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First Person Singular is a play by Lewis Grant Wallace. The play tells the story of a convoluted affair between an eminent old novelist and a resentful younger writer. The work premiered at the Duke of York's Theatre in the West End of London on 4 February 1952. The cast included Irene Handl as Miss Oakley and Rachel Gurney as Mabel.
Sources
Irene Handl at filmreference.com
The Independent, 24 November 2001
1952 plays | wiki |
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) är en amerikansk myndighet som utgör en del av National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
NMFS administrerar NOAA:s program för skydd av nationella och internationella marina resurser, erbjuder tjänster relaterade till handel med fisk, skydd av hotade marina arter och NOAA:s forskning kring fiske.
USA:s federala myndigheter | wiki |
Deep focus is a photographic and cinematographic technique using a large depth of field. Depth of field is the front-to-back range of focus in an image, or how much of it appears sharp and clear. In deep focus, the foreground, middle ground, and background are all in focus.
Deep focus is normally achieved by choosing a small aperture. Since the aperture of a camera determines how much light enters through the lens, achieving deep focus requires a bright scene or long exposure. A wide-angle lens also makes a larger portion of the image appear sharp.
It is also possible to achieve the illusion of deep focus with optical tricks (split-focus diopter) or by compositing two or more images together.
The opposite of deep focus is shallow focus, in which the plane of the image that is in focus is very shallow. For example, the foreground might be in focus while the middle-ground and background are out-of-focus. When avoiding deep focus is used specifically for aesthetic effect—especially when the subject is in sharp focus while the background is noticeably out-of-focus—the technique is known as bokeh.
Deep focus and deep space
When deep focus is used, filmmakers often combine it with deep space (also called deep staging). Deep space is a part of mise-en-scène, placing significant actors and props in different planes of the picture. Directors and cinematographers may use deep space without using deep focus, being either an artistic choice or because they do not have resources to create a deep focus look, or both.
Directors may use deep focus in only some scenes or even just some shots. Other auteurs choose to use it consistently throughout the movie, either as a stylistic choice or because they believe it represents reality better. Filmmakers such as Akira Kurosawa, Stanley Kubrick, Kenji Mizoguchi, Orson Welles, Masahiro Shinoda, Akio Jissoji, Terry Gilliam, Jean Renoir, Jacques Tati, James Wong Howe, and Gregg Toland all used deep focus as part of their signature style.
For French film critic André Bazin, deep-focus visual style was central to his theory of realism in film. He elaborated in an analysis of how deep focus functions in a scene from Wyler's The Best Years of Our Lives:
Deep focus and different formats
The choice of shooting format affects how easy it would be to achieve a deep focus look. This is because the size of the sensor or film gauge dictates what particular lens focal length would be used in order to achieve a desired viewing angle. Smaller sensors or film gauges will require an overall range of shorter focal lengths to achieve any desired viewing angle than larger sensors or film gauges. Because depth of field is a characteristic of lens focal length (in addition to aperture and focus distance setting), it is easier to achieve a deep-focus look with a smaller imaging sensor or film gauge. For example, a 40mm lens will give a 30-degree horizontal angle of view in the Super35 format. To achieve the same viewing angle with a 1/2" 16:9 sensor, you would need a 13mm lens. A 13mm lens inherently has much more depth-of-field than a 40mm lens. To achieve the same depth of field with a 40mm lens would require a very small aperture, which in turn would require far more light, and therefore time and expense.
Some filmmakers make deliberate use of the deep-focus capabilities of digital formats. Miami Vice (Michael Mann, 2006), a movie that was shot digitally early in the conversion from film to digital formats, made use of this capability. Cinematographer Dion Beebe commented:
We also decided that there were attributes of HD technology we liked and wanted to exploit, like the increased depth of field. Because of the cameras' chip size (2/3"), they have excessive depth of field that we decided not to fight, but rather utilize.
Split-focus diopter
In the 1970s, directors made frequent use of the split-focus diopter. With this invention it was possible to have one plane in focus in one part of the picture and a different plane in focus in the other half of the picture. This was and still is very useful for the anamorphic widescreen format, which has less depth of field.
A split diopter is half convex glass that attaches in front of the camera's main lens to make half the lens nearsighted. The lens can focus on a plane in the background and the diopter on a foreground. A split diopter does not create real deep focus, only the illusion of this. What distinguishes it from traditional deep focus is that there is not continuous depth of field from foreground to background; the space between the two sharp objects is out of focus. Because split focus diopters only cover half the lens, shots in which they are used are characterized by a blurred line between the two planes in focus.
The diopter gave the opportunity for spectacular deep focus-compositions that would have been impossible to achieve otherwise. In the American New Wave, director Brian De Palma explored the possibilities of the split-focus diopter extensively, as did other '70s films such as Robert Wise's The Andromeda Strain and Star Trek: The Motion Picture.
Use in modern films
Starting in the 1980s, American cinema has developed a trend that film scholar David Bordwell calls intensified continuity. Bordwell claims that:
The average length of each shot in a film has become shorter over the years
Scenes are built up by closer framing
More extreme focal lengths are used
The scenes include an increased number of camera moves
This trend has led to deep focus becoming less common in Hollywood movies. As mentioned in Bordwell's second point, master shots where two or more characters hold a conversation have gone out of fashion, lessening the need for deep focus. In a contemporary Hollywood movie a dialogue scene may consist only of tight close-ups, with the master shot abandoned. If more than one plane in the image contains narrative information, filmmakers switch focus ("rack focusing") instead of keeping both focal planes sharp. In addition, modern sets tend to have less lighting for more comfortable working conditions, and use of deep focus tends to require more light.
The development of intensified continuity may be due to directors' desire to capture the action or dialogue from many different angles and views. Getting these shots is called coverage. The U.S. film critic Dave Kehr explains it this way:
If there is a single word that sums up the difference between filmmaking at the middle of the 20th century and the filmmaking of today, it is "coverage". Derived from television, it refers to the increasingly common practice of using multiple cameras for a scene (just as television would cover a football game).
To stage a whole scene in one shot is no longer common. Director Steven Soderbergh claims:
That kind of staging is a lost art, which is too bad. The reason they no longer work that way is because it means making choices, real choices, and sticking to them. (...) That's not what people do now. They want all the options they can get in the editing room. An extreme case of filming in one-shot is the feature-length film, Russian Ark (2002), recorded in one take.
Notable uses
The following films and television programs contain notable examples of deep-focus photography:
Black and white
Foolish Wives (1922)
Nosferatu (1922)
Greed (1924)
All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)
Mad Love (1935)
Dodsworth (1936)
Osaka Elegy (1936)
Dead End (1937)
La Grande Illusion (1937)
La Règle du Jeu (1939)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939)
Rebecca (1940)
Citizen Kane (1941)
The Devil and Daniel Webster (1941)
The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)
The Stranger (1946)
The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)
The Lady from Shanghai (1947)
Oliver Twist (1948)
Macbeth (1948)
Drunken Angel (1948)
The Third Man (1949)
All the King's Men (1949)
Stray Dog (1949)
Late Spring (1949)
Rashomon (1950)
Sunset Boulevard (1950)
Strangers on a Train (1951)
Detective Story (1951)
Ugetsu (1953)
Tokyo Story (1953)
Sansho the Bailiff (1954)
The Crucified Lovers (1954)
Seven Samurai (1954)
Mr. Arkadin (1955)
The Night of the Hunter (1955)
The Killing (1956)
Throne of Blood (1957)
Tokyo Twilight (1957)
12 Angry Men (1957)
Paths of Glory (1957)
Sweet Smell of Success (1957)
3:10 to Yuma (1957)
Touch of Evil (1958)
L'Avventura (1960)
Psycho (1960)
The Bad Sleep Well (1960)
La Notte (1961)
The Hustler (1961)
The Innocents (1961)
Yojimbo (1961)
Cape Fear (1962)
Knife in the Water (1962)
L'Eclisse (1962)
Birdman of Alcatraz (1962)
The Manchurian Candidate (1962)
Two for the Seesaw (1962)
The Trial (1962)
Hud (1963)
High and Low (1963)
The Haunting (1963)
Seven Days in May (1964)
The Train (1964)
Repulsion (1965)
Chimes at Midnight (1965)
Red Beard (1965)
Nayak (1966)
Cul-de-sac (1966)
Persona (1966)
Seconds (1966)
Faces (1968)
The Last Picture Show (1971)
Paper Moon (1973)
The Good German (2006)
Color
The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956)
The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957)
Vertigo (1958)
North by Northwest (1959)
Ben Hur (1959)
Floating Weeds (1959)
How the West Was Won (1962)
Lawrence of Arabia (1962)
The Birds (1963)
A Fistful of Dollars (1964)
The Ipcress File (1965)
For a Few Dollars More (1965)
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966)
The Appaloosa (1966)
Rosemary's Baby (1968)
The Wild Bunch (1969)
A Clockwork Orange (1971)
Macbeth (1971)
The Offence (1972)
Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972)
Chinatown (1974)
Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles (1975)
Barry Lyndon (1975)
Jaws (1975)
All the President's Men (1976)
The Tenant (1976)
Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977)
Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979)
The Shining (1980)
Blow Out (1981)
Fitzcarraldo (1982)
Rumble Fish (1983)
Brazil (1985)
Full Metal Jacket (1987)
Jurassic Park (1993)
Casino (1995)
Saving Private Ryan (1998)
Eyes Wide Shut (1999)
Songs from the Second Floor (2000)
The Pianist (2002)
Peter Pan (2003)
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004)
The New World (2005)
Six Feet Under (2001–2005)
The Black Dahlia (2006)
The History Boys (2006)
Zodiac (2007)
You, the Living (2007)
The Ghost Writer (2010)
Carnage (2011)
A Pigeon Sat on a Branch Reflecting on Existence (2014)
It Follows (2014)
The Hateful Eight (2015)
Ouija: Origin of Evil (2016)
Suspiria (2018)
Us (2019)
See also
Group f/64
Hyperfocal distance
References
Further reading
Photographic techniques
Cinematography | wiki |
SICAL is a Portuguese coffee brand company under the Nestlé portfolio since 1987.
Nestlé brands
Coffee industry | wiki |
The Scanner Price Accuracy Code is a Canadian retail voluntary practice managed by the Retail Council of Canada and endorsed by the Competition Bureau. It was introduced in June 2002 as Canadian retailers were in the midst of updating their point-of-sale systems with barcode readers to "foster consumer confidence" with the new systems. It provides consumers with compensation for items with an incorrectly scanned price.
It was developed by the Retail Council of Canada in collaboration with the Canadian Association of Chain Drug Stores (now Neighbourhood Pharmacy Association of Canada), the Canadian Federation of Independent Grocers and the Canadian Council of Grocery Distributors.
Code
The code applies only to retail shops that participate in the voluntary program. One of its key features is the "Item Free Scanner Policy". If the price of an item scans incorrectly during checkout at the point of sale, the customer is entitled to request a price adjustment; if the item's price is less than $10, they receive it for free, and if the item's price is at least $10, the customer receives a $10 discount. If the customer purchases more than one of that item, the first one is subject to the price adjustment, and the others are charged at the posted sale price. The sale price may include that posted in the shop, in an advertising flyer, or in online advertisements.
Items covered by the code include those that have a Universal Product Code (UPC), a Price look-up code (PLU), or other barcodes that are scanned at the point of sale by a barcode reader. The code does not apply to items that are individually priced (that is, they have a price tag), items that are weighed (such as produce), prescription drugs, and cosmetics available only "behind-the-counter".
Problem resolution
A customer unsatisfied with the cashier's point-of-sale resolution for a price discrepancy should first attempt to resolve it with the shop's manager or supervisor. If this does not result in a resolution, the consumer may call the Retail Council of Canada Scanner Price Accuracy Committee at a toll-free telephone number to register a complaint. About 92% of the 1000 annual calls received by the committee are not legitimate complaints.
Incorrect charges for individually priced items are covered by the Competition Act, and unresolved price discrepancies reported to the Competition Bureau.
Participation
There are few participating retail chains, but they represent over 7,000 shops throughout Canada, excluding those in Quebec which are covered by the provincial Consumer Protection Act. Among them are Best Buy, Canadian Tire, Costco, Giant Tiger, Home Depot, Lawtons, Loblaw Companies, Rona, Safeway, Shoppers Drug Mart, Sobeys, Toys "R" Us, and Walmart.
Shops of participating merchants are required to post a sign about the code near the entrance to the shop, and some also post a notice or sticker at the point of sale.
References
External links
Scanner Price Accuracy Code at the Retail Council of Canada
Scanner Price Accuracy Voluntary Code—Code of practice at the Competition Bureau
Scanner price accuracy at the Competition Bureau
Scanner Price Accuracy Code FAQs at the Retail Council of Canada
Consumer protection in Canada
Retailing in Canada
Retail pricing
2002 establishments in Canada | wiki |
Free rifle is the former name of four ISSF shooting events:
300 metre rifle three positions
300 metre rifle prone
50 metre rifle three positions (for men; the female version was called standard rifle and then sport rifle)
50 metre rifle prone (for men; the female version was called standard rifle and then sport rifle) | wiki |
Blanche Fisher Wright Laite (1887 – 1971) was an American children's book illustrator active in the 1910s. She is best known for illustrating The Real Mother Goose, published in 1916 by Rand McNally.
She married actor and in 1925 they fostered Gordon Laite who became a children's book illustrator in the 1960s and 1970s.
References
External links
171 scanned images from The Real Mother Goose
1887 births
1971 deaths
American children's book illustrators
American women illustrators | wiki |
Cyanobacterium genus of cyanobacteria.
References
Cyanobacteria genera
Chroococcales | wiki |
Green Acres (Washington), plaats in Washington, Verenigde Staten
Green Acres (televisieserie), Amerikaanse sitcom | wiki |
Billy Harris (born ) is a professional rugby league footballer who played in the 2010s. He has played for Stanley Rangers ARLFC, Castleford Tigers and Dewsbury Rams (loan), as a .
References
External links
Stanley Rangers ARLFC - Roll of Honour
1992 births
Living people
Castleford Tigers players
Dewsbury Rams players
English rugby league players
Place of birth missing (living people)
Rugby league second-rows | wiki |
The Control Revolution is a book by James Beniger that explains the origins of the information society in part from the need to manage and control the production of an industrial society.
The book received the Association of American Publishers Award for the Most Outstanding Book in the Social and Behavioral Sciences and the Phi Kappa Phi Faculty Recognition Award. The late Dr. Beniger was a professor at the University of Southern California.
Further reading
References
1989 non-fiction books
Information society | wiki |
The Endless Summer is a 1966 American surf documentary film directed, produced, edited and narrated by Bruce Brown. The film follows surfers Mike Hynson and Robert August on a surfing trip around the world. Despite the balmy mediterranean climate of their native California, cold ocean currents make local beaches inhospitable during the winter, without later, modern wetsuits. They travel to the coasts of Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii, Senegal (Dakar), Ghana, Nigeria and South Africa in a quest for new surf spots while introducing locals to the sport along the way.
The narrative presentation eases from the stiff, formal documentary of the 1950s and early 1960s to a more casual, fun-loving and personal style filled with sly humor, honed from six years of live narration. The film's surf rock soundtrack was provided by The Sandals, and the theme song was written by Gaston Georis and John Blakeley of the Sandals; Theme From "The Endless Summer" has since become one of the best known film themes in the surf movie genre.
In 1994, it was followed by the sequel The Endless Summer II. In 2000, Dana Brown, compiled The Endless Summer Revisited, later directing Step into Liquid, in 2003, documenting tow-in surfing.
Background
8 mm
Bruce Brown started surfing in the early 1950s. He took still photographs to show his mother what the draw of the sport was. While serving in the United States Navy on Oahu years later, he used an 8 mm movie camera to photograph surfers from California. Once Brown got back to the states, he edited his footage into an hour-long film. Surfer Dale Velzy showed it at his San Clemente shop, charging 25 cents for admission.
16 mm
Bob Bagley chose the equipment at the camera store, including a 16 mm camera, and Velzy peeled off the money from his wad of cash to outfit Brown's $5,000 production Slippery When Wet (1958), Brown's first "real" surf film.
In the winter of 1958, Brown went back to Hawaii to film the North Shore's big surf. Just as Allen had done, to learn promotion, Brown went to the library for a book about how to make movies, and on the plane ride over, the novice filmmaker read the book. Brown said, "I never had formal training in filmmaking and that probably worked to my advantage". In 1959, Dick Metz's meeting with John Whitmore, on a Cape Town beach, and introduction to Cape St. Francis, during his family-liquor-license-sale-to-Disneyland-funded three-year global surf trip (1958—1961) led to his inspiring Bruce Brown to film there, By 1962, he had spent five years making one surf film per year, exhibiting at high school gyms and coffee houses, as a live production, narrating the silent film, from the stage, and playing tape recorded music. and a letter, to Whitmore, about Brown. He would shoot during the fall and winter months, edit during the spring and show the finished product during the summer.
Prior to The Endless Summer, Brown made unnamed 25¢ silent 8mm film footage, Slippery When Wet (1958), Surf Crazy (1959), Barefoot Adventure (1960), Surfing Hollow Days (1961), and Waterlogged (1962). Each year, Allen and Brown made two tours, of the West Coast of the United States, and Hawaiʻi, exhibiting a film.
"We would take the films to the venues in a van, and we had rewinds and viewers in the back of the van and I would actually edit the stuff while we were traveling. I would adjust it according to the reactions of the audience from the previous night."—Bruce Brown
Title
The film's title comes from the idea expressed at both the beginning and end of the film that, if one had enough time and money, it would be possible to follow the summer up and down the world (northern to southern hemisphere and back), making it endless.
Development
Brown remembered, "I felt if I could take two years to make a film, maybe I could make something special". To do this, he would need a bigger budget than he had on previous films. To raise the $50,000 budget for The Endless Summer, Brown took the best footage from his four previous films and made Waterlogged. With the money raised from Waterlogged, Brown filmed The Endless Summer, his sixth surf film.
Brown's original concept was for Cape St. Francis to be the main destination, but through the suggestion of a travel agent, during the planning stages of the film, that a round-the-world ticket, would cost $50 cheaper than just a Los Angeles to Cape Town, South Africa round-trip flight. after which Bruce came up with the idea of following the summer season by traveling up and down the world.
Production
The Endless Summer was filmed in:
Southern Hemisphere:South Africa (Cape St. Francis), Australia, New Zealand (Manu Bay), and Tahiti.
Northern Hemisphere: Hawaii, California (Salt Creek Beach, Steamer Lane, Malibu), Senegal, Ghana (Labadi), and Nigeria.
Mike Hynson and Robert August had to pay $1,400 for their own around-the-world tickets, and Brown required a commitment of three months. Production lasted four months.
The opening shot of Mike Hynson and Robert August as silhouettes walking to the beach with burnt orange sky evokes the movie poster.
Cast
Mike Hynson
Robert August
Corky Carroll
Nat Young
Butch Van Artsdalen
Mickey Dora
Phil Edwards
Wayne Miyata
Chuck Gardner
Chip Fitzwater
Dave Thynell
Greg Noll
Lord James Blears
Roy Crump
Steven R. Davis
Terence Bullen
(South African guide)
Poster
In 1964, fellow surfer John Van Hamersveld was a student at the Art Center College of Design and the art director of Surfing Illustrated Magazine and Surfer magazine. To produce the image that would become iconic, he organized a photo session with the producer and the two stars at Salt Creek Beach in Dana Point. Using photo techniques for the central image and hand-lettering the title Van Hamersveld created a “national phenomenon” image that has endured as a classic. He was paid $150 for the art. The poster is featured in the National Museum of American History section of the Smithsonian Institute. In the description the museum noted, “The poster’s premise was Browns but Van Hamersveld took Bob Bagley’s image of the movie’s stars Mike Hynson and Robert August and Brown and transformed it into a 1960s neon masterpiece.”Article about John Van HamersveldEntry about JVH in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Distribution
Bruce Brown, at first, narrated the silent film live, from the stage, and accompanied it with tape recorded music, at school auditoriums, and similar venues, with R. Paul Allen collecting tickets, travelling by camper. He later took the completed film to several Hollywood studio distributors but was rejected because they did not think it would have mainstream appeal. In January 1964, Bruce Brown and R. Paul Allen took The Endless Summer to Wichita, Kansas and four-walled the Sunset Theater for two weeks, amidst a projectionist strike, with a bomb threat on the first showing, where moviegoers lined up in snowy weather in the middle of winter, selling out multiple screenings, and locally outgrossing My Fair Lady. Distributors were still not convinced and Brown rented a theater in New York City where his film ran successfully for 48 weeks. After the success of the run at New York's Kips Bay Theater, Don Rugoff of Cinema V distribution said he did not want the film or poster changed and wanted them distributed as is, thus Brown selected him over other distributors who wished to alter the poster. When distributed by Cinema V, The Endless Summer grossed $5 million domestically and over $20 million worldwide.
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an aggregate score of 100% based on 23 critic reviews. Roger Ebert said of Brown's work, "the beautiful photography he brought home almost makes you wonder if Hollywood hasn't been trying too hard". Time magazine wrote, "Brown leaves analysis of the surf-cult mystique to seagoing sociologists, but demonstrates quite spiritedly that some of the brave souls mistaken for beachniks are, in fact, converts to a difficult, dangerous and dazzling sport".
In his review for The New York Times, Robert Alden wrote, "the subject matter itself—the challenge and the joy of a sport that is part swimming, part skiing, part sky-diving and part Russian roulette—is buoyant fun".
Legacy
When The Endless Summer premiered on June 15, 1966, it encouraged many surfers to travel abroad, giving birth to the "surf-and-travel" culture, with prizes for finding "uncrowded surf", meeting new people and riding the "perfect wave". It also introduced the sport, which had become popular outside of Hawaii and the Polynesian Islands in places like California and Australia, to a broader audience.
The then-unknown break off Cape St. Francis in South Africa, characterized as having the “perfect wave”, became one of the world's most famous surfing sites thanks to The Endless Summer.
In 2002, The Endless Summer was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Gallery
Sequels
In 1994, Brown released a sequel, The Endless Summer II, in which surfers Pat O'Connell and Robert "Wingnut" Weaver retrace the steps of Hynson and August. It shows the growth and evolution of the surfing scene since the first film, which presented only classic longboard surfing. O'Connell rides a shortboard, which was developed in the time between the two movies, and there are scenes of windsurfing and bodyboarding.
The 1994 film illustrates how far surfing had spread since 1964, with footage of surf sessions in France, South Africa, Costa Rica, Bali, Java, and even Alaska. The 1994 sequel follows a similar structure to the original, with another round the world surfing adventure reflecting on cultural differences since the first film was shot. The South Africa material includes a return visit to Cape St. Francis, where the “perfect wave” had deteriorated somewhat, due to onshore construction projects.
In 2000, Dana Brown, Bruce's son, released The Endless Summer Revisited, which consisted of unused footage from the first two films, as well as original cast interviews.
Further reading
References
External links
The Endless Summer official website
The Endless Summer at Encyclopedia.com
Dusters California skateboards. (May 29, 2014) A chat with Endless Summer director, Bruce Brown via: YouTube
The Sandals.
1966 films
1960s sports films
1960s English-language films
Films directed by Bruce Brown
United States National Film Registry films
Documentary films about surfing
Films shot in Indonesia
Films shot in Senegal
Films set on beaches
American surfing films
American sports documentary films
Films shot in New Zealand
Raglan, New Zealand
Surfing in New Zealand
Beach party films
1960s American films | wiki |
50 metre rifle (formerly called free rifle for men, standard rifle and sport rifle for women) is the name of two ISSF shooting events:
50 metre rifle three positions
50 metre rifle prone | wiki |
War World may refer to:
War World (series), collaborative science fiction books set in the CoDominium universe of Jerry Pournelle
War World (video game), a 2005 mech combat video game
"War World", a 2002 episode of Justice League
Warworld, a fictional planet in the DC Universe
See also
World war (disambiguation) | wiki |
Richard the Second is a 2001 American film adaptation of William Shakespeare's Richard II, directed by John Farrell.
Production history
Farrell used Fort Strong, an abandoned post American Civil War-era fort on Long Island (an island in Boston Harbor), as the location for this production. The fort lacked electricity and Farrell's production used torchlight to illuminate the scenes that were set inside the structure
Production took place between March and September 1987. However, the film went over its original $50,000 budget and Farrell was unable to secure financing to complete the production. As Farrell recalled in the book The Encyclopedia of Underground Movies: "The original intent with Richard the Second was to shoot in broadcast 1" format and transfer to 35mm. We shot with an Ikekami camera and used Sony reel-to-reel. I even did a test trailer in the edit suite which sent to a place in Los Angeles called Image Transform, which sent us back the trailer on 35 - this was when laser transfer was the new thing for video to film (no scan lines!)."
The film was given a direct-to-video release in 2001.
References
External links
Richard The Second review on Pursued By A Bear
2001 films
Films based on Richard II (play)
2001 drama films
American drama films
2000s American films | wiki |
Morirás en Chafarinas puede referirse a:
Morirás en Chafarinas, una novela escrita en 1990 por Fernando Lalana.
Morirás en Chafarinas, una película dirigida en 1995 por Pedro Olea, basada en la novela anterior. | wiki |
Margaret Storey may refer to:
Margaret Storey (children's writer), writer of children's and young adult stories, including the Melinda Farbright series
Margaret Storey (mystery writer), mystery writer, sometimes in collaboration with Jill Staynes as Elizabeth Eyre
Margaret Hamilton Storey (1900–1960), American biologist | wiki |
Doritos () is an American brand of flavored tortilla chips produced since 1964 by Frito-Lay, a wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo. The original Doritos were not flavored. The first flavor was Toasted Corn, released in 1966, followed by Taco in 1967 and Nacho Cheese in 1972. Other specialty flavors began to make their debut during the late 1980s. The concept for Doritos originated in a restaurant at Disneyland.
Doritos has also gained notability for its marketing campaigns, including many ads aired during the Super Bowl.
History
The term dorito is a contraction of Spanish doradito (little fried and golden thing), which is a diminutive of dorado (fried and golden thing).
The original product was made at the Casa de Fritos (now Rancho Del Zocalo) at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, during the early 1960s. Using surplus tortillas and taking the original idea from the traditional Mexican snack known as totopo, the company-owned restaurant cut them up, fried them, and added basic seasoning, resembling the Mexican chilaquiles, but in this case being dry. Arch West was the vice president of marketing of Frito-Lay at the time, and noticed their popularity. He made a deal in 1964 with Alex Foods, the provider of many items for Casa de Fritos at Disneyland, and produced the chips for a short time regionally, before it was overwhelmed by the volume, and Frito-Lay moved the production in-house to its Tulsa plant.
Doritos were released nationwide in 1966, the first tortilla chip to be launched nationally in the United States.
According to Information Resources International, in 1993, Doritos earned $1.2 billion in retail sales, one-third of the total Frito-Lay sales for the year. Nevertheless, in the costliest redesign in Frito-Lay history, in 1994 the company spent $50 million to redesign Doritos to make the chips 20% larger, 15% thinner, and rounded the edges of the chip. Roger J. Berdusco, the vice president of tortilla chip marketing, said a primary reason for the change was "greater competition from restaurant-style tortilla chips, that are larger and more strongly seasoned". The design change was the result of a two-year market research study that involved 5,000 chip eaters. The new design gave each chip rounded corners, making it easier to eat and reducing the scrap resulting from broken corners. Each chip was also given more seasoning, resulting in a stronger flavor. The redesigned chips were released in four flavors beginning in January 1995.
In the United States, Frito-Lay eliminated trans fat from all Doritos varieties in 2002. The same year, the Doritos brand began complying with U.S. Food and Drug Administration labeling regulations, four years before the regulations became mandatory.
The company was sued in 1993 by Charles Grady, who claimed that his throat had been damaged while eating Doritos. According to his lawsuit, the shape and rigidity of the chips made them inherently dangerous. Grady attempted to admit into evidence a study by a former chemistry professor that calculated how best to safely swallow the chips. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court later ruled that the study did not meet scientific standards and could not be presented as evidence.
In 2005, sales of Doritos in the United States fell by 1.7% to $595 million. To increase sales in 2006, the company launched several new flavors, a new label, and more bilingual advertising. Frito-Lay vice president Joe Ennen described this as "the most significant rebranding and relaunch in Doritos' 38-year history."
On February 21, 2013, the Doritos logo was changed again, and the advertising slogan "FOR THE BOLD" was adopted.
In 2015, Doritos introduced a limited edition Rainbow Doritos product, which were only available to those making a minimum donation of $10 to the It Gets Better Project, a non-profit organization that supports LGBT youth. The promotion raised $100,000 for the organization, despite some controversy.
Ingredients
The original plain chips (Toasted Corn, a discontinued US variety as of 2019, but available in the UK branded as 'Lightly Salted') are made of ground corn (maize), vegetable oil, and salt. Other ingredients vary across the flavored chip varieties. Doritos made for the US market generally do not use pork-derived animal rennet in the making of the cheese flavorings used on the chip.
Nacho Cheese Doritos ingredients (U.S.), in order of percent of product: whole corn, vegetable oil (corn, soybean, and/or sunflower oil), salt, cheddar cheese (milk, cheese cultures, salt, enzymes), maltodextrin, whey, monosodium glutamate, buttermilk solids, romano cheese (part skim cow's milk, cheese cultures, salt, enzymes), whey protein concentrate, onion powder, partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oil, corn flour, disodium phosphate, lactose, natural and artificial flavor, dextrose, tomato powder, spices, lactic acid, artificial color (including Yellow 6, Yellow 5, Red 40), citric acid, sugar, garlic powder, red and green bell pepper powder, sodium caseinate, disodium inosinate, disodium guanylate, nonfat milk solids, whey protein isolate, corn syrup solids.
In 1996, The Onion, a satirical newspaper and website, featured an article with the headline "Doritos Celebrates One Millionth Ingredient", lampooning Frito-Lay for the sheer number of ingredients found in Doritos.
Concerns have been raised that the oils, flavorings and additives used in Doritos and other Frito-Lay products may be unhealthy.
Flavors
Doritos are sold in many countries worldwide in assorted flavors. They launched nationally in the United States in 1966, with only one flavor: Toasted Corn. The product proved successful, but additional market research revealed that many consumers outside the Southwest and West considered the chip to be too bland and not spicy enough for what was perceived as a Mexican snack. Frito-Lay therefore developed taco-flavored Doritos, which also became successful after they were introduced nationally in 1967. National distribution of nacho cheese-flavored Doritos began in 1972, and were also a hit. For a short period in the late 1970s, Sour Cream and Onion flavored Doritos were available, but were discontinued in the early 1980s. A Sesame seed flavored chip was also available for a short time in the late 1970s. In 1986, Cool Ranch Doritos made their debut and also became popular. Cool Ranch Doritos are sold under the name "Cool Original" in the UK and are called "Cool American" elsewhere in Europe, as ranch dressing is less common in those places.
In the 1990s, in partnership with parent company PepsiCo's fast food brands, two new flavors of Doritos were introduced, Taco Bell's Taco Supreme (incorporating a "beef" flavoring that was quite different from the original 1960s "Taco" incarnation) and Pizza Hut's Pizza Cravers. After PepsiCo spun off its restaurant division in 1997, the flavors were simply renamed taco and pizza, respectively, with the pizza flavor discontinued in some markets. At around the same time, due to the popularity of Frito-Lay's Tostitos brand the unflavored Toasted Corn was briefly discontinued, then brought back. In 2008, the Taco Bell (complete with the brand name attached) flavor was temporarily re-released under the "Back by Popular Demand" label along with Four Cheese.
In 1990, Jumpin' Jack Monterey Cheese flavored Doritos were introduced. This flavor was later discontinued. In 1995, Chester's Cheese Doritos were available for a limited time. This flavor introduced the familiar Cheetos flavor cheese on the typical Doritos tortilla chip. In 1997, Spicy Nacho was introduced.
For a brief period in 2004, Doritos introduced new shape and form called "Rollitos", which were corn chips shaped into small tubes, like a regular triangular Dorito was "rolled" up. Rollitos flavors included Nacho Cheesier, Zesty Taco, Cooler Ranch and Queso Picante. In 2013, this idea was reintroduced and rebranded as "Dinamitas", or little sticks of dynamite. There are two varieties, a chili lime combo (similar to Takis Fuego), and the Mojo Criollo (Creole magic), a lemon-lime and garlic flavored rolled Doritos. Dinamitas differs slightly in style than Rollitos. Rollitos had the chips baked, the tube formed with an oil-submersible box press to fry. Currently it is rolled into a tube before the baking and frying, a much simpler process.
Six versions of "Doritos Collisions", which include two different flavors in the same bag, have been produced. Those varieties of Doritos Collisions are Hot Wings/Blue Cheese, Zesty Taco/Chipotle Ranch, Habanero/Guacamole, Cheesy Enchilada/Sour Cream, Pizza Cravers/Ranch, and Blaze/Ultimate Cheddar.
In 2007, Doritos ran a campaign called "Doritos X-13D Flavor Experiment" where black, unidentified bags of Doritos were on the market for consumers to identify and name the flavor. The only flavor identification on these chips was "All American Classic".
Reincarnations and relaunches of taco-flavored Doritos, including the 2008 "Back By Popular Demand" campaign, were different from the original taco flavor (a sour cream flavor had been added to the recipe around 1985). The taco chips included in the Zesty Taco and Chipotle Ranch "Collisions" bags were thought by customers to be closer to the original, but were later discontinued in most of the United States. In late 2010, the taco flavor recipe that was used in the 1980s returned in a limited edition "retro" styled bag incorporating the original Doritos logo, and in early 2011 the company announced that this incarnation would remain in the permanent product line-up.
In 2008, Doritos debuted a "mystery flavor" Quests with prizes being given as puzzles were solved. The mystery flavor was Mountain Dew. In 2009, Doritos released some new flavors under the banner "Doritos Late Night": "Tacos at Midnight" and "Last Call Jalapeño Popper". They also modified the X-13D Flavor as All Nighter Cheeseburger.
2010 saw the release of three successively spicy "Degree Burn" flavors (Blazin' Jalapeño/Jalapeño Fire, Fiery Buffalo and Scorchin' Habanero), cross promoted to "cool down" with Pepsi's lime "Cease Fire/Max Citrus Freeze", and the wasabi flavored Mr. Dragon's Fire Chips. 2010 saw the introduction of Doritos to New Zealand and with it flavors including Nacho Cheese, Cheese Supreme, Salted, and Salsa. This year also saw the original Taco flavor of Doritos revived in the original packaging design.
In the spring of 2011, a Tapatio hot sauce flavor was released. In February 2011, Doritos Canada ran a competition to write the end of a commercial for two new flavors ("Onion Rings n' Ketchup" and "Blazin' Buffalo and Ranch"), and to vote for which of the two flavors would be taken off shelves when the contest ended. Onion Rings n' Ketchup received the most votes and remained on sale.
In the spring of 2015, Doritos Roulette was released to US markets for a limited time. While all chips appeared to look the same on the outside, one out of every six chips would be extra spicy. Owing to the spicy nature of one variety contained in the pack, in July 2015 George Pindar School reported an incident where an asthmatic student "suffered some difficulty breathing after eating one". Doritos Roulette returned to store shelves on April 12, 2021. On 6 October, 2022, Doritos launched two new flavours in the UK inspired by the nations favourite pizzas, Triple Cheese Pizza and Loaded Pepperoni Pizza flavours were launched and added to the range.
Marketing
The brand's marketing campaigns have included many television commercials featuring Avery Schreiber, Jay Leno, and Ali Landry, as well as product placement in movies, such as Wayne's World.
Super Bowl
For many years, Doritos advertised heavily during the Super Bowl. According to Thomas L. Harris's Value-Added Public Relations, "the most-used single video news release of 1995" was a Doritos Super Bowl Commercial featuring recently defeated US state governors Mario Cuomo and Ann Richards. The pair were discussing change and the ad ended with viewers aware that the change they referred to was not political, but rather a new packaging for Doritos. The ad generated a great deal of publicity before it ever ran and much discussion afterward. The governors later parodied their ad; when they were interviewed on the CBS news program 60 Minutes, the two were often seen eating Doritos.
In 1998, Doritos cast former Miss USA Ali Landry in a new Super Bowl Commercial. In the ad, filmed in a Laundromat, she plays a sexy customer who catches Doritos chips in her mouth as they come flying helter-skelter. The ad was such a success that Frito-Lay signed Landry, who became known as "The Doritos Girl," to a three-year contract.
For Super Bowl XLI, Doritos launched a contest, Crash the Super Bowl, to allow consumers to create their own Doritos commercial. The general public was allowed to vote for their favorite of five finalists. According to Doritos, the vote was so close that just before the game the company decided to run two of the ads rather than just one. Both commercials finished highly in ratings of commercials during this Super Bowl. The following year, Doritos sponsored a contest to find a musician to feature in a Super Bowl ad. Although the ad, featuring winner Kina Grannis, generated a lot of publicity, it ranked last in popularity among the program's ads.
For Super Bowl XLIII, Doritos relaunched the fan-created commercials, with the winning vote going to the "Free Doritos" ad, which featured an office worker (Comedian Steve Booth) with a snow globe (believing it to be a crystal ball) "predicting" that everyone in the office would get free Doritos, then subsequently throws the snow globe into a vending machine selling nothing but Nacho Cheese & Cool Ranch Doritos. The commercial was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the best ad for the year, earning the creators of the ad – Joe and Dave Herbert – a $1 million prize. They again aired two ads during the game ads and the second place ad also placed in the top five according to USA Today. This ad featured a man who discovers that each crunch from his bag of Doritos causes whatever is on his mind to become reality (until he runs out of chips). Another popular commercial from the group of finalist included an executive making a presentation to other executives on a new (fictional) Doritos flavor called "Doritos Beer", which, as the name implies, is beer-flavored Doritos, with each chip containing as much alcohol as an equivalent of a 16-oz. can of beer. The executive making the presentation, eating the beer-flavored chips, ends up drunk on the chips and is down to his underwear and a tie by the end of the commercial. For Super Bowl XLIV, four ads were entered, and if three of the commercials sweep the top three positions in that year's Ad Meter contest, all of the creators would be awarded a total of $5 million, broken down as $1 million for first place, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus each maker would get an additional $1 million.
For the Super Bowl XLIII as aired in Canada, Doritos aired the "Chip Hat" commercial advertising their new "unidentified flavor" chip flavor that offers a prize of CDN $25,000 + 1% of all associated sales to someone that can both name, and create an ad for the new flavor. The new winning name, Scream Cheese (or, in French, Fromage Fracassant), was submitted by Ryan Coopersmith of Montreal.
For the Super Bowl XLIV Doritos aired the "House Rules" commercial, as a "Crash the Super Bowl" finalist. It was ranked by ADBOWL as the second best ad of the year.
For Super Bowl XLVI, an ad aired featuring a Grandma and a baby attempting to get a bag of Doritos by a slingshot activated by a wheelchair. The bag was stolen by a child, constantly teasing them in the process. The baby reaches the bag and steals it back with just enough force to reach it. Flattering the child, Grandma and the baby eat the Doritos with ease.
For Super Bowl XLIX, the ad featured a father offering a large bag of Doritos to his son only if he made pigs fly. The son then proceeded to attach rockets to a pig and the father then gave the bag of Doritos to his son.
Other
In 2008, Doritos were promoted by an "out-of-this-world" advertising campaign, literally beaming a 30-second advertisement for Doritos brand tortilla chips into a planetary system 42 light years away. The project was in collaboration with EISCAT Space Center in Svalbard, Norway. The "You Make It, We'll Play It" contest chose the winning advertisement that was transmitted on June 12, 2008. The ad was beamed towards 47 Ursae Majoris, a distant star within the Ursa Major constellation that is orbited by planets which may harbor life.
Doritos was the main sponsor of Wolverhampton Wanderers for the 2002/03 and 2003/04 seasons, the latter of which was spent in the Premier League. Doritos officially sponsored the "Hail to the Cheese Stephen Colbert's Nacho Cheese Doritos 2008 Presidential Campaign Coverage." The money given to Colbert could not be used to directly fund his campaign, so he used the money to fund The Colbert Report. He claimed that he would not use his show to plug Doritos, but plugged the chips during these claims. After the campaign flopped, Colbert joked that his "body will stop producing bright orange waste." In March 2008, Colbert partnered with Doritos, specifically the Spicy Sweet Chili flavor, to promote his Philadelphia-based coverage of the Pennsylvania primaries.
In 2010, Doritos Canada launched a "Viralocity" competition, asking the public to name a new flavor and to produce an online video advertising the fictional new flavor. Natalie Armstrong submitted her video, and before long she received the most points based on numerous factors, including most widely viewed, winning a cash prize.
In 2010, Doritos launched for the first time in New Zealand with Nacho Cheese, Cheese Supreme, Salsa, and Salted flavors. It replaced the long-running CC's brand.
On September 20, 2011, retired Frito-Lay marketing executive Arch West, who was credited for creating Doritos as the first national tortilla chip brand, died in Dallas at age 97. It is said that corporate response showed little enthusiasm to the tortilla chip idea, but more marketing research led to the Doritos release.
To coincide with the 50th anniversary of Taco Bell, Doritos and Taco Bell partnered to form the Doritos Locos Tacos, introduced on March 8, 2012. The taco is a standard Crunchy Taco. The taco comes either as a Doritos Locos Taco Supreme (ground beef, lettuce, diced tomatoes, shredded cheese, and sour cream), or a Regular Doritos Locos Taco (ground beef, lettuce, and shredded cheese), but the taco shell is made out of Nacho Cheese Doritos. From 1978 to 1997, both Taco Bell and Doritos were under the same corporate umbrella within PepsiCo until PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business into what would eventually become what is now Yum! Brands.
In March 2012, a new line of Doritos were introduced: Doritos Jacked. The chips are 40% larger than standard Doritos.
In March 2013, Doritos redesigned its packaging and logo as part of its first global marketing campaign. The "For the Bold" campaign will use crowdsourcing initiatives from 37 countries, emphasizing Dorito's focus on its consumers "living for the moment" attitude. The campaign kicked off at the South by Southwest Music Conference.
In April 2013, Doritos released Doritos Locos Chips with Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch to match Taco Bells campaign.
In July 2014, 7-11 released a new snack called Doritos Loaded. The breaded cheese snack was released by PepsiCo's as its first frozen food product, also available in grocery stores.
Current flavors of Doritos (as of November 2014) marketed in Canada are Nacho Cheese, Zesty Cheese, Cool Ranch, Spicy Nacho, Jalapeño Cheddar, Intense Pickle, Roulette (Nacho Cheese with 1 in 7 chips being hot) and Sweet Chili Heat. Brief stints of Jacked, Taco, Guacamole, Locos Nacho (taco and nacho), Locos Cool Ranch (taco and cool ranch) and Ketchup have been introduced with Guacamole lined to make a return in early 2015. Doritos Roasted Corn, Tapatio Hot Sauce, and Salsa Verde are also popular American flavors. Other Lines of Doritos are Doritos Jacked flavors such as Buffalo Wings and Spicy Street Taco and the Dynamitas flavor lines shaped in tubes. Dynamitas come in flavors such as Chile Limon, Nacho Picoso, and Spicy Habanero flavors.
In January 2017, Doritos entered the Indonesian market. Flavors of Doritos marketed in Indonesia include Nacho Cheese, Barbecue and Roasted Corn, both of which are distributed by Indofood. It was initially imported from Saudi Arabia. As of late 2017, it is currently produced locally by Indofood Fritolay Makmur (currently Indofood Fortuna Makmur) at its factory in Tangerang, Indonesia. In September 2021, the brand of Doritos in Indonesia was renamed to Maxicorn because the license agreement between Indofood Fritolay Makmur and PepsiCo has ended.
Doritos 3D
Doritos 3D is a line of puffed Doritos introduced in the 1990s and discontinued in the United States in the mid-2000s. These snacks have been described as "Doritos-meets-Bugles". Flavors included Jalapeño Cheddar, Nacho Cheese and Zesty Ranch. The Doritos 3D line of puffed Doritos is still sold in Mexico. On December 21, 2020, it was announced that Doritos 3D would be returning to shelves on December 28. The snack is now available in Chili Cheese Nacho and Spicy Ranch flavors.
See also
List of brand name snack foods
References
Bibliography
External links
Frito-Lay North America website for Doritos
Doritos UK
Brand name snack foods
Frito-Lay brands
Products introduced in 1966
Disneyland | wiki |
Collector's Item may refer to:
Collectable, an item that is collected
Collector's Item (Apo Hiking Society album)
Collector's Item (Twelfth Night album)
Collector's Item (EP), an EP by King Diamond
Collectors' Item: All Their Greatest Hits!, album by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes
Collector's Item (Babes in Toyland album), an album by Babes in Toyland
Collector's Item (1958 TV series), a TV series that was not picked up. The pilot, "The Left Fist of David" was directed by Buzz Kulik
The Trap (1985 film) (La gabbia), an Italian film also known as Collector's Item
Collector's Item (play), a 1952 Broadway play featuring Erik Rhodes
See also
Collectors' Items, album by Miles Davis | wiki |
CCFA is an acronym which may refer to:
Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of America
See also
CFA (disambiguation)
CCFAN | wiki |
Vachellia montana is a species of legume in the family Fabaceae. The Latin specific epithet montana refers to mountains or coming from mountains.
References
montana | wiki |
Antisemitism in Islam refers to scriptural and theological teachings in Islam against Jews and Judaism, and the treatment and persecution of Jews in the Muslim world.
With the rise of Islam in Arabia in the 7th century CE and its subsequent spread during the early Muslim conquests, Jews, alongside many other peoples, became subject to the rule of Islamic polities. The quality of Muslim rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, the clergy, and the general population towards various subjugated ethnic and religious groups, ranging from tolerance to open persecution.
Scholars have studied and debated Muslim attitudes towards Jews, as well as the treatment of Jews in Islamic thought and societies throughout the history of Islam.
Range of opinions
Claude Cahen and Shelomo Dov Goitein argue against the claim that antisemitism has a long history in Muslim countries, writing that the discrimination that was practiced against non-Muslims (Kuffar) was of a general nature, so it was not specifically directed against Jews. According to these scholars, antisemitism in medieval Islam was local and sporadic rather than general and endemic.
Bernard Lewis writes that while Muslims have held negative stereotypes regarding Jews throughout most of Islamic history, these stereotypes were different from those stereotypes which accompanied European antisemitism because, unlike Christians who considered Jews objects of fear, Muslims only considered Jews objects of ridicule. He argues that Muslims did not attribute "cosmic evil" to Jews. In Lewis' view, it was only in the late 19th century that movements first appeared among Muslims that can be described as antisemitic in the European forms.
Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry state that there are mostly negative references to Jews in the Quran and Hadith, and that Islamic regimes treated Jews in degrading ways. Both the Jews and the Christians were relegated to the status of dhimmi. Schweitzer and Perry state that throughout much of history, Christians treated Jews worse than Muslims did, stating that Jews in Christian lands were subjected to worse polemics, persecutions, and massacres than Jews who lived under Muslim rule.
According to Walter Laqueur, the varying interpretations of the Quran are important for understanding Muslim attitudes towards Jews. Many Quranic verses preach tolerance towards the Jews; others make hostile remarks about them (which are similar to hostile remarks made against those who did not accept Islam). Muhammad interacted with Jews who lived in Arabia: he preached to them in the hope that he would be able to convert them, he fought against some Jews and killed many of them in war, but at the same time, he made friends with other Jews.
For Martin Kramer, the idea that contemporary antisemitism by Muslims is authentically Islamic "touches on some truths, yet it misses many others" (see antisemitism in the Arab world). Kramer believes that contemporary antisemitism is only partially due to the policies of the State of Israel, which Muslims consider an injustice and a major cause of their sense of victimhood and loss. Kramer attributes the primary causes of Muslim antisemitism to modern European ideologies, which have infected the Muslim world.
Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, a Lebanese writer and political analyst, devoted an entire chapter of her book Hizbu'llah: Politics and Religion to an analysis of Hezbollah's anti-Jewish beliefs. Saad-Ghorayeb argues that although Zionism has influenced Hezbollah's anti-Judaism, "it is not contingent upon it" because Hezbollah's hatred of Jews is more religiously motivated than politically motivated.
The Quran on Jews in its historical setting
No mention of Jews during Meccan period
Jews are not mentioned at all in verses dating from the Meccan period. According to Bernard Lewis, the coverage given to Jews is relatively insignificant.
Terms referring to Jews
Bani Israil
The Quran makes specific references to the Banū Isrāʾīl (meaning "the Children of Israel"), a term which occurs 44 times in the Quran, although it's unclear whether it refers exclusively to the Jews or both Jews and Christians as a single religious group. In the Quran, Jews are not an ethnic group but a religious group, while Banū Isrāʾīl were an ethnic group, and according to the Quran they were not following Judaism.
Yahud and Yahudi
The Arabic term Yahūd, denoting Jews, and Yahūdi occur 11 times, and the verbal form hāda (meaning "to be a Jew/Jewish") occurs 10 times. According to Khalid Durán, the negative passages use Yahūd, while the positive references speak mainly of the Banū Isrāʾīl.
Negative references to specific Jews
The references in the Quran to Jews are interpreted in different ways. According to Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry, these references are "mostly negative". According to Tahir Abbas, the general references to Jews are favorable, with only those addressed to particular groups of Jews containing harsh criticisms.
Adoption of Jewish practices
According to Bernard Lewis and other scholars, the earliest verses of the Quran were largely sympathetic to Jews. Muhammad admired them as monotheists and saw them as natural adherents to the new faith, and Jewish practices helped model early Islamic behavior, such as midday prayer, prayers on Friday, Ramadan fasting (modelled after the Jewish Yom Kippur fast on the tenth of the month of Tishrei), and most famously the fact that until 623 CE Muslims prayed toward Jerusalem, not Mecca.
Constitution of Medina and religious liberty
After his flight (al-hijra) from Mecca in 622 CE, Muhammad with his followers settled in Yathrib, subsequently renamed Medina al-Nabi ('City of the Prophet') where he managed to draw up a 'social contract', widely referred to as the Constitution of Medina. This contract, known as "the Leaf" (ṣaḥīfa) upheld the peaceful coexistence between Muslims, Jews, and Christians, defining them all, under given conditions, as constituting the Ummah, or "community" of that city, and granting the latter freedom of religious thought and practice. Yathrib/Medina was not homogeneous. Alongside the 200 odd emigrants from Mecca (the Muhājirūn), who had followed Muhammad, its population consisted of the Faithful of Medina (Anṣār, "the Helpers"), Arab Pagans, three Jewish tribes, and some Christians. The foundational constitution sought to establish, for the first time in history according to Ali Khan, a formal agreement guaranteeing interfaith conviviality, albeit ringed with articles emphasizing strategic cooperation in the defense of the city.
In paragraph 16 of this document, it states that: 'Those Jews who follow us are entitled to our aid and support so long as they shall not have wronged us or lent assistance (to any enemies) against us'.
Paragraph 37 has it that 'To the Jews their own expenses and to the Muslims theirs. They shall help one another in the event of any attack on the people covered by this document. There shall be sincere friendship, exchange of good counsel, fair conduct and no treachery between them.' The three local Jewish tribes were the Banu Nadir, the Banu Qurayza, and the Banu Qaynuqa. While Muhammad clearly had no prejudice against them, and appears to have regarded his own message as substantially the same as that received by Jews on Sinai, tribal politics, and Muhammad's deep frustration at Jewish refusals to accept his prophethood, quickly led to a break with all three.
Hostility between Muslims and Banu Qaunuqa
The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina in 624 CE. In March 624 CE, Muslims led by Muhammad defeated the Meccans of the Banu Quraysh tribe in the Battle of Badr. Ibn Ishaq writes that a dispute broke out between the Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa (the allies of the Khazraj tribe) soon afterwards. When a Muslim woman visited a jeweler's shop in the Qaynuqa marketplace, she was pestered to uncover her hair. The goldsmith, a Jew, pinned her clothing such that, upon getting up, she was stripped naked. A Muslim man coming upon the resulting commotion killed the shopkeeper in retaliation. A mob of Jews from the Qaynuqa tribe then pounced on the Muslim man and killed him. This escalated to a chain of revenge killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa.
Traditional Islamic sources view these episodes as a violation of the Constitution of Medina. Muhammad himself regarded this as casus belli. However, Western scholars and historians do not find in these events the underlying reason for Muhammad's attack on the Qaynuqa. Fred Donner argues that Muhammad turned against the Banu Qaynuqa because as artisans and traders, the latter were in close contact with Meccan merchants. Weinsinck views the episodes cited by the Muslim historians used to justify their expulsion, such as a Jewish goldsmith humiliating a Muslim woman, as having no more than anecdotal value. He writes that the Jews had assumed a contentious attitude towards Muhammad, and as a group possessing substantial independent power, they posed a great danger. Wensinck thus concludes that Muhammad, strengthened by the victory at the Battle of Badr, soon resolved to eliminate the Jewish opposition to himself. Norman Stillman also believes that Muhammad decided to move against the Jews of Medina after being strengthened in the wake of the Battle of Badr.
Muhammad then approached the Banu Qaynuqa, gathering them in the market place and warned them to stop their hostility lest they suffer the same fate that happened to the Quraish at Badr. He also told them to accept Islam saying he was a prophet sent by God as per their scriptures. The tribe responded by mocking Muhammad's followers for accepting him as a prophet and also mocked their victory at Badr saying the Quraish had no knowledge of war. They then warned him that if he ever fought with them, he will know that they were real men. This response was viewed as a declaration of war. Muhammad then besieged the Banu Qaynuqa after which the tribe surrendered unconditionally and were later expelled from Medina.
In 625 CE, the Banu Nadir tribe was evicted from Medina after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad. In 627 CE, when the Quraysh and their allies besieged the city in the Battle of the Trench, the Qurayza initially tried to remain neutral but eventually entered into negotiations with the besieging army, violating the pact they had agreed to years earlier. Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and their men were beheaded. The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the Islamic warriors that had participated in the siege and among the emigrees from Mecca who had hitherto depended on the help of the Muslims native to Medina. Although the Banu Qurayza never took up arms against Muhammad or the Muslims, they entered into negotiations with the invading army and violated the Constitution of Medina. However, Nuam ibn Masud was able to sow discord between the invading forces and Banu Qurayza, thus breaking down the negotiations.
Verses from the Quran
As a result, the direction of Muslim prayer was shifted towards Mecca from Jerusalem, and the most negative Quranic verses about Jews were set down after this time. According to Laqueur, conflicting statements about Jews in the Quran have affected Muslim attitudes towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising Islamic fundamentalism.
Judaism in Islamic theology
According to Bernard Lewis, there is nothing in Islamic theology (with a single exception) that can be considered refutations of Judaism or ferocious anti-Jewish diatribes. Lewis and Chanes suggest that, for a variety of reasons, Muslims were not antisemitic for the most part. The Quran, like Judaism, orders Muslims to profess strict monotheism. It also rejects the stories of Jewish deicide as a blasphemous absurdity, and other similar stories in the Gospels play no part in the Muslim educational system. The Quran does not present itself as a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible but rather a restoration of its original message – thus, no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam can arise.
In addition, Lewis argues that the Quran lacks popular Western traditions of 'guilt and betrayal'. Rosenblatt and Pinson suggest that the Quran teaches toleration of Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith.
Lewis adds that negative attributes ascribed to subject religions (in this case Judaism and Christianity) are usually expressed in religious and social terms, but only very rarely in ethnic or racial terms. However, this does sometimes occur. The language of abuse is often quite strong. It has been argued that the conventional Muslim epithets for Jews, apes, and Christians, pigs derive from Quranic usage. Lewis adduces three passages in the Quran (, , ) used to ground this view. The interpretation of these 'enigmatic' passages in Islamic exegetics is highly complex, dealing as they do with infractions like breaking the Sabbath,. According to Goitein, the idea of Jewish Sabbath breakers turning into apes may reflect the influence of Yemeni midrashim. Firestone notes that the Qurayza tribe itself is described in Muslim sources as using the trope of being turned into apes if one breaks the Sabbath to justify not exploiting the Sabbath in order to attack Mohammad, when they were under siege.
According to Stillman, the Quran praises Moses, and depicts the Israelites as the recipients of divine favour. The Quran dedicates many verses to the glorification of Hebrew prophets, says Leon Poliakov. He quotes verse as an example,
And We blessed him with Isaac and Jacob. We guided them all as We previously guided Noah and those among his descendants: David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron. This is how We reward the good-doers. Likewise, ˹We guided˺ Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elias, who were all of the righteous. ˹We also guided˺ Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah, and Lot, favouring each over other people ˹of their time˺.
Islamic remarks on Jews
Leon Poliakov, Walter Laqueur, and Jane Gerber, argue that passages in the Quran reproach Jews for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God. "The Quran is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament." The Muslim holy text defined the Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods when Islamic fundamentalism was on the rise.
Walter Laqueur states that the Quran and its interpreters have a great many conflicting things to say about the Jews. Jews are said to be treacherous and hypocritical and could never be friends with a Muslim.
Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry state that references to Jews in the Quran are mostly negative. The Quran states that wretchedness and baseness were stamped upon the Jews, and they were visited with wrath from Allah, that was because they disbelieved in Allah's revelations and slew the prophets wrongfully. And for their taking usury, which was prohibited for them, and because of their consuming people's wealth under false pretense, a painful punishment was prepared for them. The Quran requires their "abasement and poverty" in the form of the poll tax jizya. In his "wrath" God has "cursed" the Jews and will turn them into apes/monkeys and swine and idol worshipers because they are "infidels".
According to Martin Kramer, the Quran speaks of Jews in a negative way and reports instances of Jewish treachery against the Islamic prophet Muhammad. However, Islam did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes nor did it portray treachery as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places. The Quran also attests to Muhammad's amicable relations with Jews.
While traditional religious supremacism played a role in the Islamic view of Jews, the same attitude applied to Christians and other non-Muslims. Islamic tradition regards Jews as a legitimate community of believers in God (called "people of the Book") legally entitled to sufferance.
The Quran clears Jews from the accusation of murdering the messiah, and states "That they said (in boast), 'We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah';- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them". They also argue that the Jewish Bible has not been incorporated in the Islamic text, and "virtuous Muslims" are not contrasted with "stiff-necked, criminal Jews".
The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse . It says:
However, due to the Quran's timely process of story-telling, some scholars argue that all references to Jews or other groups within the Quran refers to only certain populations at a certain point in history. Also, the Quran praises some Jews in :
"Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve."
The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, " ... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers." () In the mainstream Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in failure. According to Gerber, in numerous verses (; ; ; ; , , ; ) the Quran accuses Jews of altering the Scripture. According to Gabriel Said Reynolds, "the Qur’ān makes 'the killing of the prophets' one of the principal characteristics of the Jews"; although the Quran emphasizes the killing of the Jewish prophets by the Israelites, Reynolds remarks that none of them were killed by the Israelites according to the Biblical account.
But the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, adding to the idea that the Jewish people or their religion itself are not the target of the story-telling process. Rubin claims the criticisms deal mainly "with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament." The Quran also speaks favorably of Jews. Though it also criticizes them for not being grateful for God's blessing on them, the harsh criticisms are only addressed towards a particular group of Jews, which is clear from the context of the Quranic verses, but translations usually confuse this by using the general term "Jews". To judge Jews based on the deeds of some of their ancestors is an anti-Quranic idea.
Ali S. Asani suggests that the Quran endorses the establishment of religiously and culturally plural societies and this endorsement has affected the treatment of religious minorities in Muslim lands throughout history. He cites the endorsement of pluralism to explain why violent forms of antisemitism generated in medieval and modern Europe, culminating in the Holocaust, never occurred in regions under Muslim rule.
Some verses of the Quran, notably , preach tolerance towards members of the Jewish faith. According to Kramer, Jews are regarded as members of a legitimate community of believers in God, "people of the Book", and therefore legally entitled to sufferance.
As one of the five pillars of Islam Muslims perform daily Salat prayers, which involves reciting the first chapter of the Qur'an, the Al-Fatiha. Most commentators suggest that the description, "those who earn Thine anger" in refers to the Jews. Israel Shrenzel, former chief analyst in the Arabic section of the research division of the Shin Bet and a current teacher in Tel Aviv University’s department of Arabic and Islamic studies wrote, "Given that there is contradiction between the content and message of the two groups of verses – those hostile to Jews and those tolerant toward them – the question is which group is to be adopted nowadays by the Muslim scholars and masses. The more dominant view adheres to the first group".
In 567, Khaybar was invaded and vacated of its Jewish inhabitants by the Ghassanid Arab Christian king Al-Harith ibn Jabalah. He later freed to the captives upon his return to the Levant. A brief account of the campaign is given by Ibn Qutaybah, and confirmed by the Harran Inscription. See Irfan Shahid's Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century for full details.
In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims when they entered Khaybar — a siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point out to an intense trade carried out by the Jews. In the past some scholars attempted to explain the siege-engine by suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of the community. Today most academics believe it was stored in a depôt for future sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks may have been intended for sale, as it was unlikely that such a quantity of luxury goods were kept for the exclusive use of the Jews.
The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or basalt rocks.
Jews continued to live in the oasis for several more years afterwards until they were finally expelled by caliph Umar. The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews of the Khaybar Fortress served as a precedent. Islamic law came to require exaction of tribute known as jizya from dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims under Muslim rule.
For many centuries, the oasis at Khaybar was an important caravan stopping place. The center developed around a series of ancient dams built to hold run-off water from the rain. Around the water catchments, date palms grew. Khaybar became an important date-producing center.
The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Quran and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse : "And remember ye said: "O Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, garlic, lentils, and onions." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing."
Two verses later we read: "And ˹remember˺ when We took a covenant from you and raised the mountain above you ˹saying˺, “Hold firmly to that ˹Scripture˺ which We have given you and observe its teachings so perhaps you will become mindful ˹of Allah˺.” Yet you turned away afterwards. Had it not been for Allah's grace and mercy upon you, you would have certainly been of the losers. You are already aware of those of you who broke the Sabbath. We said to them, “Be disgraced apes!” So We made their fate an example to present and future generations, and a lesson to the God-fearing."
The Quran associates Jews with rejection of God's prophets including Jesus and Muhammad, thus explaining their resistance to him personally. (Cf. Surah ; , 61, 70, and 82.) It also asserts that Jews and Christians claim to be children of God (Surah ), and that only they will achieve salvation (Surah ). According to the Quran, Jews blasphemously claim that Ezra is the son of God, as Christians claim Jesus is, (Surah ) and that God's hand is fettered (Surah – i.e., that they can freely defy God). Some of those who are Jews, "pervert words from their meanings", (Surah ), and because they have committed wrongdoing, God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", thus explaining Jewish commandments regarding food, Sabbath restrictions on work, and other rulings as a punishment from God (Surah ). They listen for the sake of mendacity (Surah ), twisting the truth, and practice forbidden usury, and therefore they will receive "a painful doom" (Surah ). The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers"(Surah ). In the Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the supposed Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure. In numerous verses (Surah , ; , ; , , ; ) the Quran accuses Jews of deliberately obscuring and perverting scripture.
Influence of Western antisemitism
Martin Kramer argues that "Islamic tradition did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes—as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places." Thus for Muslims to embrace the belief that the Jews are the eternal "enemies of God", there must be more at work than the Islamic tradition. Islamic tradition does, however, provide the sources for Islamic antisemitism and "there is no doubt whatsoever that the Islamic tradition provides sources on which Islamic antisemitism now feeds." The modern use of the Quran to support antisemitism is, however, selective and distorting. The fact that many Islamic thinkers have spent time in the West has resulted in the absorption of antisemitism, he says. Specifically, Kramer believes that the twin concepts of the "eternal Jew" as the enemy of God and the "arch conspirator" are themes that are borrowed "from the canon of Western religious and racial antisemitism." In his view, Islamic antisemitism is "[l]Like other antisemitism" in that "it has its origins in the anti-rational ideologies of modern Europe, which have now infected the Islamic world."
Muhammad and Jews
During Muhammad's life, Jews lived on the Arabian Peninsula, especially in and around Medina. Muhammad is known to have had a Jewish wife, Safiyya bint Huyayy, who subsequently converted to Islam. Safiyya, who was previously the wife of Kenana ibn al-Rabi, was selected by Muhammad as his bride after the Battle of Khaybar.
According to Islamic sources, the Medinian Jews began to develop friendly alliances with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca so they could overthrow him, despite the fact that they promised not to overthrow him in the treaty of the Constitution of Medina and promised to take the side of him and his followers and fight against their enemies. Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the third one was wiped out. The Banu Qaynuqa was expelled for their hostility against the Muslims and for mocking them. The Banu Nadir was expelled after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad. The last one, the Banu Qurayza, was wiped out after the Battle of Trench where they attempted to ally themselves with the invading Quraish.
Samuel Rosenblatt opines these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively against Jews, and Muhammad was more severe with his pagan Arab kinsmen. In addition, Muhammad's conflict with Jews was considered of rather minor importance. According to Lewis, since the clash of Judaism and Islam was resolved and ended with the victory of the Muslims during Muhammad's lifetime, no unresolved theological dispute among Muslims fueled antisemitism. There is also a difference between the Jewish denial of the Christian message and the Jewish denial of the Muslim message, because Muhammad never claimed to be the Messiah nor did he claim to be the Son of God, however, he is referred to as "the Apostle of God." The cause of Muhammad's death is disputable, though the Hadiths tend to suggest he may have eventually succumbed to poison after having been poisoned at Khaybar by one of the surviving Jewish widows.
According to Rosenblatt, Muhammad's disputes with the neighboring Jewish tribes left no marked traces on his immediate successors (known as Caliphs). The first Caliphs generally based their treatment of Jews upon the Quranic verses which encourage tolerance of them. Classical commentators viewed Muhammad's struggle with the Jews as a minor episode in his career, but the interpretation of it has shifted in modern times.
Hadith
The hadith (recordings of deeds and sayings attributed to Muhammad) use both the terms Banu Israil and Yahud in relation to Jews, the latter term becoming ever more frequent and appearing mostly in negative context. For example, Jews were "cursed and changed into rats" in see also According to Norman Stillman:
Jews in Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God". The Yahūd in this literature appear not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly and totally lacking resolve. However, they have none of the demonic qualities attributed to them in mediaeval Christian literature, neither is there anything comparable to the overwhelming preoccupation with Jews and Judaism (except perhaps in the narratives on Muhammad's encounters with Medinan Jewry) in Muslim traditional literature. Except for a few notable exceptions ... the Jews in the Sira and the Maghazi are even heroic villains. Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them"
Sahih Muslim and Sahih Bukhari record various recensions of a hadith where Muhammad had prophesied that the Day of Judgment will not come until Muslims and Jews fight each other. The Muslims will kill the Jews with such success that they will then hide behind stones or both trees and stones according to various recensions, which will then cry out to a Muslim that a Jew is hiding behind them and ask them to kill him. The only one not to do so will be the Gharqad tree as it is the tree of the Jews. Different interpretations about the Gharqad tree mentioned in the Hadith exists. One of the interpretations is that the Gharqad tree is an actual tree. Israelis have been alleged to plant the tree around various locations for e.g., their settlements in West Bank and Gaza, around Israel Museum and the Knesset. Other claims about the tree are that it grows outside Herod's Gate or that it is actually a bush that grows outside Jaffa Gate which some Muslims believe where Jesus will return to Earth and slay the Dajjal, following the final battle between the Muslims and unbelievers which some believe will take place directly below the Jaffa Gate below the Sultan's Pool. Another interpretation that exists is that the mention of the Gharqad tree is symbolic and is in reference to all the forces of the world believed to conspire with the Jews against Muslims.
The following hadith which forms a part of these Sahih Muslim hadiths has been quoted many times, and it became a part of the charter of Hamas.
According to Schweitzer and Perry, the hadith are "even more scathing (than the Quran) in attacking the Jews":
They are debased, cursed, anathematized forever by God and so can never repent and be forgiven; they are cheats and traitors; defiant and stubborn; they killed the prophets; they are liars who falsify scripture and take bribes; as infidels they are ritually unclean, a foul odor emanating from them – such is the image of the Jew in classical Islam, degraded and malevolent.
Pre-modern Islam
Jerome Chanes, Pinson, Rosenblatt, Mark R. Cohen, Norman Stillman, Uri Avnery, M. Klien, and Bernard Lewis all argue that antisemitism did not emerge in the Muslim world until modern times, because in their view, it was rare in pre-modern Islam. Lewis argues that there is no sign that any deep-rooted feeling of emotional hostility that can be characterized as antisemitism was directed against Jews or any other group. There were, however, clearly negative attitudes, which were partially due to the "normal" feelings of a dominant group towards subject groups. More specifically, the contempt consisted of Muslim contempt for disbelievers.
Literature
According to Lewis, the outstanding characteristic of the classical Islamic view of Jews is their unimportance. The religious, philosophical, and literary Islamic writings tended to ignore Jews and focused more on Christianity. Although the Jews received little praise or even respect and were sometimes blamed for various misdeeds, there were no fears of Jewish conspiracy and domination, nor any charges of diabolic evil, nor accusations of poisoning the wells nor spreading the plague nor were they even accused of engaging in blood libels until Ottomans learned the concept from their Greek subjects in the 15th century.
Poliakov writes that various examples of medieval Muslim literature portray Judaism as an exemplary pinnacle of faith, and Israel being destined by this virtue. He quotes stories from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights that portray Jews as pious, virtuous and devoted to God, and seem to borrow plots from midrashim. However, Poliakov writes that treatment of Jews in Muslim literature varies, and the tales are meant for pure entertainment, with no didactic aim.
After Ibn Nagraela, a Jew, attacked the Quran by alleging various contradictions in it, Ibn Hazm, a Moor, criticized him furiously. Ibn Hazm wrote that Ibn Nagraela was "filled with hatred" and "conceited in his vile soul".
According to Schweitzer and Perry, some literature during the 10th and 11th century "made Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims". This propaganda sometimes even resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Jews. An 11th-century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and blames them for causing social decay, betraying Muslims and poisoning food and water.
Martin Kramer writes that in Islamic tradition, in striking contrast with the Christian concept of the eternal Jew, the contemporary Jews were not presented as archetypes—as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places.
Life under Muslim rule
Jews, Christians, Sabians, and Zoroastrians living under early and medieval Muslim rule were known as "People of the Book" to Muslims and held the status of dhimmi, a status that was later also extended to other non-Muslims like Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. As dhimmi they were to be tolerated, and entitled to the protection and resources of the Ummah, or Muslim community. In return, they had to pay a tax known as the jizya in accordance with the Quran. Lewis and Poliakov argue that Jewish communities enjoyed toleration and limited rights as long as they accepted Muslim superiority. These rights were legally established and enforced. The restrictions on dhimmi included: payment of higher taxes; at some locations, being forced to wear clothing or some other insignia distinguishing them from Muslims; sometimes barred from holding public office, bearing arms or riding a horse; disqualified as witnesses in litigation involving Muslims; at some locations and times, dhimmi were prevented from repairing existing or erecting new places of worship. Proselytizing on behalf of any faith but Islam was barred.
Dhimmi were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which varied with time and place. Restrictions included residency in segregated quarters, obligation to wear distinctive clothing such as the Yellow badge, public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and against marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal system (the testimony of a dhimmi did not count if contradicted by that of a Muslim). Dhimmi had to pay a special poll tax (the jizya), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the zakat alms tax required of Muslims. In return, dhimmi were granted limited rights, including a degree of tolerance, community autonomy in personal matters, and protection from being killed outright. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim rulers.
By medieval standards, conditions for Jews under Islam were generally more formalized and better than those of Jews in Christian lands, in part due to the sharing of minority status with Christians in these lands. There is evidence for this claim in that the status of Jews in lands with no Christian minority was usually worse than their status in lands with one. For example, there were numerous incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews in North Africa, especially in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos. Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen. At certain times in Yemen, Morocco, and Baghdad, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face the death penalty.
Later additions to the code included prohibitions on adopting Arab names, studying the Quran, and selling alcoholic beverages. Abdul Aziz Said writes that the Islamic concept of dhimmi, when applied, allowed other cultures to flourish and prevented the general rise of antisemitism. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:
It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.
Schweitzer and Perry give as examples of early Muslim antisemitism: 9th-century "persecution and outbreaks of violence"; 10th- and 11th-century antisemitic propaganda that "made Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims". This propaganda "inspired outbreaks of violence and caused many casualties in Egypt". An 11th-century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and alleges that "society is nearing collapse on account of Jewish wealth and domination, their exploitation and betrayal of Muslims; that Jews worship the devil, physicians poison their patients, and Jews poison food and water as required by Judaism, and so on."
Jews under Muslim rule rarely faced martyrdom, exile, or forced conversion to Islam, and they were fairly free to choose their residence and profession. Their freedom and economic condition varied from time to time and place to place. Forced conversions occurred mostly in the Maghreb, especially under the Almohads, a militant dynasty with messianic claims, as well as in Persia, where Shia Muslims were generally less tolerant than their Sunni counterparts. Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters (mellah) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century.
Egypt and Iraq
The caliphs of Fatimid dynasty in Egypt were known to be Judeophiles, according to Leon Poliakov. They paid regularly to support the Jewish institutions (such as the rabbinical academy of Jerusalem). A significant number of their ministers and counselors were Jews. The Abbasids too similarly were respectful and tolerant towards the Jews under their rule. Benjamin of Tudela, a famous 12th-century Jewish explorer, described the Caliph al-Abbasi as a "great king and kind unto Israel". Benjamin also further goes on to describe about al-Abassi that "many belonging to the people of Israel are his attendants, he knows all languages and is well-versed in the Law of Israel. He reads and writes the holy language [Hebrew]." He further mentions Muslims and Jews being involved in common devotions, such as visiting the grave of Ezekiel, whom both religions regard as a prophet.
Iberian Peninsula
With the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Spanish Judaism flourished for several centuries. Thus, what some refer to as the "golden age" for Jews began. During this period the Muslims of Spain tolerated other religions, including Judaism, and created a heterodox society.
Muslim relations with Jews in Spain were not always peaceful, however. The eleventh century saw Muslim pogroms against Jews in Spain; those occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. In the 1066 Granada massacre, a Muslim mob crucified the Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred about 4,000 Jews. The Muslim grievance involved was that some Jews had become wealthy, and others had advanced to positions of power.
The Almohad dynasty, which seized rule over Muslim Iberia in the 12th century, offered Christians and Jews the choice of conversion or expulsion; in 1165, one of their rulers ordered that all Jews in the country convert on pain of death (forcing the Jewish rabbi, theologian, philosopher, and physician Maimonides to feign conversion to Islam before fleeing the country). In Egypt, Maimonides resumed practicing Judaism openly only to be accused of apostasy. He was saved from death by Saladin's chief administrator, who held that conversion under coercion is invalid.
During his wanderings, Maimonides also wrote The Yemen Epistle, a famous letter to the Jews of Yemen, who were then experiencing severe persecution at the hands of their Muslim rulers. In it, Maimonides describes his assessment of the treatment of the Jews at the hands of Muslims: ... on account of our sins God has cast us into the midst of this people, the nation of Ishmael [that is, Muslims], who persecute us severely, and who devise ways to harm us and to debase us.... No nation has ever done more harm to Israel. None has matched it in debasing and humiliating us. None has been able to reduce us as they have.... We have borne their imposed degradation, their lies, their absurdities, which are beyond human power to bear.... We have done as our sages of blessed memory have instructed us, bearing the lies and absurdities of Ishmael.... In spite of all this, we are not spared from the ferocity of their wickedness and their outbursts at any time. On the contrary, the more we suffer and choose to conciliate them, the more they choose to act belligerently toward us.
Mark Cohen quotes Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, a specialist in medieval European Jewish history, who cautioned that Maimonides' condemnation of Islam should be understood "in the context of the harsh persecutions of the 12th century and that furthermore one may say that he was insufficiently aware of the status of the Jews in Christian lands, or did not pay attention to this, when he wrote the letter". Cohen continues by quoting Ben-Sasson, who argues that Jews generally had a better legal and security situation in Muslim countries than Jews had in Christendom.
Ottoman Empire
While some Muslim states declined, the Ottoman Empire rose as the "greatest Muslim state in history". As long as the empire flourished, the Jews did as well, according to Schweitzer and Perry. In contrast with their treatment of Christians, the Ottomans were more tolerant of Jews and promoted their economic development. The Jews flourished as great merchants, financiers, government officials, traders and artisans. The Ottomans also allowed some Jewish immigration to what was then referred to as Syria, which allowed for Zionists to establish permanent settlements in the 1880s.
Contrast with Christian Europe
Lewis states that in contrast with Christian antisemitism, the attitude of Muslims towards non-Muslims is not one of hate, fear, or envy, but rather contempt. This contempt is expressed in various ways, such as an abundance of polemic literature which attacks the Christians and occasionally, it also attacks the Jews. "The negative attributes ascribed to the subject religions and their followers are usually expressed in religious and social terms, very rarely are they expressed in ethnic or racial terms, though this sometimes does occur." The language of abuse is often quite strong. The conventional epithets are apes for Jews, and pigs for Christians. Lewis continues with several examples of regulations which symbolize the inferiority that non-Muslims who lived under Muslim rule had to live with, such as different formulae of greetings when addressing Jews and Christians than when addressing Muslims (both in conversations or correspondences), and forbidding Jews and Christians from choosing names that Muslims chose for their children during Ottoman rule.
Schweitzer and Perry argue that there are two general views of the status of Jews under Islam, the traditional "golden age" and the revisionist "persecution and pogrom" interpretations. The former was first promulgated by Jewish historians in the 19th century as a rebuke of the Christian treatment of Jews, and it was taken up by Arab Muslims after 1948 as "an Arab-Islamist weapon in what is primarily an ideological and political struggle against Israel". The revisionists argue that this idealized view ignores "a catalog of lesser-known hatred and massacres". Mark Cohen concurs with this view, arguing that the "myth of an interfaith utopia" went unchallenged until it was adopted by Arabs as a "propaganda weapon against Zionism", and that this "Arab polemical exploitation" was met with the "counter-myth" of the "neo-lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history", which also "cannot be maintained in the light of historical reality".
Antisemitism in the Islamic Middle East
Antisemitism has increased in the Muslim world during modern times. While Bernard Lewis and Uri Avnery date the increase in antisemitism to the establishment of Israel, M. Klein suggests that antisemitism could have been present in the mid-19th century.
Scholars point to European influences, including those of the Nazis (see below), and the establishment of Israel as the root causes of antisemitism. Norman Stillman explains that increased European commercial, missionary and imperialist activities during the 19th and 20th centuries brought antisemitic ideas to the Muslim world. Initially these prejudices only found a reception among Arab Christians because they were too foreign to gain any widespread acceptance among Muslims. However, with the rise of the Arab–Israeli conflict, European antisemitism began to gain acceptance in modern literature.
17th century
One of the most prominent acts of Islamic antisemitism took place in Yemen between 1679–1680, in an event known as the Mawza Exile. During this event the Jews living in nearly all cities and towns throughout Yemen were banished by decree of the Imam of Yemen, Al-Mahdi Ahmad.
19th century
According to Mark Cohen, Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose relatively recently, in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalisms, and it was primarily imported into the Arab world by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamised").
The Damascus affair occurred in 1840, when an Italian monk and his servant disappeared in Damascus. Immediately following it, a charge of ritual murder was brought against a large number of Jews in the city. All of them were found guilty. The consuls of Britain, France and Austria protested against the persecution to the Ottoman authorities, and Christians, Muslims and Jews all played a great role in this affair.
A massacre of Jews also occurred in Baghdad in 1828. There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867.
In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. This is known as the Allahdad incident. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.
Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."
20th century
Origins
The origins of modern antisemitic trends in the Islamic World can be traced back to the ideas of the Syrian-Egyptian Salafist theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE), who turned highly antisemitic after the British imperial designs on the Arab World after World War 1 and their co-operation with Zionists to further British objectives. The 1988 Hamas Charter, and particularly its Articles 7 and 22, represented a condensed version of the pan-Islamist anti-Jewish ideas cultivated by Rashid Rida. Rida believed that the international Jewry contributed to Germany's defeat in the First World War; in exchange for Britain's promise to grant them Palestine. Furthermore; he asserted that they controlled Western Banking System and Capitalist system, created Communism in Eastern Europe and led Freemasonry to plot against World Nations. He also drew from Islamic traditions that displayed hostility to Jews and popularised them; rendering the conflict with the Zionists an apocalyptic religious dimension. Rida would persistently cite hadiths regarding the End Times Jewish-Muslim conflicts; some of which would be included in the future Charter of Hamas, such as:
The Jews will fight you and you will be led to dominate them until the rock cries out: "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, kill him!"Rashid Rida condemned the Jews for their arrogance towards the Prophets and arraigned them for abandoning religious values for materialism, all which made them recipients of Divine Wrath; which led to their downfall. He asserted that Allah decreed Muslims to construct Masjid al-Aqsa in the ruins of the Temple in Jerusalem and favoured Muslims to rule the Holy Lands by implementing shari'a (Islamic law) and upholding Tawhid. Rashid Rida's anti-Zionism was part of his wider campaign as a towering figure in the Pan-Islamist movement and would immensely impact subsequent Islamist, Jihadist and anti-colonial activists. He also severly rebuked Christian Zionists, writing:
Early massacres
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912. There were Nazi-inspired pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in Iraq and Libya in the 1940s (see Farhud). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.
American academic Bernard Lewis and others have charged that standard antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the publications of Arab Islamist movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi, the Turkish Islamic party whose head served as prime minister in 1996–97." Lewis has also written that the language of abuse is often quite strong, arguing that the conventional epithets for Jews and Christians are apes and pigs, respectively.
On March 1, 1994, Rashid Baz, an American Muslim living in Brooklyn, New York, shot at a van carrying Hassidic Jewish students over the Brooklyn Bridge. The students were returning to Brooklyn after visiting their ailing leader, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, who suffered a stroke two years earlier. Ari Halberstam, one of the students, was killed. Others were wounded. Baz was quoted in his confession in 2007 as saying, "I only shot them because they were Jewish."
Relations between Nazi Germany and Muslim countries
Some Arabs found common cause with Nazi Germany against colonial regimes in the Middle East. The influence of the Nazis grew in the Arab world during the 1930s. Egypt, Syria, and Iran are claimed to have harbored Nazi war criminals, though they have rejected this charge. With the recruiting help of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar, mostly formed by Muslims in 1943, was the first non-Germanic SS division.
Amin al-Husseini
The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, a pupil of Muhammad Rashid Rida, attempted to create an alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in order to obstruct the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and hinder any emigration by Jewish refugees from the Holocaust there. Historians debate to what extent al-Husseini's fierce opposition to Zionism was based on Arab nationalism or antisemitism, or a combination of the two.
On March 31, 1933, within weeks of Hitler's rise to power in Germany, al-Husseini sent a telegram to Berlin addressed to the German Consul-General in the British Mandate of Palestine saying that Muslims in Palestine and elsewhere looked forward to spreading their ideology in the Middle East. Al-Husseini secretly met the German Consul-General near the Dead Sea in 1933 and expressed his approval of the anti-Jewish boycott in Germany and asked him not to send any Jews to Palestine. Later that year, the Mufti's assistants approached Wolff, seeking his help in establishing an Arab National Socialist party in Palestine. Reports reaching the foreign offices in Berlin showed high levels of Arab admiration of Hitler.
Al-Husseini met the German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop on November 20, 1941, and was officially received by Hitler on November 30, 1941, in Berlin. He asked Hitler for a public declaration that "recognized and sympathized with the Arab struggles for independence and liberation, and that it would support the elimination of a national Jewish homeland", and he submitted to the German government a draft of such a declaration, containing the clause.
Al-Husseini aided the Axis cause in the Middle East by issuing a fatwa for a holy war against Britain in May 1941. The Mufti's proclamation against Britain was declared in Iraq, where he was instrumental in the outbreak of the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941. During the war, the Mufti repeatedly made requests to "the German government to bomb Tel Aviv".
Al-Husseini was involved in the organization and recruitment of Bosnian Muslims into several divisions of the Waffen SS and other units. and also blessed sabotage teams trained by Germans before they were dispatched to Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan.
Iraq
In March 1940, General Rashid Ali, a nationalist Iraqi officer forced the pro-British Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri Said Pasha, to resign. In May, he declared jihad against Great Britain, effectively issued a declaration of war. Forty days later, British troops had defeated his forces and occupied the country. The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état occurred on April 3, 1941, when the regime of the Regent 'Abd al-Ilah was overthrown, and Rashid Ali was installed as Prime Minister.
In 1941, following Rashid Ali's pro-Axis coup, riots known as the Farhud broke out in Baghdad in which approximately 180 Jews were killed and about 240 were wounded, 586 Jewish-owned businesses were looted and 99 Jewish houses were destroyed.
Iraq initially forbade the emigration of its Jews after the 1948 war on the grounds that allowing them to go to Israel would strengthen that state, but they were allowed to emigrate again after 1950, if they agreed to forgo their assets.
The Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Iraq and Kurdistan
Jews and Assyrian Christians forced migrations between 1842 and the 21st century
In his recent PhD thesis and his recent book the Israeli scholar Mordechai Zaken discussed the history of the Assyrian Christians of Turkey and Iraq (in the Kurdish vicinity) during the last 90 years, from 1843 onwards. In his studies Zaken outlines three major eruptions that took place between 1843 and 1933 during which the Assyrian Christians lost their land and hegemony in their habitat in the Hakkārī (or Julamerk) region in southeastern Turkey and became refugees in other lands, notably Iran and Iraq, and they ultimately established exiled communities in European and western countries (the US, Canada, Australia, New-Zealand, Sweden, France, to mention some of these countries). Mordechai Zaken wrote this study from an analytical and comparative point of view, comparing the Assyrian Christians' experience with the experience of the Kurdish Jews who had been dwelling in Kurdistan for two thousand years or so, but were forced to emigrate to Israel in the early 1950s. The Jews of Kurdistan were forced to leave as a result of the Arab-Israeli war, as a result of increasing hostility and acts of violence which were committed against Jews in Iraqi and Kurdish towns and villages, and as a result of a new situation that developed during the 1940s in Iraq and Kurdistan in which the ability of Jews to live in relative comfort and tolerance (that was disrupted from time to time prior to that period) with their Arab and Muslim neighbors, as they had done for many years, practically came to an end. In the end, the Jews of Kurdistan had to leave their Kurdish habitat en masse and migrate into Israel. The Assyrian Christians, on the other hand, suffered a similar fate but they migrated in stages following each political crisis with the regime in whose boundaries they lived or following each conflict with their Muslim, Turkish, or Arab neighbors, or following the departure or expulsion of their patriarch Mar Shimon in 1933, first to Cyprus and then to the United States. Consequently, although there is still a small and fragile community of Assyrians in Iraq, today, millions of Assyrian Christians live in exiled and prosperous communities in the west.
Iran
Although Iran was officially neutral during the Second World War, Reza Shah sympathized with Nazi Germany, making the Jewish community fearful of possible persecutions. Although these fears did not materialise, anti-Jewish articles were published in the Iranian media. Following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941, Reza Shah was deposed and replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
However, Kaveh Farrokh argues that there is a misconception that antisemitism was widespread in Iran with Reza Shah in power. After the Fall of France during the time that Reza Shah was still regent, the head of the Iranian legation in Paris, Abdol Hossein Sardari, used his influence with Nazi contacts to gain exemptions from Nazi race laws for an estimated 2000 Iranian Jews living in Paris at the time. The legation also issued Iranian travel documents for the Iranian Jews and their non-Iranian family members to facilitate travel through Nazi occupied Europe to safety.
Egypt
In Egypt, Ahmad Husayn founded the Young Egypt Party in 1933. He immediately expressed his sympathy for Nazi Germany to the German ambassador to Egypt. Husayn sent a delegation to the Nuremberg rally and returned with enthusiasm. After the Sudeten Crisis, the party's leaders denounced Germany for aggression against small nations, but they retained elements which were similar to those of Nazism or Fascism, e.g. salutes, torchlight parades, leader worship, and antisemitism and racism. The party's impact before 1939 was minimal, and its espionage efforts were of little value to the Germans.
During World War II, Cairo was a haven for agents and spies throughout the war. Egyptian nationalists were active, with many Egyptians, including Farouk of Egypt and prime minister Ali Mahir Pasha, all of whom hoped for an Axis victory, and the complete severance of Egyptian ties with Britain.
Islamist groups
Antisemitism, alongside anti-Western sentiment, anti-Israeli sentiment, rejection of democracy, and conspiracy theories involving the Jews, is widespread within Islamism. Many militant Islamist and Jihadist individuals, groups, and organizations have openly expressed antisemitic views. However, even outside Islamist circles, anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist conspiracism are widespread phenomena in both the Arab world and the Middle East, and it has seen an extraordinary proliferation since the beginning of the Internet Era.
Lashkar-e-Toiba's propaganda arm has declared that the Jews are the "Enemies of Islam", and it has also declared that Israel is the "Enemy of Pakistan".
Hamas has widely been described as an antisemitic organization. It has issued antisemitic leaflets, and its writings and manifestos rely upon antisemitic documents (the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and other works of European Christian literature), exhibiting antisemitic themes. In 1998, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at Tel Aviv University wrote that although the above is true, antisemitism was not the main tenet of Hamas ideology.
In an editorial in The Guardian in January 2006, Khaled Meshaal, the chief of Hamas's political bureau denied antisemitism, on Hamas' part, and he said that the nature of Israeli–Palestinian conflict was not religious but political. He also said that Hamas has "no problem with Jews who have not attacked us".
The tone and casting of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as part of an eternal struggle between Muslim and Jews by the Hamas Covenant had become an obstacle for the movement to be able to take part in diplomatic forums involving Western nations. The movement came under pressure to update its founding charter issued in 1988 which called for Israel's destruction and advocated violent means for achieving a Palestinian state. A new charter issued in May 2014 stated that the group does not seek war with the Jewish people but only against Zionism which it holds responsible for "occupation of Palestine", while terming Israel as the "Zionist enemy". It also accepted a Palestinian state within the Green Line as transitional but also advocated "liberation of all of Palestine".
Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, a Shiite scholar and assistant professor at the Lebanese American University has written that Hezbollah is not anti-Zionist, but rather anti-Jewish. She quoted Hassan Nasrallah as saying: "If we searched the entire world for a person more cowardly, despicable, weak and feeble in psyche, mind, ideology and religion, we would not find anyone like the Jew. Notice, I do not say the Israeli." Regarding the official public stance of Hezbollah as a whole, she said that while Hezbollah, "tries to mask its anti-Judaism for public-relations reasons ... a study of its language, spoken and written, reveals an underlying truth." In her book Hezbollah: Politics & Religion, she argues that Hezbollah "believes that Jews, by the nature of Judaism, possess fatal character flaws". Saad-Ghorayeb also said, "Hezbollah's Quranic reading of Jewish history has led its leaders to believe that Jewish theology is evil."
21st century
France is home to Europe's largest population of Muslims—about 6 million—as well as the continent's largest community of Jews, about 600,000. Particularly during the beginning of the second intifada, Muslims attacked synagogues throughout France in solidarity with those in Palestine. Many Jews protested, and the acts were declared "Muslim antisemitism". By 2007, however, attacks were much less severe, and an "all-clear" was perceived. However, during the 2008–2009 Gaza War, tensions between the two communities increased and there were several dozen reported instances of Muslim violence such as arson and assaults. French Jewish leaders complained of "a diffuse kind of anti-Semitism becoming entrenched in the Muslim community" while Muslim leaders responded that the issues were "political rather than religious" and that Muslim anger is "not against Jews, it's against Israel".
On July 28, 2006, at around 4:00 p.m. Pacific Time, the Seattle Jewish Federation shooting occurred when Naveed Afzal Haq shot six women, one fatally, at the Jewish Federation of Greater Seattle building in the Belltown neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, United States. He shouted, "I'm a Muslim American; I'm angry at Israel" before he began his shooting spree. Police have classified the shooting as a hate crime based on what Haq said during a 9-1-1 call. In 2012, the Palestinian Authority Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Ahmad Hussein, citing Hadiths, called for the killing of all Jews.
In Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's antisemitic treatise, The International Jew, complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.
In 2014 the Anti-Defamation League published a global survey of worldwide antisemitic attitudes, reporting that in the Middle East, 74% of adults agreed with a majority of the survey's eleven antisemitic propositions, including that "Jews have too much power in international financial markets" and that "Jews are responsible for most of the world's wars."
Antisemitic comments by Muslim leaders and scholars
Saudi school books
A May 2006 study of Saudi Arabia's revised schoolbook curriculum discovered that the eighth grade books included the following statements,
Heads of American publishing houses have issued a statement asking the Saudi government to delete the "hate".
According to the Anti-Defamation League's November 2018 report, Saudi government-published school textbooks for the 2018–19 academic year promoting incitement to hatred or violence against Jews. The Antisemitic material remains in the Saudi text books, as of November 2019.
Reconciliation efforts
In Western countries, some Islamic groups and individual Muslims have made efforts to reconcile with the Jewish community through dialogue and to oppose antisemitism. For instance, in Britain there is the group Muslims Against Anti-Semitism. Islamic studies scholar Tariq Ramadan has been outspoken against antisemitism, stating: "In the name of their faith and conscience, Muslims must take a clear position so that a pernicious atmosphere does not take hold in the Western countries. Nothing in Islam can legitimize xenophobia or the rejection of a human being due to his/her religious creed or ethnicity. One must say unequivocally, with force, that anti-Semitism is unacceptable and indefensible." Mohammad Khatami, former president of Iran, declared antisemitism to be a "Western phenomena", having no precedents in Islam and stating the Muslims and Jews had lived harmoniously in the past. An Iranian newspaper stated that there has been hatred and hostility in history, but conceded that one must distinguish Jews from Zionists.
In North America, the Council on American-Islamic Relations has spoken against some antisemitic violence, such as the 2006 Seattle Jewish Federation shooting. According to the Anti-Defamation League, CAIR has also been affiliated with antisemitic organizations such as Hamas and Hizbollah.
The Saudi mufti, Shaykh Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz, gave a fatwa ruling that negotiating peace with Israel is permissible, as is the cist to Jerusalem by Muslims. He specifically said:
Martin Kramer considers that as "an explicit endorsement of normal relations with Jews".
Trends
According to Norman Stillman, Antisemitism in the Muslim world increased greatly for more than two decades following 1948 but "peaked by the 1970s, and declined somewhat as the slow process of rapprochement between the Arab world and the state of Israel evolved in the 1980s and 1990s". Johannes J. G. Jansen believes that antisemitism will have no future in the Arab world in the long run. In his view, like other imports from the Western World, antisemitism is unable to establish itself in the private lives of Muslims. In 2004 Khaleel Mohammed said, "Anti-Semitism has become an entrenched tenet of Muslim theology, taught to 95 per cent of the religion's adherents in the Islamic world," a claim immediately dismissed as false and racist by Muslim leaders, who accused Mohammed of destroying efforts at relationship building between Jews and Muslims. In 2010, Moshe Ma'oz, Professor Emeritus of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies at The Hebrew University, edited a book questioning the common perception Islam is antisemitic or anti-Israel, and maintaining that most Arab regimes and most leading Muslim clerics have a pragmatic attitude to Israel.
According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.
According to the Pew Global Attitudes Project released on August 14, 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable", 60% of Turks, 74% of Pakistanis, 76% of Indonesians, 88% of Moroccans, 99% of Lebanese Muslims and 100% of Jordanians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.
Islamic antisemitism in Europe
A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe".
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys from Moroccan descent. A phrase made popular during football matches against the so-called Jewish football club Ajax has been adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at pro-Palestinian demonstrations: "Hamas, Hamas, Jews to the gas!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel, a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of antisemitic incidents in Amsterdam, the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 Dutch Jews, was said to be doubled compared to 2008. In 2010, Raphael Evers, an orthodox rabbi in Amsterdam, told the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten that Jews can no longer be safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "Jews no longer feel at home in the city. Many are considering aliyah to Israel."
Belgium
There were well over a hundred antisemitic attacks recorded in Belgium in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the Middle East. In 2009, the Belgian city of Antwerp, often referred to as Europe's last shtetl, experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. Bloeme Evers-Emden, an Amsterdam resident and Auschwitz survivor, was quoted in the newspaper Aftenposten in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the Holocaust. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us."
France
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were publicized around the world. In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children. The climax was reached when Ilan Halimi was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In 2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France.
Between 2001 and 2005, an estimated 12,000 French Jews took Aliyah to Israel. Several émigrés cited antisemitism and the growing Arab population as reasons for leaving. At a welcoming ceremony for French Jews in the summer of 2004, then Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon caused controversy when he advised all French Jews to "move immediately" to Israel and escape what he coined "the wildest anti-semitism" in France.
In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, more than in the whole of 2008. Speaking to the World Jewish Congress in December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting racism and antisemitism.
The rise of antisemitism in modern France has been linked to the intensifying Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Since the Gaza War in 2009, decreases in antisemitism have been reversed. A report compiled by the Coordination Forum for Countering Anti-Semitism singled out France in particular among Western countries for antisemitism. Between the start of the Israeli offensive in Gaza in late December and the end of it in January, an estimated hundred antisemitic acts were recorded in France. This compares with a total of 250 antisemitic acts in the whole of 2007.
In 2012, Mohammed Merah killed four Jews, including three children, at the Ozar HaTorah Jewish school in Toulouse.
Shortly after the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015, Amedy Coulibaly murdered four Jewish patrons of a Kosher supermarket in Paris and held fifteen people hostage in the Porte de Vincennes siege.
In response to these high-profile attacks, Jewish emigration from France to Israel increased by 20%, to 5,100 per year, between 2014 and 2015.
Germany
According to a 2012 survey, 18% of Turks in Germany believe that Jews are inferior human beings. A similar study found that most of Germany's native born Muslim youth and children of immigrants have antisemitic views.
In police statistics more than 90 percent of incidents are counted as "right wing extremism". But government officials and Jewish leaders doubt that figure, because cases with unknown perpetrators and some kinds of attacks automatically get classified as "extreme right". A 2017 study on Jewish perspectives on antisemitism in Germany by Bielefeld University found that individuals and groups which belong to the extreme right and the extreme left were equally represented as perpetrators of antisemitic harassment and assaults, while a large number of the attacks were committed by Muslim assailants. The study also found that 70% of the participants feared a rise in antisemitism due to immigration citing the antisemitic views of the refugees.
Sweden
A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views". The former prime minister Göran Persson described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."
In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki told Die Presse, an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East", although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews". Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper Skånska Dagbladet reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.
In early 2010, the Swedish publication The Local published series of articles about the growing antisemitism in Malmö, Sweden. In an interview in January 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki of the Jewish Community of Malmö stated, "Threats against Jews have increased steadily in Malmö in recent years and many young Jewish families are choosing to leave the city. Many feel that the community and local politicians have shown a lack of understanding for how the city's Jewish residents have been marginalized." He also added, "right now many Jews in Malmö are really concerned about the situation here and don't believe they have a future here." The Local also reported that Jewish cemeteries and synagogues have repeatedly been defaced with antisemitic graffiti, and a chapel at another Jewish burial site in Malmö was firebombed in 2009. In 2009 the Malmö police received reports of 79 antisemitic incidents, double the number of the previous year (2008). Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. "Malmö is a place to move away from," he said, citing antisemitism as the primary reason.
In October 2010, The Forward reported on the current state of Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti-Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel. But such public rhetoric is not branded hateful and denounced. Charles Small, director of the Yale University Initiative for the Study of Antisemitism, stated, "Sweden is a microcosm of contemporary anti-Semitism. It's a form of acquiescence to radical Islam, which is diametrically opposed to everything Sweden stands for." Per Gudmundson, chief editorial writer for Svenska Dagbladet, has sharply criticized politicians who he claims offer "weak excuses" for Muslims accused of antisemitic crimes. "Politicians say these kids are poor and oppressed, and we have made them hate. They are, in effect, saying the behavior of these kids is in some way our fault." Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. Popinski, who found refuge in Malmö in 1945, stated that, until recently, she told her story in Malmö schools as part of their Holocaust studies program, but that now, many schools no longer ask Holocaust survivors to tell their stories, because Muslim students treat them with such disrespect, either ignoring the speakers or walking out of the class. She further stated, "Malmö reminds me of the anti-Semitism I felt as a child in Poland before the war. "I am not safe as a Jew in Sweden anymore."
In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of Malmö.
Norway
In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims. Teachers at schools with large shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students" and that "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the Holocaust".
Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for terrorism, none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews." Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also told that his child after school had been taken by a Muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hanged because he was a Jew".
United Kingdom
According to British Muslim journalist Mehdi Hasan, "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace". A 2016 survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titled Anti-Semitism in contemporary Great Britain that was conducted by the London-based Institute for Jewish Policy Research, found that the prevalence of antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population, 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view, and that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism. A 2020 poll found that 45% of British Muslims hold a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% hold a negative view.
See also
Notes
References
Cohen, Mark (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press.
Cohen, Mark (2002), The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, Chapter 9, Oxford University Press, 2002,
Firestone, Reuven An introduction to Islam for Jews, Jewish Publication Society, 2008
Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society.
Hirszowicz, Lukasz, The Third Reich and the Arab East London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968
Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006.
Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lewis, Bernard. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. New York: Scribner, 1995.
Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co.
Pinson, Koppel S; Rosenblatt, Samuel (1946). Essays on Antisemitism. New York: The Comet Press.
Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press.
Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House.
Pratt, Douglas The challenge of Islam: encounters in interfaith dialogue, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005
Rodinson, Maxime (1971). Mohammed. Great Britain: Allen Lane the Penguin Press. Translated by Anne Carter.
Schweitzer, Frederick M. and Perry, Marvin Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002,
Said, Abdul Aziz (1979). Precept and Practice of Human Rights in Islam. Universal Human Rights. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Segev, Tom. One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate. Trans. Haim Watzman. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001.
Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
Stillman, N. A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
Guillaume, A. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press, 1955.
Stillman, Norman. The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press.
Ramadan, Tariq, In the Footsteps of the Prophet. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Further reading
Bostom, Andrew (2008). The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism. Prometheus Books.
Gabriel, Mark (2003). Islam and the Jews: The Unfinished Battle. Charisma House.
Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press.
Kressel, Neil J. (2012). The Sons of Pigs and Apes: Muslim Antisemitism and the Conspiracy of Silence. Potomac Books Inc.
Lepre, George. Himmler's Bosnian Division; The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945 Algen: Shiffer, 1997.
Viré, F. (2006) "Kird". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
Watt, Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina''. Oxford: University Press.
External links
Jews in the Qur'an: An Introduction by Aisha Y. Musa
Jews in the Koran and Early Islamic Traditions by Dr. Leah Kinberg
"The Arabs and the Holocaust": War of Narratives
Jikeli, Günther; Stoller, Robin; Thoma, Hanne (2007): Strategies and Effective Practices for Fighting Antisemitism among People with a Muslim or Arab Background in Europe, Berlin
Kashif Shahzada (2009): Why Islam is Against Antisemitism?, San Diego Jewish World, December 2009
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Disjunctive pronoun
Disjunctive set
Disjunctive sequence
Logical disjunction
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Parks established in 2004
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Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth through mastication and in the small intestine through segmentation contractions. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work, and electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl−, HCO−3). About 30% of starch is hydrolyzed into disaccharide in the oral cavity (mouth). After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. In infants and toddlers, gastric juice also contains rennin to digest milk proteins. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus and bicarbonates are secreted by the stomach. They provide a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of chemicals like concentrated hydrochloric acid while also aiding lubrication. Hydrochloric acid provides acidic pH for pepsin. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides or proteoses, which is further broken down into dipeptides and amino acids by enzymes in the small intestine. Studies suggest that increasing the number of chews per bite increases relevant gut hormones and may decrease self-reported hunger and food intake.
When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, partially digested food (chyme) enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic (about 5.6 ~ 6.9). Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K2MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Absorption of water, simple sugar and alcohol also takes place in stomach. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.
Digestive system
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
Secretion systems
Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
Channel transport system
In a channel transport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20–900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
Molecular syringe
A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than be secreted into the extracellular medium.
Conjugation machinery
The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.
In the nitrogen-fixing Rhizobia, conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.
Release of outer membrane vesicles
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
Gastrovascular cavity
The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.
In a plant such as the Venus flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
Phagosome
A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.
Specialised organs and behaviours
To aid in the digestion of their food, animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, radulae, teeth, crops, gizzards, and others.
Beaks
Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
Tongue
The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates, that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is used to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.
The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
Teeth
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.
Crop
A crop, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.
Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.
Abomasum
Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
Specialised behaviours
Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.
In earthworms
An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
Overview of vertebrate digestion
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,
Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.
Human digestion process
The human gastrointestinal tract is around long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus and bicarbonates are secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. Mainly proteins are digested in stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine. Bile helps in emulsification of fats and also activates lipases.
In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.
Neural and biochemical control mechanisms
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid, which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1–3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
Breakdown into nutrients
Protein digestion
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
Fat digestion
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.
Carbohydrate digestion
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by genetic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
DNA and RNA digestion
DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
Non-destructive digestion
Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B12) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B12 non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B12 molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
After the B12-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B12 molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B12-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B12-IF complexes in the blood.
Digestive hormones
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.
Gastrin – is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
Secretin – is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
Motilin – is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.
Significance of pH
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
See also
Digestive system of gastropods
Digestive system of humpback whales
Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors
Erepsin
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
References
External links
Human Physiology – Digestion
NIH guide to digestive system
The Digestive System
How does the Digestive System Work?
Digestive system
Metabolism | wiki |
A headnote is a brief summary of a particular point of law that is added to the text of a court decision to aid readers in locating discussion of a legal issue in an opinion. As the term implies, headnotes appear at the beginning of the published opinion.
In 1906, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co. that headnotes have no legal standing and therefore do not set precedent.
See also
Case law
References
Judicial legal terminology
American legal terminology | wiki |
Star Fighter is a 1978 board game published by Heritage Models under the name of Gametime Games.
Gameplay
Star Fighter is a simple science fiction game for two to four players, and deals with tactical space combat.
Reception
Tony Watson reviewed Starfighter in The Space Gamer No. 23. Watson commented that "The rules are simple enough to allow you to play with wives or girlfriends, little brothers or sons, but Starfighter offers a tactical interest which even more jaded SF gamers can appreciate. All in all, it is a fun little game, further enhanced by its high physical quality."
References
Board games introduced in 1978
Heritage Models games | wiki |
The taxon Fernandezia robusta refers to 2 species of orchid:
Fernandezia robusta Klotzsch ex Rchb.f., a synonym of Lockhartia lunifera,
Fernandezia robusta Bateman, a synonym of Lockhartia oerstedii | wiki |
Walliebum is a rural locality in the Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia.
Road infrastructure
Maryborough–Hervey Bay Road (State Route 57) runs through from south-east to north-east.
References
Fraser Coast Region
Localities in Queensland | wiki |
The term "big cat" is typically used to refer to any of the five living members of the genus Panthera, namely the tiger, lion, jaguar, leopard, and snow leopard, as well as the non-pantherine cheetah and cougar.
All cats descend from the Felidae family, sharing similar musculature, cardiovascular systems, skeletal frames, and behaviour. Both the cheetah and cougar differ physically from fellow big cats, and to a greater extent, other small cats. As obligate carnivores, big cats are considered apex predators, topping their food chain without natural predators of their own. Native ranges include the Americas, Africa, and Asia; the range of the leopard and tiger also extends into Europe, specifically in Russia.
Species
Family Felidae
Subfamily Pantherinae
Genus Panthera
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
Lion (Panthera leo)
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Snow leopard (Panthera uncia)
Subfamily Felinae
Genus Acinonyx
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)
Genus Puma
Cougar (Puma concolor)
Evolution
It is estimated that the ancestors of most big cats split away from the Felinae about 6.37 million years ago. The Felinae, on the other hand, comprises mostly small to medium-sized cats, including the domestic cats, but also some larger cats such as the cougar and cheetah.
A 2010 study published in Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution has given insight into the exact evolutionary relationships of the big cats. The study reveals that the snow leopard and the tiger are sister species, while the lion, leopard, and jaguar are more closely related to each other. The tiger and snow leopard diverged from the ancestral big cats approximately 3.9 Ma. The tiger then evolved into a unique species towards the end of the Pliocene epoch, approximately 3.2 Ma. The ancestor of the lion, leopard, and jaguar split from other big cats from 4.3–3.8 Ma. Between 3.6–2.5 Ma the jaguar diverged from the ancestor of lions and leopards. Lions and leopards split from one another approximately 2 Ma. The earliest big cat fossil, Panthera blytheae, dating to 4.1−5.95 MA, was discovered in southwest Tibet.
Description and abilities
Roaring
The ability to roar comes from an elongated and specially adapted larynx and hyoid apparatus. The larynx is attached to the hyoid bone that is hanging from a sequence of bones. This sequence of bones the hyoid hangs from are tympanohyal, stylohyal, epihyal, and ceratohyal; these are located in the mandible and skull. In the larynx there are vocal folds that produce the structure needed to stretch the ligament to a length that creates the roar effect. This tissue is made of a thick collagen and elastic fiber that becomes denser as it approaches the epithelial mucosal lining. When this large pad folds it creates a low natural frequency, causing the cartilage walls of the larynx to vibrate. When it begins to vibrate the sound moves from a high to low air resistance which makes the roaring.
The lion's larynx is longest, giving it the most robust roar. The roar in good conditions can be heard 8 or even 10 km away. All five extant members of the genus Panthera contain this elongated hyoid but owing to differences in the larynx the snow leopard cannot roar. Unlike the roaring cats in their family, the snow leopard is distinguished by the lack of a large pad of fibro-elastic tissue that allows for a large vocal fold.
Weight range
The range of weights exhibited by the species is large. At the bottom, adult snow leopards usually weigh , with an exceptional specimen reaching ,.
Male and female lions typically weigh and respectively, and male and female tigers and respectively. Exceptionally heavy male lions and tigers have been recorded to exceed in the wilderness, and weigh around in captivity.
The liger, a hybrid of a lion and tiger, can grow to be much larger than its parent species. In particular, a liger called 'Nook' is reported to have weighed over .
Interaction with humans
Conservation
An animal sanctuary provides a refuge for animals to live out their natural lives in a protected environment. Usually these animal sanctuaries are the organizations which provide a home to big cats whose private owners are no longer able or willing to care for their big cats. However, use of the word sanctuary in an organization's name is by itself no guarantee that it is a true animal sanctuary in the sense of a refuge. To be accepted by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) as a bona fide animal sanctuary and to be eligible for an exemption from the prohibition of interstate movement of big cats under the Captive Wildlife Safety Act (CWSA), organizations must meet the following criteria:
Must be a non-profit entity that is tax exempt under section 501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code
Cannot engage in commercial trade in big cat species, including their offspring, parts, and products made from them
Cannot breed big cats
Cannot allow direct contact between big cats and the public at their facilities
Must keep records of transactions involving covered cats
Must allow the service to inspect their facilities, records, and animals at reasonable hours
Internationally, a variety of regulations are placed on big cat possession. In Austria, big cats may only be owned in a qualified zoo which is overseen by a zoologist or veterinarian. Requirements must also be met for enclosures, feeding, and training practices. Both Russia and South Africa regulate private ownership of big cats native to each country. Some countries, including Denmark, Thailand and India, prohibit all private ownership of big cats.
Threats
The members of the Panthera genus are classified as some level of threatened by the IUCN Red List: the lion, leopard and snow leopard are categorized as Vulnerable; the tiger is listed as Endangered; and the jaguar is listed as Near Threatened. Cheetahs are also classified as Vulnerable, and the cougar is of Least Concern. All species currently have populations that are decreasing.
The principal threats to big cats vary by geographic location, but primarily consist of habitat destruction and poaching. In Africa, many big cats are hunted by pastoralists or government 'problem animal control' officers. Certain protected areas exist that shelter large and exceptionally visible populations of African leopards, lions and cheetahs, such as Botswana's Chobe, Kenya's Masai Mara, and Tanzania's Serengeti; outside these conservation areas, hunting poses the dominant threat to large carnivores.
In the United States, 19 states have banned ownership of big cats and other dangerous exotic animals as pets, and the Captive Wildlife Safety Act bans the interstate sale and transportation of these animals. The initial Captive Wildlife Safety Act (CWSA) was signed into law on December 19, 2003. To address problems associated with the increasing trade in certain big cat species, the CWSA regulations were strengthened by a law passed on September 17, 2007. The big cat species addressed in these regulations are the lion, tiger, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leopard, cheetah, jaguar, cougar, and any hybrid of these species (liger, tigon, etc.). Private ownership is not prohibited, but the law makes it illegal to transport, sell, or purchase such animals in interstate or foreign commerce. Although these regulations seem to provide a strong legal framework for controlling the commerce involving big cats, international organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) have encouraged the U.S. to further strengthen these laws. The WWF is concerned that weaknesses in the existing U.S. regulations could be unintentionally helping to fuel the black market for tiger parts.
See also
Megafauna
List of largest cats
Apex predator
Big Cat Rescue
Panthera hybrid
References
Further reading
External links
People Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform
Felids | wiki |
Pugilism may refer to:
Boxing, a combat sport
Bare-knuckle boxing, a combat sport without any boxing gloves
Ancient Greek boxing
Russian boxing, traditional bare-knuckle boxing of Russia
See also
Punch (combat) | wiki |
The history of post-confederation Canada began on July 1, 1867, when the British North American colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were united to form a single Dominion within the British Empire. Upon Confederation, the United Province of Canada was immediately split into the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The colonies of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined shortly after, and Canada acquired the vast expanse of the continent controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company, which was eventually divided into new territories and provinces. Canada evolved into a fully sovereign state by 1982.
Before being part of British North America, the constituents of Canada consisted of the former colonies of Canada and Acadia from within New France which had been ceded to Great Britain in 1763 as part of the Treaty of Paris. French Canadian nationality was maintained as one of the "two founding nations" and legally through the Quebec Act which ensured the maintenance of the Canadian French language, Catholic religion, and French civil law within Canada, a fact which remains true today.
Canada today has ten provinces and three territories; it only lost significant territory in the border dispute over Labrador with the Dominion of Newfoundland, which later joined Canada as the 10th province.
Timeline
See also
Former colonies and territories in Canada
List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts
List of French forts in North America
List of proposed provinces and territories of Canada
Territorial claims in the Arctic
Territorial evolution of North America since 1763
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Maps: 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada
Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada
Provinces and territories of Canada
Territorial evolution by country
Canadian timelines
History of the Northwest Territories
Districts of the Northwest Territories
Timelines of North American history
Borders of Canada
Annexation | wiki |
Activate may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Activate (album), by Back Door
Activated (album), by Tee Grizzley
"Activate", a 2006 song by Stellar Kart from We Can't Stand Sitting Down
"Activated", a 2016 song by Cher Lloyd
"Activated", a 1989 song by Gerald Alston
Organisations
Activate (organisation), a British political organisation
Activate Learning, an English education group
Honduras Activate, a health organisation
See also
Activation
Activator (disambiguation) | wiki |
Free electron in physics may refer to:
Electron, as a free particle
Solvated electron
Charge carrier, as carriers of electric charge
Valence electron, as an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom
Valence and conduction bands, as a conduction band electron relative to the electronic band structure of a solid
Fermi gas, as a particle of a non-interacting electron gas
Free electron model, as a particle in the Drude-Sommerfeld model of metals
Free-electron laser, as a particle in the electron beam
See also
Independent electron approximation
Lone pair or free electron pair
Nearly free electron model
Orbital angular momentum of free electrons
Unpaired electron | wiki |
East–West Bowl may refer to:
East/West Bowl (Key & Peele), a recurring sketch in the comedy show Key & Peele
East–West Shrine Game, charity college all-star game since 1925
San Diego East-West Christmas Classic, 1921 and 1922 college football bowl games
Tournament East-West football game, original name for the Rose Bowl Game
U Sports East–West Bowl, an annual Canadian Interuniversity Sport football game since 2003 | wiki |
Cross stitches in embroidery, needlepoint, and other forms of needlework include a number of related stitches in which the thread is sewn in an x or + shape. Cross stitch has been called "probably the most widely used stitch of all" and is part of the needlework traditions of the Balkans, Middle East, Afghanistan, Colonial America and Victorian England.
Applications
Cross stitches were typical of 16th century canvas work, falling out of fashion in favor of tent stitch toward the end of the century. Canvas work in cross stitch became popular again in the mid-19th century with the Berlin wool work craze.
Herringbone, fishbone, Van Dyke, and related crossed stitches are used in crewel embroidery, especially to add texture to stems, leaves, and similar objects. Basic cross stitch is used to fill backgrounds in Assisi work.
Cross stitch was widely used to mark household linens in the 18th and 19th centuries, and girls' skills in this essential task were demonstrated with elaborate samplers embroidered with cross-stitched alphabets, numbers, birds and other animals, and the crowns and coronets sewn onto the linens of the nobility. Much of contemporary cross-stitch embroidery derives from this tradition.
Variants
Common variants of cross stitch include:
Basic cross stitch
Long-armed cross stitch
Double cross stitch
Italian cross stitch
Basket stitch
Leaf stitch
Herringbone stitch
Closed herringbone stitch
Tacked herringbone stitch
Threaded herringbone stitch
Tied herringbone stitch
Montenegrin stitch
Trellis stitch
Thorn stitch
Van Dyke stitch
Gallery
See also
Cross-stitch
Embroidery stitch
Notes
References
Caulfield, S.F.A., and B.C. Saward, The Dictionary of Needlework, 1885.
Enthoven, Jacqueline: The Creative Stitches of Embroidery, Van Norstrand Rheinhold, 1964,
Reader's Digest, Complete Guide to Needlework. The Reader's Digest Association, Inc. (March 1992).
Lemon, Jane, Metal Thread Embroidery, Sterling, 2004, , p. 112
Levey, S. M. and D. King, The Victoria and Albert Museum's Textile Collection Vol. 3: Embroidery in Britain from 1200 to 1750, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1993,
Embroidery stitches
pl:Haft krzyżykowy | wiki |
Brisket is a cut of beef coming from the front part of a cow that is used in various dishes.
It may also refer to:
Brisket (Jewish dish), an Ashkenazi Jewish dish traditionally served for Passover and other Jewish holidays
Smoked brisket, a Texan dish | wiki |
The Cleburne Railroaders are a professional baseball team based in Cleburne, Texas, that plays in the American Association of Professional Baseball, an official Partner League of Major League Baseball. The team, which began play in 2017, plays its home games at The Depot at Cleburne Station.
History
A different team known as the Cleburne Railroaders played in the Texas League, where they won the 1906 championship. The team won the 1911 Texas-Oklahoma League championship. They played their home games at Gorman's Park, now part of Hulen Park.
The modern Railroaders were announced as an expansion franchise in the American Association on October 6, 2016. The team plays in the Depot, a new US$25 million stadium that was recognized as the fan-favorite independent stadium by Ballpark Digest in 2017.
On June 12, 2020, it was announced that the Railroaders were one of six teams that would not be participating in the 2020 American Association season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
New ownership
The Cleburne Railroaders announced three new additions to their ownership group: Neil Leibman, Alan Miller, and Jon Ryan. Leibman is the Texas Rangers (baseball) Chief Operating Officer and President of Business Operations and owns multiple professional sports teams. Miller is the owner of COLLiDE Agency and Ryan is a former NFL player and are part owners of the Portland Pickles independent baseball team located in Oregon. These additions to the ownership team came about in 2021 and these three will help in preparation for the upcoming season.
New colors
The Railroaders colors have changed from orange and blue to colors that are inspired by the flag of Texas. The new colors are: caboose red, steel rail blue and whistle post white.
New uniforms
The Railroaders will have three uniforms for this upcoming 2021 season. The home uniform is a white jersey with 'Railroaders' script across the chest. The pants are white with red and navy piping, the numbers are red, and on the sleeve there are Gandy and American Association patches. The away jerseys consist of a grey jersey and grey pants with the same patches as the home uniforms on the sleeves. Lastly, there is the Heritage uniform which features a navy blue top and grey pants with stirrups mimicking the ones worn by the original Railroaders team back in 1906.
Gandy
Railroaders also introduced a new mascot to their team, known as Gandy. Gandy will join Spike, the original mascot, in representing the Railroaders and what they stand for. Gandy's background is that he was a part of the Santa Fe railroad track maintenance gang. These maintenance gangs were known as Gandy Dancers because they would sing a variety of songs while they were working on the track.
Season-by-season records
Roster
Notable alumni
Mitch Glasser (2017)
Shawn Zarraga (2017)
Winston Abreu (2017)
Rafael Palmeiro (2018)
Ryan Brett (2019)
Nefi Ogando (2019)
Daniel Robertson (2019)
Bubby Rossman (2019)
Ozzie Martínez (2021)
Nick Gardewine (2021)
Michael Mariot (2021)
Logan Verrett (2021)
Further reading
Cleburne Baseball: A Railroader History by Scott Cain
References
External links
American Association of Professional Baseball teams
Tourist attractions in Johnson County, Texas
Professional baseball teams in Texas
2016 establishments in Texas
Baseball teams established in 2016
Texas–Oklahoma League teams | wiki |
The European Rowing U23 Championships is an international rowing regatta organized by FISA (the International Rowing Federation). It is a week-long event for best rowers under 23 year age.
History
The inaugural championship took place in September 2017.
Editions
Medals (2017-2022)
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
See also
European Rowing Championships
External links
World Rowing website
Recurring sporting events established in 2017
Rowing competitions
Under-23 sports competitions
2017 establishments in Europe
Rowing | wiki |
The Edit may refer to:
The Edit (film), a 1985 short film
The Edit, a fashion magazine published by Net-a-Porter
See also
Edit (disambiguation) | wiki |
Virtual instrument may refer to:
A Software synthesizer, a computer program or plug-in that generates digital audio
A program that implements functions of an instrument by computer, sensors and actuators, see Virtual instrumentation
See also
VI (disambiguation) | wiki |
Some Assembly Required is a teen comedy series that is streamed on Netflix (seasons 1-2) and Amazon Prime Video (season 3). YTV created the series and aired it in Canada. 57 episodes aired over three seasons before the series was cancelled.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2014)
Season 2 (2015−16)
Season 3 (2016)
References
Lists of comedy television series episodes | wiki |
The Victor or The Victors may refer to:
Comics, film and TV
The Victors (1918 film), German silent drama, original title Die Sieger
The Victor (1923 film), American silent comedy film directed by Edward Laemmle
The Victor (1932 film), German musical comedy, original title Der Sieger
The Victor (comics), British weekly comic magazine published from 1961 to 1992
The Victors (1963 film), British-American all-star World War II drama by Carl Foreman
"The Victor", March 8, 1989 episode on List of Dragon Ball episodes
Constructions
The Victor, 1909 American condominiums in New Jersey for RCA Victor (Nipper Building)
The Victor, 1928 Serbian monument in Belgrade, original name Pobednik
Songs
"The Victors", 1898 American fight song at University of Michigan
"The Victor", 1975 American Christian song by Jamie Owens-Collins
See also
Victor (disambiguation)
The Victoria (disambiguation) | wiki |
Charlie Gorman may refer to:
Charlie Gorman (speed skater), see Canada at the 1924 Winter Olympics
Charlie Gorman, character in I've Been Waiting for You (film)
Charlie Gorman, character in Gallows Hill (novel)
See also
Charles Gorman (disambiguation) | wiki |
A wingspan is the distance between the wingtips of a flying animal or aircraft.
Wingspan may also refer to:
Music
Wingspan (Mulgrew Miller album), 1987
Wingspan: Hits and History, a 2001 Paul McCartney compilation
Periodicals
Wingspan (magazine), of Birds Australia
Wingspan, All Nippon Airways' in-flight magazine
Other media
Wingspan (board game), a 2019 card-driven bird-themed game
Wingspan (video game), a 2020 digital adaptation
Wingspan (film), a 2001 television documentary about Paul McCartney's career
Wingspan (Transformers), a character from The Transformers television series
Other uses
Wingspan, another term for arm span
Wingspan Bank, a defunct American Internet bank
Wingspan National Bird of Prey Centre, a New Zealand falconry attraction on Mount Ngongotahā | wiki |
The 2022 Hamburg Sea Devils season is the second season of the Hamburg Sea Devils team in the European League of Football.
Preseason
On November 24, 2021, the Hamburg Sea Devils began to announce their first player signings, beginning with their running back Glen Toonga. The head coach and offensive coordinator Andreas Nommensen stated in December 2021 that he won't return for the 2022 season due to personal reasons. On February 3, 2022, Charles "Yogi" Jones was officially announced as the new head coach for the season.
Regular season
Standings
Schedule
Source: europeanleague.football
Roster
Transactions
From Barcelona Dragons: Jéan Constant (December 6, 2021)
From Leipzig Kings: Shalom Baafi (February 21, 2022)
Staff
Notes
References
Hamburg Sea Devils (ELF) seasons
Hamburg Sea Devils
Hamburg Sea Devils | wiki |
The translation convention is a filmic and television storytelling device in which the characters within a fictional story are heard or seen speaking not their native language but instead the language of the film's audience, which is pretended to be their native languages. Sometimes, some or all of the characters speak with an accent that reflects the actual language spoken in the fictional or historical story setting.
This concept has been used since the beginning of narrative sound film. It uses, among other things, a degree of suspension of disbelief.
See also
Dramatic convention
Practice of dubbing foreign films
References
Narrative techniques
Cinematic techniques
Translation | wiki |
Cats aglow (1971), een muziekalbum van de Nederlandse band The Cats
The Cats Aglow, voorheen The Cats Aglow Band, een tributeband van muziek van The Cats | wiki |
Midvale Center station is a light rail station in Midvale, Utah, United States, served by the Blue Line of Utah Transit Authority's TRAX light rail system. The Blue Line provides service from Downtown Salt Lake City to Draper.
Description
The station is located at 95 West 7720 South (West Center Street) and is accessible from State Street (US-89) by heading a few blocks west on 7720 South. There is also pedestrian and bicycle access directly from 7720 South and from State Street (at about 7875 South and at 7800 South). The station is just northwest of the Blue Line's rail bridge over State Street. From the system's opening until 2007, the State Street Bridge was originally an Art Deco style single track bridge from the 1930s that was built by the WPA, with trains in both directions using the northbound track. This was the only section of single track on a TRAX line. In 2007, UTA double tracked the bridge by completely replacing it, which made it possible for headways on the line to be decreased from 15 minutes to 10 minutes. To the east of the station is the Midvale Post Office and towards the southwest is a residential neighborhood. The station has a Park and Ride lot with over free 140 spaces available. The station was opened on December 4, 1999, as part of the original TRAX line and is operated by the Utah Transit Authority.
References
TRAX (light rail) stations
Railway stations in Salt Lake County, Utah
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1999
1999 establishments in Utah | wiki |
Historic Sandy station is a light rail station in Sandy, Utah, United States, served by the Blue Line of Utah Transit Authority's TRAX light rail system. The Blue Line provides service from Downtown Salt Lake City to Draper.
Description
The station is located at 9000 South 165 East and is accessible from 9000 South (SR-209), as well as 8800 South. There is also pedestrian and bicycle access from the Porter Rockwell Trail (Sandy Railtrail) on the west side of the tracks. The station is situated in a suburban residential area within Sandy's original street grid, which has much smaller blocks than is standard in Salt Lake County. The south end of the island platform is built over a major canal carrying water north from the Jordan River. The southwest corner of the platform connects directly to a small park next to the canal (and Porter Rockwell Trail). The station has a Park and Ride lot with over 315 free parking spaces available. The station was opened on December 4, 1999, as part of the original TRAX line and is operated by the Utah Transit Authority.
References
TRAX (light rail) stations
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1999
Railway stations in Salt Lake County, Utah
1999 establishments in Utah | wiki |
La (CCRC) est un organisme chargé d'enquêter sur les éventuelles erreurs judiciaires survenues en Angleterre, au pays de Galles et en Irlande du Nord. Elle a le pouvoir de renvoyer les affaires qu'elle juge problématiques devant la Cour d'appel (ou la Cour de la Couronne pour les affaires jugées en magistrates' court).
Il s'agit d'une autorité administrative indépendante créée par le Criminal Appeal Act of 1995. Basée à Birmingham, elle entre en fonction le et examine en moyenne par an.
Son équivalent écossais est la Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission.
Liens externes
Site officiel
Droit au Royaume-Uni
Non-departmental public body | wiki |
The Ford GT75 is a diesel lawn tractor manufactured by Ford. a 48-inch mowing deck, and is belt-driven with six rotating blades.
External links
Ford FT 75 (TractorData.com)
GT75
Lawn and garden tractors | wiki |
The following is a list of released songs recorded and performed by Aerosmith.
References
External links
Aerosmith | wiki |
The women's freestyle 72 kilograms is a competition featured at the 2009 World Wrestling Championships, and was held at the Messecenter Herning exhibition center in Herning, Denmark on September 25.
This freestyle wrestling competition consists of a single-elimination tournament, with a repechage used to determine the winner of two bronze medals.
Results
Legend
F — Won by fall
Final
Top half
Bottom half
Repechage
References
Results Book, Page 84
Women's freestyle 72 kg
Olym | wiki |
Brown sugar is unrefined or partially refined soft sugar.
Brown Sugar may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Brown Sugar (1922 film), a 1922 British silent film directed by Fred Paul
Brown Sugar (1931 film), a 1931 British romantic drama starring Constance Carpenter
Brown Sugar (2002 film), a 2002 American romantic drama starring Taye Diggs
Music
Artists
Clydie King (1943–2019), also known as Brown Sugar, American singer, member of the vocal group The Raelettes
Brown Sugar (group), a British female vocal reggae group formed in 1976
Albums
Brown Sugar (D'Angelo album)
Brown Sugar (Freddie Roach album) a 1964 album by jazz organist Freddie Roach
Brown Sugar (soundtrack), the soundtrack to the 2002 film
Songs
"Brown Sugar" (D'Angelo song)
"Brown Sugar" (Rolling Stones song), by the Rolling Stones
"Brown Sugar", a song by John Mayall from his 1967 album The Blues Alone
"Brown Sugar", song by ZZ Top from ZZ Top's First Album
"Brown Sugar", a song by Instruktsiya po Vyzhivaniyu (1986)
Other uses
Brown Sugar, crayon color of Crayola Heads 'n Tails
Brown sugar, a grade of heroin
See also
Bubbling Brown Sugar
Sweet Brown Sugar (disambiguation) | wiki |
These lists of television programs with LGBT characters include:
Characters
List of bisexual characters in television
List of gay characters in television
List of lesbian characters in television
List of transgender characters in television
List of LGBT characters in radio and podcasts
List of LGBT characters in soap operas
Episodes
List of 1970s American television episodes with LGBT themes
List of 1980s American television episodes with LGBT themes
List of 1990s American television episodes with LGBT themes
Lists of American television episodes with LGBT themes
List of pre–Stonewall riots American television episodes with LGBT themes
Series
List of animated series with LGBTQ+ characters
List of comedy television series with LGBT characters
List of dramatic television series with LGBT characters: 1960s–2000s
List of dramatic television series with LGBT characters: 2010–2015
List of dramatic television series with LGBT characters: 2016–2019
List of dramatic television series with LGBT characters: 2020s
List of horror television series with LGBT characters
List of television series with bisexual characters
Miscellaneous
List of news and information television programs featuring LGBT subjects
List of fictional bisexual characters
List of fictional lesbian characters
List of fictional gay characters
List of fictional asexual characters
List of fictional non-binary characters
List of fictional pansexual characters
List of made-for-television films with LGBT characters
Cast
List of comedy and variety television programs with LGBT cast members
List of reality television programs with LGBT cast members
See also
Television works about intersex
Further reading
Lists of character lists
Lists of entertainment lists
Lists of LGBT-related television shows
Television programs | wiki |
The following list of Carnegie libraries in Virginia provides detailed information on United States Carnegie libraries in Virginia, where 3 public libraries were built from 2 grants (totaling $78,000) awarded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York from 1901 to 1914. In addition, academic libraries were built at 4 institutions (totaling $175,000).
Key
Public libraries
Academic libraries
Notes
References
Note: The above references, while all authoritative, are not entirely mutually consistent. Some details of this list may have been drawn from one of the references without support from the others. Reader discretion is advised.
Virginia
Libraries
Libraries | wiki |
In Spain, a driving licence is an official document which authorises the holder to operate motor vehicles. It is issued by the Directorate-General for Traffic (DGT).
As Spain is a member of the EU and EEA, Spanish driving licences are European driving licences, adhering to Directive 2006/126/EC, and are valid throughout the European Economic Area.
Obtaining a driver's licence
The Spanish driving licence can be obtained after finishing a driving school and passing a two-stage test, the theory test and road test. Primary school diploma is also required to obtain valid driver's licence.
Taking the Spanish driving test
Applications must be made at the Provincial Traffic Headquarters (Jefatura de Tráfico) of the province of residence.
Documents required
A certificate of mental and physical fitness issued by the Authorized Drivers Check Centre (Centro de Reconocimiento de Conductores Autorizado) with one photo. This certificate is valid for a period of 90 days
Application form and application fee (Note: Official information states that these forms are available on the DGT website however this is not the case. Forms should be collected and filled in before the application process begins)
Two passport-sized photographs (32 x 26 mm)
Photocopy (and original) of a Spanish residence permit (Residencia) or a copy of the passport along with the NIE number (Número de Identificación de Extranjero)
Proof of address in Spain dated within 3 months (empadronamiento) available from the local Town Hall
Signed self-declaration in writing that there is no legal process pending nor license suspension that forbids the right to drive
Signed self-declaration in writing that no other license of the same category is held
Types of document
In Spain, there are 3 types of document pertaining to driving: the driving licence ("el permiso de conducir"), the driving permit ("la licencia de conducir") and "el permiso de circulación", which is applied to the vehicle rather than to the driver.
All drivers must be in possession of the document and take it with them whenever they drive. However, it is valid to take a photocopy of the original (if properly certified) or the Spanish national identity card. It is obligatory to show it to the authorities when they ask for it.
If the document has been issued in Spain, it will be valid for the whole of the European Union.
All driving documents have an expiration date, and when it is reached the driver must renew it by taking an aptitude test (similar to that taken when first obtaining it) to test that they are still physically fit to drive.
Driving licence ("el permiso de conducir")
The possession of a driving licence allows the driver to be able to drive the majority of vehicles.
The AM, A1, A2, A, and B licences have to be renewed every 10 years up until the age of 65, and from age 65 onward, every 5 years.
Types of licence
The driving license is subdivided into classes. The class regulates the type of vehicle that the licence holder can drive:
AM
Allows for the driving of:
Mopeds with 2 or 3 wheels and light vehicles with 4 wheels (50cc)
The minimum age to hold this licence is 15 years old. If transporting passengers, the driver must be 18 years old.
A1
Allows for the driving of:
Motorbikes of a maximum 125cc, a maximum power of 11kW and a maximum power-to-weight ratio of 0.1 kW/kg
Motorised tricycles with a maximum power of 15kW.
A "B" class of licence which has been held for over 3 years allows the driving of these types of vehicle.
The minimum age to hold this licence is 16 years old. Holding this licence implies the possession of the AM licence.
To obtain this licence, 2 tests must be passed:
Driving theory test (exempt if you hold any other licence)
Specific A1 theory test
Practical test on a closed track
Practical test on the road
A2
Allows for the driving of:
Motorbikes with a maximum power of 35kW and a maximum power to weight ratio of 0.2kW/kg
The minimum age to hold this licence is 18 years old. Holding this licence implies the possession of the A1 licence.
To obtain this licence, 2 tests must be passed:
Driving theory test (exempt if you hold any other licence)
Specific theory test for motorbikes (exempt if you hold the A1 licence)
Practical test of manoeuvres (on a closed track). This is divided into 3 parts: one exercise with the bike stopped, one at low speed and one at high speed (for a maximum of 25 seconds)
Practical test on the road
A
Requires you to have been in possession of the A2 licence for a minimum of 2 years.
Allows for the driving of:
Motorbikes of any power and weight
All vehicles from the AM, A1 and A2 classes
From 21 years old, motorised tricycles over 15kW
The minimum age to hold this license is 20 years old. Holding this licence implies the possession of the A2 licence.
To obtain this licence, 2 tests must be passed:
Theory: General theory (an hour and a half) and road awareness (an hour and a half)
Practical: Manoeuvres on a closed track (4 hours) and driving on public roads (2 hours)
The practical test must be done on bikes with motors of no less than 600cc and with power of no less than 40kW.
B
Allows for the driving of:
Cars whose weight does not exceed 3500kg and that are built for no more than 10 people (including the driver). Said cars can pull a trailer of a weight that does not exceed 750kg.
Driving permit ("la licencia de conducir")
The possession of the driving permit allows the holder to drive the following types of vehicle:
Vehicles for people with reduced mobility (must be older than 18 if transporting passengers)
Agricultural vehicles that do not exceed the maximum weight and size (must be older than 16 years of age)
The driving permit must be renewed every 10 years up until the age of 65. After 65, the driver must renew it every 5 years.
The driving permit will no longer be valid when the holder obtains the class B licence.
See also
European driving licence
Vehicle registration plates of Spain
Spanish identity card
Spanish passport
References
External links
Spain
Road transport in Spain | wiki |
Stimson line is one of the symptoms of measles, characterized by transverse line of inflammation along the eyelid margin.
Eponym
It is named after Philip Moen Stimson (1888–1971), an American pediatrician who characterized it in 1926.
References
Medical signs
Measles | wiki |
Heavy Petting may refer to:
Film and television
Heavy Petting (2007 film), American dog comedy
Heavy Petting (1989 film), American celebrity documentary
Heavy Petting (TV series), Indian series about pets
Music
Heavy Petting (album), 1997 album by Bad Manners
See also
No Heavy Petting, 1976 album by UFO
Heavy Petting Zoo, 1996 album by NOFX | wiki |
Bachelor's degree or higher is a commonly used term by the United States Census Bureau and other U.S. government agencies on the federal as well as state and local level. The term describes the portion of the population that has either a bachelor's degree or a higher degree such as a master's or doctorate degree. In 2017, 33.4% of the population over 25 years old in the United States had a bachelor's degree or higher.
The term is sometimes used as a synonym for "college graduate" as it includes not only those with a bachelor's degree but all others who have completed a degree requiring more than four years of credits. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with the term college graduate, it excludes those with an associate degree, as this college degree only requires two years' worth of units and is thus lower than bachelor's degree.
See also
Educational attainment in the United States
Education in the United States
Academic degree
Associates degree
Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Doctorate degree
References
Higher education in the United States | wiki |
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Copperfield (Austin, Texas)
Copperfield (Oregon)
Copperfield (Texas) | wiki |
Self-image is the mental picture, generally of a kind that is quite resistant to change, that depicts not only details that are potentially available to an objective investigation by others (height, weight, hair color, etc.), but also items that have been learned by persons about themselves, either from personal experiences or by internalizing the judgments of others.
Self-image may consist of six types:
Self-image resulting from how an individual sees oneself.
Self-image resulting from how others see the individual.
Self-image resulting from how the individual perceives the individual sees oneself.
Self-image resulting from how the individual perceives how others see the individual.
Self-image resulting from how others perceive how the individual sees oneself.
Self-image resulting from how others perceive how others see the individual.
These six types may or may not be an accurate representation of the person. All, some, or none of them may be true.
A more technical term for self-image that is commonly used by social and cognitive psychologists is self-schema. Like any schema, self-schemas store information and influence the way we think and remember. For example, research indicates that information which refers to the self is preferentially encoded and recalled in memory tests, a phenomenon known as "self-referential encoding". Self-schemas are also considered the traits people use to define themselves, they draw information about the self into a coherent scheme.
Poor self-image
Poor self-image may be the result of accumulated criticisms that the person collected as a child which have led to damaging their own view of themselves. Children in particular are vulnerable to accepting negative judgments from authority figures because they have yet to develop competency in evaluating such reports. Also, adolescents are highly targeted to suffer from poor body-image issues. Individuals who already exhibit a low sense of self-worth may be vulnerable to develop social disorders.
Negative self-images can arise from a variety of factors. A prominent factor, however, is personality type. Perfectionists, high achievers and those with "type A" personalities seem to be prone to having negative self-images. This is because such people constantly set the standard for success high above a reasonable, attainable level. Thus, they are constantly disappointed in this "failure."
Another factor that contributes to a negative self-image is the beauty values of the society in which a person lives. In the American society, a popular beauty ideal is a slimness. Oftentimes, girls believe that they do not measure up to society's "thin" standards, which leads to their having a negative self-image.
Maintenance
When people are in the position of evaluating others, self-image maintenance processes can lead to a more negative evaluation depending on the self-image of the evaluator. That is to say stereotyping and prejudice may be the way individuals maintain their self-image. When individuals evaluate a member of a stereotyped group, they are less likely to evaluate that person negatively if their self-images had been bolstered through a self-affirmation procedure, and they are more likely to evaluate that person stereotypically if their self-images have been threatened by negative feedback. Individuals may restore their self-esteem by derogating the member of a stereotyped group.
Fein and Spencer (1997) conducted a study on Self-image Maintenance and Discriminatory Behavior. This study showed evidence that increased prejudice can result from a person's need to redeem a threatened positive perception of the self. The aim of the study was to test whether a particular threat to the self would instigate increased stereotyping and lead to actual discriminatory behavior or tendencies towards a member of a "negatively" stereotyped group.
The study began when Fein and Spencer gave participants an ostensible test of intelligence. Some of them received negative feedback, and others, positive and supportive feedback. In the second half of the experiment, the participants were asked to evaluate another person who either belonged to a negatively stereotyped group, or one who did not.
The results of the experiment showed that the participants who had previously received unfavorable comments on their test, evaluated the target of the negatively stereotyped group in a more antagonistic or opposing way, than the participants who were given excellent reports on their intelligence test. They suggested that the negative feedback on the test threatened the participants' self-image and they evaluated the target in a more negative manner, all in efforts to restore their own self-esteem.
A present study extends the studies of Fein and Spencer in which the principal behavior examined was avoidance behavior. In the study, Macrae et al. (2004) found that participants that had a salient negative stereotype of "skinheads" attached, physically placed themselves further from a skinhead target compared to those in which the stereotype was not as apparent. Therefore, greater salience of a negative stereotype led participants to show more stereotype-consistent behavior towards the target.
Residual
Residual self-image is the concept that individuals tend to think of themselves as projecting a certain physical appearance, or certain position of social entitlement, or lack thereof. The term was used at least as early as 1968, but was popularized in fiction by the Matrix series, where persons who existed in a digitally created world would subconsciously maintain the physical appearance that they had become accustomed to projecting.
Victimisation
Victims of abuse and manipulation often get trapped into a self-image of victimisation. The psychological profile of victimisation includes a pervasive sense of helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking, strong feelings of self-guilt, shame, self-blame and depression. This way of thinking can lead to hopelessness and despair.
Children's disparity
Self-image disparity was found to be positively related to chronological age (CA) and intelligence. Two factors thought to increase concomitantly with maturity were capacity for guilt and ability for cognitive differentiation. However, males had larger self-image disparities than females, Caucasians had larger disparities and higher ideal self-images than African Americans, and socioeconomic status (SES) affected self-images differentially for the 2nd and 5th graders.
Strengtheners
A child's self-awareness of who they are differentiates into three categories around the age of five: their social self, academic persona, and physical attributes. Several ways to strengthen a child's self-image include communication, reassurance, support of hobbies, and finding good role models.
Evolved awareness in mirror
In the earliest stages of development, infants are not aware that images in mirrors are themselves. Research was done on 88 children between 3 and 24 months. Their behaviors were observed before a mirror. The results indicated that children's awareness of self-image followed three major age-related sequences:
From about 6 through 12 months of age, the first prolonged and repeated reaction of an infant to their mirror image is that of a sociable “playmate”.
In the second year of life, wariness and withdrawal appeared; self-admiring and embarrassed behavior accompanied those avoidance behaviors starting at 14 months, and was shown by 75% of the subjects after 20 months of age.
During the last part of the second year of life, from 20 to 24 months of age, 65% of the subjects demonstrated recognition of their mirror images.
Physical activity
Regular practice of endurance exercise was related to a more favourable body-image. There was a strong association between participation in sports and the type of personality that tends to be resistant to drug and alcohol addiction. Physical exercise was further significantly related to scores for physical and psychological well-being. Adolescents who engaged regularly in physical activity were characterised by lower anxiety-depression scores, and displayed much less social behavioural inhibition than their less active counterparts.
It is likely that discussion of recreational or exercise involvement may provide a useful point of entry for facilitating dialogue among adolescents about concerns relating to body image and self-esteem. In terms of psychotherapeutic applications, physical activity has many additional rewards for adolescents. It is probable that by promoting physical fitness, increased physical performance, lessening body mass and promoting a more favourable body shape and structure, exercise will provide more positive social feedback and recognition from peer groups, and this will subsequently lead to improvement in an individual's self-image.
Automatic activation of stereotypes and threat
Does self-image threatening feedback make perceivers more likely to activate stereotypes when confronted by members of a minority group? Participants in Study 1 saw an Asian American or European American woman for several minutes, and participants in Studies 2 and 3 were exposed to drawings of an African American or European American male face for fractions of a second. These experiments found no evidence of automatic stereotype activation when perceivers were cognitively busy and when they had not received negative feedback. When perceivers had received negative feedback, however, evidence of stereotype activation emerged even when perceivers were cognitively busy.
Women's sexual behavior
A magazine survey that included items about body image, self-image, and sexual behaviors was completed by 3,627 women. The study found that overall self-image and body image are significant predictors of sexual activity. Women who were more satisfied with body image reported more sexual activity, orgasm, and initiating sex, greater comfort undressing in front of their partner, having sex with the lights on, trying new sexual behaviors (e.g. anal sex), and pleasing their partner sexually than those dissatisfied. Positive body image was inversely related to self-consciousness and importance of physical attractiveness, and directly related to relationships with others and overall satisfaction.
Men's sexual behavior
An article published in the journal, Psychology of Men & Masculinity, analyzed how (perceived) penile size affected body satisfaction in males. Based on the responses received from 110 heterosexual individuals (67 men; 43 women) to questions on the matter, the article concluded:Men showed significant dissatisfaction with penile size, despite perceiving themselves to be of average size. Importantly, there were significant relationships between penile dissatisfaction and comfort with others seeing their penis, and with likelihood of seeking medical advice with regard to penile and/or sexual function. Given the negative consequences of low body satisfaction and the importance of early intervention in sexually related illnesses (e.g., testicular cancer), it is imperative that attention be paid to male body dissatisfaction.
See also
Body image
Body schema
Dunning–Kruger effect
End-of-history illusion
Face (self image)
Fear of negative evaluation
Figure rating scale
The Honest Body Project
Positive mental attitude
Self-concealment
Self-concept
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Self (psychology)
Self-schema
Style of life
References
Conceptions of self
Perception
Psychological theories | wiki |
The Skylarks were an all-woman South African band of the 1950s, founded by Miriam Makeba. At one time they were the most popular black singing band in the country. They also recorded and played as The Sunbeams. They played a blend of South African music and jazz.
References
South African jazz musicians
Girl groups
South African pop music groups
South African women singers | wiki |
Bother may refer to:
Bother (song), a 2003 song by Stone Sour
Bother! The Brain of Pooh, a one-man show | wiki |
Sierra Nevada (; meaning "mountain range covered in snow") is a mountain range in the Andalusian province of Granada in Spain. It contains the highest point of continental Spain: Mulhacén, at above sea level.
It is a popular tourist destination, as its high peaks make skiing possible in one of Europe's most southerly ski resorts, in an area along the Mediterranean Sea predominantly known for its warm temperatures and abundant sunshine. At its foothills is found the city of Granada, and a little further south, Almería and Málaga.
Parts of the range have been included in the Sierra Nevada National Park. The range has also been declared a biosphere reserve. The Sierra Nevada Observatory and the IRAM radiotelescope are located on the northern slopes at an elevation of .
Formation
The Sierra Nevada was formed during the Alpine Orogeny, a mountain-building event that also formed the European Alps to the east and the Atlas Mountains of northern Africa across the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Sierra as observed today formed during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 to 1.8 million years ago) from the collision of the African and Eurasian continental plates.
Geography
Central to the mountain range is a ridge running broadly west-south-west - east-north-east. For a substantial distance, the watershed stays consistently above . This is sufficient altitude for the peaks to be consistently snow-covered.
On the southern side of the range, several long, narrow river valleys lead off towards the south-west, separated by a number of subsidiary ridges.
On the steeper and craggier northern side, the valleys have less regular orientations. This side is dominated by the Rio Genil which starts near Mulhacén and into which many of the other rivers flow.
Geologically, the range is composed chiefly of soft micaceous schists, sloping steeply to the north, but more gradually to the south and south-east.
Highest peaks
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Sierra Nevada has a Mediterranean climate, with different variations depending on the altitude. Above the climate is Mediterranean subalpine (Dsc), due to the location's high elevation and low summer precipitation. With June and September being around the threshold of in mean temperature to avoid the subarctic classification, the climate at a slightly lower elevation is continental highland climate. At an elevation slightly lower than that classification area; where February means average above ; it falls into the normal cool-summer mediterranean classification transitioning with the hot-summer variety in surrounding lowland areas. This renders Sierra Nevada's climate a highland cooled-down variety of a typical mediterranean climate. Summer and winter daytime temperatures are some 12° C cooler than found in Granada, differences that are even greater in spring as Sierra Nevada takes longer to approach the short summers. In May daytime highs in Sierra Nevada are around with Granada having an average of . The yearly temperature of at the ski station of Pradollano is in stark contrast to Granada's and coastal Málaga's .
Sport
Sierra Nevada Ski Station
Gallery
See also
Alpujarras
Baetic System
Sierra Nevada National Park
Notes
References
Bibliography
Francisco Pérez Raya, Joaquín Molero Mesa, Francisco Valle Tendero, 1992: "Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada. Paisaje, fauna, flora, itinerarios". Ed. Rueda. Madrid. (Spanish)
"Flora de la Tundra de Sierra Nevada". Pablo Prieto Fernández, Ed. Universidad de Granada. (Spanish)
"Sierra Nevada: Guía de Montaña". Aurelio del Castillo y Antonio del Castillo. Ed. Penibética, 2003. (Spanish)
Further reading
External links
Google Maps - Satellite Photo
Sierra Nevada Ski Resort - official site
Sierra Nevada ski resort - trail map
Maps of the Sierra Nevada
nevasport.com - XVII sport week - Old Pictures
Natural Park Sierra Nevada
Sulayr
Nevada
Geography of the Province of Granada
Geography of the Province of Almería
Penibaetic System
Biosphere reserves of Spain | wiki |
This is a list of the Turkey national football team results from 1923 to 1960.
1920s
1930s
1940s
1950-1954
1955-1960
Other unofficial games
Notes
Turkey national football team results | wiki |
is a Japanese restaurant chain that specialises in crustaceans and other seafood.
The restaurants are known for their traditional appearance and the large animatronic red crab above their main entrances.
References
External links
Restaurants established in 1971
Japanese companies established in 1971
Restaurant chains in Japan
Seafood restaurants | wiki |
In algebraic geometry, universal algebraic geometry generalizes the geometry of rings to geometries of arbitrary varieties of algebras, so that every variety of algebras has its own algebraic geometry. The two terms algebraic variety and variety of algebras should not be confused.
See also
Algebraic geometry
Universal algebra
References
Seven Lectures on the Universal Algebraic Geometry
Algebraic geometry
Universal algebra | wiki |
A towel is a piece of absorbent cloth or paper used for drying or wiping a surface. Towels draw moisture through direct contact.
In households, several types of towels are used, such as hand towels, bath towels, and kitchen towels.
Paper towels are provided in commercial or office bathrooms via a dispenser for users to dry their hands. They are also used for such duties such as wiping, cleaning, and drying.
History
According to Middle Ages archaeological studies, "... closely held personal items included the ever present knife and a towel." However, the invention of the towel is commonly associated with the city of Bursa, Turkey, in the 17th century. These Turkish towels began as a flat, woven piece of cotton or linen called a peshtamal, often hand-embroidered. Long enough to wrap around the body, peshtamal were originally fairly narrow, but are now wider and commonly measure . Pestamel were used in Turkish baths as they stayed light when wet and were very absorbent.
As the Ottoman Empire grew, so did the use of the towel. Weavers were asked to embroider more elaborate designs, aided by their knowledge of carpet-weaving. By the 18th century, towels began to feature loops sticking up from the pile of the material. These looped towels became known as havly; over time, this word has changed to havlu, the Turkish word for towel, and means ‘with loops’.
Towels did not become affordable until the 19th century, with the cotton trade and industrialization. With mechanization, cotton terry-towelling became available by the yard as well as being stocked in shops as pre-made towels. Today, towels come in a variety of sizes, materials and designs.
Types
A bath towel is used for drying the body when it is wet, such as after bathing or showering. It is typically rectangular, with a typical size around , and is made of terrycloth.
A beach towel is usually somewhat larger than a bath towel, and often has a colorful pattern. Although often used for drying off after being in the water, its main purpose is to provide a surface on which to lay down. They are also worn for privacy while changing clothes in a public area, and for wiping sand from the body or objects.
A bath sheet (or sheet towel) is larger than a bath towel. The classic bath sheet size is 80×160 cm. A large bath sheet that can wrap the entire body is 100×150 cm or 90×160 cm. They are used after bathing, in saunas, on beaches, and for massage.
A foot towel is a small, rectangular towel that, in the absence of a rug, carpet or bathroom mat, is placed on the bathroom floor to stand on after finishing a shower or bath.
A hand towel is significantly smaller than a bath towel (perhaps ), and is used for drying the hands after washing them.
An oven towel or confectioner's mitten is a multipurpose household towel used for a kitchen or shop applications.
A paper towel is a piece of paper that can be used once as a towel and then be disposed of. A perforated roll of paper towels is usually mounted on a rod slightly longer than the width of the roll, or in an alternative type of hanger that has protrusions on ears, the protrusions fitting into the ends of the paper towel roll. Paper towels might also be packaged as facial tissues are (as individual folded sheets).
A disposable towel (or non-woven towel) is a towel intended for a single user, but not necessarily for a single use, as it can be reused but not washed. It is often made of non-woven fibers, and often is used in hospital, hotel, geriatric and salon or beauty settings, for their hygienic properties.
A show towel is a bath or hand towel with a trim (such as satin, lace or linen) stitched onto it, or embroidery done on it—mostly for visual appeal. These types of towels are used to add a decorative touch, most commonly in the United States. They are generally not to be used for drying, as regular washing ruins the added trim, and the towels usually shrink differently than the trim.
A sports towel is a synthetic or semi-synthetic towel originally developed for swimmers and divers, favored for its super-absorbent qualities. Sports towels can be wrung out when saturated, leaving the towel able to absorb water again, though not dry. These qualities, along with their compact nature, have further popularized sports towels among general outdoor and athletic enthusiasts. The absorbent material in sports towels may be composed of viscose, PVA or microfiber, with polyester woven in for durability. Some manufacturers incorporate a silver ion or compound treatment into their towels to better inhibit microbial growth and associated odors.
A sweat towel or gym towel, often of similar size to a hand towel, is used during a workout to dry oneself from sweat or create a separation between gym machines and the skin. It may also be required in gyms in order to wipe down the machines after use.
The term kitchen towel refers to a dish towel in American English (called a tea towel in UK and Canadian English), and to a paper towel in British English.
A tea towel or tea cloth (UK and Canadian English), called dishtowel or dish towel in America, is an absorbent towel made from soft, lint-free linen. They are used in the kitchen to dry dishes, cutlery, etc. after they are washed. The towels are also used during tea time. They can be wrapped around the tea pot to keep the tea warm, prevent drips, and keep one's hand from being burned by the hot tea pot handle when serving the tea. They are commonly made of cotton rather than linen. They are also used for drying glassware, but sometimes a special glass cloth is used for that purpose. Tea towels originated in 18th-century England.
A tenugui is a variety of hand towel that originates from Japan. It is most often used in the same way as a tea towel or flannel (washcloth), but can also be used for decoration, as a headband, or for wrapping bottles and other items to be given as gifts.
A cloth towel dispenser or continuous cloth towel is a towel manipulated by a series of rollers, used as an alternative to paper towels and hand dryers in public washrooms. These may have a lower environmental impact than paper towels, though concerns over hygiene mean they are not used by some organisations and have greatly declined in popularity.
A bar towel is an absorbent, usually small, towel used in bars and often given away free as promotional items.
A fingertip towel or finger towel is a small towel that is folded and placed next to the sink or in the guest bedroom. Hosts often pin a note to these towels indicating that they are for guest use.
A golf towel is a small towel which usually comes with a loop or clip to attach to a golf bag for drying hands, golfballs, and clubs.
A baby towel is a smaller towel with an extra sewn-on hood at one corner to cover a baby's head.
A peshtemal (or pestemal) is a unique multipurpose towel from Anatolia.
A poncho towel is a wearable towel made for drying off and changing, often used poolside, at the beach or after swimming.
A fouta towel is a Tunisian hammam and beach towel, which is also used as a pareo.
See also
Huckaback fabric
Terrycloth
Towel day
Towel tablet
References
External links
Bathing
Linens
Personal hygiene products
Domestic implements | wiki |
Golden Eagle is an American brand of syrup manufactured by the Golden Eagle Syrup Manufacturing Company in Fayette, Alabama.
History
Golden Eagle Syrup was founded in 1928 by Victor and Lucy Patterson of Fayette, Alabama. Victor decided to create a mild table syrup after most available syrups irritated his stomach. Due to the lack of maple syrup, Patterson created Golden Eagle syrup from a combination of cane sugar, corn syrup, molasses, and honey. The brand was named after the Golden eagle in reference to the color of the syrup and the fact that an eagle soars high above the ground. The Pattersons originally produced the syrup in their backyard, but by 1944 demand had increased to the degree that a former grocery warehouse was purchased in downtown Fayette to serve as a new manufacturing building. The company remained in the Patterson family until 1986, when it passed through multiple owners before being purchased by Temple Bowling and John Blevins in 2011. The syrup is still manufactured in the same building that was originally purchased in 1944. The syrup is produced on Tuesdays and Thursdays and around 500 gallons are made each production day.
A copyright for the label was granted by the United States Copyright Office on November 15, 1939.
In June 2019, the company introduced a Golden Eagle Caramel Corn.
Tours of the production facility are available by appointment.
Uses
In addition to its use as a condiment, Golden Eagle syrup is also commonly used in making pecan pie.
Sponsorships
In 2020, Golden Eagle began sponsoring stock car racing driver Bret Holmes, who races in the ARCA Menards Series. The Golden Eagle Brand sponsored the Second place team in The 2022 Dixie Softball World Series in August
See also
List of syrups
References
External links
Food and drink companies based in Alabama
Food and drink companies established in 1928
Cuisine of the Southern United States
Fayette County, Alabama
1928 establishments in Alabama
Condiment companies of the United States
Syrup | wiki |
The Gospel According to John is a part of the Pillar New Testament Commentary series. It provides a comprehensive introduction to the Gospel of John. It was published in 1990 and written by D. A. Carson, who is also the General Editor of the series.
In 1992, Christianity Today magazine awarded it Number 1 Critic's Choice for Commentaries and Runner-up Reader's Choice.
References
External links
1990 non-fiction books
Biblical commentaries
Commentary, Pillar | wiki |
Nudity is the state of being unclothed.
Nudity or nude may also refer to:
Art
Nude (art), usually referred to as "The Nude", is a genre of art having the unclothed human body as its primary subject
Nude (Renoir, Belgrade, 1910), a painting by Pierre-Auguste Renoir
Nude (Charis, Santa Monica), a photograph taken by Edward Weston in 1936
Music
Nude (band), an international rock band, based in California
Nude Records, a record label
Albums
Nude (Camel album), 1981
Nude (Dead or Alive album), 1989
Nude (Remixed, Remodelled, Remixed), a remix album by Dead or Alive, 1991
Nude (VAST album)
Nude (Aco album), 1997
Nude (Loreen album), 2017
Songs
"Nude" (song), by Radiohead
"Nu-Di-Ty", a song by Kylie Minogue from X
"The Nude", a song by Catherine Wheel from Chrome
"Nxde" (pronounced "Nude") a song by (G)I-dle from I Love
Film
Nude (2017 American film), directed by Anthony B. Sacco and Josh Shade
Nude (2017 Marathi film), directed by Ravi Jadhav
Other uses
NUDE (the National Union of Domestic Employees), founded by Clotil Walcott in Trinidad and Tobago.
N.U.D.E.@ Natural Ultimate Digital Experiment, a 2003 video game
Nude, Iran, a village in Gilan Province, Iran
See also
Nudes (disambiguation)
Naked (disambiguation)
Nudie (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is the third game in The Legend of Zelda series and was released in 1991 in Japan and 1992 in North America and Europe.
The story is set many years before the events of the first two Zelda games. The player assumes the role of Link as he journeys to save Hyrule, defeat the demon king Ganon, and rescue the descendants of the Seven Sages. It returns to a top-down perspective similar to the original The Legend of Zelda, dropping the side-scrolling gameplay of Zelda II: The Adventure of Link. It introduced series staples such as parallel worlds and items including the Master Sword.
Released to critical and commercial success, A Link to the Past was a landmark game for Nintendo and is considered one of the greatest video games of all time. It was ported to the Game Boy Advance as A Link to the Past and Four Swords in 2002, and sold copies across both platforms by 2004. It was subsequently re-released on the Wii, Wii U, and New Nintendo 3DS via the Virtual Console, the Nintendo Switch via Nintendo Switch Online, and the Super NES Classic Edition. A spiritual successor, The Legend of Zelda: A Link Between Worlds, was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013.
Gameplay
Instead of using the side-scrolling perspective introduced by Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, A Link to the Past reverts to an overhead perspective similar to that of the original The Legend of Zelda. While A Link to the Past still uses mechanics and concepts from the original game, it also introduces new elements and innovations. For instance, arrows are now separate items, as bombs are in the original, instead of using a Rupee to fire an arrow. A Link to the Past also takes concepts from The Adventure of Link, such as the Lamp. Control of Link is more flexible than in previous games, as he can walk diagonally and can run with the aid of the Pegasus Boots. Link's sword attack was improved to swing sideways instead of merely stabbing forward; this gives his sword a broader range and makes combat easier. Link swings his sword as the default attack in future Zelda games, although stabbing is also possible in the later 3D incarnations.
Recurring items and techniques were introduced in A Link to the Past, such as the Hookshot, the Master Sword, the Spin Attack, and the Pegasus Boots. Heart Containers that increase the player's maximum health (hit points) are present, but many are split into "Pieces of Heart", four of which make up one Heart Container. Most of them are well hidden, adding replay value to the game. All dungeons are multi-level, requiring Link to walk between floors and sometimes fall through holes to land on lower levels.
A Link to the Past is the first appearance of what would subsequently become a major Zelda trademark: the existence of two parallel worlds between which the player travels. The first, called the Light World, is the ordinary Hyrule. The second is the Dark World that was created when Ganon corrupted the Sacred Realm. The Dark World is a decaying version of Hyrule. Each location in the Light World corresponds to a similar location in the Dark World, usually with a similar physical structure but an opposite nature (e.g. a desert in the Light World corresponds to a swamp in the Dark World, a peaceful village in the Light World corresponds to a dilapidated town of thieves in the Dark World).
Link can travel from the Dark World to the Light World at almost any outside location by using the Magic Mirror, and can travel back to the Dark World again from the same location using a temporary portal left behind on the map at the point where he reappears in the Light World. Otherwise, Link must use hidden warp locations throughout the Light World to travel from the Light World to the Dark World. Travel between worlds allows for puzzles in A Link to the Past that exploit structural differences between the Light and Dark Worlds, as Link may travel to otherwise inaccessible areas in one world by warping from parallel but accessible locations in the other world.
Plot
Story
A Link to the Past is a distant prequel to the original The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, and within the official chronology is the first game in the "Defeated Hero" timeline that connects to an alternate reality scenario that the Hero of Time does not succeed in Ocarina of Time. This results in Ganon being imprisoned in the Sacred Realm in his Dark Beast form out of desperation. Having successfully gathered all three pieces of the Triforce, Ganon's evil desires have transformed the realm into the Dark World.
The game begins with Link, the last descendant of the Knights of Hyrule, being awakened by a telepathic message from Princess Zelda, who says that she has been locked in Hyrule Castle's dungeon by Agahnim. Link infiltrates Hyrule Castle and successfully hides Zelda in the Sanctuary as his uncle's last wish. The priest of the Sanctuary tells Link that Agahnim is a powerful wizard planning to free Ganon from the Dark World, known then as the "Sacred Realm" after he was imprisoned for attempting to steal the Triforce for evil reasons. Agahnim's weak point is the Master Sword, a relic weapon only the chosen hero can wield; to do so, the hero must obtain the three pendants.
While the priest keeps Zelda safe, Link begins his journey through Hyrule to collect the pendants. Aided by Sahasrahla, Link successfully collects the three pendants, thus wielding the Master Sword. However, Link finds the dead priest and Zelda held captive by Agahnim. Link confronts him but arrives too late, as Zelda has been sent to the Dark World; Link is sent too and is cursed, becoming an anthropomorphic rabbit. After breaking the curse, Link is ordered to rescue the sealed Seven Sages.
Successful, Link confronts Agahnim once more and kills him. Ganon then appears and flies away to the Dark World's Pyramid of Power. Link falls into the place and combats Ganon. After Ganon is killed, Link touches the Triforce, granting his wish: both his uncle and the priest resurrects, and the king of Hyrule reclaims his throne. In the aftermath, Hyrule is at peace, and Link puts the Master Sword back and returns to a normal life with his uncle.
Setting
Players assume the role of series protagonist Link, a young man living with his uncle south of Hyrule Castle. Princess Zelda, a descendant of the Seven Sages, is held captive in the castle dungeon by Agahnim, a treacherous wizard who has set forth a chain of events to release his dark master. Sahasrahla, a descendant of those who forged the Master Sword, mentors Link on his quest. Series antagonist Ganon remains sealed in the Dark World, the former Sacred Realm corrupted by his evil magic. It is revealed late in the game that Agahnim is an avatar of Ganon, used by the King of Evil to infiltrate the Light World.
Development
In 1988, development of a new NES Zelda began, but one year later, the project was brought to Nintendo's next console; the Super Famicom in Japan, the Super NES in other regions. Producer Shigeru Miyamoto originally intended the game to feature a party, "one that consists of the protagonist, who's a mix between an elf and a fighter, a magic user, and a girl". Due to the success of previous Zelda games, Nintendo was able to invest a large budget and ample development time and resources into the game's production. At the time, most Super NES game cartridges had 4 Mbit (512 KB) of storage space. This game broke the trend by using 8 Mbit (1 MB), allowing the Nintendo development team to create a remarkably expansive world for Link to inhabit. Like Super Mario World, this game used a simple graphic compression method on the Super NES by limiting the color depth of many tiles to eight colors instead of the Super NES's native 16-color tiles. The tiles were decompressed at runtime by adding a leading bit to each pixel's color index. Storage space was also saved by eliminating duplication: The Light World and the Dark World are almost identical in layout (though using differing texture tiles), and the Dark World exists in the ROM only as an "overlay" of the Light World. The script was written by series newcomer Kensuke Tanabe, while Yoshiaki Koizumi was responsible for the background story explained in the instruction manual. Due to time constraints, certain features were cut from the final release, such as the ability to cause wildfires in grassy areas (which would later be incorporated into The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures).
Music
The score was composed, arranged, and produced by Koji Kondo. The overworld theme of The Legend of Zelda ("Hyrule Overture") returns in A Link to the Past, redone in S-SMP style. The theme is also featured in "Light World Overworld" and in "End Credits". A Link to the Past helped to establish the musical core of the Zelda series. While the first game originated the "Hyrule Overture", many recurring motifs of the Zelda scores come from A Link to the Past, including "Zelda's Lullaby" (Princess Zelda's Theme), "Ganondorf's Theme", "Hyrule Castle" (Royal Family Theme), "Kakariko Village" and "Select Screen/Fairy Cave". These themes have been used in subsequent The Legend of Zelda games. A soundtrack to Kamigami no Triforce, entitled The Legend of Zelda: Sound and Drama, was released by Sony Records in Japan on June 22, 1994. The first disc is 44 minutes long and features rearranged versions of a selection of the game's themes, along with a bonus drama track. The second disc features 54 minutes of the original arrangements for the game and those of the original NES game.
Localization
The English-language localization included changes to the original Japanese game. The most common change was the removal of religious references to conform with Nintendo of America's content guidelines. The most obvious change was made to the subtitle, which was renamed from Kamigami no Triforce (lit. "Triforce of the Gods") to A Link to the Past. The "Sanctuary" in which Zelda hides is modeled on the Christian chapel, with rows of pews, stained glass windows, a raised chancel and altar, but it contains no overt religious symbols, and the dialogue of characters within it was simplified to remove any religious implication. The font used to represent an unreadable language, Hylian, originally had designs of a vulture and an ankh. These designs were based on Egyptian hieroglyphs which carry religious meanings, and they were altered in the English version. The localization also changed plot details included in the instruction manual. The priest Agahnim became a wizard, and his background, which originally implied that he was sent by the gods, was altered to remove any celestial origin.
Easter egg
In 1990, Nintendo Power held a contest, requiring players to take a photo of the "WarMECH", a powerful and rare enemy in Final Fantasy. As a prize, one of the successful entrants was to be selected at random to appear in an upcoming game, though it was not revealed which game it would be. As a result, a hidden room exists in A Link to the Past contained 45 blue rupees and a greeting from Chris Houlihan, the winner of the contest, reading "My name is Chris Houlihan. This is my top secret room. Keep it between us, okay?"
The room was intended as a crash prevention measure; the game would send players to this room if it could not determine where Link was going when he goes to another area, and has been found through five different methods. There was no wide awareness of the room until the 2000s, more than a decade after the release of A Link to the Past with the increased popularity of the Internet and Super NES emulators.
The Game Boy Advance re-release, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and Four Swords, removed the ability to access the room, though it could still be found in the game's code. The Virtual Console re-releases on the Wii, Wii U, and New Nintendo 3DS, as well as the version present on Nintendo Switch Online, contain the room, being emulations of the original game.
Reception
A Link to the Past was critically acclaimed upon release for its graphics and gameplay, and has since been recognized by critics as one of the greatest video games of all time. It was the first game to receive a near-perfect score of 39 out of 40 from Famitsu magazine. It was awarded Best Sequel of 1992 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. Chicago Tribune selected it as Best Game of the Year, tied with Street Fighter II. A Link to the Past was reviewed in Dragon magazine by Sandy Petersen in 1993, giving it 5 out of 5 stars.
In 1995, Total! listed the game 2nd on its "Top 100 SNES Games". In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 80th on their "Top 100 Games of All Time". In 2005, IGN editors placed it 11th in its "Top 100 Games", while readers voted it to 5th place, before IGN later ranked it the second best game of all time in 2015 and 2019. In 2006, Entertainment Weekly chose it as the best game of all-time and it was inducted into GameSpots list of the greatest games of all time. It has also been listed as the best game of all time by Next Generation and Popular Mechanics magazines, and as the second best game of all time by G4 and Gamereactor. Members of GameFAQs ranked it the 4th best, and readers of Japanese magazine Famitsu ranked it 31st in a 2006 poll. It also placed 3rd in Electronic Gaming Monthlys list, 23rd in Game Informers, and 3rd in a best 200 Nintendo games list by Nintendo Power. In July 2007, readers of the magazine Edge voted it sixth in a poll of the 100 best games of all time. ScrewAttack placed it 2nd on their list of top 20 Super Nintendo games. GamesRadar named A Link to the Past the third best Super NES game of all time, losing only to Chrono Trigger (2nd) and Super Metroid (1st). It placed eighth (the second-highest Zelda game on the list) in Official Nintendo Magazines "100 greatest Nintendo games of all time" list. In 2009, Game Informer put A Link to the Past 12th on their list of "The Top 200 Games of All Time", saying that it "remains a blast today". This is 11 places ahead of the rank it had back in 2001. In 2018, Complex listed the game 2nd on its "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time". They felt the game is "definitely Nintendo's best first-party title for the SNES".
A Link to the Past and Four Swords for the Game Boy Advance received positive reviews. IGN praised it for being a faithful conversion of the original, but noted that the audio did not sound as crisp on the Game Boy Advance, and found the frequent sound effects tiresome. The game holds the top spot of Metacritic's all-time high scores for Game Boy Advance games with a score of 95. In 2007, IGN named A Link to the Past and Four Swords the third best Game Boy Advance game of all time. GamePros Star Dingo called it a "masterpiece", as well as an "important part of the Grand Renaissance of the Second Dimension". He also praised the overworld for its secrets and "quirky random characters", adding that playing it required patience and exploring. Star Dingo praised the port of A Link to the Pasts ability to retain its visuals. He specifically praises its "clean sprites", calling its overworld a "colorful, happy place", sarcastically calling it kiddy. He also questioned how the series' cartoon style was abnormal for the series. Star Dingo called the sound effects "indelible", though he noted that they were "a little dated". UGO Networks compared Four Swords to The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages and Oracle of Seasons, calling it "similarly gimmicky". They commented that the best Four Swords brought was its sequel, The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap. CNET praised both the original A Link to the Past release as well as the Four Swords multiplayer mode, calling the former a "great handheld port of one of the greatest games ever released for Nintendo's 16-bit system", while describing the latter as "an exciting, replayable multiplayer experience".
Sales
The game was a commercial success upon release. In Japan, it topped the Famitsu sales charts during NovemberDecember 1991 and January 1992, becoming the best-selling 1991 release. In the United States, it became the third best-selling game of 1992 (below Sonic the Hedgehog 2 and Street Fighter II) with one million units sold. It had an exceptionally long stay on Nintendo Powers top games list (ranking number 2 in Nintendo Powers last issue in December 2012): when the Super NES list was retired, A Link to the Past had more than five consecutive years in the number one spot. It was later re-released as a Player's Choice title in North America, indicating that it had sold a minimum of one million copies there. Worldwide, it was one of the best-selling Super NES games, with 4.61 million units sold .
The later Game Boy Advance version in the United States alone sold 1.4 million copies and earned $41 million by August 2006. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, it was the 8th highest-selling game launched for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, or PlayStation Portable in that country. The Game Boy Advance version sold 1.89 million units worldwide by 2004, bringing total sales to units .
Legacy
Chris Houlihan Room
The Escapist, G4TV, GameSpy, Good Game, IGN, Nintendo Life, and PALGN referenced the Chris Houlihan room in articles which discuss video game easter eggs and secrets.
GamesRadar included it in its lists of the greatest video game Easter eggs and the thirteen "video game secrets that were almost never found". GamesRadars Jason Fanelli called it "one of the Zelda franchise's biggest mysteries". GamesRadar'''s Justin Towell included it in his list of the top seven secret rooms in video games at number two. He felt that the contest prize was exciting, and called it "one of the coolest and most exclusive secrets in the Zelda universe". 1UP.com featured it in its list of "25 things you didn't know about The Legend of Zelda".
Comics
A comic book adaptation of A Link to the Past illustrated by Shotaro Ishinomori was published in Nintendo Power that was serialized for 12 issues from January to December 1992. The comic was then re-released as a trade paperback in 1993. The comic is a loose adaptation of the original game's story, featuring several plot changes and new characters. Two other manga were released in Japan: a manga by Ataru Cagiva from 1995 to 1996 that was serialized in Enix Corporation's Monthly GFantasy and later collected into three volumes and a one-volume manga by the duo Akira Himekawa released in 2005 corresponding with the release of Game Boy Advance version. Both follow the game's plot more closely, and the latter introduced a new character called "Ghanti", a thief with a single devil's horn and a star under her eye.
Related games
A French version of this game was released in Canada, making it the only French-only release in North America for the Super NES. This version had the same case as the English release in North America, but the whole game was translated into French. The next Zelda game, Link's Awakening was released in 1993 for the Nintendo Game Boy. It retained many of A Link to the Past gameplay mechanics, including the top-down perspective, as well as an overworld which resembled that of A Link to the Past. After traveling to train abroad, Link is shipwrecked and awakens on an island called Koholint. Beginning on March 2, 1997, a simple unaltered re-release of the original Japanese version of A Link to the Past was broadcast via Satellaview. The game was rebroadcast more often than any other Zelda game on the Satellaview, and was the only Zelda title broadcast by St.GIGA after ties with Nintendo were broken in April 1999. Unlike other two Satellaview Zelda games, Kamigami no Triforce lacked SoundLink support.
Apart from official sequels and re-releases made or licensed by Nintendo, A Link to the Past has proven to be very popular within the game-modding community, inspiring the development of numerous fangames, such as the unofficial 2007 sequel The Legend of Zelda: Parallel Worlds. In 2023, A Link to the Past was reverse-engineered, making unofficial ports possible on a broad range of platforms.
Inishie no Sekiban
In 1997, a follow-up, , was released in Japan. Designed exclusively for the Super Famicom's Satellaview peripheral, BS Zelda made use of a voice broadcast system, SoundLink, to provide voice-acting for several characters. The game takes place six years after the events in A Link to the Past and is set in Hyrule's Light World. It lacks a Link character, and instead the player character is known as the Hero of Light. The available player-characters are actually the male and female BS-X avatars that also featured in BS Zelda no Densetsu. The game was divided into four weekly episodes. These episodes were played live, and a voice-acted soundtrack simultaneously ran on the satellite network, sometimes containing suggestions, clues, and plot development for the game currently being broadcast. Each week, the player could only access certain portions of the overworld. Areas shrouded in clouds were unreachable. Two dungeons were accessible per week, however the episode ended only when time expired and not when the player had completed all the objectives for that week. The game could only be played during the set hours because the SoundLink content was central to gameplay (and not stored on the base unit or flash-RAM cartridge in any way), and the timer was based on a real-time clock set by the satellite itself.
A Link to the Past and Four SwordsA Link to the Past was re-released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in North America and 2003 in other territories as part of The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and Four Swords, a collaborative development effort between Nintendo and Capcom. The port of A Link to the Past contains minor changes from the original, including the addition of voice clips and other sound effects taken from Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask. Four Swords is a multiplayer adventure that interacts with the single-player adventure. Accomplishments can be transferred between the two; for example, if the player learns a new sword technique, it is made available in both modes. By completing Four Swords, a new dungeon called the Palace of the Four Sword is unlocked in A Link to the Past. In Four Swords, dungeons are randomly generated and are affected by the number of players. If only two players are active, the game ensures that all puzzles generated do not require a third or fourth player to solve. The plot of Four Swords revolves around the wind mage Vaati, who escapes from the Four Sword he is sealed in and captures Princess Zelda to marry her. Link uses the Four Sword to create three copies of himself and rescues Zelda, trapping Vaati in the sword once again. At the time of its release, the story of Four Swords was considered the earliest point in the series' timeline.
A Link Between Worlds
In 2011, Shigeru Miyamoto expressed desire to have A Link to the Past remade for the Nintendo 3DS, stating how attractive the two layers would look. Planning for this successor actually began after the completion of Spirit Tracks in 2009, though full development did not begin until 2012. In April 2013, Nintendo announced in its Nintendo Direct presentation that a new game based on the same world as A Link to the Past was in development for Nintendo 3DS, featuring new 3D visuals, completely new dungeons, new gameplay mechanics, and an original story. On November 22, Nintendo released The Legend of Zelda: A Link Between Worlds, which takes place in the same world, but features a new storyline, new puzzles and original dungeons. Height and depth play a large role by taking advantage of the 3D feature of the 3DS, while maintaining the traditional top-down perspective.
In other mediaA Link to the Past has been prominently represented in other Zelda-related media since its original release, chiefly the Super Smash Bros. series. Several music tracks from the game appear in the game on Zelda-themed stages. Finally, Princess Zelda's design in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate is partially based on her incarnation from A Link to the Past and A Link Between Worlds, replacing her previous incarnations from Ocarina of Time and Twilight Princess.
SpeedrunningA Link to the Past is a popular game for speedrunning. It had the fourth highest number of players of all games listed on Speedrun.com in 2019, though it has since fallen to a lower position. It is commonly run at the Games Done Quick charity marathon, where it is often considered one of the highlights of the event. Many speedrunners also play using A Link to the Past: Randomizer'', a mod that randomizes the locations of most of the items, in an attempt to evoke the uncertainty and excitement of playing the game for the first time.
Notes
References
External links
1991 video games
New Nintendo 3DS games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo Research & Development 2 games
Link to the Past, A
Open-world video games
Satellaview games
Single-player video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Top-down video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games directed by Takashi Tezuka
Video games scored by Koji Kondo
Video games about parallel universes
Video games produced by Shigeru Miyamoto
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Virtual Console games for Wii
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Nintendo Switch Online games | wiki |
Student engagement occurs when "students make a psychological investment in learning. They try hard to learn what school offers. They take pride not simply in earning the formal indicators of success (grades), but in understanding the material and incorporating or internalizing it in their lives." Since the U.S. college dropout rate for first-time-in college degree-seeking students is nearly 50% It is increasingly seen as an indicator of successful classroom instruction, and as a valued outcome of school reform. The phrase was identified in 1996 as "the latest buzzword in education circles." Students are engaged when they are involved in their work, persist despite challenges and obstacles, and take visible delight in accomplishing their work. Student engagement also refers to a "student's willingness, need, desire and compulsion to participate in, and be successful in, the learning process promoting higher level thinking for enduring understanding." Student engagement is also a usefully ambiguous term for the complexity of 'engagement' beyond the fragmented domains of cognition, behaviour, emotion or affect, and in doing so encompass the historically situated individual within their contextual variables (such as personal and familial circumstances) that at every moment influence how engaged an individual (or group) is in their learning.
Definitions
Student engagement is frequently used to, "depict students' willingness to participate in routine school activities, such as attending class, submitting required work, and following teachers' directions in class." However, the term is also increasingly used to describe meaningful student involvement throughout the learning environment, including students participating in curriculum design, classroom management and school building climate. It is also often used to refer as much to student involvement in extra-curricular activities in the campus life of a school/college/university which are thought to have educational benefits as it is to student focus on their curricular studies.
In a number of studies student engagement has been identified as a desirable trait in schools; however, there is little consensus among students and educators as to how to define it. Often, student engagement is defined according to one of the most popular measures of student engagement – the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). Other studies have shown that student engagement overlaps with, but is not the same as, student motivation. Because of the lack of consensus on what student engagement is (and what it is not), researchers have begun to offer suggestions for moving the educational literature towards a unified conceptualization of student engagement. These researchers generally adopt a combination of psychological and socio-cultural perspectives to represent student engagement as three dimensions including affect, behavior, and cognition. Using these perspectives, some researchers have further borrowed from work psychology research to suggest that the 'engaged' part of student engagement means that student harness themselves to their role, and thus show a high level of activation or energy.
Student engagement is used to discuss students' attitudes towards school, while student disengagement identifies withdrawing from school in any significant way.
Requirements
Student engagement requires that teachers actively seek to create the conditions that foster this reaction. The first step to whole-school improvement in the area of student engagement is for the entire building faculty to share a definition of student engagement. Other steps include clear articulation of learning criteria with clear, immediate, and constructive feedback; show students the skills they need to be successful are within their grasp by clearly and systematically demonstrating these skills, and; demonstrate engagement in learning as a valuable aspect of their personalities.
Relationships between students and adults in schools, and among students themselves, are a critical factor of student engagement. This is especially true among students considered to be at-risk and without other positive adult interaction. There are several strategies for developing these relationships, including acknowledging student voice, increasing intergenerational equity and sustaining youth-adult partnerships throughout the learning environment. There have been multiple formats identified for this type of engagement.
The National Survey of Student Engagement identifies dozens of everyday indicators of student engagement throughout colleges and universities.
Indicators
The term "student engagement" has been used to depict students' willingness to participate in routine school activities, such as attending classes, submitting required work, and following teachers' directions in class. That includes participating in the activities offered as part of the school program and student participation in school reform activities. Engaged students show sustained behavioral involvement in learning activities accompanied by a positive emotional tone. They select tasks at the border of their competencies, initiate action when given the opportunity, and exert intense effort and concentration in the implementation of learning tasks; they show generally positive emotions during ongoing action, including enthusiasm, optimism, curiosity, and interest.
Another study identified five indicators for student engagement in college. They included the level of academic challenge, active and collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, enriching education experiences and a supportive learning environment. Indicators of the absence of student engagement include unexcused absences from classes, cheating on tests, and damaging school property.
Engagement is more than what students listen and do. A high level of engagement results in better learning, and the learner will be emotionally connected, feel satisfied with the course and the institution. proposes a frame work in terms of Emotional, Behavioral & Cognitive. highlighted that the engagement is related with the Mastery of academic work. described the process of student engagement. The author stated that the student engagement stimulates the curiosity.;; identified four dimensions including academic, Affective, Behavioral, & Cognitive
The opposite of engagement is disaffection. Disaffected students are passive, do not try hard, and give up easily in the face of challenges... [they can] be bored, depressed, anxious, or even angry about their presence in the classroom; they can be withdrawn from learning opportunities or even rebellious towards teachers and classmates.
Factors Influencing Student Engagement
Many factors contribute to a student’s engagement at school, ranging from the student’s internal experiences to the student’s interactions with their environment.
Internal Factors
Studies have concluded that there are three main factors that contribute to the student’s internal process of engaging, the first of which is behavioral engagement. Behavioral engagement defines how the student appears to be engaging with learning, such as participating and persevering. The second internal factor is cognitive engagement, which concerns the student’s mental processes of paying attention and pushing themselves past their expectations. The last factor deals with the student’s positive or negative experience of learning, and is called emotional-affective engagement. These internal engagement factors are not stable, and can shift over time or change as the student moves in and out of the school environment, classroom environment, and different learning tasks.
External Factors
There are a vast amount of external factors that influence a child’s experience with engaging in learning, such as the family, school, peers, sociocultural factors, and environmental stressors.
Family
Family shapes a child’s experience with learning and engaging through the home environment such as family values, and the family’s access to opportunities. Parenting styles and the parents’ expectations for the child’s success influence how much parents are involved with their child’s learning, which studies have shown to be positively connected to student engagement. A family’s income also has an effect on a child’s engagement, because families with a higher socioeconomic status (SES) have been shown to expose their children to more intellectually enriching activities and know how to intervene in the school system to promote their child’s education.
School
There are numerous ways that school influences student engagement, including structural characteristics like class size and interactional processes like teacher’s instructional and emotional support. Studies show that instructional quality, such as rigorous and challenging learning activities that can be applied to the outside world, as well as teacher expectations can enhance or hurt a child’s engagement. The school environment is also important to student engagement, as one study reported that racial discrimination in schools negatively affected students of color's engagement and performance.
Peers
Peers have a strong influence on adolescent engagement, with research showing that adolescents will match their engagement level to that of their peer group, and conversely choose a peer group that matches their own engagement level. During this time, peers are an important part of a student’s self-identity, with a strong connection to a peer group relating to higher levels of engagement. Peers also influence younger children as they learn to navigate how to socialize and socially conform.
Sociocultural Factors
A student’s social identity (i.e. race-ethnicity and social class) contributes heavily to a child’s engagement. Social positions influence access to resources and opportunities, exposure to stressors, and parental investment. It is vital to consider sociocultural factors when observing the engagement behavior of youths of color, because they experience intergenerational oppression, discrimination, and socioeconomic inequality.
Environmental Stressors
Environmental stressors, predicted by both race-ethnicity and SES, play a large role in student engagement. Children from poor or low socioeconomic households may experience a disruption in family functioning due to economic hardships and financial strains, and children from low SES neighborhoods and communities of color (specifically black, Native American, and Latino) experience more stressors due to their surroundings. Neighborhoods closely mirror the resources given to the schools in the area, and schools in low SES areas are underfunded and lack supplies, leading to an inequality gap in the education these children receive.
Environmental stressors also include the prejudice, racism, and discrimination a student of color is subject to. A child’s race determines the stereotypes they will face in and out of school, and research has shown that perceptions of discrimination and stereotype threat play a large role in the development of engagement amongst children of color.
Intersection of External Factors
The factors mentioned above do not occur in isolation to one another - they are interconnected and shape student engagement. For example, research has shown a connection between school systems and race-ethnicity in that black male students and Latino male students are suspended at a rate far higher than their white male peers. Observing the intersection between the factors (and the privileges and oppression inherent in each factor), help to create a deeper understanding of an individual student's engagement.
Measuring student engagement
Assessing student engagement is seen as an essential step towards a school becoming a successful proponent. Critical educators have raised concerns that definitions and assessments of student engagement are often exclusive to the values represented by dominant groups within the learning environment where the analysis is conducted.
There are several methods to measure student engagement. They include self-reporting, such as surveys, questionnaires, checklists and rating scales. Technologies such as audience response systems, can be used to aid this process. Researchers also use direct observations, work sample analyses, and focused case studies.
Measuring student engagement in online settings
In addition to the traditional methods of collecting data of student engagement such as surveys and questionnaires, using digital footprints of student activities in e-learning environments has recently gained traction. A massive amount of data about student interactions with Learning management system exists in educational databases, so there is an excellent opportunity to use these datasets to understand student engagement in online learning using learning analytics methods.
Measuring student engagement among student-athletes
Student athletes create one of the dominant groups in most learning environments in the United States of America. Most high schools and universities in the U.S. maintain a large student athlete population. Measuring how and why student athletes at colleges/universities engage with their surrounding academic and professional communities helps educational institutions better understand how they can help student athletes "make the most of the rich academic environment."
Measurement through comparison
The body of literature concerning college student athletes and how they spend their time has increased in recent years. Many educators and scholars have inquired whether participating in college athletics enhances or detracts from a student athlete's college experience and whether participation in a sport negatively or positively affects other areas of a student-athlete's college life. When analyzing the career of any college student or student athlete, researchers often measure personal development to determine whether the student is happy and having a fulfilling college experience. For a student-athlete, personal development, a necessary ingredient to leading a successful life, includes participation in activities outside the sphere of one's sport and interaction with non-athletes.
Student athletes and non-student athletes
Many scholars approach research concerning student athletes by comparing student athletes to non-athletes. In studies, such as those presented in the article, "A Comparison of Athletes and Nonathletes at Highly Selective Colleges: Academic Performance and Personal Development", which look at the behavior of students and student athletes, results have shown that student athletes perceive themselves as less intelligent, but more sociable than non-athletes. Surveys asking student athletes about their engagement with other groups on campus have found that the majority of student athletes engages in extracurricular activities and spends more than half of its time interacting with non-athletes. A trend in results developed as well; freshman student athletes proved to be more socially outgoing than senior student-athletes who admitted to spending more time with teammates.
Some literature that attempts to explain student athlete involvement in extracurricular activities looks at factors such as the profile of the sport, the educational, social, economic and cultural background of athletes and characteristics of the institution, which may or may not support and foster student-athletes' involvement in groups and clubs outside of their team. In determining levels of student engagement among college student athletes, methods of comparison between student athletes and non-athletes, females and males, NCAA divisions and revenue generating and non-revenue generating sports have proven helpful. Some researchers believe that differences in how non-athletes and student athletes perceive themselves may determine their level of involvement on college/university campuses. Research has shown that "high-commitment athletes were distinguished from non-athletes by their lower perception of themselves throughout college as smart, intellectual, and artistic/creative, and a higher perception of themselves as socially skilled, outgoing, confident and good leaders." Despite the contrasts in where non-athletes and student athletes believe their strengths lie, "high-commitment athletes were as likely as non-athletes to report every year that they had grown as a person, pursued new activities and interests, gotten to know people from different backgrounds, and found a place at the college/university."
Comparisons by gender
Many studies have shown that "on average, student athletes are as engaged in most educationally purposeful activities as their peers." However, other comparisons have been made among student athletes in order to better understand which kind of student athlete pursues greater educational engagement. For example, when "compared with male non-athletes, male student athletes are as challenged academically, interact with faculty as frequently, and participate as often in active and collaborative learning activities," however, "female student athletes" when compared to female non-athletes "are more likely to interact with faculty and participate in active and collaborative learning activities." The size of the institution has also been studied as a possible factor in determining a student athlete's engagement. Some researchers argue that "more selective, smaller schools with low student-faculty ratios have higher levels of engagement, as well as schools classified as baccalaureate institutions."
Comparisons by division
Within the NCAA, colleges and universities are placed in one of three classifications: Division I, Division II and Division III. Research suggests that student athletes from each division differ in their behavior and levels of engagement. For instance, "for both men and women, students at Division III schools report higher levels of academic challenge..." and "interact with faculty more than students at Division I and Division II schools." Such findings have caused some to conclude that student athletes at "small residential liberal arts colleges (most of which are Division III schools)" are more engaged than student athletes in Division I and Division II institutions. Variations in the levels of student-athlete engagement among institutions from different divisions may be explained by stated philosophies of each division. Institutions that compete at the Division III level "offer athletics because of its inherent educational value" and view athletics as an extension of the school's "educational mission." Member institutions of Division II broaden the focus of Division III members and place an equal amount of emphasis on academic, athletic and social success. According to the NCAA Division II Philosophy Statement, "the Division II approach provides growth opportunities through academic achievement, learning in high-level athletics competition and development of positive societal attitudes in service to community." The stated philosophy of Division I institutions places less emphasis on the personal, social and intellectual growth of their student-athletes and states that its "ultimate goal is for student-athletes to graduate" because "a college degree gives student-athletes more options in life."
Increasing student engagement
Several methods have been demonstrated to promote higher levels of student engagement. Instructors can enhance student engagement by encouraging students to become more active participants in their education through setting and achieving goals and by providing collaborative opportunities for educational research, planning, teaching, evaluation, and decision-making. Providing teachers with training on how to promote student autonomy was beneficial in enhancing student engagement by providing students with a more autonomous environment, rather than a controlling environment. Another method of promoting student engagement is through the use of learning communities, a technique that has a group of students taking the same classes together. By being part of a group taking the same classes, students show an increase in academic performance and collaborative skills. Increasing student engagement is especially important at the university level in increasing student persistence. It may also increase students' mastery of challenging material.
Learning communities
One method that has been gaining popularity in University teaching is the creation or encouragement of learning communities (Zhao and Kuh 2004). Learning communities are widely recognized as an effective form of student engagement and consist of groups of students that form with the intention of increasing learning through shared experience. Lenning and Ebbers (1999) defined four different types of learning communities:
1. Curricular communities which consist of students co-enrolled in multiple courses in the same field of study.
2. Classroom learning communities that focus on group learning activities in the classroom.
3. Residential learning communities that are formed off-campus that provide out of the classroom learning and discussion opportunities.
4. Student-type learning communities that are created for special groups of students.
Within learning communities, students are able to interact with peers who share similar interests and stimulate conversation about the topic. Such conversations are beneficial because they expose the members of the community to new ideas and methods. Students that are a part of such communities are therefore able to generate and construct their knowledge and understanding through inquisitive conversations with peers, as opposed to being given information by the instructor. This type of engagement in the field leads to a deep understanding of the material and gives the student a personal connection to the topic (Zhao and Kuh 2004).
Organizing classrooms into learning communities allows instructors to constantly gather evidence of student learning to inform and improve their professional practice. They use common assessments and make results from those assessments easily accessible and openly shared among members of the team in order to build on individual and team strengths and to identify and address areas of concern. Results are then used to identify students who are experiencing difficulty and need additional time and support for learning as well as students who are highly proficient and require enrichment and extension. Learning community programs also improve students' interpersonal dialogue, collaboration, and experiential learning within the context of diversity, these programs address a decreasing sense of community and connection and allow students to relate their college-level learning to larger personal and global questions.
Connected learning
The connected learning educational approach is based on evidence that suggests that the most resilient, adaptive, and effective learning involves individual interest as well as social support to overcome adversity and provide recognition. According to research conducted by the Digital Media and Learning Research Hub, connected learning "advocates for broadened access to learning that is socially embedded, interest-driven, and oriented toward educational, economic, or political opportunity." Connected learning environments are learning communities where the walls that separate student learning in and out of school are taken down, opportunities outside of traditional school organizational systems are created, and curricula and instruction is better aligned with student interests.
Connected learning results when a pupil is able to pursue a passion or interest of theirs with the support of peers and caring adults and links their learning and interests to academic achievement, career success, and/or civic engagement. The critical components that encompass connected learning environments include: 1) greater depth and breadth of interests, 2) peer, adult, and institutional learning supports, and 3) greater academic orientation.
The connected learning approach calls for a central focus to include the linking of deep "vertical" expertise with horizontal expertise and creating connections to other cultural domains and practices, and also expects an outcome of the learning approach to be to deepen and expand each student's areas of interests and expertise. A successful connected learning environment can deepen and expand each student's interests, expertise, and knowledge by challenging them to learn and explore content outside of their "islands of expertise," and emphasizing the importance of dialogue and connection practices.
Connected learning environments allow students to be embedded in social networks and communities of different interests and expertise that they can call upon for help, feedback, and mentorship. Connected learning environments are characterized by their "low barriers to entry and a multiplicity of roles, ways of participating, and improving and gaining expertise." The goal of connected learning is to integrate the peer culture, academics, and interests in the way that each individual student is best reached.
Displaying work in the community
Student engagement represents two critical features of collegiate quality. The first is the amount of time and effort students put into their studies and other educationally purposeful activities. The second is how the institution deploys its resources and organizes the curriculum and other learning opportunities to get students to participate in activities that decades of research studies show are linked to student learning.
School climate
The J. Erik Jonsson Community School (3 year-old-5th grade) in Dallas, TX has a simple formula for success: "Powerful Pedagogy + trusting relationships = student engagement" (Journal of Staff Development, 2008). The majority of research is done is early education (Pre-School-5th), but this sentiment rings equally true in higher education. Accomplishing that end is nearly impossible in introductory, general education classes with class enrolments reaching up to 300 students at some schools but relationship-building is a skill that is under-appreciated in the "college experience".
In Australia many schools offer an integrated program developed by Hands On Learning Australia which provides a type of micro-climate for students experiencing disengagement to develop trusting relationships in the context of practical, construction based, tasks.
See also
Education theory
High School Survey of Student Engagement
Learning community
National Survey of Student Engagement
Youth engagement
Learning analytics
References
External links
Student engagement library
Workshop: Novel Approaches to Promoting Student Engagement (NAPSE)
Speak Out – the Alberta Student Engagement Initiative
High School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE)
Hope Survey
National Survey of Student Engagement
Community College Survey of Student Engagement
Hands On Learning Australia
Education theory
Popular education
Youth
Educational psychology | wiki |
The T-Mobile myTouch or myTouch series is a product line of private label smartphones manufactured by HTC, LG and Huawei sold and marketed in the United States by T-Mobile USA under the T-Mobile brand. Each phone in the series runs a version of the Android software stack.
The T-Mobile myTouch 3G is a version of the HTC Magic, but the T-Mobile myTouch 3G Slide and the T-Mobile myTouch 4G are both unique to T-Mobile USA.
The myTouch series has thus far included simultaneous marketing of slider-keyboarded and keyless versions of otherwise similarly equipped models.
Product models
See also
References
External links
T-Mobile USA myTouch official product page
FCC Docs Confirm Rumors On T-Mobile’s Next myTouch.
T-Mobile To Launch Huawei Made Prism On May 6th, HVGA Screen For The Win
Regarding the Huawei 8730, see a Tmonew.com story regarding the FCC filing that lists the details on the specifications of the 8730. Picture link here.
Android (operating system) devices
HTC mobile phones | wiki |
There are about 275 waterfalls in the U.S. state of West Virginia.
Surface waterfalls
Underground waterfalls
Many of the state's subterranean waterfalls far exceed the surface falls in height.
See also
List of West Virginia-related topics
References
Citations
Further reading
Adams, Kevin (2002), Waterfalls of Virginia and West Virginia: A Hiking and Photography Guide; Menasha Ridge Press.
Rehbein, Ed and Randall Sanger (2011), West Virginia Waterfalls: The New River Gorge; Terra Alta, West Virginia: Headline Books, Inc. [Photographs]
Hartigan, Rick (2017), West Virginia Waterfalls, Nature Trek Publishing, LLC, [Directory with directions, GPS, maps, & photographs]
External links
West Virginia WaterFalls (Map) @ Great Lakes Waterfalls & Beyond
West Virginia Waterfalls (Map) @ West Virginia Waterfalls website. http://wvwaterfalls.com/
West Virginia
Waterfalls | wiki |
Camp Allen, is a small United States Marine Corps base in Norfolk, Virginia, a satellite of the Naval Station Norfolk. In 1942 the Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks (now NAVFAC) wanted the first Seabee training center close to an existing Naval training facility with Norfolk being chosen because of the available land that could be purchased. On 25 March 1942 the Commandant of the 5th Naval District announced that the U.S. Naval Construction Training Center, Naval Operating Base Norfolk had been commissioned 4 days prior. The base was named Camp Allen in memory of the CEC Captain Walter H. Allen founder of the naval construction regiment at Great Lakes Naval Training Center during WWI.
Camp Allen later became home to the 3rd Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team (FAST) Companies. The base had a supply warehouse, battalion aid station, and transportation area, but all have been re-purposed. All units are members of the Marine Corps Security Force Regiment, headquartered aboard Naval Weapons Station Yorktown.
References
Allen
Military in Norfolk, Virginia
Buildings and structures in Norfolk, Virginia
Military installations in Virginia | wiki |
ASPN may refer to:
A common abbreviation of Asporin
American standard pitch notation, a method to specify musical pitch
Arizona Sports Programming Network, now known as YurView Arizona | wiki |
Latvian Danish red cattle () are a rare Latvian breed of cattle. These cattle are descendants of the Danish Red Cattle.
Latvian Danish red cattle are used in both beef and dairy production.
References
Latvian Breeds
Cattle breeds
Cattle breeds originating in Latvia
Red cattle | wiki |
Scott Mann, réalisateur de film et de télévision britannique ;
Scott Mann (né en 1977), homme politique britannique.
Voir aussi | wiki |
Lung receptors sense irritation or inflammation in the bronchi and alveoli.
References
Animal anatomy
Lung | wiki |
In algebraic geometry, a Bordiga surface is a certain sort of rational surface of degree 6 in P4, introduced by Giovanni Bordiga.
A Bordiga surface is isomorphic to the projective plane blown up in 10 points, the embedding into P4 is given by the 5-dimensional space of quartics passing through the 10 points. White surfaces are the generalizations using more points.
References
Complex surfaces
Algebraic surfaces | wiki |
Temple is ghost town located in Williams County, North Dakota, United States. There are some remaining structures which include: a small garage, a couple small outbuildings and a couple caved-in houses. In 2003, one of the last two business buildings was either torn down or burned. The school was moved in 2010 and reportedly used as an addition to a house. The last business building collapsed in 2010, and was disposed of by 2012. One of the few remaining abandoned houses was destroyed in 2015. Also in 2015, the church was burned and razed, the reason is said to be because "it had deteriorated to the point that it became dangerous." There is now an occupied camper on the same spot the school was located.
Geography
Temple is located at 48°23'20.31"N 103°03'21.66"W. The elevation is 2,352 feet.
History
The township known as Temple was first established on July 16, 1906, and was originally named Haarstad, for Ole G. Haarstad, the township postmaster and townsite owner. The town was later renamed to "Temple" by officials of the Great Northern Railway. Temple's post office was created on March 12, 1908, and was closed April 30, 1965.
References
Ghost towns in North Dakota
Populated places in Williams County, North Dakota
Populated places established in 1906
1906 establishments in North Dakota | wiki |
Siliciclastic (or siliclastic) rocks are clastic noncarbonate sedimentary rocks that are composed primarily of silicate minerals, such as quartz or clay minerals. Siliciclastic rock types include mudrock, sandstone, and conglomerate.
Siliciclastic sediments are silica-based sediments, lacking carbon compounds, which are formed from pre-existing rocks, by breakage, transportation and redeposition to form sedimentary rock.
References
Sedimentary rocks | wiki |
Flight 592 can refer to:
Lufthansa Flight 592, aircraft hijacking in 1993
ValuJet Flight 592, in-flight fire resulting in a crash in 1996
0592 | wiki |
Class 46 may refer to:
British Rail Class 46
G&SWR 46 Class
LSWR 46 class
New South Wales 46 class locomotive
PKP class SU46 | wiki |
Edge is an American brand of shaving gel manufactured by Edgewell Personal Care. The line includes Sensitive Skin, Extra Moisturizing, Extra Protection, Ultra Sensitive, Clean and Refreshing, and Soothing Aloe.
History
S. C. Johnson & Son launched the Edge brand nationally in the United States on March 24, 1970 with a $4 million advertising campaign. By 1975, Edge was reported to hold "10 percent or so" of the shaving cream and gel market and reached a 17% market share by 1982.
Lawsuits
S. C. Johnson held a patent for the shaving gel and successfully sued Carter-Wallace for infringement based on its Rise brand gel. As a result, Rise gel was withdrawn from the market.
The company also successfully sued The Gillette Company for infringement based on its Foamy brand gel. Foamy, which had long been the best-selling shaving cream, had introduced a gel version in 1983 to compete with Edge. The trial court in the Gillette lawsuit found that Edge accounted for more than 20% of the market for shaving products at the time of trial, and the appellate court described the Edge gel product as "an overwhelming commercial success". Despite the lawsuit, Foamy gel remained on the market because by the time of the trial court's decision, S. C. Johnson's patent had expired. By 1993, Edge had reached 30% of the shaving cream and gel market, leading the category.
Sale to Energizer Holdings
S. C. Johnson sold the Edge brand to Energizer Holdings in 2009 to focus more on household chemicals and fragrances. In turn, Energizer spun off its personal care brands, including Edge, as a new corporation, Edgewell Personal Care, in 2015.
References
External links
Products introduced in 1970
Shaving cream brands
Edgewell Personal Care | wiki |
Nordic noir, also known as Scandinavian noir or Scandi noir, is a genre of crime fiction usually written from a police point of view and set in Scandinavia or Nordic countries. Plain language avoiding metaphor and set in bleak landscapes results in a dark and morally complex mood, depicting a tension between the apparently still and bland social surface and the murder, misogyny, misandry, rape, and racism it depicts as lying underneath. It contrasts with the whodunit style such as the English country house murder mystery.
Some of the best known Nordic noir authors include Jo Nesbø from Norway, Henning Mankell, Stieg Larsson and Camilla Läckberg from Sweden, Jussi Adler-Olsen from Denmark and Arnaldur Indriðason from Iceland. The popularity of Nordic noir has extended to the screen, with TV-series such as The Killing, The Bridge, Trapped, and Bordertown.
Origins
There are differing views on the origins but most commentators agree that the genre had become well established as a literary genre by the 1990s; Swedish writer Henning Mankell, who has sometimes been referred to as "the father of Nordic noir", notes that the Martin Beck series of novels by Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö "broke with the previous trends in crime fiction" and pioneered a new style: "They were influenced and inspired by the American writer Ed McBain. They realized that there was a huge unexplored territory in which crime novels could form the framework for stories containing social criticism." Kerstin Bergman notes that "what made Sjöwall and Wahlöö's novels stand out from previous crime fiction – and what made it so influential in the following decades – was, above all, the conscious inclusion of a critical perspective on Swedish society."
Henning Mankell's books on "Kurt Wallander" made the genre a mass phenomenon in the 1990s. Norwegian author Karin Fossum's books on "Inspector Sejer" were also highly influential and widely translated. British author Barry Forshaw suggested that Peter Høeg's atmospheric novel Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow was "massively influential" as the true progenitor of the "Scandinavian New Wave" and, by setting its counter-intuitive heroine in Copenhagen and Greenland, that it inaugurated the current Scandinavian crime writing wave.
One critic opines, "Nordic crime fiction carries a more respectable cachet... than similar genre fiction produced in Britain or the US". Language, heroes and settings are three commonalities in the genre, which features plain, direct writing style without metaphor. The novels are often police procedural, focusing on the monotonous, day-to-day work of police, often involving the simultaneous investigation of several crimes. Examples especially include Henning Mankell's Kurt Wallander detective series, and Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö's Martin Beck novels.
Until the 2010s, the genre had no particular name, but was sometimes referred to descriptively as "Nordic crime fiction" or "Scandinavian crime fiction". Within the Nordic countries themselves, this is still the case. The terms "Nordic noir" and "Scandinavian noir" are used largely interchangeably in English. In the English-speaking world, the term "Nordic noir" was coined by the Scandinavian Department at the University College of London and gained further usage in the British media in the 2010s beginning with the airing of the BBC documentary called the Nordic Noir: The Story of Scandinavian Crime Fiction. The Guardian also referred to The Killing as Nordic noir. These factors underscore that the term is considered typical of a phenomenon seen as uniting the viewpoint of foreign eye towards recognizable Nordic context. Nordic noir remains a foreign term, as it is not normally used in the Nordic countries and has no equally established equivalent in the Scandinavian or other languages of the Nordic countries.
Features
Some critics attribute the genre's success to a distinctive and appealing style, "realistic, simple and precise... and stripped of unnecessary words". Their protagonists are typically morose detectives or ones worn down by cares and far from simply heroic. In this way, the protagonists' lives cast a light on the flaws of society, which are beyond the crime itself. This is associated with how this genre often tackles a murder mystery that is linked with several storylines and themes such as the investigation of the dark underbelly of modern society. This is demonstrated in the case of the Insomnia films, which featured crime-solving linked to the decline of the Nordic welfare state.
A description of Nordic noir cited that it is typified by a dimly lit aesthetic, matched by a slow and melancholic pace, as well as multi-layered storylines. It often features a mix of bleak naturalism and disconsolate locations, with a focus on the sense of place where bad things can happen. These were the distinguishing emotions of the series Bordertown, which were further combined with an atmosphere arising from the fear of Russia.
The works also owe something to Scandinavia's political system where the apparent equality, social justice, and liberalism of the Nordic model is seen to cover up dark secrets and hidden hatreds. Stieg Larsson's Millennium trilogy, for example, deals with misogyny and rape, while Henning Mankell's Faceless Killers focuses on Sweden's failure to integrate its immigrant population.
Television
The term "nordic noir" is also applied to films and television series in this genre, both adaptations of novels and original screenplays. Notable examples are The Killing, The Bridge, Trapped, Bordertown, Deadwind and Lakeside Murders.
Critic Boyd Tonkin has suggested that the British but heavily Scandinavian-influenced Shetland Isles and Outer Hebrides have produced authors in an allied, if not precisely identical tradition. Exponents include Ann Cleeves, whose Shetland books have been adapted for television, and Peter May's Lewis Trilogy. The relatively slower narrative pace of UK crime dramas Broadchurch, The Missing and River is also credited to a "Scandinavian noir" influence.
Subtitled original programmes have proven more popular with British audiences. International adaptations such as Sky Television's French/British The Tunnel (adapted from the Swedish/Danish The Bridge) have their own identity whilst retaining a stylistic and thematic affinity with the original series. While American cinema brought the English language movie version of The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo to a worldwide audience, receiving plaudits and was a box-office success, the American adaptations such as The Killing have fared less well critically and have proven less popular in terms of audience reaction than original productions, an example being the enduring interest in Arne Dahl's Intercrime series, originally titled The A Team, and its TV adaptations.
In February and March 2021 UK's BBC Four broadcast the Finnish psychological thriller Man in Room 301 (Finnish: "Huone 301").
Authors
Authors who have contributed to the creation and establishment of this genre include:
Finnish
Leena Lehtolainen
Reijo Mäki
Mikko Porvali
Matti Rönkä
Christian Rönnbacka
Max Seeck
Icelandic
Arnaldur Indriðason
Yrsa Sigurðardóttir
Ragnar Jónasson
Danish
Jussi Adler-Olsen
Leif Davidsen
Peter Høeg
Norwegian
Alex Dahl
Kjell Ola Dahl
Thomas Enger
Karin Fossum
Anne Holt
Jørn Lier Horst
Hans Olav Lahlum
Christer Mjåset
Jo Nesbø
Pernille Rygg
Gunnar Staalesen
Frode Sander Øien (Samuel Bjørk)
Swedish
Jan Arnald (Arne Dahl)
Karin Alvtegen
Majgull Axelsson
Annika Bryn
LiseLotte Divelli
Åke Edwardson
Kerstin Ekman
Kjell Eriksson
Börge Hellström
Anna Jansson
P. C. Jersild
Mari Jungstedt
Mons Kallentoft
Robert Karjel
Camilla Läckberg
Jens Lapidus
Stieg Larsson
Åsa Larsson
Göran Lundin
Henning Mankell
Liza Marklund
Anders de la Motte
Håkan Nesser
Jussi Adler-Olsen
Leif G. W. Persson
Anders Roslund
Carl-Johan Vallgren
Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö
Johan Theorin
Helene Tursten
Lars Kepler
Faroese
Jógvan Isaksen
Lithuanian
Emilis Vėlyvis
See also
Detective Varg series, lighthearted stories set in Sweden and described as "Scandi blanc"
References
Further reading
Bergman, Kerstin (2014). Swedish Crime Fiction: The Making of Nordic Noir. Mimesis International.
Lesser, Wendy (2020). Scandinavian Noir: In Pursuit of a Mystery. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Nestingen, Andrew & Arvas, Paula, eds. (2011). Scandinavian Crime Fiction. University of Wales Press.
External links
Literary genres
Scandinavian culture
Crime fiction
Nordic literature
Noir fiction | wiki |
Else Kastner-Michalitschke (28 April 1868 – 2 January 1939) was an Austrian writer.
She was born in Rokytnice v Orlických horách, in what was then Austria-Hungary and today the Czech Republic. She studied to become a teacher in Prague and lived in Vienna from 1892. She was married to Eduard Fedor Kastner, and later to Carl B. Braum. She was co-founder of the literary magazine Böhmens deutsche Poesie und Kunst and contributed to the magazine Wir leben. She also published several collections of poetry. She received numerous awards in recognition of her artistic accomplishments.
References
1868 births
1939 deaths
Austrian women writers
People from Rychnov nad Kněžnou District
Austrian people of German Bohemian descent | wiki |
Guang may refer to:
Guang (vessel), an ancient Chinese drinking vessel
Guang people, ethnic group of northern Ghana
Guang languages, languages spoken by the Guang people
Guangzhou, city in Guangdong, China
Liangguang, Guangdong and Guangxi in China
Helü, King of Wu, personal name Guang
Guang (film), a 2018 Malaysian Mandarin-language film
See also
Prince Guang (disambiguation)
Kuan (disambiguation)
Guan (disambiguation) | wiki |
Grey Goose är en vodka i premiumklass. Destilleras i Cognac, Frankrike och köptes upp av Bacardi 2004, för 2,2 miljarder dollar. Grey Goose Vodka har vunnit flera åtråvärda priser sedan den introducerades 1997.
Externa länkar
Grey Goose vodka
Vodka
he:וודקה#מותגי וודקה נודעים | wiki |
Betty Smith (1896–1972) was an American author. Betty Smith may also refer to:
Betty Smith (musician) (1929–2011), English jazz saxophonist and singer
Betty Ruth Smith (fl. 1920s–1940s), American actress best known for her work in old-time radio
Betty Smith (American Dad!), fictional character
See also
Betty Smith Williams (fl. 1950s–1980s), American nurse
Elizabeth Smith (disambiguation) | wiki |
Manjur may refer to:
Manjur (instrument), a musical instrument in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf
Manjur, India, a village in Tamil Nadu state
See also
Manjoor (disambiguation) | wiki |
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) is a common name for non-profit animal welfare organizations around the world.
SPCA may also refer to:
Secretory Pathway Ca²⁺ ATPase, a protein also known as SPCA
Factor VII, sometimes called serum prothrombin conversion accelerator
Société provençale de constructions aéronautiques, a French aircraft manufacturer that merged into SNCASE | wiki |
The Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula was an agreed action item between South Korea and North Korea signed on January 20, 1992. The declaration was issued February 19.
The declaration read in part as follows:
At the same time, the Agreement on Reconciliation, Non-aggression and Exchanges and Cooperation between the South and the North (also known as the "South-North Basic Agreement") was made, covering the areas of:
South-North Reconciliation
South-North Non-Aggression
South-North Exchanges And Cooperation
The joint Nuclear Control Commission specified by the agreement was created, and held 13 meetings in 1992 and 1993, but it did not come to any agreements. The last meeting was held in April 1993. So consequent to clause 6, the declaration never entered into force.
See also
Agreed Framework
North Korea and weapons of mass destruction
References
Nuclear program of North Korea
North Korea–South Korea relations
History of Korea
History of North Korea
History of South Korea
1992 in North Korea
1992 in South Korea | wiki |
Matt DeCaro is an American film and stage actor. He is arguably best known for his role as Correctional Officer Roy Geary on the television series Prison Break.
Biography
DeCaro has appeared in numerous American television series, including Crime Story, ER, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Cold Case, NYPD Blue, 24, The Office, NCIS, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Boston Legal, House, Eli Stone, The Chicago Code, Boss, Chicago P.D., and Chicago Fire.
He has also appeared in the films Richie Rich (1994), U.S. Marshals (1998), Mr. 3000 (2004), Eagle Eye (2008), Baby on Board (2009), and The Wise Kids (2011).
His stage work includes the Victory Gardens Theater's production of Symmetry and the role of Mr. Meyers in the world premiere of Rebecca Gilman's 1999 play Spinning into Butter.
Filmography
References
External links
Goodman Theatre bio of Matt DeCaro
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American male film actors
American male television actors | wiki |
Newsreader can refer to:
Newsreader (Usenet), a computer program for reading Usenet newsgroups
Newsreaders, a television series on Adult Swim
News presenter, a person that presents a news show on television, radio or the Internet
News aggregator, a computer program for syndicated Web content supplied in the form of a web feed
The Newsreader, a fictional Australian television series about newsreaders in the 80s | wiki |
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