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Melisande may refer to: Mélisande (électrotrad), Canadian folk music group Melisande (Stokes), an 1890s painting by Marianne Stokes Melisande Shahrizai, the primary villain of Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Legacy series "Melisande," short story by E. Nesbit Melisande! What Are Dreams?, a 2012 novel by Hillel Halkin See also Pelléas and Mélisande (disambiguation) Melisende (disambiguation) Millicent (disambiguation) Melisandre, a character in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire and its adaptation Game of Thrones	wiki
Metering may refer to: Measuring instrument: Device for measuring a physical quantity. Ramp meter: Device; usually a basic traffic light or a two-section signal (red and green only, no yellow) light together with a signal controller that regulates the flow of traffic. Light meter: A way of measuring the amount of light, and typically used to determine the proper exposure for a photograph. Metering mode: The way a camera determines the light procured for an exposure Water metering See also Software metering	wiki
Clubiona pacifica is een spinnensoort in de taxonomische indeling van de struikzakspinnen (Clubionidae). Het dier behoort tot het geslacht Clubiona. De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort werd voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1896 door Nathan Banks. Struikzakspinnen	wiki
Plaque may refer to: Commemorations or awards Commemorative plaque, a plate or tablet fixed to a wall to mark an event, person, etc. Memorial Plaque (medallion), issued to next-of-kin of dead British military personnel after World War I Plaquette, a small plaque in bronze or other materials Science and healthcare Amyloid plaque Atheroma or atheromatous plaque, a buildup of deposits within the wall of an artery Dental plaque, a biofilm that builds up on teeth A broad papule, a type of cutaneous condition Pleural plaque, associated with mesothelioma, cancer often caused by exposure to asbestos Senile plaques, an extracellular protein deposit in the brain implicated in Alzheimer's disease Skin plaque, a plateau-like lesion that is greater in its diameter than in its depth Viral plaque, a visible structure formed by virus propagation within a cell culture Other uses Plaque, a rectangular casino token See also Builder's plate Plac (disambiguation) Placard Plack (disambiguation) Plague (disambiguation)	wiki
Solanum citrullifolium is a species of flowering plant in the Solanaceae family. It is a nightshade referred to by the common name watermelon nightshade, as its leaves somewhat resemble those of a watermelon plant. It is a white-stemmed shrub with purple star-shaped flowers. It is native to the southern United States and it is grown in home gardens as an ornamental plant. Not to be confused with the similarly-named "melonleaf nightshade," which is a different species, S. heterodoxum. References Footnotes (2004): – Solanum citrullifolium. Version of August 2004. Retrieved 2008-SEP-25. External links Solanum citrullifolium info citrullifolium Taxa named by Alexander Braun	wiki
The use of toxic chemicals as weapons dates back thousands of years, but the first large scale use of chemical weapons was during World War I. They were primarily used to demoralize, injure, and kill entrenched defenders, against whom the indiscriminate and generally very slow-moving or static nature of gas clouds would be most effective. The types of weapons employed ranged from disabling chemicals, such as tear gas, to lethal agents like phosgene, chlorine, and mustard gas. This chemical warfare was a major component of the first global war and first total war of the 20th century. The killing capacity of gas was limited, with about 90,000 fatalities from a total of 1.3 million casualties caused by gas attacks. Gas was unlike most other weapons of the period because it was possible to develop countermeasures, such as gas masks. In the later stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, its overall effectiveness diminished. The widespread use of these agents of chemical warfare, and wartime advances in the composition of high explosives, gave rise to an occasionally expressed view of World War I as "the chemist's war" and also the era where weapons of mass destruction were created. The use of poison gas by all major belligerents throughout World War I constituted war crimes as its use violated the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare. Widespread horror and public revulsion at the use of gas and its consequences led to far less use of chemical weapons by combatants during World War II. History of poison gas in World War I 1914: Tear gas The most frequently used chemicals during World War I were tear-inducing irritants rather than fatal or disabling poisons. During World War I, the French Army was the first to employ tear gas, using 26 mm grenades filled with ethyl bromoacetate in August 1914. The small quantities of gas delivered, roughly per cartridge, were not even detected by the Germans. The stocks were rapidly consumed and by November a new order was placed by the French military. As bromine was scarce among the Entente allies, the active ingredient was changed to chloroacetone. In October 1914, German troops fired fragmentation shells filled with a chemical irritant against British positions at Neuve Chapelle; the concentration achieved was so small that it too was barely noticed. None of the combatants considered the use of tear gas to be in conflict with the Hague Treaty of 1899, which specifically prohibited the launching of projectiles containing asphyxiating or poisonous gas. 1915: Large-scale use and lethal gases The first instance of large-scale use of gas as a weapon was on 31 January 1915, when Germany fired 18,000 artillery shells containing liquid xylyl bromide tear gas on Russian positions on the Rawka River, west of Warsaw during the Battle of Bolimov. Instead of vaporizing, the chemical froze and failed to have the desired effect. The first killing agent was chlorine, used by the German military. Chlorine is a powerful irritant that can inflict damage to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. At high concentrations and prolonged exposure it can cause death by asphyxiation. German chemical companies BASF, Hoechst and Bayer (which formed the IG Farben conglomerate in 1925) had been making chlorine as a by-product of their dye manufacturing. In cooperation with Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, they began developing methods of discharging chlorine gas against enemy trenches. It may appear from a feldpost letter of Major Karl von Zingler that the first chlorine gas attack by German forces took place before 2 January 1915: "In other war theatres it does not go better and it has been said that our Chlorine is very effective. 140 English officers have been killed. This is a horrible weapon ...". This letter must be discounted as evidence for early German use of chlorine, however, because the date "2 January 1915" may have been hastily scribbled instead of the intended "2 January 1916," the sort of common typographical error that is often made at the beginning of a new year. The deaths of so many English officers from gas at this time would certainly have been met with outrage, but a recent, extensive study of British reactions to chemical warfare says nothing of this supposed attack. Perhaps this letter was referring to the chlorine-phosgene attack on British troops at Wieltje near Ypres, on 19 December 1915 (see below). By 22 April 1915, the German Army had 168 tons of chlorine deployed in 5,730 cylinders from Langemark-Poelkapelle, north of Ypres. At 17:30, in a slight easterly breeze, the liquid chlorine was siphoned from the tanks, producing gas which formed a grey-green cloud that drifted across positions held by French Colonial troops from Martinique, as well as the 1st Tirailleurs and the 2nd Zouaves from Algeria. Faced with an unfamiliar threat these troops broke ranks, abandoning their trenches and creating an 8,000-yard (7 km) gap in the Allied line. The German infantry were also wary of the gas and, lacking reinforcements, failed to exploit the break before the 1st Canadian Division and assorted French troops reformed the line in scattered, hastily prepared positions apart. The Entente governments claimed the attack was a flagrant violation of international law but Germany argued that the Hague treaty had only banned chemical shells, rather than the use of gas projectors. In what became the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans used gas on three more occasions; on 24 April against the 1st Canadian Division, on 2 May near Mouse Trap Farm and on 5 May against the British at Hill 60. The British Official History stated that at Hill 60, "90 men died from gas poisoning in the trenches or before they could be got to a dressing station; of the 207 brought to the nearest dressing stations, 46 died almost immediately and 12 after long suffering." On 6 August, German troops under Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg used chlorine gas against Russian troops defending Osowiec Fortress. Surviving defenders drove back the attack and retained the fortress. The event would later be called the Attack of the Dead Men. Germany used chemical weapons on the Eastern Front in an attack at Rawka (river), west of Warsaw. The Russian Army took 9,000 casualties, with more than 1,000 fatalities. In response, the artillery branch of the Russian Army organised a commission to study the delivery of poison gas in shells. Effectiveness and countermeasures It quickly became evident that the men who stayed in their places suffered less than those who ran away, as any movement worsened the effects of the gas, and that those who stood up on the fire step suffered less—indeed they often escaped any serious effects—than those who lay down or sat at the bottom of a trench. Men who stood on the parapet suffered least, as the gas was denser near the ground. The worst sufferers were the wounded lying on the ground, or on stretchers, and the men who moved back with the cloud. Chlorine was less effective as a weapon than the Germans had hoped, particularly as soon as simple countermeasures were introduced. The gas produced a visible greenish cloud and strong odour, making it easy to detect. It was water-soluble, so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and nose with a damp cloth was effective at reducing the effect of the gas. It was thought to be even more effective to use urine rather than water, as it was known at the time that chlorine reacted with urea (present in urine) to form dichloro urea. Chlorine required a concentration of 1,000 parts per million to be fatal, destroying tissue in the lungs, likely through the formation of hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids when dissolved in the water in the lungs. Despite its limitations, chlorine was an effective psychological weapon—the sight of an oncoming cloud of the gas was a continual source of dread for the infantry. Countermeasures were quickly introduced in response to the use of chlorine. The Germans issued their troops with small gauze pads filled with cotton waste, and bottles of a bicarbonate solution with which to dampen the pads. Immediately following the use of chlorine gas by the Germans, instructions were sent to British and French troops to hold wet handkerchiefs or cloths over their mouths. Simple pad respirators similar to those issued to German troops were soon proposed by Lieutenant-Colonel N. C. Ferguson, the Assistant Director Medical Services of the 28th Division. These pads were intended to be used damp, preferably dipped into a solution of bicarbonate kept in buckets for that purpose; other liquids were also used. Because such pads could not be expected to arrive at the front for several days, army divisions set about making them for themselves. Locally available muslin, flannel and gauze were used, officers were sent to Paris to buy more and local French women were employed making up rudimentary pads with string ties. Other units used lint bandages manufactured in the convent at Poperinge. Pad respirators were sent up with rations to British troops in the line as early as the evening of 24 April. In Britain the Daily Mail newspaper encouraged women to manufacture cotton pads, and within one month a variety of pad respirators were available to British and French troops, along with motoring goggles to protect the eyes. The response was enormous and a million gas masks were produced in a day. The Mails design was useless when dry and caused suffocation when wet—the respirator was responsible for the deaths of scores of men. By 6 July 1915, the entire British army was equipped with the more effective "smoke helmet" designed by Major Cluny MacPherson, Newfoundland Regiment, which was a flannel bag with a celluloid window, which entirely covered the head. The race was then on between the introduction of new and more effective poison gases and the production of effective countermeasures, which marked gas warfare until the armistice in November 1918. British gas attacks The British expressed outrage at Germany's use of poison gas at Ypres and responded by developing their own gas warfare capability. The commander of II Corps, Lieutenant General Sir Charles Ferguson, said of gas: The first use of gas by the British was at the Battle of Loos, 25 September 1915, but the attempt was a disaster. Chlorine, codenamed Red Star, was the agent to be used (140 tons arrayed in 5,100 cylinders), and the attack was dependent on a favourable wind. On this occasion the wind proved fickle, and the gas either lingered in no man's land or, in places, blew back on the British trenches. This was compounded when the gas could not be released from all the British canisters because the wrong turning keys were sent with them. Subsequent retaliatory German shelling hit some of those unused full cylinders, releasing gas among the British troops. Exacerbating the situation were the primitive flannel gas masks distributed to the British. The masks got hot, and the small eye-pieces misted over, reducing visibility. Some of the troops lifted the masks to get fresh air, causing them to be gassed. 1915: More deadly gases The deficiencies of chlorine were overcome with the introduction of phosgene, which was prepared by a group of French chemists led by Victor Grignard and first used by France in 1915. Colourless and having an odour likened to "mouldy hay," phosgene was difficult to detect, making it a more effective weapon. Phosgene was sometimes used on its own, but was more often used mixed with an equal volume of chlorine, with the chlorine helping to spread the denser phosgene. The Allies called this combination White Star after the marking painted on shells containing the mixture. Phosgene was a potent killing agent, deadlier than chlorine. It had a potential drawback in that some of the symptoms of exposure took 24 hours or more to manifest. This meant that the victims were initially still capable of putting up a fight; this could also mean that apparently fit troops would be incapacitated by the effects of the gas on the following day. In the first combined chlorine–phosgene attack by Germany, against British troops at Wieltje near Ypres, Belgium on 19 December 1915, 88 tons of the gas were released from cylinders causing 1069 casualties and 69 deaths. The British P gas helmet, issued at the time, was impregnated with sodium phenolate and partially effective against phosgene. The modified PH Gas Helmet, which was impregnated with phenate hexamine and hexamethylene tetramine (urotropine) to improve the protection against phosgene, was issued in January 1916. Around 36,600 tons of phosgene were manufactured during the war, out of a total of 190,000 tons for all chemical weapons, making it second only to chlorine (93,800 tons) in the quantity manufactured: Germany 18,100 tons France 15,700 tons United Kingdom 1,400 tons (also used French stocks) United States 1,400 tons (also used French stocks) Phosgene was never as notorious in public consciousness as mustard gas, but it killed far more people: about 85% of the 90,000 deaths caused by chemical weapons during World War I. 1916: Austrian use On 29 June 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Army attacked the Royal Italian Army's lines on Monte San Michele with a mix of phosgene and chlorine gas. Thousands of Italian soldiers died in this first chemical weapons attack on the Italian Front. 1917: Mustard gas The most widely reported chemical agent of the First World War was mustard gas. Despite the name it is not a gas but a volatile oily liquid, and is dispersed as a fine mist of liquid droplets. It was introduced as a vesicant by Germany on July 12, 1917, weeks prior to the Third Battle of Ypres. The Germans marked their shells yellow for mustard gas and green for chlorine and phosgene; hence they called the new gas Yellow Cross. It was known to the British as HS (Hun Stuff), and the French called it Yperite (named after Ypres). Mustard gas is not an effective killing agent (though in high enough doses it is fatal) but can be used to harass and disable the enemy and pollute the battlefield. Delivered in artillery shells, mustard gas was heavier than air, and it settled to the ground as an oily liquid. Once in the soil, mustard gas remained active for several days, weeks, or even months, depending on the weather conditions. The skin of victims of mustard gas blistered, their eyes became very sore and they began to vomit. Mustard gas caused internal and external bleeding and attacked the bronchial tubes, stripping off the mucous membrane. This was extremely painful. Fatally injured victims sometimes took four or five weeks to die of mustard gas exposure. One nurse, Vera Brittain, wrote: "I wish those people who talk about going on with this war whatever it costs could see the soldiers suffering from mustard gas poisoning. Great mustard-coloured blisters, blind eyes, all sticky and stuck together, always fighting for breath, with voices a mere whisper, saying that their throats are closing and they know they will choke." The polluting nature of mustard gas meant that it was not always suitable for supporting an attack as the assaulting infantry would be exposed to the gas when they advanced. When Germany launched Operation Michael on 21 March 1918, they saturated the Flesquières salient with mustard gas instead of attacking it directly, believing that the harassing effect of the gas, coupled with threats to the salient's flanks, would make the British position untenable. Gas never reproduced the dramatic success of 22 April 1915; it became a standard weapon which, combined with conventional artillery, was used to support most attacks in the later stages of the war. Gas was employed primarily on the Western Front—the static, confined trench system was ideal for achieving an effective concentration. Germany also used gas against Russia on the Eastern Front, where the lack of effective countermeasures resulted in deaths of over 56,000 Russians, while Britain experimented with gas in Palestine during the Second Battle of Gaza. Russia began manufacturing chlorine gas in 1916, with phosgene being produced later in the year. Most of the manufactured gas was never used. The British Army first used mustard gas in November 1917 at Cambrai, after their armies had captured a stockpile of German mustard gas shells. It took the British more than a year to develop their own mustard gas weapon, with production of the chemicals centred on Avonmouth Docks. (The only option available to the British was the Despretz–Niemann–Guthrie process.) This was used first in September 1918 during the breaking of the Hindenburg Line with the Hundred Days' Offensive. The Allies mounted more gas attacks than the Germans in 1917 and 1918 because of a marked increase in production of gas from the Allied nations. Germany was unable to keep up with this pace despite creating various new gases for use in battle, mostly as a result of very costly methods of production. Entry into the war by the United States allowed the Allies to increase mustard gas production far more than Germany. Also the prevailing wind on the Western Front was blowing from west to east, which meant the Allies more frequently had favourable conditions for a gas release than did the Germans. When the United States entered the war, it was already mobilizing resources from academic, industry and military sectors for research and development into poison gas. A Subcommittee on Noxious Gases was created by the National Research Committee, a major research centre was established at Camp American University, and the 1st Gas Regiment was recruited. The 1st Gas Regiment eventually served in France, where it used phosgene gas in several attacks. The Artillery used mustard gas with significant effect during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive on at least three occasions. The United States began large-scale production of an improved vesicant gas known as Lewisite, for use in an offensive planned for early 1919. By the time of the armistice on 11 November, a plant near Willoughby, Ohio was producing 10 tons per day of the substance, for a total of about 150 tons. It is uncertain what effect this new chemical would have had on the battlefield, as it degrades in moist conditions. Post-war By the end of the war, chemical weapons had lost much of their effectiveness against well trained and equipped troops. At that time, chemical weapon agents inflicted an estimated 1.3 million casualties. Nevertheless, in the following years, chemical weapons were used in several, mainly colonial, wars where one side had an advantage in equipment over the other. The British used poison gas, possibly adamsite, against Russian revolutionary troops beginning on 27 August 1919 and contemplated using chemical weapons against Iraqi insurgents in the 1920s; Bolshevik troops used poison gas to suppress the Tambov Rebellion in 1920, Spain used chemical weapons in Morocco against Rif tribesmen throughout the 1920s and Italy used mustard gas in Libya in 1930 and again during its invasion of Ethiopia in 1936. In 1925, a Chinese warlord, Zhang Zuolin, contracted a German company to build him a mustard gas plant in Shenyang, which was completed in 1927. Public opinion had by then turned against the use of such weapons which led to the Geneva Protocol, an updated and extensive prohibition of poison weapons. The Protocol, which was signed by most First World War combatants in 1925, bans the use (but not the stockpiling) of lethal gas and bacteriological weapons. Most countries that signed ratified it within around five years; a few took much longer—Brazil, Japan, Uruguay, and the United States did not do so until the 1970s, and Nicaragua ratified it in 1990. The signatory nations agreed not to use poison gas in the future, stating "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices, has been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilized world." Chemical weapons have been used in at least a dozen wars since the end of the First World War; they were not used in combat on a large scale until Iraq used mustard gas and the more deadly nerve agents in the Halabja chemical attack near the end of the eight-year Iran–Iraq War. The full conflict's use of such weaponry killed around 20,000 Iranian troops (and injured another 80,000), around a quarter of the number of deaths caused by chemical weapons during the First World War. The Geneva Protocol, 1925 The Geneva Protocol, signed by 132 nations on June 17, 1925, was a treaty established to ban the use of chemical and biological weapons during wartime. As stated by Coupland and Leins, "it was fostered in part by a 1918 appeal in which the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) described the use of poisonous gas against soldiers as a barbarous invention which science is bringing to perfection". The Protocol required that all remaining stockpiles of chemical weapons be destroyed. Chemical warfare agents that contained bromine, nitroaromatic, and chlorine were dismantled and destroyed. The destruction and disposal of the chemicals did not consider the long-term and adverse impacts on the environment. Although the Geneva Protocol banned the use of chemical weapons during wartime, the Protocol did not ban the production of chemical weapons. In fact, since the Geneva Protocol, the stockpiling of chemical weapons has continued, and weapons have become more lethal. As a result, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was drafted in 1993, which prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. Despite there being an international ban on chemical warfare, the CWC "allows domestic law enforcement agencies of the signing countries to use chemical weapons on their citizens". Effect on World War II All major combatants stockpiled chemical weapons during the Second World War, but the only reports of its use in the conflict were the Japanese use of relatively small amounts of mustard gas and lewisite in China, Italy's use of gas in Ethiopia (in what is more often considered to be the Second Italo-Ethiopian War), and very rare occurrences in Europe (for example some mustard gas bombs were dropped on Warsaw on 3 September 1939, which Germany acknowledged in 1942 but indicated had been accidental). Mustard gas was the agent of choice, with the British stockpiling 40,719 tons, the Soviets 77,400 tons, the Americans over 87,000 tons and the Germans 27,597 tons. The destruction of an American cargo ship containing mustard gas led to many casualties in Bari, Italy, in December 1943. In both Axis and Allied nations, children in school were taught to wear gas masks in case of gas attack. Germany developed the poison gases tabun, sarin, and soman during the war, and used Zyklon B in their extermination camps. Neither Germany nor the Allied nations used any of their war gases in combat, despite maintaining large stockpiles and occasional calls for their use. Poison gas played an important role in the Holocaust. Britain made plans to use mustard gas on the landing beaches in the event of an invasion of the United Kingdom in 1940. The United States considered using gas to support their planned invasion of Japan. Casualties The contribution of gas weapons to the total casualty figures was relatively minor. British figures, which were accurately maintained from 1916, recorded that 3% of gas casualties were fatal, 2% were permanently invalid and 70% were fit for duty again within six weeks. Death by gas was often slow and painful. According to Denis Winter (Death's Men, 1978), a fatal dose of phosgene eventually led to "shallow breathing and retching, pulse up to 120, an ashen face and the discharge of four pints (2 litres) of yellow liquid from the lungs each hour for the 48 of the drowning spasms." A common fate of those exposed to gas was blindness, chlorine gas or mustard gas being the main causes. One of the most famous First World War paintings, Gassed by John Singer Sargent, captures such a scene of mustard gas casualties which he witnessed at a dressing station at Le Bac-du-Sud near Arras in July 1918. (The gases used during that battle (tear gas) caused temporary blindness and/or a painful stinging in the eyes. These bandages were normally water-soaked to provide a rudimentary form of pain relief to the eyes of casualties before they reached more organized medical help.) The proportion of mustard gas fatalities to total casualties was low; 2% of mustard gas casualties died and many of these succumbed to secondary infections rather than the gas itself. Once it was introduced at the third battle of Ypres, mustard gas produced 90% of all British gas casualties and 14% of battle casualties of any type. Mustard gas was a source of extreme dread. In The Anatomy of Courage (1945), Lord Moran, who had been a medical officer during the war, wrote: Mustard gas did not need to be inhaled to be effective—any contact with skin was sufficient. Exposure to 0.1 ppm was enough to cause massive blisters. Higher concentrations could burn flesh to the bone. It was particularly effective against the soft skin of the eyes, nose, armpits and groin, since it dissolved in the natural moisture of those areas. Typical exposure would result in swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids, forcing them closed and rendering the victim temporarily blind. Where it contacted the skin, moist red patches would immediately appear which after 24 hours would have formed into blisters. Other symptoms included severe headache, elevated pulse and temperature (fever), and pneumonia (from blistering in the lungs). Many of those who survived a gas attack were scarred for life. Respiratory disease and failing eyesight were common post-war afflictions. Of the Canadians who, without any effective protection, had withstood the first chlorine attacks during Second Ypres, 60% of the casualties had to be repatriated and half of these were still unfit by the end of the war, over three years later. Many of those who were fairly soon recorded as fit for service were left with scar tissue in their lungs. This tissue was susceptible to tuberculosis attack. It was from this that many of the 1918 casualties died, around the time of the Second World War, shortly before sulfa drugs became widely available for its treatment. British testimony A British nurse treating mustard gas cases recorded: A postmortem account from the British official medical history records one of the British casualties: Case four. Aged 39 years. Gassed 29 July 1917. Admitted to casualty clearing station the same day. Died about ten days later. Brownish pigmentation present over large surfaces of the body. A white ring of skin where the wrist watch was. Marked superficial burning of the face and scrotum. The larynx much congested. The whole of the trachea was covered by a yellow membrane. The bronchi contained abundant gas. The lungs fairly voluminous. The right lung showing extensive collapse at the base. Liver congested and fatty. Stomach showed numerous submucous haemorrhages. The brain substance was unduly wet and very congested. Civilian casualties The distribution of gas cloud casualties was not limited to the front. Nearby towns were at risk from winds blowing the poison gases through. Civilians rarely had a warning system to alert their neighbours of the danger and often did not have access to effective gas masks. When the gas came to the towns it could easily get into houses through open windows and doors. An estimated 100,000–260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew that such weapons would cause major harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to use them throughout the war. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary: "My officers and I were aware that such weapon would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common on the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all." Countermeasures None of the First World War's combatants were prepared for the introduction of poison gas as a weapon. Once gas was introduced, development of gas protection began and the process continued for much of the war producing a series of increasingly effective gas masks. Even at Second Ypres, Germany, still unsure of the weapon's effectiveness, only issued breathing masks to the engineers handling the gas. At Ypres a Canadian medical officer, who was also a chemist, quickly identified the gas as chlorine and recommended that the troops urinate on a cloth and hold it over their mouth and nose, urine would be left to sit for a period so that the ammonia would activate, this would neutralize some of the chemicals in the chlorine gas, this action would allow them to delay the German advance at Ypres giving the allies time to reinforce the area when French and other colonial troops had retreated. The first official equipment issued was similarly crude; a pad of material, usually impregnated with a chemical, tied over the lower face. To protect the eyes from tear gas, soldiers were issued with gas goggles. The next advance was the introduction of the gas helmet—basically a bag placed over the head. The fabric of the bag was impregnated with a chemical to neutralize the gas—the chemical would wash out into the soldier's eyes whenever it rained. Eye-pieces, which were prone to fog up, were initially made from talc. When going into combat, gas helmets were typically worn rolled up on top of the head, to be pulled down and secured about the neck when the gas alarm was given. The first British version was the Hypo helmet, the fabric of which was soaked in sodium hyposulfite (commonly known as "hypo"). The British P gas helmet, partially effective against phosgene and with which all infantry were equipped with at Loos, was impregnated with sodium phenolate. A mouthpiece was added through which the wearer would breathe out to prevent carbon dioxide build-up. The adjutant of the 1/23rd Battalion, The London Regiment, recalled his experience of the P helmet at Loos: A modified version of the P Helmet, called the PH Helmet, was issued in January 1916, and was impregnated with hexamethylenetetramine to improve the protection against phosgene. Self-contained box respirators represented the culmination of gas mask development during the First World War. Box respirators used a two-piece design; a mouthpiece connected via a hose to a box filter. The box filter contained granules of chemicals that neutralised the gas, delivering clean air to the wearer. Separating the filter from the mask enabled a bulky but efficient filter to be supplied. Nevertheless, the first version, known as the Large Box Respirator (LBR) or "Harrison's Tower", was deemed too bulky—the box canister needed to be carried on the back. The LBR had no mask, just a mouthpiece and nose clip; separate gas goggles had to be worn. It continued to be issued to the artillery gun crews but the infantry were supplied with the "Small Box Respirator" (SBR). The Small Box Respirator featured a single-piece, close-fitting rubberized mask with eye-pieces. The box filter was compact and could be worn around the neck. The SBR could be readily upgraded as more effective filter technology was developed. The British-designed SBR was also adopted for use by the American Expeditionary Force. The SBR was the prized possession of the ordinary infantryman; when the British were forced to retreat during the German spring offensive of 1918, it was found that while some troops had discarded their rifles, hardly any had left behind their respirators. Horses and mules were important methods of transport that could be endangered if they came into close contact with gas. This was not so much of a problem until it became common to launch gas great distances. This caused researchers to develop masks that could be used on animals such as dogs, horses, mules, and even carrier pigeons. For mustard gas, which could cause severe damage by simply making contact with skin, no effective countermeasure was found during the war. The kilt-wearing Scottish regiments were especially vulnerable to mustard gas injuries due to their bare legs. At Nieuwpoort in Flanders some Scottish battalions took to wearing women's tights beneath the kilt as a form of protection. Gas alert procedure became a routine for the front-line soldier. To warn of a gas attack, a bell would be rung, often made from a spent artillery shell. At the noisy batteries of the siege guns, a compressed air strombus horn was used, which could be heard nine miles (14 km) away. Notices would be posted on all approaches to an affected area, warning people to take precautions. Other British attempts at countermeasures were not so effective. An early plan was to use 100,000 fans to disperse the gas. Burning coal or carborundum dust was tried. A proposal was made to equip front-line sentries with diving helmets, air being pumped to them through a 100 ft (30 m) hose. The effectiveness of all countermeasures is apparent. In 1915, when poison gas was relatively new, less than 3% of British gas casualties died. In 1916, the proportion of fatalities jumped to 17%. By 1918, the figure was back below 3%, though the total number of British gas casualties was now nine times the 1915 levels. Delivery systems The first system employed for the mass delivery of gas involved releasing the gas cylinders in a favourable wind such that it was carried over the enemy's trenches. The Hague Convention of 1899 prohibited the use of poison gasses delivered by projectiles. The main advantage of this method was that it was relatively simple and, in suitable atmospheric conditions, produced a concentrated cloud capable of overwhelming the gas mask defences. The disadvantages of cylinder releases were numerous. First and foremost, delivery was at the mercy of the wind. If the wind was fickle, as was the case at Loos, the gas could backfire, causing friendly casualties. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. Gas clouds had limited penetration, only capable of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Finally, the cylinders had to be emplaced at the very front of the trench system so that the gas was released directly over no man's land. This meant that the cylinders had to be manhandled through communication trenches, often clogged and sodden, and stored at the front where there was always the risk that cylinders would be prematurely breached during a bombardment. A leaking cylinder could issue a telltale wisp of gas that, if spotted, would be sure to attract shellfire. A British chlorine cylinder, known as an "oojah", weighed 190 lb (86 kg), of which 60 lb (27 kg) was chlorine gas, and required two men to carry. Phosgene gas was introduced later in a cylinder, known as a "mouse", that weighed 50 lb (23 kg). Delivering gas via artillery shell overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. The Germans, for example, used artillery shells. Gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making anywhere within reach of the guns vulnerable. Gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odourless phosgene—there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud HE or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. The main flaw associated with delivering gas via artillery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to a saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. Mustard gas did not need to form a concentrated cloud and hence artillery was the ideal vehicle for delivery of this battlefield pollutant. The solution to achieving a lethal concentration without releasing from cylinders was the "gas projector", essentially a large-bore mortar that fired the entire cylinder as a missile. The British Livens projector (invented by Captain W.H. Livens in 1917) was a simple device; an diameter tube sunk into the ground at an angle, a propellant was ignited by an electrical signal, firing the cylinder containing 30 or 40 lb (14 or 18 kg) of gas up to 1,900 metres. By arranging a battery of these projectors and firing them simultaneously, a dense concentration of gas could be achieved. The Livens was first used at Arras on 4 April 1917. On 31 March 1918 the British conducted their largest ever "gas shoot", firing 3,728 cylinders at Lens. Unexploded weapons Over of France had to be cordoned off at the end of the war because of unexploded ordnance. About 20% of the chemical shells were duds, and approximately 13 million of these munitions were left in place. This has been a serious problem in former battle areas from immediately after the end of the War until the present. Shells may be, for instance, uncovered when farmers plough their fields (termed the 'iron harvest'), and are also regularly discovered when public works or construction work is done. After the armistice, people sought unexploded weapons for their metal value, as well as preventing the danger that they posed to civilians. Toxic chemicals were emptied from shells, resulting in many deaths and health defects. Another difficulty is the current stringency of environmental legislation. In the past, a common method of getting rid of unexploded chemical ammunition was to detonate or dump it at sea; this is currently prohibited in most countries. The problems are especially acute in some northern regions of France. The French government no longer disposes of chemical weapons at sea. For this reason, piles of untreated chemical weapons accumulated. In 2001, it became evident that the pile stored at a depot in Vimy was unsafe; the inhabitants of the neighbouring town were evacuated, and the pile moved, using refrigerated trucks and under heavy guard, to a military camp in Suippes. The capacity of the plant is meant to be 25 tons per year (extensible to 80 tons at the beginning), for a lifetime of 30 years. Germany has to deal with unexploded ammunition and polluted lands resulting from the explosion of an ammunition train in 1919. Aside from unexploded shells, there have been claims that poison residues have remained in the local environment for an extended period, though this is unconfirmed; well known but unverified anecdotes claim that as late as the 1960s trees in the area retained enough mustard gas residue to injure farmers or construction workers who were clearing them. Disposal methods of chemical weapons After World War I, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom and other nations had stockpiles of unfired weapons. It has been estimated that 125 million tons of toxic gases were used to manufacture bombs, grenades and shells. The remaining weapons were destroyed, dismantled, and disposed of in oceans and seas. It was believed that the chemicals would be diluted when disposed of in the ocean, and therefore ocean and sea dumping was a “safe and convenient” practice. Hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical agents, such as sulphur mustard, cyanogen chloride and arsine oil, were disposed of at sea. Chemical weapons have since washed up on shorelines and been found by fishers, causing injuries and, in some cases, death. Other disposal methods included land burials and incineration. After World War 1, “chemical shells made up 35 percent of French and German ammunition supplies, 25 percent British and 20 percent American”. Weapons that contained chemicals such as bromine, chlorine and nitroaromatic were burned. The thermal destruction of chemical weapons negatively impacted the ecological environment of disposal sites. For example, in Verdun, France, the thermal destruction of weapons “resulted in severe metal contamination of upper 4-10 cm of topsoil” at the Place à Gas disposal site. Gases used Long-term health effects Soldiers who claimed to have been exposed to chemical warfare have often presented unusual medical conditions which has led to much controversy. The lack of information has left doctors, patients, and their families in the dark in terms of prognosis and treatment. Nerve agents such as sarin, tabun, and soman are believed to have the most significant long-term health effects. Chronic fatigue and memory loss have been reported to last up to three years after exposure. In the years following World War One, there were many conferences held in attempts to abolish the use of chemical weapons altogether, such as the Washington Naval Conference (1921–22), Geneva Conference (1923–25) and the World Disarmament Conference (1933). The United States was an original signatory of the Geneva Protocol in 1925, but the US Senate did not ratify it until 1975. Although the health effects are generally chronic in nature, the exposures were generally acute. A positive correlation has been proven between exposure to mustard agents and skin cancers, other respiratory and skin conditions, leukemia, several eye conditions, bone marrow depression and subsequent immunosuppression, psychological disorders and sexual dysfunction. Chemicals used in the production of chemical weapons have also left residues in the soil where the weapons were used. The chemicals that have been detected can cause cancer and can affect the brain, blood, liver, kidneys and skin. The development and production of chemical weapons threatened public health and introduced a new set of challenges. Not only did war gasses like mustard and chlorine endanger the lives of soldiers, but also threatened the safety of workers who manufactured them. Explanatory notes References Further reading External links Faith, Thomas I.: Gas Warfare, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Chemical Weapons in World War I Gas Warfare Gas-Poisoning, by Arthur Hurst, M.A., MD (Oxon), FRCP 1917 effects of chlorine gas poisoning Understanding Chemical Weapons in the First World War World War I Environmental impact of war French war crimes Italian war crimes World War I chemical weapons World War I crimes by Austria-Hungary World War I crimes by Imperial Germany World War I crimes by the British Empire and Commonwealth World War I crimes by the Third French Republic World War I crimes by the United States United Kingdom chemical weapons program World War I crimes Military operations of World War I involving chemical weapons	wiki
Short rate may refer to: Short rate cancellation (insurance), a penalty method of calculating return premium of an insurance policy Short rate table, used to calculate the earned premium for such a policy Short-rate model (interest), a mathematical model that describes the future evolution of interest rates by describing the future evolution of the short rate	wiki
SimCity 4 is a city-building simulation computer game developed by Maxis, a subsidiary of Electronic Arts. It was released on January 14, 2003. It is the fourth major installment in the SimCity series. SimCity 4 has a single expansion pack called Rush Hour which adds features to the game. SimCity 4: Deluxe Edition contained the original game and Rush Hour combined as a single product. The game allows players to create a region of land by terraforming, and then to design and build a settlement which can grow into a city. Players can zone different areas of land as commercial, industrial, or residential development, as well as build and maintain public services, transport and utilities. For the success of a city, players must manage its finances, environment, and quality of life for its residents. SimCity 4 introduces night and day cycles and other special effects for the first time in the SimCity series. External tools such as the Building Architect Tool (BAT) allow custom third-party buildings and content to be added to the gameplay. SimCity 4 was praised for being the first game in the main SimCity series to primarily use a 3D engine to render its graphics, following the implementation of 3D graphics in SimCity 64 for the Nintendo 64DD. It received widespread acclaim, won several awards, and was one of the top ten selling PC games of 2003. However, it was criticized for its difficulty and its demands on computer performance. Gameplay Regional gameplay As with previous SimCity titles, SimCity 4 places players in the role of a mayor, tasked with populating and developing tracts of lands into cities, while fulfilling the needs of fellow Sims that live in the cities. Cities are now located in regions that are divided into segments, each of which can be developed. The player has the option of starting the city in a segment of any of three area sizes. In real measurements, the smallest has a length of one kilometer on a side, and the largest has a length of four kilometers on a side. The size of a region and its layout of segments can be changed in a bitmap file provided for each region. Neighbor cities play a larger role than in the previous versions of the game. For example, neighbor deals can be established, where a city can exchange resources such as water, electricity and garbage disposal with other cities for money. Players may develop several inter-dependent cities at the same time, eventually populating the entire region. Game modes Upon selecting a specific segment in a region, the gameplay is divided into three "modes": god mode, mayor mode, and MySim mode. Mayor and MySim modes become available after establishing a city. God mode is available before establishing a city and afterwards, albeit with fewer functions. By obliterating the city, which resets the map, all functions in God mode are reactivated. God mode God mode allows players to design or terraform a selected tract of land where the city will be built. God mode also allows players to trigger disasters, including tornadoes and earthquakes among several others. Players can select an area where a disaster will occur and even control the direction of certain disasters. Most terraforming tools are disabled after the city is named and founded. The player still has some terraforming tools made available in mayor mode, although they become very limited and expensive, and they can still trigger disasters at will. In addition to these abilities, god mode also gives the player tools to reconcile the borders of the cities, so as to fix any discrepancies created during the terraforming process, and a day/night cycle adjustment, so that one can make it always day, always night, or alternate between day or night in accordance with the in-universe game clock. Both the ability to reconcile the city edges and the ability to modify the day/night cycle are available even once the city has been established. Mayor mode In mayor mode, city building is conducted. Several advisors may give advice to the player on how to best manage a city. Players can build transportation networks, which include roads, streets, avenues, highways, railways, subway lines, and bus stations, draw out building zones, construct civic buildings, and adjust city funding and tax rates. Players can also terraform and plant trees in this mode, but in a much smaller scale than in god mode and costing money. Zones are planned building plots that are empty at first but then populated by buildings depending on the type and density of the zone. Areas of land can be zoned as residential, commercial or industrial areas in various densities where the city will begin to grow. Agriculture is a separate industrial zone-type, unlike previous versions of SimCity, enabling farms to grow regardless of high land value, so long as demand exists for agriculture and agricultural zones have been provided. Zones are now automatically aligned towards roads and most buildings must be adjacent to a road in order to function properly; streets are automatically created when zoning on large tracts of land. Buildings are classified into several wealth levels, zone types, and building size stages, which are affected by the region's population and the city's condition. The game simulates urban decay and gentrification with buildings deteriorating and refurbished accordingly. Buildings originally constructed for occupation by higher wealth tenants can now support lower wealth tenants in the event surrounding factors forces the current tenants to vacate the building; this allows certain buildings to remain in use despite lacking its initial occupants. Buildings and lots can be constructed on slopes. Civic buildings can be constructed that need constant funding to work properly, such as schools, hospitals, parks, police stations, jails, and fire stations. These buildings come in two or more sizes compared to the single, universal types that were used in previous games. Settlements also need public utilities such as electricity with more or less polluting and more or less expensive types of power stations, water pumps, water purification plants, and waste management services. Facilities that had previously provided citywide coverage, such as educational facilities and medical facilities, have been modified to provide more limited coverage, as it has been with police stations and fire stations in previous SimCity titles. Funding can be adjusted for individual buildings rather than having to change the funding to all buildings, allowing users to specify how much money should be spent to supply a service in accordance to the local population. Maintenance expenses for public utility facilities will increase as they age. The maximum output of facilities also decreases as they get older, with the rate dependent on the facility's percentage of its capacity being used and level of funding. MySim mode MySim mode enables players to create user-defined Sims, who will live and work in the city the player has created. When moving a Sim into a city, the player can choose from a selection of characters or import others from The Sims. Sims can be killed by certain disasters or catastrophic events, leave the city if conditions are unfavorable, or die of old age. After they die, their "child" sometimes takes over for them by taking their name, house, and job. Building designs Buildings in SimCity 4 are based on four distinct architectural styles, which can be selected simultaneously or only on one era to be built. The earliest era is based on early office towers from Chicago, Illinois, in the 1890s, an Art Deco-based set from New York City based on the 1940s, a modernist/international style based on buildings from Houston, Texas, in the 1990s and modern European architecture based mostly around Germany. There are a number of buildings based on those found in San Francisco, including the Shell Building (appearing as "Wren Insurance"), 450 Sutter Street (appearing as "Vu Financial"), and the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Building also known as 140 New Montgomery Street (as "The Galvin Corp"). The May Company store (now LACMA West) in Los Angeles appears as "Dennis Department Store." The game also includes famous landmarks from various cities, such as the Empire State Building from New York City. Development Graphics Unlike its predecessors, which used an engine based on 2D isometric graphics and sprites, SimCity 4 primarily uses a 3D engine to render its graphics. The landscape and moving props such as vehicles are modeled as fully polygonal and rotatable 3D objects. Small buildings and props are drawn as flat images, which are pasted onto billboards; polygons with their surface normal facing into the camera. Larger buildings are modeled using a hybrid approach; a simple polygonal model defines the shape of the building, then textures are added to create detail such as doors, windows and rooftop clutter. Although a 3D engine is used, the camera in SimCity 4 is restricted to a fixed trimetric orthographic projection for performance reasons. Additionally, a simulated city can now be seen at nighttime as well as during daytime. The time of the day does not affect the gameplay. Audio The game includes over three hours of background music in MP3 format, ranging from three to eight minutes in length. The music is divided between that used in region mode and god mode, and that used in the city view in mayor mode and MySim mode. In addition, the game has a facility for players to use their own music in the game, also divided between the two views. The music, largely composed by Jerry Martin, was also released separately as a soundtrack. Add-ons and modifications Maxis releases Following SimCity 4 release, several add-ons and development kits were made available on its official site. New landmarks, including Rockefeller Center, the Brandenburg Gate, and Stonehenge were made available online. Later, landmarks were primarily used to demonstrate the capability of Gmax and the Building Architect Tool (BAT) around the time of the BAT's release. The Terrain Generator tool allowed users to create maps based on any of the 48 contiguous United States. The maps are based on data collected by the United States Geological Survey. The Building Architect Tool (BAT) is a suite of tools developed for producing custom buildings. The suite consists of three applications: The Building Architect game pack for Gmax, which enabled users to render Gmax models into SimCity 4 sprites or props to be imported into the LE; an updated version of the LE; and the standalone Plug-in Manager, which enables users to modify simulation properties for new lots. Several modified versions have been released that have, in effect, served as bug fixes for various problems that had not been discovered before the initial release. First released in February 2004, it enabled the modding community to produce custom buildings and props for SC4. SimCity 4 Building Architect Tool is similar in function to SimCity 3000 Building Architect Tool and SimCity 2000 Urban Renewal Kit; however, previous programs of this kind were created from scratch by Maxis and used completely different interfaces. The SC4 BAT required a third-party application (Gmax) to function and was never bundled with SC4 or the Rush Hour expansion pack, as SimCity 3000 Unlimited had with its own BAT. The Lot Editor (LE) is a tool which allows users to edit or design lots for SimCity 4 using available props. Because it was released several months before the BAT as a stand-alone version, users at the time were only capable of producing lots that consisted of built-in props from SC4. The BAT provided users with an updated version of the LE, which rendered the original LE utility obsolete. However, the old version is still made available in the official site. Third-party content In addition to official tools, third-party programs were released for further accessibility in editing SimCity 4 contents, potentially allowing users to change the nature of the game itself. Following the release of the Lot Editor and the "BAT" (Building Architect Tool), the majority of add-ons in circulation consist of user-created content; most are buildings and lots, including real-life landmarks, chain stores, extra houses, etc., while others include cosmetic changes for terrain, flora, custom vehicles and modifications in the game's behavior. Some even fundamentally change the mechanics of the game (for instance, by introducing multi-function transportation networks and stations, or by modifying the distance Sims are willing to walk in order to reach transit or their jobs). In some cases, both the skills of lot building and modding are combined, producing lots that are capable of affecting a city in a variety of ways. Some third-party content is only available to those with expansion packs or another mod. Reception Sales In the United Kingdom, SimCity 4 sold over 100,000 units during the first half of 2003. This made it the United Kingdom's third-best-selling computer game for the period, or eighth across all platforms. At the time, Kristan Reed of GamesIndustry.biz wrote that its performance proved "you can still have big hits on PC". By the end of the year, British sales of the game had reached 105,000 units, which made it 79th-biggest seller across all platforms that year. The game later received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Its Deluxe edition earned a "Silver" award from ELSPA, for at least 100,000 sales. Reviews and awards Shortly after its release, the PC version of SimCity 4 garnered mainly positive reviews, gaining 84/100 from Metacritic, and an 85.09% overall score from GameRankings. The game got a 9.2/10 rating at IGN, calling it a "major evolutionary step in the series". The review commented that the addition of the region view mode adds more depth to SimCity 4 and that the gameplay has a "more accurate representation of city planning and maintenance" than of previous titles in the SimCity series. The game scored an 8.1/10 rating at GameSpot, stating that the game had a "sleek, attractive interface" and "great audio"; it added however that SimCity 4 was "rather rushed" and that the MySim mode "seems like an afterthought." The review concluded that it was a "complex and detailed strategy game," "though not as polished as it could have been." The publication later named it the best computer game of January 2003. GameSpy gave the game a score of 75/100, commenting that SimCity 4 is "graphically stunning"; the review also criticized the game for having issues "that will likely kill the game for casual players" including performance and difficulty. 1UP.com rated the game at B+ and praised the region view feature as well as the detail of the graphics which create a "deeper sense of simulation." The review however criticizes SimCity 4 for suffering crashes and performance issues. SimCity 4 received further reviews after the release of the Mac version. The game received a rating of 7.25/10 from InsideMacGames. The review commented that the regional gameplay was a "new and welcome addition" and that it had detailed and realistic graphics; it was also said however that the game was not "revolutionary," had "horrendous bugs," and that the tutorial and manual lacked information. Urban planner Jeff Speck said that SimCity 4s traffic model is "more advanced than what most traffic engineers use in real life". Awards SimCity 4 was chosen as one of IGN's "Editors' Choice" games for January 2003. It was also given the Parents' Choice Award by the Parents' Choice Foundation. Additional content and releases SimCity 4: Rush Hour On September 22, 2003, Maxis released an expansion pack for SimCity 4 dubbed Rush Hour. The expansion pack enhances the range of transportation facilities available to the player, such as being able to build four-lane avenues and elevated rail networks, as well as allowing them to trace traffic flow, while also allowing them to construct larger civic facilities; some such facilities have greater capacities, but all have increased maintenance costs. Additional features with the expansion also included the ability to control vehicles, take on missions that can unlock reward buildings much faster, affect their rating with the city and sometimes acquire a cash bonus, and introduced the ability to change between four architectural styles - three of these focus on architectural styles of American cities of differing eras, while the fourth introduces a new range of contemporary European-inspired architecture. On the same day that the expansion pack Rush Hour was released, a bundle pack combining both the main game and the expansion pack was released, entitled SimCity 4 Deluxe Edition. On August 25, 2004, Aspyr Media released SimCity 4 Deluxe Edition for Mac OS X. A year later, the expansion was released for Mac OS X on September 4, 2004. Digital distribution release On July 20, 2010, Electronic Arts released the Deluxe Edition (SimCity 4 and its Rush Hour expansion) for digital download on Steam, a digital distribution service by Valve. The game is also available on GOG.com, Direct2Drive and Impulse as well as EA's own Origin service. On April 10, 2014, Aspyr released an updated version of their port of the Deluxe Edition on the Mac App Store. The updated version includes bug fixes and performance enhancements, native resolution support, and support for the latest versions of Mac OS X. Origin Controversy Around 2014 it was found out that the copy of SimCity 4 sold on EA's Origin was distributing an outdated "digital version" that had a different checksum which made the game unpatchable even by Maxis' own update utilities. This version of the game lacked the stability and modding support compared to those sold on other platforms. Following a small outcry from the SimCity 4 community on August 27, 2014, EA pushed an update that replaced the SimCity executable with those being distributed on other platforms. However, on February 5, 2017, SimCity community members reported that their copy was downgraded back to the unpatchable "digital version" and EA provided no explanation. And as of February 26, 2023 Origin is still distributing the outdated "digital version" while displaying modded versions of the game on its store page. Future updates Will Wright stated in an interview on May 16, 2003, that there would probably be more expansion packs after Rush Hour, but none were ever released. In another interview on May 22, 2004, Wright stated that Maxis was attempting to work out a "new direction" for SimCity after new versions had become "steadily more complex". Two SimCity games for PC have followed SimCity 4. The first was SimCity Societies, which was developed by Tilted Mill Entertainment and released on November 13, 2007. The second was SimCity, which was announced in March 2012 and was released in March 2013. In popular culture During the Republican presidential primaries of 2012, candidate Herman Cain's 9-9-9 taxation proposal was widely attributed to a similar tax structure presented in SimCity 4; the CNBC cable networks relayed the story of the linkage of the SimCity "ideal parameters" as a possible origin of the taxation proposal (the story itself may have originated in the technical press), but Cain denied any link to the game. References External links SimCity 4 at MobyGames 2003 video games Aspyr games City-building games Lua (programming language)-scripted video games MacOS games SimCity Top-down video games Video games developed in the United States Video games scored by Jerry Martin Video games with expansion packs Windows games	wiki
The Washington Monument is an obelisk-shaped building, on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army (1775–1784) in the American Revolutionary War and the first President of the United States (1789–1797). Standing east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial, the monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss, is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk, standing tall according to measurements by the U.S. Geodetic Survey in 2013–2014 or tall, according to the National Park Service's 1884 measurements. It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances. It was the tallest structure in the world between 1884 and 1889, after which it was overtaken by the Eiffel Tower, in Paris. Previously, the tallest structure was the Cologne Cathedral. Construction of the presidential memorial began in 1848; it was halted from 1854 to 1877 by lack of funds, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the American Civil War. Although the stone structure was completed in 1884, internal ironwork, the knoll, and installation of memorial stones were not completed until 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible about or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills (1781–1855), of South Carolina; but construction omitted his proposed colonnade, for lack of funds, proceeding only with a bare obelisk. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on ; the capstone was set on ; the completed monument was dedicated on ; and officially opened . The Washington Monument is a hollow Egyptian-style stone obelisk with a tall column surmounted by a tall pyramidion. Its walls are thick at its base and thick at their top. The marble pyramidion's walls are thick, supported by six arches: two between opposite walls, which cross at the center of the pyramidion, and four smaller, corner arches. The top of the pyramidion is a large, marble capstone with a small aluminum pyramid at its apex, with inscriptions on all four sides. The bottom of the walls, built during the first phase, from 1848 to 1854, are composed of a pile of bluestone gneiss rubble stones (not finished stones) held together by a large amount of mortar with a facade of semi-finished marble stones about thick. The upper of the walls, built in the second phase, 1880–1884, are of finished marble surface stones, half of which project into the walls, partly backed by finished granite stones. The interior is occupied by iron stairs that spiral up the walls, with an elevator in the center, each supported by four iron columns, which do not support the stone structure. The stairs are in fifty sections, most on the north and south walls, with many long landings stretching between them along the east and west walls. These landings allowed many inscribed memorial stones of various materials and sizes to be easily viewed while the stairs were accessible (until 1976), plus one memorial stone between stairs that is difficult to view. The pyramidion has eight observation windows, two per side, and eight red aircraft warning lights, two per side. Two aluminum lightning rods, connected by the elevator support columns to groundwater, protect the monument. The monument's present foundation is thick, consisting of half of its original bluestone gneiss rubble encased in concrete. At the northeast corner of the foundation, below ground, is the marble cornerstone, including a zinc case filled with memorabilia. Fifty American flags fly on a large circle of poles centered on the monument. In 2001, a temporary screening facility was added to the entrance to prevent a terrorist attack. An earthquake in 2011 slightly damaged the monument, and it was closed until 2014. It was closed again for elevator repairs, security upgrades, and mitigation of soil contamination, from August 2016 to September 2019. History Rationale George Washington (1732–1799), hailed as the father of his country, and as the leader who was "first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen" (in eulogy by Maj. Gen. 'Light-Horse Harry' Lee at Washington's funeral, December 26, 1799), was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. Even his former enemy King George III called him "the greatest character of the age". At Washington's death in 1799, he left a critical legacy: Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism. He was also identified with the Federalist Party, which lost control of the national government in 1800 to the Jeffersonian Republicans, who were reluctant to celebrate the hero of the opposition party. Proposals Starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington, beginning with an authorization in 1783 by the old Confederation Congress to erect an equestrian statue of the General in a future American national capital city. After his December 1799 death, the United States Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the planned national capital then under construction since 1791, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republican Party (Jeffersonian Republicans) took control of Congress in 1801 after the pivotal 1800 Election, with the first change of power between opposing political parties. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. They also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North–South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. As early as 1783, the old Confederation Congress (successors after 1781 to the earlier Second Continental Congress) had resolved "That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established". The proposal called for engraving on the statue which explained it had been erected "in honor of George Washington, the illustrious Commander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United States of America during the war which vindicated and secured their liberty, sovereignty, and independence". Currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in the national capital city of Washington, D.C. One is located in Washington Circle at the intersection of the Foggy Bottom and West End neighborhoods at the north end of the George Washington University campus, and the other is in the gardens of the National Cathedral of the Episcopal Church on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington. On December 24, 1799, 10 days after Washington's death, a U.S. Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument. John Marshall (1755–1835), a Representative from Virginia (who later became Chief Justice of the United States, 1801–1835) proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol and it was designed later to place such a crypt sepulchre below the rotunda of the great dome. However, a lack of funds, disagreement over what type of memorial would best honor the country's first president, and the Washington family's reluctance to move his body from Mount Vernon prevented progress on any project. Design Progress toward a memorial finally began in 1833. That year a large group of citizens formed the Washington National Monument Society. Three years later, in 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations (), they announced a competition for the design of the memorial. On September 23, 1835, the board of managers of the society described their expectations: The society held a competition for designs in 1836. In 1845, the winner was announced to be architect Robert Mills, supposedly the first native-born American to be professionally trained as an architect. The citizens of Baltimore had chosen him in 1814 to build one of the first monuments to George Washington originally planned for the former courthouse square in their port city, and he had designed a tall elaborately decorated Greek column with balconies, surmounted by a statue of the President. Mills' Baltimore monument, with cornerstone laid and construction begun in 1815, was later simplified to a plain column shaft with a statue of a toga-clad Washington at the top when it was completed in 1829, but moved (because of its height) to the then rural hills to the north, where the city's growth would later extend. Mills also knew the capital well, with its being only southwest of Baltimore, and his having just been chosen Architect of Public Buildings for Washington. His design called for a circular colonnaded building in diameter and high from which sprang a four-sided obelisk high, for a total elevation of . A massive cylindrical pillar in diameter supported the obelisk at the center of the building. The obelisk was to be square at the base and square at the top with a slightly peaked roof. Both the obelisk and pillar were hollow within which a railway spiraled up. The obelisk had no doorway—instead its interior was entered from the interior of the pillar upon which it was mounted. The pillar had an "arched way" at its base. The top of the portico of the building would feature Washington standing in a chariot holding the reins of six horses. Inside the colonnade would be statues of 30 prominent Revolutionary War heroes as well as statues of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence. Criticism of Mills's design and its estimated price tag of more than $1 million (in 1848 money, ) caused the society to hesitate. On April 11, 1848, the society decided, due to a lack of funds, to build only a simple plain obelisk. Mills's 1848 obelisk was to be tall, square at the base and square at the top. It had two massive doorways, each high and wide, on the east and west sides of its base. Surrounding each doorway were raised jambs, a heavy pediment, and entablature within which was carved an Egyptian-style winged sun and asps. Some of these details can be seen in the 1860 photograph below at Donations run out, after clicking on the image and viewing the original file at its highest magnification. This original design conformed to a massive temple which was to have surrounded the base of the obelisk, but because it was never built, the architect of the second phase of construction Thomas Lincoln Casey smoothed down the projecting jambs, pediment and entablature in 1885, walled up the west entrance with marble forming an alcove, and reduced the east entrance to high. The western alcove has contained a bronze statue of Washington since 1992–93. Also during 1992–93 a limestone surround was installed at the east elevator entrance decorated with a winged sun and asps to mimic Mills's 1848 design. Construction The Washington Monument was originally intended to be located at the point at which a line running directly south from the center of the White House crossed a line running directly west from the center of the U.S. Capitol on Capitol Hill. French born and military engineer Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's 1791 visionary "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of the government of the United States ..." designated this point as the location of the proposed central equestrian statue of George Washington that the old Confederation Congress had voted for in 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) in a future American national capital city. The ground at the intended location proved to be too unstable to support a structure as heavy as the planned obelisk, so the monument's location was moved east-southeast. At that originally intended site there now stands a small monolith called the Jefferson Pier. This offset caused the McMillan Plan to specify that the Lincoln Memorial should be "placed on the main axis of the Capitol and the Monument", about 1° south of due west of the Capitol or the monument, not due west of the Capitol or the monument. Excavation and initial construction Construction of the monument finally began three years later in 1848 with the excavation of the site, the laying of the cornerstone on the prepared bed, and laying the original foundation around and on top of the cornerstone, before the construction of its massive walls began the next year. Regarding modern claims of slave labor being used in construction, Washington Monument Historian John Steele Gordon stated "I can't say for certain, but the stonemasonry was pretty highly skilled, so it's unlikely that slaves would've been doing it. The stones were cut by stonecutters, which is highly skilled work; and the stones were hoisted by means of steam engines, so you'd need a skilled engineer and foreman for stuff like that. Tending the steam engine, building the cast-iron staircase inside—that wasn't grunt work. ... The early quarries were in Maryland, so slave labor was undoubtedly used to quarry and haul the stone" Abraham Riesman, who quoted Gordon, states "there were plenty of people who worked as skilled laborers while enslaved in antebellum America. Indeed, there were enslaved people who worked as stonemasons. So the possibility remains that there were slaves who performed some of the necessary skilled labor for the monument." According to historian Jesse Holland, it is very likely that African-American slaves were among the construction workers, given that slavery prevailed in Washington and its surrounding states at that time, and slaves were commonly used in public and private construction. Gordon's arguments are valid for the second phase (1879–1888) after slavery was abolished, when every stone laid required dressing and polishing by a skilled stonemason. This includes the iron staircase which was constructed 1885–86. That the stonecutters in the quarry were slaves is confirmed because all quarry workers were slaves during the construction of the United States Capitol during the 1790s. However, Holland's views are valid for the first phase because most of its construction only required unskilled manual labor. No information survives concerning the method used to lift stones that weighed several tons each during the first phase, whether by a manual winch or a steam engine. The surviving information concerning slaves that built the core of the United States Capitol during the 1790s is not much help. At the time, the District of Columbia outside of Georgetown was sparsely populated so the federal government rented slaves from their owners who were paid a fee for their slaves' normal daily labor. Any overtime for Sundays, holidays, and nights was paid directly to the slaves which they could use for daily needs or to save to buy their freedom. Conversely, the first phase of the monument was constructed by a private entity, the Washington National Monument Society, which may not have been as magnanimous as the federal government, but most information was lost during the 1850s while two Societies vied for control of the monument. Useful information concerning the use of slaves during the major expansion of the Capitol during the 1850s, nearly contemporaneous with the monument's first phase, does not exist. Only a small number of stones used in the first phase required a skilled stonemason, the marble blocks on the outer surface of the monument (their inner surfaces were left very rough) and those gneiss stones that form the rough inner walls of the monument (all other surfaces of those inner stones within the walls were left jagged). The vast majority of all gneiss stones laid during the first phase, those between the outer and inner surfaces of the walls, from very large to very small jagged stones, form a pile of rubble held together by a large amount of mortar. The top surface of this rubble can be seen below at Walls in an 1880 drawing made just before the polished/rough marble and granite stones used in the second phase were laid atop it. The original foundation below the walls was made of layered gneiss rubble, but without the massive stones used within the walls. Most of the gneiss stones used during the first phase were obtained from quarries in the upper Potomac River Valley. Almost all the marble stones of the first and second phases came from two Maryland quarries about north of downtown Baltimore in rural Baltimore County where stone for their first Washington Monument was obtained. On Independence Day, July 4, 1848, the Freemasons, the same organization to which Washington belonged, laid the cornerstone (symbolically, not physically). According to Joseph R. Chandler: Two years later, on a torrid July 4, 1850, George Washington Parke Custis (1781–1857), the adopted son of George Washington and grandson of Martha Washington (1731–1802), dedicated a stone from the people of the District of Columbia to the Monument at a ceremony that 12th President Zachary Taylor (1784–1850, served 1849–1850) attended, just five days before he died from food poisoning. Donations run out Construction continued until 1854, when donations ran out and the monument had reached a height of . At that time a memorial stone that was contributed by Pope Pius IX, called the Pope's Stone, was destroyed by members of the anti-Catholic, nativist American Party, better known as the "Know-Nothings", during the early morning hours of (a priest replaced it in 1982 using the Latin phrase "A Roma Americae" instead of the original stone's English phrase "Rome to America"). Economic and political conditions of the time caused public contributions to the Washington National Monument Society to cease, so they appealed to Congress for money. The request had just reached the floor of the House of Representatives when the Know-Nothing Party seized control of the Society on February 22, 1855, a year after construction funds ran out. Congress immediately tabled its expected contribution of $200,000 to the Society, effectively halting the Federal appropriation. During its tenure, the Know-Nothing Society added only two courses of masonry, or , to the monument using rejected masonry it found on site, increasing the height of the shaft to . The original Society refused to recognize the takeover, so the two rival Societies existed side by side until 1858. With the Know-Nothing Party disintegrating and unable to secure contributions for the monument, it surrendered its possession of the monument to the original Society three and a half years later on . To prevent future takeovers, the U.S. Congress incorporated the Society on with a stated charter and set of rules and procedures. Post–Civil War The American Civil War (1861–1865), halted all work on the monument, but interest grew after the war's end. Engineers studied the foundation several times to determine if it was strong enough for continued construction after 20 years of effective inactivity. In 1876, the American Centennial of the Declaration of Independence, Congress agreed to appropriate another $200,000 to resume construction. Before work could begin again, arguments about the most appropriate design resumed. Many people thought a simple obelisk, one without the colonnade, would be too bare. Architect Mills was reputed to have said omitting the colonnade would make the monument look like "a stalk of asparagus"; another critic said it offered "little ... to be proud of". This attitude led people to submit alternative designs. Both the Washington National Monument Society and Congress held discussions about how the monument should be finished. The Society considered five new designs, concluding that the one by William Wetmore Story (1819–1895), seemed "vastly superior in artistic taste and beauty". Congress deliberated over those five as well as Mills's original. While it was deciding, it ordered work on the obelisk to continue. Finally, the members of the society agreed to abandon the colonnade and alter the obelisk so it conformed to classical Egyptian proportions. Resumption Construction resumed in 1879 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. Casey redesigned the foundation, strengthening it so it could support a structure that ultimately weighed more than 40,000 tons (). The first stone atop the unfinished stump was laid on August 7, 1880, in a small ceremony attended by President Rutherford B. Hayes, Casey and a few others. The president placed a small coin on which he had scratched his initials and the date in the bed of wet cement at the level before the first stone was laid on top of it. Casey found 92 memorial stones ("presented stones") already inlaid into the interior walls of the first phase of construction. Before construction continued he temporarily removed eight stones at the level so that the walls at that level could be sloped outward, producing thinner second-phase walls. He inserted those stones and most of the remaining memorial stones stored in the lapidarium into the interior walls during 1885–1889. The bottom third of the monument is a slightly lighter shade than the rest of the construction because the marble was obtained from different quarries. The building of the monument proceeded quickly after Congress had provided sufficient funding. In four years, it was completed, with the 100-ounce (2.83 kg) aluminum apex/lightning-rod being put in place on December 6, 1884. The apex was the largest single piece of aluminum cast at the time, when aluminum commanded a price comparable to silver. Two years later, the Hall–Héroult process made aluminum easier to produce and the price of aluminum plummeted, though it should have provided a lustrous, non-rusting apex. The monument opened to the public on October 9, 1888. Dedication The Monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885. Over 800 people were present on the monument grounds to hear speeches during a frigid day by Ohio Senator John Sherman (1823–1900), the Rev. Henderson Suter, William Wilson Corcoran (of the Washington National Monument Society) read by Dr. James C. Welling because Corcoran was unable to attend, Freemason Myron M. Parker, Col. Thomas Lincoln Casey of the Army Corps of Engineers, and President Chester A. Arthur. President Arthur proclaimed: I do now .... in behalf of the people, receive this monument .... and declare it dedicated from this time forth to the immortal name and memory of George Washington. After the speeches Lieutenant-General Philip Sheridan (1831–1888), Civil War Cavalry veteran and then General-in-Chief of the United States Army led a procession, which included the dignitaries and the crowd, past the Executive Mansion, now the White House, then via Pennsylvania Avenue to the east main entrance of the Capitol, where 21st President Chester Arthur (1829–1886, served 1881–1885) received passing troops. Then, in the House of Representatives Chamber at the U.S. Capitol, the president, his Cabinet, diplomats and others listened to Representative John Davis Long (1838–1915), (former Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts and future Secretary of the Navy) read a speech written a few months earlier by Robert C. Winthrop (1809–1894), formerly the Speaker of the House of Representatives when the cornerstone was laid 37 years earlier in 1848, but now too ill to personally deliver his speech. A final speech was given by John W. Daniel (1842–1910), of Virginia, a well-regarded lawyer, author and Representative (congressman), and Senator. The festivities concluded that evening with fireworks, both aerial and ground displays. Later history At completion, it was the tallest building in the world, until the Eiffel Tower was completed four years later in Paris in 1889. It is still the tallest building in Washington, D.C. The Heights of Buildings Act of 1910 restricts new building heights to no more than greater than the width of the adjacent street. This monument is taller than the obelisks around the capitals of Europe and in Egypt and Ethiopia, but ordinary antique obelisks were quarried as a monolithic block of stone, and were therefore seldom taller than approximately . The Washington Monument attracted enormous crowds before it officially opened. For six months after its dedication, 10,041 people climbed the 900 steps and 47 large landings to the top. After the elevator that had been used to raise building materials was altered to carry passengers, the number of visitors grew rapidly, and an average of 55,000 people per month were going to the top by 1888, only three years after its completion and dedication. The annual visitor count peaked at an average of 1.1 million people between 1979 and 1997. From 2005 to 2010, when restrictions were placed on the number of visitors allowed per day, the Washington Monument had an annual average of 631,000 visitors. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service (an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior), the national memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. In the early 1900s, material started oozing out between the outer stones of the first construction period below the mark, and was referred to by tourists as "geological tuberculosis". This was caused by the weathering of the cement and rubble filler between the outer and inner walls. As the lower section of the monument was exposed to cold and hot and damp and dry weather conditions, the material dissolved and worked its way through the cracks between the stones of the outer wall, solidifying as it dripped down their outer surface. For ten hours in December 1982, the Washington Monument and eight tourists were held hostage by a nuclear arms protester, Norman Mayer, claiming to have explosives in a van he drove to the monument's base. United States Park Police shot and killed Mayer. The monument was undamaged in the incident, and it was discovered later that Mayer did not have explosives. After this incident, the surrounding grounds were modified in places to restrict the possible unauthorized approach of motor vehicles. The monument underwent an extensive restoration project between the years of 1998 and 2001. During this time it was completely covered in scaffolding designed by the American architect Michael Graves (who was also responsible for the interior changes). The project included cleaning, repairing and repointing the monument's exterior and interior stonework. The stone in publicly accessible interior spaces was encased in glass to prevent vandalism, while new windows with narrower frames were installed (to increase the viewing space). New exhibits celebrating the life of George Washington, and the monument's place in history, were also added. A temporary interactive visitor center, dubbed the "Discovery Channel Center" was also constructed during the project. The center provided a simulated ride to the top of the monument, and shared information with visitors during phases in which the monument was closed. The majority of the project's phases were completed by summer 2000, allowing the monument to reopen July 31, 2000. The monument temporarily closed again on December 4, 2000, to allow a new elevator cab to be installed, completing the final phase of the restoration project. The new cab included glass windows, allowing visitors to see some of the 194 memorial stones with their inscriptions embedded in the monument's walls. The installation of the cab took much longer than anticipated, and the monument did not reopen until February 22, 2002. The final cost of the restoration project was $10.5 million. On September 7, 2004, the monument closed for a $15 million renovation, which included numerous security upgrades and redesign of the monument grounds by landscape architect Laurie Olin (b. 1938). The renovations were due partly to security concerns following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the start of the War on Terror. The monument reopened April 1, 2005, while the surrounding grounds remained closed until the landscape was finished later that summer. 2011 earthquake damage On August 23, 2011, the Washington Monument sustained damage during the 5.8 magnitude 2011 Virginia earthquake; over 150 cracks were found in the monument. A National Park Service spokesperson reported that inspectors discovered a crack near the top of the structure, and announced that the monument would be closed indefinitely. A block in the pyramidion also was partially dislodged, and pieces of stone, stone chips, mortar, and paint chips came free of the monument and "littered" the interior stairs and observation deck. The Park Service said it was bringing in two structural engineering firms (Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. and Tipping Mar Associates) with extensive experience in historic buildings and earthquake-damaged structures to assess the monument. Officials said an examination of the monument's exterior revealed a "debris field" of mortar and pieces of stone around the base of the monument, and several "substantial" pieces of stone had fallen inside the memorial. A crack in the central stone of the west face of the pyramidion was wide and long. Park Service inspectors also discovered that the elevator system had been damaged, and was operating only to the level, but was soon repaired. On September 27, 2011, Denali National Park ranger Brandon Latham arrived to assist four climbers belonging to a "difficult access" team from Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates. The reason for the inspection was the park agency's suspicion that there were more cracks on the monument's upper section not visible from the inside. The agency said it filled the cracks that occurred on August 23. After Hurricane Irene hit the area on August 27, water was discovered inside the memorial, leading the Park Service to suspect there was more undiscovered damage. The rappellers used radios to report what they found to engineering experts on the ground. Wiss, Janney, Elstner climber Dave Megerle took three hours to set up the rappelling equipment and set up a barrier around the monument's lightning rod system atop the pyramidion; it was the first time the hatch in the pyramidion had been open since 2000. The external inspection of the monument was completed on October 5, 2011. In addition to the long west crack, the inspection found several corner cracks and surface spalls (pieces of stone broken loose) at or near the top of the monument, and more loss of joint mortar lower down the monument. The full report was issued in December 2011. Bob Vogel, Superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks, emphasized that the monument was not in danger of collapse. "It's structurally sound and not going anywhere", he told the national media at a press conference on September 26, 2011. More than $200,000 was spent between August 24 and September 26 inspecting the structure. The National Park Service said that it would soon begin sealing the exterior cracks on the monument to protect it from rain and snow. On July 9, 2012, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed for repairs until 2014. The National Park Service hired construction management firm Hill International in conjunction with joint-venture partner Louis Berger Group to provide coordination between the designer, Wiss, Janney, and Elstner Associates, the general contractor Perini, and numerous stakeholders. NPS said a portion of the plaza at the base of the monument would be removed and scaffolding constructed around the exterior. In July 2013, lighting was added to the scaffolding. Some stone pieces saved during the 2011 inspection would be refastened to the monument, while "Dutchman patches" would be used in other places. Several of the stone lips that help hold the pyramidion's exterior slabs in place were also damaged, so engineers installed stainless steel brackets to more securely fasten them to the monument. The National Park Service reopened the Washington Monument to visitors on May 12, 2014, eight days ahead of schedule. Repairs to the monument cost $15 million, with taxpayers funding $7.5 million of the cost and David Rubenstein funding the other $7.5 million. At the reopening Interior Secretary Sally Jewell, Today show weatherman Al Roker, and American Idol Season 12 winner Candice Glover were present. Subsequent problems and repairs The monument continued to be plagued by problems after the earthquake, including in January 2017 when the lights illuminating it went out. The monument was closed again in September 2016 due to reliability issues with the elevator system. On December 2, 2016, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed until 2019 in order to modernize the elevator. The $2–3 million project was to correct the elevator's ongoing mechanical, electrical and computer issues, which had shuttered the monument since August 17. The National Park Service requested funding in its FY 2017 President's Budget Request to construct a permanent screening facility for the Washington Monument. The final months of closure were for mitigation of possibly contaminated underground soil thought to have been introduced in the 1880s. The monument reopened September 19, 2019. Repeated closures After reopening in September 2019, the Washington Monument was closed on March 14, 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It reopened on October 1, 2020, and remained open through the remainder of that year, except for brief closures. On January 11, 2021, a few days after the January 6 United States Capitol attack, the National Park Service announced a two-week closure of the monument until after the presidential inauguration due to "credible threats to visitors and park resources". Following a lack of violence, the closure was extended due to a revival of COVID-19 fears. The monument then reopened on July 14, 2021, only to close yet again on August 16 for two weeks due to lightning strikes which damaged some electrical systems. This occurred just a week before the 10th anniversary of the August 23, 2011 earthquake and highlighted a decade when the monument was closed more than it was open. On September 20, 2022, the monument was closed for one evening because a man was defacing the monument with red paint and graffiti, "Have u been fucked by this" with an arrow pointing upward and "gov says tough shit" in red lettering at west facing ground level. He was arrested and charged with vandalism but pleaded not guilty in court. Components Cornerstone The cornerstone was laid with great ceremony at the northeast corner of the lowest course or step of the old foundation on . Robert Mills, the architect of the monument, stated in September 1848, "The foundations are now brought up nearly to the surface of the ground; the second step being nearly completed, which covers up the corner stone." Therefore, the cornerstone was laid below the 1848 ground level. In 1880, the ground level was raised to the base of the shaft by the addition of a wide earthen embankment encircling the reinforced foundation, widened another 30 feet in 1881, and then the knoll was constructed in 1887–88. If the cornerstone was not moved during the strengthening of the foundation in 1879–80, its upper surface would now be below the pavement just outside the northeast corner of the shaft. It would now be sandwiched between the concrete slab under the old foundation and the concrete buttress completely encircling what remains of the old foundation. During the strengthening process, about half by volume of the periphery of the lowest seven of eight courses or steps of the old foundation (gneiss rubble) was removed to provide good footing for the buttress. Although a few diagrams, pictures and descriptions of this process exist, the fate of the cornerstone is not mentioned. The cornerstone was a marble block high and square with a large hole for a zinc case filled with memorabilia. The hole was covered by a copper plate inscribed with the date of the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), the date the cornerstone was laid (July 4, 1848), and the names of the managers of the Washington National Monument Society. The memorabilia in the zinc case included items associated with the monument, the city of Washington, the national government, state governments, benevolent societies, and George Washington, plus miscellaneous publications, both governmental and commercial, a coin set, and a Bible, totaling 73 items or collections of items, as well as 71 newspapers containing articles relating to George Washington or the monument. The ceremony began with a parade of dignitaries in carriages, marching troops, fire companies, and benevolent societies. A long oration was delivered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Robert C. Winthrop. Then, the cornerstone was pronounced sound after a Masonic ceremony using George Washington's Masonic gavel, apron and sash, as well as other Masonic symbols. In attendance were President James K. Polk and other federal, state and local government officials, Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, Mrs. Dolley Madison, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, and George Washington Parke Custis, among 15,000 to 20,000 others, including a bald eagle. The ceremony ended with fireworks that evening. Memorial stones States, cities, foreign countries, benevolent societies, other organizations, and individuals have contributed 194 memorial stones, all inserted into the east and west interior walls above stair landings or levels for easy viewing, except one on the south interior wall between stairs that is difficult to view. The sources disagree on the number of stones for two reasons: whether one or both "height stones" are included, and stones not yet on display at the time of a source's publication cannot be included. The "height stones" refer to two stones that indicate height: during the first phase of construction a stone with an inscription that includes the phrase "from the foundation to this height 100 feet" () was installed just below the stairway and high above the stairway; during the second phase of construction a stone with a horizontal line and the phrase "top of statue on Capitol" was installed on the level. The Historic Structure Report (HSR, 2004) named 194 "memorial stones" by level, including both height stones. Jacob (2005) described in detail and pictured 193 "commemorative stones", including the stone but not the Capitol stone. The Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS, 1994) showed the location of 193 "memorial stones", but did not describe or name any. HABS showed both height stones, but did not show one stone not yet installed in 1994. Olszewski (1971) named 190 "memorial stones" by level, including the Capitol stone but not the 100-foot stone. Olszewski did not include three stones not yet installed in 1971. Of 194 stones, 94 are marble, 40 are granite, 29 are limestone, 8 are sandstone, with 23 miscellaneous types, including stones with two types of material and those whose materials are not identified. Unusual materials include native copper (Michigan), pipestone (Minnesota), petrified wood (Arizona), and jadeite (Alaska). The stones vary in size from about square (Carthage) to about (Philadelphia and New York City). Utah contributed one stone as a territory and another as a state, both with inscriptions that include its pre-territorial name, Deseret, both located on the level. A stone at the level of the monument is inscribed in (My Language, My Country, My Nation, Welsh forever). The stone, imported from Wales, was donated by Welsh citizens of New York. Two other stones were presented by the Sunday Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church in New York and the Sabbath School children of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia—the former quotes from the Bible verse Proverbs 10:7, "The memory of the just is blessed". Ottoman Sultan Abdul Mejid I donated $30,000 toward the construction of the Washington monument. The Sultans' donation was the largest single donation toward the building of the Washington Monument. The Sultan's intention was to bridge peace between the Ottomans and the Americans. The stone containing the Turkish inscriptions commemorating this event is on the level. The translation of the inscriptions state, "To support the continuation of true friendship Abdul Mejid Khan's clear and pure name was written on the lofty stone in Washington." It combines the works of two eminent calligraphers: an imperial tughra by Mustafa Rakım's student Haşim Efendi, and an inscription in jalī ta'līq script by Kazasker Mustafa Izzet Efendi, the calligrapher who wrote the giant medallions at Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. One stone was donated by the Ryukyu Kingdom and brought back by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, but never arrived in Washington (it was replaced in 1989). Many of the stones donated for the monument carried inscriptions that did not commemorate George Washington. For example, one from the Templars of Honor and Temperance stated "We will not make, buy, sell, or use as a beverage, any spiritous or malt liquors, Wine, Cider, or any other Alcoholic Liquor." (George Washington himself had owned a whiskey distillery which operated at Mount Vernon after he left the presidency.) Aluminum apex The aluminum apex, composed of a metal that at the time was as rare and valuable as silver, was cast by William Frishmuth of Philadelphia. At the time of casting, it was the largest piece of aluminum in the world. Before the installation, it was put on public display at Tiffany's in New York City and stepped over by visitors who could say they had "stepped over the top of the Washington Monument". It was tall before was vaporized from its tip by lightning strikes during 1885–1934, when it was protected from further damage by tall lightning rods surrounding it. Its base is square. The angle between opposite sides at its tip is 34°48'. It weighed before lightning strikes removed a small amount of aluminum from its tip and sides. Spectral analysis in 1934 showed that it was composed of 97.87% aluminum with the rest impurities. It has a shallow depression in its base to match a slightly raised area atop the small upper surface of the marble capstone, which aligns the sides of the apex with those of the capstone, and the downward protruding lip around that area prevents water from entering the joint. It has a large hole in the center of its base to receive a threaded diameter copper rod which attaches it to the monument and used to form part of the lightning protection system. In 2015 the National Geodetic Survey reported the coordinates of the 1 mm dimple atop the aluminum apex as (WGS 84). The four faces of the external aluminum apex all bear inscriptions in cursive writing (Snell Round hand), which are incised into the aluminum. The apex was inscribed on site after it was delivered. Most inscriptions are the original 1884 inscriptions, except for the top three lines on the east face which were added in 1934. From 1885 to 1934 a wide gold-plated copper band that held eight short lightning rods, two per side but not at its corners, covered most of the inscriptions, which were damaged and illegible as shown in the accompanying picture made in 1934. A new band including eight long lightning rods, one at each corner and one at the middle of each side, was added in 1934 and removed and discarded in 2013. The inscriptions that it covered were still damaged and illegible in 2013. Only the top four and bottom two lines of the north face, the first and last lines of the west face, the top four lines of the south face, and the top three lines of the east face are still legible. Even though the inscriptions are no longer covered, no attempt was made to repair them when the apex was accessible in 2013. The following table shows legible inscriptions in and illegible inscriptions in . No colors appear on the actual apex. The inscriptions occupy the lower portions of triangles, thus the inscribed upper lines are necessarily shorter than some lower lines. Although most printed sources, Harvey (1903), Olszewski (1971), Torres (1984), and the Historic Structure Report (2004), refer to the original 1884 inscriptions, the National Geodetic Survey (2015) refers to both the 1884 and 1934 inscriptions. All sources print them according to their own editorial rules, resulting in excessive capitalization (Harvey, Olszewski, and NGS) and inappropriate line breaks. No printed source uses cursive writing, although pictures of the apex clearly show that it was used for both the 1884 and 1934 inscriptions. A replica displayed on the 490-foot level uses totally different line breaks than those on the external apex—it also omits the 1934 inscriptions. In October 2007, it was discovered that the display of this replica was positioned so that the Laus Deo (Latin for "praise be to God") inscription could not be seen and Laus Deo was omitted from the placard describing the apex. The National Park Service rectified the omission by creating a new display. Lightning protection The pyramidion, the pointed top of the monument, was originally designed with an tall inscribed aluminum apex which served as a single lightning rod, installed . Six months later on lightning damaged the marble blocks of the pyramidion, so a net of gold-plated copper rods supporting 200 gold-plated, platinum-tipped copper points spaced every was installed over the entire pyramidion. The original net included a gold-plated copper band attached to the aluminum apex by four large set screws which supported eight closely spaced vertical points that did not protrude above the apex. In 1934 these eight short points were lengthened to extend them above the apex by . In 2013 this original system was removed and discarded. It was replaced by only two thick solid aluminum lightning rods protruding above the tip of the apex by about attached to the east and west sides of the marble capstone just below the apex. Until it was removed, the original lightning protection system was connected to the tops of the four iron columns supporting the elevator with large copper rods. Even though the aluminum apex is still connected to the columns with large copper rods, it is no longer part of the lightning protection system because it is now disconnected from the present lightning rods which shield it. The two lightning rods present since 2013 are connected to the iron columns with two large braided aluminum cables leading down the surface of the pyramidion near its southeast and northwest corners. They enter the pyramidion at its base, where they are tied together (electrically shorted) via large braided aluminum cables encircling the pyramidion above its base. The bottom of the iron columns are connected to ground water below the monument via four large copper rods that pass through a square well half filled with sand in the center of the foundation. The effectiveness of the lightning protection system has not been affected by a significant draw down of the water table since 1884 because the soil's water content remains roughly 20% both above and below the height of the water table. Walls During the first phase of construction (1848–1854), the walls were built with bluestone gneiss rubble, ranging from very large irregular stones having a cross section of about down to spalls (broken pieces of stone) all embedded in a large amount of mortar. The outer surface is marble stones thick in high courses or rows horizontally encircling the monument. Although each course contains both stretchers (stones parallel to the wall) and headers (stones projecting into the wall), about two to three times as many stretchers as headers were used. Their joints were so thin that some stones pressed on bare stone below them, breaking off many pieces since it was constructed. The batter or slope of the outer surface is 0.247 inches per foot (2.06 cm/m, 1°11'). The inner surface has disorderly rows of smaller roughly dressed bluestone gneiss. The base of the first phase walls has an outer dimension of square and a thickness of . The interior well is square and has square corners. The weight of the first phase walls up to is . During the second phase (1879–1884), the walls were constructed of smoothly dressed (ashlar) large marble and granite blocks (rectangular cuboids) laid down in an orderly manner (Flemish bond) with thick joints. Two-foot high marble surface stones, using an equal number of stretchers and headers, were backed by granite blocks from the 152-foot level (the first course above the rubble) to the 218-foot level, where marble headers become increasingly visible on the internal surface of the walls up to the 450-foot level, above which only marble stones are used. Between the 150- and 160-foot levels the inner walls rapidly slope outward, increasing the shaft well from 25 feet 1 inch square to square with a corresponding decrease in the thickness of the walls and their weight. The second phase walls at the 160-foot level were thick, which, combined with the larger shaft well, yields an outer dimension of square at that level. The top of the second phase walls are square and thick. The second phase interior walls have rounded corners ( radii). The weight of the second phase walls (from 150 feet to 500 feet) are . The walls of the entire shaft (combined first and second phases) are high. The first phase of the walls was constructed under the direction of William Dougherty. Its white Cockeysville marble exterior came from the Texas quarry now adjacent to and east of north I-83 near the Warren Road exit in Cockeysville, Maryland. The quarry was named for the Texas Station (no longer extant) and 19th-century town on the Northern Central Railway. During the first phase it was operated by Thomas Symington, but is now operated by Martin Marietta Materials and no longer produces building stone. The second phase of construction was under the direction of Lt Col/Col Thomas Lincoln Casey of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, who removed two defective courses added by the Know-Nothings and the last 152-foot course added by Dougherty before Casey began his construction. The next three courses of white marble () came from Sheffield, Massachusetts, while all courses above them came from the Beaver Dam quarry just west of the 19th-century town of Cockeysville. The latter quarry is located on Beaver Dam Road near its intersection with McCormick Road. During the second phase the quarry was operated by Hugh Sisson, but is now flooded, is called Beaverdam Pond, and is the home of the Beaver Dam Swimming Club. Both 19th-century towns are now within the city limits of Cockeysville. Pyramidion The marble capstone of the pyramidion is a truncated pyramid with a cubical keystone projecting from its base and a deep groove surrounding the keystone. The aluminum apex replaces its truncated top. The inside upper edges of the topmost slabs on the four faces of the pyramidion rest on the keystone and in the groove. It has a large vertical hole through which a threaded copper rod passes and screws into the base of the apex, which used to form part of its lightning protection system. The keystone and groove occupy so much of its base that only a small horizontal area near its outer edge remains. The weight of the capstone is transferred to both the inner and outer portions of the shiplap upper edges of the slabs. It weighs , is high from its base to its top, and is square at its base. The marble pyramidion has an extremely complex construction to save weight yet remain strong. Its surface slabs or panels are usually only thick (with small thick and thin portions) and generally do not support the weight of slabs above them, instead transferring their own weight via wide internal marble ribs to the shaft's walls. The slabs are generally wide and high with a vertical overlap (shiplap) to prevent water from entering the horizontal joints. Twelve such courses, the internal ribs, the marble capstone, and the aluminum apex comprise the pyramidion. Its height is . Its weight is . The slope of the walls of the pyramidion is 17°24' from the vertical. There are twelve ribs, three per wall, which spring from the level, all being integrated into the walls up to the level. All are free standing above 500 feet, relying on mortise and tenon joints to attach neighboring stones. The eight corner ribs terminate six courses above the shaft, each corner rib resting on its neighboring corner rib via a miter joint, forming four corner arches. Each such arch supports a pair of square corner stones, one above the other totaling one course in height. Each corner rib is linked to the nearest center rib at the sixth course via a marble tie beam. The four center ribs terminate eight courses above the shaft at a marble cruciform (cross shaped) keystone, forming two main arches that cross each other. Two stones, each one course high, are mounted on each of the four ribs, supporting two additional courses above the cruciform keystone, leaving two courses to support the capstone's weight by themselves. The observation floor (nominally the 500-foot level) is above the entry lobby floor or lowest landing level. It is above the marble base of the pyramidion and the top of the shaft walls. Four pairs of wide observation windows are provided, spaced apart, inner stone edge to edge, all just above the lowest course of slabs (504-foot level). Six are high while two on the east face are high for easier egress. All were originally provided with thin marble shutters in a bronze frame each of which could be opened inward, one left and the other right per wall. After two people committed suicide by jumping through the open windows in the 1920s, hinged horizontal iron bars were added to them in 1929. A ninth opening in a slab on the south face just below the capstone is provided for access to the outside of the pyramidion. It is covered by a stone slab which is internally removable. In 1931, four red aircraft warning lights were installed, one per face in one of its observation windows. Pilots complained that they could not be easily seen, so the monument was floodlit on all sides as well. In 1958, eight diameter holes for new red aircraft warning lights were bored, one above each window near the top edge of the fourth course of slabs (516-foot level) in the pyramidion. In 1958 the observation windows were glazed with shatterproof glass. In 1974–1976, they were glazed with bulletproof glass and the shutters removed. New bulletproof glass was installed during 1997–2000. The pyramidion has two inscriptions, neither of which is regarded as a memorial stone. One is the year "1884" on the underside of the cruciform keystone; the other is at the same level as that keystone on the north face of the west center rib containing the names and titles of the four highest ranked builders. Its inscription () is almost identical to the inscription on the south face of the aluminum apex except for "U.S.", which is part of the phrase "14th U.S. Infantry" in the inscription inside the pyramidion, but the apex has only "14th Infantry". Additionally, the internal inscription does not use cursive writing and all letters in all names are capitals. Foundation The first phase began with the excavation of about of topsoil down to a level of loam, consisting of equal parts of sand and clay, hard enough to require picks to break it up. On this "bed of the foundation" the cornerstone was laid at the northeast corner of the proposed foundation. The rest of the foundation was then constructed of bluestone gneiss rubble and spalls, with every crevice filled with lime mortar. The dimensions of this old foundation were high, square at the base, and square at the top, laid down in eight steps, similar to a truncated step pyramid. At the center of the foundation a brick-lined square well was dug to a depth of below the bed of the foundation to keep it dry and to supply water during construction. During the second phase, after determining that the proposed weight of the monument was too great for the old foundation to safely bear, the thickness of the walls atop the unfinished stump was reduced and the foundation was strengthened by adding a large unreinforced concrete slab below the perimeter of the old foundation to increase the monument's load bearing area two and one half times. The slab was thick, with an outer perimeter square, an inner perimeter square, with undisturbed loam inside the inner perimeter except for the water well. The area at the base of the second phase foundation is . The strengthened foundation (old foundation and concrete slab) has a total depth of below the bottom of the lowest course of marble blocks (now below ground), and below the entry lobby floor. Casey reported that nowhere did the load exceed and did not exceed near the outer perimeter. To properly distribute the load from the shaft to slab, about half by volume of the outer periphery of the old rubble foundation below its top step was removed. A continuous sloping unreinforced concrete buttress encircles what remains. The buttress is square at its base, square at its top, and high. The perimeter of the original top step of the old rubble foundation rests on the larger top of the concrete buttress. Its slope (lower external angle from the vertical) is 49°. This buttress rests in a depression (triangular cross-section) on the top surface of the concrete slab. The slab was constructed by digging pairs of wide drifts on opposite sides of the monument's center line to keep the monument properly balanced. The drifts were filled with unreinforced concrete with depressions or dowel stones on their sides to interlock the sections. An earthen terrace wide with its top at the base of the walls and steep sides was constructed in 1880–81 over the reinforced foundation while the rest of the monument was being constructed. During 1887–88, a knoll was constructed around the terrace tapering out roughly onto the surrounding terrain. This earthen terrace and knoll serves as an additional buttress for the foundation. The weight of the foundation is , including earth and gneiss rubble above the concrete foundation that is within its outer perimeter. Stairs and elevator The monument is filled with ironwork, consisting of its stairs, elevator columns and associated tie beams, none of which supports the weight of the stonework. It was redesigned in 1958 to reduce congestion and improve the flow of visitors. Originally, visitors entered and exited the west side of the elevator on the observation floor, causing congestion. So the large landing at the 490-foot level was expanded to a full floor and the original spiral stair in the northeast corner between the levels was replaced by two spiral stairs in the northeast and southeast corners. Now visitors exit the elevator on the observation floor, then walk down either spiral stair before reboarding the elevator for their trip back down. The main stairs spiral up the interior walls from the entry lobby floor to the elevator reboarding floor at the level. The elevator occupies the center of the shaft well from the entry lobby to the observation floor, with an elevator machine room (installed 1925–26) whose floor is above the observation floor and an elevator pit (excavated 1879) whose floor is below the entry lobby floor. The stairs and elevator are supported by four wrought iron columns each. The four supporting the stairs extend from the entry lobby floor to the observation floor and were set at the corners of a square. The four supporting the elevator extend from the floor of the elevator pit to above the observation floor and were set at the corners of a square. The weight of the ironwork is . Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel were all used. The two small spiral stairs installed in 1958 are aluminum. Most landings occupy the entire east and west interior walls every from and including the east landing at the level up to the west landing at the level, east then west alternately. Three stairs with small landings rise from the entry lobby floor to the level successively along the north, west and south interior walls. Landings from the level up to the level are by , while landings from the level to the level are by . All stairs are on the north and south walls except for the aforementioned west stair between the levels, and the two spiral stairs. About one fourth of visitors chose to ascend the monument using the stairs when they were available. They were closed to up traffic in 1971, and then closed to all traffic except by special arrangement in 1976. The stairs had 898 steps until 1958, consisting of 18 risers in each of the 49 main stairs plus 16 risers in the spiral stair. Since 1958 the stairs have had 897 risers if only one spiral stair is counted because both spiral stairs now have 15 risers each. These figures do not include two additional steps in the entry passage that were covered up in 1975 by a ramp and its inward horizontal extension to meet the higher (since 1886) entry lobby floor. One step was away from the outer walls and the other was at the end of the passage, away from the outer walls. As initially constructed, the interior was relatively open with two-rail handrails, but a couple of suicides and an accidental fall prompted the addition of tall wire screening high with a large diamond mesh) on the inside edge of the stairs and landings in 1929. The original steam powered elevator, which took 10 to 12 minutes to ascend to the observation floor, was replaced by an electric elevator powered by an on-site dynamo in 1901 which took five minutes to ascend. The monument was connected to the electrical grid in 1923, allowing the installation of a modern electric elevator in 1925–26 which took 70 seconds. The latter was replaced in 1958 and again in 1998 by 70-second elevators. From 1997 to 2000, the wire screening at three platforms was replaced by large glass panels to allow visitors on the elevator to view three clusters of memorial stones that were synchronously lit as the elevator automatically slowed while passing them during its descent. Flags Fifty American flags (not state flags), one for each state, are now flown 24 hours a day around a large circle centered on the monument. Forty eight American flags (one for each state then in existence) were flown on wooden flag poles on Washington's birthday since 1920 and later on Independence Day, Memorial Day, and other special occasions until early 1958. Both the flags and flag poles were removed and stored between these days. In 1958 fifty tall aluminum flag poles (anticipating Alaska and Hawaii) were installed, evenly spaced around a diameter circle. During 2004–05, the diameter of the circle was reduced to . Since Washington's birthday 1958, 48 American flags were flown on a daily basis, increasing to 49 flags on , and then to 50 flags since . When 48 and 49 flags were flown, only 48 and 49 flag poles of the available 50 were placed into base receptacles. All flags were removed and stored overnight. Since , 50 American flags have flown 24 hours a day. Vesica piscis In the 2004 grounds renovation, two large circles were added to the landscaping with the obelisk in the intersection or vesica piscis. The monument's vesica piscis is not ideal because neither circle passes through the center of its neighbor. Furthermore, both "circles" are slightly elliptical. Miscellaneous details The total cost of the monument from 1848 to 1888 was $1,409,500 (). The weight of the above ground portion of the monument is , whereas its total weight, including the foundation below ground and any earth above it that is within its outer perimeter is . The total number of blocks in the monument, including all marble, granite and gneiss blocks, whether externally or internally visible or hidden from view within the walls or old foundation is over 36,000. The number of marble blocks externally visible is about 10,000. The monument stands tall according to the National Geodetic Survey (measured 2013–14) or tall according to the National Park Service (measured 1884). In 1975, a ramp covered two steps at the entrance to the monument, so the ground next to the ramp was raised to match its height, reducing the remaining height to the monument's apex. It is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk. It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances, but two are taller when measured above ground, though they are neither all stone nor true obelisks. The tallest masonry structure in the world is the brick Anaconda Smelter Stack in Montana at tall. But this includes a non-masonry concrete foundation, leaving the stack's brick chimney at tall, only about taller than the monument's 2015 height. If the monument's aluminum apex is also discounted, then the stack's masonry portion is taller than the monument's masonry portion. Security In 2001, a temporary visitor security screening center was added to the east entrance of the Washington Monument in the wake of the September 11 attacks. The one-story facility was designed to reduce the ability of a terrorist attack on the interior of the monument, or an attempt to seize and hold it. Visitors obtained their timed-entry tickets from the Monument Lodge east of the memorial, and passed through metal detectors and bomb-sniffing sensors prior to entering the monument. After exiting the monument, they passed through a turnstile to prevent them from re-entering. This facility, a one-story cube of wood around a metal frame, was intended to be temporary until a new screening facility could be designed. On March 6, 2014, the National Capital Planning Commission approved a new visitor screening facility to replace the temporary one. The facility will be two stories high and contain space for screening 20 to 25 visitors at a time. The exterior walls (which will be slightly frosted to prevent viewing of the security screening process) will consist of an outer sheet of bulletproof glass or polycarbonate, a metal mesh insert, and another sheet of bulletproof glass. The inner sheet will consist of two sheets (slightly separated) of laminated glass. A airspace will exist between the inner and outer glass walls to help insulate the facility. Two (possibly three) geothermal heat pumps will be built on the north side of the monument to provide heating and cooling of the facility. The new facility will also provide an office for National Park Service and United States Park Police staff. The structure is designed so that it may be removed without damaging the monument. The United States Commission of Fine Arts approved the aesthetic design of the screening facility in June 2013. A recessed trench wall known as a ha-ha has been built to minimize the visual impact of a security barrier surrounding the monument. After the September 11 attacks and another unrelated terror threat at the monument, authorities had put up a circle of temporary Jersey barriers to prevent large motor vehicles from approaching. The unsightly barrier was replaced by a less-obtrusive low granite stone wall that doubles as a seating bench and also incorporates lighting. The installation received the 2005 Park/Landscape Award of Merit from the American Society of Landscape Architects. Transit The Washington Monument is served by Federal Triangle metro station and Smithsonian metro station. Traveling by Metro bus, one can take the DC Circulator on the National Mall route or ride bus number 34, 36, and 32. Gallery See also Architecture of Washington, D.C. List of national memorials of the United States List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 2 List of tallest freestanding structures List of tallest towers List of tallest structures built before the 20th century Adams Memorial (proposed) Bunker Hill Monument Benjamin Franklin National Memorial Jefferson Memorial George Mason Memorial Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence Presidential memorials in the United States Tuckahoe marble Yule Marble Notes References External links Official NPS website: Washington Monument Harper's Weekly cartoon, February 21, 1885, the day of formal dedication Today in History—December 6 Prehistory on the Mall at the Washington Monument 1888 establishments in Washington, D.C. Cultural infrastructure completed in 1888 Former world's tallest buildings Historic American Buildings Survey in Washington, D.C. Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, D.C. Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks IUCN protected area errors Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C. Monuments and memorials to George Washington in the United States National Mall and Memorial Parks National Memorials of the United States Obelisks in the United States Robert Mills buildings Terminating vistas in the United States Towers in Washington, D.C.	wiki
A survey motor boat (abbreviated SMB), is a vessel equipped for commercial and/or military hydrographic survey operations. References Australian Hydrographic Service - frequently asked questions Motorboats	wiki
Terry Mark Dion (born November 22, 1957) is a former American football defensive end in the National Football League (NFL) who played for the Seattle Seahawks. He played college football at University of Oregon. He now resides in Aberdeen Washington, and teaches at Aberdeen High School. References Living people 1957 births American football defensive ends Oregon Ducks football players Seattle Seahawks players	wiki
Intertype is een zetmachine die kort na de Linotype werd ontwikkeld. De werking van de machine is vrijwel gelijk aan de Linotype. Zettechniek	wiki
A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used by an individual or an organization to send material to multiple recipients. The term is often extended to include the people subscribed to such a list, so the group of subscribers is referred to as "the mailing list", or simply "the list." Transmission may be paper-based or electronic. Each has its strength, although a 2022 article claimed that "direct mail still brings in the lion’s share of revenue for most organizations." Types At least two types of mailing lists can be defined: an announcement list is closer to the original sense, where a "mailing list" of people was used as a recipient for newsletters, periodicals or advertising. Traditionally this was done through the postal system, but with the rise of email, the electronic mailing list became popular. This type of list is used primarily as a one-way conduit of information and may only be "posted to" by selected people. This may also be referred to by the term newsletter. Newsletter and promotional emailing lists are employed in various sectors as parts of direct marketing campaigns. a 'discussion list' allows subscribing members (sometimes even people outside the list) to post their own items which are broadcast to all of the other mailing list members. Recipients may answer in similar fashion, thus, actual discussion and information exchanges can occur. Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented (for example, politics, scientific discussion, health problems, joke contests), and the topic may range from extremely narrow to "whatever you think could interest us". In this they are similar to Usenet newsgroups, another form of discussion group that may have an aversion to off-topic messages. Historically mailing lists preceded email/web forums; both can provide analogous functionalities. When used in that fashion, mailing lists are sometimes known as discussion lists or discussion forums. Discussion lists provide some advantages over typical web forums, so they are still used in various projects, notably Git and Debian. The advantages over web forums include the ability to work offline, the ability to sign/encrypt posts via GPG, and the ability to use an e-mail client's features, such as filters. Tracking Mailers want to know when items are delivered, partly to know how to staff call centers. Salting (or seeding) their lists enables them to compare delivery times, especially when time-of-year affects arrival delays. It may also provide information about poor handling of samples. Having seeded entries in an eMail list simplifies tracking who may have "borrowed" the list without permission. More definitions When similar or identical material is sent out to all subscribers on a mailing list, it is often referred to as a mailshot or a blast. A list for such use can also be referred to as a distribution list. In legitimate (non-spam) mailing lists, individuals can subscribe or unsubscribe themselves. Mailing lists are often rented or sold. If rented, the renter agrees to use the mailing list for only contractually agreed-upon times. The mailing list owner typically enforces this by "salting" (known as "seeding" in direct mail) the mailing list with fake addresses and creating new salts for each time the list is rented. Unscrupulous renters may attempt to bypass salts by renting several lists and merging them to find the common, valid addresses. Mailing list brokers exist to help organizations rent their lists. For some list owners, such as specialized niche publications or charitable groups, their lists may be some of their most valuable assets, and mailing list brokers help them maximize the value of their lists. A mailing list is simply a list of e-mail addresses of people that are interested in the same subject, are members of the same work group, or who are taking class together. When a member of the list sends a note to the group's special address, the e-mail is broadcast to all of the members of the list. The key advantage of a mailing list over a things such as web-based discussion is that as new message becomes available they are immediately delivered to the participants' mailboxes. A mailing list sometime can also include information such as phone number, postal address, fax number and more. Electronic mailing list An electronic mailing list or email list is a special use of email that allows for widespread distribution of information to many Internet users. It is similar to a traditional mailing list – a list of names and addresses – as might be kept by an organization for sending publications to its members or customers, but typically refers to four things: a list of email addresses, the people ("subscribers") receiving mail at those addresses, thus defining a community gathered around a topic of interest. the publications (email messages) sent to those addresses, and a reflector, which is a single email address that, when designated as the recipient of a message, will send a copy of that message to all of the subscribers. Mechanism Electronic mailing lists usually are fully or partially automated through the use of special mailing list software and a reflector address set up on a server capable of receiving email. Incoming messages sent to the reflector address are processed by the software, and, depending on their content, are acted upon internally (in the case of messages containing commands directed at the software itself) or are distributed to all email addresses subscribed to the mailing list. A web-based interface is often available to allow people to subscribe, unsubscribe, and change their preferences. However, mailing list servers existed long before the World Wide Web, so most also accept commands over email to a special email address. This allows subscribers (or those who want to be subscribers) to perform such tasks as subscribing and unsubscribing, temporarily halting the sending of messages to them, or changing available preferences – all via email. The common format for sending these commands is to send an email that contains simply the command followed by the name of the electronic mailing list the command pertains to. Examples: subscribe anylist or subscribe anylist John Doe. Electronic mailing list servers may be set to forward messages to subscribers of a particular mailing list either individually as they are received by the list server, or in digest form in which all messages received on a particular day by the list server are combined into one email that is sent once per day to subscribers. Some mailing lists allow individual subscribers to decide how they prefer to receive messages from the list server (individual or digest). History Mailing lists have first been scholarly mailing lists. The genealogy of mailing lists as a communication tool between scientists can be traced back to the times of the fledgling Arpanet. The aim of the computer scientists involved in this project was to develop protocols for the communication between computers. In so doing, they have also built the first tools of human computer-mediated communication. Broadly speaking, the scholarly mailing lists can even be seen as the modern version of the salons of the Enlightenment ages, designed by scholars for scholars. The "threaded conversation" structure (where the header of a first post defines the topic of a series of answers thus constituting a thread) is a typical and ubiquitous structure of discourse within lists and fora of the Internet. It is pivotal to the structure and topicality of debates within mailing lists as an arena, or public sphere in Habermas wording. The flame wars (as the liveliest episodes) give valuable and unique information to historians to comprehend what is at stake in the communities gathered around lists. Anthropologists, sociologists and historians have used mailing lists as fieldwork. Topics include TV series fandom, online culture, or scientific practices among many other academic studies. From the historian's point of view, the issue of the preservation of mailing lists heritage (and Internet fora heritage in general) is essential. Not only the text of the corpus of messages has yet to be perennially archived, but also their related metadata, timestamps, headers that define topics, etc. Mailing lists archives are a unique opportunity for historians to explore interactions, debates, even tensions that reveal a lot about communities. List security On both discussion lists and newsletter lists precautions are taken to avoid spamming. Discussion lists often require every message to be approved by a moderator before being sent to the rest of the subscribers (moderated lists), although higher-traffic lists typically only moderate messages from new subscribers. Companies sending out promotional newsletters have the option of working with whitelist mail distributors, which agree to standards and high fines from ISPs should any of the opt-in subscribers complain. In exchange for their compliance and agreement to prohibitive fines, the emails sent by whitelisted companies are not blocked by spam filters, which often can reroute these legitimate, non-spam emails. Subscription Some mailing lists are open to anyone who wants to join them, while others require an approval from the list owner before one may join. Joining a mailing list is called "subscribing" and leaving a list is called "unsubscribing". Archives A mailing list archive is a collection of past messages from one or more electronic mailing lists. Such archives often include searching and indexing functionality. Many archives are directly associated with the mailing list, but some organizations, such as Gmane, collect archives from multiple mailing lists hosted at different organizations; thus, one message sent to one popular mailing list may end up in many different archives. Gmane had over 9,000 mailing list archives as of 16 January 2007. Some popular free software programs for collecting mailing list archives are Hypermail, MHonArc, FUDforum, and public-inbox (which is notably used for archiving the Linux kernel mailing list along with many other software development mailing lists and has a web-service API used by search-and-retrieval tools intended for use by the Linux kernel development community). Listwashing Listwashing is the process through which individual entries in mailing lists are to be removed. These mailing lists typically contain email addresses or phone numbers of those that have not voluntarily subscribed. Only complainers are removed via this process. Because most of those that have not voluntarily subscribed stay on the list, this helps spammers to maintain a low-complaint list of spammable email addresses. Internet service providers who forward complaints to the spamming party are often seen as assisting the spammer in list washing, or, in short, helping spammers. Most legitimate list holders provide their customers with listwashing and data deduplication service regularly for free or a small fee. See also CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 Computational Chemistry List Dgroups eGroups Direct digital marketing Direct marketing Distribution list Email marketing software Google Groups List of mailing list software Linux kernel mailing list LISTSERV MSN Groups Netiquette Newsletter Online consultation Robinson list squeeze page Usenet Yahoo! Groups References Direct marketing Email Internet culture Postal systems Social information processing Spamming Virtual communities	wiki
The May Department Stores Company was an American department store holding company, formerly headquartered in downtown St. Louis, Missouri. It was founded in Leadville, Colorado, by David May in 1877, moving to St. Louis in 1905. After many changes in the retail industry, the company merged with Federated Department Stores (now Macy's, Inc.) in 2005. This company was only a holding company that bought, sold, and merged regional department stores, such as Foley's and L.S. Ayres. During most of its history, the operations of the various divisions were kept separate and had their own buyers and credit cards. The latter were not accepted at other May-owned stores. At times, two different May stores operated in the same geographical market, but they were aimed at different customers. Most decisions for each of the regional store companies were made by management at the local headquarters and not by the holding company in St. Louis. Some of the regional stores shared names that were similar to the parent company, such as Los Angeles-based May Company California. All it had in common with the parent was that these stores were headed by a different member of the May family as the president of their respective regional store chain. They were separate legal entities. History In 1877, The May Department Stores Company was founded in Leadville during the Colorado silver rush. In 1889, the headquarters moved to Denver. In 1899, May acquired the E. R. Hull & Dutton Co. of Cleveland, renaming it The May Company, Cleveland, later named the May Company Ohio. In 1905, the headquarters moved to St. Louis. In 1910, the business was officially incorporated as The May Department Stores Company. In 1911, The Famous Clothing Store (owned by May) and The William Barr Dry Goods Company merged to create Famous-Barr. In 1912, May acquired the M. O'Neil Co. (O'Neil's) department store of Akron, Ohio. In 1923, May acquired A. Hamburger & Sons Co. in Los Angeles and renames it May Company California. In 1946, May acquired the Kaufmann's chain based in Pittsburgh, retaining it as a separate division. In 1947, May acquires Strouss-Hirshberg Co. based in Youngstown, Ohio, retaining it as a separate division and changing the name to Strouss. In 1956, May acquired The Daniels & Fisher Company of Denver, merging it with May stores in the area to create a new May-Daniels & Fisher division. In 1958, May acquired the Cohen Brothers Department Store in Jacksonville, Florida, turning it into the May Cohens chain. In 1959, May acquired The Hecht Company of Baltimore, adding it as a new division. In 1965, May acquires G. Fox & Co out of Hartford, Connecticut. In 1966, May acquired the Meier & Frank chain based in Portland, Oregon, adding it as a new division. David's grandson Morton May became the chairman in 1951 and headed the company for 16 years. Morton May was active in St. Louis civic affairs and was a patron of the St. Louis Art Museum. In 1968, Venture Stores was founded when Target co-founder John F. Geisse went to work for May Department Stores. Under an antitrust settlement reached with the Department of Justice, May was unable to acquire any more retail chains at the time, and the department store company needed a way to compete against the emerging discount store chains. In August 1978, May sold the 70-store Consumers chain of catalog merchants to the Canadian Consumers Distributing. It closed its stores in 1996. In 1986, May acquired the Associated Dry Goods holding company and its chains (including J. W. Robinson's and its Florida division, Loehmann's, Lord & Taylor, Caldor, Joseph Horne Company, The Denver Dry Goods Company, Goldwater's, Hahne and Company, L. S. Ayres, H. & S. Pogue Company, Stewart Dry Goods, and Sibley's), the largest-ever retail acquisition in history at that time. In 1987, May renamed the five-unit May-Cohens as May Florida and sells the ten stores from Robinson’s of Florida to Maison Blanche so as to give them a foothold in the Floridan market. Stores at Tyrone Square, Orlando Fashion Square, WestShore Plaza, Altamonte Mall, University Square Mall, Countryside Mall, Southgate Plaza, Edison Mall, Coastland Center, and The Florida Mall were included in the deal along with a proposed 11th store at Lakeland Square Mall. May acquired Foley's in Houston and Filene's in Boston from Federated Department Stores whereas May Florida was also acquired by Maison Blanche. As a result, May withdrew from Florida by closing the Gateway location and converting those at Roosevelt Square, Regency Square, Volusia Mall, and Orange Park Mall under the Maison Blanche nameplate. In 1993, May Company California and J.W. Robinson's merged to form Robinsons-May. In that same year, Filene's absorbed the G. Fox division, Kaufmann's absorbed the May Company Ohio division, and Foley's absorbed the May D&F division. In 1995, May acquired the John Wanamaker chain based in Philadelphia. In 1996, May acquires the Strawbridge's chain based in Philadelphia. In 1998, May acquired The Jones Store chain based in Kansas City, Missouri. In 1999, May acquired Zions Cooperative Mercantile Institution based in Salt Lake City, folding it into the Meier & Frank subsidiary. In 2000, May Department Stores purchases David's Bridal. In 2001, Meier & Frank absorbed the ZCMI name, entering the Utah marketplace. In that same year, Hecht's acquired five Proffitt's stores in Nashville TN, entering the Nashville marketplace. In 2002, Meier & Frank operations consolidated with the Robinsons-May division while Kaufmann's operations consolidated with the Filene's division, yet both retaining the Meier & Frank and Kaufmann's names. In 2004, May Department Stores takes over the Marshall Field's chain from Target Corporation. In 2005, May was acquired by Federated Department Stores for $11 billion in stock, with all former May divisions being folded into Federated's various Macy's branches. In 2006, over 400 former May stores, with their wide variety of long-standing brand names, were consolidated and renamed as Macy's. In addition, Federated sells off three former May chains (David's Bridal, Lord & Taylor and Priscilla of Boston). Merger of Federated and May On February 28, 2005, Federated Department Stores, Inc. announced that they would acquire the May company for $11 billion. To help finance the May Company deal, Federated agreed to sell its combined proprietary credit card business to Citigroup. The merger was completed on August 30, 2005 after an assurance agreement was reached with the State Attorneys General of New York, California, Massachusetts, Maryland and Pennsylvania. By September 2006, all of the May regional nameplates, except for the Lord & Taylor chain, ceased to exist as Federated consolidated its operations under the Macy's mastheads including the stores most famous names Marshall Field's, Filene's, and Kaufmann's, as well as the last nameplate to still have the May name (Robinsons-May). All locations that were not sold off were rebranded as Macy's, except for one Hecht's location in Friendship Heights. That was rebuilt and rebranded as Bloomingdale's. In advance of the retail consolidation, May's credit call center in Lorain, Ohio, ceased operations on July 1, 2006. Lord & Taylor, the lone department store division not to be largely converted to the Macy's nameplate, was sold to a group of investors at NRDC Equity Partners, LLC for $1.2 billion in October 2006. David's Bridal and After Hours Formalwear were sold in November 2006. May Centers Around the beginning of the twentieth century, the May Department Stores Company created a real estate division that handled the purchase of land and the construction of the buildings that would house their new stand-alone department stores. Starting in 1947, when they wanted to open a new store for their May Company California division, May entered the new open-air shopping center development business with the construction of what would later become the Baldwin Hills Crenshaw Plaza in Los Angeles. After that time, May became a major shopping center, and later mall developer when they began to develop new malls to house their newly proposed department stores. During the mid-1980s, the company noticed that their stock was vastly undervalued and therefore was at risk of becoming a hostile takeover target. May Department Stores needed to re-purchase some of its company's stock to increase the share price. To accomplish this, they needed to obtain cash quickly, which they did by making a deal with Prudential Insurance in which the insurance company gave May $550 million in exchange for 50% ownership of May Centers. In 1992, Prudential purchased the rest of May Centers and renamed the company CenterMark. References External links May Company (Archive) Retail companies established in 1877 American companies established in 1877 Clothing retailers of the United States Defunct department stores based in Missouri Companies based in Colorado Lake County, Colorado Macy's, Inc. Companies based in St. Louis Retail companies disestablished in 2005 Defunct companies based in Missouri 1877 establishments in Colorado May Department Stores 2005 mergers and acquisitions	wiki
A shelf support is a fastener used to hang a shelf on the wall. Types of shelf supports: L-shaped shelf supports are named shelf bracket and they are a subset of angle brackets Cabinet shelf support, wardrobe shelf support, shelf pin, shelf support peg, shelf support push, plug-in shelf support - when used in a wardrobe or cabinet The 32 mm system on frameless cabinets using 5 mm diameter studs spaced 32 mm apart Fasteners Furniture components	wiki
Windows Messaging, initially called Microsoft Exchange Client, is an email client that was included with Windows 95 (beginning with OSR2), Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0. In Windows 98, it was not installed by default, but was available as a separate program in the setup CD. It is incompatible with Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows XP and later versions. History Microsoft Exchange gained wide usage with the release of Windows 95, as this was the only mail client that came bundled with it. In 1996, it was renamed to Windows Messaging, because of the upcoming release of Microsoft Exchange Server, and continued to be included throughout later releases of Windows up until the initial release of Windows 98, which by then included Outlook Express 4.0 as the default mail client. The Windows Messaging email client had two branches of successors: In software bundled with Windows itself, these were Internet Mail and News in Windows 95 (and bundled with Internet Explorer 3), which was succeeded by Outlook Express 4.0 in Windows 98 (bundled with Internet Explorer 4.0 in Windows 95) and throughout newer Windows systems. These did not use the .pst file type. Microsoft Outlook became the professional-grade and more direct successor of MS Exchange Client, which still uses the .pst file type. Microsoft Fax Microsoft Fax, also called Microsoft at Work Fax (AWF), is the fax component to provide Send-and-Receive Fax capability; sent and received faxes were stored in the same .pst file as other messages, first attempt of unified messaging by Microsoft; also the ability to act as fax server, which is not available in later versions of Windows until Windows Vista. See also .pst Microsoft Internet Mail and News Outlook Express Windows Mail Microsoft Outlook Windows 95 to Windows 98 Windows Fax and Scan References External links What is the Microsoft Exchange client? Internet Explorer add-ons Windows email clients Discontinued Windows components Windows 95 Windows 98	wiki
General Larsen may refer to: Dennis R. Larsen (fl. 1970s–2000s), U.S. Air Force lieutenant general Henry Louis Larsen (1890–1962), U.S. Marine Corps lieutenant general Stanley R. Larsen (1915–2000), U.S. Army lieutenant general See also General Larson (disambiguation)	wiki
Ray tracing is a technique that can generate near photo-realistic computer images. A wide range of free software and commercial software is available for producing these images. This article lists notable ray-tracing software. References 3D graphics software Ray tracing Ray tracing (graphics)	wiki
Gay Street is a neighborhood in southeast Baltimore, Maryland. References Neighborhoods in Baltimore Southeast Baltimore	wiki
A cell type is a classification used to identify cells that share morphological or phenotypical features. A multicellular organism may contain cells of a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells, that differ both in appearance and function yet have identical genomic sequences. Cells may have the same genotype, but belong to different cell types due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation family that are commonly used for this purpose in immunology). Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord. Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protists. The exact number of cell types is, however, undefined, and the Cell Ontology, as of 2021, lists over 2,300 different cell types. Multicellular organisms All higher multicellular organisms contain cells specialised for different functions. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division). Multicellular organisms are composed of cells that fall into two fundamental types: germ cells and somatic cells. During development, somatic cells will become more specialized and form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. After formation of the three germ layers, cells will continue to specialize until they reach a terminally differentiated state that is much more resistant to changes in cell type than its progenitors. Conceptual definition Even though the concept of cell type is widely used, specialists still discuss the exact definition of what constitutes a cell type. Humans A list of cell types in the human body may include several hundred distinct types depending on the source. See also Stem cell Types of plant cells List of human cell types derived from the germ layers References Further reading External links Developmental biology	wiki
Most water in Earth's atmosphere and on its crust comes from saline seawater, while fresh water accounts for nearly 1% of the total. The vast bulk of the water on Earth is saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline closed lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water. Saline groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating water quality in arid regions. The remainder of Earth's water constitutes the planet's fresh water resource. Typically, fresh water is defined as water with a salinity of less than 1 percent that of the oceans - i.e. below around 0.35‰. Water with a salinity between this level and 1‰ is typically referred to as marginal water because it is marginal for many uses by humans and animals. The ratio of salt water to fresh water on Earth is around 50 to 1. The planet's fresh water is also very unevenly distributed. Although in warm periods such as the Mesozoic and Paleogene when there were no glaciers anywhere on the planet all fresh water was found in rivers and streams, today most fresh water exists in the form of ice, snow, groundwater and soil moisture, with only 0.3% in liquid form on the surface. Of the liquid surface fresh water, 87% is contained in lakes, 11% in swamps, and only 2% in rivers. Small quantities of water also exist in the atmosphere and in living beings. Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be much greater than that of river runoff, a large proportion of this groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified with the saline water above. There is also a lot of fossil groundwater in arid regions that has never been renewed for thousands of years; this must not be seen as renewable water. Distribution of saline and fresh water The total volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1.386 billion km³ (333 million cubic miles), with 97.5% being salt water and 2.5% being fresh water. Of the fresh water, only 0.3% is in liquid form on the surface. Because the oceans that cover roughly 63% of the area of Earth reflect blue light, Earth appears blue from space, and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Blue Dot. Liquid freshwater like lakes and rivers cover about 1% of Earth's surface and altogether with Earth's ice cover, Earth's surface is 75% water by area. Lakes Collectively, Earth's lakes hold 199,000 km3 of water. Most lakes are in the high northern latitudes, far from human population centers. The North American Great Lakes, which contain 21% of the world's fresh water by volume, are an exception. The Great Lakes Basin is home to 33 million people. The Canadian cities of Thunder Bay, St. Catharines, Hamilton, Toronto, Oshawa, and Kingston, as well as the U.S. cities of Detroit, Duluth, Milwaukee, Chicago, Gary, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Rochester are all located on shores of the Great Lakes System. Groundwater Fresh groundwater is of great value, especially in arid countries such as China. Its distribution is broadly similar to that of surface river water, but it is easier to store in hot and dry climates because groundwater storage are much more shielded from evaporation than are dams. In countries such as Yemen, groundwater from erratic rainfall during the rainy season is the major source of irrigation water. Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to accurately measure than surface runoff, groundwater is not generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of surface water are available. Even today, estimates of total groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region depending on what source is used, and cases where fossil groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate (including the Ogallala Aquifer) are very frequent and almost always not seriously considered when they were first developed. Distribution of river water The total volume of water in rivers is estimated at 2,120 km³ (510 cubic miles), or 0.49% of the surface fresh water on Earth. Rivers and basins are often compared not according to their static volume, but to their flow of water, or surface run off. The distribution of river runoff across the Earth's surface is very uneven. There can be huge variations within these regions. For example, as much as a quarter of Australia's limited renewable fresh water supply is found in almost uninhabited Cape York Peninsula. Also, even in well-watered continents, there are areas that are extremely short of water, such as Texas in North America, whose renewable water supply totals only 26 km³/year in an area of 695,622 km2, or South Africa, with only 44 km³/year in 1,221,037 km2. The areas of greatest concentration of renewable water are: The Amazon and Orinoco Basins (a total of 6,500 km³/year or 15 percent of global runoff) East Asia Yangtze Basin - 1,000 km³/year South and Southeast Asia, with a total of 8,000 km³/year or 18 percent of global runoff Ganges Basin - 900 km³/year Irrawaddy Basin - 500 km³/year Mekong Basin - 450 km³/year Canada, with over 10 percent of world's river water and large numbers in lakes Mackenzie River - over 250 km³/year Yukon River - over 150 km³/year Siberia Yenisey - over 5% of world's fresh water in basin - second largest after the Amazon Ob River - over 500 km³/year Lena River - over 450 km³/year New Guinea Fly and Sepik Rivers - total over 300 km³/year in only about 150,000 km2 of basin area. Area, volume, and depth of oceans The oceanic crust is young, thin and dense, with none of the rocks within it dating from any older than the breakup of Pangaea. Because water is much denser than any gas, this means that water will flow into the "depressions" formed as a result of the high density of oceanic crust (on a planet like Venus, with no water, the depressions appear to form a vast plain above which rise plateaux). Since the low density rocks of the continental crust contain large quantities of easily eroded salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, salt has, over billions of years, accumulated in the oceans as a result of evaporation returning the fresh water to land as rain and snow. Variability of water availability Variability of water availability is important both for the functioning of aquatic species and also for the availability of water for human use: water that is only available in a few wet years must not be considered renewable. Because most global runoff comes from areas of very low climatic variability, the total global runoff is generally of low variability. Indeed, even in most arid zones, there tends to be few problems with variability of runoff because most usable sources of water come from high mountain regions which provide highly reliable glacier melt as the chief source of water, which also comes in the summer peak period of high demand for water. This historically aided the development of many of the great civilizations of ancient history, and even today allows for agriculture in such productive areas as the San Joaquin Valley. However, in Australia and Southern Africa, the story is different. Here, runoff variability is much higher than in other continental regions of the world with similar climates. Typically temperate (Köppen climate classification C) and arid (Köppen climate classification B) climate rivers in Australia and Southern Africa have as much as three times the coefficient of variation of runoff of those in other continental regions. The reason for this is that, whereas all other continents have had their soils largely shaped by Quaternary glaciation and mountain building, soils of Australia and Southern Africa have been largely unaltered since at least the early Cretaceous and generally since the previous ice age in the Carboniferous. Consequently, available nutrient levels in Australian and Southern African soils tend to be orders of magnitude lower than those of similar climates in other continents, and native flora compensate for this through much higher rooting densities (e.g. proteoid roots) to absorb minimal phosphorus and other nutrients. Because these roots absorb so much water, runoff in typical Australian and Southern African rivers does not occur until about 300 mm (12 inches) or more of rainfall has occurred. In other continents, runoff will occur after quite light rainfall due to the low rooting densities. The consequence of this is that many rivers in Australia and Southern Africa (as compared to extremely few in other continents) are theoretically impossible to regulate because rates of evaporation from dams mean a storage sufficiently large to theoretically regulate the river to a given level would actually allow very little draft to be used. Examples of such rivers include those in the Lake Eyre Basin. Even for other Australian rivers, a storage three times as large is needed to provide a third the supply of a comparable climate in southeastern North America or southern China. It also affects aquatic life, favouring strongly those species able to reproduce rapidly after high floods so that some will survive the next drought. Tropical (Köppen climate classification A) climate rivers in Australia and Southern Africa do not, in contrast, have markedly lower runoff ratios than those of similar climates in other regions of the world. Although soils in tropical Australia and southern Africa are even poorer than those of the arid and temperate parts of these continents, vegetation can use organic phosphorus or phosphate dissolved in rainwater as a source of the nutrient. In cooler and drier climates these two related sources tend to be virtually useless, which is why such specialized means are needed to extract the most minimal phosphorus. There are other isolated areas of high runoff variability, though these are basically due to erratic rainfall rather than different hydrology. These include: Southwest Asia The Brazilian Nordeste The Great Plains of the United States Possible water reservoirs inside Earth It has been hypothesized that the water is present in the Earth's crust, mantle and even the core and interacts with the surface ocean through the "whole-Earth water cycle". However, the actual amount of water stored in the Earth's interior still remains under debate. An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans may be found hundreds of kilometers deep within the Earth's interior, although not in liquid form. Water in Earth's mantle The lower mantle of inner earth may hold as much as 5 times more water than all surface water combined (all oceans, all lakes, all rivers). The amount of water stored in the Earth's interior may equal or exceed that in all of the surface oceans. Some researchers proposed the total mantle water budget may amount to tens of ocean masses. The water in the Earth's mantle is primarily dissolved in nominally anhydrous minerals as hydroxyls (OH). These OH impurities in rocks and minerals can lubricates tectonic plate, influence rock viscosity and melting processes, and slow down seismic waves. The two mantle phases at the transition zone between Earth's upper and lower mantle, wadsleyite and ringwoodite, could potentially incorporate up to a few weight percent of water into their crystal structure. Direct evidence of the presence of water in the Earth's mantle was found in 2014 based on a hydrous ringwoodite sample included in a diamond from Juína, Brazil. Seismic observations suggest the presence of water in dehydration melt at the top of the lower mantle under the continental US. Molecular water (H2O) is not the primary water-bearing phase(s) in the mantle, but its high-pressure form, ice-VII, also has been found in super-deep diamonds. See also Deficit irrigation Magmatic water Origin of water on Earth Water cycle Water resource References Disturbution on Earth Earth	wiki
The Mask of Orpheus is an opera with music by Harrison Birtwistle, electronic music realised by Barry Anderson and a libretto by Peter Zinovieff. It was premiered in London at the English National Opera on 21 May 1986 to great critical acclaim. A recorded version conducted by Andrew Davis and Martyn Brabbins has also received good reviews. It was revived at the ENO in 2019. The work is around three hours long. Synopsis The structure of the opera's plot is complex. Rather than telling a story by starting at A and going through B to C, The Mask of Orpheus explores the Orpheus myth in a number of directions at once, examining the various contradictions which are in the various versions of the myth. This is done by a very elaborate stage design, whereby the stage is divided into a number of different areas, each containing its own part of the action. In addition, each of the major characters – Orpheus, Eurydice and Aristaeus – appear in three forms: as a singer who represents their human forms; as a mime, representing their heroic selves; and as a puppet, representing their myths. Also, individual events may occur within the opera on several occasions, as they are being predicted, as they happen, and as they are being remembered. An example of this process in action is the seduction of Eurydice by Aristaeus. When first seen in act 1, this event is shown simultaneously in two different versions: in one, Eurydice is raped by Aristaeus before dying; in the other she is not. Later, in act 2, Orpheus remembers this event, but now it is Orpheus, not Aristaeus, who is seducing Eurydice before her death. Because of the complex structure of the work, it is difficult to provide a detailed synopsis. However, the opera's story might be broadly said to be as follows: Act 1 Orpheus and Eurydice fall in love and marry. Eurydice later dies from a snake bite, and Orpheus consults the Oracle of the Dead, intending to follow her to the Underworld. Act 2 Orpheus journeys to the Underworld through seventeen arches, each with a symbolic name. On his journey back, he believes Eurydice is following him, but it is actually Persephone and the mime Eurydice. Orpheus goes back for Eurydice but realises she cannot follow him. Orpheus hangs himself. The act ends with Orpheus waking up, realising that his journey to the Underworld was a dream. The Seventeen Arches Each of the arches that Orpheus must travel through is given a symbolic name. 1st arch – The Arch of Countryside 2nd arch – The Arch of Crowds 3rd arch – The Arch of Evening 4th arch – The Arch of Contrast 5th arch – The Arch of Dying 6th arch – The Arch of Wings 7th arch – The Arch of Colors 8th arch – The Arch for Secrecy 9th arch – The Arch of Glass 10th arch – The Arch of Building 11th arch – The Arch of Weather 12th arch – The Arch of Eyes 13th arch – The Arch of Knives 14th arch – The Arch of Animals 15th arch – The Arch of Robes (or Roads) 16th arch – The Arch of Blood 17th arch – The Arch of Fear Act 3 At the start of this act, time is moving backwards: Orpheus travels back out of and into the Underworld, and Eurydice dies once more. Then time moves forwards as Orpheus leaves the Underworld again. One version of the Orpheus story is that he is then killed by a thunderbolt thrown by Zeus, while another is that he is dismembered by the women of Dionysus. Orpheus then becomes the subject of a cult and an oracle. Time flows backwards once more, and Orpheus' death is acted out again, and the opera ends with the Orpheus myth decaying. The electronic music The Mask of Orpheus, in addition to vocal and orchestral music, contains a significant amount of electronic music, which was realised on behalf of Birtwistle by Barry Anderson. Anderson's premature death in 1987, as well as a paucity of extant sketch material, has made an objective assessment of the collaboration unclear. The issue has been raised of whether Birtwistle has acknowledged the true extent of his collaboration with Anderson as a fellow composer. Anderson mapped out the electronic music in detail at the IRCAM studios in Paris between 1981 and 1984. Each act has its own electronic "aura", which goes on continuously, sometimes prominently, sometimes inaudibly; the voice of Apollo is heard on several occasions as an electronic sound "speaking" in an invented language. There are also six purely electronic interludes created by computer manipulation of harp sounds. The staging Jocelyn Herbert was commissioned to design the sets and costumes for the opera's premiere. The staging was complex, involving suns, rivers, and a flying golden carriage. Each singer wore (and sang through) a mask. Large puppets were created to change proportion on stage. All the masks and costumes were designed to appear timeless, so as to avoid placing the opera in a specific era. Instrumentation Woodwinds: 4 flutes (1st, 2nd, and 3rd doubling piccolo; 2nd, 3rd, and 4th doubling alto flute; 4th doubling bass flute) 3 oboes (1st doubling oboe d'amore; 2nd and 3rd doubling English horn) bass oboe (doubling English horn) 3 clarinets (1st and 2nd doubling E-flat clarinet; 2nd and 3rd doubling bass clarinet) bass clarinet (doubling contrabass clarinet) 3 bassoons (2nd and 3rd doubling contrabassoon) contrabassoon 3 soprano saxophones Brass 4 French horns 4 trumpets 6 trombones 2 tubas Other 7 percussionists 3 harps electric guitar bass guitar electric mandolin tape 16-part mixed choir References Further reading "The Mask of Orpheus, synopsis and guide", English National Opera External links Work details, score sample pages, Universal Edition Operas by Harrison Birtwistle English-language operas 1986 operas Operas Operas set in fictional, mythological and folkloric settings Operas about Orpheus Opera world premieres at the English National Opera Works based on Georgics Operas based on works by Virgil	wiki
O Swatch Women's Pro 2015 é um evento do ASP World Tour de 2015. Esse evento aconteceu no dia 9 a 20 de setembro em Trestles, Califórnia e foi disputada por 18 surfistas, sendo 1 brasileira. A campeã foi a Carissa Moore que derrotou a Bianca Buitendag na final. Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Quartas-de-Finais Semifinais Final Premiação Ligações externas Sítio oficial Swatch Women's Pro Liga Mundial de Surfe Trestles Women's Pro Swatch Women's Pro Competições de surfe	wiki
Akthethrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, first described by Laurence Mound in 1970. There is just one species in this genus, Akthethrips strobus, which is found in New South Wales and South Australia, living on the foliage of Casuarina glauca, and Casuarina pauper. It is suggested that the elongate stylets of this species (and genus) "are adapted to feeding on the chlorophyllous tissue of Casuarina(s)" References Phlaeothripidae Thrips genera Taxa named by Laurence Alfred Mound Monotypic insect genera	wiki
A panel PC is a personal computer built into a flat-screen display so that the entire computer can be mounted in any manner available for mounting a display alone. It eliminates the need for a separate space for the computer. A panel PC is typically ruggedized for used in industrial or high-traffic settings. It may include any of the ports and wireless communication capabilities found in other computers. See also Industrial PC Industry 4.0 Embedded system Rugged computer Classes of computers Industrial computing Personal computers	wiki
WSMQ may refer to: WQSN, a radio station (106.3 FM) licensed to serve Norton, Virginia, United States, which held the call sign WSMQ in 2017 WZGX, a radio station (1450 AM) licensed to serve Bessemer, Alabama, United States, which held the call sign WSMQ from 1980 to 2004	wiki
Carbon neutral might refer to: Carbon neutrality, a balancing greenhouse gas emissions with renewable energy The Presbyterian Church (USA) Carbon Neutral Resolution Zero-carbon building, carbon neutral buildings Carbon neutral fuel or carbon negative fuel Carbon offsetting Carbon offsetting to reduce carbon dioxide gas emissions The carboNZero programme, a measurement, reduction and offset programme administered by Landcare Research	wiki
Bearing Witness is an outdoor 1997 sculpture by Martin Puryear, installed outside the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center in Washington, D.C., in the United States. See also 1997 in art List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6 References 1997 establishments in Washington, D.C. 1997 sculptures Outdoor sculptures in Washington, D.C. Federal Triangle	wiki
An insult is an expression or statement (or sometimes behavior) which is disrespectful or scornful. Insults may be intentional or accidental. An insult may be factual, but at the same time pejorative, such as the word "inbred". Jocular exchange Lacan considered insults a primary form of social interaction, central to the imaginary order – "a situation that is symbolized in the 'Yah-boo, so are you' of the transitivist quarrel, the original form of aggressive communication". Erving Goffman points out that every "crack or remark set up the possibility of a counter-riposte, topper, or squelch, that is, a comeback". He cites the example of possible interchanges at a dance in a school gym: Backhanded compliments A backhanded (or left-handed) compliment, or asteism, is an insult that is disguised as, or accompanied by, a compliment, especially in situations where the belittling or condescension is intentional. Examples of backhanded compliments include, but are not limited to: "I did not expect you to ace that exam. Good for you.", which could impugn the target's success as a fluke. "That skirt makes you look far thinner.", insinuating hidden fat, with the implication that fat is something to be ashamed of. "I wish I could be as straightforward as you, but I always try to get along with everyone.", insinuating an overbearing attitude. "I like you. You have the boldness of a much younger person.", insinuating decline with age. Negging is a type of backhanded compliment used for emotional manipulation or as a seduction method. The term was coined and prescribed by pickup artists. Negging is often viewed as a straightforward insult rather than as a pick-up line, in spite of the fact that proponents of the technique traditionally stress it is not an insult. Personal attacks A personal attack is an insult which is directed at some attribute of the person. The Federal Communications Commission's personal attack rule defined a personal attack as one made upon the honesty, character, integrity, or like personal qualities in the Communications Act of 1934. Personal attacks are generally considered a fallacy when used in arguments since they do not attempt to debunk the opposing sides argument, rather attacking the qualities of a person. Sexuality Verbal insults often take a phallic or pudendal form; this includes offensive profanity, and may also include insults to one's sexuality. There are also insults pertaining to the extent of one's sexual activity. For example, according to James Bloodworth, "incel" “has gradually crept into the vocabulary of every internet troll, sometimes being used against men who blame and harass women for not wanting to sleep with them.” Entertainment Insults in poetic form is practiced through out history, more often as entertainment rather then maliciousness. Flyting is a contest consisting of the exchange of insults between two parties, often conducted in verse and became public entertainment in Scotland in the 15th and 16th centuries. Senna is a form of Old Norse Eddic poetry consisting of an exchange of insults between participants. O du eselhafter Peierl (Oh, you asinine Peierl), composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, was meant for fun, mocking, scatological humor directed at a friend of Mozart's. More modern versions include poetry slam, dozens, diss song and battle rap. Anatomies Various typologies of insults have been proposed over the years. Ethologist Desmond Morris, noting that "almost any action can operate as an Insult Signal if it is performed out of its appropriate context – at the wrong time or in the wrong place", classes such signals in ten "basic categories": Uninterest signals Boredom signals Impatience signals Superiority signals Deformed-compliment signals Mock-discomfort signals Rejection signals Mockery signals Symbolic insults Dirt signals Elizabethans took great interest in such analyses, distinguishing out, for example, the "fleering frump ... when we give a mock with a scornful countenance as in some smiling sort looking aside or by drawing the lip awry, or shrinking up the nose". Shakespeare humorously set up an insult-hierarchy of seven-fold "degrees. The first, the Retort Courteous; the second, the Quip Modest; the third, the Reply Churlish; the fourth, the Reproof Valiant; the fifth, the Countercheck Quarrelsome; the sixth, the Lie with Circumstance; the seventh, the Lie Direct". Perceptions What qualifies as an insult is also determined both by the individual social situation and by changing social mores. Thus on one hand the insulting "obscene invitations of a man to a strange girl can be the spicy endearments of a husband to his wife". See also References Further reading Thomas Conley: Toward a rhetoric of insult. University of Chicago Press, 2010, . External links Abuse Bullying Emotions	wiki
Gray Matters or Grey Matters may refer to: Gray Matters (novel), by William Hjortsberg Gray Matters (2006 film), a film directed by Sue Kramer Gray Matters (2014 film), a documentary film by Marco Orsini Gray Matters (record label) "Gray Matters" (Johnny Bravo), a 2004 episode of Johnny Bravo "Grey Matters" (Fringe) See also Grey Matter (disambiguation)	wiki
Andrea Eife (later Gemsleben, born 12 April 1956 in Leipzig) is a German former swimmer who competed in the 1972 Summer Olympics. She won a silver medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and finished fifth and sixth in the individual 200 m and 100 m freestyle events, respectively. At the 1973 World Aquatics Championships, she won a bronze medal in the 200 m freestyle and a gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, breaking the world record. The next year, she repeated these medal achievements at the 1974 European Aquatics Championships. References 1956 births Living people German female freestyle swimmers Olympic swimmers of East Germany Swimmers at the 1972 Summer Olympics Olympic silver medalists for East Germany Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics Swimmers from Leipzig World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming European Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming Olympic silver medalists in swimming 20th-century German women 21st-century German women	wiki
Handley may refer to: Places In the United Kingdom Handley, Cheshire, a village Handley, a hamlet in the parish of Stretton, Derbyshire Middle Handley, a hamlet in the parish of Unstone, Derbyshire Nether Handley, a hamlet in the parish of Unstone, Derbyshire West Handley, a hamlet in the parish of Unstone, Derbyshire Handley, a village in Dorset now known as Sixpenny Handley In the United States Handley, Dallas County, Missouri Handley (Fort Worth), a former town currently located with the city of Fort Worth, Texas Handley, West Virginia John Handley High School, Winchester, Virginia Other uses Handley (surname) Handley Page H.P.42, British four-engine long-range biplane airliners in service from 1931 to 1940 See also Hanley (disambiguation)	wiki
This is a list of politicians of Jewish origin divided between their respective countries and those serving as heads of state and government. Jewish politicians by country Austria Canada France Germany Israel (Includes non-Jewish politicians) Poland Russia South-east European United Kingdom United States Jewish heads of state and government List of Jewish heads of state and government Politics by country	wiki
Baruch Hashem L'Olam may refer to the following prayers: Baruch Hashem L'Olam (Shacharit), recited during Pesukei Dezimra Baruch Hashem L'Olam (Maariv), recited on weekdays during the blessings of the Shema	wiki
Syncope may refer to: Syncope (medicine), also known as fainting Syncope (phonology), the loss of one or more sounds, particularly an unstressed vowel, from the interior of a word Syncopation, a musical effect caused by off-beat or otherwise unexpected rhythms Syncopation (dance), or syncopated step, a step on an unstressed beat Suspension, in music Syncope (frog), a genus of microhylidae frogs Syncopy Inc., a British film production company See also Syncopation (disambiguation) Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate	wiki
Kindred puede referirse a: Kindred (Héroes) - episodio de una serie de televisión; Kindred (Ásatrú) - comunidad básica en la organización de la confesión religiosa Ásatrú; Kindred (Dakota del Norte) - ciudad de Estados Unidos; Kindred (novela) - Novela de la escritora Octavia E. Butler, publicada en 1979. Kindred (league of legends) - Personaje o campeón de popular juego en línea incorporado en el segundo semestre de 2015.	wiki
Imago est un roman de science-fiction écrit par Alain Dartevelle et publié en 1994. Dans ce roman, l'auteur . Résumé Notes et références Roman de science-fiction belge Roman belge paru en 1994 1994 en science-fiction	wiki
Robert Barber is a male former British gymnast. Gymnastics career Barber represented England in the all-around event and horizontal bar and won a bronze medal in the team event, at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. References Living people British male artistic gymnasts Gymnasts at the 1994 Commonwealth Games Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for England Commonwealth Games medallists in gymnastics Year of birth missing (living people) Medallists at the 1994 Commonwealth Games	wiki
Rivers of Lithuania are typical lowland rivers: they are slow, they make meanders, the valleys are wide. Because of abundant precipitation, the river net is dense: on the average 0.99 km of rivers flow in 1 km² of the territory. However, the rivers are not evenly distributed. The highest density is in the Samogitian Highlands where it rains more often and in the northern Lithuania where the soil has clay and it does not allow the water to drain underground. The lowest density is in the southeastern Lithuania where the soil has a lot sand and the rainwater quickly ooze into the underground. Almost 70% (some 49,600 km²) of the territory of Lithuania are drained by the Neman River and its tributaries. The other five river basins are small and located nears the borders: Mūša-Nemunėlis (Lielupe; 8,976 km²), Venta (5,140 km²), Daugava (1,857 km²), small rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea (2,523 km²) and Pregolya (54 km²). During the winter all rivers freeze over. In the spring almost all rivers flood from melting snow and ice. However, usually only in the Neman River delta the water bursts out of the valley. Nowadays floods are controlled by dams and also due to drainage most rivers have lower water levels than they used to have. In the western Lithuania rivers tend to irregularly flood during the fall because of excessive rains. In the eastern Lithuania rivers tend to discharge a constant amount of water because they are regulated by flow-through lakes and sandy soil, which quickly absorbs any excess rain or snow water. During the Soviet times (1945-1990) rivers suffered much damage because of drainage. Many swamps were drained and now they cannot feed the rivers anymore. Other smaller rivers were straightened and turned into drainage canals. Lithuania counts around 29 thousand watercourses, longer than 0.25 km. The total length of all these watercourses would be around 65,000 km. The number of rivers and rivulets longer than 3 km has been calculated very precisely – 4,418. 758 rivers are longer than 10 km. Lithuania has 21 rivers longer than : Longest rivers The Virvyčia (99.7 km) is just shy of the 100 km limit. The length of the Žeimena is an object of discussion; it could be up to 114 km. Note: length in Lithuania also includes the length of rivers when they serve as borders with neighboring countries. See also List of drainage basins of Lithuania Footnotes References List of lakes, dams, and rivers of national importance Lithuania Central Internet Gates - Waters Lithuania Rivers	wiki
In the study of inhaled anesthetics, the concentration effect is the increase in the rate that the Fa (alveolar concentration)/Fi (inspired concentration) ratio rises as the alveolar concentration of that gas is increased. In simple terms, the higher the concentration of gas administered, the faster the alveolar concentration of that gas approaches the inspired concentration. In modern practice it is only relevant for nitrous oxide since other inhaled anesthetics are delivered at much lower concentrations due to their higher potency. See also Second gas effect References Anesthesia	wiki
Araeothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae. Species Araeothrips duibongensis Araeothrips longisetis Araeothrips vamana References Phlaeothripidae Thrips Thrips genera	wiki
Atractothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae. Species Atractothrips bradleyi Atractothrips mockfordi References Phlaeothripidae Thrips Thrips genera	wiki
Outta My Head may refer to: Outta My Head (album), a 2012 album by Diandra, or the title song "Outta My Head" (Craig Campbell song), 2012 "Outta My Head" (Daughtry song), 2012 "Outta My Head" (Leona Lewis song), 2009 "Outta My Head" (Spiderbait song), 2001 "Outta My Head (Ay Ya Ya)", a 2007 song by Ashlee Simpson "Outta My Head", a 2010 song by Darren Styles from Feel the Pressure "Outta My Head", a 2019 song by Khalid and John Mayer from Free Spirit See also Out of My Head (disambiguation)	wiki
The Historic Places Act 1993 was an Act of the New Zealand Parliament. It defines Heritage New Zealand and its roles of preserving, marking and recording places of historic interest in New Zealand. Statutes of New Zealand Historic preservation legislation Heritage New Zealand 1993 in New Zealand law	wiki
Involuntary means unintended. An involuntary action is one that is unintentional, i.e. without volition or will; see volition (psychology) and will (philosophy). Involuntary may also refer to: Involuntary (film), a 2008 Swedish film by Ruben Östlund "Involuntary", a song on the M. Ward album Transfiguration of Vincent Involuntary action of the body, also known as reflex Involuntary commitment, psychiatric examination and/or treatment without patient's consent (including inability to give consent) Involuntary Witness, Italian novel Involuntary park, reclaimed urban region Involuntary dismissal, court procedure Involuntary unemployment, unemployment based on wage Involuntary euthanasia, criminal form of euthanasia See also Voluntary (disambiguation) Involuntary celibate	wiki
Double consonant ("doubled consonant", "consonant doubling", etc.) may refer to: Gemination, the doubling or lengthening of the pronunciation of a consonant sound A digraph consisting of a repeated consonant American and British spelling differences involving double consonants	wiki
A code of law, also called a law code or legal code, is a systematic collection of statutes. It is a type of legislation that purports to exhaustively cover a complete system of laws or a particular area of law as it existed at the time the code was enacted, by a process of codification. Though the process and motivations for codification are similar in different common law and civil law systems, their usage is different. In a civil law country, a code of law typically exhaustively covers the complete system of law, such as civil law or criminal law. By contrast, in a common law country with legislative practices in the English tradition, modify the existing common law only to the extent of its express or implicit provision, but otherwise leaves the common law intact. A code entirely replaces the common law in a particular area, leaving the common law inoperative unless and until the code is repealed. In a third case of slightly different usage, in the United States and other common law countries that have adopted similar legislative practices, a code of law is a standing body of statute law on a particular area, which is added to, subtracted from, or otherwise modified by individual legislative enactments. History The legal code was a common feature of the legal systems of the ancient Middle East. The UrukAgina Law Code (2380–2360 BC), which most probably is predated by older laws, which yet have to be discovered, the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2100–2050 BC), the Law Code of Eshnunna (approximately 100 years before Lipit-Ishtar), the Law Code of Lipit-Ishtar (1934–1924 BC), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), are among the earliest and best preserved legal codes, originating from Sumer, Mesopotamia (now Iraq). In the Roman empire, a number of codifications were developed, such as the Twelve Tables of Roman law (first compiled in 450 BC) and the Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian, also known as the Justinian Code (429–534 AD). However, these law codes did not exhaustively describe the Roman legal system. The Twelve Tables were limited in scope, and most legal doctrines were developed by the pontifices, who "interpreted" the tables to deal with situations far beyond what is contained therein. The Justinian Code collected together existing legal material at the time. In ancient China, the first comprehensive criminal code was the Tang Code, created in 624 AD in the Tang dynasty. This, and subsequent imperial codes, formed the basis for the penal system of both China and other East Asian states under its cultural influence. The last and best preserved imperial code is the Great Qing Legal Code, created in 1644 upon the founding of the Qing dynasty. This code was the exclusive and exhaustive statement of Chinese law between 1644 and 1912. Though it was in form a criminal code, large parts of the code dealt with civil law matters and the settlement of civil disputes. The code ceased its operation upon the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, but significant provisions remained in operation in Hong Kong until well into the 1970s due to a peculiar interaction between it and the British common law system. In Europe, Roman law, especially the Corpus Juris Civilis, became the basis of the legal systems of many countries. Roman law was either adopted by legislation (becoming positive law), or through processing by jurists. The accepted Roman law is usually then codified and forms part of the central Code. The codification movement gathered pace after the rise of nation-states after the Treaty of Westphalia. Prominent national civil codes include the Napoleonic Code (code civil) of 1804, the German civil code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) of 1900 and the Swiss codes. The European codifications of the 1800s influenced the codification of Catholic canon law resulting in the 1917 Code of Canon Law which was replaced by the 1983 Code of Canon Law and whose Eastern counterpart is the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. Meanwhile, African civilizations developed their own legal traditions, sometimes codifying them through consistent oral tradition, as illustrated e.g. by the Kouroukan Fouga, a charter proclaimed by the Mali Empire in 1222–1236, enumerating regulations in both constitutional and civil matters, and transmitted to this day by griots under oath. The Continental civil law tradition spread around the world along with European cultural and military dominance in recent centuries. During the Meiji Restoration, Japan adopted a new Civil Code (1898), based primarily on the French civil code and influenced by the German code. After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 in China, the new Republic of China government abandoned the imperial code tradition and instead adopted a new civil code strongly influenced by the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, and also influenced by the Japanese code. This new tradition has been largely maintained in the legal system of the People's Republic of China since 1949. Meanwhile, codifications also became more common in common law systems. For example, a criminal code is found in a number of common law jurisdictions in Australia and the Americas, and continues to be debated in England. In the Americas, the influence of Continental legal codes has manifest itself in two ways. In civil law jurisdictions, legal codes in the Continental tradition are common. In common law jurisdictions, however, there has been a strong trend towards codification. The result of such codification, however, is not always a legal code as found in civil law jurisdictions. For example, the California Civil Code largely codifies common law doctrine and is very different in form and content from all other civil codes. Civil code A civil code typically forms the core of civil law systems. The legal code typically covers exhaustively the entire system of private law. Civil codes are always also found in common especially in the United States of America. However, such civil codes are often collections of common law rules and a variety of ad hoc statutes; that is, they do not aspire to complete logical coherence. Criminal code A criminal code or penal code is a common feature in many legal systems. Codification of the criminal law allows the criminal law to be more accessible and more democratically made and amended. See also Code (cryptography) Genetic code Language Legal code (municipal) List of national legal systems Source code Visigothic Code References van Gulik, R.H. Crime and Punishment in Ancient China: The Tang Yin Pi Shih. Orchid Press, 2007., External links Codex Iustinianus Site The Roman Law Library Code of Laws of the United States of America (US Code) law.cornell.edu Napoleonic Code napoleon-series.org contemporary French law codes legifrance.gouv.fr Louisiana Civil Code legis.state.la.us Connecticut General Statutes (2013 Ed.) cga.ct.gov Civil law (legal system) Sources of law	wiki
Cannabis flower essential oil, also known as hemp essential oil, is an essential oil obtained by steam distillation from the flowers, panicles (flower cluster), stem, and upper leaves of the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa L.). Hemp essential oil is distinct from hemp seed oil (hemp oil) and hash oil: the former is a vegetable oil that is cold-pressed from the seeds of low-THC varieties of hemp, the latter is a THC-rich extract of dried female hemp flowers (marijuana) or resin (hashish). A pale yellow liquid, cannabis flower essential oil is a volatile oil that is a mixture of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other terpenoid compounds. The typical scent of hemp results from about 140 different terpenoids. The essential oil is manufactured from both low-THC ("fibre-type") and high-THC ("drug-type") varieties of hemp. As most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water, hemp essential oil contains only traces of cannabinoids. Even in "drug-type" hemp, the THC content of the essential oil does not exceed 0.08%. Most of the material is produced in Canada, as well as small scale cultivations in Switzerland and Germany. Hemp essential oil is used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles. It is also used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy and beverages. Yield The yield depends on the hemp type (drug, fiber) and pollination; sex, age, and part of the plant; cultivation (indoor, outdoor etc.); harvest time and conditions; drying; and storage. For example, fresh buds from an Afghani variety yielded 0.29% essential oil. Drying and storage reduced the content from 0.29% to 0.20% after 1 week, and to 0.13% after 3 months. Monoterpenes showed a significantly greater loss than sesquiterpenes, but none of the major components completely disappeared in the drying process. About 1.3 L of essential oil per ton resulted from freshly harvested outdoor-grown hemp, corresponding to about 10 L/ha. The yield of nonpollinated ("sinsemilla") hemp at 18 L/ha was more than twofold compared with pollinated hemp (8 L/ha). Constituents Sixty-eight components were detected by GC and GC/mass spectrometry (MS) in fresh bud oil distilled from high-potency, indoor-grown hemp. The 57 identified constituents were 92% monoterpenes, 7% sesquiterpenes, and approx. 1% other compounds (ketones, esters). The dominating monoterpenes were myrcene (67%) and limonene (16%). In the essential oil from outdoor-grown hemp, the monoterpene concentration varied between 47.9 and 92.1% of the total terpenoid content. The sesquiterpenes ranged from 5.2 to 48.6%. The most abundant monoterpene was β-myrcene, followed by trans-caryophyllene, α-pinene, trans-ocimene, and α-terpinolene. Another report said there were 140 terpenoids, dominated by α-pinene and limonene which together often comprise 75% of the live plant's volatiles. However, extracted essential oils can change in composition, and the live plant, dried plant and essential oil can smell rather different. Even in "drug-type" hemp, the THC content of the essential oil was not more than 0.08%. In the essential oil of five different European hemp cultivars, the dominating terpenes were myrcene (21.1–35.0 %), α-pinene (7.2–14.6 %), α-terpinolene (7.0–16.6 %), trans-caryophyllene (12.2.–18.9 %), and α-humulene (6.1–8.7 %). The main differences between the cultivars were found in the contents of α-terpinolene and α-pinene. Other terpenoids present only in traces are sabinene, α-terpinene, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), pulegone, γ-terpinene, terpineol-4-ol, bornyl acetate, α-copaene, alloaromadendrene, viridiflorene, β-bisabolene, γ-cadinene, trans-β-farnesene, trans-nerolidol, and β-bisabolol. The major alkane present in an essential oil obtained by extraction and steam distillation was the n-C29 alkane nonacosane (55.8 and 10.7%, respectively). Uses The various terpenes in cannabis have antifungal, antimicrobial, antiviral and insect repellent functions that could be commercially valuable when used externally. Cannabis essential oils that are cannabinoid-free have been tested for central nervous effects. Natural monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes from cannabis flowers have relaxing, sedative and anti-depressant effects when inhaled. Their application in aromatherapy is increasing, but the high price of the natural oil (50$ per milliliter) is a limiting factor. In Switzerland and Austria, specific landraces with high essential oil content but no discernible amounts of cannabinoids have been developed for the purpose of flavoring beverage products. For those applications, oils with high monoterpene percentages (but a low alpha-humulene or caryophyllene oxide concentration) are desirable. Terpenes used in THC vaping products, legal in some jurisdictions in the United States, are not true cannabis terpenes, but synthetic and racemic with potential health hazards. Due to health promoting effects, natural THC-free cannabis flower oil is the preferred ingredient in the legal European market. Unregulated additives in US vaping products have led to serious health consequences, including fatal outcomes. See also Cannabis concentrate Cannabidiol References Sources Further reading – discusses similar terpenes in hops and cannabis External links Hemp Essential Oil: Sweet Smell of Success Essential oils Preparations of cannabis	wiki
Bryan Beller (1971) – bassista statunitense Jana Beller (1990) – modella russa naturalizzata tedesca Nicola Beller Carbone (...) – soprano tedesco	wiki
The Lockheed Trophy was awarded for freestyle aerobatics The Lockheed Trophy was awarded in freestyle aerobatic competition held in England from 1955 to 1965. The trophy was superseded by the Biancotto Trophy competition, named after three-time Lockheed trophy winner Leon Biancotto, who died in competition in 1962 History In 1963 the Lockheed trophy competition was held during the Baginton National Air Race. References Aerobatics	wiki
The lily family, Liliaceae, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity. Common characteristics include large flowers with parts arranged in threes: with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) arranged in two whorls, six stamens and a superior ovary. The leaves are linear in shape, with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges, single and arranged alternating on the stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most species are grown from bulbs, although some have rhizomes. First described in 1789, the lily family became a paraphyletic "catch-all" (wastebasket) group of lilioid monocots that did not fit into other families and included a great number of genera now included in other families and in some cases in other orders. Consequently, many sources and descriptions labelled "Liliaceae" deal with the broader sense of the family. The family evolved approximately 68 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleogene epochs. Liliaceae are widely distributed, mainly in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the flowers are insect pollinated. Many Liliaceae are important ornamental plants, widely grown for their attractive flowers and involved in a major floriculture of cut flowers and dry bulbs. Some species are poisonous if eaten and can have adverse health effects in humans and household pets. A number of Liliaceae genera are popular cultivated plants in private and public spaces. Lilies and tulips in particular have had considerable symbolic and decorative value, and appear frequently in paintings and the decorative arts. They are also an economically important product. Most of their genera, Lilium in particular, face considerable herbivory pressure from deer in some areas, both wild and domestic. Description The diversity of characteristics complicates any description of the Liliaceae morphology, and confused taxonomic classification for centuries. The diversity is also of considerable evolutionary significance, as some members emerged from shaded areas and adapted to a more open environment (see Evolution). General The Liliaceae are characterised as monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, bulbous (or rhizomatous in the case of Medeoleae) flowering plants with simple trichomes (root hairs) and contractile roots. The flowers may be arranged (inflorescence) along the stem, developing from the base, or as a single flower at the tip of the stem, or as a cluster of flowers. They contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics and are symmetric radially, but sometimes as a mirror image. Most flowers are large and colourful, except for Medeoleae. Both the petals and sepals are usually similar and appear as two concentric groups (whorls) of 'petals', that are often striped or multi-coloured, and produce nectar at their bases. The stamens are usually in two groups of three (trimerous) and the pollen has a single groove (monosulcate). The ovary is placed above the attachment of the other parts (superior). There are three fused carpels (syncarpus) with one to three chambers (locules), a single style and a three-lobed stigma. The embryo sac is of the Fritillaria type. The fruit is generally a wind dispersed capsule, but occasionally a berry (Medeoleae) which is dispersed by animals. The leaves are generally simple and elongated with veins parallel to the edges, arranged singly and alternating on the stem, but may form a rosette at the base of the stem. Specific Inflorescence Usually indeterminate (lacking terminal flower) as a raceme (Lilium); sometimes reduced to a single terminal flower (Tulipa). When pluriflor (multiple blooms), the flowers are arranged in a cluster or rarely are subumbellate (Gagea) or a thyrse (spike). Flowers Hermaphroditic, actinomorphic (radially symmetric) or slightly zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetric), pedicellate (on a short secondary stem), generally large and showy but may be inconspicuous : (Medeoleae). Bracts may (bracteate) or may not (ebracteate) be present. The perianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (two whorled), formed from six tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each, although Scoliopus has only three petals, free from the other parts, but overlapping. The tepals are usually petaloid (petal like) and apotepalous (free) with lines (striate) or marks in other colors or shades. The perianth is either homochlamydeous (all tepals equal, e.g. Fritillaria) or dichlamydeous (two separate and different whorls, e.g. Calochortus) and may be united into a tube. Nectar is produced in perigonal nectaries at the base of the tepals. Androecium Six stamens in two trimerous whorls, with free filaments, usually epiphyllous (fused to tepals) and diplostemonous (outer whorl of stamens opposite outer tepals and the inner whorl opposite inner tepals), although Scoliopus has three stamens opposite the outer tepals. The attachment of the anthers to the filaments may be either peltate (to the surface) or pseudo-basifixed (surrounding the filament tip, but not adnate, that is not fused) and dehisce longitudinally and are extrorse (dehiscing away from center). The pollen is usually monosulcate (single groove), but may be inaperturate (lacking aperture: Clintonia, some Tulipa spp.) or operculate (lidded: Fritillaria, some Tulipa spp.), and reticulate (net patterned: Erythronium, Fritillaria, Gagea, Lilium, Tulipa). Gynoecium Superior ovary (hypogynous), syncarpous (with fused carpels), with three connate (fused) carpels and is trilocular (three locules, or chambers) or unilocular (single locule, as in Scoliopus and Medeola). There is a single style and a three lobed stigma or three stigmata more or less elongated along the style. There are numerous anatropous (curved) ovules which display axile placentation (parietal in Scoliopus and Medeola), usually with an integument and thinner megasporangium. The embryo sac (megagametophyte) varies by genera, but is mainly tetrasporic (e.g. Fritillaria). Embryo sacs in which three of the four megaspores fuse to form a triploid nucleus, are referred to as Fritillaria-type, a characteristic shared by all the core Liliales. Fruit A capsule that is usually loculicidal (splitting along the locules) as in the Lilioideae, but occasionally septicidal (splitting between them, along the separating septa) in the Calachortoideae and wind dispersed, although the Medeoleae form berries (baccate). The seeds may be flat, oblong, angular, discoid, ellipsoid or globose (spherical), or compressed with a well developed epidermis. The exterior may be smooth or roughened, with a wing or raphe (ridge), aril or one to two tails, rarely hairy, but may be dull or shiny and the lack of a black integument distinguishes them from related taxa such as Allioideae that were previously included in this family, and striate (parallel longitudinally ridged) in the Steptopoideae. The hilum (scar) is generally inconspicuous. The bitegmic (separate testa and tegmen) seed coat itself may be thin, suberose (like cork), or crustaceous (hard or brittle). The endosperm is abundant, cartilaginous (fleshy) or horny and contains oils and aleurone but not starch (non-farinaceous). Its cells are polyploid (triploid or pentaploid, depending on the embryo sac type). The embryo is small (usually less than one quarter of seed volume), axile (radially sectioned), linear (longer than broad) or rarely rudimentary (tiny relative to endosperm) depending on placentation type, and straight, bent, curved or curled at the upper end. Leaves Simple, entire (smooth and even), linear, oval to filiform (thread-like), mostly with parallel veins, but occasionally net-veined. They are alternate (single and alternating direction) and spiral, but may be whorled (three or more attached at one node, e.g. Lilium, Fritillaria), cauline (arranged along the aerial stem) or sheathed in a basal rosette. They are rarely petiolate (stem attached before apex), and lack stipules. The aerial stem is unbranched. Genome The Liliaceae include the species with the largest genome size within the angiosperms, Fritillaria assyriaca (1C=127.4 pg), while Tricyrtis macropoda is as small as 4.25 pg. Chromosome numbers vary by genus. Some genera like Calochortus (x=6-10), Prosartes (6,8,9,11), Scoliopus (7,8), Streptopus (8, 27) and Tricyrtis (12-13) have a small and variable number of chromosomes while subfamily Lilioideae have a larger and more stable chromosome number (12) as have the Medeoleae (7). Phytochemistry The seeds contain saponins but no calcium oxalate raphide crystals, chelidonic acid (unlike Asparagales) or cysteine derived sulphur compounds (allyl sulphides), another distinguishing feature from the characteristic alliaceous odour of the Allioideae. Fritillaria in particular contains steroidal alkaloids of the cevanine and solanum type. Solanidine and solanthrene alkaloids have been isolated from some Fritillaria species. Tulipa contains tulipanin, an anthocyanin. (see also: Toxicology) Characteristics often vary by habitat, between shade-dwelling genera (such as Prosartes, Tricyrtis, Cardiocrinum, Clintonia, Medeola, Prosartes, and Scoliopus) and sun loving genera. Shade-dwelling genera usually have broader leaves with smooth edges and net venation, and fleshy fruits (berries) with animal-dispersed seeds, rhizomes, and small, inconspicuous flowers while genera native to sunny habitats usually have narrow, parallel-veined leaves, capsular fruits with wind-dispersed seeds, bulbs, and large, visually conspicuous flowers. (See also Evolution). Taxonomy The taxonomy of the Liliaceae has a very complex history. The family was first described in the eighteenth century, and over time many other genera were added until it became one of the largest of the monocotyledon families, and also extremely diverse. Modern taxonomic systems, such as the APG which is based on phylogenetic principles using molecular biology, have redistributed many of these genera resulting in the relatively small family that is currently recognised. Consequently, there are many different accounts of the Liliaceae in the literature and older uses of the term occur commonly. To distinguish between them, the Latin terms sensu lato and sensu stricto are frequently used (together with their abbreviations, s.l. and s.s.) to denote the broader or stricter sense of the circumscription respectively, e.g. Liliaceae s.s.. History The family Liliaceae was described by Michel Adanson in 1763 and formally named by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789. Jussieu defined this grouping as having a calyx of six equal colored parts, six stamens, a superior ovary, single style, and a trilocular (three-chambered) capsule. By 1845, John Lindley, the first English systematist, unhappily acknowledged the great diversity in the circumscription of the family, and that it had expanded vastly, with many subdivisions. As he saw it, the Liliaceae were already paraphyletic ("catch-all"), being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. He recognized 133 genera and 1200 species. By the time of the next major British classification – that of Bentham and Hooker in 1883 (published in Latin) – several of Lindley's other families had already been absorbed into the Liliaceae. Over time the family became increasingly broad and somewhat arbitrarily defined as all species of plants with six tepals and a superior ovary, eventually coming to encompass about 300 genera and 4,500 species within the order Liliales under the Cronquist system (1981). Cronquist merged the Liliaceae with the Amaryllidaceae, making this one of the largest monocotyledon families. Many other botanists echoed Lindley's earlier concerns about the phylogeny of the Liliaceae, but various schemes to divide the family gained little traction. Dahlgren (1985) suggested there were in fact forty – not one – families distributed over three orders (predominantly Liliales and Asparagales). In the context of a general review of the classification of angiosperms, the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. Considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory enabled a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants, as elaborated by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998). Modern APG classification and phylogeny The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) made rapid progress in establishing a modern monophyletic classification of the flowering plants by 2009. Despite establishing this relative degree of monophyly (genetic homogeneity) for the family Liliaceae, their morphology remains diverse and there exists within the Liliaceae clade or grouping, a number of subclades (subgroups). Particularly enigmatic were Clintonia, Medeola, Scoliopus, and Tricyrtis. Of the fifteen genera within the Liliaceae, the ten genera of the Lilioideae subfamily form one morphological group that is characterised by contractile bulbs and roots, and a Fritillaria-type embryo-sac (megagametophyte with four megaspores). Within the Lilioideae, Clintonia and the closely related Medeola form a subclade, and are now considered a separate tribe (Medeoleae). The other major grouping consists of the five genera constituting the Streptopoideae (including Scoliopus) and Calochortoideae (including Tricyrtis) subfamilies characterised by creeping rhizomes, styles which are divided at their apices, and by megagametophyte development of the Polygonum-type (a simple megaspore and triploid endosperm) embryo-sac. Evolution and biogeography The development of a phylogenetic approach to taxonomy suggested the Liliales formed some of the earliest monocots. Molecular analysis indicates that divergence amongst the Liliales probably occurred around 82 million years ago. The closest sister family to the Liliaceae are the Smilacaceae with the Liliaceae separating 52 million years ago. Liliaceae thus arose during the late (Maastrichtian) Cretaceous to early (Paleocene) Paleogene periods. Major evolutionary clades include the Lilieae (Lilium, Fritillaria, Nomocharis, Cardiocrinum, Notholirion) from the Himalayas about 12 mya and the Tulipeae (Erythronium, Tulipa, Gagea) from East Asia at about the same time. The Medeoleae (Clintonia and Medeola) may have appeared in North America but were subsequently dispersed, as may have the Streptopoideae and Calochortoideae. Liliaceae fossils have been dated to the Paleogene and Cretaceous eras in the Antarctic. The Liliaceae probably arose as shade plants, with subsequent evolution to open areas including deciduous forest in the more open autumnal period, but then a return of some species (e.g. Cardiocrinum). This was accompanied by a shift from rhizomes to bulbs, to more showy flowers, the production of capsular fruit and narrower parallel-veined leaves. Again, some reversal to the broader reticulate-veined leaves occurred (e.g. Cardiocrinum). Subdivisions and genera Suprageneric subdivisions Due to the diversity of the originally broadly defined Liliaceae s.l., many attempts have been made to form suprageneric classifications, e.g. subfamilies and tribes. Classifications published since the use of molecular methods in phylogenetics have taken a narrower view of the Liliaceae (Liliaceae s.s.). The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APweb) recognizes three subfamilies, one of which is divided into two tribes. Genera Various authorities (e.g. ITIS 16, GRIN 27, WCSP, NCBI, DELTA ) differ on the exact number of genera included in Liliaceae s.s., but generally there are about fifteen to sixteen genera, depending on whether or not Amana is included in Tulipa and Lloydia in Gagea. Currently the APWeb lists fifteen genera, arranged as shown in this table: The largest genera are Gagea (200), Fritillaria (130), Lilium (110), and Tulipa (75 species), all within the tribe Lilieae. Etymology and pronunciation The name "Liliaceae" () comes to international scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from Lilium, the type genus, + -aceae, a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word lilium, "lily", which in turn came from the Greek (). Distribution and habitat The Liliaceae are widely distributed, but mainly in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The centre of diversity is from southwest Asia to China. Their distribution is diverse, mainly in plains, steppes, and alpine meadows, but also in deciduous forests, Mediterranean scrub and arctic tundra. Tulipa and Gagea provide examples of ornamental geophyte biomorphological types representing continental thermoperiodic zones (Irano-Turanian region), characterised by cessation of underground growth at high temperatures in early summer and requiring low winter temperatures for spring flowering. While some genera are shade-dwelling, such as the Medeoleae, and Streptopoideae, Tricyrtis, and Cardiocrinum, others prefer a more open habitat. Ecology The Liliaceae are ecologically diverse. Species of Liliaceae bloom at various times from spring to late summer. The colorful flowers produce large amounts of nectar and pollen that attract insects which pollinate them (entomophily), particularly bees and wasps (hymenopterophily), butterflies (psychophily) and moths (phalaenophily). The seeds are dispersed by wind and water. Some species (e.g. Scoliopus, Erythronium and Gagea) have seeds with an aril structure that are dispersed by ants (myrmecochory). The proliferation of deer populations in many areas, due to human factors such as the elimination of their animal predators and introduction to alien environments, is placing considerable herbivory pressure on many of the family's species. Fences as high as 8 feet may be required to prevent them from consuming the plants, an impractical solution for most wild areas. Those of the genus Lilium are particularly palatable, while species in Fritillaria are repellant. Pests and predators Liliaceae are subject to a wide variety of diseases and pests, including insects, such as thrips, aphids, beetles and flies. Also fungi, viruses and vertebrate animals such as mice and deer. An important horticultural and garden pest is the scarlet lily beetle (Japanese red lily beetle, Lilioceris lilii) and other Lilioceris species which attack Fritillaria and Lilium. Lilium species may be food plants for the Cosmia trapezina moth. A major pest of Tulips is the fungus, Botrytis tulipae. Both Lilium and Tulipa are susceptible to a group of five viruses of the family Potyviridae, specifically the potyvirus (named for potato virus Y) group, which includes the tulip-breaking virus (TBV) and the lily streak virus (lily mottle virus, LMoV) resulting in 'breaking' of the color of the flowers. The viruses are transmitted by aphids. This breaking effect was of economic importance during the tulip mania of the seventeenth century, because it appeared to be producing new varieties. In modern times tulip breeders have produced varieties that mimic the effect of the virus, without being infected. One of these varieties is known as 'Rembrandt', after the Dutch artist of that name. Contemporary tulip owners commonly had Rembrandt and other artists paint their flowers to preserve them for posterity, hence the 'broken' tulips were known as Rembrandt tulips at that time. Another modern variety is 'Princess Irene'. One of the tulip breaking viruses is also named the Rembrandt tulip-breaking virus (ReTBV). Cultivation Floriculture Many species of Lilieae (in genera Tulipa, Fritillaria, Lilium, and Erythronium) and Calochortoideae (Calochortus and Tricyrtis) are grown as ornamental plants worldwide. Within these genera a wide range of cultivars have been developed by breeding and hybridisation. They are generally used in outdoor gardens and other displays, although in common with many bulbous flowering plants they are often induced to bloom indoors, particularly during the winter months. They also form a significant part of the cut flower market, in particular Tulipa and Lilium. Tulips Tulips have been cultivated since at least the tenth century in Persia. Tulip production has two main markets: cut flowers and bulbs. The latter are used, in turn, to meet the demand for bulbs for parks, gardens, and home use and, secondly, to provide the necessary bulbs for cut flower production. International trade in cut flowers has an approximate total value of 11 billion euros, which provides an indication of the economic importance of this activity. The main producer of tulip bulbs is the Netherlands, a country that accounts for 87% of the global cultivated area, with approximately 12,000 hectares. Other leading producers include Japan, France and Poland. Approximately ten other countries produce commercial tulips, largely for the domestic market. By contrast, the Netherlands is the leading international producer, to the extent of 4 billion bulbs per annum. Of these, 53% are used for the cut flower market and the remainder for the dry bulb market. Of the cut flowers, 57% are used for the domestic market in the Netherlands and the remainder exported. Original Tulipa species can be obtained for ornamental purposes, such as Tulipa tarda and Tulipa turkestanica. These are referred to as species, or botanical, tulips, and tend to be smaller plants but better at naturalising than the cultivated forms. Breeding programs have produced a wide range of tulip types, enabling blooming through a much longer season by creating early, mid- and late spring varieties. Fourteen distinct types are available in addition to botanical tulips, including Lily-flowered, Fringed, Viridiflora, and Rembrandt. In addition to blooming season, tulip varieties differ in shape and height, and exhibit a wide range of colours, both pure and in combination. Lilies The largest area of production is also the Netherland, with 76% of the global cultivated area, followed by France, Chile, Japan, the United States, New Zealand and Australia. Approximately ten countries produce lilies commercially altogether. About half of the commercial production is for cut flowers. Many of these countries export bulbs as well as supplying the domestic market. The Netherland produces about 2,200 million lily bulbs annually, of which 96% is used domestically and the remainder exported, principally within the European Union. One particularly important crop is the production of Lilium longiflorum, whose white flowers are associated with purity and Easter. Although many Lilium species such as Lilium martagon and Lilium candidum can be obtained commercially, the majority of commercially available lilies represent the products of a very diverse hybridisation program, which has resulted in a separate horticultural classification, including such groupings as Asian, Oriental and Orienpet. In addition to a very wide variety of heights, lilies can be obtained in many colours and combinations of colours, and if properly selected can produce an extensive blooming season from early summer to autumn. Because of the history of Liliaceae, many species such as Watsonia (bugle lily) that were previously classified in this family bear the name 'lily' but are neither part of the genus Lilium, or the family Liliaceae. Other A variety of Fritillaria species are used as early spring ornamental flowers. These vary from the large Fritillaria imperialis (crown imperial) available in a number of colours such as yellow or orange, to much smaller species such as Fritillaria meleagris or Fritillaria uva-vulpis with their chequered patterns. Erythronium is less common but a popular cultivar is 'Pagoda' with its sulphur yellow flowers. Calochortus (mariposa lily) may be sold as a mixture or as cultivars. Propagation Methods of propagation include both sexual and asexual reproduction. Commercial cultivars are usually sterile. Sexual reproduction Seeds can be used for propagation of the plant or to create hybrids and can take five to eight years to produce flowering plants. Since interspecific cross-pollination occurs, overlapping wild populations can create natural hybrids. Asexual reproduction Bulb offsets: Daughter bulbs that form on the mother bulb and can be detached. Micropropagation techniques including tissue culture. Bulbils, which are adventitious bulbs formed on the parent plant's stem. Scaling and twin-scaling, used to increase production in slower-growing varieties, in which multiple whole scales are detached from a single bulb. Bulb offsets and tissue culture produce genetic clones of the parent plant and thus maintaining genetic integrity of the cultivars. Bulb offsets usually require at least a year before flowering. Commercially, plants may be propagated in vitro and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell. Toxicology While members of the Liliaceae s.s. have been used as food sources in humans, the bulbs of some species are poisonous to household pets (bulb toxicosis) if eaten and may cause serious complications, such as kidney failure in cats from Lilies, particularly Lilium longiflorum (Easter Lily). Dogs may develop less serious effects such as gastrointestinal problems and central nervous system depression. Most Fritillaria (e.g. Fritillaria imperialis, Fritillaria meleagris) bulbs contain poisonous neurotoxic alkaloids such as imperialin (peiminine), which may be deadly if ingested in quantity, while other species such as Fritillaria camschatcensis and Fritillaria affinis are edible. Tulips can cause skin irritation due to the presence of tuliposides and tulipalins, which are also found in the flowers, leaves and stems of Fritillaria. These are also toxic to a variety of animals. Uses Fritillaria extracts are used in traditional Chinese medicine under the name chuan bei mu, and in Latin, bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae. The bulbs of Fritillaria roylei have been used as antipyretics and expectorants. Lilium bulbs, particularly Lanzhou lily (Lilium davidii) are used as food in China and other parts of Asia. During World War II, starvation conditions in the Netherlands (Hongerwinter, hunger winter 1944) led to using Tulipa bulbs as food. Calochortus bulbs were eaten by Native Americans and by the Mormon settlers in Utah during starvation. Other members of the family used for food include Clintonia (leaves), Medeola (roots), Erythronium (corms), and Fritillaria (bulbs). Culture Lilies The type genus, Lily (Lilium), has a long history in literature and art, and a tradition of symbolism as well as becoming a popular female name, and a floral emblem, particularly of France (fleur-de-lis). The cultivation of lilies has been described since at least the ninth century, when Charlemagne ordered it to be grown at his imperial palaces. However, the name 'lily' has historically been applied to a wide variety of plants other than the genus Lilium. The lily appears in ancient literature associated with both sovereignty and virginal innocence, and is mentioned on a number of occasions in the Bible, such as the description in Solomon's Song of Songs (2, 1–2) "I am a rose of Sharon, a lily of the valleys. Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the young women" or the Gospel of Mathew (6, 28) "Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin" to represent beauty. Artistic representations can be found as far back as frescos from the second century BC, at Amnisos and Knossos. Early Christian churches, such as that of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe were sometimes decorated with lilies. While predominantly depicted as white, those seen at Akrotiri are red lilies. The white lily has long been seen as a symbol of purity, coming to be associated with the Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages, from which came the name ‘Madonna lily’ (Lilium candidum). A well-known example is Leonardo da Vinci's Annunciation (1472–1475) in which the archangel Gabriel bears a Madonna lily. Other symbolic meanings include glory, love and birth. Fleur-de-lis The stylised lily, or fleur-de-lis (lily flower) has long been associated with royalty, although it may originally have been derived from the form of an iris. It has also been associated with the head of a spear. Its three parts have been associated with the three classes of mediaeval society, or alternatively faith, wisdom and chivalry. Whatever its exact derivation, it has come to be associated with France and the French monarchy since the earliest Frankish kings. Consequently, it became incorporated into not only French heraldry but also into many heraldic devices in jurisdictions where there had been historic French influence, such as Quebec and New Orleans. In modern times it appears in many forms, symbolic and decorative, and can be used on compasses to indicate the direction north, as well as the Scouting movement. Tulips Tulips (Tulipa) also have a long cultural tradition, particularly in the Islamic world. The Persian word for tulips, lâleh (), was borrowed into Turkish and Arabic as lale. In Arabic letters, lale is written with the same letters as Allah, and is used to denote God symbolically. Tulips became widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, fabrics, and ceramics in Islamic art and the Ottoman Empire in particular, and were revered in poetry, such as that of Omar Khayam in the twelfth century. Tulips were an essential part of the gardens of Persia, having been cultivated from the Steppes. As the Seljuks – Oghuz-Turkic leaders originated from the steppes – moved to Persia, and then west, they took tulips with them to Turkey, where many escaped cultivation and became naturalised. Today there are a number of places in Turkey called Laleli (‘with tulips’). Tulips first appeared in the decorative arts in Turkey in the thirteenth century and flourished under the Ottomans, in particular in the royal palaces, and was adopted by the Osmans as their symbol. Further species were collected from Persia and the spreading Ottoman Empire saw to it that tulip culture also spread. By the sixteenth century it was a national symbol, hence the designation "Tulip era", by which time they were becoming of economic importance. By 1562 the tulip trade had reached Europe with the first shipment to Antwerp, where they were mistaken for vegetables, although they had been cultivated in Portugal since 1530, and first appeared in illustration in 1559, and the first tulip flowers were seen in the Netherlands in 1625. Tulips spread rapidly across Europe in the seventeenth century, and became an important trading item, initially in France before concentrating in the Netherlands. Eventually speculative trading in tulips became so intense as to cause a financial bubble which eventually collapsed, a period known as tulip mania (tulipomania), from 1634 to 1637, similar to the Ottoman Empire's Tulip era. Nevertheless, since then the tulip has become indelibly associated with the Netherlands and all things Dutch. it was during this period that the tulipiere, a ceramic vase for growing tulips indoors was devised, and the Golden Age of Dutch Painting was replete with images of tulips. Although tulip festivals are held around the world in the spring, the most famous of these is the display at Keukenhof. One of the better-known novels on tulips is The Black Tulip by Alexandre Dumas, père in 1850, dealing with a contest to grow a black tulip in late seventeenth-century Haarlem. Other Fritillaria are also often used as floral emblems, for instance as the county flower of Oxfordshire, UK. Calochortus nuttallii, the sego lily, is the official state flower of Utah. References Additional reading Books Systematics Taxonomic classifications Table of 58 families, Part II: Page 1 Table of 1615 genera, Part II: Page 8 Other See also HTML version See also HTML version Symposia Journal articles Web Databases Flora Other Liliales families Extant Maastrichtian first appearances	wiki
Baker Street steht für: Baker Street, eine Straße im Stadtteil Marylebone im Londoner Bezirk City of Westminster Baker Street (London Underground), eine Station der London Underground im Stadtbezirk City of Westminster Baker Street (Lied), ein Rocksong von Gerry Rafferty 221B Baker Street, die fiktive Londoner Adresse des fiktiven Romandetektivs Sherlock Holmes Baker Street (Essex), England	wiki
A horse collar is a part of a horse harness that is used to distribute the load around a horse's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plough. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wooden pieces, called hames, to which the traces of the harness are attached. The collar allows the horse to use its full strength when pulling, essentially enabling the animal to push forward with its hindquarters into the collar. If wearing a yoke or a breastcollar, the horse had to pull with its less-powerful shoulders. The collar had another advantage over the yoke as it reduced pressure on the horse's windpipe. From the time of the invention of the horse collar, horses became more valuable for plowing and pulling. When the horse was harnessed in the collar, the horse could apply 50% more power to a task in a given time period than could an ox, due to the horse's greater speed. Additionally, horses generally have greater endurance than oxen, and thus can work more hours each day. The importance and value of horses as a resource for improving agricultural production increased accordingly. The horse collar was very important to the development of many areas of the world. Wherever oxen were used and could be replaced with horses, the use of horses boosted economies, and reduced reliance on subsistence farming. This allowed people more free time to take on specialized activities, and consequently to the development of early industry, education, and the arts in the rise of market-based towns. Design A horse collar is oval rather than circular and it is by design not very flexible. It is a padded appliance that conforms well to the shape of the horse's body. It is constructed so that at all points of contact with the body of the horse it avoids the air passage. By protecting the airway of the horse it became possible for the animal to use its full force to pull a load. History Predecessors to the horse collar Earliest predecessors Long before the horse collar harness, there was the less efficient throat-girth harness. This, it was claimed, could be found in many ancient civilizations, according to early 20th century French cavalry officer Lefebvre des Noëttes. This type of collar was supposedly used in ancient Chaldea, both Sumeria and Assyria (1400–800 BC), ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom (1570–1070 BC), Shang dynasty China (1600–1050 BC), Minoan Crete (2700–1450 BC), Classical Greece (550–323 BC), and ancient Rome (510 BC–476 AD). With this "ancient harness", ploughs and carts were pulled using harnesses that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal, with the load attached at the top of the collar, above the neck, in a manner similar to a yoke. These straps pressed against the horse's sterno-cephalicus muscle and trachea which restricted its breathing and reducing the pulling power of the horse. Thus, the harder a horse pulled, the more strongly it choked off its own breathing. Because of these supposed physical constraints, oxen were used in preference to horses for heavy work, as they do not have this problem due to anatomical differences and could be yoked to their loads. In 1972, Spruytte published Ancient Harness Systems which argued that there were at least three ancient traction systems shown in art, none of which choked the horses. The shoulder traction (ancient Egyptian) and breast traction (Greek and Roman) artwork had been mis-seen and mis-drawn as a composite that matched neither. This he sought to demonstrate by building reproduction chariots and harness, and running them with suitable teams. These had to be borrowed ponies as horses were too large for the surviving Egyptian chariot he used as a model. Breastcollar harness The throat-girth design was not improved until the Chinese breast-strap or "breastcollar" harness developed during the Warring States (481–221 BC) era in China. The Chinese breast harness became known throughout Central Asia by the 7th century, and was introduced to Europe by the 8th century. Its first depiction in artwork was on lacquer-ware boxes from the ancient State of Chu. This type of harness put pressure upon the sternum, where the line of traction is directly linked with the skeletal system of the horse, allowing for nearly full exertion. It was in universal use by the time of the Chinese Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), depicted in artwork of hundreds of different carvings, stone reliefs, and stamped bricks showing it featured on horses pulling chariots. This type of breast-strap harness became known in Central Asia and elsewhere with the Avars, Magyars, Bohemians, Poles, and Russians during the 7th to 10th centuries. After Central Asia, the first breast-strap harness was spread to Europe by the 8th century (in depicted artwork), and became more widespread by the following 9th century (for example, depicted in a tapestry of the Oseberg ship burial). The problem with a breastcollar harness was that the actual shafts of the cart, chariot, or other vehicle are attached to a surcingle around the barrel of the horse. The breastplate primarily kept the surcingle from slipping back, not as the primary pushing object. This results in the horse literally pulling the load, a less efficient use of the animal. The modern breastcollar has traces which transfer the pull directly from the breastcollar, but a horse collar still is more effective for pulling heavy loads. China After the breastcollar harness, the next and final evolutionary stage was the collar harness. The collar allows a horse to use its full strength when pulling, essentially allowing the horse to push forward with its hindquarters into the collar. The fully developed collar harness was developed in Southern and Northern dynasties China during the 5th century AD. The first questionable depiction of it in art appears on painted moulded-bricks in the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD) era tomb of Bao Sanniang at Zhaohua, Sichuan province, China. These paintings display an amply padded horse collar with no sign of a yoke. However, the earliest legitimate depiction of it in art is on a Dunhuang cave mural (cave 257) from the Chinese Northern Wei dynasty, the painting dated to 477–499 AD. In this painting the arching cross bar is clear, but the artist failed to clearly show the cushioned collar behind it, without which the whole design would have been rendered useless. The same basic design is seen in other painted Chinese frescoes, one from 520 to 524 AD (with shafts projecting beyond the horses chest for sternal traction), and another circa 600 AD (Sui dynasty). This Sui dynasty depiction (in cave 302) is of particular interest, since its depiction of the horse collar is not only more accurate (the same seen even in north and northwest China today), but it is used for a camel, not a horse. The Chinese had used camels often from the 2nd century BC onwards during the Han dynasty, and there was even a Camel Corps serving the military on the frontier of the Tarim Basin. However, the adapted horse collar for camels would not have been common until the 6th century. In cave 156, there is a panorama painting of the Tang dynasty Chinese general and provincial governor Zhang Yichao riding triumphantly after the recapture and conquest of the Dunhuang region from the Tibetan Empire in 834 AD. According to evidence provided by Dr. Chang Shuhong, the date of the painting is precisely 851 AD, yet Needham points out that there is universal consensus amongst historians that it was painted anytime between roughly 840 to 860 AD. This latter painting accurately depicts the horse collar, with a well-padded collar coming low on the chest and rising behind the cross-bar. Europe The horse collar eventually spread to Europe c. 920 AD, and became universal by the 12th century. The Scandinavians were among the first to use a horse collar that did not constrain the breathing passages of the horses. Prior to this development, oxen still remained the primary choice of animal for farm labor, as all the previous harnesses and collars could only be worn by them without physical penalty. Additionally, the yoke used to harness oxen were made exclusive to each individual animal. However it was sometimes difficult to cultivate the land; based upon soil condition, it may have taken up to sixteen oxen to effectively use a single heavy plow. This made it difficult for farmers who lacked the capital to sustain such large numbers. When the horse was harnessed with a horse collar, the horse could apply 50% more power to a task than an ox due to its greater speed. Horses generally also have greater endurance and can work more hours in a day. The centuries-long association that the Europeans had with the use of horses allowed an easier transition from oxen-based harnesses to the horse collar. Impact of the horse collar The creation of the horse collar removed the previous physical restrictions the old harness had on the animal, and allowed the horse to be able to exert its full strength in plowing. Originally, the structure of the old harness forced the horse to literally pull its workload, the horse collar's development instead allowed the horse to push its workload, increasing the efficiency of its labor output. Following the introduction of the horse collar to Europe and its use being clearly evident by 1000 AD, the use of horses for ploughing became more widespread. Horses work roughly 50 percent faster than oxen. With the collar, combined with the horseshoe, the heavy plow, and other developments in the agricultural system, the efficiency of the European peasant farmer in producing food increased, allowing further societal development in Europe. The surplus in food allowed labor specialization as farmers could change their occupation and focus on other skills, such as the purchase and selling of goods, resulting in the emergence of a merchant class within European society. The horse collar was one of the factors in the ending of the feudal system and transition from the Middle Ages. Weight pulling studies The French cavalry officer Lefebvre des Noëttes experimented with the ancient throat-and-girth harness in comparison the later trace breast-harness and then finally the matured form of the medieval collar harness. In his experiment of 1910, he found that two horses (aided by effective traction) using the throat-and-girth harness were limited to pulling about 1100 lbs. ( ton). However, a single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about tons. However, the findings of Lefebvre des Noëttes were not without challenges, notably the argument that there was an early partial horse collar, a dorsal yoke system, dating to ancient Rome, and that Lefebvre's designs did not accurately reflect those actually used, but rather created an inaccurate design that was less efficient than any actual ancient harnesses used. While Lefebvre's experiments clearly demonstrated that the throat and girth design he used rode up on horses and cut off their air, images from ancient art and partial yokes found by archaeologists suggested that with proper placement and the addition of a stiff partial yoke, the breastcollar remained on the chest, and wind was not in fact cut off while pulling. Further studies conducted in 1977 by Spruytte and Littauer, followed up by Georges Raepsaet, with more accurately reconstructed ancient designs suggested that horses with ancient harness designs could pull nearly as much as with the more modern horse collar. The primary benefit to the use of the modern horse collar, it is argued, was that it allowed a lower point of attachment and in so doing increased the usability of horses for ploughing. See also Collar (animal) Horse harness Draft horse Oxbow Yoke References Citations Sources Bolich, Susan, The History of Farming Machinery, Oxford University Press, 2005 Braudel, Fernand, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century: The Structure of Everyday Life, University of California Press, 1992 Chamberlain, J. Edward, Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations, Blue Bridge, Virginia, 2006 Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986. Riddle, John M., A History of the Middle Ages, 300–1500, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008 Spruytte, J., Littauer, M., Early Harness Systems, Hyperion Books, 1990 Wigelsworth, Jeffrey R., Science and Technology in Medieval European Life, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 Chaldea Chinese inventions History of agriculture Horse harness Technology in the Middle Ages	wiki
Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written, photographic, visual, audible, or cinematic material used by a person or an entity to convey a message or information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organisation, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete piece of work. The editing process often begins with the author's idea for the work itself, continuing as a collaboration between the author and the editor as the work is created. Editing can involve creative skills, human relations and a precise set of methods. There are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the senior-level editorial staff and directors who report to senior executive editors. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release. The smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor, executive editor, or simply the editor. A frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire the title of editor-at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports and features. In U.S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. In the book publishing industry, editors may organize anthologies and other compilations, produce definitive editions of a classic author's works (scholarly editor), and organize and manage contributions to a multi-author book (symposium editor or volume editor). Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an acquisitions editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor. Copy editors correct spelling, grammar and align writings to house style. Changes to the publishing industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services, press or copy editors write headlines and work on more substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness, and taste. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion. At U.K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer. These editors may have the title of layout or design editor or (more so in the past) makeup editor. Scholarly books and journals Within the publishing environment, editors of scholarly books are of three main types, each with particular responsibilities: Acquisitions editor (or commissioning editor in Britain), who contracts with the author to produce the copy Project editor or production editor, who sees the copy through its stages from manuscript to bound book and usually assumes most of the budget and schedule responsibilities Copy editor or manuscript editor, who prepares the copy for conversion into printed form. In the case of multi-author edited volumes, before the manuscript is delivered to the publisher it has undergone substantive and linguistic editing by the volume's editor, who works independently of the publisher. As for scholarly journals, where spontaneous submissions are more common than commissioned works, the position of journal editor or editor-in-chief replaces the acquisitions editor of the book publishing environment, while the roles of production editor and copy editor remain. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of scholarly research articles. Called the authors' editor, this editor works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. Most scholarly publishers have a preferred style that usually specifies a particular dictionary and style manual—for example, The Chicago Manual of Style, the MLA Style Manual or the APA Publication Manual in the U.S., or the New Hart's Rules in the U.K. Technical editing Technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Technical editing may include the correction of grammatical mistakes, misspellings, mistyping, incorrect punctuation, inconsistencies in usage, poorly structured sentences, wrong scientific terms, wrong units and dimensions, inconsistency in significant figures, technical ambivalence, technical disambiguation, statements conflicting with general scientific knowledge, correction of synopsis, content, index, headings and subheadings, correcting data and chart presentation in a research paper or report, and correcting errors in citations. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to the technical editing function. Organizations that cannot afford dedicated editors typically have experienced writers peer-edit text produced by less experienced colleagues. It helps if the technical editor is familiar with the subject being edited. The "technical" knowledge that an editor gains over time while working on a particular product or technology does give the editor an edge over another who has just started editing content related to that product or technology. But essential general skills are attention to detail, the ability to sustain focus while working through lengthy pieces of text on complex topics, tact in dealing with writers, and excellent communication skills. Editing services Editing is a growing field of work in the service industry. Paid editing services may be provided by specialized editing firms or by self-employed (freelance) editors. Editing firms may employ a team of in-house editors, rely on a network of individual contractors or both. Such firms are able to handle editing in a wide range of topics and genres, depending on the skills of individual editors. The services provided by these editors may be varied and can include proofreading, copy editing, online editing, developmental editing, editing for search engine optimization, etc. Self-employed editors work directly for clients (e.g., authors, publishers) or offer their services through editing firms, or both. They may specialize in a type of editing (e.g., copy editing) and in a particular subject area. Those who work directly for authors and develop professional relationships with them are called authors' editors. See also Audio editing Author editing Film editing Redaction Stealth edit Textual scholarship Video editing Writer Further reading Morrison, Blake (6 August 2005) "Black day for the blue pencil" Greenberg, Susan L. (2015) Editors talk about editing: insights for readers, writers and publishers, New York: Peter Lang Munro, Craig (2021) Literary Lion Tamers: book editors who made publishing history, Brunswick, Victoria: Scribe Publications ISBN 9781925713220 References External links Journalism occupations Mass media occupations	wiki
An idiom dictionary is a dictionary or phrase book that lists and explains idioms – distinctive words or phrases having a figurative meaning that goes beyond the original semantics of the words. Idioms An idiom is a phrase whose meaning could not be readily deduced from the meaning of its individual words. The word comes from the Greek ἰδίωμα (idioma) – the distinctive style of a particular person. The traditional example is "kick the bucket" which is normally understood to mean dying. The extent to which a phrase is thought idiomatic is a matter of degree and native speakers of English consider a phrase like "pop the question" (proposing marriage) to be less idiomatic than "kick the bucket". Dictionary An idiom dictionary may be a traditional book or expressed in another medium such as a database within software for machine translation. Examples of the genre include Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, which explains traditional allusions and proverbs, and Fowler's Modern English Usage, which was conceived as an idiom dictionary following the completion of the Concise Oxford English Dictionary, which itself contained many idioms. Some multilingual dictionaries of idioms are available on-line. One of them is Babelite which is freely accessible. The main readership and market for idiom dictionaries are deaf people and learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The first major dictionary of idioms in American English was A Dictionary of Idioms for the Deaf; published in 1966 by the American School for the Deaf. Subsequent editions were published under the more general title of A Dictionary of American Idioms. Structure Idioms may vary considerably in their presentation. The keywords may vary – "green fingers" or a "green thumb". The grammar may vary – "turn the tables" or "the tables are turned". A phrase may even be recast completely, just following a pattern – "a few gallons shy of a full tank" or "one sandwich short of a picnic". This variation makes organisation of an idiom dictionary difficult. The idioms may be organised in simple alphabetical order, as in The Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. They may be grouped by keyword, as in the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms. Or they may be grouped by domain so that, for example, all idioms based upon nautical expressions such as "show him the ropes" and "three sheets to the wind" are put together. Bilingual dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries have an additional problem when dealing with idioms – as well as explaining the idiom, they also have to translate it. In doing so, they will commonly provide both a literal translation and a free translation. For example, the phrase "can be counted on the fingers of one hand", meaning few in number, may translated literally into Chinese as qu zhe ke shu and, more sensibly, as liao liao wu ji (only a handful). See also Glossary of nautical terms (A-L) Glossary of nautical terms (M-Z) Slang dictionary Notes References Dictionaries by type Dictionary	wiki
The () or () is a bread in Italian cuisine from the Emilia region of Italy, prepared using flour, water and lard as primary ingredients. Cracklings are sometimes used in its preparation as well. In Emilia-Romagna, it is typically sliced into diamond shapes and then fried, and may be accompanied with cheese and salumi. When it is fried, the bread puffs up, and it may include yeast or baking soda to leaven it. Versions prepared with milk are softer than those prepared with water. It may be served either as an appetizer or as a main dish. Despite the name by which in Italy it is often referred to as a kind of gnocchi, it is technically not. Etymology The name crescentina is derived from the Italian verb , which means "to grow", referring to it puffing up during the cooking. Variants A version of the dish in the city of Bologna, Emilia-Romagna, is prepared with the bread sliced into round shapes, which are then fried. Pieces of prosciutto (thinly sliced dry-cured ham) may be incorporated into the dough. In Pavullo nel Frignano, a town and commune in the Province of Modena, is prepared with lard and yeast and cooked over a (a sort of grill plate), rather than fried. In Tuscany, crescentina is dusted with salt or sugar after being fried, and sometimes Tuscan salami is incorporated into the dough. Crescia is a version in the town and commune of Gubbio in the Province of Perugia that is prepared with oil and salt and baked in an oven. Its name is associated with pieces of dough that were given to children for them to play with, which were then cooked at the edge of an oven, referred to as chichiripieno. Spianata is a variation prepared using eggs and ricotta cheese in the dough mixture. The term spianata originally referred to pieces of flat dough that were used to test an oven's heat prior to cooking. See also List of breads List of Italian dishes Frybread References Further reading – Gnocco fritto o crescentina External links Crescentina (deep-fried bread). Academia Barilla. Italian breads Emilia-Romagna Cuisine of Emilia-Romagna	wiki
IHSAA, as an abbreviation or acronym, may refer to the NFHS-accredited high school athletic associations in a number of states: Idaho High School Activities Association Indiana High School Athletic Association Iowa High School Athletic Association	wiki
The Athens Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad, or ATHOC, also known as the Athens Organizing Committee, was an informal name for the Athens Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad. It was also the organizing committee for the Games of the XII Paralympiad. The President of ATHOC was Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki. Board members The members were: Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki - President Lampis Nikolaou - Vice President Ioanna Karyofylli - General Manager Ioannis Spanudakis - Managing Director Yannis N. Pyrgiotis - Executive Director Marton Simitsek - Executive Director Theodore Papapetropoulos - Executive Director Dora Bakoyannis - Member Nikos Filaretos - Member Spyros Zannias - Member Dimitris Diathesopoulos - Member Nikolaos Exarchos - Member Panayiotis Tzanikos - Member Ioannis Manos - Member Kostas Georgiadis - Member Demetrios Glavas - Member Christos Polyzogopoulos - Member Pyrros Dimas - Member References External links 2004 Summer Olympics 2004 Summer Paralympics Organising Committees for the Olympic Games Organising Committees for the Paralympic Games Summer Olympics Sport in Athens 1997 establishments in Greece	wiki
Medborgarhuset i Leeds (engelska: Leeds Civic Hall) byggdes mellan 1931 och 1933. Det hade Vincent Harris som arkitekt. Dess utseende var delvis baserat på Sheffields stadshus som hade samma arkitekt. Referenser Källor Byggnader i Leeds	wiki
Carcinothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae. It is found in Australia in New South Wales, the Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia. Species Carcinothrips leai Carcinothrips tania References Phlaeothripidae Thrips Thrips genera	wiki
Let's Dance may refer to: Music Albums Let's Dance (David Bowie album), released in 1983 Let's Dance (Nikki Webster album), released in 2004 Let's Dance! (Sharon, Lois & Bram album), released in 1995 Let's Dance, an album by U'redu, featuring Magnifico, released in 1992 Songs "Let's Dance" (Benny Goodman song), 1935 song "Let's Dance" (David Bowie song), from the 1983 album Let's Dance Lets Dance (9th Creation song) "Lets Dance" (9th Creation song) from the 1977 album Superheroes "Let's Dance" (Nikki Webster song), from the 2004 album Let's Dance "Let's Dance" (Chris Montez song), 1962 single "Let's Dance" (Chris Rea song), 1987 single "Let's Dance" (Five song), 2001 single "Let's Dance" (Vanessa Hudgens song), from the 2006 album V "Hot Stuff" (Let's Dance), by Craig David from the 2007 album Trust Me "Let's Dance", by The Balham Alligators from the 1987 album Balham Alligators "Let's Dance", by Miley Cyrus from the 2007 album Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus "Let's Dance", from the 2010 film StreetDance 3D "Let's Dance", by Shimica Wong from the 2013 film The Way We Dance "Let's Dance", by Hawk Nelson from the 2008 album Hawk Nelson Is My Friend "Let's Dance", by Sara Evans from the 2000 album Born to Fly Film, television, and radio Let's Dance (radio), a 1934–35 NBC radio program Let's Dance (1950 film), a musical starring Betty Hutton and Fred Astaire Let's Dance (2007 film) (Faut que ça danse!), a French-Swiss film Let's Dance (2009 film), a Bollywood film Let's Dance (2019 film), a French film Dancing with the Stars, a dance competition TV program known as Let's Dance in Germany, Slovakia and Sweden Let's Dance (German TV series), the German version of Dancing with the Stars Let's Dance (Slovak TV series), the Slovak version of Dancing with the Stars Let's Dance (Swedish TV series), the Swedish version of Dancing with the Stars Let's Dance (UK TV series), a British fundraising competition Let's Dance (Australian TV series), 1957 Australian instructional series The Raccoons: Let's Dance!, 1984 TV special of The Raccoons Other uses Let's Dance, a segment of 1theK Originals	wiki
Battleground is a series of turn-based computer wargames developed and published by TalonSoft for Microsoft Windows between 1995 and 1999. Nine games were released in the series, each based on a different historical battle. Games Battleground: Bulge-Ardennes Battleground: Bulge-Ardennes is the first game to be released in the Battleground series. It was developed and published by TalonSoft and released in January 1996. Battleground 2: Gettysburg Battleground 2: Gettysburg is a turn-based computer wargame developed by TalonSoft in 1995. It simulated combat at the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, using both a video version of miniature wargaming and board gaming. Terrain hex maps are 3D or 2D with various scales and sizes. Battleground 3: Waterloo Battleground 3: Waterloo is the third game in the Battleground series. It was developed and published by TalonSoft and released on May 31, 1996. The game features the Battle of Waterloo which was the final defeat for Napoleon Bonaparte and his French Empire. Battleground 4: Shiloh Battleground 4: Shiloh is a turn-based computer wargame developed by TalonSoft in 1996, the fourth issue in the Battleground series. It simulated combat at the 1862 Battle of Shiloh, using both a video version of miniature wargaming and board gaming. Terrain hex maps are 3D or 2D with various scales and sizes. Battleground 5: Antietam Battleground 5: Antietam is a turn-based computer wargame developed by TalonSoft in 1996, the fifth issue in the popular Battleground series. It simulated combat at the 1862 Battle of Antietam and the earlier Battle of South Mountain during the American Civil War's Maryland Campaign, using both a video version of miniature wargaming and board gaming. Terrain hex maps are 3D or 2D with various scales and sizes. Battleground 6: Napoleon in Russia Battleground 6: Napoleon in Russia is the sixth game to be released in the Battleground series. It was developed and published by TalonSoft and released on April 30, 1997. Battleground 7: Bull Run Battleground 7: Bull Run is a turn-based computer wargame developed by TalonSoft in 1997, the seventh issue in the popular Battleground series. It simulated combat at the 1861 First Battle of Bull Run and the 1862 Second Battle of Bull Run, using both a video version of miniature wargaming and board gaming. Terrain hex maps are 3D or 2D with various scales and sizes. Battleground 8: Prelude to Waterloo Battleground 8: Prelude to Waterloo is the eighth game in the Battleground series. It was developed and published by TalonSoft, and was shipped to retailers on September 15, 1997. At the time, TalonSoft announced it as the final game in the Battleground series. Battleground 9: Chickamauga Battleground 9: Chickamauga is the ninth game to be released in the Battleground series. It was developed and published by TalonSoft and released in 1999. Only 5,000 copies of the game were printed. It received a score of 8/10 from CNET Gamecenter. It was nominated for the 1998 Charles Roberts Award for "Best Pre-Twentieth Century Computer Wargame", which ultimately went to The Great Battles Collector's Edition. Reception In 1998, Computer Gaming World dubbed Battleground "the most successful wargame series". PC Gamer US nominated Bulge-Ardennes and Gettysburg for its 1995 "Best Wargame" award, although they lost to Steel Panthers. The three Battleground games of 1996—Shiloh, Antietam and Waterloo—collectively won Computer Games Strategy Pluss wargame of the year award for that year. Waterloo and Antietam were runners-up for Computer Game Entertainments 1996 "Best War Game" prize, which ultimately went to Tigers on the Prowl 2. The magazine's editors called both games "top-notch", and summarized Antietam as "the best iteration yet of TalonSoft's successful Civil War game system." The Battleground series, collectively, was named the 75th best computer game ever by PC Gamer UK in 1997. The editors called it "a fine expose of table top wargaming on the PC". References War video games set in the United States American Civil War video games Windows games Take-Two Interactive franchises Turn-based strategy video games Video game franchises Computer wargames TalonSoft games	wiki
Hr.Ms. Zeehond (1932), een Nederlandse onderzeeboot van de S-klasse. Hr.Ms. Zeehond (1944), een Nederlandse onderzeeboot van de T-klasse (Zwaardvisklasse). Hr.Ms. Zeehond (1961), een Nederlandse onderzeeboot van de Dolfijnklasse.	wiki
For lists of encyclopedias, see: List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge List of encyclopedias by date List of encyclopedias by language List of online encyclopedias See also Bibliography of encyclopedias List of almanacs Lists of dictionaries List of digital library projects Cyclopedia (disambiguation) Lists of reference books	wiki
Mākena State Park comprises in Makena, south of Wailea on the island of Maui, Hawaii. It contains three separate beaches and a dormant volcanic cinder cone. Big Beach, also known as "Oneloa Beach" and "Mākena Beach", is a popular spot for sunbathing and bodyboarding by both tourists and locals. Big Beach is long and more than wide. The shore is fairly protected from wind. The "Makena cloud" that stretches from the top of Haleakalā to Kahoolawe is often overhead, cooling the sand. Little Beach, also known as "Puu Ōlai Beach" is a small beach just north of Big Beach separated by a steep lava outcropping (the tip of Puu Ōlai) and a 5-minute hike. On Sunday afternoons/evenings Little Beach is host to celebratory drumming and fire dancing. The beach is only long and can be crowded at peak times. Little Beach is regarded as a nude beach and nude bathing is common there, although it is de jure illegal due to being in a state park. Oneuli Beach or Naupaka Beach is a black sand beach on the northern end of the park, closest to Makena. Puu Ōlai is a dormant volcanic cinder cone in the center of the park with a height of . It is located on Mākena Road at . Just to the south is the Ahihi Kinau Natural Area Reserve. References External links Beaches of Maui Protected areas of Maui State parks of Hawaii Black sand beaches	wiki
Northern Ireland Open – torneo di golf Northern Ireland Open – torneo di snooker	wiki
Hawaii Route 37 is a road on the island of Maui in Maui County, Hawaii, United States. Route description Route 37's northern terminus is with Route 36, where it heads eastward as Haleakala Highway. At the junction with Route 377, it becomes the Kula Highway, until its southern terminus with Route 31. A short 1.6 mile section of the Kula Highway between Thompson and Kamaole Roads is also called Ulupalakua Road. Major intersections See also List of state highways in Hawaii List of highways numbered 37 References External links 0037 Transportation in Maui County, Hawaii	wiki
Bears de Hershey Bears de Hershey	wiki
A Firearms Transaction Record, or ATF Form 4473, is a six-page form prescribed by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) required to be completed when a person proposes to purchase a firearm from a Federal Firearms License (FFL) holder, such as a gun dealer. Form 4473 contains the purchaser’s name, address, date of birth, government-issued photo ID, National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) background check transaction number, and a short affidavit stating that the purchaser is eligible to purchase firearms under federal law. It also contains the make, model, or serial numbering the firearm. Lying on the form is a felony punishable by up to five years in prison in addition to fines, even if the transaction is denied by the NICS. Prosecutions are rare in the absence of a felony committed with the gun purchased. Of 556,496 denied transactions between FY 2008 and FY 2015, federal prosecutors prosecuted an average of under 32 cases per year, including 24 in FY 2013, 15 in FY 2014 and 20 in FY 2015. If a person purchases a firearm from a private individual who is not a FFL licensed dealer, the purchaser is not required in most states to complete a Form 4473. All purchases of small arms (handguns) from private individuals from another state are required to have a Form 4473 completed before sale. Some states (such as California, Colorado, Nevada, New Jersey, and Washington) require individual sellers to sell through dealers. These forms are given the same status as a tax return under the Privacy Act of 1974 and cannot be disclosed by the government to private parties or other government officials except in accordance with the Privacy Act. Individual dealers possessing a copy of the form are not subject to the Privacy Act's restrictions on disclosure. Dealers are required to maintain completed forms for 20 years in the case of completed sales, and for 5 years where the sale was disapproved as a result of the NICS check. eForm 4473 In response to the Government Paperwork Elimination Act (GPEA), and based upon requests from the firearms industry, the ATF has developed the e-Form 4473 to assist in the proper completion of the Federal Firearms Transaction Record (ATF Form 4473). The ATF eForm 4473 is designed to help eliminate errors in completing Form 4473 for both the firearm purchaser and the licensed seller. The eForm 4473 is provided to the public, including major retailers, free of charge via the ATF eForm web site. ATF eForm 4473 is a downloadable application that runs locally on the seller's computer and supports both Windows and Mac OS X operating systems. (See "External links" section below.) Acquisition and Disposition Log The firearm dealer is required to record some information from the Form 4473 into a "bound-book", called an "Acquisition and Disposition Log”. The dealer must keep the Form 4473 on file for the lifetime of the FFL, and is required to surrender the log book to the ATF upon retirement from the firearms business. The ATF is allowed to inspect, as well as request a copy of, the Form 4473 from the dealer during the course of a criminal investigation. In addition, the sale of two or more handguns to a person in a five-day period must be reported to the ATF on Form 3310.4. Revisions 2016 In 2016, the ATF made several changes to the form, including adding a warning statement that the use of marijuana is illegal under federal law, regardless of whether it has been legalized or decriminalized for medicinal or recreational purposes in the state where the transferee/buyer resides. 2020 In 2020, the ATF made further changes to the form, including adding a warning that "any person who exports a firearm without a proper authorization from either the Department of Commerce or the Department of State, as applicable, is subject to a fine of not more than $1,000,000 and up to 20 years imprisonment." As of November 1, 2020, all FFL holders were required to transition to the new revision. Additional changes made to the form include: Relocating questions relating to the manufacturer, importer, model, serial number, type, caliber or gauge, and number of firearms to be transferred to a new Section A at the beginning of the form. These questions were previously located in Section D. New options for questions relating to personal information, such as the option to select Non-binary as a Sex, the option to include an Appeals Management Database Identification (AMD ID) as a Unique Personal Identification Number, and two new immigration-based questions. Additional criminal history questions, relating to dealings with a military court, misdemeanor domestic violence offenses, and orders of protection. Convictions According to the US Sentencing Commission, approximately 5,000 to 6,000 people a year are convicted of receiving or possessing a firearm against one of the prohibitions above. In 2017, over 25.2 million actual background checks were performed in total. References External links eForm 4473 (electronic version) Form 4473 (PDF) 4473 United States federal firearms law	wiki
Irene Gabriel may refer to: Irene Gabriel, character in Driver (2011 film) Irene Gabriel, contestant in Miss World Philippines 2011	wiki
A Private Jet Card is a private aviation product that enables holders to use different aircraft at agreed-upon fixed hourly rates. Jet cards are offered by large and small fleet operators and charter brokers. There are as many as 65 variables between jet card companies, according to Private Jet Card Comparisons, a buyer's guide to jet card programs. Traditional Jet Card programs are prepaid hours of occupied flight time on a given aircraft or size of aircraft. Some programs include not only jets, but turboprops. The term “jet card” can also refer to prepaid private jet charter programs that have similar attributes. Many private jet providers now offer some form of a Jet Card or membership option. Notable Jet Card providers include Jet Linx, Wheels Up, Air Charter Service, Airstream Jets, Marquis Jet (NetJets), and Flexjet. Jet card history The first Jet Card was created in 1997 by the founder of Sentient Jet, a charter broker located in Quincy, Massachusetts. The Jet Card was developed in response to the highly popular fractional ownership programs of the time offered by NetJets and Flight Options. The attraction to fractional ownership and ultimately the Jet Card was the consistency in pricing over charter and the reduced complexity of owning a jet, which were the only other options prior to NetJets. The term “jet card” was devised to create a marketing product for what equates to block on-demand charter. Jet Cards were created as a way to offer flight time to private aviation users flying up to 50 hours per year. Rather than purchasing a whole aircraft or investing in fractional ownership, a Jet Card can be a cost-effective option for frequent leisure travelers or users of business aviation. Jet card types Jet Cards have evolved from the original card in 1997 which simply made charter pricing more consistent by guaranteeing fixed hourly rates to membership programs which offer free or discounted empty leg/re-positioning leg flights and individual seats on private jet shuttles. Here are some examples of the varying types of Jet Cards offered today: The standard charter-based Jet Card - The most common type of jet card offered by charter brokers and operators. Customers pre-purchase hours or place money on account which is deducted at fixed hourly rates. Flights are sourced through the existing charter market. Mileage-based pricing Jet Card - Pricing based on distance as opposed to time. Mileage-based pricing is transparent and quantifiable. Dynamic Priced Jet Card - Customers place a deposit on account and receive options based on market availability. Customers may select specific aircraft and are not committed to a fleet or required to use their deposit within any specific time frame. Capped Rate - A development from always paying a fixed hourly rate, customers are still protected with a maximum hourly rate but retain the ability to get lower rates dependent on market availability and notice given. The fractional ownership Jet Card - Fractional Jet Cards, such as those offered by NetJets or FlexJet, offer prepaid hours of occupied flight time, sold in the form of a sublease of a fractional jet share. Operators such as FlexJet give fractional jet owners the ability to sell unused flight hours in the form of fractional Jet Cards, with prepaid hours ranging from five to 50 hours. Owned fleet Jet Card - Jets are configured similarly to increase quality and consistency. The fleet is backed up using the existing charter fleet during peak travel periods. Jets by the seat - Offers individual seats on private jets for certain routes after paying an annual membership. The seats can come from empty leg/re-positioning legs and/or shuttle flights which are scheduled private jet shuttles. Additional fees often apply for these seats. Some Jet Card sellers offer additional options to sell or purchase open seats on prepaid flights. This type of flightsharing can be more cost-effective when not all seats are occupied on a private jet. Custom Jet Cards - Launched in 2018 by several providers, custom jet cards create programs tailored to individual customers, including standards for sourcing aircraft, lead-time for making reservations, service area and hourly or fixed segment pricing. See also Private jet Fractional ownership of aircraft Air charter Air taxi Business jet References Civil aviation General aviation	wiki
Don Carlos Harvey (December 12, 1911 – April 23, 1963) was an American television and film actor. Life Born in Council Grove in Morris County in east central Kansas, Harvey began his acting career by performing on radio and in tent shows and repertory companies with his wife, the former Eugenia (Jean) Bartness (1900–1966), who was eleven years his senior. In Hollywood, he co-starred on a radio program with Hedda Hopper. In 1949, he contracted with Columbia Pictures and played in the serials, The Adventures of Sir Galahad and Batman and Robin (both 1949), and Atom Man vs. Superman (1950). Harvey appeared in 180 films and television programs between 1945 and 1963. During the late 1940s alone, he appeared in fifteen films and television programs. Harvey's second film and his first credited role were Dragnet (1947), starring Henry Wilcoxon and Robert Kent, and the exploitation film, She Shoulda Said No! (1949), respectively. Harvey died in 1963 at the age of fifty-one of a heart attack in Studio City, California. Career 1950s Film: During the 1950s, Harvey appeared in more than fifty films including Northwest Territory (1951), Human Desire (1954), Strategic Air Command (1955), The Far Country (1955), and The Gun That Won the West (1955). Television: The Cisco Kid (1950), Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere (1951), The Range Rider (1951–1952), The Gene Autry Show (1951–1953), The Adventures of Kit Carson (1953–1954), Captain Midnight (1954–1955), Annie Oakley, (five episodes, 1954-1955),The Lone Ranger, (seven episodes, 1954-1957), The Millionaire (1955), The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp (1955-1960), Sky King (1956, in "Rocket Story"), Frontier Doctor (1958), The Donna Reed Show (1959), Riverboat (1959), and Colt .45 as Sergeant Billings and as Sheriff Clinter (1959-1960). Harvey was cast as the besieged Lieutenant Gillespie in the 1957 episode, "California's Paul Revere" of the anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story line. Alex Sharp as Juan Flaco, or John Brown, who conducts a four-day ride from Los Angeles to Stockton, and then San Francisco to obtain more troops sent by sea to relive Los Angeles. 1960s Film: In 1963, Harvey procured a bit part in Stanley Kramer's massive $9 million, 12-star production, It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World which starred Sid Caesar, Ethel Merman, Spencer Tracy, Mickey Rooney, and Milton Berle among others. Harvey got the role of a police officer, but offscreen he was the first cast member to die after completion of the filming. Television: During the 1960s, Harvey appeared in the popular genre of American westerns: Sugarfoot (1960), The Tall Man (1961), Bonanza (1961), Wagon Train (1961), Rawhide (1961–1962), Laramie (1962), Maverick (1962), and The Virginian (1963 episode "Run Away Home"). He also appeared in the mystery/crime dramas of Perry Mason (1961), Surfside 6 (1962), Hawaiian Eye (1960–1962), Checkmate (1962), and Empire (1963). He was in an episode of McHale's Navy in its first season. Selected filmography Trail of the Rustlers (1950) Northwest Territory (1951) Untamed Mistress (1965) as Kurran the Hunter Beginning of the End (1957) as Guard at Lab Gunmen from Laredo (1959) as Deputy Dave The Wild Westerners (1962) as Hanna References External links 1911 births 1963 deaths American male film actors American male television actors Male actors from Kansas People from Council Grove, Kansas 20th-century American male actors Male actors from Los Angeles	wiki
Lateral is a geometric term of location which may refer to: Healthcare Lateral (anatomy), an anatomical direction Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle Lateral release (surgery), a surgical procedure on the side of a kneecap Phonetics Lateral consonant, an l-like consonant in which air flows along the sides of the tongue Lateral release (phonetics), the release of a plosive consonant into a lateral consonant Other uses Lateral, journal of the Cultural Studies Association Lateral canal, a canal built beside another stream Lateral hiring, recruiting that targets employees of another organization Lateral mark, a sea mark used in maritime pilotage to indicate the edge of a channel Lateral stability of aircraft during flight Lateral pass, a type of pass in American and Canadian football Lateral support (disambiguation), various meanings Lateral thinking, the solution of problems through an indirect and creative approach Lateral number, a proposed alternate term for imaginary number See also Bilateral (disambiguation) Latitude	wiki
The Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy is one of the awards given to people working in the motion picture industry by the Broadcast Film Critics Association at their annual Critics' Choice Movie Awards. Winners and nominees 2010s Multiple nominees 2 nominations Jennifer Lawrence 3 nominations Melissa McCarthy A Film awards for lead actress	wiki
The 7th IAAF World Cup in Athletics was an international track and field sporting event sponsored by the International Association of Athletics Federations, held on September 9–11, 1994, at the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre in London, England. Overall results Results summary Men Women References External links World Cup Results Full Results by IAAF IAAF Continental Cup World Cup IAAF World Cup World Cup September 1994 sports events in the United Kingdom International sports competitions in London International athletics competitions hosted by England	wiki
The Western Album is an album by American singer-songwriter Don McLean, released in 2003. Track listing "Timber Trail" (Tim Spencer) – 3:01 "Ridin' Down the Canyon" (Gene Autry, S. Burnett) – 2:13 "Pal O' Mine" (Bob Nolan) – 2:18 "I Ride an Old Paint" (Public Domain) – 2:53 "I've Got Spurs (That Jingle)" (Lilley, Frank Loesser) – 2:47 "The Trail to Mexico" (Public Domain) – 4:03 "Blue Prairie" (Nolan, Tim Spencer) – 2:59 "The Wild West Is Where I Wanna Be" (T. Lehrer) – 4:21 "Tulsa Time/Deep in the Heart of Texas" (Public Domain, M. Walkins) – 4:10 "Lyndon Has a Bear Hug on Dallas" (Don McLean) – 3:26 "(Take Me Back to My) Boots and Saddles" (Powell, Samuels, Whitcup) – 3:38 "Song of the Bandit" (Bob Nolan) – 3:03 "Philadelphia Lawyer" (Woody Guthrie) – 3:36 "I'm an Old Cowhand" (Johnny Mercer) – 2:02 "Sioux Indians" (Public Domain) – 3:53 "My Saddle Pal and I" (Rogers) – 1:40 References Western, The 2003 albums	wiki
Michael Jordan: An American Hero is an American television film that aired on Fox Family Channel on April 18, 1999. It stars Michael Jace as Michael Jordan. Plot The opening titles of the film shows footage of Jordan preparing for a game with the Chicago Bulls. The film is mostly based on the life of Michael Jordan from his childhood until when he grew up to be an NBA player. It also highlights the moments of when Michael played baseball as both a child and his short-lived minor league baseball career as well as his knack of golfing. The film ends with Michael in an empty arena after a game and he shoots a basket while flashbacks of his childhood when his father taught him how to shoot appear. The closing titles mentions that Jordan retired from basketball for good on January 13, 1999. However, in real life, he made a short-lived comeback in 2001 when he played for the Washington Wizards until 2003 when he retired for a third and final time. Cast Michael Jace as Michael Jordan Dari Gerard Smith as Michael Jordan (age 6) Cordereau Dye as Michael Jordan (age 12) Thomas Hobson as Michael Jordan (teenager) Jascha Washington as Larry Jordan (age 7) Desi Arnez Hines II as Larry Jordan (teenager) Debbie Allen as Deloris Jordan Ernie Hudson as James R. Jordan Sr. D. Elliott Woods as Leroy Brenan T. Baird as Phil Jackson Christopher Jacobs as Buzz Peterson Robin Givens as Juanita Jordan Mark Mathias as Abel Broxton John Valdetero as Coach Herring Randy J. Goodwin as Ahmad Rashad Ed Zajac as Ron Schueler Kristine Kelly as Reporter External links References 1999 films American basketball films American biographical films Cultural depictions of Michael Jordan ABC Family original films Films directed by Alan Metzger 1990s American films	wiki
Other Lives but Mine () is a 2009 non-fiction book by the French writer Emmanuel Carrère. It was published as Lives Other Than My Own in the United States. It focuses on Carrère's wife's sister, a judge who died from cancer in 2005. It was adapted to a screenplay for the 2011 French film All Our Desires. See also 2009 in literature Contemporary French literature References 2009 non-fiction books French biographies	wiki
Ester pyrolysis in organic chemistry is a vacuum pyrolysis reaction converting esters containing a β-hydrogen atom into the corresponding carboxylic acid and the alkene. The reaction is an Ei elimination and operates in a syn fashion. Examples include the synthesis of acrylic acid from ethyl acrylate at 590 °C, the synthesis of 1,4-pentadiene from 1,5-pentanediol diacetate at 575 °C or the construction of a cyclobutene framework at 700 °C References Organic reactions	wiki
Freak Out is an American reality television series where people prank their close friends and family. The show premiered as a two-night one-hour special on October 21 and October 22, 2014. The first season premiered on March 25, 2015 and ended on May 27, 2015. Episodes Specials (2014) Season 1 (2015) References External links 2014 American television series debuts 2015 American television series endings 2010s American comedy television series 2010s American reality television series ABC Family original programming American hidden camera television series English-language television shows Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television	wiki
Sanctimommy is a portmanteau of two words, sanctimonious and mommy. The word is a colloquialism used to refer to a person, usually a female, who has very opinionated views on child rearing and presents them upfront without any sense of humility. Occurrence Generally speaking the word has been used in the blogosphere, to refer to people who give their opinions in a fashion that provokes anger, and seems to be condescending. References External links Washingtontimes.com Nytimes.com Svmoms.com Lawyermama.blogspot.com Colloquial terms Motherhood Parenting	wiki
Early Entrance Program may refer to: Transition School and Early Entrance Program, at the University of Washington Early Entrance Program (CSU), at the California State University	wiki
Michaëlla Krajicek and Maria Sanchez were the defending champions, but both players chose not to participate. An-Sophie Mestach and Laura Robson won the title, defeating Sophie Chang and Alexandra Mueller in the final, 7–6(9–7), 7–6(7–2). Seeds Draw References Main Draw Red Rock Pro Open - Doubles 2017 Red Rock Pro Open	wiki
The Mercedes-Benz Vario (model designation BM667/668/670) is a full-size commercial heavy van manufactured by Mercedes-Benz between 1996 and 2013. History The Vario was launched in 1996 as a facelifted version of the Mercedes-Benz T2. The bodyshell remained relatively unchanged throughout its 17-year production life. The Vario proved a popular base chassis for minibuses and mini-coaches. When new regulations required disabled access, a model with a wheelchair lift was made available. The Vario was fitted with several types of Mercedes-Benz engines. Pre-2000 vehicles used a 5-cylinder OM602LA (2874 cm3) and 4-cylinder OM904LA (4250 cm3), turbocharged and intercooled diesel engine. From September 2000, Vario 618D/818D models were equipped with a 4.2-liter turbo diesel engine with intercooler and direct injection with an output of 136 or 150 hp and torque of 520 or 580 Nm, respectively. The most powerful was a 177 hp, 675Nm engine. With the introduction of the Euro 4 emission standards, the Vario began to be equipped with OM904LA series BlueTec4 turbocharged and intercooled engine with working volume of 4250 cm3 and a power of 129, 156 or 177 hp. Set of new manual gearboxes, new automatic gearbox and some optional equipment was added to portfolio. Two types of gearboxes were available, a 5-speed manual (later 6-speed) and on buses, an Allison AT 545 4-speed automatic (later an Allison LCT 1000 5-speed). Maximum payload was 4.4 tons with a load volume of 17.4 cubic meters. A 4x4 model was also available. All models had a suspension on parabolic leaf springs, all ventilated disc brakes and power steering. On 27 September 2013, the last Vario rolled off the production line in Ludwigsfelde. Between 1996 and 2013, 90,743 units were manufactured.<ref name="LastVarioMyVan1" / The Vario was succeeded in Daimler Trucks' model range by heavier versions of the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter and lighter versions of the Mercedes-Benz Atego. Engines Gallery References Notes Bibliography External links Product Guide (in German) Mercedes-Benz Vario Vario Police vehicles Vans Minibuses Vehicles introduced in 1996 1990s cars 2000s cars 2010s cars	wiki
Storytelling is the art of portraying real or fictitious events in words, images, and sounds. Storytelling may also refer to: Storytelling (film), a 2001 film directed by Todd Solondz Storytelling (Belle & Sebastian album), a 2002 album by Belle & Sebastian, soundtrack to the film Storytelling (Jean-Luc Ponty album), a 1989 album by Jean-Luc Ponty Storytelling (Fred Frith album), a 2017 album by Fred Frith "Storytelling", a 2003 song by Funeral for a Friend from Casually Dressed & Deep in Conversation Storytelling System, a role-playing game system See also Storyteller (disambiguation) Stori Telling, a non-fiction book by Tori Spelling Telling Stories (disambiguation)	wiki
The emulsion test is a method to determine the presence of lipids using wet chemistry. The procedure is for the sample to be suspended in ethanol, allowing lipids present to dissolve (lipids are soluble in alcohols). The liquid (alcohol with dissolved fat) is then decanted into water. Since lipids do not dissolve in water while ethanol does, when the ethanol is diluted, it falls out of the solution to give a cloudy white emulsion. References Chemical tests	wiki
Fiction is a story created by the imagination in any medium (e.g., moving pictures, plays, etc.). Fiction may also refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature Prose fiction, "literature in the form of prose, especially short stories and novels, that describes imaginary events and people" (New Oxford American Dictionary) Science fiction Music Groups and labels Fiction Records, The Cure's former record label Fictional (band), Funker Vogt side project led by Gerrit Thomas Albums Fiction (The Comsat Angels album), 1982 Fiction (Yuki Kajiura album), 2003 Fiction (Dark Tranquillity album), 2007 Fiction (Mukala album), 1998 Fiction (Yoga Lin album), 2012 Fictions (album) by Jane Birkin, 2006 Fiction (EP), 2020 EP by Suuns Songs "Fiction" (Coldrain song), a single by Coldrain from their 2009 album Final Destination "Fiction", a song by Joni Mitchell from her 1985 album Dog Eat Dog "Fiction", a song by Whipping Boy from their 1995 album Heartworm "Fiction", a song by Nik Kershaw from his 1999 album 15 Minutes "Fiction", a song by Kids in the Way "Fiction", a song by Belle and Sebastian from their 2002 album Storytelling "Fiction" (Avenged Sevenfold song), a song by Avenged Sevenfold from their 2010 album Nightmare "Fiction", a song by Beast from their 2011 album "Fiction", a song by The xx from their 2012 album Coexist Other arts, entertainment, and media Ficció (Fiction), a 2006 Spanish film directed by Cesc Gay Fiksi. (Fiction), a 2008 Indonesian film directed by Mouly Surya Fiction Magazine, an American literary magazine Other uses Design Fiction, critical design, which takes a critical theory based approach to design Legal fiction, a legal term de:Fiktion (Begriffsklärung)	wiki
The Cutman was written and directed by Yon Motskin. It tells the tale of a boxing cutman at the end of his career, losing his edge, and struggling to repair his relationship with his estranged son. 2003 Sundance Film Festival official selection After its debut at Sundance, the film also screened at the LA International Short Film Festival, and several others including Santa Barbara, Philadelphia, South by Southwest, and Tribeca. The film took first place at the First Run Festival in New York 2003, where Motskin also won the Wasserman Award for outstanding directing. External links 2003 films 2003 short films American short films 2000s English-language films	wiki
This is a list of episodes from the sixth season of Real Time with Bill Maher. Episodes External links Real Time with Bill Maher Free (audio-only) episodes & Overtime podcast direct from HBO HBO.com Episode List TV.com Episode Guide Real Time with Bill Maher Real Time with Bill Maher seasons	wiki
Harford Glen Environmental Education Center is a division of Harford County Public Schools and is involved in environmental and elementary education. The park, which is open to the public during the summer and on weekends is located on Winters Run. Harford Glen was also the host of the 13th annual Maryland Envirothon state level event in 2002. References External links Official Harford Glen Environmental Education Center Website Additional site Harford County Public Schools Bel Air, Harford County, Maryland Education in Harford County, Maryland Nature centers in Maryland Protected areas of Harford County, Maryland	wiki
A Turing machine is a hypothetical computing device, first conceived by Alan Turing in 1936. Turing machines manipulate symbols on a potentially infinite strip of tape according to a finite table of rules, and they provide the theoretical underpinnings for the notion of a computer algorithm. While none of the following models have been shown to have more power than the single-tape, one-way infinite, multi-symbol Turing-machine model, their authors defined and used them to investigate questions and solve problems more easily than they could have if they had stayed with Turing's a-machine model. Machines equivalent to the Turing machine model Turing equivalence Many machines that might be thought to have more computational capability than a simple universal Turing machine can be shown to have no more power. They might compute faster, perhaps, or use less memory, or their instruction set might be smaller, but they cannot compute more powerfully (i.e. more mathematical functions). (The Church–Turing thesis hypothesizes this to be true: that anything that can be "computed" can be computed by some Turing machine.) The sequential-machine models All of the following are called "sequential machine models" to distinguish them from "parallel machine models". Tape-based Turing machines Turing's a-machine model Turing's a-machine (as he called it) was left-ended, right-end-infinite. He provided symbols əə to mark the left end. A finite number of tape symbols were permitted. The instructions (if a universal machine), and the "input" and "out" were written only on "F-squares", and markers were to appear on "E-squares". In essence he divided his machine into two tapes that always moved together. The instructions appeared in a tabular form called "5-tuples" and were not executed sequentially. Single-tape machines with restricted symbols and/or restricted instructions The following models are single tape Turing machines but restricted with (i) restricted tape symbols { mark, blank }, and/or (ii) sequential, computer-like instructions, and/or (iii) machine-actions fully atomised. Post's "Formulation 1" model of computation Emil Post in an independent description of a computational process, reduced the symbols allowed to the equivalent binary set of marks on the tape { "mark", "blank"=not_mark }. He changed the notion of "tape" from 1-way infinite to the right to an infinite set of rooms each with a sheet of paper in both directions. He atomised the Turing 5-tuples into 4-tuples—motion instructions separate from print/erase instructions. Although his 1936 model is ambiguous about this, Post's 1947 model did not require sequential instruction execution. His extremely simple model can emulate any Turing machine, and although his 1936 Formulation 1 does not use the word "program" or "machine", it is effectively a formulation of a very primitive programmable computer and associated programming language, with the boxes acting as an unbounded bitstring memory, and the set of instructions constituting a program. Wang machines In an influential paper, Hao Wang reduced Post's "formulation 1" to machines that still use a two-way infinite binary tape, but whose instructions are simpler – being the "atomic" components of Post's instructions – and are by default executed sequentially (like a "computer program"). His stated principal purpose was to offer, as an alternative to Turing's theory, one that "is more economical in the basic operations". His results were "program formulations" of a variety of such machines, including the 5-instruction Wang W-machine with the instruction-set { SHIFT-LEFT, SHIFT-RIGHT, MARK-SQUARE, ERASE-SQUARE, JUMP-IF-SQUARE-MARKED-to xxx } and his most-severely reduced 4-instruction Wang B-machine ("B" for "basic") with the instruction-set { SHIFT-LEFT, SHIFT-RIGHT, MARK-SQUARE, JUMP-IF-SQUARE-MARKED-to xxx } which has not even an ERASE-SQUARE instruction. Many authors later introduced variants of the machines discussed by Wang: Minsky evolved Wang's notion with his version of the (multi-tape) "counter machine" model that allowed SHIFT-LEFT and SHIFT-RIGHT motion of the separate heads but no printing at all. In this case the tapes would be left-ended, each end marked with a single "mark" to indicate the end. He was able to reduce this to a single tape, but at the expense of introducing multi-tape-square motion equivalent to multiplication and division rather than the much simpler { SHIFT-LEFT = DECREMENT, SHIFT-RIGHT = INCREMENT }. Davis, adding an explicit HALT instruction to one of the machines discussed by Wang, used a model with the instruction-set { SHIFT-LEFT, SHIFT-RIGHT, ERASE, MARK, JUMP-IF-SQUARE-MARKED-to xxx, JUMP-to xxx, HALT } and also considered versions with tape-alphabets of size larger than 2. Böhm's theoretical machine language P" In keeping with Wang's project to seek a Turing-equivalent theory "economical in the basic operations", and wishing to avoid unconditional jumps, a notable theoretical language is the 4-instruction language P" introduced by Corrado Böhm in 1964 – the first "GOTO-less" imperative "structured programming" language to be proved Turing-complete. Multi-tape Turing machines In practical analysis, various types of multi-tape Turing machines are often used. Multi-tape machines are similar to single-tape machines, but there is some constant k number of independent tapes. Deterministic and non-deterministic Turing machines If the action table has at most one entry for each combination of symbol and state then the machine is a "deterministic Turing machine" (DTM). If the action table contains multiple entries for a combination of symbol and state then the machine is a "non-deterministic Turing machine" (NDTM). The two are computationally equivalent, that is, it is possible to turn any NDTM into a DTM (and vice versa), although they usually have different runtimes. This can be proved via construction. Oblivious Turing machines An oblivious Turing machine is a Turing machine where, for each input length, movement of the various heads is a fixed function of time, independent of the input. In other words, there is a predetermined sequence in which the various tapes are scanned, advanced, and written to. The actual values that are written to the tape at any step can still be different for each input of that length. Pippenger and Fischer showed that any computation that can be performed by a multi-tape Turing machine in n steps can be performed by an oblivious two-tape Turing machine in steps. Oblivious machines correspond in a step-wise linear fashion with combinational logic circuits, when the complexity of the transition table is taken as constant. It is thus possible to realize computations as circuit problems in size and depth (see Circuit complexity). This improves upon the original result by Cook and Levin. Register machine models Peter van Emde Boas includes all machines of this type in one class, "the register machine". However, historically the literature has also called the most primitive member of this group i.e. "the counter machine" – "the register machine". And the most primitive embodiment of a "counter machine" is sometimes called the "Minsky machine". The "counter machine", also called a "register machine" model The primitive model register machine is, in effect, a multitape 2-symbol Post–Turing machine with its behaviour restricted so its tapes act like simple "counters". By the time of Melzak, Lambek, and Minsky the notion of a "computer program" produced a different type of simple machine with many left-ended tapes cut from a Post–Turing tape. In all cases the models permit only two tape symbols { mark, blank }. Some versions represent the positive integers as only a strings/stack of marks allowed in a "register" (i.e. left-ended tape), and a blank tape represented by the count "0". Minsky eliminated the PRINT instruction at the expense of providing his model with a mandatory single mark at the left-end of each tape. In this model the single-ended tapes-as-registers are thought of as "counters", their instructions restricted to only two (or three if the TEST/DECREMENT instruction is atomised). Two common instruction sets are the following: (1): { INC ( r ), DEC ( r ), JZ ( r,z ) }, i.e. { INCrement contents of register #r; DECrement contents of register #r; IF contents of #r=Zero THEN Jump-to Instruction #z} (2): { CLR ( r ); INC ( r ); JE ( ri, rj, z ) }, i.e. { CLeaR contents of register r; INCrement contents of r; compare contents of ri to rj and if Equal then Jump to instruction z} Although his model is more complicated than this simple description, the Melzak "pebble" model extended this notion of "counter" to permit multi- pebble adds and subtracts. The random-access machine (RAM) model Melzak recognised a couple serious defects in his register/counter-machine model: (i) Without a form of indirect addressing he would not be able to "easily" show the model is Turing equivalent, (ii) The program and registers were in different "spaces", so self-modifying programs would not be easy. When Melzak added indirect addressing to his model he created a random access machine model. (However, with Gödel numbering of the instructions Minsky offered a proof that with such numbering the general recursive functions were indeed possible; he offers proof that μ recursion is indeed possible). Unlike the RASP model, the RAM model does not allow the machine's actions to modify its instructions. Sometimes the model works only register-to-register with no accumulator, but most models seem to include an accumulator. van Emde Boas divides the various RAM models into a number of sub-types: SRAM, the "successor RAM" with only one arithmetic instruction, the successor (INCREMENT h). The others include "CLEAR h", and an IF equality-between-register THEN jump-to xxx. RAM: the standard model with addition and subtraction MRAM: the RAM augmented with multiplication and division BRAM, MBRAM: Bitwise Boolean versions of the RAM and MRAM N****: Non-deterministic versions of any of the above with an N before the name The random-access stored program (RASP) machine model The RASP is a RAM with the instructions stored together with their data in the same 'space' – i.e. sequence of registers. The notion of a RASP was described at least as early as Kiphengst. His model had a "mill"—an accumulator, but now the instructions were in the registers with the data—the so-called von Neumann architecture. When the RASP has alternating even and odd registers—the even holding the "operation code" (instruction) and the odd holding its "operand" (parameter), then indirect addressing is achieved by simply modifying an instruction's operand. The original RASP model of Elgot and Robinson had only three instructions in the fashion of the register-machine model, but they placed them in the register space together with their data. (Here COPY takes the place of CLEAR when one register e.g. "z" or "0" starts with and always contains 0. This trick is not unusual. The unit 1 in register "unit" or "1" is also useful.) { INC ( r ), COPY ( ri, rj ), JE ( ri, ri, z ) } The RASP models allow indirect as well as direct-addressing; some allow "immediate" instructions too, e.g. "Load accumulator with the constant 3". The instructions may be of a highly restricted set such as the following 16 instructions of Hartmanis. This model uses an accumulator A. The mnemonics are those that the authors used (their CLA is "load accumulator" with constant or from register; STO is "store accumulator"). Their syntax is the following, excepting the jumps: "n, <n>, <<n>>" for "immediate", "direct" and "indirect"). Jumps are via two "Transfer instructions" TRA—unconditional jump by directly "n" or indirectly "< n >" jamming contents of register n into the instruction counter, TRZ (conditional jump if Accumulator is zero in the same manner as TRA): { ADD n , ADD < n >, ADD << n >>, SUB n, SUB < n >, SUB << n >>, CLA n, CLA < n >, CLA << n >>, STO < n >, STO << n >>, TRA n, TRA < n >, TRZ n, TRA < n >, HALT } The Pointer machine model A relative latecomer is Schönhage's Storage Modification Machine or pointer machine. Another version is the Kolmogorov-Uspensky machine, and the Knuth "linking automaton" proposal. (For references see pointer machine). Like a state-machine diagram, a node emits at least two labelled "edges" (arrows) that point to another node or nodes which in turn point to other nodes, etc. The outside world points at the center node. Machines with input and output Any of the above tape-based machines can be equipped with input and output tapes; any of the above register-based machines can be equipped with dedicated input and output registers. For example, the Schönhage pointer-machine model has two instructions called "input λ0,λ1" and "output β". It is difficult to study sublinear space complexity on multi-tape machines with the traditional model, because an input of size n already takes up space n. Thus, to study small DSPACE classes, we must use a different model. In some sense, if we never "write to" the input tape, we don't want to charge ourself for this space. And if we never "read from" our output tape, we don't want to charge ourself for this space. We solve this problem by introducing a k-string Turing machine with input and output. This is the same as an ordinary k-string Turing machine, except that the transition function is restricted so that the input tape can never be changed, and so that the output head can never move left. This model allows us to define deterministic space classes smaller than linear. Turing machines with input-and-output also have the same time complexity as other Turing machines; in the words of Papadimitriou 1994 Prop 2.2: For any k-string Turing machine M operating within time bound there is a -string Turing machine ''M with input and output, which operates within time bound . k-string Turing machines with input and output can be used in the formal definition of the complexity resource DSPACE. Other equivalent machines and methods Multidimensional Turing machine: For example, a model by Schönhage uses the four head-movement commands { North, South, East, W'''est }. Single-tape, multi-head Turing machine: In an undecidability proof of the "problem of tag", Minsky and Shepherdson and Sturgis described machines with a single tape that could read along the tape with one head and write further along the tape with another. Markov algorithm is another remarkably simple computational model, based on string rewriting, equivalent to the Turing machines. Lambda calculus Queue automaton References Turing machine Theory of computation Models of computation	wiki
Night Walk may refer to: Night Walk (novel), a 1967 SF novel by Bob Shaw Night Walk (TV series), a late-night television program seen in Ontario on CIII-TV from 1986 to 1993 Night Walk (film), a 2019 American film directed by Aziz Tazi "Night Walk", a track from Belle & Sebastian's 2002 album, Storytelling "Night Walk", a track from Dirty Beaches's 2013 album, Drifters/Love is the Devil	wiki
The gastrointestinal wall of the gastrointestinal tract is made up of four layers of specialised tissue. From the inner cavity of the gut (the lumen) outwards, these are: Mucosa Submucosa Muscular layer Serosa or adventitia The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the lumen of the tract and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers: the epithelium, where most digestive, absorptive and secretory processes occur; the lamina propria, a layer of connective tissue, and the muscularis mucosae, a thin layer of smooth muscle. The submucosa contains nerves including the submucous plexus (also called Meissner's plexus), blood vessels and elastic fibres with collagen, that stretches with increased capacity but maintains the shape of the intestine. The muscular layer surrounds the submucosa. It comprises layers of smooth muscle in longitudinal and circular orientation that also helps with continued bowel movements (peristalsis) and the movement of digested material out of and along the gut. In between the two layers of muscle lies the myenteric plexus (also called Auerbach's plexus). The serosa/adventitia are the final layers. These are made up of loose connective tissue and coated in mucus so as to prevent any friction damage from the intestine rubbing against other tissue. The serosa is present if the tissue is within the peritoneum, and the adventitia if the tissue is retroperitoneal. Structure When viewed under the microscope, the gastrointestinal wall has a consistent general form, but with certain parts differing along its course. Mucosa The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the cavity (lumen) of the tract and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of three layers: The epithelium is the innermost layer. It is where most digestive, absorptive and secretory processes occur. The lamina propria, a layer of connective tissue within the mucosa. The muscularis mucosae, a thin layer of smooth muscle. The epithelium, the most exposed part of the mucosa, is a glandular epithelium with many goblet cells. Goblet cells secrete mucus, which lubricates the passage of food along and protects the intestinal wall from digestive enzymes. In the small intestine, villi are folds of the mucosa that increase the surface area of the intestine. The villi contain a lacteal, a vessel connected to the lymph system that aids in the removal of lipids and tissue fluids. Microvilli are present on the epithelium of a villus and further increase the surface area over which absorption can take place. Numerous intestinal glands as pocket-like invaginations are present in the underlying tissue. In the large intestines, villi are absent and a flat surface with thousands of glands is observed. Underlying the epithelium is the lamina propria, which contains myofibroblasts, blood vessels, nerves, and several different immune cells, and the muscularis mucosa which is a layer of smooth muscle that aids in the action of continued peristalsis and catastalsis along the gut. Epithelium The lining of the mucosa, called the epithelium, differs along the gastrointestinal tract. The epithelium is described as stratified if it consists of multiple layers of cells, and simple if it is made up of one layer of cells. Terms used to describe the shape of the cells in it - columnar if column-shaped, and squamous if flat. In the oesophagus, pharynx and external anal canal the epithelium is stratified, squamous and non-keratinising, for protective purposes. In the stomach, the epithelium is simple columnar, and is organised into gastric pits and glands to deal with secretion. In the small intestine, epithelium is simple columnar and specialised for absorption. It is organised into plicae circulares and villi, and the enterocytes have microvilli. The microvilli create a brush border that increases the area for absorption. In the ileum there are occasionally Peyer's patches in the lamina propria. Brunner's glands are found in the duodenum but not in other parts of the small intestine. In the colon, epithelium is simple columnar and without villi. Goblet cells, which secrete mucous, are also present. The appendix has a mucosa resembling the colon but is heavily infiltrated with lymphocytes. Transition between the different types of epithelium occurs at the junction between the oesophagus and stomach; between the stomach and duodenum, between the ileum and caecum, and at the pectinate line of the anus. Submucosa The submucosa consists of a dense and irregular layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscular layer. It contains the submucous plexus, and enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscular layer. Muscular layer The muscular layer (also known as the muscularis propria ) consists of two layers of muscle, the inner and outer layer. The muscle of the inner layer is arranged in circular rings around the tract, whereas the muscle of the outer layer is arranged longitudinally. The stomach has an extra layer, an inner oblique muscular layer. Between the two muscle layers are the myenteric or Auerbach's plexus. This controls peristalsis. Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells (interstitial cells of Cajal). The gut has intrinsic peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self-contained enteric nervous system. The rate can, of course, be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system. The layers are not truly longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The circular muscle layer prevents food from travelling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The thickness of the muscular layer varies in each part of the tract: In the colon, for example, the muscular layer is much thicker because the faeces are large and heavy and require more force to push along. The outer longitudinal layer of the colon thins out into 3 discontinuous longitudinal bands, known as taeniae coli (bands of the colon). This is one of the 3 features helping to distinguish between the large and small intestine. Occasionally in the large intestine (2-3 times a day) there will be mass contraction of certain segments, moving a lot of faeces along. This is generally when one gets the urge to defecate. The pylorus of the stomach has a thickened portion of the inner circular layer: the pyloric sphincter. Alone among the GI tract, the stomach has a third layer of muscular layer. This is the inner oblique layer and helps churn the chyme in the stomach. Serosa and adventitia The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal wall consists of several layers of connective tissue and is either adventitia or serosa. Regions of the gastrointestinal tract within the peritoneum (called Intraperitoneal) are covered with serosa. This structure consists of connective tissue covered by a simple squamous epithelium, called the mesothelium, which reduces frictional forces during digestive movements. The intraperitoneal regions include most of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the small intestine, caecum and appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. In these sections of the gut there is clear boundary between the gut and the surrounding tissue. These parts of the tract have a mesentery. Regions of the gastrointestinal tract behind the peritoneum (called retroperitoneal) are covered with adventitia. They blend into the surrounding tissue and are fixed in position (for example, the retroperitoneal section of the duodenum usually passes through the transpyloric plane). The retroperitoneal regions include the oral cavity, esophagus, pylorus of the stomach, distal duodenum, ascending colon, descending colon and anal canal. Clinical significance The gastrointestinal wall can be affected in a number of conditions. An ulcer is something that's eroded through the epithelium of the wall. Ulcers that affect the tract include peptic ulcers and perforated ulcer is one that has eroded completely through the layers. The gastrointestinal wall is inflamed in a number of conditions. This is called esophagitis, gastritis, duodenitis, ileitis, and colitis depending on the parts affected. It can be due to infections or other conditions, including coeliac disease, and inflammatory bowel disease affects the layers of the gastrointestinal tract in different ways. Ulcerative colitis involves the colonic mucosa. Crohn's disease may produce inflammation in all layers in any part of the gastrointestinal tract and so can result in transmural fistulae. Invasion of tumours through the layers of the gastrointestinal wall is used in staging of tumour spread. This affects treatment and prognosis. The normal thickness of the small intestinal wall is 3–5 mm, and 1–5 mm in the large intestine. Focal, irregular and asymmetrical gastrointestinal wall thickening suggests a malignancy. Segmental or diffuse gastrointestinal wall thickening is most often due to ischemic, inflammatory or infectious disease. Additional images References Membrane biology Digestive system	wiki
Aceasta este o listă de filme spaniole din 2009: Lista Legături externe Spanish films of 2009 at the Internet Movie Database Filme din 2009Filme spaniole spania Liste de filme spaniole	wiki
John Diggle – vescovo inglese John Diggle – tennista australiano John Diggle – personaggio dell'Arrowverse	wiki
Erythrina alkaloids, generally containing benzyl-tetrahydroisoquinoline structure, are widely distributed in Erythrina species, a genus of plants which belong to the Fabaceae family in tropical and subtropical regions. The Erythrina alkaloids can be found in several organs of Erythrina trees but are primarily found in their seeds. They display several unique properties, and are the subject of active scientific research relating to their synthesis and bioactivity. Two kinds of alkaloids are isolated from the Erythrina plants. One is Erythrina alkaloid, the other one is HomoErythrina alkaloid. The shared feature of Erythrina alkaloids is the Erythrinane skeleton, which is a tetracyclic spiroamine structure containing 4 rings, labeled A, B, C and D, respectively. Structure The skeletal structures of both Erythrina and HomoErythrina alkaloid contain 4 rings. The D ring is generally aromatic. It can be benzene or heterocyclic ring. The difference between Erythrina and HomoErythrina alkaloids is the C ring's member amount. The configuration of the 5-carbon is always S in all known isolated alkaloids. Some of the Erythrina alkaloids have 3-alkyloxy substituents on A ring, and the configuration of 3-carbon is always R. But in HomoErythrina alkaloids, it varies between R and S at 3-carbon. The Erythrina alkaloids have three basic categories: dienoid, alkenoid and lactonic alkaloids. Some other different types of Erythrina alkaloids are also reported but they are relatively rare. Generally, Alkenoid and Dienoid alkaloids are more common and widely researched in synthesis and pharmacology studies. Some other special Erythrina and HomoErythrina alkaloids are also identified, and they have generally lactonic and pyridine D rings. Scientists are researching the properties of these alkaloids, mostly to see if there are potential applications on neuroscience. Isolation and synthesis From early research in 1930s of the American biochemist Karl Folkers, it was believed that Erythrina plant's seeds extracts have curare-like action. Other works had shown that the alkaloids could show antiepileptic, anticonvulsant and tranquilizing effects. Some alkaloids with particular bioactivities like Erythraline, plenty of them were first isolated and identified by Venancio Deulofeu in 1947. Even Karl Folkers isolated Erysodine and Erysopine in 1940, but some other free alkaloids still existed in the Erythrina seeds extract mixture. A considerable amount of Erythrina alkaloids were found to be competitive neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors antagonists. Thus, the structures and properties of the alkaloids do inspire new drug development. Till now, 143 compounds in the family are identified from Erythrina. Biosynthesis The biosynthesis pathway of this kind of alkaloid and derivatives was first proposed by D. H. R. Barton and his colleagues in 1968. They had proposed a key 9-membered ring intermediate. They produce erysodienone as the primary Erythrinan derivative. Using the precursor, other kinds of Erythrina alkaloids are produced. Later on, M. H. Zenk revised it and confirmed the 9-membered ring is the biosynthetic pathway in 1999. The biosynthetic pathway showed the precursor of the key intermediate erysodienone had a structure like dopamine, which also can suggest the metabolism was highly related to dopamine, a key signaling molecule in neural system. Chemical synthesis inspired by biosynthesis The pathway had inspired some synthetic chemistry researchers' work to synthesize few other alkaloids in the family. Few works have been reported as the biosynthetic pathway was revealed. In 2016, T. Fukuyama's group developed a concise route to synthesize several Erythrina alkaloids, including erythraline and erystamidine. In fact, since most of the alkenoids and dienoids share the same skeletal structure, the approach can easily get most of the alkaloids with substrate adjustments. Bioactivities In 2013, Tadahiro Etoh and Yong Pil Kim found that transforming growth factor (TGF)-β-activated kinase (TAK1) was one of the target molecules of erythraline likely involved in its anti-inflammatory effect. Therefore, erythraline may show the effect on inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatism and hepatitis, through inhibition of TAK1. Still, few alkaloids showed selectivity for b2-containing nAChRs, particularly thea4b2 subtype. W. P. Santos has reported in vitro and ex vivo anti-cholinesterase activities of Erythrina velutina leaf extracts, containing a relatively high fraction of the alkaloids. Aqueous extract and alkaloids rich extract crossed the blood-brain barrier to inhibit cholinesterase activity in the brain. Aqueous extract and alkaloids rich extract also exhibited a dual inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. M. M. Mohammed's research in 2012 found that crude alkaloidal fraction caused a reduction in the viability of mock-infected MT-4 cells with a CC50 of 53 μM and a 50% protection of MT-4 cells against HIV-1 induced cytopathogenicity with an EC50 of >53 μM, compared with EFV as a positive control, which had a CC50 of 45 μM and an EC50 of 0.003 μM. References Alkaloids found in Fabaceae Erythrina	wiki
Oracle WebLogic – rodzina produktów pierwotnie firmy WebLogic Inc. (przejętej w 1998 r. przez BEA Systems, a następnie w 2008 r. przez Oracle Corporation), będąca prekursorem normy Java EE (dawniej J2EE) i przez wiele lat wiodącą jej implementacją. Zobacz też IBM WebSphere Application Server JBoss Application Server Przypisy Bibliografia Linki zewnętrzne WebLogic Server at Oracle.com Oracle Serwery aplikacji Java Enterprise	wiki
Cricket nets are used by batters and bowlers to practice their cricketing techniques. They consist of a cricket pitch (natural or artificial) enclosed by netting on either side, behind, and optionally above. The bowling end is left open. Nets stop the cricket ball travelling across the field when the batter plays a shot. They save practice time and eliminate the need for fielders or a wicket-keeper. They allow more people to train at once, particularly when they have several lanes. They allow solitary batting practice when used with a bowling machine. Use Nets are fundamental to cricket practice and are used at every level of the game. Professional cricket clubs are likely to have over 10 lanes of nets, and be able to practice both indoors and outdoors. Nets are also very prevalent in educational establishments, as they allow safe and efficient training with a high volume of pupils when there are significant time constraints. Keen cricketers may have nets in their gardens. Nets helps safe practice. By containing most aerial cricket balls, they reduce the potential for injury of bystanders. However, the nets need an opening for the bowler, so it is still common for balls to leave the nets, and shouts of heads up are commonly heard. Types Indoor and outdoor cricket nets differ significantly. Indoor Indoor nets are often suspended on a track (runner) fixed to the ceiling of the sports hall or gymnasium no. The nets can drop 4–8 metres to the ground, and be over 20 metres long. Indoors nets are commonly multi-lane, with two- or four-lane nets being particularly common. Indoor nets tend to be white. They have separate 3-metre-high canvas screens that enclose the area immediately surrounding the batsman, for two reasons. First, the netting near the batsman has by far the highest work rate, and canvas is significantly more durable than mesh netting, so screens improves the nets' lifespan. Second, the batsman is less likely to be distracted. Indoor nets can be suspended on runners, providing a curtain system where they can be pulled in and out of use. This allows the sports facility to be flexible in its use. Outdoor Outdoor nets are the most common form of practice nets. They take many forms, with some being homemade whilst others are professional manufactured and installed. The design and construction of outdoor nets tends to be based around two factors: the frequency and age of those who will use them, and the available space. In schools and cricket clubs where use will be high, construction will be tailored to that. The nets may also need safeguards against misuse or vandalism. Therefore, the frame is often constructed out of heavy-duty galvanised steel tube with an overall diameter ranging from 34 to 50 mm. The tube is then joined by key-clamp brackets. This system requires permanent concrete ground sockets, but the actual frame of the cage can still be dismantled and removed. Outdoor nets can be fitted with wheels to be completely mobile. There are variations in the design of outdoor nets such as use of pulley system where the netting is mounted on a cable that spans posts located at either end. Garden nets are frequently home-made, often to a professional design with locally sourced components. This saves money, and cricket nets have a simple design and purpose, so are not difficult to make. Nets should be no less than 9 ft wide, with 12 ft being optimum. If the nets are under 24 ft long, they should be at least 9 ft high; if under 36 ft long, at least 10 ft high; and 12 ft high if longer than that. This prevents balls ending up on the roof of the nets when bowled. The length is less critical, but the longer the safer. Netting Netting is the most important component. The netting twine is usually made of a synthetic polymer such as polyethylene, which is hardwearing and relatively cheap. Before about 1995, nets were often made from nylon, but this became too expensive. Nets are often black, green or white. The mesh gap is usually 50 mm and the twine will commonly have a diameter of 1.8 to 3.0 mm. Netting may be knotless or knotted: knotted is considered superior. The breaking strength of knotted netting is higher for the same diameter twine. Good twine will be UV stabilized and rot proof. For home-made nets, netting is the only specialist supply. Netting is seamed at its edges to prevent fraying. The seam is usually a 6 mm cord sewn into the netting where it meets a cage or end. Canvas blinkers can be added to offer privacy and to reduce wear. Also, partial canvas skirts of 0.5 m can be added to the bottom to prevent damage from wild animals. In other sports The baseball equivalent is the batting cage, though fundamentally different, as that provides complete ball containment, whereas cricket nets do not. See also Cricket clothing and equipment References External links Directory of cricket clubs and practise facilities England & Wales Cricket Board International Cricket Council MCC Laws of Cricket Nets	wiki
A family of computer models is said to be compatible if certain software that runs on one of the models can also be run on all other models of the family. The computer models may differ in performance, reliability or some other characteristic. These differences may affect the outcome of the running of the software. Software compatibility Software compatibility can refer to the compatibility that a particular software has running on a particular CPU architecture such as Intel or PowerPC. Software compatibility can also refer to ability for the software to run on a particular operating system. Very rarely is a compiled software compatible with multiple different CPU architectures. Normally, an application is compiled for different CPU architectures and operating systems to allow it to be compatible with the different system. Interpreted software, on the other hand, can normally run on many different CPU architectures and operating systems if the interpreter is available for the architecture or operating system. Software incompatibility occurs many times for new software released for a newer version of an operating system which is incompatible with the older version of the operating system because it may miss some of the features and functionality that the software depends on. Hardware compatibility Hardware compatibility can refer to the compatibility of computer hardware components with a particular CPU architecture, bus, motherboard or operating system. Hardware that is compatible may not always run at its highest stated performance, but it can nevertheless work with legacy components. An example is RAM chips, some of which can run at a lower (or sometimes higher) clock rate than rated. Hardware that was designed for one operating system may not work for another, if device or kernel drivers are unavailable. As an example, much of the hardware for macOS is proprietary hardware with drivers unavailable for use in operating systems such as Linux. Free and open-source software See also Binary-code compatibility Compatibility layer Interchangeability Forward compatibility Backward compatibility Cross-platform Emulator List of computer standards Portability Plug compatible Hardware security References Interoperability Computer hardware Software	wiki
Ancient Greek folklore consists of the folklore of the ancient Greeks. The topic includes genres such as mythology (Greek mythology), legend, and folktales. According to classicist William Hansen, "the Greeks and Romans had all the genres of oral narrative known to us, even ghost stories and urban legends, but they also told all kinds that in most of the Western world no longer circulate orally, such as myths and fairytales." Specific genres of folklore have been the topic of scholarly examination, including ghostlore. For example, classicist D. Felton notes that "the Greeks and Romans had many folk-beliefs concerning ghosts", and highlights a variety of instances of the genre in the Classical record. Historically, classicists rarely delved into folklore studies. See also Modern Greek folklore Roman folklore Notes References Folklore Greek folklore	wiki

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