specialtyfood.com/do/news/ViewSpecialtyFoodNewsArticle?id=20186
https://web.archive.org/web/20060811222636/http://www.miamisunpost.com/archives/2006/06-29-06/2006Bestof/best_of_dining.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20060717181014/http://www.bbqblog.com/podcasts/ (See "Cackalacky" Podcast)
https://web.archive.org/web/20060825022322/http://www.ncagr.com/ncproducts/ShowSite.asp?ID=1650
http://www.hotsauceblog.com/hotsaucearchives/cackalacky-gear-merchandising-program-a-success/
http://www.capecodbbq.com/cackalacky.htm
External links
Brand name condiments | wiki |
The Frillback is a breed of pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Frillbacks, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia).
The breed is known for the frill or curls on the wing shield feathers. The feather curl should also be present at the ends of the foot feathers or muffs.
The standards of a pure American Frillback
The quality of a Frillback is based on a 100-point scale, with the head constituting 15 points, the color constituting 15 points, the body constituting 10 points, the curl constituting 50 points, and the muff constituting 10 points.
The colors of standard Frillbacks fall into six color categories.
Self – white, black, recessive red, yellow
Pattern – recessive red mottle, yellow mottle, rosewing, whiteside
Grizzle – red, yellow, blue, silver
Shield marked – red, yellow, blue-black bar, silver-dun bar, mealy ash-red bar, ash-cream bar
ARC – Any rare color
ARCP – Any rare color pattern
ARC and ARCP Frillbacks must be entered by at least 3 exhibitors in 3 of 5 American Frillback shows for 3 years, with judging score progress, before it is deemed appropriate.
Frillbacks produce many different colors that are not recognized by the AFC because they are not standard and do not reproduce consistently. Frillbacks can carry numerous colors in many different patterns such as pied. These colors are not recognized as standard but are very common.
Size
Frillbacks are slightly larger than other colored pigeon breeds, with long tail and wing feathers.
Head
Shell-crest and plain-head are found in all colors of Frillbacks.
A plain-headed Frillback should have a slightly oval head with no flat areas and a forehead that has a distinct stop at the wattle.
A shell-crested Frillback should have a thick shell crest on the back of the head with rosettes on each side. The crest should stand off the head.
Eyes
The eyes should be in line with the beak. A reddish-orange is desired in all colors except shield marked. Shield marked desire a black or "bull-eye". While pearl, gravel, and cracked eyes occur, they are not desirable and are considered major faults.
Beak
The beak of a Frillback is long, with the upper beak often being slightly longer than the lower beak. The beak is dark on red and blue grizzles, black on blacks, light on yellow, horn on silver, and flesh colored on all other standard colors. The wattle is thin and white on all colors.
Muff
The muff of a Frillback will vary, however, 2 to 3 inches is a desirable length.
Frill
The curl of a Frillback covers its entire wing shield. No areas should be uncovered. The last row of curls spans the entire length of the wing. Frills form a distinct ringlet curl at the end. The bottom of the muff is also frilled. Tail and flight feathers have a distinct wrinkle.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
References
The Frillback Standard, The American Frillback Club, 2009.
Pigeon breeds | wiki |
Burrs or burs (sometimes called rotary files) are small cutting tools; not to be confused with small pieces of metal formed from cutting metal, used in die grinders, rotary tools, or dental drills. The name may be considered appropriate when their small-sized head (3 mm diameter shaft) is compared to a bur (fruit seed with hooks) or their teeth are compared to a metal burr.
Description
Burrs are a rotary analog to files that cut linearly (hence their alternate name, rotary files). They are also in many ways comparable to endmills and router bits; a distinction is that the latter usually have their toolpath controlled by the machine, whereas burrs are often used freehand. However, there is substantial overlap in the use and toolpath control of these various classes of cutters, and e outcomes accomplished with them. For example, endmills can be used in routers, and burrs can be used like endmills in milling by CNC or manual machine tools. These are often used in CNC machining centers for removing burrs (the small flakes of metal) after a machining process.
Burrs are spun quickly to maintain the ideal surface speed and cutting conditions (thousands or tens of thousands of RPM; often the top speed available on a given spindle). Because they are constructed of tungsten carbide, the cutters in the image can operate at higher speeds than comparable "HSS" cutters while still maintaining their cutting edges.
Because the cutting edges of burrs are so small, they can often be touched when spinning by a finger without cutting the skin, which flexes out of the way, although it would not be safe to pinch or grip them from two sides. Hard metal or ceramic workpieces cannot flex beyond the cutting edges, so the tools remove material from them. This characteristic makes burrs suitable for degrind the teeth' hard enamel, yet leaves soft mouth tissues unharmed if the tool unintentionally touches as the tool will grind the hard enamel of teeth, yet leaves soft mouth tissues unharmed if the tool should unintentionally touch them.
References
Metalworking cutting tools | wiki |
The Norwegian Correctional Service (in Norwegian: Kriminalomsorgen) is a government agency responsible for the implementation of detention and punishment in a way that is reassuring for the society and for preventing crimes. The agency is governed by the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security.
The agency was created as the Prison Board ( later written Fengselsstyret) in 1875 and was subordinate to the Department of Justice and Police, headed by a director. The Prison Board was disbanded in 2002 and replaced by the Norwegian Correctional Service.
Kragerø Prison is (as of 2016) Norway's fourth prison for females and a fifth is expected to start operating as a wing of Kongsvinger Prison in the beginning of 2017.
Organization
The Correctional Service is organised into a hierarchy consisting of the Correctional Services Directorate (Kriminalomsorgsdirektoratet) which is responsible for the professional and administrative management, a regional level, consisting of five regional administrations, and a local level with individual prison and probation offices. In addition, the Correctional Service of Norway Staff Academy (KRUS), which has responsibility for agency training of prison officers and The Correctional IT services (KITT), which is responsible for the development, implementation and customization of Information technology systems in the agency.
The regions
Correctional Services is divided into five regions.
Eastern Region
Correctional Services Eastern Region includes the counties of Oslo and Østfold, Akershus, Hedmark and Oppland. The administration is in Oslo. The region has a capacity of 1,557 inmates, divided to Bredtveit Prison, Halden Prison, Ravneberget Prison, Indre Østfold Prison, Oslo Prison and Sarpsborg Prison, Ila Detention and Security Prison, Ullersmo Prison, Kongsvinger Prison, Ilseng Prison, Hamar Prison, Vestoppland Prison and Bruvoll Prison and halfway houses in the Arups gate and Sandaker in Oslo, in addition to the probation offices in Oslo, Østfold, Akershus, Hedmark and Oppland counties.
In order to decrease costs for interpreters and other special needs of foreign inmates, foreign nationals serving sentences involving subsequent deportation were in 2012 incarcerated in an institution holding only foreigners as they are not intended to be re-integrated into Norwegian society. This institution opened in December 2012 in Kongsvinger.
Southern Region
Correctional Service southern region includes the counties of Buskerud, Vestfold and Telemark. The administration is in Tønsberg, and Regional Director Bjørn Krogsrud. Correctional Service Southern Region includes Hof Prison, Bastøy Prison, Telemark Prison, Søndre Vestfold Prison, Nordre Vestfold Prison, Sandefjord Prison, Sem Prison, Ringerike Prison, Hassel Prison, Drammen Prison and Drammen halfway house in addition to the probation offices in Buskerud, Telemark and Vestfold
Southwestern Region
Correctional Services south-western region includes the counties of Rogaland and Agder. The administration is located in Sandnes.
The region consists of Agder Prison, Evje, Agder Prison, Froland, Agder Prison, Mandal, Solholmen halfway house, Agder probation offices (Kristiansand, Arendal and Lyngdal), Auklend halfway house, Haugesund Prison, Rogaland probation offices (Stavanger and Haugesund), Sandeid Prison, Stavanger Prison and Åna Prison.
Western Region
Correctional Services, Western Region includes the counties of Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal. The administration is located in Bergen, Regional Director, Per Sigurd Våge.
The region consists of Bergen Prison, Vik Prison, Ålesund Prison, Hustad Prison, Bjørgvin Prison Lyderhorn halfway house, probation offices in Bergen (Hordaland), Molde, Ålesund and Kristiansund (Møre og Romsdal), Florø and Sogndal (Sogn og Fjordane). The Center for Drug Programs is under court control in Bergen.
Northern Region
Correctional Services, Northern Region includes the counties of Trøndelag, Nordland, Troms and Finnmark. The office is located in Trondheim.
The Northern Region consists of Trondheim Prison, Verdal Prison, Mosjøen Prison, Bodø Prison, Bodø halfway house, Vadsø Prison and Tromsø Prison, in addition to the probation offices in Finnmark, Troms, Nordland, Nord-Trøndelag and Sør- Trøndelag.
See also
Incarceration in Norway
References
External links
The Norwegian Correctional Services, Official information in English
Directorate of Norwegian Correctional Services
International Centre for Prison Studies; Norway
Prisons and probation offices
Find a prison -Official website on supplementary information on conditions of imprisonment at all prisons
Find a probation office -List of probation offices with additional information
Various forms of punishment in society
Penal system in Norway
Prison and correctional agencies
Correctional Services
Correctional Services
Government agencies established in 1875
Correctional Services | wiki |
A legal successor of an organization is a successor entity legally declared and recognized as such in all or some respects. Laws governing legal succession may be different for legal successors of business and non-profits, as well as in historical sense.
Laws for nonprofits
In the case of a merger, the surviving organization is the legal successor to the others in respect to liability.
In the case of dissolution without assigning a legal successor, the funds and assets of the dissolved entity may be granted to other entities. The latter entities are not legal successors, but simply as grantees of the mentioned funds.
Different types of organizations may have specific laws as to legal succession in particular cases. For example, the 2015 Kansas Statute on schools, item 72-8210, says in part: "Legal successor of rights and powers; bequests and donations. The unified district shall be legal successor to all of the rights, powers and authorities vested in boards of disorganized districts of the unified district except as is otherwise provided in any of the school unification acts"
References
Members of organizations | wiki |
Junction temperature, short for transistor junction temperature, is the highest operating temperature of the actual semiconductor in an electronic device. In operation, it is higher than case temperature and the temperature of the part's exterior. The difference is equal to the amount of heat transferred from the junction to case multiplied by the junction-to-case thermal resistance.
Microscopic effects
Various physical properties of semiconductor materials are temperature dependent. These include the diffusion rate of dopant elements, carrier mobilities and the thermal production of charge carriers. At the low end, sensor diode noise can be reduced by cryogenic cooling. On the high end, the resulting increase in local power dissipation can lead to thermal runaway that may cause transient or permanent device failure.
Maximum junction temperature calculation
Maximum junction temperature (sometimes abbreviated TJMax) is specified in a part's datasheet and is used when calculating the necessary case-to-ambient thermal resistance for a given power dissipation. This in turn is used to select an appropriate heat sink if applicable. Other cooling methods include thermoelectric cooling and coolants.
In modern processors from manufacturer such as Intel, AMD, Qualcomm, the core temperature is measured by a network of sensors. Every time the temperature sensing network determines that a rise above the specified junction temperature (), is imminent, measures such as clock gating, clock stretching, clock speed reduction and others (commonly referred to as thermal throttling) are applied to prevent the temperature to raise further. If the applied mechanisms are not compensating enough for the processor to stay below the junction temperature, the device may shut down to prevent permanent damage.
An estimation of the chip-junction temperature, , can be obtained from the following equation:
where:
= ambient temperature for the package ( °C )
= junction to ambient thermal resistance ( °C / W )
= power dissipation in package (W)
Measuring junction temperature (TJ)
Many semiconductors and their surrounding optics are small, making it difficult to measure junction temperature with direct methods such as thermocouples and infrared cameras.
Junction temperature may be measured indirectly using the device's inherent voltage/temperature dependency characteristic. Combined with a Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) technique such as JESD 51-1 and JESD 51-51, this method will produce accurate measurements. However, this measurement technique is difficult to implement in multi-LED series circuits due to high common mode voltages and the need for fast, high duty cycle current pulses. This difficulty can be overcome by combining high-speed sampling digital multimeters and fast high-compliance pulsed current sources.
Once junction temperature is known, another important parameter, thermal resistance (Rθ), may be calculated using the following equation:
Junction temperature of LEDs and laser diodes
An LED or laser diode’s junction temperature (Tj) is a primary determinate for long-term reliability; it also is a key factor for photometry. For example, a typical white LED output declines 20% for a 50 °C rise in junction temperature. Because of this temperature sensitivity, LED measurement standards, like IESNA’s LM-85, require that the junction temperature is determined when making photometric measurements.
Junction heating can be minimized in these devices by using the Continuous Pulse Test Method specified in LM-85. An L-I sweep conducted with an Osram Yellow LED shows that Single Pulse Test Method measurements yield a 25% drop in luminous flux output and DC Test Method measurements yield a 70% drop.
See also
Safe operating area
P-N Junction
Metal Semiconductor Junction
References
Semiconductors | wiki |
William Stanford may refer to:
William Stanford (sculptor), Australian sculptor
William Stanford (judge), English politician and judge
William Bedell Stanford, Irish classical scholar and politician
See also | wiki |
Elementary may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Elementary (Cindy Morgan album), 2001
Elementary (The End album), 2007
Elementary, a Melvin "Wah-Wah Watson" Ragin album, 1977
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Elementary (TV series), a 2012 American drama television series
"Elementary, my dear Watson", a catchphrase of Sherlock Holmes
Education
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, US
Elementary education, or primary education, the first years of formal, structured education
Elementary Education Act 1870, England and Wales
Elementary school, a school providing elementary or primary education
Science and technology
ELEMENTARY, a class of objects in computational complexity theory
Elementary, a widget set based on the Enlightenment Foundation Libraries
Elementary abelian group, an abelian group in which every nontrivial element is of prime order
Elementary algebra
Elementary arithmetic
Elementary charge, e, of a single electron
Elementary definition, in mathematical logic
elementary OS, a Linux distribution
Elementary particle, in particle physics
Elementary proof
See also
Element (disambiguation)
Elemental (disambiguation) | wiki |
William Sneyd may refer to:
William Sneyd (MP for Staffordshire) (c. 1614–1695), English politician
William Sneyd (MP for Lichfield) (c. 1693–1745), English politician
William Sneyd (footballer), English footballer | wiki |
Iresine herbstii, or Herbst's bloodleaf, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae. Some call this plant the chicken gizzard plant.
References
External links
C Nencini, F Cavallo, G Bruni, A Capasso, V De Feo, (2006). "Affinity of Iresine herbstii and Brugmansia arborea extracts on different cerebral receptors", Journal of Ethnopharmacology.
herbstii | wiki |
Transgender or Trans Day may refer to:
International Transgender Day of Visibility, annual event for transgender people
Trans Day of Action, annual rally and march held in June
Trans Day of Revenge, 2016 EP by G.L.O.S.S.
Transgender Day of Remembrance, day to memorialize those who have been killed as a result of transphobia
See also
Transgender Awareness Week, One-week celebration leading up to Transgender Day of Remembrance
:Category:Transgender events | wiki |
Hamilton v. Alabama may refer to:
Hamilton v. Alabama (1961), 368 U.S. 52, on the right of the accused to have legal representation
Hamilton v. Alabama (1964), 376 U.S. 650, on racial discrimination | wiki |
Astreopora gracilis est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Acroporidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Menaces
Liens externes
Notes et références
Acroporidae | wiki |
William Wadham may refer to:
William Wadham (Australian politician), politician in the colony of South Australia
Sir William Wadham (died 1452), High Sheriff of Devon, 1441–1442
William Joseph Wadham, English watercolour painter, active in Australia | wiki |
Cogwheel may refer to:
Cogwheel, a gear with inserted, replaceable, teeth - designed to transmit torque to another gear or toothed component.
Cogwheel (neurology), a sign of Hypokinesia | wiki |
Procyonidae () is a New World family of the order Carnivora. It comprises the raccoons, ringtails, cacomistles, coatis, kinkajous, olingos, and olinguitos. Procyonids inhabit a wide range of environments and are generally omnivorous.
Characteristics
Procyonids are relatively small animals, with generally slender bodies and long tails, though the common raccoon tends to be bulky.
Because of their general build, the Procyonidae are often popularly viewed as smaller cousins of the bear family. This is apparent in their German names: a raccoon is called a Waschbär (washing bear, as it "washes" its food before eating), a coati is a Nasenbär (nose-bear), while a kinkajou is a Honigbär (honey-bear). Dutch follows suit, calling the animals wasbeer, neusbeer and rolstaartbeer respectively. However, it is now believed that procyonids are more closely related to mustelids than to bears. Procyonids share common morphological characteristics including a shortened rostrum, absent alisphenoid canals, and a relatively flat mandibular fossa. Kinkajous have unique morphological characteristics due to their arboreally-adapted locomotion, including a prehensile tail and unique femoral structure.
Due to their omnivorous diet, procyonids have lost some of the adaptations for flesh-eating found in their carnivorous relatives. While they do have carnassial teeth, these are poorly developed in most species, especially the raccoons. Apart from the kinkajou, procyonids have the dental formula:
for a total of 40 teeth. The kinkajou has one fewer premolar in each row:
for a total of 36 teeth.
Most members of Procyonidae are solitary however some species form groups. Coati females will form bands of 4-24 individuals that forage together, while Kinkajous have been found to form social groups of two males and one female. Certain Procyonids give birth to one offspring like Ringtails, Olingos, and Kinkajous while Raccoons and Coatis give birth to litters that range in size from 2 to 6 offspring.
Evolution
Procyonid fossils once believed to belong to the genus Bassariscus, which includes the modern ringtail and cacomistle, have been identified from the Miocene epoch, around 20 million years (Ma) ago. It has been suggested that early procyonids were an offshoot of the canids that adapted to a more omnivorous diet. The recent evolution of procyonids has been centered on Central America (where their diversity is greatest); they entered the formerly isolated South America as part of the Great American Interchange, beginning about 7.3 Ma ago in the late Miocene, with the appearance of Cyonasua.
Genetic studies have shown that kinkajous are a sister group to all other extant procyonids; they split off about 22.6 Ma ago. The clades leading to coatis and olingos on one branch, and to ringtails and raccoons on the other, separated about 17.7 Ma ago. The divergence between olingos and coatis is estimated to have occurred about 10.2 Ma ago, at about the same time that ringtails and raccoons parted ways. The separation between coatis and mountain coatis is estimated to have occurred 7.7 Ma ago.
Classification
There has been considerable historical uncertainty over the correct classification of several members. The red panda was previously classified in this family, but it is now classified in its own family, the Ailuridae, based on molecular biology studies. The status of the various olingos was disputed: some regarded them all as subspecies of Bassaricyon gabbii before DNA sequence data demonstrated otherwise.
The traditional classification scheme shown below on the left predates the recent revolution in our understanding of procyonid phylogeny based on genetic sequence analysis. This outdated classification groups kinkajous and olingos together on the basis of similarities in morphology that are now known to be an example of parallel evolution; similarly, coatis are shown as being most closely related to raccoons, when in fact they are closest to olingos. Below right is a cladogram showing the results of molecular studies . Genus Nasuella was not included in these studies, but in a separate study was found to nest within Nasua.
FAMILY PROCYONIDAE
Subfamily Procyoninae (nine species in four genera)
Tribe Procyonini
Subtribe Procyonina
Raccoons, Procyon
Crab-eating raccoon, Procyon cancrivorus
Cozumel raccoon, Procyon pygmaeus
Common raccoon, Procyon lotor
Subtribe Nasuina
Nasua
South American coati or ring-tailed coati, Nasua nasua
White-nosed coati, Nasua narica
Nasuella
Western mountain coati, Nasuella olivacea
Eastern mountain coati, Nasuella meridensis
Tribe Bassariscini
Bassariscus
Ringtail, Bassariscus astutus
Cacomistle, Bassariscus sumichrasti
Subfamily Potosinae (five species in two genera)
Potos
Kinkajou, Potos flavus
Bassaricyon
Northern olingo or Gabbi's olingo, Bassaricyon gabbii
Eastern lowland olingo, Bassaricyon alleni
Western lowland olingo, Bassaricyon medius
Olinguito, Bassaricyon neblina
Phylogeny
Several recent molecular studies have resolved the phylogenetic relationships between the procyonids, as illustrated in the cladogram below.
Extinct taxa
Below is a list of extinct taxa (many of which are fossil genera and species) complied in alphabetical order under their respective subfamilies.
Procyonidae J.E. Gray, 1825
†Broilianinae Dehm, 1950
†Broiliana Dehm, 1950
†B. dehmi Beaumont & Mein, 1973
†B. nobilis Dehm, 1950
†Stromeriella Dehm, 1950
†S. depressa Morlo, 1996
†S. franconica Dehm, 1950
Potosinae Trouessart, 1904
†Parapotos J.A. Baskin, 2003
†P. tedfordi J.A. Baskin, 2003
Procyoninae J.E. Gray, 1825
†Arctonasua J.A. Baskin, 1982
†A. eurybates J.A. Baskin, 1982
†A. fricki J.A. Baskin, 1982
†A. floridana J.A. Baskin, 1982
†A. gracilis J.A. Baskin, 1982
†A. minima J.A. Baskin, 1982
†Bassaricyonoides J.A. Baskin & Morea, 2003
†B. stewartae J.A. Baskin & Morea, 2003
†B. phyllismillerae J.A. Baskin & Morea, 2003
Bassariscus Coues, 1887
†B. antiquus Matthew & Cook, 1909
†B. casei Hibbard, 1952
†B. minimus J.A. Baskin, 2004
†B. ogallalae Hibbard, 1933
†B. parvus Hall, 1927
†Chapalmalania Ameghino, 1908
†C. altaefrontis Kraglievich & Olazábal, 1959
†C. ortognatha Ameghino, 1908
†Cyonasua Ameghino, 1885 [=Amphinasua Moreno & Mercerat, 1891; Brachynasua Ameghino & Kraglievich 1925; Pachynasua Ameghino, 1904]
†C. argentina Ameghino 1885
†C. argentinus (Burmeister, 1891)
†C. brevirostris (Moreno & Mercerat, 1891) [=Amphinasua brevirostris Moreno & Mercerat, 1891]
†C. clausa (Ameghino, 1904) [=Pachynasua clausa Ameghino, 1904]
†C. groeberi Kraglievich & Reig, 1954 [=Amphinasua groeberi Cabrera, 1936]
†C. longirostris (Rovereto, 1914)
†C. lutaria (Cabrera, 1936) [=Amphinasua lutaria Cabrera, 1936]
†C. meranii (Ameghino & Kraglievich 1925) [=Brachynasua meranii Ameghino & Kraglievich 1925]
†C. pascuali Linares, 1981 [=Amphinasua pascuali Linares, 1981]
†C. robusta (Rovereto, 1914)
†Edaphocyon Wilson , 1960
†E. lautus J.A. Baskin, 1982
†E. palmeri J.A. Baskin & Morea, 2003
†E. pointblankensis Wilson , 1960
Nasua Storr, 1780
†N. pronarica Dalquest, 1978
†N. mastodonta Emmert & Short, 2018
†N. nicaeensis Holl, 1829
†Parahyaenodon Ameghino, 1904
†P. argentinus Ameghino, 1904
†Paranasua J.A. Baskin, 1982
†P. biradica J.A. Baskin, 1982
†Probassariscus Merriam, 1911
†P. matthewi Merriam, 1911
Procyon Storr, 1780
†P. gipsoni Emmert & Short, 2018
†P. megalokolos Emmert & Short, 2018
†P. rexroadensis Hibbard, 1941
†Protoprocyon Linares, 1981 [=Lichnocyon J.A. Baskin, 1982]
†P. savagei Linares, 1981 [=Lichnocyon savagei J.A. Baskin, 1982]
†Tetraprothomo Ameghino, 1908
†T. argentinus Ameghino, 1908
References
External links
Mammal families
Extant Burdigalian first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | wiki |
William Vaux may refer to:
William Vaux, 3rd Baron Vaux of Harrowden, English peer
William Sansom Vaux, American mineralogist
William Sandys Wright Vaux, English antiquary and numismatist | wiki |
A log cabin is a small house built from logs.
Log cabin may also refer to:
Places and historic sites
Log Cabin, Texas, a city in Henderson County, U.S.
Log Cabin (Oak Park Heights, Minnesota), U.S.
Log Cabin (Bellevue, Nebraska), U.S.
Log Cabin (University of Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania, U.S.
The Log Cabin, later Pod's and Jerry's, a cabaret and jazz club in Harlem, New York City, U.S.
Other uses
Log Cabin Republicans, an American gay and lesbian political organization
Log Cabin syrup, an American brand of pre-packaged syrups
Log Cabin Wilderness Camp, a Boy Scout camp in the Inyo National Forest on the site of the Log Cabin Gold Mine
Log Cabin, a Whig Party newspaper later merged into the New-York Tribune
See also
Log house, a larger, less rustic type of log home
Log cabin campaign of William Henry Harrison in the 1840 U.S. presidential election | wiki |
Monte Veronese is an Italian cheese made from cow's milk which is produced in the northern part of the Province of Verona, more specifically in the Lessini mountains or the Veronese prealps. Like Asiago it comes in two varieties, one fresh and one matured.
Monte Veronese was awarded Italian Denominazione di Origine status in 1993 and European Protected designation of origin () status in 1996.
Varieties
Monte Veronese latte intero
The fresh Monte Veronese is made from unpasteurized whole milk ( in Italian) and has a brief aging period, from a minimum of 25 days to two months. The paste is white or slightly yellowish in color, with fine and uniformly distributed eyes, and has a sweet, intense flavor.
Monte Veronese d’allevo
The hard paste Monte Veronese is made from unpasteurized semi-skimmed milk. Aging lasts from more than 60 days, for wheels to be consumed as table cheese, to six months, for grating cheese. The paste is white or slightly yellowish in color but with larger eyes than the whole milk variety. Ripening makes the cheese fragrant and slightly piquant.
References
Cheeses of Veneto
Italian cheeses
Cow's-milk cheeses
Italian products with protected designation of origin
Cheeses with designation of origin protected in the European Union | wiki |
The Opisthothelae are spiders within the order Araneae, consisting of the Mygalomorphae and the Araneomorphae, but excluding the Mesothelae. The Opisthothelae are sometimes presented as an unranked clade and sometimes as a suborder of the Araneae. In the latter case, the Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae are treated as infraorders.
The fairly recent creation of this taxon has been justified by the requirement to distinguish these spiders from the Mesothelae, which display many more primitive characteristics. Those that distinguish between the Mesothelae and Opisthothelae are:
The tergite plates on the abdomen of Mesothelae but absent in Opisthothelae
The almost total absence of ganglia in the abdomen of Opisthothelae
The almost median position of the spinnerets in the Mesothelae compared with the hindmost position of those of the Opistothelae
Among the Opisthothelae, the fangs of the Mygalomorphae point straight down in front of the mouth aperture and only allow the spider to grasp its prey from above and below, whereas in the Araneomorphae, they face one another like pincers, allowing a firmer grip. Lampshade spiders (family Hypochilidae) show some characteristics of Araneomorphae despite being mygalomorphs and have fangs that can move diagonally. Distinguishing araneomorphs and mygalomorphs on first inspection is difficult unless the specimens are large enough to permit immediate examination of the fangs, although their differences in behavior can provide help for identification in the wild.
References
Arthropod suborders
Spiders | wiki |
Méta-Wiki ou Wikimedia Meta-Wiki ou méta est un site web destiné à la coordination de tous les projets Wikimédia en matière de politique, discussions, débats, anti-vandalisme inter-projets, élections d'administrateurs inter-sites.
Notes et références
Projet de la Fondation Wikimédia | wiki |
Slap bunting is an offensive baseball and softball technique wherein the batter attempts "to hit the ball to a place on the infield that's farthest from the place where the out needs to be made".
To execute slap bunting, the player is almost always in the back of the left-hand side of home plate, feet slightly open to right field, and choked up slightly on the bat. The moment the pitch is released from the pitcher's hand, the player must rotate his hips toward the pitcher and then cross his back (left) foot over his front foot, moving up to the very front edge of the batter's box. His shoulders should face the pitcher at this point. If the pitch is in the strike zone, the batter should then extend his arms so that the bat is at the correct angle for where he wants to place the ball — the barrel trailing the hands if he wants the ball to go to the left side of the field, and the opposite if he wants it to go to the right.
The technique is quite common in softball because of the difficulty of getting a hit with a pitcher only away. By already being in the front of the batter's box with the batter's body turned halfway toward first base, the batter already has some momentum toward first base and might be in better position to get a base hit.
The technique is often successful in sacrifice circumstances, where the placement of the ball could help advance a runner already on base. It is also often used when batters are having difficulty getting a hit off of a difficult pitcher, or when they have a better opportunity of getting on base because of the slap bunt than a hit, perhaps because of the player's running speed.
Some advanced players might perform a slap hit, which is the same technique except that the player swings to place the ball in an infield hole or over the infielders' heads.
See also
Bunt (baseball)
References
Batting (baseball)
Baseball plays
Softball | wiki |
A pet monkey is a monkey kept as a pet. The practice of keeping monkeys as pets is controversial.
Monkeys have often been favorite pets of queens such as Catherine de' Medici and Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I.
Ship's monkeys
When the British first began to explore Africa, young monkeys were often captured and taken back on board the ship to entertain sailors. For example, a Senegal monkey was kept as a pet by a ship's cook in the 19th century and entertained passengers with its antics. Some were later kept in zoos; many modern captive monkeys in the UK are descended from such Victorian-era monkeys. The same practice is thought to have occurred during the Napoleonic wars; it is rumored that such practices led to a monkey being washed ashore and hanged in Hartlepool, causing the people of Hartlepool to be nicknamed the Monkey Hangers.
As service animals for the disabled
Some organizations train capuchin monkeys as monkey helpers to assist quadriplegics and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or mobility impairments. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with a quadriplegic. Around the house, the monkeys help out by doing tasks such as microwaving food, washing the quadriplegic's face, and opening drink bottles. For safety and the possibility of learning through operant condition methods using positive punishment, the quadriplegics had the ability to deliver a warning tone or 0.5 second shock to the monkey. As with all primates, monkeys must never be fully trusted with a human life in an environment they find demanding or where their needs are not being attended to. In at least one study, the monkey completed all tasks and punishment was used only in the learning stage.
Popular culture
In popular culture both actual and fictionalized accounts of pet monkeys are utilized extensively. Monkeys are popular in numerous books, television programs, and movies.
Sun Wukong (the "Monkey King"), a character who figures prominently in Chinese mythology, is the main protagonist in the classic comic Chinese novel Journey to the West. The television series Monkey, the literary characters Monsieur Eek and Curious George are all examples. The winged monkeys are prominent characters in The Wizard of Oz.
However, pop culture often incorrectly labels apes, particularly chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans as monkeys. Terry Pratchett makes use of the distinction in his Discworld novels, in which the Librarian of the Unseen University is an orangutan who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey.
Famous pet monkeys
There have been many famous pet monkeys with Tarzan's Cheeta arguably the first famous pet "monkey" although they continued to live in the jungle. Nkima was the original Cheeta-like character in Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan novels, and in adaptations of the saga to other media, particularly comics. Tarzan and Cheeta have been repeated across all major popular culture mediums including books, films, television, games and comics. Katie, a white-headed capuchin, played Marcel in the popular U.S. series Friends and also Los Angeles Angels' mascot "Rally Monkey." Finster played Harvey Keitel's pet thief, Dodger in the movie Monkey Trouble. Bubbles was a companion to Michael Jackson and became intertwined in his celebrity and was even a subject of a Jeff Koons sculpture. Frankie the Monkey has been seen in Sean-Paul and Juliane's magic act all over the country.
Curious George
Curious George is the protagonist of a popular children's books franchise by the same name, written by Hans Augusto Rey and Margret Rey. The books feature a curious pet monkey named George, who is brought from his home in Africa by "The Man with The Yellow Hat" to live with him in a big city. Around the world, the adventures of Curious George have been translated in many languages. The character has spawned books in many languages, two television series, two stop-motion animated shorts, an animated film, Curious George, featuring Will Ferrell, a video game and he has been linked with numerous products and companies.
List of fictional pet monkeys
Literature
Ampersand is the name of Yorick Brown's pet monkey in the comic book series, Y: The Last Man.
Chee-Chee is the pet companion of Doctor Dolittle, created by Hugh Lofting.
In A Little Princess, the heroine finds and returns Carrisford's pet monkey
Cartoons
Abu is the pet in Disney's Aladdin
Beppo was Superman's pet monkey.
Bippy, a small monkey that accompanies Timmy Turner in the first Fairly Oddparents movie Abra-Catastrophe
Boots is the pet explorer in Dora the Explorer
Chim-Chim is the pet monkey of Speed Racer and his family
Mojo was Homer Simpson's helper monkey who eventually adopts Homer's unhealthy lifestyle and becomes very obese
Mr. Teeny on The Simpsons, is Krusty the Clown's assistant
Mr. Twitchy from Rated A for Awesome was the pet of a group of four 12-year-old kids who are the main protagonists of the series
So-So is the pet sidekick of Peter Potamus, from Hanna-Barbera.
Tenshin is Meirin Kanzaki's pet monkey in Ask Dr. Rin!
Film
Dodger is the trained pickpocket monkey from Monkey Trouble (1994)
Bonzo is the chimpanzee that Ronald Reagan takes care of in Bedtime for Bonzo (1951)
Mona is the pet from Robinson Crusoe on Mars
Spike is Ace Ventura's monkey companion in Ace Ventura: Pet Detective (1994) and Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls (1995).
Monkey is Dante's pet monkey in Grandma's Boy
Jack the Monkey is Captain Barbossa's pet capuchin monkey named after Jack Sparrow in the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise.
Caesar is Will Rodman's chimpanzee in Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011)
The couple that John Cusack and Cameron Diaz's characters form in Being John Malkovich (1999) have a pet monkey.
Norma Desmond owns a chimpanzee prior to the beginning of Sunset Boulevard (1950). The chimpanzee's death, in a roundabout way, prompts Desmond to take on Joe Gillis as a kept man.
Television
Debbie the Bloop (named for the unusual sound it made) was the chimpanzee with very long ears from the first season of Lost in Space.
Klaus was Dieter's touchable monkey on the Saturday Night Live skit "Sprockets"
Joey and Davey Monkey – on Sesame Street
Jonny the Monkey is "the most famous celebrity in Kazakhstan" according to Borat in many of his interviews and introduced as Kazakhstan's "most successful actor" by Borat in an opening skit of "Saturday Night Live" in November 2006.
Marcel was Ross' pet monkey on the TV show Friends.
See also
Travis
References
online-literature.com
pbs.org
scripsit.com
americanrevolution.org
hawaii.edu
Monkeys
Monkey
Monkey
Domesticated animals | wiki |
Efflux may refer to:
Efflux (microbiology), a mechanism responsible for moving compounds out of cells
e-flux, a publishing platform and archive
See also
Efflux time, part of a measure of paint viscosity
Flux (biology), movement of a substance between compartments
Influx (disambiguation) | wiki |
Palm tree usually refers to tree-like plants of the family Arecaceae:
Palm trees can grow to about 100 to 160 feet tall.
See Arecaceae#Selected genera for lists of genera belonging to the family
See Arecaceae#Other plants for species commonly called palms, although not true palms
Palm tree may also refer to:
Places
Palmtree, Queensland, Australia
Palm Tree, New York, U.S.
Other uses
The Palm Tree (Bow), a pub in London
"Palm Tree", a 2016 single by Chancellor
See also
Operation Dekel (Hebrew: מבצע דקל, 'Operation Palm Tree'), an Israeli offensive in 1948
Palm tree pattern, a German World War II camouflage pattern
Palmier (French, 'palm tree'), a French pastry
Sansana (Hebrew: סַנְסַנָּה, 'palm tree'), a settlement in the West Bank | wiki |
Nude With Dressing Gown is a 1967 painting by Australian artist John Brack. The painting depicts a nude woman putting on a dressing gown. Unusually for a Brack nude, the painting is a not a formal sitting; instead the subject is "caught ... in a more private moment as she modestly dons a gown".
The work is part of the Joseph Brown Collection at the National Gallery of Victoria.
References
External links
Nude with Dressing Gown - National Gallery of Victoria collection.
Paintings by John Brack
1967 paintings
Paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria
Nude art | wiki |
A fathom is a unit of length in the imperial and the U.S. customary systems equal to , used especially for measuring the depth of water. The fathom is neither an International Standard (SI) unit, nor an internationally-accepted non-SI unit. Historically, however, it is the most frequently employed maritime measure of depth in the English-speaking world.
There are two yards (6 feet) in an imperial fathom. Originally the span of a man's outstretched arms, the size of a fathom has varied slightly depending on whether it was defined as a thousandth of an (Admiralty) nautical mile or as a multiple of the imperial yard. Formerly, the term was used for any of several units of length varying around .
Name
The name (pronounced ) derives from the Old English word fæðm, cognate to the Danish (via the Vikings) word "favn" meaning embracing arms or a pair of outstretched arms. Cognate maybe also via the Old High German word "fadum" of the same meaning. In Middle English it was fathme.
Forms
Ancient fathoms
The Ancient Greek measure known as the orguia (, orgyiá, ."outstretched") is usually translated as "fathom". By the Byzantine period, this unit came in two forms: a "simple orguia" (, haplē orguiá) roughly equivalent to the old Greek fathom (6 Byzantine feet, m) and an "imperial" (, basilikē) or "geometric orguia" (, geōmetrikē orguiá) that was one-eighth longer (6 feet and a span, m).
International fathom
One fathom is equal to:
1.8288 metres exactly (Official international definition of the fathom)
1.828804 m (Obsolete measurement of the fathom based on the US Survey Foot, only for use of historical and legacy applications)
2 yards (1 yard is exactly fathom)
6 feet (1 foot is exactly fathom)
18 hands
72 inches
1 metre is about 0.5468 fathoms
In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom defined the length of the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metre. In 1959 United States kept the US survey foot as definition for the fathom.
In October 2019, U.S. National Geodetic Survey and National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to retire the U.S. survey foot, with effect from the end of 2022. The fathom in U.S. Customary units is thereafter defined based on the International 1959 foot, giving the length of the fathom as exact 1.8288 meters in the United States as well.
British fathom
The British Admiralty defined a fathom to be a thousandth of an imperial nautical mile (which was 6080 ft) or . In practice the "warship fathom" of exactly was used in Britain and the United States. No conflict between the definitions existed in practice, since depths on Imperial nautical charts were indicated in feet if less than and in fathoms for depths greater than that. Until the 19th century in England, the length of the fathom was more variable: from feet on merchant vessels to either on fishing vessels (from ).
Derived units
At one time, a quarter meant one-quarter of a fathom.
A cable length, based on the length of a ship's cable, has been variously reckoned as equal to 100 or 120 fathoms.
Use of the fathom
Water depth
Most modern nautical charts indicate depth in metres. However, the U.S. Hydrographic Office uses feet and fathoms. A nautical chart will always explicitly indicate the units of depth used.
To measure the depth of shallow waters, boatmen used a sounding line containing fathom points, some marked and others in between, called deeps, unmarked but estimated by the user. Water near the coast and not too deep to be fathomed by a hand sounding line was referred to as in soundings or on soundings. The area offshore beyond the 100 fathom line, too deep to be fathomed by a hand sounding line, was referred to as out of soundings or off soundings. A deep-sea lead, the heaviest of sounding leads, was used in water exceeding 100 fathoms in depth.
This technique has been superseded by sonic depth finders for measuring mechanically the depth of water beneath a ship, one version of which is the Fathometer (trademark). The record made by such a device is a fathogram. A fathom line or fathom curve, a usually sinuous line on a nautical chart, joins all points having the same depth of water, thereby indicating the contour of the ocean floor.
Some extensive flat areas of the sea bottom with constant depth are known by their fathom number, like the Broad Fourteens or the Long Forties, both in the North Sea.
Line length
The components of a commercial fisherman's setline were measured in fathoms. The rope called a groundline, used to form the main line of a setline, was usually provided in bundles of 300 fathoms. A single skein of this rope was referred to as a line. Especially in Pacific coast fisheries the setline was composed of units called skates, each consisting of several hundred fathoms of groundline, with gangions and hooks attached. A tuck seine or tuck net about long, and very deep in the middle, was used to take fish from a larger seine.
A line attached to a whaling harpoon was about . A forerunner — a piece of cloth tied on a ship's log line some fathoms from the outboard end — marked the limit of drift line. A kite was a drag, towed under water at any depth up to about , which upon striking bottom, was upset and rose to the surface.
A shot, one of the forged lengths of chain joined by shackles to form an anchor cable, was usually .
A shackle, a length of cable or chain equal to . In 1949, the British navy redefined the shackle to be .
The Finnish fathom (syli) is occasionally used: nautical mile or cable length.
Burial
A burial at sea (where the body is weighted to force it to the bottom) requires a minimum of six fathoms of water. This is the origin of the phrase "to deep six" as meaning to discard, or dispose of.
The phrase is echoed in Shakespeare's The Tempest, where Ariel tells Ferdinand, "Full fathom five thy father lies".
On land
Until early in the 20th century, it was the unit used to measure the depth of mines (mineral extraction) in the United Kingdom. Miners also use it as a unit of area equal to 6 feet square (3.34 m2) in the plane of a vein. In Britain, it can mean the quantity of wood in a pile of any length measuring square in cross section. In Central Europe, the klafter was the corresponding unit of comparable length, as was the toise in France. In Hungary the square fathom ("négyszögöl") is still in use as an unofficial measure of land area, primarily for small lots suitable for construction.
See also
Ancient Greek units of measurement
Anthropic units
Bathymetry
English unit
Hvat
Imperial unit
International System of Units
United States customary units
Sounding line
Toise
Klafter
References
Citations
Bibliography
.
External links
An explanation of the fathom marks used at sea (retrieved Sept 2005).
Hungarian web page that refers to the length of a "bécsi öl"
Human-based units of measurement
Nautical terminology
Units of length
Customary units of measurement in the United States | wiki |
Fixed Mobile Substitution, usually abbreviated to FMS, is the use of a mobile phone (cellular phone) instead of a fixed, wired, POTS telephone.
Although strictly, this could simply be as the result of a subscriber making an individual choice (for example, "25% of the population of Finland do not have a fixed phone, but use mobiles all the time, even at home"), the term is usually used to describe a deliberate tactic of a carrier to promote such a behavior.
One such technique is the use of "homezones" (where calls on a designated cell, covering the subscriber's home, are at a preferential tariff, or even free). Although very popular with subscribers, and delivering good uptake, these are expensive for carriers, and outside of a few specific countries (e.g. Germany with Genion and Zu Hause services) they are not common.
The use of femtocells promises to be a more attractive (and potentially more profitable) approach.
The term FMS is in contrast to Fixed Mobile Convergence (FMC), which is usually used to describe the use of two different technologies (hence "convergence") to deliver a similar user experience. Examples include the use of dual-mode handsets with both cellular and WiFi technologies and hand-off between the two.
References
Telephony | wiki |
Round of Applause may refer to:
"Round of Applause" (Waka Flocka Flame song), 2011
"Round of Applause" (Lecrae song), 2013 | wiki |
The Antwerp Smerle is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Antwerp Smerles, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia). The Smerle was one of the breeds used in the development of the Racing Homer.
References
See also
List of pigeon breeds
Antwerp Smerle Breed Guide - Pigeonpedia
Pigeon breeds
Pigeon breeds originating in Belgium | wiki |
This list is of Major Sites Protected for their Historical and Cultural Value at the National Level in the Municipality of Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
|}
See also
Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China
References
External links
Chongqing
Chongqing-related lists | wiki |
Petergofsky Uyezd () was one of the eight subdivisions of the Saint Petersburg Governorate of the Russian Empire. Its capital was Petergof. Petergofsky Uyezd was located in the northern part of the governorate (in the central part of the present-day Leningrad Oblast). In terms of present-day administrative borders, Petergofsky Uyezd is divided between the Petrodvortsovy and Kronshtadtsky districts of Saint Petersburg and the Lomonosovsky and Volosovsky districts of Leningrad Oblast.
Demographics
At the time of the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Petergofsky Uyezd had a population of 140,547. Of these, 67.7% spoke Russian, 13.2% Finnish, 6.2% Estonian, 4.7% Ingrian, 2.4% German, 1.9% Polish, 1.0% Ukrainian, 0.9% Yiddish, 0.6% Latvian, 0.4% Tatar, 0.3% Belarusian, 0.2% Swedish and 0.1% Lithuanian as their native language.
References
Uezds of Saint Petersburg Governorate
History of Saint Petersburg
History of Leningrad Oblast | wiki |
Pageant may refer to:
Procession or ceremony in elaborate costume
Beauty pageant, or beauty contest
Latter Day Saint plays and pageants, run by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or by members local to the area of the pageant
Medieval pageant, a narrative medieval procession connected with a festival
Nativity play, also known as a "Christmas pageant"
Pageant (album), the second album by queer punk duo PWR BTTM
Pageant (film), a documentary film that explores the dramas and realities of the Miss Gay America Contest
Pageant (magazine), a 20th-century American monthly periodical
Pageant (musical), a 1991 Off-Broadway musical by Robert Longbottom
Pageant (novel), a 1933 novel by Australian author G. B. Lancaster
"Pageant" (song), a 2004 single by Moi dix Mois
pageant.exe, an authentication agent, a component of the PuTTY SSH
Pageants (band), an American indie rock duo
See also
Pageantry (disambiguation) | wiki |
Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, and unexplained weight loss. Symptoms may also include increased hunger, feeling tired, and sores (wounds) that do not heal. Often symptoms come on slowly. Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, strokes, diabetic retinopathy which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the limbs which may lead to amputations. The sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon.
Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise. Some people are genetically more at risk than others.
Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90% of cases of diabetes, with the other 10% due primarily to type 1 diabetes and gestational diabetes. In type 1 diabetes there is a lower total level of insulin to control blood glucose, due to an autoimmune induced loss of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. Diagnosis of diabetes is by blood tests such as fasting plasma glucose, oral glucose tolerance test, or glycated hemoglobin (A1C).
Type 2 diabetes is largely preventable by staying a normal weight, exercising regularly, and eating a healthy diet (high in fruits and vegetables and low in sugar and saturated fats). Treatment involves exercise and dietary changes. If blood sugar levels are not adequately lowered, the medication metformin is typically recommended. Many people may eventually also require insulin injections. In those on insulin, routinely checking blood sugar levels is advised; however, this may not be needed in those who are not on insulin therapy. Bariatric surgery often improves diabetes in those who are obese.
Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity. As of 2015 there were approximately 392 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985. Typically it begins in middle or older age, although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people. Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy. Diabetes was one of the first diseases ever described, dating back to an Egyptian manuscript from BCE. The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s.
Signs and symptoms
The classic symptoms of diabetes are frequent urination (polyuria), increased thirst (polydipsia), increased hunger (polyphagia), and weight loss. Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision, itchiness, peripheral neuropathy, recurrent vaginal infections, and fatigue. Other symptoms may include loss of taste. Many people, however, have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing. A small number of people with type 2 diabetes can develop a hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure).
Complications
Type 2 diabetes is typically a chronic disease associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy. This is partly due to a number of complications with which it is associated, including: two to four times the risk of cardiovascular disease, including ischemic heart disease and stroke; a 20-fold increase in lower limb amputations, and increased rates of hospitalizations. In the developed world, and increasingly elsewhere, type 2 diabetes is the largest cause of nontraumatic blindness and kidney failure. It has also been associated with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia through disease processes such as Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Other complications include hyperpigmentation of skin (acanthosis nigricans), sexual dysfunction, and frequent infections. There is also an association between type 2 diabetes and mild hearing loss.
Causes
The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors. While some of these factors are under personal control, such as diet and obesity, other factors are not, such as increasing age, female sex, and genetics. Obesity is more common in women than men in many parts of Africa. The nutritional status of a mother during fetal development may also play a role, with one proposed mechanism being that of DNA methylation. The intestinal bacteria Prevotella copri and Bacteroides vulgatus have been connected with type 2 diabetes.
Lifestyle
Lifestyle factors are important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including obesity and being overweight (defined by a body mass index of greater than 25), lack of physical activity, poor diet, psychological stress, and urbanization. Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of cases in Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders. Among those who are not obese, a high waist–hip ratio is often present. Smoking appears to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. A lack of sleep has also been linked to type 2 diabetes. Laboratory studies have linked short-term sleep deprivations to changes in glucose metabolism, nervous system activity, or hormonal factors that may lead to diabetes.
Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk. The type of fats in the diet are important, with saturated fats and trans fatty acids increasing the risk, and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk. Eating a lot of white rice appears to play a role in increasing risk. A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7% of cases. Persistent organic pollutants may also play a role.
Genetics
Most cases of diabetes involve many genes, with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic. The proportion of diabetes that is inherited is estimated at 72%. More than 36 genes and 80 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) had been found that contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes. All of these genes together still only account for 10% of the total heritable component of the disease. The TCF7L2 allele, for example, increases the risk of developing diabetes by 1.5 times and is the greatest risk of the common genetic variants. Most of the genes linked to diabetes are involved in pancreatic beta cell functions.
There are a number of rare cases of diabetes that arise due to an abnormality in a single gene (known as monogenic forms of diabetes or "other specific types of diabetes"). These include maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY), Donohue syndrome, and Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome, among others. Maturity onset diabetes of the young constitute 1–5% of all cases of diabetes in young people.
Epigenetics
Epigenetic regulation occurs at multiple levels including (1) direct methylation of cytosine and adenine residues in DNA, (2) covalent modification of histone proteins in chromatin, and (3) action of non coding microRNAs (for other examples, see Wikipedia article “Epigenetics”). On November 17-19, 2017, the American Diabetes Association held a research symposium entitled “Epigenetics and Epigenomics: Implications for Diabetes and Obesity.” As a result of this symposium, an overview of the state of the field was presented in which it was noted that over 1,000 research articles have been published that address the intersection of diabetes and epigenetics or epigenomics. The current state of knowledge in this field is addressed the Wikipedia article “Epigenetics of diabetes Type 2.”
Medical conditions
There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes. Some of the medications include: glucocorticoids, thiazides, beta blockers, atypical antipsychotics, and statins. Those who have previously had gestational diabetes are at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Other health problems that are associated include: acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, and certain cancers such as glucagonomas. Individuals with cancer may be at a higher risk of mortality if they also have diabetes. Testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes. Eating disorders may also interact with type 2 diabetes, with bulimia nervosa increasing the risk and anorexia nervosa decreasing it.
Pathophysiology
Type 2 diabetes is due to insufficient insulin production from beta cells in the setting of insulin resistance. Insulin resistance, which is the inability of cells to respond adequately to normal levels of insulin, occurs primarily within the muscles, liver, and fat tissue. In the liver, insulin normally suppresses glucose release. However, in the setting of insulin resistance, the liver inappropriately releases glucose into the blood. The proportion of insulin resistance versus beta cell dysfunction differs among individuals, with some having primarily insulin resistance and only a minor defect in insulin secretion and others with slight insulin resistance and primarily a lack of insulin secretion.
Other potentially important mechanisms associated with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance include: increased breakdown of lipids within fat cells, resistance to and lack of incretin, high glucagon levels in the blood, increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys, and inappropriate regulation of metabolism by the central nervous system. However, not all people with insulin resistance develop diabetes since an impairment of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells is also required.
In the early stages of insulin resistance, the mass of beta cells expands, increasing the output of insulin to compensate for the insulin insensitivity. But when type 2 diabetes has become manifest, a type 2 diabetic will have lost about half of their beta cells.
Fatty acids in the beta cells activate FOXO1, resulting in apoptosis of the beta cells.
The causes of the aging-related insulin resistance seen in obesity and in type 2 diabetes are uncertain. Effects of intracellular lipid metabolism and ATP production in liver and muscle cells may contribute to insulin resistance. New evidence also points to a role of a brain region called the hypothalamus in the development of insulin resistance. For one thing, a gene called Dusp8 is linked with an increased risk for diabetes. This gene codes for a protein that regulates neuronal signaling in the hypothalamus. Also, infusions into the hypothalamus of a hormone called leptin normalize blood glucose and diminish insulin resistance in diabetic animals. Activation of hypothalamic cells by leptin has an important role in maintaining normal levels of blood glucose. Thus, both the endocrine cells of the pancreas AND cells in the hypothalamus may have a role in the etiology of type 2 diabetes.
Hypothalamic cells regulate blood glucose via projections to the autonomic nervous system. Autonomic innervation of liver and muscle cells stimulates an increased uptake of glucose. In diabetic humans, the control of blood glucose by the autonomic nervous system is abnormal. Leptin-sensitive, glucose regulating neurons become resistant to leptin during aging or during exposure to a high-fat diet. These leptin resistant neurons fail to restrain food intake, obesity, and blood glucose. The reasons for this lowered responsiveness to leptin are uncertain and are part of the puzzle of the causes of type 2 diabetes.
Blood glucose levels can also be normalized in diabetic rodents by a single intrahypothalamic infusion of Fibroblast Growth Factor 1 (FGF1), an effect that persists for months even in severely diabetic animals. This remarkable cure of diabetes is accomplished by a stimulation of accessory brain cells called astrocytes. Hypothalamic astrocytes that produce Fatty Acid Binding Protein 7 (FABP7) are targets of FGF1; these cells are also in close contact with leptin-sensitive neurons, influence their function, and regulate leptin sensitivity. An abnormal function of FABP7+ astrocytes thus may contribute to the resistance to leptin and insulin that appear during aging and during exposure to high-fat diets.
During aging, FABP7+ astrocytes develop cytoplasmic granules derived from degenerating mitochondria. This mitochondrial degeneration is partly due to the oxidative stress of the heightened amounts of fatty acids that are taken up by these cells and oxidized within mitochondria. A pathological degeneration of mitochondria in these cells may compromise their normal functions and contribute to abnormalities in the control of blood glucose by the hypothalamus.
Diagnosis
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms, otherwise raised values on two occasions, of either:
fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL)
or
with a glucose tolerance test, two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL)
A random blood sugar of greater than 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) in association with typical symptoms or a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %) is another method of diagnosing diabetes. In 2009 an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommended that a threshold of ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %) should be used to diagnose diabetes. This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010. Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugars >11.1 mmol/L (>200 mg/dL).
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests, fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems. A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test, as they are more convenient for people. HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose. It is estimated that 20% of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease.
Type 2 diabetes is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. This is in contrast to type 1 diabetes in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy. Type 1 and type 2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances. If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type 1 diabetes and C-peptide levels may be useful to confirm type 2 diabetes, with C-peptide levels normal or high in type 2 diabetes, but low in type 1 diabetes.
Screening
Universal screening for diabetes in people without risk factors or symptoms is not recommended. Screening is recommended by the World Health Organization, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), and the American Diabetes Association for high-risk adults. Risk factors considered by the USPSTF include adults over 35 years old who are overweight or have obesity and adults without symptoms whose blood pressure is greater than 135/80 mmHg. For those whose blood pressure is less, the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against screening. The American Diabetes Society recommends screening for adults with a body mass index (BMI) over 25. For people of Asian descent, screening is recommended if they have a BMI over 23. Other high risk groups include people with a first degree relative with diabetes; some ethnic groups, including Hispanics, African-Americans, and Native-Americans; a history of gestational diabetes; polycystic ovary syndrome; excess weight; and conditions associated with metabolic syndrome. There is no evidence that screening changes the risk of death and any benefit of screening on adverse effects, incidence of type 2 diabetes, HbA1c or socioeconomic effects are not clear.
In the UK, NICE guidelines suggest taking action to prevent diabetes for people with a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more. For people of Black African, African-Caribbean, South Asian and Chinese descent the recommendation to start prevention starts at the BMI of 27,5. A study based on a large sample of people in England suggest even lower BMIs for certain ethnic groups for the start of prevention, for example 24 in South Asian and 21 in Bangladeshi populations.
Prevention
Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise. Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half. The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person's initial weight or subsequent weight loss. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of diabetes by about 28%. Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone, however, is limited, with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks. There is an association between higher intake of sugar-sweetened fruit juice and diabetes, but no evidence of an association with 100% fruit juice. A 2019 review found evidence of benefit from dietary fiber.
In those with impaired glucose tolerance, a 2019 systematic review found moderate-quality evidence that Metformin, when compared to diet and exercise or a placebo intervention, appeared to delay or reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. This same review found moderate-quality evidence that when compared to intensive diet and exercise, Metformin did not reduce risk of developing type 2 diabetes, as well as very low-quality evidence that combining Metformin with intensive diet and exercise does not appear to have any effect on risk of developing type 2 diabetes when compared to intensive diet and exercise alone. This systematic review only found one suitable trial comparing Metformin with Sulphonylurea in reducing risk of type 2 diabetes but it did not report any patient-relevant outcomes.
A 2017 review found that, long term, lifestyle changes decreased the risk by 28%, while medication does not reduce risk after withdrawal. While low vitamin D levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, correcting the levels by supplementing vitamin D3 does not improve that risk.
Management
Management of type 2 diabetes focuses on lifestyle interventions, lowering other cardiovascular risk factors, and maintaining blood glucose levels in the normal range. Self-monitoring of blood glucose for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes may be used in combination with education, although the benefit of self-monitoring in those not using multi-dose insulin is questionable. In those who do not want to measure blood levels, measuring urine levels may be done. Managing other cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, high cholesterol, and microalbuminuria, improves a person's life expectancy. Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes. Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140-160 mmHg systolic to 85–100 mmHg diastolic) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.
Intensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c<6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality. The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of 7 to 8% or a fasting glucose of less than 7.2 mmol/L (130 mg/dL); however these goals may be changed after professional clinical consultation, taking into account particular risks of hypoglycemia and life expectancy. Hypoglycemia is associated with adverse outcomes in older people with type 2 diabetes. Despite guidelines recommending that intensive blood sugar control be based on balancing immediate harms with long-term benefits, many people – for example people with a life expectancy of less than nine years who will not benefit, are over-treated.
It is recommended that all people with type 2 diabetes get regular eye examinations. There is moderate evidence suggesting that treating gum disease by scaling and root planing results in an improvement in blood sugar levels for people with diabetes.
Lifestyle
Exercise
A proper diet and regular exercise are foundations of diabetic care, with one review indicating that a greater amount of exercise improved outcomes. Regular exercise may improve blood sugar control, decrease body fat content, and decrease blood lipid levels.
Diet
A diabetic diet which includes calorie restriction to promote weight loss is generally recommended. Other recommendations include emphasizing intake of fruits, vegetables, reduced saturated fat and low-fat dairy products, and with a macronutrient intake tailored to the individual, to distribute calories and carbohydrates throughout the day. Several diets may be effective such as the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), Mediterranean diet, low-fat diet, or monitored carbohydrate diets such as a low carbohydrate diet. Viscous fiber supplements may be useful in those with diabetes.
Vegetarian diets in general have been related to lower diabetes risk, but do not offer advantages compared with diets which allow moderate amounts of animal products. There is not enough evidence to suggest that cinnamon improves blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. A 2021 review showed that consumption of tree nuts (walnuts, almonds, and hazelnuts) reduced fasting blood glucose in diabetic people.
Culturally appropriate education may help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels for up to 24 months. There is not enough evidence to determine if lifestyle interventions affect mortality in those who already have type 2 diabetes.
, there is insufficient data to recommend nonnutritive sweeteners, which may help reduce caloric intake.
An elevated intake of microbiota-accessible carbohydrates can help reducing the effects of T2D.
A 2022 umbrella review concluded that, red and white meat consumption is associated with an increased risk contrary to dairy products which have a diminished risk.
Stress management
Although psychological stress is recognized as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes, the effect of stress management interventions on disease progression are not established. A Cochrane review is under way to assess the effects of mindfulness‐based interventions for adults with type 2 diabetes.
Medications
Blood sugar control
There are several classes of anti-diabetic medications available. Metformin is generally recommended as a first line treatment as there is some evidence that it decreases mortality; however, this conclusion is questioned. Metformin should not be used in those with severe kidney or liver problems.
A second oral agent of another class or insulin may be added if metformin is not sufficient after three months. Other classes of medications include: sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs. As of 2015 there was no significant difference between these agents. A 2018 review found that SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 agonists, but not DPP-4 inhibitors, were associated with lower mortality than placebo or no treatment.
Rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione, has not been found to improve long-term outcomes even though it improves blood sugar levels. Additionally it is associated with increased rates of heart disease and death.
The effects of Plioglitazone have been compared in a Cochrane systematic review to that of other blood sugar lowering-medicine, including metformin, acarbose, and repaglinide, not showing any benefit in reducing the chance of developing type 2 diabetes in people at risk. It did, however, show reduction of risk of developing type 2 diabetes when compared to a placebo or to no treatment. These results should be interpreted considering that most of the data of the studies included in this review were of low or very-low certainty.
Injections of insulin may either be added to oral medication or used alone. Most people do not initially need insulin. When it is used, a long-acting formulation is typically added at night, with oral medications being continued. Doses are then increased to effect (blood sugar levels being well controlled). When nightly insulin is insufficient, twice daily insulin may achieve better control. The long acting insulins glargine and detemir are equally safe and effective, and do not appear much better than neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin, but as they are significantly more expensive, they are not cost effective as of 2010. In those who are pregnant, insulin is generally the treatment of choice.
Blood pressure lowering
Many international guidelines recommend blood pressure treatment targets that are lower than 140/90 mmHg for people with diabetes. However, there is only limited evidence regarding what the lower targets should be. A 2016 systematic review found potential harm to treating to targets lower than 140 mmHg, and a subsequent review in 2019 found no evidence of additional benefit from blood pressure lowering to between 130–140mmHg, although there was an increased risk of adverse events.
2015 American Diabetes Association recommendations are that people with diabetes and albuminuria should receive an inhibitor of the renin-angiotensin system to reduce the risks of progression to end-stage renal disease, cardiovascular events, and death. There is some evidence that angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) are superior to other inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system such as angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), or aliskiren in preventing cardiovascular disease. Although a more recent review found similar effects of ACEIs and ARBs on major cardiovascular and renal outcomes. There is no evidence that combining ACEIs and ARBs provides additional benefits.
Other
The use of aspirin to prevent cardiovascular disease in diabetes is controversial. Aspirin is recommended in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes. 2015 American Diabetes Association recommendations for aspirin use (based on expert consensus or clinical experience) are that low-dose aspirin use is reasonable in adults with diabetes who are at intermediate risk of cardiovascular disease (10-year cardiovascular disease risk, 5–10%).
Vitamin D supplementation to people with type 2 diabetes may improve markers of insulin resistance and HbA1c.
Sharing their electronic health records with people who have type 2 diabetes helps them to reduce their blood sugar levels. It is a way of helping people understand their own health condition and involving them actively in its management.
Surgery
Weight loss surgery in those who are obese is an effective measure to treat diabetes. Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medication following surgery and long-term mortality is decreased. There however is some short-term mortality risk of less than 1% from the surgery. The body mass index cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear. It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control.
Epidemiology
The International Diabetes Federation estimates nearly 537 million people lived with diabetes worldwide in 2021, 90–95% of whom have type 2 diabetes. Diabetes is common both in the developed and the developing world. It remains uncommon, however, in the least developed countries.
Women seem to be at a greater risk as do certain ethnic groups, such as South Asians, Pacific Islanders, Latinos, and Native Americans. This may be due to enhanced sensitivity to a Western lifestyle in certain ethnic groups. Traditionally considered a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel with rising obesity rates. Type 2 diabetes is now diagnosed as frequently as type 1 diabetes in teenagers in the United States.
Rates of diabetes in 1985 were estimated at 30 million, increasing to 135 million in 1995 and 217 million in 2005. This increase is believed to be primarily due to the global population aging, a decrease in exercise, and increasing rates of obesity. The five countries with the greatest number of people with diabetes as of 2000 are India having 31.7 million, China 20.8 million, the United States 17.7 million, Indonesia 8.4 million, and Japan 6.8 million. It is recognized as a global epidemic by the World Health Organization.
History
Diabetes is one of the first diseases described with an Egyptian manuscript from BCE mentioning "too great emptying of the urine." The first described cases are believed to be of type 1 diabetes. Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or honey urine noting that the urine would attract ants. The term "diabetes" or "to pass through" was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek Apollonius Memphites. The disease was rare during the time of the Roman empire with Galen commenting that he had only seen two cases during his career.
Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400–500 AD with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight. Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when the Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin in 1921 and 1922. This was followed by the development of the long acting NPH insulin in the 1940s.
In 1916, Elliot Joslin proposed that in people with diabetes, periods of fasting are helpful. Subsequent research has supported this, and weight loss is a first line treatment in type 2 diabetes.
Research
Researchers developed the Diabetes Severity Score (DISSCO), a tool that might better than the standard blood test at identify if a person's condition is declining. It uses a computer algorithm to analyse data from anonymised electronic patient records and produces a score based on 34 indicators.
References
Works cited
External links
IDF Diabetes Atlas 2015
National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse
Centers for Disease Control (Endocrine pathology)
ADA's Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2019
Aging-associated diseases
Diabetes
Medical conditions related to obesity | wiki |
Pennsylvania's 35th congressional district was one of Pennsylvania's districts of the United States House of Representatives.
Geography
District boundaries eventually set to cover parts of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
List of members representing the district
References
Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
35
Former congressional districts of the United States
1923 establishments in Pennsylvania
1933 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Constituencies established in 1923
Constituencies disestablished in 1933 | wiki |
Le 3-hydroxyphénazépam est une benzodiazépine avec des effets anxiolytiques, hypnotiques, myorelaxants, amnésiants et anticonvulsivants.
C'est un métabolite actif du phénazépam.
Notes et références
Benzodiazépine
Chlorobenzène
Bromobenzène | wiki |
() or Morlacco del Grappa is an Italian cow's-milk cheese from Monte Grappa, in the provinces of Vicenza, Treviso, and Belluno) where cheesemakers once produced a soft cow's milk cheese, low in fat, with an uncooked curd that was named after their native region: Morlachia.
The local Burlina cows - a breed that is at risk of extinction - produced the milk used for this cheese. The Burlina cow is small and hardy and has a piebald black and white coat.
Today, Morlacco del Grappa cheese is once again produced on Monte Grappa with skimmed milk from the evening's milking mixed with whole milk from that of the morning. After 20 days of aging, the cheese is ready for consumption, but it can be left to age for up to three months.
References
cheese
Cheeses of Veneto
Italian cheeses
Cow's-milk cheeses | wiki |
The Ridge Meadows Frizz are a Minor League ice hockey team out of Ridge Meadows, British Columbia, Canada.
Ice hockey teams in British Columbia | wiki |
Birch bark or birchbark is the bark of several Eurasian and North American birch trees of the genus Betula.
The strong and water-resistant cardboard-like bark can be easily cut, bent, and sewn, which has made it a valuable building, crafting, and writing material, since pre-historic times. Today, birch bark remains a popular type of wood for various handicrafts and arts.
Birch bark also contains substances of medicinal and chemical interest. Some of those products (such as betulin) also have fungicidal properties that help preserve bark artifacts, as well as food preserved in bark containers.
Collection and storage
Removing birch bark from live trees is harmful to tree health and should be avoided. Instead, it can be removed fairly easily from the trunk or branches of dead wood, by cutting a slit lengthwise through the bark and pulling or prying it away from the wood. The best time for collection is spring or early summer, as the bark is of better quality and most easily removed.
Removing the outer (light) layer of bark from the trunk of a living tree may not kill it, but probably weakens it and makes it more prone to infections. Removal of the inner (dark) layer, the phloem, kills the tree by preventing the flow of sap to the roots.
To prevent it from rolling up during storage, the bark should be spread open and kept pressed flat.
Working
Birch bark can be cut with a sharp knife, and worked like cardboard. For sharp bending, the fold should be scored (scratched) first with a blunt stylus.
Fresh bark can be worked as is; bark that has dried up (before or after collection) should be softened by steaming, by soaking in warm water, or over a fire.
Uses
Birch bark was a valuable construction material in any part of the world where birch trees were available. Containers such as wrappings, bags, baskets, boxes, or quivers were made by most societies well before pottery was invented. Other uses include:
In various Asian countries (including Siberia) birch bark was used to make storage boxes, paper, tinder, canoes, roof coverings, tents, and waterproof covering for composite bows, such as the Mongol bow, the Chinese bow, Korean bow, Turkish bows, Assyrian bow, the Perso-Parthian bow. It is still being used. More than one variety of birch is used.
In North America, the native population used birch bark for canoes, wigwams, scrolls, ritual art (birch bark biting), maps (including the oldest maps of North America), torches, fans, musical instruments, clothing, and more.
In Scandinavia and Finland, it was used as the substratum of sod roofs and birch-bark roofs, for making boxes, casks and buckets, fishing implements, and shoes (as used by the Egtved Girl) similar to bast shoes.
In Russia, many birch bark manuscripts have survived from the Middle Ages.
Birch bark knife handles are popular tools to be made currently.
In India, birch-bark, along with dried palm leaves, were the primary writing supports before the widespread advent of paper in the second millennium CE. The oldest known Buddhist manuscripts (some of the Gandharan Buddhist Texts), from Afghanistan, were written on birch bark.
Neanderthals used birch bark to make a tar adhesive through the process of dry or destructive distillation.
Birch bark also makes an outstanding tinder, as the inner layers will stay dry even through heavy rainstorms.
Medical uses
Birch bark, sold under the brand name Filsuvez, is a medication that is used to treat epidermolysis bullosa (EB).
The most common side effects with Filsuvez include wound complications. Other common side effects include skin reactions at the application site, wound infections, pruritus (itching), and hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions.
Epidermolysis bullosa is an inherited disease of the skin that makes the skin very fragile and causes severe blistering and scarring. Filsuvez is used in two types of epidermolysis bullosa, dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa and junctional epidermolysis bullosa, to treat partial-thickness skin wounds. These are wounds where the upper layers of the skin have been damaged.
Filsuvez is indicated for the treatment of partial thickness wounds associated with dystrophic and junctional epidermolysis bullosa (EB) in people aged six months of age and older.
Legal status
On 22 April 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Filsuvez, intended for the treatment of epidermolysis bullosa (EB). The applicant for this medicinal product is Amryt Pharmaceuticals DAC. Filsuvez will be available as a gel for cutaneous use. The active substance of Filsuvez is birch bark extract (as dry extract, refined) from Betula pendula Roth/Betula pubescens Ehrh. (equivalent to 0.5‑1.0 g birch bark), including 84‑95 mg triterpenes calculated as the sum of betulin, betulinic acid, erythrodiol, lupeol and oleanolic acid. It is thought to work by modulating inflammatory mediators and stimulating keratinocyte differentiation and migration, thereby promoting wound healing and closure. Filsuvez was approved for medical use in the European Union in June 2022.
See also
Mazinibaganjigan
Wiigwaasabak
Wiigwaasi-makak
Magewappa
Lapti
References
Further reading
External links
Birchbark articles from the NativeTech site.
Birch and Birch Bark, an article by John Zasada at a University of Minnesota site.
Birch Bark Canoe page on the site of the Algonquins of Pikwàganagàn.
César's Bark Canoe—Watch a documentary on how to build a Birch bark canoe
Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions Digital Image Collection at Marquette University; keyword: birch bark.
Wiigwaasi-Jiimaan: These Canoes Carry Culture—Short documentary featuring the building of an Anishinaabe-Ojibwe birchbark canoe in Wisconsin.
Writing media
Non-timber forest products
Native American ethnobotany
Combination drugs
Orphan drugs | wiki |
Promiscuity may refer to:
Promiscuity, the practice of making relatively casual and indiscriminate choices, most commonly applied to sexual behaviour and referred to as Sexual promiscuity
"Promiscuity," a song by Manu Chao from his 2000 album Próxima Estación: Esperanza
"Promiscuity," a song by Antigone from her 2009 debut album AntigoneLand
See also
Promiscuous mode | wiki |
Pastillas, also known as pastillas de leche (literally "milk pills"), refer to a type of milk-based confections that originated in the town of San Miguel in Bulacan, Philippines. From San Miguel, pastillas-making spread to other Philippine provinces such as Cagayan and Masbate.
Description
Initially, pastillas de leche were primarily home-made by carabao-rearing farmers. A small-scale industry on the food product soon grew, with the pastillas made from either carabao or cow milk or both. Refined sugar and calamansi juice are also added during the pastillas-making process.
In San Miguel, Bulacan, a Pastillas Festival has been celebrated every May since 2006. The pabalat tradition is also included in the festival, which involves the display of elaborate paper-cut designs using the pastillas' wrapper material.
Variants
There are three main categories of pastillas based on consistency: soft pastillas, hard pastillas, and toasted pastillas. Soft pastillas has a soft creamy texture. Hard pastillas is a denser version that crumbles when eaten. Toasted pastillas is lightly baked in an oven so that the exterior is browned - giving it the texture of hard pastillas on the outside and soft pastillas on the inside. Another category is the filled pastillas, which are basically just pastillas with a different-flavored filling.
Pastillas has numerous variants based on the ingredients used. One of the most common variants is the pastillas de yema (also called yema pastillas or pastiyema). It is a type of filled pastillas with a filling of yema, a very sweet traditional Filipino custard confectionary.
Other variants also use other flavors and ingredients, like pastillas de mani (peanuts), pastillas de pili (pili nuts), pastillas de ube (purple yam), pastillas de mangga (mango), and so on. In the Davao region of southern Mindanao, a popular variant is the pastillas de durian (also called "durian candy").
Similar dishes
Dulce gatas is another type of confection from Negros Island, which is sometimes considered a type of pastillas since it uses the same ingredients of carabao milk and sugar (in this case, muscovado sugar). Unlike pastillas, however, it is a liquid, and isn't eaten as a candy, but rather as a spread for bread or crackers.
See also
Yema (candy)
References
Candy
Culture of Bulacan
Philippine desserts | wiki |
John Towner Williams KBE (born February 8, 1932) is an American composer, conductor, and pianist. In a career that has spanned seven decades, he has composed some of the most popular, recognizable and critically acclaimed film scores in cinematic history. Williams has won 25 Grammy Awards, five Academy Awards, seven British Academy Film Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards. With 53 Academy Award nominations, he is the second most-nominated individual, after Walt Disney. His compositions are considered the epitome of film music, and he is considered among the greatest composers in the history of cinema.
Williams has been associated with director Steven Spielberg since 1974, composing music for all but five of his feature films, and George Lucas, with whom he has worked on both of his main franchises. His early work as a film composer includes The Killers (1964), How to Steal a Million (1966), Valley of the Dolls (1967), and Goodbye Mr. Chips (1969). He has received five Academy Awards for Best Original Score for his work on Fiddler on the Roof (1971), Jaws (1975), E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial (1982), Star Wars (1977), and Schindler's List (1993). Williams has composed for many popular films including the Star Wars saga, Superman, the first two Home Alone films, the Indiana Jones films, the first two Jurassic Park films, and the first three Harry Potter films. Other films memorable scores from his collaboration with Spielberg include Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), Hook (1991), Saving Private Ryan (1998), Catch Me If You Can (2002), War Horse (2011), Lincoln (2012), and The Fabelmans (2022).
Williams has also composed numerous classical concertos and other works for orchestral ensembles and solo instruments. He served as the Boston Pops' principal conductor from 1980 to 1993 and is its laureate conductor. Other works by Williams include theme music for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games, NBC Sunday Night Football, "The Mission" theme used by NBC News and Seven News in Australia, the television series Lost in Space and Land of the Giants, and the incidental music for the first season of Gilligan's Island. Williams announced but then rescinded his intention to retire from film score composing after the release of Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny in 2023.
In 2005, the American Film Institute selected Williams's score to 1977's Star Wars as the greatest film score of all time. The Library of Congress entered the Star Wars soundtrack into the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Williams was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl's Hall of Fame in 2000, and he received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2004. His AFI Life Achievement Award in 2016 was the first to be awarded outside of the acting and directing fields. He has composed the score for nine of the top 25 highest-grossing films at the U.S. box office (adjusted for inflation). His work has influenced other composers of film, popular, and contemporary classical music.
Early life and family
John Towner Williams was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City, to Esther (née Towner) and Johnny Williams, a jazz drummer and percussionist who played with the Raymond Scott Quintet. He is the eldest of four children and has three younger siblings: Jerry, Joan, and Donald. Williams said of his lineage: "My father was a Maine man—we were very close. My mother was from Boston. My father's parents ran a department store in Bangor, Maine, and my mother's father was a cabinetmaker."
In 1948, the Williams family moved to Los Angeles where John attended North Hollywood High School, graduating in 1950. He later attended the University of California, Los Angeles, and studied composition privately with the Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco. Williams also attended Los Angeles City College for one semester, as the school had a Studio Jazz Band. In 1951, Williams joined the U.S. Air Force, where he played the piano and brass and conducted and arranged music for the U.S. Air Force Band as part of his assignments. In a 2016 interview with the U.S. Air Force Band, he recounted having attended basic training at Lackland Air Force Base, after which he served as a pianist and brass player, with secondary duties of making arrangements for three years. He also attended music courses at the University of Arizona as part of his service.
In 1955, following his Air Force service, Williams moved to New York City and entered the Juilliard School, where he studied piano with Rosina Lhévinne. He was originally set on becoming a concert pianist, but after hearing contemporary pianists like John Browning and Van Cliburn perform he switched his focus to composition. During this time Williams worked as a jazz pianist in the city's many jazz clubs.
Early career
After his studies at Juilliard and the Eastman School of Music, Williams returned to Los Angeles where he began working as an orchestrator at film studios. Among other composers, Williams worked with Franz Waxman, Bernard Herrmann, and Alfred Newman, and also with his fellow orchestrators Conrad Salinger and Bob Franklyn.
Williams was also a studio pianist and session musician, performing on film scores by composers such as Jerry Goldsmith, Elmer Bernstein, Leonard Bernstein, and Henry Mancini. With Mancini he recorded the scores of 1959's Peter Gunn, 1962's Days of Wine and Roses, and 1963's Charade. With Elmer Bernstein, he performed on the score of Hecht-Hill-Lancaster's Sweet Smell of Success. Williams plays the piano part of the guitar-piano ostinato in the famous Mancini Peter Gunn title theme. On the Peter Gunn soundtrack, he collaborated with guitarist Bob Bain, bassist Rolly Bundock, and drummer Jack Sperling, many of whom were also featured on the Mr. Lucky television series. Williams was the pianist for the soundtrack for the adaptation of Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story and the 1960 film The Apartment.
Williams during this time period was known as Johnny Williams, and under this name he released several jazz albums, including World on a String and The John Towner Touch. Williams also served as music arranger and bandleader for a series of popular music albums with the singers Ray Vasquez and Frankie Laine.
Film and television scoring
Although skilled in a variety of 20th-century compositional idioms, Williams's most familiar style may be described as a form of neoromanticism, which was inspired by the late 19th century's large-scale orchestral music—in the style of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky or Richard Wagner and their concept of leitmotif—that inspired his film music predecessors.
Williams's first film composition was for You Are Welcome—a promotional film for the tourist information office of Newfoundland, created in 1954 when Williams was stationed at Pepperrell Air Force Base. Williams's first feature film composition was in 1958 for the B movie Daddy-O, and his first screen credit came two years later in Because They're Young. Williams also composed music for various television programs in the same time period including the pilot episode of Gilligan's Island, Bachelor Father (1959–60), the Kraft Suspense Theatre, Lost in Space (1965–68), The Time Tunnel (1966–67), and Land of the Giants (the last three created by the prolific TV producer Irwin Allen). He also worked on several episodes of M Squad.
He soon gained notice in Hollywood for his versatility in composing jazz, piano, and symphonic music. Williams received his first Academy Award nomination for his score for 1967's Valley of the Dolls and was nominated again for his score for 1969's Goodbye, Mr. Chips. He won his first Academy Award for his score adaptation for the 1971 film Fiddler on the Roof. In 1972, he composed the score for the Robert Altman-directed psychological thriller Images (recorded in collaboration with noted percussionist Stomu Yamashta), which earned him another nomination in the category Best Music, Original Dramatic Score at the 1973 Academy Awards. Williams's prominence grew in the early 1970s thanks to his work for Irwin Allen's "disaster films." He wrote the scores for 1972's The Poseidon Adventure and 1974's The Towering Inferno. He scored Universal's 1974 film Earthquake for director Mark Robson, completing a "trinity" of scores for the decade's highest-grossing "disaster films", and the 1972 film The Cowboys, a western starring John Wayne and directed by Mark Rydell.
In 1974, director Steven Spielberg approached Williams to compose the music for his feature directorial debut, The Sugarland Express. They teamed up again a year later for Spielberg's second film, Jaws. Widely considered a classic suspense film, its score's ominous two-note ostinato has become synonymous with sharks and approaching danger. The score earned Williams his second Academy Award. Shortly thereafter, Spielberg and Williams began collaborating on Spielberg's next feature film, Close Encounters of the Third Kind. During the two-year collaboration, they crafted its distinctive five-note figure that functions both in the background music and as the communications signal of the film's extraterrestrials. Williams also used a system of musical hand signals in the film that were based on hand signs created by John Curwen and refined by Zoltán Kodály. In 1975 Clint Eastwood chose Williams to score his classic climbing film The Eiger Sanction.
During the same period, Spielberg recommended Williams to his friend and fellow director George Lucas, who needed a composer to score his ambitious 1977 space epic film Star Wars. Williams eventually delivered a grand symphonic score in the fashion of Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, as well as Richard Strauss, Antonín Dvořák, and Golden Age Hollywood composers Max Steiner and Erich Wolfgang Korngold. The Star Wars theme is among the most widely recognized in film history, and the "Force Theme" and "Princess Leia's Theme" are well-known examples of leitmotif. Both the film and its score were immensely successful—it remains the highest grossing non-popular music recording of all time—and Williams won another Academy Award for Best Original Score. In 1980, Williams returned to score The Empire Strikes Back, introducing "The Imperial March" as the theme for Darth Vader and the Galactic Empire, "Yoda's Theme", and "Han Solo and the Princess". The original Star Wars trilogy concluded with the 1983 film Return of the Jedi, for which Williams's score provided most notably the "Emperor's Theme", "Parade of the Ewoks", and "Luke and Leia". Both scores earned him Academy Award nominations.
Williams scored the 1976 Alfred Hitchcock film Family Plot. Williams did not much like the film but did not want to turn down the chance to work for Hitchcock. Hitchcock merely told him to remember one thing, "Murder can be fun." Hitchcock was very satisfied with the result. Williams worked with director Richard Donner to score the 1978 film Superman. The score's heroic and romantic themes, particularly the main march, the Superman fanfare and the love theme, known as "Can You Read My Mind", appeared in the four sequel films.
For the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, created by Lucas and directed by Spielberg, Williams wrote a rousing main theme known as "The Raiders March" to accompany the film's hero, Indiana Jones. He composed separate themes to represent the Ark of the Covenant, the character Marion, and the story's Nazi villains. Additional themes were featured in his scores to the subsequent Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984), Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989), and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008). Williams composed an emotional and sensitive score to Spielberg's 1982 fantasy film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, for which he was awarded a fourth Academy Award.
In 1985, Williams was commissioned by NBC to compose a television news music package for various network news spots. The package, which Williams named "The Mission", consists of four movements, two of which are still used heavily by NBC today for Today, NBC Nightly News, and Meet the Press.
The Spielberg–Williams collaboration resumed with the 1987 film Empire of the Sun and still continues, spanning genres from science fiction thrillers (1993's Jurassic Park) to somber tragedies 2005's Munich to Eastern-tinged melodramas (2005's Memoirs of a Geisha, directed by Rob Marshall) to dramatic war films (1998's Saving Private Ryan). Spielberg has said, "I call it an honorable privilege to regard John Williams as a friend." In his Academy Award-nominated score for The Accidental Tourist (1988), Williams developed the two main theme sections in different ways, turning the mood lighter or darker through orchestration and an unexpected use of synthesizers. 1993's Schindler's List proved to be a challenge for Williams, and after viewing the rough cut with Spielberg, he was hesitant to score the film, being so overcome with emotion watching the cut. He told Spielberg, "I really think you need a better composer than I am for this film." Spielberg then replied, "I know, but they're all dead." Williams enlisted the help of classical violinist Itzhak Perlman to play the main theme for the film. Williams then garnered his fourth Oscar for Best Original Score, his fifth Academy Award overall.
In 1999, Lucas launched the first of three prequels to the original Star Wars trilogy. Williams was asked to score all three, starting with The Phantom Menace. Along with themes from the previous films, Williams created new themes to be used as leitmotifs in 2002's Attack of the Clones and 2005's Revenge of the Sith. Most notable of these was "Duel of the Fates," an aggressive choral composition in the style of Verdi's Requiem, utilizing harsh Sanskrit lyrics that broadened the style of music used in the Star Wars films. It used vocal melodies instead of his usual compositions using brass instruments. Also of note was "Anakin's Theme", which begins as an innocent childlike melody and morphs insidiously into a quote of the sinister "Imperial March". For Episode II Williams composed "Across the Stars", a love theme for Padmé Amidala and Anakin Skywalker (mirroring the love theme composed for The Empire Strikes Back). The final installment combined many of the themes created for the series' previous films, including "The Emperor's Theme", "The Imperial March", "Across the Stars", "Duel of the Fates", "The Force Theme", "Rebel Fanfare", "Luke's Theme", and "Princess Leia's Theme", as well as new themes for General Grievous and the film's climax, titled "Battle of the Heroes".
In the 2000s, Williams scored the first three film adaptations of J. K. Rowling's widely successful book series Harry Potter. As with his Superman theme, the most important theme from Williams's scores for the Harry Potter films, "Hedwig's Theme", was used in the fourth through eighth films (Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1, and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2), scored by Patrick Doyle (Goblet of Fire), Nicholas Hooper (Order of the Phoenix and Half-Blood Prince) and Alexandre Desplat (Deathly Hallows). Like the main themes from Jaws, Star Wars, Superman, and Indiana Jones, fans have come to identify the Harry Potter films with Williams's original compositions. Williams was asked to return to score the film franchise's final installment, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2, but director David Yates said that "their schedules simply did not align", as he would have had to provide Williams with a rough cut of the film sooner than was possible.
In 2002, for the 20th anniversary edition of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Williams composed a score for the Universal Pictures logo that segued to music from the movie. In 2006, Superman Returns was directed by Bryan Singer, best known for directing the first two films in the X-Men series. Singer did not request Williams to compose a score for the intentionally Donner-esque film, but he employed the skills of X2 composer John Ottman to incorporate Williams's original Superman theme as well as those for Lois Lane, Krypton and Smallville. In 2011, the "Main Title Theme" and elements of "Can You Read My Mind" were used in the final scene of "Finale", the series finale of The WB/CW television series Smallville. Don Davis, recommended by Williams to the producers, performed a similar role for Jurassic Park III. In 2008 Williams composed music for two documentaries, Warner at War and A Timeless Call, the latter directed by Spielberg. In 2011, after a three-year absence from film scoring, Williams composed the scores for Spielberg's The Adventures of Tintin and War Horse. Both scores received overwhelmingly positive reviews and earned Academy Award nominations, the latter also being nominated for a Golden Globe. The Oscar nominations were Williams's 46th and 47th, making him the most nominated musician in Academy Award history (having previously been tied with Alfred Newman's 45 nominations), and the second most nominated overall, behind Walt Disney. Williams won an Annie Award for his score for The Adventures of Tintin. In 2012, he scored Spielberg's film Lincoln and subsequently received his 48th Academy Award nomination.
In February 2013, Williams expressed interest in working on the Star Wars sequel trilogy, saying: "Now we're hearing of a new set of movies coming in 2015, 2016... so I need to make sure I'm still ready to go in a few years for what I hope would be continued work with George." He also scored the 2013 film The Book Thief, his first collaboration with a director other than Spielberg since 2005. The score earned him an Academy Award, Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations and a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition. It was his 44th nomination for Best Original Score (and 49th overall), setting a new record for the most nominations in that category (he tied Alfred Newman's record of 43 nominations in 2013). In 2015, Williams scored Star Wars: The Force Awakens, earning him his 50th Academy Award nomination. He was also set to write the score for Bridge of Spies that year, which would have been his 27th collaboration with Spielberg, but in March 2015 it was announced that Thomas Newman would score it instead, as Williams's schedule was interrupted by a minor health issue. This was the first Spielberg film since The Color Purple (1985) not scored by Williams. In 2016, Williams composed the score for Spielberg's The BFG. In 2017, Williams scored the animated short film Dear Basketball, directed by Glen Keane and based on a poem by Kobe Bryant. He also wrote the music for Star Wars: The Last Jedi, the eighth episode of the saga, and Spielberg's drama film The Post, both of which opened in December 2017. Williams contributed "The Adventures of Han" and several additional demos for the 2018 standalone Star Wars film Solo: A Star Wars Story, while John Powell wrote the film's original score and adapted Williams's music.
In March 2018, Williams announced that following Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, which was released in December 2019, he would retire from composing music for the Star Wars franchise: "We know J. J. Abrams is preparing one Star Wars movie now that I will hopefully do next year for him. I look forward to it. It will round out a series of nine, that will be quite enough for me." Williams makes a cameo in the film as Oma Tres, a Kijimi bartender. In July 2018, Williams composed the main musical theme for Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park attraction Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge. William Ross, who conducted the symphonic recording of the theme with the London Symphony Orchestra on Williams's behalf, additionally arranged Williams's original composition in different musical contexts for use, recording nearly an hour of musical material at Abbey Road Studios in November 2018. Williams won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition for his Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge Symphonic Suite.
In 2019, Williams served as music consultant for Spielberg's 2021 film adaptation of West Side Story. Williams scored Spielberg's next film The Fabelmans, released on November 23, 2022. He also composed the theme music for the Star Wars miniseries Obi-Wan Kenobi. In June 2022, Williams announced that Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny, scheduled for a 2023 release, would likely be his last film score as he plans to retire from film and focus on composing concert music. However, he reversed this decision by January 2023, stating that he had at least "10 more years to go. I'll stick around for a while!". He compared the decision to Spielberg's father Arnold, who had worked in his career field until he was 100.
Conducting, performing, and other classical works
From 1980 to 1993, Williams served as the Boston Pops Orchestra's principal conductor, succeeding Arthur Fiedler. Williams never met Fiedler in person but spoke to him by telephone. His arrival as the Pops' new leader in the spring of 1980 allowed him to devote part of the Pops' first PBS broadcast of the season to presenting his new compositions for The Empire Strikes Back. Williams almost ended his tenure with the Pops in 1984 when some players hissed while sight-reading a new Williams composition in rehearsal; Williams abruptly left the session and tendered his resignation. He initially cited mounting conflicts with his film composing schedule but later admitted a perceived lack of discipline in, and respect from, the Pops' ranks, culminating in this latest instance. After entreaties by the management and personal apologies from the musicians, Williams withdrew his resignation and continued as principal conductor for nine more years. In 1995, he was succeeded by Keith Lockhart, the former associate conductor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and Cincinnati Pops Orchestra. Williams is now the Pops' laureate conductor, thus maintaining his affiliation with its parent Boston Symphony Orchestra. Williams leads the Pops on several occasions each year, particularly during their Holiday Pops season and typically for a week of concerts in May. He conducts an annual Film Night at both Boston Symphony Hall and Tanglewood, where he frequently enlists the Tanglewood Festival Chorus.
Williams has written many concert pieces, including a symphony; a concerto for horn written for Dale Clevenger, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's principal horn; a concerto for clarinet written for Michele Zukovsky, the Los Angeles Philharmonic's principal clarinetist, in 1991; a sinfonietta for wind ensemble; a cello concerto premiered by Yo-Yo Ma and the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Tanglewood in 1994; concertos for the flute and violin recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra; and a trumpet concerto, which was premiered by The Cleveland Orchestra and their principal trumpet Michael Sachs in September 1996. His bassoon concerto, "The Five Sacred Trees", which was premiered by the New York Philharmonic and principal bassoon player Judith LeClair in 1995, was recorded for Sony Classical by Williams with LeClair and the London Symphony Orchestra. Williams was the subject of an hour-long documentary for the BBC in 1980, and was featured in a report on 20/20 in 1983.
He composed the "Liberty Fanfare" for the Statue of Liberty's rededication; "We're Lookin' Good!" for the Special Olympics in celebration of the 1987 International Summer Games; and themes for the 1984, 1988, 1996, and 2002 Olympic Games. One of his concert works, "Seven for Luck", for soprano and orchestra, is a seven-piece song cycle based on the texts of former U.S. poet laureate Rita Dove. "Seven for Luck" had its world premiere by the Boston Symphony under Williams with soprano Cynthia Haymon.
Williams makes annual appearances with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, and he took part as conductor and composer in the orchestra's opening gala concerts for the Walt Disney Concert Hall in 2003. In 2004, he both served as the Grand Marshal for the Rose Parade, and directed "The Star Spangled Banner" at the Rose Bowl. In April 2005, Williams and the Boston Pops performed the "Throne Room Finale" from Star Wars at opening day in Fenway Park as the Boston Red Sox, having won their first World Series championship since 1918, received their championship rings. For Game 1 of the 2007 World Series, Williams conducted a brass-and-drum ensemble in a new dissonant arrangement of the "Star Spangled Banner".
In February 2004, April 2006, and September 2007, Williams conducted the New York Philharmonic at Avery Fisher Hall in New York City. The initial program was intended to be a one-time special event, and featured Williams's medley of Oscar-winning film scores first performed at the previous year's Academy Awards. Its unprecedented popularity led to two concerts in 2006: fundraising gala events featuring personal recollections by film directors Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg. Continuing demand fueled three more concerts in 2007, which all sold out. These featured a tribute to the musicals of film director Stanley Donen and had the distinction of serving as the New York Philharmonic season's opening event. After a three-season absence, Williams conducted the Philharmonic once again in October 2011.
Maestro Williams also conducted the National Symphony Orchestra, the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets, the Joint Armed Forces Chorus, and the Choral Arts Society of Washington in his new arrangement of "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the anthem's 200th anniversary. The performance was held at A Capitol Fourth, an Independence Day celebration concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, 2014. On April 13, 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Williams performed a surprise concert with the Orlando Philharmonic Orchestra featuring "Princess Leia's Theme" (a tribute to the recently deceased Carrie Fisher), "The Imperial March" and "Main Title", followed by Lucas saying, "The secret sauce of Star Wars, the greatest composer-conductor in the universe, John Williams".
German classical violinist Anne-Sophie Mutter and Williams, introduced to each other by their mutual friend André Previn, collaborated on an album, "Across the Stars", on which Mutter played themes and pieces from Williams's film scores in his new arrangements for violin. It was released in August 2019. The Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra invited Williams to lead concerts in January 2020, his first engagement with a European orchestra, for an all-Williams concert featuring Mutter as soloist. The concert included many pieces from the" Across the Stars" Album. The resulting concert album, "John Williams in Vienna", became the best-selling orchestral album of 2020, reaching the top 10 in many countries and topping the U.S. and UK classical charts. The orchestra also commissioned a new procedural from Williams for their annual Philharmonikerball, replacing the 1924 fanfare by Richard Strauss. Williams conducted the Berlin Philharmonic from October 14-16th, 2021, marking his second engagement with a European orchestra and his first with the Berlin Philharmonic. In 2022, in celebration of his 90th birthday, Williams conducted the Vienna Philharmonic in March, and was honored on August 20 with a tribute at Tanglewood. The tribute at Tanglewood featured musicians James Taylor, Yo-Yo Ma, and Branford Marsalis. The Boston Symphony Orchestra performed some of Williams' most well-known music, with Williams conducting the "Raiders March" from the Indiana Jones movies at the end of the show.
Personal life
In 1956, Williams married Barbara Ruick, an American actress and singer, and remained married until her death in 1974. They had three children: Jennifer (Jenny) Williams Gruska (b. 1956), Mark Towner Williams (b. 1958), and Joseph Williams (b. 1960); the latter is best known as the lead singer of Toto. In 1980, Williams married Samantha Winslow, a photographer.
Honors
Williams is regarded as one of the most influential film composers. His work has influenced other film composers, as well as contemporary classical and popular music. Similarly, his film music has clear influences from other classical and film composers, including Holst, Stravinsky, Korngold, and others. But while many have specifically referenced the similarities, these are generally attributed to the natural influence of one composer on another.
Williams has been nominated for 53 Academy Awards, winning five; six Emmy Awards, winning three; 25 Golden Globe Awards, winning four; 71 Grammy Awards, winning 25; and has received seven British Academy Film Awards. With 53 Oscar nominations, Williams currently holds the record for the most Oscar nominations for a living person and is the second most nominated person in Academy Awards history behind Walt Disney's 59. Williams is the only person to be nominated for an Academy Award in seven different decades (the 1960s, 70s, 80s, 90s, 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s). He is also the oldest person, at age 90, ever to be nominated for an Academy Award. Forty-eight of Williams's Oscar nominations are for Best Original Score and five are for Best Original Song. He won four Oscars for Best Original Score and one for Best Scoring: Adaptation and Original Song Score (Fiddler on the Roof).
He has received several academic honors. In 1980, Williams received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music. Williams received an Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Boston College in 1993, from Harvard University in 2017, and from the University of Pennsylvania in 2021. Williams was made an honorary brother of Kappa Kappa Psi at Boston University in 1993, upon his impending retirement from the Boston Pops. Since 1988, Williams has been honored with 15 Sammy Film Music Awards, the longest-running awards for film music recordings. In 2000, Williams received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Williams has been inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame. Williams was honored with the annual Richard Kirk award at the 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards, recognizing his contribution to film and television music. In 2004, he received a Kennedy Center Honor. He won a Classic Brit Award in 2005 for his soundtrack work of the previous year. Williams has won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition for his scores for Star Wars, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Superman, The Empire Strikes Back, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Angela's Ashes, Munich, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, and The Book Thief. The competition includes not only composers of film scores, but also composers of instrumental music of any genre, including composers of classical fare such as symphonies and chamber music.
In 2003, the International Olympic Committee accorded Williams its highest individual honor, the Olympic Order. In 2009, Williams received the National Medal of Arts in the White House in Washington, D.C., for his achievements in symphonic music for films, and "as a pre-eminent composer and conductor [whose] scores have defined and inspired modern movie-going for decades". In 2012, Williams received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In 2013, Williams was presented with the Ken Burns Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2016, Williams was made a Chevalier De L'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres – Government of France In 2018, the performing rights organization Broadcast Music, Inc. established The John Williams Award, of which Williams became the first recipient. Also the same year, Williams received the Grammy Trustees Award which is a Special Merit Award presented to individuals who, during their careers in music, have made significant contributions, other than performance (and some performers through 1983), to the field of recording. In 2020, Williams won the Grammy Award for "Best Instrumental Composition" for composing Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge Symphonic Suite, and he received his 52nd Oscar nomination for "Best Original Score" at the 92nd Academy Awards for Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. In 2020, Williams received the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society as well as the Princess of Asturias Award for the Arts (jointly with Ennio Morricone). In 2021, Williams received an honorary degree from the University of Pennsylvania. In 2022, Williams was appointed an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II, "for services to film music", one of the final two knighthoods awarded during the Queen's seventy-year reign.
Charting hits (U.S., Billboard)
Concert works
Concertos
1969: Concerto for Flute and Orchestra
1976: Concerto for Violin and Orchestra
1985: Concerto for Tuba and Orchestra
1991: Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra
1993: Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra, The Five Sacred Trees
1994: Concerto for Cello and Orchestra
1996: Concerto for Trumpet and Orchestra
1997: Elegy for Cello and Orchestra
2000: TreeSong for Violin and Orchestra
2002: Heartwood: Lyric Sketches for Cello and Orchestra
2002: Escapades for Alto Saxophone and Orchestra (adapted from the Catch Me If You Can film score)
2003: Concerto for Horn and Orchestra
2009: Concerto for Viola and Orchestra
2009: On Willows and Birches, for Harp and Orchestra
2011: Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra
2014: Scherzo for Piano and Orchestra
2017: Markings for Violin, Strings and Harp
2018: Highwood's Ghost, An Encounter for Cello, Harp and Orchestra
2021: Second Violin Concerto
Other orchestral works
1965: Prelude and Fugue (recorded on Stan Kenton Conducts the Los Angeles Neophonic Orchestra (Capitol, 1965))
1965: Symphony No. 1
1965: Essay for Strings
1968: Sinfonietta for Wind Ensemble
1975: Thomas and the King – Musical
1980: Jubilee 350 Fanfare
1984: Olympic Fanfare & Theme
1986: Liberty Fanfare
1987: A Hymn to New England
1988: Fanfare for Michael Dukakis
1988: For New York
1990: Celebrate Discovery
1993: Sound the Bells!
1994: Song for World Peace
1995: Variations on Happy Birthday
1999: American Journey
2003: Soundings
2007: Star Spangled Banner
2008: A Timeless Call
2012: Fanfare for Fenway
2012: Seven for Luck for soprano and orchestra
2013: For 'The President's Own'
2014: Star Spangled Banner
Chamber works
1951: Sonata for Piano
1997: Elegy for Cello and Piano
2001: Three Pieces for Solo Cello
2007: Duo Concertante for Violin and Viola
2009: Air and Simple Gifts for violin, cello, clarinet and piano
2011: Quartet La Jolla for violin, cello, clarinet and harp
2012: Rounds for solo guitar
2013: Conversations for solo Piano
2014: Music for Brass for Brass Ensemble and Percussion
Discography
See also
List of compositions by John Williams
Music of Star Wars
Music of Superman
Music of Harry Potter
References
Further reading
Audissino, Emilio (2021): John Williams's Film Music: Reviving Hollywood's Classical Style. (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press), 376 pp. .
Audissino, Emilio ed. (2018): John Williams: Music for Films, Television and the Concert Stage. (Lucca, Italy: Bepols), 440 pp. .
Paulus, Irena: "Williams versus Wagner – Or an Attempt at Linking Musical Epics". In: .
Stoppe, Sebastian: "John Williams's Film Music in the Concert Halls". In:
Valverde, Andrés (2013). John Williams: Vida y Obra . Berenice Press. .
External links
1932 births
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American pianists
20th-century classical composers
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century jazz composers
21st-century American composers
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American pianists
21st-century classical composers
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century jazz composers
AFI Life Achievement Award recipients
American classical composers
American classical pianists
American contemporary classical composers
American film score composers
American jazz composers
American jazz pianists
American male classical composers
American male classical pianists
American male conductors (music)
American male film score composers
American male jazz composers
American male jazz pianists
American music arrangers
American television composers
Animated film score composers
Annie Award winners
Atlantic Records artists
Best Original Music BAFTA Award winners
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Brit Award winners
CBS Records artists
Classical musicians from New York (state)
Columbia Records artists
Composers for piano
Composers from New York City
Concert band composers
Decca Records artists
Deutsche Grammophon artists
DreamWorks Records artists
Edison Classical Music Awards Oeuvreprijs winners
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Grammy Award winners
Hollywood Records artists
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Jazz-influenced classical composers
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
Juilliard School alumni
Kennedy Center honorees
Living people
Male television composers
MCA Records artists
Military personnel from New York City
Musicians from New York City
Musicians from Queens, New York
North Hollywood High School alumni
People from Floral Park, New York
People from Flushing, Queens
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Recipients of the Olympic Order
Sony Classical Records artists
UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture alumni
United States Air Force airmen
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Musicians awarded knighthoods
Composers awarded knighthoods | wiki |
The California Bureau of Investigation ("CBI" or "BI") is California's statewide criminal investigative bureau under the California Department of Justice (CA DOJ), in the Division of Law Enforcement (DLE), administered by the Office of the State Attorney General that provides expert investigative services to assist local, state, tribal, and federal agencies in major criminal investigations ranging across the state.
History
The California Office of the Attorney General (AG) was created in 1850; however, permanent law enforcement and criminal investigative elements of the CA DOJ were not established until the early 20th century. Despite this, CA DOJ's Law Enforcement personnel can trace part of their roots back to that of the original California Rangers; the first statewide criminal investigative and law enforcement agency created on May 17, 1853. Although the California Rangers were quickly disbanded (following their success in bringing the violent Five Joaquins gang to justice), their special law enforcement capabilities and statewide investigative mission now reside primarily with CA DOJ Special Agents, such as those assigned to CBI.
The CBI is the oldest, continuously operating, statewide criminal investigative agency in the CA DOJ, and in the state of California. Listed below are some key dates in the history of the CBI clarifying this lineage:
In 1905, the California Bureau of Criminal Identification (CBCI) was created for classification and identification of incarcerated criminals via various means such as fingerprints. However, the original CBCI was disbanded in 1909 and had no formal criminal investigative mission.
On January 1, 1918 (following approved legislation in 1917), CBCI was reinstated as the California Bureau of Criminal Identification and Investigation (CBCII), following recognition by state officials that unification of state law enforcement efforts was needed in collecting/maintaining a repository of criminal identification information accessible to law enforcement agencies throughout the state, in addition to investigating and apprehending criminals. This is also recognized as the founding date of the CBI, as it was when the bureau adopted its first criminal investigative authorities, assisting other law enforcement agencies throughout the state as needed in complex criminal investigations. The investigators within this bureau were recruited as experts in a variety of criminal investigative and scientific fields. CBCII, along with the later (but now-defunct) California Bureau of Narcotic Enforcement (BNE) created in 1927, provided the state with its initial state-wide criminal investigative capabilities it still has today via CBI.
On May 1, 1944, the CA DOJ was created, and the California Office of the Attorney General (OAG) was transferred to it (which also administers it), along with the BNE.
In 1945, the CBCII was also transferred under CA DOJ, and shortly after, was split up into the Bureau of Investigation (BI) and Bureau of Criminal Statistics (later to be renamed to the Bureau of Criminal Identification and Information). This is where BI would remain until present day (as the modern CBI).
In 1962, the Division of Law Enforcement (DLE) was created under the CA DOJ. The BNE and CBI were transferred under the new DLE, with a single division director (later renamed to division chief) overseeing the bureaus, and reporting directly to the CA AG.
In 1971, the 26th CA AG (a former FBI agent and U.S. Army intelligence officer), drastically reorganized the DLE in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness.
In 1998, despite many throughout the state already referring to it as such, the BI officially re-brands itself as "CBI" (which it is still widely referred to as today) with the approval of the 30th Attorney General of California, Bill Lockyer, and becomes an extremely well-known and respected, state investigative law enforcement agency. At this point in time, CBI includes field operations, an organized crime unit, a witness protection program, a major crimes program, a gang/criminal extremist unit, and an intelligence unit. The DOJ/CBI Special Agents of this time are assigned to multiple task forces (state and federal), and assist other departments throughout the state with investigations, operations, support, and advanced law enforcement training, while also still conducting investigations related to any of the California Attorney General's work/cases/matters of interest.
In 2008, the acclaim and prestige of the CBI reaches its height, when the CBS television network creates a popular new television series based on a team of CBI Special Agents. The show lasts seven seasons.
In 2009, although still essentially the same organization, the official name of CBI was changed to the Bureau of Investigation and Intelligence (BII) after it merged with the Bureau of Intelligence following a massive reorganization and consolidation of the CA DOJ's Division of Law Enforcement.
In 2012, DLE restructuring culminates with it being significantly cut, and numerous CA DOJ Special Agents (assigned to multiple bureaus) are laid off. The law enforcement capabilities of the DLE are also drastically reduced or completely eliminated. As part of this reduction, the BNE is disbanded, with a few of its remaining functions/personnel being transferred to the BII. After this, the BII was renamed back to "BI" on February 17, 2012. Since this, the DLE and CBI have slowly attempted to rebuild capabilities it once had, but is still not near the level it was prior to 2012.
Current functions
Today the CBI can be assigned at the discretion of the State Attorney General, performs investigations on public land for incidents that occur outside of local jurisdictions, or can be requested by local authority for various reasons (e.g., areas that are too small to have local detectives or cross-jurisdiction coordination of major crimes). The CBI also operates several programs including a Special Investigations Team (SIT) handling high-profile investigations and special investigative requests from the Attorney General's Office, a Special Operations Unit (SOU) targeting murder suspects and violent criminal groups with special equipment/resources, a Human Trafficking Team, a Sexual Predator and Assault Team (SPAT), an Electronic Crimes Unit (ECU), a Tax Recovery and Crime Enforcement (TRACE) Task Force, a Recycling Fraud Team (RFT), an intelligence operations clearing house/de-confliction center for law enforcement agencies (LA CLEAR), and the state anti-terrorism program. The CBI also runs and/or participates in several other highly successful state and federal task forces.
In fiction
A fictional version of CBI was featured in the television series The Mentalist. It featured several units, with the one featuring the main characters focusing mostly on the investigation of homicides, and occasionally kidnappings or missing persons. The Region 1 DVD release of the fourth season of The Mentalist includes the special CBI: Behind the Badge, featuring interaction with actual law enforcement officers in California, specifically focusing on a homicide task force with several agents and officers of different agencies (including those from CBI), who tutored those who worked on the program in providing a realistic portrayal.
A CBI Special Agent was also featured in a third-season episode of the crime television series Numb3rs, where the CBI agent worked together with the FBI to catch a murderous cult leader.
Beginning in 2007, New York Times best-selling author Jeffery Deaver wrote a series of crime drama novels starring the fictional Special Agent Kathryn Dance of the CA DOJ/CBI. The most recent novel in the series was published in 2015.
References
External links
Bureau of Investigation (BI) – description on the California Office of the Attorney General's website
Attorney General
State Bureaus of Investigation | wiki |
Joseph Adam may refer to:
Joseph Adam (athlete) (born 1965), Seychellois sprinter
Joseph Johann Adam (1690–1732), Prince of Liechtenstein
Joe Adam, American football coach
See also
Joseph Adams (disambiguation) | wiki |
Watagami may refer to:
shoulder straps of the dō-yoroi, made of leather with attached metal plates
Cotton candy | wiki |
Salima may refer to:
People
Salima Aga Khan (born 1940), ex-wife of Prince Karim Aga Khan
Salima Ghezali (born 1958), an Algerian journalist and writer
Salima Hamouche (born 1984), an Algerian volleyball player
Salima Hashmi, a Pakistani artist and writer
Salima Ikram (born 1965), a Pakistani archaeologist
Salima Machamba (1874–1964), a sultan of Mohéli
Salima Murad (c. 1905–1974), an Iraqi Jewish singer
Salima Rockwell (born 1974), American volleyball player, coach and broadcaster
Salima Salih (born 1942), short story writer, translator and artist
Salima Souakri (born 1974), an Algerian judoka
Salima Yenbou (born 1971) French politician
Salima, a fictional character in Team Psykick
Other
Salima, Malawi, a town in Malawi
Salima District, a district in Malawi
See also
Salimah
Selima (disambiguation) | wiki |
Stanford kan avse:
Stanford University – ett privatfinansierat universitet i Stanford i Kalifornien
Geografi
Storbritannien
Stanford in the Vale (parish), England, Oxfordshire,
Stanford in the Vale (ort), England, Oxfordshire,
Stanford-le-Hope – en ort i grevskapet Essex
Stanford, Norfolk
Stanford, Kent
Stanford, Northamptonshire
Stanford, Bedfordshire - en ort i Bedfordshire, England
Stanford, Shropshire - en ort i Shropshire (distrikt), Shropshire, England
USA
Stanford, Kentucky – ort i Lincoln County i Kentucky
Stanford, Kalifornien – säte för Stanford University
Stanford, Montana – ort i Judith Basin County i Montana
Personer
Charles Villiers Stanford, (1852-1924), tonsättare
Leland Stanford, (1824-1893), amerikansk affärsman, grundare av Stanford University
William Bedell Stanford, (1911-1984), irländsk forskare, senator, rektor för University of Dublin | wiki |
The Kriva Palanka dialect (, Krivopalanečki dijalekt) is a member of the eastern subgroup of the northern group of dialects of Macedonian. This dialect is mainly spoken in the city of Kriva Palanka and surrounding villages.
Phonological characteristics
use of A instead of E: трева / treva > трава / trava;
use of the letter U instead of the letter A: рака / raka > рука / ruka (hand), пат / pat > пут / put (road);
Morphological characteristics
imperfective verbs are typically derived from perfective verbs by means of the suffix –ue (e.g. зборуе and текнуе)
use of the preposition U (in).
Personal pronouns
Singular:
Ја / ја (I)
Ти / ti (you)
Он / on (he)
Она / ona (she)
Оно / ono (it)
References
Dialects of the Macedonian language
Kriva Palanka Municipality
Kriva Palanka | wiki |
The Security Council of the United Nations (UNSC) has adopted 21 resolutions concerning North Korea. Five resolutions were adopted during the Korean War in the 1950s.
In 1991, a single resolution was adopted regarding North Korea's accession to membership in the UN. Since then, many resolutions have been adopted in relation to the North Korean missile and nuclear program.
Background
The UN Security Council toughens the sanctions in response to North Korea's nuclear and missile tests.
The sanctions on North Korea are mainly economic in nature, regulating North Korea's economic activities such as trade with China. The resolutions' sanction mainly 'demands North Korea refrain from further nuclear or missile tests and return to the NPT'. Moreover, the sanctions resolutions try to ban North Korea's ability of exporting their natural resources such as coal and iron ore, and prohibit member states' exports to North Korea, actions which may contribute to North Korea's further nuclear and missile tests.
The UN Security Council tries to urge North Korea for denuclearization, a measure that has proven to be ineffective in preventing further nuclear and missile tests.
Meanwhile, the most severe sanction of the UNSC is found to be a ban on crude oil exports to North Korea, but such sanction has not been executed yet. The first step for such sanctions to proceed is the achievement of a consensus between member states and international society.
List
See also
China–North Korea relations
Foreign relations of North Korea
Human rights in North Korea
Korea and the United Nations
North Korea and weapons of mass destruction
Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
United Nations General Assembly resolutions – including those related to the Korean War
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 62/167
United Nations Security Council Resolution 88 – concerning the Republic of China during the Korean War
References
External links
UN Security Council Resolutions on North Korea at Arms Control Association
United Nations Documents for DPRK (North Korea) at Security Council Report
UN Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1718 (2006) (Reports issued by the UN Panel of Experts, established to support of the Sanctions Committee in carrying out its mandate as specified in paragraph 12 of resolution 1718)
Nuclear weapons at United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs
United Nations
North Korea | wiki |
Stinky generally refers to having a strong odor.
Stinky may also refer to:
People
Stinky, female professional wrestler half of the tag-team Stinky and Sneaky from the Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling
Mr. Stinky, nickname of Raymond Edmunds, Australian convicted rapist and murderer
Harry Davis (1908–1997), American professional baseball player
Fictional characters
Stinky (Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends), on the American animated television show Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends
Stinky, portrayed by comedian Joe Besser on the syndicated television sitcom The Abbott and Costello Show
Stinky, a character from the Moomins series of comics and cartoons
Stinky, one of Casper the Friendly Ghost's uncles, who are better known as The Ghostly Trio
Stinky Davis, a character in the Toonerville Folks newspaper cartoon
Stinky Pete (Toy Story 2), in the film Toy Story 2
Stinky Pete, a seal in the television series Sealab 2021
Stinky Peterson (disambiguation), characters in various television shows
Stinky Smurf, a character in the cartoon The Smurfs
Other uses
Stinky, slang term used by cavers, for a carbide lamp
Stinky, Donetsk Oblast, a settlement in Ukraine
See also
Stink (disambiguation)
Stinker (disambiguation)
Smelly (disambiguation) | wiki |
Shoulder sleeve insignia (SSI) are cloth emblems worn on the shoulders of US Army uniforms to identify the primary headquarters to which a soldier is assigned.
Note: several insignia are of older formations.
Airborne Corps
Armored Corps
Army Corps
See also
Field Army Insignia of the United States Army
Division insignia of the United States Army
Brigade insignia of the United States Army
Miscellaneous shoulder sleeve insignia of the United States Army
References
External links
World War I Insignia
United States Army lists
Heraldry of the United States Army | wiki |
De Krant op Zondag (The Newspaper on Sunday) was a Dutch Sunday newspaper which was launched on 14 October 1990.
On 10 May 1992 the final issue appeared. The editor-in-chief was René de Bok. De Krant op Zondag went into administration because of distribution problems and lack of advertisers. De Bok wrote a book about making the paper.
References
1990 establishments in the Netherlands
1992 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Dutch-language newspapers
Defunct newspapers published in the Netherlands
Publications established in 1990
Publications disestablished in 1992
Sunday newspapers
Weekly newspapers published in the Netherlands | wiki |
The American Association for the History of Medicine is an American professional association dedicated to the study of medical history.
Background
It is the largest society dedicated to medical history in the United States, and the oldest such organization in North America. It was established in 1925 as the American Section of the International Society for the History of Medicine, and obtained its current name in 1958. Its first president was Fielding Hudson Garrison. Its official journal is the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, which is published quarterly. Its current membership is in excess of 1,000 people.
References
External links
Organizations established in 1925
Medical associations based in the United States
History organizations based in the United States
History of medicine | wiki |
The National Art Museum of China (NAMOC, ) is located at 1 Wusi Ave, Dongcheng District, Beijing, People's Republic of China. It is one of the largest art museums in China, and is funded by the Ministry of Culture. The construction of the museum started in 1958, and concluded in 1962. It has a total land area of . The museum was renovated between May 2004 and January 2005, and has been given an additional area of .
Collection
Its permanent collection includes both ancient and contemporary Chinese artworks as well as notable Western artworks. Although the museum contains collection of imperial Chinese art, its main mission is to serve as a national level art museum dedicated to displaying, collecting and researching the modern and contemporary artistic works of China. It has a main building of four stories, the first three being display areas. There are 21 exhibition halls at the museum.
Its collections are divided into specific categories of:
traditional Chinese painting,
oil painting,
print,
sculpture,
Chinese New Year picture,
traditional picture story,
caricature,
watercolor painting,
lacquer,
porcelain, and
costumes
Expansion
In 2012, four high-profile architects — Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Jean Nouvel and Moshe Safdie — were invited to submit designs for the new National Art Museum venue, which will be seven times larger than the current venue. The museum will be built in collaboration with the Beijing Institute of Architectural Design. Nouvel's plans were revealed on September 18, 2014 at a press conference in Paris attended by the architect and Chinese and French politicians including Laurent Fabius, the French minister of foreign affairs and international development.
Gallery
See also
List of museums in China
References
External links
Official website of NAMOC
Museums in Beijing
Art museums and galleries in China
Asian art museums in China
Art museums established in 1958
Art galleries established in 1962
Dongcheng District, Beijing
1958 establishments in China | wiki |
The following is the chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet, a standardized system of phonetic symbols devised and maintained by the International Phonetic Association. It is not a complete list of all possible speech sounds in the world's languages, only those about which stand-alone articles exist in this encyclopedia.
Official chart
Vowels
Consonants
Pulmonic consonants
Non-pulmonic consonants
Co-articulated consonants
Other consonants
Nasal palatal approximant
Nasal labial–velar approximant
Voiceless nasal glottal approximant
Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop
Voiceless bidental fricative
Tones
Auxiliary symbols
See also
IPA vowel chart with audio
IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio
International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects
Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet
Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet
External links
The International Phonetic Alphabet and the IPA Chart
Interactive IPA chart
chart
Charts | wiki |
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between those layers.
Turbulence is commonly observed in everyday phenomena such as surf, fast flowing rivers, billowing storm clouds, or smoke from a chimney, and most fluid flows occurring in nature or created in engineering applications are turbulent. Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow, which overcomes the damping effect of the fluid's viscosity. For this reason turbulence is commonly realized in low viscosity fluids. In general terms, in turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which interact with each other, consequently drag due to friction effects increases. This increases the energy needed to pump fluid through a pipe.
The onset of turbulence can be predicted by the dimensionless Reynolds number, the ratio of kinetic energy to viscous damping in a fluid flow. However, turbulence has long resisted detailed physical analysis, and the interactions within turbulence create a very complex phenomenon. Richard Feynman described turbulence as the most important unsolved problem in classical physics.
The turbulence intensity affects many fields, for examples fish ecology, air pollution, precipitation, and climate change.
Examples of turbulence
Smoke rising from a cigarette. For the first few centimeters, the smoke is laminar. The smoke plume becomes turbulent as its Reynolds number increases with increases in flow velocity and characteristic length scale.
Flow over a golf ball. (This can be best understood by considering the golf ball to be stationary, with air flowing over it.) If the golf ball were smooth, the boundary layer flow over the front of the sphere would be laminar at typical conditions. However, the boundary layer would separate early, as the pressure gradient switched from favorable (pressure decreasing in the flow direction) to unfavorable (pressure increasing in the flow direction), creating a large region of low pressure behind the ball that creates high form drag. To prevent this, the surface is dimpled to perturb the boundary layer and promote turbulence. This results in higher skin friction, but it moves the point of boundary layer separation further along, resulting in lower drag.
Clear-air turbulence experienced during airplane flight, as well as poor astronomical seeing (the blurring of images seen through the atmosphere).
Most of the terrestrial atmospheric circulation.
The oceanic and atmospheric mixed layers and intense oceanic currents.
The flow conditions in many industrial equipment (such as pipes, ducts, precipitators, gas scrubbers, dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers, etc.) and machines (for instance, internal combustion engines and gas turbines).
The external flow over all kinds of vehicles such as cars, airplanes, ships, and submarines.
The motions of matter in stellar atmospheres.
A jet exhausting from a nozzle into a quiescent fluid. As the flow emerges into this external fluid, shear layers originating at the lips of the nozzle are created. These layers separate the fast moving jet from the external fluid, and at a certain critical Reynolds number they become unstable and break down to turbulence.
Biologically generated turbulence resulting from swimming animals affects ocean mixing.
Snow fences work by inducing turbulence in the wind, forcing it to drop much of its snow load near the fence.
Bridge supports (piers) in water. When river flow is slow, water flows smoothly around the support legs. When the flow is faster, a higher Reynolds number is associated with the flow. The flow may start off laminar but is quickly separated from the leg and becomes turbulent.
In many geophysical flows (rivers, atmospheric boundary layer), the flow turbulence is dominated by the coherent structures and turbulent events. A turbulent event is a series of turbulent fluctuations that contain more energy than the average flow turbulence. The turbulent events are associated with coherent flow structures such as eddies and turbulent bursting, and they play a critical role in terms of sediment scour, accretion and transport in rivers as well as contaminant mixing and dispersion in rivers and estuaries, and in the atmosphere.
In the medical field of cardiology, a stethoscope is used to detect heart sounds and bruits, which are due to turbulent blood flow. In normal individuals, heart sounds are a product of turbulent flow as heart valves close. However, in some conditions turbulent flow can be audible due to other reasons, some of them pathological. For example, in advanced atherosclerosis, bruits (and therefore turbulent flow) can be heard in some vessels that have been narrowed by the disease process.
Recently, turbulence in porous media became a highly debated subject.
Strategies used by animals for olfactory navigation, and their success, are heavily influenced by turbulence affecting the odor plume.
Features
Turbulence is characterized by the following features:
Irregularity Turbulent flows are always highly irregular. For this reason, turbulence problems are normally treated statistically rather than deterministically. Turbulent flow is chaotic. However, not all chaotic flows are turbulent.
Diffusivity The readily available supply of energy in turbulent flows tends to accelerate the homogenization (mixing) of fluid mixtures. The characteristic which is responsible for the enhanced mixing and increased rates of mass, momentum and energy transports in a flow is called "diffusivity".
Turbulent diffusion is usually described by a turbulent diffusion coefficient. This turbulent diffusion coefficient is defined in a phenomenological sense, by analogy with the molecular diffusivities, but it does not have a true physical meaning, being dependent on the flow conditions, and not a property of the fluid itself. In addition, the turbulent diffusivity concept assumes a constitutive relation between a turbulent flux and the gradient of a mean variable similar to the relation between flux and gradient that exists for molecular transport. In the best case, this assumption is only an approximation. Nevertheless, the turbulent diffusivity is the simplest approach for quantitative analysis of turbulent flows, and many models have been postulated to calculate it. For instance, in large bodies of water like oceans this coefficient can be found using Richardson's four-third power law and is governed by the random walk principle. In rivers and large ocean currents, the diffusion coefficient is given by variations of Elder's formula.
Rotationality Turbulent flows have non-zero vorticity and are characterized by a strong three-dimensional vortex generation mechanism known as vortex stretching. In fluid dynamics, they are essentially vortices subjected to stretching associated with a corresponding increase of the component of vorticity in the stretching direction—due to the conservation of angular momentum. On the other hand, vortex stretching is the core mechanism on which the turbulence energy cascade relies to establish and maintain identifiable structure function. In general, the stretching mechanism implies thinning of the vortices in the direction perpendicular to the stretching direction due to volume conservation of fluid elements. As a result, the radial length scale of the vortices decreases and the larger flow structures break down into smaller structures. The process continues until the small scale structures are small enough that their kinetic energy can be transformed by the fluid's molecular viscosity into heat. Turbulent flow is always rotational and three dimensional. For example, atmospheric cyclones are rotational but their substantially two-dimensional shapes do not allow vortex generation and so are not turbulent. On the other hand, oceanic flows are dispersive but essentially non rotational and therefore are not turbulent.
Dissipation To sustain turbulent flow, a persistent source of energy supply is required because turbulence dissipates rapidly as the kinetic energy is converted into internal energy by viscous shear stress. Turbulence causes the formation of eddies of many different length scales. Most of the kinetic energy of the turbulent motion is contained in the large-scale structures. The energy "cascades" from these large-scale structures to smaller scale structures by an inertial and essentially inviscid mechanism. This process continues, creating smaller and smaller structures which produces a hierarchy of eddies. Eventually this process creates structures that are small enough that molecular diffusion becomes important and viscous dissipation of energy finally takes place. The scale at which this happens is the Kolmogorov length scale.
Via this energy cascade, turbulent flow can be realized as a superposition of a spectrum of flow velocity fluctuations and eddies upon a mean flow. The eddies are loosely defined as coherent patterns of flow velocity, vorticity and pressure. Turbulent flows may be viewed as made of an entire hierarchy of eddies over a wide range of length scales and the hierarchy can be described by the energy spectrum that measures the energy in flow velocity fluctuations for each length scale (wavenumber). The scales in the energy cascade are generally uncontrollable and highly non-symmetric. Nevertheless, based on these length scales these eddies can be divided into three categories.
Integral time scale
The integral time scale for a Lagrangian flow can be defined as:
where u′ is the velocity fluctuation, and is the time lag between measurements.
Integral length scales
Large eddies obtain energy from the mean flow and also from each other. Thus, these are the energy production eddies which contain most of the energy. They have the large flow velocity fluctuation and are low in frequency. Integral scales are highly anisotropic and are defined in terms of the normalized two-point flow velocity correlations. The maximum length of these scales is constrained by the characteristic length of the apparatus. For example, the largest integral length scale of pipe flow is equal to the pipe diameter. In the case of atmospheric turbulence, this length can reach up to the order of several hundreds kilometers.: The integral length scale can be defined as
where r is the distance between two measurement locations, and u′ is the velocity fluctuation in that same direction.
Kolmogorov length scales Smallest scales in the spectrum that form the viscous sub-layer range. In this range, the energy input from nonlinear interactions and the energy drain from viscous dissipation are in exact balance. The small scales have high frequency, causing turbulence to be locally isotropic and homogeneous.
Taylor microscales The intermediate scales between the largest and the smallest scales which make the inertial subrange. Taylor microscales are not dissipative scales, but pass down the energy from the largest to the smallest without dissipation. Some literatures do not consider Taylor microscales as a characteristic length scale and consider the energy cascade to contain only the largest and smallest scales; while the latter accommodate both the inertial subrange and the viscous sublayer. Nevertheless, Taylor microscales are often used in describing the term "turbulence" more conveniently as these Taylor microscales play a dominant role in energy and momentum transfer in the wavenumber space.
Although it is possible to find some particular solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations governing fluid motion, all such solutions are unstable to finite perturbations at large Reynolds numbers. Sensitive dependence on the initial and boundary conditions makes fluid flow irregular both in time and in space so that a statistical description is needed. The Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov proposed the first statistical theory of turbulence, based on the aforementioned notion of the energy cascade (an idea originally introduced by Richardson) and the concept of self-similarity. As a result, the Kolmogorov microscales were named after him. It is now known that the self-similarity is broken so the statistical description is presently modified.
A complete description of turbulence is one of the unsolved problems in physics. According to an apocryphal story, Werner Heisenberg was asked what he would ask God, given the opportunity. His reply was: "When I meet God, I am going to ask him two questions: Why relativity? And why turbulence? I really believe he will have an answer for the first." A similar witticism has been attributed to Horace Lamb in a speech to the British Association for the Advancement of Science: "I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather more optimistic."
Onset of turbulence
The onset of turbulence can be, to some extent, predicted by the Reynolds number, which is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid which is subject to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities, in what is known as a boundary layer in the case of a bounding surface such as the interior of a pipe. A similar effect is created by the introduction of a stream of higher velocity fluid, such as the hot gases from a flame in air. This relative movement generates fluid friction, which is a factor in developing turbulent flow. Counteracting this effect is the viscosity of the fluid, which as it increases, progressively inhibits turbulence, as more kinetic energy is absorbed by a more viscous fluid. The Reynolds number quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions, and is a guide to when turbulent flow will occur in a particular situation.
This ability to predict the onset of turbulent flow is an important design tool for equipment such as piping systems or aircraft wings, but the Reynolds number is also used in scaling of fluid dynamics problems, and is used to determine dynamic similitude between two different cases of fluid flow, such as between a model aircraft, and its full size version. Such scaling is not always linear and the application of Reynolds numbers to both situations allows scaling factors to be developed.
A flow situation in which the kinetic energy is significantly absorbed due to the action of fluid molecular viscosity gives rise to a laminar flow regime. For this the dimensionless quantity the Reynolds number () is used as a guide.
With respect to laminar and turbulent flow regimes:
laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities.
The Reynolds number is defined as
where:
is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
is a characteristic velocity of the fluid with respect to the object (m/s)
is a characteristic linear dimension (m)
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s)).
While there is no theorem directly relating the non-dimensional Reynolds number to turbulence, flows at Reynolds numbers larger than 5000 are typically (but not necessarily) turbulent, while those at low Reynolds numbers usually remain laminar. In Poiseuille flow, for example, turbulence can first be sustained if the Reynolds number is larger than a critical value of about 2040; moreover, the turbulence is generally interspersed with laminar flow until a larger Reynolds number of about 4000.
The transition occurs if the size of the object is gradually increased, or the viscosity of the fluid is decreased, or if the density of the fluid is increased.
Heat and momentum transfer
When flow is turbulent, particles exhibit additional transverse motion which enhances the rate of energy and momentum exchange between them thus increasing the heat transfer and the friction coefficient.
Assume for a two-dimensional turbulent flow that one was able to locate a specific point in the fluid and measure the actual flow velocity of every particle that passed through that point at any given time. Then one would find the actual flow velocity fluctuating about a mean value:
and similarly for temperature () and pressure (), where the primed quantities denote fluctuations superposed to the mean. This decomposition of a flow variable into a mean value and a turbulent fluctuation was originally proposed by Osborne Reynolds in 1895, and is considered to be the beginning of the systematic mathematical analysis of turbulent flow, as a sub-field of fluid dynamics. While the mean values are taken as predictable variables determined by dynamics laws, the turbulent fluctuations are regarded as stochastic variables.
The heat flux and momentum transfer (represented by the shear stress ) in the direction normal to the flow for a given time are
where is the heat capacity at constant pressure, is the density of the fluid, is the coefficient of turbulent viscosity and is the turbulent thermal conductivity.
Kolmogorov's theory of 1941
Richardson's notion of turbulence was that a turbulent flow is composed by "eddies" of different sizes. The sizes define a characteristic length scale for the eddies, which are also characterized by flow velocity scales and time scales (turnover time) dependent on the length scale. The large eddies are unstable and eventually break up originating smaller eddies, and the kinetic energy of the initial large eddy is divided into the smaller eddies that stemmed from it. These smaller eddies undergo the same process, giving rise to even smaller eddies which inherit the energy of their predecessor eddy, and so on. In this way, the energy is passed down from the large scales of the motion to smaller scales until reaching a sufficiently small length scale such that the viscosity of the fluid can effectively dissipate the kinetic energy into internal energy.
In his original theory of 1941, Kolmogorov postulated that for very high Reynolds numbers, the small-scale turbulent motions are statistically isotropic (i.e. no preferential spatial direction could be discerned). In general, the large scales of a flow are not isotropic, since they are determined by the particular geometrical features of the boundaries (the size characterizing the large scales will be denoted as ). Kolmogorov's idea was that in the Richardson's energy cascade this geometrical and directional information is lost, while the scale is reduced, so that the statistics of the small scales has a universal character: they are the same for all turbulent flows when the Reynolds number is sufficiently high.
Thus, Kolmogorov introduced a second hypothesis: for very high Reynolds numbers the statistics of small scales are universally and uniquely determined by the kinematic viscosity and the rate of energy dissipation . With only these two parameters, the unique length that can be formed by dimensional analysis is
This is today known as the Kolmogorov length scale (see Kolmogorov microscales).
A turbulent flow is characterized by a hierarchy of scales through which the energy cascade takes place. Dissipation of kinetic energy takes place at scales of the order of Kolmogorov length , while the input of energy into the cascade comes from the decay of the large scales, of order . These two scales at the extremes of the cascade can differ by several orders of magnitude at high Reynolds numbers. In between there is a range of scales (each one with its own characteristic length ) that has formed at the expense of the energy of the large ones. These scales are very large compared with the Kolmogorov length, but still very small compared with the large scale of the flow (i.e. ). Since eddies in this range are much larger than the dissipative eddies that exist at Kolmogorov scales, kinetic energy is essentially not dissipated in this range, and it is merely transferred to smaller scales until viscous effects become important as the order of the Kolmogorov scale is approached. Within this range inertial effects are still much larger than viscous effects, and it is possible to assume that viscosity does not play a role in their internal dynamics (for this reason this range is called "inertial range").
Hence, a third hypothesis of Kolmogorov was that at very high Reynolds number the statistics of scales in the range are universally and uniquely determined by the scale and the rate of energy dissipation .
The way in which the kinetic energy is distributed over the multiplicity of scales is a fundamental characterization of a turbulent flow. For homogeneous turbulence (i.e., statistically invariant under translations of the reference frame) this is usually done by means of the energy spectrum function , where is the modulus of the wavevector corresponding to some harmonics in a Fourier representation of the flow velocity field :
where is the Fourier transform of the flow velocity field. Thus, represents the contribution to the kinetic energy from all the Fourier modes with , and therefore,
where is the mean turbulent kinetic energy of the flow. The wavenumber corresponding to length scale is . Therefore, by dimensional analysis, the only possible form for the energy spectrum function according with the third Kolmogorov's hypothesis is
where would be a universal constant. This is one of the most famous results of Kolmogorov 1941 theory, and considerable experimental evidence has accumulated that supports it.
Outside of the inertial area, one can find the formula below :
In spite of this success, Kolmogorov theory is at present under revision. This theory implicitly assumes that the turbulence is statistically self-similar at different scales. This essentially means that the statistics are scale-invariant and non-intermittent in the inertial range. A usual way of studying turbulent flow velocity fields is by means of flow velocity increments:
that is, the difference in flow velocity between points separated by a vector (since the turbulence is assumed isotropic, the flow velocity increment depends only on the modulus of ). Flow velocity increments are useful because they emphasize the effects of scales of the order of the separation when statistics are computed. The statistical scale-invariance without intermittency implies that the scaling of flow velocity increments should occur with a unique scaling exponent , so that when is scaled by a factor ,
should have the same statistical distribution as
with independent of the scale . From this fact, and other results of Kolmogorov 1941 theory, it follows that the statistical moments of the flow velocity increments (known as structure functions in turbulence) should scale as
where the brackets denote the statistical average, and the would be universal constants.
There is considerable evidence that turbulent flows deviate from this behavior. The scaling exponents deviate from the value predicted by the theory, becoming a non-linear function of the order of the structure function. The universality of the constants have also been questioned. For low orders the discrepancy with the Kolmogorov value is very small, which explain the success of Kolmogorov theory in regards to low order statistical moments. In particular, it can be shown that when the energy spectrum follows a power law
with , the second order structure function has also a power law, with the form
Since the experimental values obtained for the second order structure function only deviate slightly from the value predicted by Kolmogorov theory, the value for is very near to (differences are about 2%). Thus the "Kolmogorov − spectrum" is generally observed in turbulence. However, for high order structure functions, the difference with the Kolmogorov scaling is significant, and the breakdown of the statistical self-similarity is clear. This behavior, and the lack of universality of the constants, are related with the phenomenon of intermittency in turbulence and can be related to the non-trivial scaling behavior of the dissipation rate averaged over scale . This is an important area of research in this field, and a major goal of the modern theory of turbulence is to understand what is universal in the inertial range, and how to deduce intermittency properties from the Navier-Stokes equations, i.e. from first principles.
See also
Astronomical seeing
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Chaos theory
Clear-air turbulence
Different types of boundary conditions in fluid dynamics
Eddy covariance
Fluid dynamics
Darcy–Weisbach equation
Eddy
Navier–Stokes equations
Large eddy simulation
Hagen–Poiseuille equation
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability
Lagrangian coherent structure
Turbulence kinetic energy
Mesocyclones
Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness
Reynolds number
Swing bowling
Taylor microscale
Turbulence modeling
Velocimetry
Vertical draft
Vortex
Vortex generator
Wake turbulence
Wave turbulence
Wingtip vortices
Wind tunnel
References and notes
Further reading
General
Original scientific research papers and classic monographs
Translated into English:
Translated into English:
External links
Center for Turbulence Research, Scientific papers and books on turbulence
Center for Turbulence Research, Stanford University
Scientific American article
Air Turbulence Forecast
international CFD database iCFDdatabase
Fluid Mechanics website with movies, Q&A, etc
Johns Hopkins public database with direct numerical simulation data
TurBase public database with experimental data from European High Performance Infrastructures in Turbulence (EuHIT)
Concepts in physics
Aerodynamics
Chaos theory
Transport phenomena
Fluid dynamics
Flow regimes | wiki |
General George may refer to:
Harold Huston George (1892–1942), U.S. Air Force brigadier general
Harold L. George (1893–1986), U.S. Air Force lieutenant general
Randy George (fl. 1980s–2020s), U.S. Army lieutenant general
See also
John St George (1812–1891), British Army general
Johann Georg, Chevalier de Saxe (1704–1774), Saxon Army general | wiki |
Monarchical systems of government have existed in Ireland from ancient times. In the south this continued until the early twentieth century, when it transitioned to the Republic of Ireland. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, remains under a monarchical system of government.
The office of High King of Ireland effectively ended with the Norman invasion of Ireland (1169–1171) who declared the Island a fief of the Holy See under the Lordship of the King of England. In practice, conquered territory was divided amongst various Anglo-Norman noble families who assumed title over both the land and the people with the prior Irish inhabitants being either displaced or subjugated under the previously alien system of serfdom. Though the revolutionary change in the status quo was undeniable, the Anglo-Norman invaders would fail to conquer many of the Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland, which continued to exist, often expanding for centuries after, however none could make any viable claims of High Kingship. This lasted until the Parliament of Ireland conferred the crown of Ireland upon King Henry VIII of England during the English Reformation. Henry initiated the Tudor conquest of Ireland which ended Gaelic political independence from the English monarch who now held the crowns of England and Ireland in a personal union.
The Union of the Crowns in 1603 expanded the personal union to include Scotland. The personal union between England and Scotland became a political union with the enactments of the Acts of Union 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. The crowns of Great Britain and Ireland remained in personal union until it was also ended by the Acts of Union 1800, which united Ireland and Great Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in January 1801.
In December 1922, most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, becoming the Irish Free State; most of Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. As a dominion within the British Empire, the Free State legally retained the same person as monarch as the United Kingdom-which in 1927 changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In 1937, the Free State adopted a new constitution that removed all mentions of the monarchy. In April 1949, Ireland declared itself a republic, and withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations; leaving the only part of the island that retained a monarchical system as Northern Ireland.
Gaelic kingdoms
Gaelic Ireland consisted of as few as five and as many as nine Primary kingdoms (Cúicide/Cóicide 'fifths') which were often subdivided into many minor smaller kingdoms (Tuatha, 'folkdoms'). The primary kingdoms were Ailech, Airgíalla, Connacht, Leinster, Mide, Osraige, Munster, Thomond and Ulster. Until the end of Gaelic Ireland they continued to fluctuate, expand and contract in size, as well as dissolving entirely or being amalgamated into new entities. The role of High King of Ireland was primarily titular and rarely (if ever) absolute. Gaelic Ireland was not ruled as a unitary state.
The names of Connacht, Ulster, Leinster and Munster are still in use, now applied to the four modern provinces of Ireland. The following is a list of the main Irish kingdoms and their kings:
Kings of Ailech (5th century to 1185)
Kings of Airgíalla (?-1590)
Kings of Connacht (406–1474)
Kings of Leinster (634 to 1603 or 1632 (de facto))
Kings of Mide (8th–12th centuries)
Kings of Osraige (to 12th century)
Kings of Munster (4th century to 1138 or 1194 (claimant))
Kings of Thomond (1118–1543)
Kings of Ulster (5th–12th centuries)
Ard Rí co febressa: High Kings with opposition
Máire Herbert has noted that "Annal evidence from the late eighth century in Ireland suggests that the larger provincial kingships were already accruing power at the expense of smaller political units. Leading kings appear in public roles at church-state proclamations ... and at royal conferences with their peers." (2000, p. 62). Responding to the assumption of the title ri hErenn uile ("king of all Ireland") by Mael Sechlainn I in 862, she furthermore states that
Nevertheless, the achievements of Máel Sechlainn I and his successors were purely personal, and open to destruction upon their deaths. Between 846 and 1022, and again from 1042 to 1166, kings from the leading Irish kingdoms made greater attempts to compel the rest of the island's populace to their rule, with varying degrees of success, until the inauguration of Ruaidri Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor) in 1166,
High Kings of Ireland, 846–1198
Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid, 846–860
Áed Findliath, 861–876
Flann Sinna, 877–914
Niall Glúndub, 915–917
Donnchad Donn, 918–942
Congalach Cnogba, 943–954
Domnall ua Néill, 955–978
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, 979–1002 and 1014–1022
Brian Boru, 1002–1014
Donnchad mac Briain, died 1064
Diarmait mac Máel na mBó, died 1072
Toirdelbach Ua Briain, died 1086
Muirchertach Ua Briain, died 1119
Domnall Ua Lochlainn, died 1121
Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair, c.1119-1156
Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, c.1156-1166
Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, 1166-1198
Ruaidrí, King of Ireland
Upon the death of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn in early 1166, Ruaidrí, King of Connacht, proceeded to Dublin where he was inaugurated King of Ireland without opposition. He was arguably the first undisputed full king of Ireland. He was also the last Gaelic one, as the events of the Norman invasion of 1169–1171 brought about the destruction of the high-kingship, and the direct involvement of the Kings of England in Irish politics.
One of Ruaidrí's first acts as king was the subduing of Leinster, which resulted in the exile of its king, Diarmait Mac Murchada. Ruaidrí then obtained terms and hostages from all the notable kings and lords. He then celebrated the Oenach Tailteann, a recognised prerogative of the High Kings, and made a number of notable charitable gifts and donations. However, his caput remained in his home territory in central Connacht (County Galway). Ireland's recognised capital, Dublin, was ruled by Ascall mac Ragnaill, who had submitted to Ruaidri.
Only with the arrival of MacMurrough's Anglo-Norman benefactors in May 1169 did Ruaidrí's position begin to weaken. A series of disastrous defeats and ill-judged treaties lost him much of Leinster, and encouraged uprisings by rebel lords. By the time of the arrival of Henry II in 1171, Ruaidrí's position as king of Ireland was increasingly untenable.
Ruaidrí at first remained aloof from engagement with King Henry, though many of the lesser kings and lords welcomed his arrival as they wished to see him curb the territorial gains made by his vassals. Through the intercession of Lorcán Ua Tuathail (Laurence O'Toole), the Archbishop of Dublin, Ruaidrí and Henry came to terms with the Treaty of Windsor in 1175. Ruaidrí agreed to recognise Henry as his lord; in return, Ruaidrí was allowed to keep all Ireland as his personal kingdom outside the petty kingdoms of Laigin (Leinster) and Mide as well as the city of Waterford.
Henry was unwilling or unable to enforce the terms of the treaty on his barons in Ireland, who continued to gain territory in Ireland. A low point came in 1177 with a successful raid into the heart of Connacht by a party of Anglo-Normans, led by one of Ruaidrí's sons, Prince Muirchertach. They were expelled, Ruaidhrí ordering the blinding of Muirchertach, but over the next six years his rule was increasingly diminished by internal dynastic conflict and external attacks. Finally, in 1183, he abdicated.
He was twice briefly returned to power in 1185 and 1189, but even within his home kingdom of Connacht he had become politically marginalized. He lived quietly on his estates, died at the monastery of Cong in 1198 and was buried at Clonmacnoise. With the possible exception of the short reign of Brian Ua Néill (Brian O'Neill) in 1258–1260, no other Gaelic king was ever again recognised as king or high king of Ireland.
Lordship of Ireland: 1198–1542
By the time of Ruaidrí's death in 1198, King Henry II of England had invaded Ireland and given the part of it he controlled to his son John as a Lordship when John was just ten years old in 1177. When John succeeded to the English throne in 1199, he remained Lord of Ireland thereby bringing the kingdom of England and the lordship of Ireland into personal union. By the mid-13th century, while the island was nominally ruled by the king of England, from c.1260 the effective area of control began to recede. As various Cambro-Norman noble families died out in the male line, the Gaelic nobility began to reclaim lost territory. Successive English kings did little to stem the tide, instead using Ireland to draw upon men and supplies in the wars in Scotland and France.
By the 1390s the Lordship had effectively shrunk to the Pale (a fortified area around the city of Dublin) with the rest of the island under the control of independent Gaelic-Irish or rebel Cambro-Norman noble families. King Richard II of England made two journeys to Ireland during his reign to rectify the situation; as a direct result of his second visit in 1399 he lost his throne to Henry Bolingbroke. This was the last time that a medieval king of England visited Ireland.
For the duration of the 15th century, royal power in Ireland was weak, the country being dominated by the various clans and dynasties of Gaelic (O'Neill, O'Brien, MacCarthy) or Cambro-Norman (Burke, FitzGerald, Butler) origin.
Lords of Ireland, 1177–1542
John (1177–1216)
First man to be made Lord of Ireland and established the precedent that that Lord would also be King of England.
Henry III (1216–1272)
Henry III granted Ireland to his son, Edward I, in 1254 on condition that it would never be separated from the Crown.
Brian Ua Néill claimed the title of High King of Ireland from 1258 to 1260, until his defeat and death in the Battle of Druim Dearg (also known as the Battle of Down).
Edward I (1272–1307)
Edward II (1307–1327)
Edward Bruce, Earl of Carrick and brother of Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, declared himself High King of Ireland during a failed rebellion of 1315–1318, which formed part of the larger war between England and Scotland.
Edward III (1327–1377)
Richard II (1377–1399)
Robert de Vere was created Duke of Ireland in 1386, but forfeited his titles in 1388.
Henry IV (1399–1413)
Henry V (1413–1422)
Henry VI (1422–1461)
Edward IV (1461–1470)
Henry VI (1470–1471)
Edward IV (1471–1483)
Edward V (1483)
Richard III (1483–1485)
Henry VII (1485–1509)
Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, and was crowned "King Edward VI" in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin on 24 May 1487. His claim ended with the Battle of Stoke Field, 16 June 1487.
Perkin Warbeck claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York ("Richard IV") and gained some Irish support before a failed invasion of England in 1495.
Henry VIII (1509–1542)
The title of Lord of Ireland was abolished by Henry VIII, who was made King of Ireland by the Parliament of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542.
Kingdom of Ireland, 1542–1800
Re-creation of title
The title "King of Ireland" was created by an act of the Irish Parliament in 1541, replacing the Lordship of Ireland, which had existed since 1171, with the Kingdom of Ireland.
The 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, Henry VIII's illegitimate son and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, had been considered for elevation as the newly created King of Ireland. However, Henry VIII's counsellors feared that creating a separate Kingdom of Ireland, with a ruler other than that of England, would create another threat like the King of Scotland, and Richmond died in 1536.
The Crown of Ireland Act 1542 established a personal union between the English and Irish crowns, providing that whoever was King of England was to be King of Ireland as well, and so its first holder was King Henry VIII of England. Henry's sixth and last wife, Katherine Parr, was the first Queen consort of Ireland following her marriage to King Henry in 1543.
The title of King of Ireland was created after Henry VIII had been excommunicated in 1538, so it was not recognised by European Catholic monarchs. Following the accession of the Catholic Mary I in 1553 and her marriage to Philip II of Spain, in 1554, Pope Paul IV issued the papal bull "Ilius" in 1555, recognising them as Queen and King of Ireland together with her heirs and successors.
For a brief period in the 17th century, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms from the impeachment and execution of Charles I in 1649 to the Irish Restoration in May 1660, there was no 'King of Ireland'. After the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Irish Catholics, organised in Confederate Ireland, still recognised Charles I, and later Charles II, as legitimate monarchs, in opposition to the claims of the English Parliament, and signed a formal treaty with Charles I in 1648. However, in 1649, the Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, executed Charles I, and made England a republic, or "Commonwealth". The Parliamentarian general Oliver Cromwell came across the Irish Sea to crush the Irish royalists, temporarily uniting England, Scotland, and Ireland under one government, and styling himself "Lord Protector" of the three kingdoms (see also Cromwellian conquest of Ireland). After Cromwell's death in 1658, his son Richard emerged as the leader of this pan-British Isles republic, but he was not competent to maintain it. The Parliament of England at Westminster voted to restore the monarchy, and in 1660 King Charles II returned from exile in France to become King of England, King of Scotland and King of Ireland.
Union with Great Britain, 1707–1922
The Acts of Union 1707 merged the kingdoms of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain, under the sovereignty of the British Crown. The effect was to create a personal union between the Crown of Ireland and the British Crown, instead of the English Crown. Later, from 1 January 1801, an additional merger took place between the two Kingdoms. By the terms of the Acts of Union 1800, the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the separation of most of Ireland from that kingdom in 1922, the remaining constituent parts were renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927, five years after the establishment of the Irish Free State.
During the early 18th century, a significant number of Irishmen who had fled Ireland in the aftermath of the Treaty of Limerick continued to remain loyal to the Jacobite Stuart pretenders as Kings of Ireland (particularly the Wild Geese military diaspora in France's Irish Brigade), contrary to the House of Hanover. However, Ireland was host to a large military establishment and thus, unlike Scotland, was not the ground for legitimist-royalist risings in the 18th century, turning instead, mostly to republicanism as dissention with the ascent of the United Irishmen. However, despite their general anti-clericalism and republicanism, the French Directory did suggest to the United Irishmen in 1798 restoring the Jacobite Pretender, Henry Benedict Stuart, as Henry IX, King of the Irish. This was on account of General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert landing a force in County Mayo for the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and realising the local population were devoutly Catholic (a significant number of Irish priests supported the Rising and had met with Humbert, although Humbert's Army had been veterans of the anti-clerical campaign in Italy). The French Directory hoped this option would allow the creation of a stable French client state in Ireland, however, Wolfe Tone, the Protestant republican leader, scoffed at the suggestion and it was quashed.
Partition: Irish Free State and Northern Ireland, 1922–1936
In early December 1922, most of Ireland (twenty-six of the country's thirty-two counties) left the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. These 'Twenty-Six Counties' now became the Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion within the British Empire. Six of Ireland's north-eastern counties, all within the nine-county Province of Ulster, remained within the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. As a Dominion, the Free State was a constitutional monarchy with the British monarch as its head of state. The monarch was officially represented in the new Free State by the Governor-General of the Irish Free State.
The King's title in the Irish Free State was exactly the same as it was elsewhere in the British Empire, being from 1922 to 1927: "By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India" and, from 1927 to 1937: "By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India". The change in the King's title was effected under an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom called the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act, 1927, intended to update the name of the United Kingdom as well as the King's title to reflect the fact that most of the island of Ireland had left the United Kingdom. The Act therefore provided that "Parliament shall hereafter be known as and styled the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland [instead of the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]" and "In every Act passed and public document issued after the passing of this Act the expression 'United Kingdom' shall, unless the context otherwise requires, mean Great Britain and Northern Ireland."
According to The Times, the "Imperial Conference proposed that, as a result of the establishment of the Irish Free State, the title of the king should be changed to 'George V, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland, and the British Dominions beyond the seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.'" The change did not mean that the king had now assumed different styles in the different parts of his Empire. That development did not formally occur until 1953, four years after the new Republic of Ireland had left the Commonwealth.
Despite a lack of change in his title, George V's position as king of that country became separated from his place as King of the United Kingdom (as occurred with all the other British Dominions at the time). The Government of the Irish Free State (also known as His Majesty's Government in the Irish Free State) was confident that the relationship of these independent countries under the Crown would function as a personal union.
Abdication crisis, President of Ireland and Republic of Ireland Act, 1936–1949
The constitutional crisis resulting from the abdication of King Edward VIII in December 1936 was used by Éamon de Valera's government as a catalyst to amend the Constitution of the Irish Free State by eliminating all but one of the King's official duties. This was achieved with the enactment on 11 December of the Constitution (Amendment No. 27) Act, which removed the monarch from the constitution and, on 12 December, the External Relations Act, which provided that the monarch recognised by Britain and the rest of the Commonwealth could represent the Irish Free State "for the purposes of the appointment of diplomatic and consular representatives and the conclusion of international agreements" when authorised to do so by the Irish government. The following year, a new constitution was ratified, changing the name of the Free State to Éire, or "Ireland" in the English language, and establishing the office of President of Ireland. The King's role in Ireland was ambiguous. Whether the Irish head of state from 1936 to 1949 was George VI, or the President, was left unclear. This ambiguity was eliminated with the enactment of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force in April 1949 and declared the state to be a republic. The External Relations Act was repealed, removing the remaining duties of the monarch, and Ireland formally withdrew from the British Commonwealth. The position of the king in the Irish state was finally and formally ended by the Oireachtas with the repeal of the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 by the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act 1962.
According to Desmond Oulton (owner of Clontarf Castle), his father John George Oulton had suggested to Éamon de Valera towards the end of the Irish Free State, that Ireland should have its own king again, as it was in the times of Gaelic Ireland. He suggested to him, a member of the O'Brien Clan, descended in the paternal line from Brian Boru, a previous High King of Ireland: the most senior representative at the time was Donough O'Brien, 16th Baron Inchiquin. Oulton said that Donough's nephew Conor O'Brien, 18th Baron Inchiquin, confirmed that De Valera did offer Donough O'Brien the title of Prince-President of the Irish Republic, but this was turned down and so a President of Ireland was instituted instead.
The British monarchy, specifically, continued and continues in Northern Ireland, which remains a part of the sovereign state that is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. From 1921 until 1973, the British monarch was officially represented in Northern Ireland by the Governor of Northern Ireland.
List of monarchs of Ireland
Monarchs of Ireland
British monarchs:
Henry VIII (1542–1547); Lord of Ireland, 1509–1542; made king by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542
Edward VI (1547–1553)
Lady Jane Grey (1553; disputed)
Mary I (1553–1558)
Philip (of Spain) (1554–1558) jure uxoris; the Spanish king (Mary's husband)'s title as King of Ireland was reinforced by the Treason Act 1554
Elizabeth I (1558–1603)
James I (1603–1625)
Charles I (1625–1649)
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (incorporating the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Confederate Ireland, the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and the Irish Confederate Wars) took place between 1639 and 1653. Charles I was executed in 1649 and his son Charles II was recognised by some Irish lords as King of Ireland. The Interregnum began with England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales ruled by the Council of State, then the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (1649–1658) and his son Richard Cromwell (1658–1659). The Restoration in Ireland was effected in 1660 without major opposition, Charles II being declared king on 14 May 1660 by the Irish Convention.
Charles II (1660–1685)
James II (1685–1689)
William III (1689–1702) and Mary II (1689–1694)
The position of King of Ireland was contested by William III and James II between 1689 and 1691, after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689 made William King of Ireland, and this was reinforced by his victory at the Battle of the Boyne (part of the Williamite War in Ireland).
Anne (1702–1714)
The Acts of Union 1707 united the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. However, the Kingdom of Ireland remained a separate state.
George I (1714–1727)
George II (1727–1760)
George III (1760–1800)
The Acts of Union 1800, instituted in reaction to the Irish Rebellion of 1798, created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
George III (1801–1820)
George IV (1820–1830)
William IV (1830–1837)
Victoria (1837–1901)
Edward VII (1901–1910)
George V (1910–1922)
Monarchs of the Irish Free State and Ireland
George V (1922–1936) (The Irish Free State became a self-governing Dominion of the British Empire and subsequently, in 1931, a legislatively independent country.)
Edward VIII (1936)
Arguably George VI (1936–1949), whose status was diminished (see Head of state of Ireland (1936 to 1949)).
Following the Ireland Act 1949, only the part of Ireland known as Northern Ireland remained part of a monarchy.
King's title, George V – George VI
The king's title in the Irish Free State, when it became a self-governing Dominion of the British Empire, and its constitutional successor from December 1936 to April 1949, was the same as elsewhere in the British Commonwealth, but it was unclear whether the President of Ireland was Head of state of Ireland (1936 to 1949) or the king, George VI.
The changes in the royal style in the 20th century took into account the emergence of independence for the dominions from the Imperial Parliament of the United Kingdom. The kings successively and their advisers and governments in the United Kingdom were fully aware that the republican intent of the representatives of the Irish Free State was in marked contrast to the intent of the governments of certain other dominions, such as Canada. and such differences were manifested in this period in the design and use of flags and other national symbols for the Irish Free State and other dominions.
Proposed Irish monarchy
In 1906, Patrick Pearse, writing in the newspaper An Claidheamh Soluis, envisioned the Ireland of 2006 as an independent Irish-speaking kingdom with an "Ard Rí" or "High King" as head of state.
During the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916, some Republican leaders, including Pearse and Joseph Plunkett, contemplated giving the throne of an independent Ireland to Prince Joachim of Prussia. While they were not in favour of a monarchy in itself, Pearse and Plunkett thought that if the uprising were successful and Germany won the First World War, they would insist on an independent Ireland being a monarchy with a German prince as king, in the same way as Romania and Bulgaria. The fact that Joachim did not speak English was also considered an advantage, as he might be more disposed to learning and promoting the use of the Irish language. In his memoirs, Desmond FitzGerald wrote:
Ernest Blythe recalls that in January 1915 he heard Plunkett and Thomas MacDonagh express support for the idea at an Irish Volunteers meeting. No objections were made by anyone and Bulmer Hobson was among the attendees. Blythe himself said he found the idea "immensely attractive".
Sinn Féin was established in 1905 by Arthur Griffith as a monarchist party inspired by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise which sought to create an Anglo-Irish dual monarchy. During the party's 1917 Ard Fheis, disputes between monarchists and republicans resulted in an agreement that the question of a republic versus a monarchy would be settled by public referendum after independence was achieved provided that no member of the House of Windsor could become king. As a result, the Irish Republic had no head of state during the Irish War of Independence until the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations when Éamon de Valera raised his status to President of the Irish Republic in order to grant himself equal status to George V.
In the 1930s, an organisation known as the Irish Monarchist Society, whose members included Francis Stuart and Osmonde Esmonde, plotted to overthrow the Irish Free State and establish an independent Irish Catholic monarchy under a member of the O'Neill dynasty.
According to Hugo O'Donnell, 7th Duke of Tetuan, de Valera raised the idea of an Irish monarchy with his great-grandfather Juan O'Donnell.
Raymond Moulton O'Brien, the self-styled "Prince of Thomond", and the United Christian Nationalist Party, of which O'Brien was the leader, wanted to reestablish the monarchy with O'Brien as king.
References
Citations
Sources
Synchronismen der irischen Konige, Rudolf Thurneysen, ZCP 19, 1933, pp. 81–99.
The Uí Brian Kingship in Telach Oc, James Hogan, in Feil-Sgrighinn Eoin Mhic Neill, pp. 406–444, ed. John Ryan, Dublin, 1938.
Early Irish History and Mythology, T.F. O'Rahilly, 1946.
The heir-designate in early medieval Ireland, Gearóid Mac Niocaill, Irish Jurist 3 (1968), pp. 326–29.
The rise of the Uí Néill and the high-kingship of Ireland, Francis John Byrne, O'Donnell Lecture, 1969; published Dublin, 1970
Irish regnal succession – a reappraisal, Donnchadh O Corrain, Studia Hibernica 11, 1971, pp. 7–39.
Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland, Kenneth Nicholls, 1972
Rí Éirenn, Rí Alban, kingship and identity in the night and tenth centuries, Maire Herbert, in Kings clerics and chronicles in Scotland, pp. 62–72, ed. S. Taylor, Dublin, 2000
Irish Kings and High Kings, Francis John Byrne, 1973; 3rd reprint, Dublin, 2001
Dal Cais, church and dynasty, Donnachadh O Corrain, Eiru 24, 1973, pp. 1–69
Nationality and kingship in pre-Norman Ireland, Donnchadh O Corrain, in Nationality and the pursuit of national independence, pp. 1–35, Historical Studies 11, ed. T.W. Moody, Belfast, 1978
The Irish royal sites in history and archaeology, B. Wailes, CMCS 3, 1982, pp. 1–29.
A New History of Ireland vol. ix:maps, genealogies, lists:a companion to Irish history part II., edited T.W. Moody, F.X. Martin, F.J. Byrne, Oxford, 1984.
The archaeology of early Irish kingship, Richard B. Warner, in Power and Politics in Early Medieval Britain and Ireland, pp. 47–68, ed. S.T. Driscoll and M.R. Nieke, Edinburgh, 1988
From Kings to Warlords:The Changing Political Structure of Gaelic Ireland in the Later Middle Ages, Katharine Simms, Dublin, 1987.
The King as Judge in early Ireland, Marilyn Gerriets, CMCS 13 (1987), pp. 39–72.
High Kingship and Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, A.T. Fear, in EtC 30 (1994), pp. 165–68.
Kingship, society and sacrality:rank, power and ideology in early medieval Ireland, N.B. Aitchison, in Traditio 49 (1994), pp. 45–47.
Kings and kingship in Early Medieval Ireland, pp. 63–84, Daibhi O Croinin, 1995.
The Kingship of Tara in Early Christian Ireland, Thomas Charles-Edwards, 1995
Kings over overkings. Propaganda for pre-eminence in early medieval Ireland, Bart Jaski, in The Propagation of Power in the Medieval West, ed. M. Gosman, A. Vanderjagt, J. Veenstra, pp. 163–76, Groningen, 1996.
An inaugural ode to Hugh O'Connor (King of Connacht 1293–1309), Seam Mac Mathuna, ZCP 49–50, 1997, pp. 26–62.
The inauguration of Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair at Ath an Termoinn, Elizabeth FitzPatrick, Peritia 12 (1998), pp. 351–358.
Kings, the kingship of Leinster and the regnal poems of "laidshenchas Laigen:a reflection of dynastic politics in leinster, 650–1150, Edel Bhreathnach, in Seanchas:Studies in Early and Medieval Irish Archaeology, History and Literature in Honour of Francis John Byrne, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2000.
The Conntinuation of Bede, s.a. 750; high-kings, kings of Tara and Bretwaldas, T.M. Charles-Edwards, pp. 137–145, op.cit.
Early Irish Kingship and Succession, Bart Jaski, Dublin, 2000.
Leinster states and kings in Christian times pp. 33–52, The Ua Maelechlainn kings of Meath, pp. 90–107, Christian kings of Connacht, pp. 177–194, Paul Walsh, in Irish Leaders and Learning Through the Ages, ed. Nollaig O Muraile, 2003.
Finghin MacCarthaigh, king of Desmond, and the mystery of the second nunnery at Clonmacnoise, Conleth Manning, in Regions and Rulers in Ireland 1100–1650, ed. David Edwards, pp. 20–26, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2004.
Kingship in Early Ireland, Charles Doherty, in The Kingship and Landscape of Tara, pp. 3–31, ed. Edel Bhreathnach, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2005
Kings named in "Baile Chuinn Chechathaig" and the Airgialla Charter Poem, Ailbhe Mac Shamhrain and Paul Byrne, in op.cit., pp. 159–224.
High-Kings with Opposition, Maire-Therese Flannagan, in A New History of Ireland, Volume One:Pre-Historic and Early Ireland, 2008.
History of Northern Ireland
Ireland and the Commonwealth of Nations
Ancient Ireland | wiki |
Afrikaans is a daughter language of Dutch mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia; it is a separate standard language rather than a national variety, unlike Netherlands Dutch, Belgian Dutch and Surinamese Dutch. An estimated 90 to 95% of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin, so there are few lexical differences between the two languages, however Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling.
Mutual intelligibility
There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Research suggests that mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. Mutual intelligibility tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.
Intelligibility of Afrikaans to Dutch speakers
Cognate words
Although Afrikaans borrows some lexical and syntactical structures from other languages, including Malay, Portuguese, Khoisan languages, Bantu languages, and to a lesser extent Low German, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way around.
In Afrikaans, het is the inflection of the verb hê ("to have" from Dutch hebben) although sy (cognate with zijn) is used as the subjunctive of "to be", while we in Dutch is cognate with "we" in English, a language widely understood by Afrikaans speakers. Conversely, wees, meaning "to be" in Afrikaans, is used as the imperative in Dutch, although it is used as the imperative in religious contexts in Afrikaans (e.g. wees genadig, meaning "be merciful" or "have mercy").
Verb forms
The simplification of verbs in Afrikaans, with almost all verbs being regular and the near absence of the simple past tense, means that while the phrase ek het gehelp ("I have helped" or "I helped") would be recognisable by Dutch speakers, the Dutch phrases ik heb geholpen and ik hielp would not be as readily understood by speakers of Afrikaans.
Similarly, the resemblance of Afrikaans verbs like lees ("to read", Dutch lezen) to the first person singular and verbs like gaan ("to go") to infinitive forms in Dutch means that julle lees ("you [plural] read") or ek gaan ("I go") would be understood by Dutch speakers more readily than jullie lezen or ik ga would be by Afrikaans speakers.
Unmarked and marked forms of words
As Afrikaans no longer has unmarked and marked forms of words, instead using words derived from the marked forms in Dutch, the Afrikaans words for "there" and "now", daar and nou, are more intelligible to speakers of Dutch than the unmarked Dutch forms er and nu are to Afrikaans speakers.
For example, nou is daar, meaning "now there is" in Afrikaans, is sometimes encountered in Dutch although nou is used more colloquially for emphasis, in the sense of the English "well". In Dutch, "now there is" would be translated as nu is er, using the unmarked forms, which do not exist in Afrikaans.
Intelligibility of Dutch to Afrikaans speakers
Loanwords vs purisms
Afrikaans uses purisms or calques where Dutch would use loans from French, Latin or English. Owing to the exposure of Afrikaans speakers to English, Dutch words like computer, lift and appartement are more readily understood by them than Afrikaans equivalents like rekenaar, hysbak and woonstel are by Dutch speakers.
Similarly, Dutch words such as favoriet ("favourite"), film, and station are intelligible to Afrikaans speakers on account of their resemblance to their English equivalents, whereas the Afrikaans gunsteling, rolprent, and stasie (cognate with Dutch statie), while intelligible to Dutch speakers, would be considered old-fashioned.
Words of Dutch and non-Dutch origin
In addition, while Afrikaans may use words of non-Dutch origin unintelligible to Dutch speakers (such as those derived from Malay, like baie), their Dutch equivalents, or cognates, are also used in Afrikaans, and would therefore be more intelligible to Dutch speakers.
For example, although Afrikaans baie ("very", "many" or "much"), from banyak has no cognate in Dutch, heel as in heel goed ("very good") is used in Afrikaans as well as Dutch. The Afrikaans word amper ("almost" or "nearly) is unrelated to the Dutch word amper ("scarcely" or "sour"), being derived from the Malay hampir, but the Dutch word bijna, also meaning "almost" or "nearly", is cognate with byna in Afrikaans.
Orthographic differences
Orthographic differences between Dutch and Afrikaans are mainly due to phonetic evolutions and spelling simplifications in Afrikaans, and the more conservative character of and recent changes to modern Dutch orthography.
However, some aspects of Afrikaans orthography also resemble those of older forms of Dutch, for example, whereas "God be with you" in modern Dutch would be God zij met u, the Afrikaans spelling God sy met u, was also used in 18th century Dutch. The current Dutch spelling, using and the digraph , became prevalent from the 19th century.
Other simplifications in Afrikaans had earlier been proposed for Dutch by R.A Kollewijn, but were either not adopted until 1934, such as changing to (hence Nederlandsch to Nederlands), or rejected, such as changing to (hence logisch to logies) and to (hence moeilijk to moeilik).
Afrikaans simplifications
Replacement of and
Afrikaans uses for the Dutch hard , both pronounced [ k ]; compare Dutch ("culture") with Afrikaans . Before the 1990s major spelling reform, the latter spelling was also accepted in Dutch, although other Dutch words such as commissie ("commission") were already spelt with , which in Afrikaans would be kommissie.
Words in Dutch with the letter combination , when pronounced as [ kk ] are transliterated in Afrikaans using , for example, acclimatiseren and accommodatie in Dutch become Afrikaans akklimatiseer and akkommodasie ("akkommodasie" is used for all meanings of "accommodation" except "a place to stay"; for that meaning, the most accepted word is "verblyf", cognate with Dutch ""). Those in which is pronounced as , such as Dutch accent and accepteren, become aksent and aksepteer in Afrikaans ("aksepteer" is very rare, and typically rejected; the accepted translation of "accept" is "aanvaar", cognate with Dutch "").
Similarly, Afrikaans uses for the Dutch soft , both pronounced [ s ]; compare Dutch ("central") and ("ceremony") with Afrikaans and . Afrikaans also uses instead of in words like spesiaal ("special") and spesifiek ("specific") which in Dutch would be speciaal and specifiek.
Most Afrikaans words using begin with the digraph , pronounced [ x ], such as Christelik ("Christian") or chemie ("chemistry") with some exceptions like confetti, although Afrikaans dictionaries may also list more phonetic alternative spellings using or , such as for ("chronic", similar to Dutch chronisch) and sjirurg for chirurg ("surgeon").
However, although the Dutch words China and Chinees (inflected as Chinese) are transliterated in Afrikaans using as Sjina, Sjinees, and Sjinese respectively, the Dutch spellings are also used, particularly in the media. In some Afrikaans dictionaries, China is standard, while Sjinees is listed as an alternative spelling to Chinees.
Transliteration of loanwords
French loanwords in Dutch beginning in (pronounced [ ʃ ]), are transliterated in Afrikaans using ; compare Dutch champagne and chic with Afrikaans sjampanje and sjiek. Afrikaans also changes , encountered in French loanwords in Dutch like campagne and compagnie to , hence kampanje and kompanjie, and "sjampanje", in which both these changes are seen.
When (pronounced [ ʃ ]) appears within a Dutch word, in its Afrikaans equivalent, it is replaced by ; compare with . This also applies to word endings; compare Dutch Jiddisch ("Yiddish") with Afrikaans Jiddisj, although the latter is also encountered in Dutch. In Dutch, hasjiesj ("hashish") is always written with similar to in Afrikaans.
The Dutch word cheque, in which is pronounced as [ tʃ ], is written in Afrikaans as tjek, while the Italian-derived word cello is written as tjello. Both languages also use (also pronounced as [ tʃ ]) in some geographical names, despite other differences in spelling; compare Dutch Tsjaad ("Chad") with Afrikaans Tsjad.
Use of instead of soft
Another difference between the two languages concerns verbs derived from Latin or French, with Dutch using a soft () and Afrikaans using , hence communiceren and provoceren ("to communicate" and "to provoke") in Dutch become kommunikeer and provokeer in Afrikaans, although kommuniseren was also used in 18th century Dutch.
The word kommuniseer was also previously used in Afrikaans to mean or "to make communist". However, is accepted as a synonym for . Similarly, the verb kompliseer, similar to Dutch compliceren, is used to mean "to complicate", both using the sound.
By contrast, related nouns in both languages contain the sound, hence communicatie and provocatie in Dutch and kommunikasie and provokasie in Afrikaans.
Changes to digraph
The Dutch digraph was converted to in Afrikaans, although pronunciation remained . An example is (price), which is spelt prys in Afrikaans. Dutch words ending in , however, end in in Afrikaans, not , for example (ugly) in Dutch becomes in Afrikaans. In both languages, this suffix is pronounced , with a schwa.
In Dutch, in which is treated as a separate letter of the alphabet, IJ often features in place names in the Netherlands like IJsselmeer, or in the Dutch name for Iceland, IJsland. Afrikaans similarly uses Ysland, which was also used in 18th century Dutch.
However, few place names in South Africa of Dutch origin begin with Y, with the exception of Yzerfontein in the Western Cape. The spelling of name of the town, which means iron fountain, is based on the old Dutch word for iron, yzer. It was also previously written as Ijsterfontein. The modern Afrikaans word for iron is yster, while in Dutch it is ijzer.
In modern Dutch, is now typically used in words of Greek origin like cyclus ("cycle") replaced by in its Afrikaans equivalent siklus, although both are pronounced as . However, unlike the in Dutch syndroom ("syndrome"), the in Afrikaans sindroom is pronounced as , as is the rule for the short i in Afrikaans in general.
Mergers of digraphs or trigraphs
Afrikaans merged Dutch trigraphs , and to a single spelling . Apart from , generally pronounced as in the Netherlands, there is no difference in pronunciation; compare Dutch ("province") and ("police") with Afrikaans and . However, words ending in in Dutch are often pronounced as particularly in Flanders.
Afrikaans merged Dutch digraphs and trigraphs , , , and (pronounced identically as by many Dutch speakers) to a single spelling , (contrastingly pronounced ); ("woman") and ("dew") in Dutch become and in Afrikaans respectively. Similarly, some Dutch words beginning with , such as autonomie are written with , hence
outonomie.
The Dutch cluster became in Afrikaans. Compare ("national") with . In Dutch, the pronunciation differs from region to region and include , , and .
Conversely, the Afrikaans cluster in words such as spesiaal ("special") and pensioen ("pension") is pronounced as with an extra syllable , but in Dutch, both the in speciaal and in pensioen are pronounced as , although the pronunciation is encountered in the Southern Netherlands.
Dropping of final letters
At the end of words, Afrikaans often dropped the in the Dutch cluster (pronounced as a schwa, ), mainly present in plural nouns and verb forms, to become Compare Dutch (life) and (people) to Afrikaans and . Also in Dutch, final -n is often deleted after a schwa, but the occurrence and frequency of this phenomenon varies between speakers, and it is not recognised in spelling.
Phonetically induced spelling differences
Simplification of consonant clusters
Afrikaans has frequently simplified consonant clusters in final position that are still present in Dutch, although they are used in inflected forms of adjectives, for example, bes ("best") in Afrikaans is still inflected as beste, as in Dutch, hence beste man ooit (best man ever) is correct in both languages.
At the end of words, the Dutch cluster was reduced in Afrikaans to , with lucht ("air", pronounced ) in Dutch becoming lug () in Afrikaans, lugt being an older spelling in Dutch. Similarly, dienst (service, pronounced ) was reduced to diens () in Afrikaans. Between two vowels, is replaced with ; compare Dutch echtgenoot ("husband") with Afrikaans eggenoot.
Similarly, whereas Dutch words like technologie ("technology") and monarchie ("monarchy") contain (in this case pronounced as ) their Afrikaans equivalents use , hence tegnologie and monargie. In other cases, is replaced with , compare Tsjechische Republiek ("Czech Republic") in Dutch with Tsjeggiese Republiek in Afrikaans.
At the end of words, Dutch cluster was reduced to in Afrikaans, hence Dutch contact and perfect with Afrikaans kontak and perfek. Similarly, in Dutch (pronounced ) is replaced by (pronounced ); compare reactie ("reaction") and connectie ("connection") in Dutch with reaksie and konneksie in Afrikaans.
Consonant mergers
As a result of Afrikaans merging Dutch consonants and to a single sound , spelt , the use of in Afrikaans is confined to words of non-Dutch origin, such as Zoeloe ("Zulu") and zero, or country names like Zambië ("Zambia"), while use of is preserved only in Dutch place names in South Africa like Zonnebloem and Zeerust.
However, although Suid-Afrika ("South Africa") is used in Afrikaans rather than Zuid-Afrika as in Dutch, South Africa adopted "ZA" as its international vehicle registration code in 1936, which later became the country's ISO country code, with .za becoming the country's internet domain.
In the middle of words, Afrikaans merged Dutch and to a single sound and consequently to a single spelling, . Compare Dutch haven (port) with Afrikaans hawe, both pronounced . Meanwhile, at the beginning of words, became devoiced to in Afrikaans (except in words of Latin origin, like visueel).
Afrikaans merged Dutch fricatives and to a single sound , spelt , except when preceded by , in which case (pronounced as spelt) is used where Dutch uses (pronounced , or ; hence "school" is school in Dutch but skool in Afrikaans, but Dutch misschien ("maybe") is written with , while Afrikaans miskien is written with .
Consonant omissions
Between two vowels, the Dutch is omitted in Afrikaans; hence Dutch uses hoger ("higher"), pronounced and "regen" ("rain"), pronounced while Afrikaans uses hoër () and reën (), in which the second vowel requires a trema to avoid confusion with the digraphs () and ().
This also applies to Afrikaans nouns that, while ending in as in Dutch, end with in the plural; while "railway" in both languages is spoorweg, "railways" is spoorwegen in Dutch () but spoorweë () in Afrikaans.
Between two vowels, Dutch is omitted in Afrikaans; compare Dutch avond ("evening"), pronounced and over ("over"), pronounced , with Afrikaans aand () and oor (), with and being and respectively. In Afrikaans, as in Dutch, oor also means "ear".
Where precedes final in Dutch, as in boven ("above") pronounced and geloven ("believe") pronounced , in Afrikaans they merge to form the diphthong , resulting in bo () and glo (). Similarly, open and samen ("together") in Dutch become oop (), and saam () in Afrikaans.
At the end of words, Dutch is sometimes omitted in Afrikaans, which opens up the preceding vowel (usually a short ) now written with a circumflex. For example, the Dutch verb form zeg ("say", pronounced ) became sê () in Afrikaans, as did the infinitive zeggen, pronounced . Another example is the Dutch leggen ("to lay", pronounced ), which becomes lê () in Afrikaans.
Alternatively, Dutch verb form vraag ("ask", pronounced ) became vra () in Afrikaans, which is also the equivalent of the Dutch verb vragen, "to ask". Unlike Dutch, vraag in Afrikaans, pronounced , is only used as a noun meaning "question", with vrae, pronounced , being the plural form.
The word for "day" in both languages is dag, but whereas the plural in Dutch is dagen (), in Afrikaans it is dae (). By contrast, wagen or "wagon" in Dutch, pronounced , became wa in Afrikaans, (), with the plural form, wagens, pronounced , became waëns ().
Circumflex
In contrast to Dutch, where the use of the circumflex is essentially limited to French borrowings, like enquête, Afrikaans makes frequent use of , , and ; examples include nêrens ("nowhere", Dutch nergens), môre ("morning", Dutch morgen), and brûe ("bridges", Dutch bruggen).
As a result of the disappearance of consonants found in equivalent Dutch words, particularly , Afrikaans uses circumflexes with single vowel letters in open syllables to indicate the long monophthongal pronunciations , , and , as opposed to the vowel letters without a circumflex, pronounced as , and , respectively.
The circumflex is also used in , appearing only in wîe ("wedges", Dutch wiggen), where it denotes a long pronunciation , keeping the digraph from being pronounced .
Diminutive
In diminutive forms, Afrikaans uses and (normally pronounced and ) where Standard Dutch would use (pronounced or ). For example, whereas the diminutive of beet ("bit") in Dutch would be beetje (pronounced [beːt͡ʃə]), in Afrikaans, the diminutive of biet would be bietjie (pronounced [biːki]).
In Belgium and the Southern Netherlands, the diminutive is often realised as in the spoken language. This ending is also found in some varieties of Dutch Low Saxon, a group of dialects spoken in the Northeastern Netherlands. Conversely, in the Western Cape, it is common to hear it realised as . The diminutive of words ending in in Afrikaans is , hence whereas doek in Dutch becomes , in Afrikaans, it becomes .
Where Dutch would use , and (pronounced , and ) Afrikaans would use , and (pronounced , and ) hence the diminutives of glas, kop and probleem in Dutch would become glaasje, kopje and probleempje, while in Afrikaans they would be glasie, koppie and probleempie, with an extra being added to kop. The ending is also found in some varieties of Dutch Low Saxon: glassie(n), koppie(n), probleempie(n). In addition, the diminutive is used in Hollands dialects such as that of Amsterdam as well as in less formal registers of general Dutch. "A cute little face", for instance, can be rendered as Een schattig koppie.
Other words formed from diminutives in Dutch ending in may have different equivalents in Afrikaans; for example, the Dutch term of endearment schatje (the diminutive of schat or "sweetheart", literally "treasure") is , of which is used either as the diminutive or to mean "little treasure".
In both languages, the word for "niece" is a diminutive of the word for "female cousin", but owing to the simplification of consonant clusters in Afrikaans, nig becomes niggie, using in contrast to Dutch, in which nicht becomes nichtje. The adjectives saggies and zachtjes, both meaning "softly", are diminutives of Afrikaans sag and Dutch zacht respectively.
Other spelling differences
Unlike Dutch, the names of months in Afrikaans are capitalised, hence 2 June 2016 would be written as 2 Junie 2016, whereas in Dutch, it would be written as 2 juni 2016.
Phonetic differences
Afrikaans pronunciation tends to be closest to the dialects of the province of South Holland, in particular that of Zoetermeer.
Consonant mergers
Afrikaans merged Dutch consonants and to a single sound , spelt , with zorg ("care") and zout ("salt") in Dutch becoming sorg and sout in Afrikaans. A similar phonetic evolution can be found in the Northern Netherlands.
At the start of words, Afrikaans often merged Dutch voiced with voiceless , as in ver ("far"), pronounced in Afrikaans and in Standard Dutch. The same merger is present though in the areas around Amsterdam, where all voiced consonants merged with the voiceless ones, pronounced as the latter ones.
Afrikaans merged Dutch voiced with voiced , as in werk ("work"), pronounced in Afrikaans and in Belgium and Suriname or in the Netherlands. A similar near-assimilation of to can also be found in the Northern Netherlands, where is pronounced , and .
Fricative mergers
In Afrikaans, Dutch fricatives and were merged to a single sound . A similar phonetic evolution can be heard in the Northern Netherlands, where the sounds have also been merged to or , although the spelling difference has been retained. In Belgium and Suriname, however, the phonetic distinction between and has been preserved.
Afrikaans uses only (written as ) in initial syllables where Dutch uses , or (written as ), hence skoonheid ("beauty") in Afrikaans is schoonheid in Dutch. However, in some Dutch varieties, such as Southern West Flemish and certain dialects of Dutch Low Saxon, can also be heard word-medially as well as syllable-initially.
Vowels
Grammatical differences
Grammatical differences are arguably the most considerable difference between Afrikaans and Dutch, as a result of the loss of inflections in Afrikaans, as well as the loss of some verb tenses, leading to it being greatly simplified in its grammar compared to Dutch.
Unlike Dutch, Afrikaans has no grammatical gender, and therefore only has one form of the definite article die, while standard Dutch has two (de for both masculine and feminine nouns and het for neuter ones) and Dutch dialects in the Southern Netherlands have a third, den, used for masculine nouns.
The verb "to be" in Afrikaans is wees (from Dutch wezen); the Dutch zijn only survives in Afrikaans in the form of the subjunctive sy, as in God sy met u ("God be with you"). In Dutch, as in Afrikaans, wees is used as an imperative, hence wees sterk! ("be strong!") while wezen is used as a less formal form of to be than zijn.
Verb conjugations
In Afrikaans verbs, the same form is generally used for both the infinitive and the present tense, with the exception of wees ("to be") conjugated as is and hê ("to have") conjugated as het, and there is no inflection for person; contrast ek gaan ("I go") with ik ga, hy doen ("he does") with hij doet, and julle was ("you (plural) were") with jullie waren.
The past participle is usually regularly formed by adding the prefix ge- to the verb, hence gedoen ("done") is formed from doen in Afrikaans, although Dutch gedaan survives in Afrikaans as welgedaan! ("well done!") One exception is the verb hê ("to have") of which the past participle is gehad, while sometimes an irregular past participle is used with the verb dink ("to think") hence hy het gedag or hy het gedog, similar to Dutch hij heeft gedacht, instead of hy het gedink.
All other verbs use the existing form as the past participle. For example, "to pay" is betaal and "I have paid" is "ek het betaal", while "to translate" is "vertaal" and "he has translated" is hy het vertaal; Dutch would use betaald (from betalen) and vertaald (from vertalen) respectively.
Verb tenses
Afrikaans has dropped the simple past tense for all but a few verbs, of which five are modals, hence kon ("could") from kan or "can" and moes or "should" from moet or "must"; instead, it generally uses either the present perfect or the present tense, depending on context, the latter being used as the historical present. It has also lost the pluperfect, conjugated using had, no longer used, with the present perfect, conjugated with het, being used instead.
Consequently, the sentence ek het die boek vir haar gegee in Afrikaans can be translated into Dutch as ik heb het boek aan haar gegeven ("I have given the book to her") ik gaf het boek aan haar ("I gave the book to her") or ik had het boek aan haar gegeven ("I had given the book to her").
However, the verb dink ("to think") still makes use of a simple past tense; for example, instead of ek het gedink to mean "I thought", ek dag or ek dog, similar to Dutch ik dacht, is sometimes used instead.
Whereas Dutch distinguishes between verbs that use zijn ("to be") and verbs that use hebben ("to have") in the present perfect, Afrikaans has dropped this distinction, instead using hê ("to have"), hence "he has been" is hy het al gewees in Afrikaans, while hij is geweest would be used in Dutch. In Dutch Low Saxon, hebben is found in the present perfect as well: .
The past tense of the passive voice in Afrikaans uses is, the present tense of wees instead of word, hence dit word geskryf ("it is written") becomes dit is geskryf ("it was/has been written"). In Dutch, the passive voice can be constructed by both zijn and worden, hence het is/wordt geschreven, and het was/werd geschreven.
Dutch, like English, has a continuous tense using the verb zijn ("to be") with aan het ("on the") and the infinitive, hence "I am reading" is ik ben aan het lezen, which may be expressed periphrastically in Afrikaans as ek is besig om te lees (literally "I am busy of to read") or "I am busy reading". However, a similar grammatical construction may be found in Afrikaans using wees ("to be") and aan die ("on the") as in ek is aan die werk ("I am working"), though this is less common than ek werk ("I work"/"I am working").
Omitting of subordinate conjunctions
In Afrikaans, as in English, it is possible to omit the subordinate conjunction dat ("that"); for example, the phrase "I believe [that] she has done it" can be translated into Afrikaans as either ek glo dat sy dit gedoen het or ek glo sy het dit gedoen (note the change in position of the auxiliary verb het), but in Dutch it is not possible to do so, hence the sentence would be translated as ik geloof dat ze het gedaan heeft.
Merger of marked and unmarked forms of words
Whereas Dutch has unmarked and marked forms for pronouns, adverbs and indicatives, Afrikaans uses only one form; for example, whereas Dutch uses er to mean "here" or "there", Afrikaans only uses hier for "here" and daar for "there", as well as hiervan ("hereof") for "of this/these" and daarvan ("thereof") for "of that/those/them" , not ervan as in Dutch.
Pronouns in Afrikaans, whether subjects, objects or possessives, usually have only one form, derived from the Dutch marked forms; compare my in Afrikaans, which can be used either as the object "me" or the possessive "my", with Dutch marked forms mij and mijn, the unmarked forms being me for "me" and m'n for "my" respectively. Whereas Dutch uses the term van mij, van jou, van hem, van haar, van ons, van jullie. to mean "mine", "yours", "his", "her", "ours" and "theirs" respectively, Afrikaans uses myne, joune, syne, haar sunne, ons sunne, and hulle sunne.
Dutch uses an apostrophe in some unmarked possessive pronouns instead of the digraph , hence zijn "his" or "its" becomes z'n, whereas in Afrikaans, sy is not abbreviated. In Afrikaans sy also means "she", but Dutch equivalents ze (unmarked) and zij (marked) mean either "she" as in ze/zij is ("she is"), or "they", as in ze/zij zijn ("they are").
Similarly, Afrikaans uses only jy as the subject "you" (singular) where Dutch uses je or jij, jou as the object "you" where Dutch uses je or jou, and as the possessive "your" where Dutch would use jou or jouw.
Personal pronouns
Afrikaans, unlike Dutch, has no unmarked or marked forms of pronouns; whereas Dutch distinguishes between je/jij and ze/zij for "you" (singular) and "she" as subject pronouns, Afrikaans uses only jy and sy, while whereas me/mij and je/jou are the Dutch unmarked or marked forms of object pronouns for "me" and "you", Afrikaans only uses my and jou.
It also lacks the distinction between the subject and object form for plural personal pronouns; the first person plural pronoun in Afrikaans differs markedly from Dutch, with ons meaning either "we" or "us", in contrast to Dutch we and wij, hence "we go to the beach" is ons gaan na die strand as opposed to we gaan naar het strand.
Similarly, the third person plural pronoun in Afrikaans is hulle, used to mean "they" or "them", in contrast to Dutch in which ze and zij are used as plural pronouns, hence "they are the best" is hulle is die beste as opposed to ze zijn de beste, although hullie is encountered in Dutch dialects, particularly in North Brabant and North and South Holland.
Other possessive pronouns like ons ("our", inflected as onze in Dutch and onse in Afrikaans) and Dutch jullie ("your" plural, julle in Afrikaans) work in a similar fashion in both languages.
Demonstrative pronouns
The word die is used in Afrikaans as a definite article, but in Dutch, it is used as a demonstrative pronoun meaning "that" or "those", or as a relative pronoun meaning "who", "which" or "that", for which Afrikaans would use wat; compare Afrikaans die man wat weet ("the man who knows") with Dutch de man die weet.
For demonstratives, Afrikaans uses hierdie for "this" or "these" and daardie for "that" or "those", which are shortened to dié (with an acute accent) and daai. In Dutch, dit is used as the word for "this", whereas in Afrikaans it is the third-person singular impersonal pronoun meaning "it", with dis being a contraction of dit is, similar to "it's" in English.
Genitive
As Afrikaans has no genitive forms of nouns, the official titles of most countries include the word van, although this was considered optional, hence Republiek van Malta (as opposed to Republiek Malta as in Dutch) although Republiek van Suid-Afrika was previously considered an anglicism. However, the Union of South Africa was known in Dutch and Afrikaans as Unie van Zuid-Afrika and Unie van Suid-Afrika respectively.
The title "Kingdom of the Netherlands", which refers to the entire realm including its Caribbean islands, is known in Afrikaans as Koninkryk van die Nederlande, a direct translation of the Dutch title Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, which uses the genitive article der meaning "of the".
Afrikaans may form compounds where Dutch would use separate words using the genitive or equivalent, or vice versa. For example, the Salvation Army is known in Afrikaans as Heilsleër, but in Dutch as Leger des Heils; conversely "Member of Parliament" in Afrikaans is Lid van Parlement, similar to English, while in Dutch, the term is parlementslid or kamerlid. However, in both languages, a member of a council or councillor is raadslid.
Possessive
Whereas Dutch uses an apostrophe with an "s" as in English to form the genitive, or alternatively an "s" without an apostrophe, Afrikaans uses se, hence Maria's huis and haar broers probleem would be Maria se huis and haar broer se probleem respectively.
Afrikaans, like Dutch, has possessive pronouns to indicate ownership, hence joune and jouwe, although Afrikaans omits the use of the definite article, hence is dit jou glas of syne? ("is that your glass or his?") in contrast to is dat jouw glas of het zijne? in Dutch.
Similarly, van or "of" is also omitted in Afrikaans; compare dit is my fiets, waar is joune? ("that is my bike, where is yours?") to Dutch dat is mijn fiets, waar is die van jou? However, Dutch also uses the construction waar is de jouwe?
Plural
While Afrikaans uses -e as the plural of most nouns, similar to Dutch -en, it also uses the -s ending where Dutch would use -en, hence the plural of seun ("son") being seuns, in contrast to Dutch, in which the plural of zoon is zonen, zoons being used as a plural in eighteenth century Dutch. The plural zoons in Dutch is still common.
Similarly, -ers is used as a double plural instead of -eren, hence the plural of kind ("child") is kinders, not kinderen, although the plural kinders being used in nineteenth century forms of Dutch, including West Flemish.
Double negative
A notable feature of Afrikaans is its use of a double negative, which is absent in standard Dutch, but still exists in some dialects like West Flemish, hence ik een niets nie gezien ("I have nothing not seen"). For example, ik spreek geen Engels ("I speak no English") in Dutch becomes ek praat nie Engels nie in Afrikaans. Similar constructions can be found in French (Je ne parle pas anglais) but also in old Dutch dialects, hence ik en kan niet gaan ("I not can not go") or daer is niemand niet ("there is nobody not").
Adjective inflections
Like Dutch, adjectives in Afrikaans are generally inflected (with a number of exceptions) in the attributive position (when preceding the noun) and not in the predicative. Unlike Dutch, this inflection depends only on position, not grammatical gender; for example, nasionaal, when followed by party becomes nasionale, hence Nasionale Party.
This also applies to adjectives from which the final "t" has been dropped, for example, while "first" is eers, not eerst, "first time" is eerste keer in both languages; similarly, while "bad" is sleg in Afrikaans (instead of Dutch slecht), the "t" is reintroduced in inflected form, hence slegte tye ("bad times") similar to slechte tijden.
Similarly, just as Dutch adjectives ending with -ief, such as positief, are inflected to end with -ieve, for example, positieve reactie ("positive reaction") their equivalents in Afrikaans end in -iewe, hence positiewe reaksie, despite the differences in spelling.
Vocabulary differences
Owing to the geographical and later political isolation of South Africa from the Netherlands, Afrikaans vocabulary diverged from that of Dutch, coining purisms or using loan translations rather than adopting terms found in English, as English was perceived as being a greater threat to Afrikaans in South Africa than it was to Dutch in the Netherlands.
French and Latin influence
While Dutch, like English, increasingly borrowed vocabulary from Latin or French, Afrikaans resisted such borrowing and instead favoured older Germanic equivalents, albeit with some exceptions; one of these is the Afrikaans word for "hospital", hospitaal, which, while understood in Dutch, is less widely used than ziekenhuis (literally "sick house").
For example, the word for "magistrate" in Afrikaans, landdros, comes from the Dutch term landdrost, a legacy of the old court system of the Dutch Cape Colony which survived its abolition and replacement by magistrate's courts under British rule, but the term is no longer officially used in the Netherlands, where the Latin-derived term magistraat is used instead.
Conversely, the Dutch word procureur, referring to a kind of lawyer, became obsolete in 2008, whereas in Afrikaans, prokureur is still used to mean "attorney", "solicitor" or "lawyer", especially in the sense of Prokureur-Generaal or "Attorney-General". The spelling prokureur was also previously used in Dutch. By contrast, whereas advocaat in Dutch means "lawyer", in Afrikaans, advokaat is only used to mean "advocate" or "barrister", hence "Senior Counsel" in Afrikaans being Senior Advokaat.
Similarly, the South African Navy is known in Afrikaans as the Suid-Afrikaanse Vloot, the word vloot (meaning "fleet") having been used in Dutch for the navy of the Dutch Republic, known as Staatse vloot, but the modern Dutch navy is known as the Koninklijke Marine, marine being a French loanword.
In Afrikaans, Eerste-Minister ("first minister") was the official title of the Prime Minister of South Africa (before the post was abolished in 1984) and is still the official Dutch title of the Prime Minister of Belgium, but in the Netherlands, the term premier is used as a generic term for a prime minister or equivalent office holder, the official title of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands being minister-president.
In South Africa, the term premier is now more typically used in Afrikaans to refer to the head of government in each of the nine provinces, whereas eerste-minister is used for foreign leaders, and is used by the Afrikaans-language media in Namibia to refer to the country's Prime Minister.
Some French loanwords are common to Afrikaans as well as Dutch, such as regisseur, used in both languages to mean director of a play or film, although the use of rolprent in Afrikaans instead of "film" is considered old-fashioned in Dutch. The word redakteur ("editor") is used in Afrikaans as well as Dutch, but in the latter it is now written as redacteur.
Purisms and loan translations
As the influence of English was perceived as a threat to Afrikaans, there was a trend to coin purisms rather than to borrow from English or international vocabulary; whereas the word for "computer" in Dutch is simply computer, in Afrikaans it is rekenaar, from reken, meaning "to calculate".
Other purisms were less successful; beeldradio, a word for "television" which literally means "picture radio", proposed before its introduction in the 1970s, was abandoned in favour of televisie, already used in Dutch. In South Africa and Namibia, the TV licence is known in Afrikaans as TV-lisensie, whereas in the Netherlands and Flanders, the now defunct equivalent was known in Dutch as kijkgeld ("viewing money") or omroepbijdrage ("broadcasting subsidy").
There are some instances of Afrikaans using calques or loan translations where Dutch uses an English loanword, such as the word for "milkshake", melkskommel, from melk ("milk") and skommel ("shake" or "shuffle") in contrast to Dutch, in which the original English word is untranslated.
Similarly, English has influenced such terms in Afrikaans as bestuurslisensie, from bestuur ("driving") and lisensie ("licence") and grondboontjiebotter, literally "peanut butter". By contrast, the Dutch term rijbewijs, translates as "driving certificate", but while ry is used in Afrikaans to mean "driving", bewys means "evidence" or "proof".
The Dutch term for peanut butter, pindakaas (literally "peanut cheese"), was coined because when it was first sold in the Netherlands, the term boter was a protected name and could only be used for products containing actual butter. The word pinda, a loanword from Papiamentu, spoken in the Dutch Caribbean, is ultimately of Kongo origin.
Comparison of vocabulary
Names of languages and countries
Unlike in Dutch, in Afrikaans, the word Afrikaans is not used to mean "African" in general; instead the prefix Afrika- is used, hence whereas African languages would be referred to in Dutch as Afrikaanse talen, in Afrikaans, they would be called Afrikatale. Conversely, the Afrikaans language is sometimes referred to in Dutch as Zuid-Afrikaans, literally "South African".
Although the Netherlands is formally called Nederland in Afrikaans, it is more colloquially known as Holland, as in English. The term Hollanders is similarly also used to refer to Dutch people in general, particularly in a historical context, while Hollands is used either to refer to the Dutch language or as an adjective, hence the expression die Kaap is weer Hollands ("the Cape is Dutch again") to mean that things are back to normal.
In the Netherlands, the former Dutch Reformed Church was known in Dutch as the Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk, but in South Africa, the two Dutch Reformed Churches are known in Afrikaans as the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk and Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk respectively, as Nederduitsch (or Nederduits) originally referred not to Low German but to any West Germanic language except High German.
Changes in meanings of words
Although the Afrikaans word as, like als in Dutch, means "if", it is also used as a conjunction to mean "than" with which to make comparisons, instead of dan, used in Dutch, hence "more than" is meer as (similar to mehr als in German) rather than meer dan, although meer als is also encountered in Dutch.
In Dutch, als can also mean "as" or "like", but Afrikaans generally uses soos, similar to zoals ("such as") in Dutch, whereas Dutch would use either als or zoals, hence the Afrikaans troeteldiere soos katte en honde... ("pets, like cats and dogs,...") could be translated into Dutch either as huisdieren als katten en honden or dieren zoals katten en honden....
While the Afrikaans verb heet can be used to mean "to be called", like the Dutch heten, it is less commonly used for that purpose, hence "what is your name?" and "my name is John" would be wat is jou naam? and my naam is Johan, rather than hoe heet jy? ("how are you called?") and ek heet Johan. By contrast, Dutch would use hoe heet je? and ik heet John.
In Afrikaans, heet is used to mean "to be said", for example, soos dit heet ("as it is claimed") or, as in Dutch, "to bid", as in ek heet jou welkom ("I bid you welcome" or "I welcome you"). As an adjective, like the Dutch heet, it means "hot", as in "high temperature", and can also mean "fiery temper". In Dutch, heet can also mean "hot" in the sense of "spicy" or "horny".
Like praten in Dutch, the verb praat in Afrikaans means "to talk", but can also mean "to speak", where Dutch uses spreken; compare sy praat vlot Engels ("she speaks English fluently") with zij spreekt vlot Engels. However, Afrikaans uses sprekend as an adjective meaning "speaking", as in Afrikaansprekend ("Afrikaans-speaking"). Spreek is used interchangeably with praat, but praat is more common.
Like "football" in American and Australian English, the term voetbal is not generally used in Afrikaans to mean soccer, which, unlike in Dutch, is called sokker. Instead, it is used in the context of other codes of football, such as American football, hence Amerikaanse voetbal. In Dutch, soccer is only used to refer to the game when played in the United States. Rugby, however, is the more popular sport amongst Afrikaners.
Changes due to spelling and pronunciation
The changes in spelling and pronunciation in Afrikaans means that two unrelated words become homophones and are written identically, unlike their Dutch equivalents; bly in Afrikaans, like blij in Dutch is used as an adjective to mean "happy", it is also a verb meaning "to remain", cognate with blijven in Dutch.
In Afrikaans, unlike Dutch, the word ná (meaning "after") is written with an acute accent, as na (derived from Dutch naar) means "to". Conversely, while the Dutch word for "one" is written as één, to distinguish it from the indefinite article een, in Afrikaans, een ("one") is written without any diacritics as the indefinite article in that language is ʼn.
Similarly, the Dutch word for "before", vóór, may be written with acute accents on both vowels to distinguish it from voor, meaning "for", although it is correct to write the word without them irrespective of meaning. By contrast, voor in Afrikaans only means "before", the word for "for" being vir, and so no diacritics are required.
In both languages, oor means "ear", but in Afrikaans oor (derived from Dutch over) can also mean "over" or "about", as in hy praat oor die weer ("he talks about the weather", or in Dutch hij spreekt over het weer). Although Dutch and Afrikaans share a number of words prefixed with , such as oorsprong ("origin"), this is an unrelated word meaning "original".
Although kus in Afrikaans can mean "kiss", as in Dutch, the more usual term is soen, similar to Dutch zoen, as the homophone kus means "coast". In contrast to the Dutch equivalents kus and kust (plural kussen and kusten), it is only in their inflected plural forms kusse and kuste that the two Afrikaans words can be clearly distinguished.
False friends due to English influence
English language influence has also resulted in changes in the meanings of some Afrikaans words, such as eventueel, which now means "eventual" or "eventually", rather than "possibly", as in Dutch. Consequently, some Afrikaans dictionaries give both meanings, with the entry for eventueel listing uitendelik ("finally") as well as moontlik ("possible") as definitions. However, the latter is described as Nederlandisties or "Dutch-influenced".
By contrast, other Afrikaans words cognate with Dutch ones retain the same meaning, such as aktueel, which, like actueel in Dutch, means "up to date" or "concerned with current affairs", although aktualiteit can also mean "reality" in the sense of the English word "actuality". The Dutch word actualiteit, on the other hand, only means "topicality" or "current events". Dutch also previously spelled both actueel and actualiteit with a "k".
Colloquialisms
Another consequence of the two languages diverging has been the differences between colloquialisms, meaning that a word in Dutch which has no offensive connotations is used as an expletive or term of abuse in Afrikaans, and vice versa, although other changes in meanings have also arisen.
For example, the Afrikaans phrase die meisie gooi haar flikkers ("the girl throws her sparkle") was highlighted by the Dutch journalist, Derk-Jan Eppink, in an article in the daily NRC Handelsblad, as an example of differences in meaning. In Afrikaans, flikkers by iemand gooi means to flirt with someone, but in Dutch, flikker means a male homosexual, while flikker op! is akin to the British English expletive "bugger off!"
List of words with different meanings
Comparisons of various phrases in Afrikaans and Dutch
* In some Dutch dialects it is also common to pronounce als as as.
** In Dutch, in some dialects d between two vowels tends to degenerate to i (pronounced -) or w (e.g. goedendag > goeiedag (good day), bloeden > bloeien (bleed), rode > rooie (red), poeder > poeier (powder), loden > looien (lead), lang geleden > (long ago), wij deden > wij dejen (we did), onthouden > onthouwen (remember)), some of which forms are more common and more accepted than others (dialectical, spoken, informal or standard language).
Comparison of sample text
Below is a comparison of the Afrikaans words of the first stanza of "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika" (formerly the national anthem of South Africa) with the Dutch translation.
See also
Comparison of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish
Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay
Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish
Comparison of Ukrainian and other Slavic languages
References
External links
Online Afrikaans-Dutch dictionary (PDF)
Video of Die Stem van Suid-Afrika with Afrikaans and Dutch subtitles on YouTube
Afrikaans
Dutch language
Comparison of Germanic languages and dialects | wiki |
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