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Sardinia is an island in the Mediterranean Sea.
Sardinia may also refer to:
Island of Sardinia
Politics of Sardinia
Elections in Sardinia
List of presidents of Sardinia
List of political parties in Sardinia
Music of Sardinia
People from Sardinia
History of Sardinia
The Kingdom of Sardinia, a former Spanish and Savoyard kingdom
List of monarchs of Sardinia
List of viceroys of Sardinia
History of mining in Sardinia
History of the Jews in Sardinia
Languages of Sardinia
List of tourist attractions in Sardinia
List of archaeological and artistic sites of Sardinia
Places in the United States
Sardinia, Indiana
Sardinia, New York
Sardinia, Ohio
Other
Sardinia (plant genus), a former genus in the family Rubiaceae
See also
Sardina (disambiguation)
Sardine (disambiguation)
Ichnusa (disambiguation) | wiki |
Chris Tardio – attore statunitense
Giuseppe Tardio – avvocato italiano
Roberto Rojas Tardío – calciatore peruviano | wiki |
Bridge of Hope could refer to:
Bridge of Hope, a bridge across the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Minnesota
A recording by The Alfee, a popular Japanese musical group | wiki |
Neldazosin is an α-adrenoreceptor antagonist.
References
Abandoned drugs
Alpha blockers | wiki |
Artificial hair integrations, more commonly known as hair extensions, hair weaves, and fake hair add length and fullness to human hair. Hair extensions are usually clipped, glued, or sewn on natural hair by incorporating additional human or synthetic hair. These methods include tape-in extensions, clip-in or clip-on extensions, micro/nano rings, fusion method, weaving method, and wigs.
Background
A hair weave is a human or artificial hair utilized for integration with one's natural hair. Weaves can alter one's appearance for long or short periods of time by adding further hair to one's natural hair or by covering the natural hair together with human or synthetic hairpieces. Weaving additional human or synthetic pieces can enhance one's hair by giving it volume and length, and by adding color without the damage of chemicals or by adopting a different hair texture than that of their own. However, hair loss can occur either along the front hairline or above the ears due to the wearing of specific hairstyles for a prolonged period of time, such as weaves. Such hair loss is known as traction alopecia.
By the late 17th century, wigs in various shapes and sizes became the latest fashion trend. Hair weaves in particular, did not grow interested until the 1950s; even during that time celebrities had been the only ones using them. When the "long, disco-haired" era evolved there became a widespread use of hair weave. Since that era, hair weave has only become more popular. Most human hair weaves come from Asian countries like Vietnam, India, and China.
Installation method
Pinchbraid extensions were invented in the 1980s. They are individual locks of hair tied into the native hair with a durable upholstery thread.
Tape-in hair extensions last from four to eight weeks and the hair can be gently combed and washed while wearing the extensions. In addition, the extensions need to be treated with specialized shampoos, conditioners and styling products to keep them in top condition. The extensions can be taken off easily by the application of glue remover and can be easily installed by using liquid adhesive or glue tape.
Clip-in weaves, also known as clip-in hair extensions, can be integrated into natural hair to add length and volume. The clip-in hair extensions most commonly come in as a long strand of one contoured piece that can be cut into multiple layers for creating separate layers on a user's head. When the hair is purchased it often comes with clips, which are sewn into the hair. It is also possible to buy the hair (in bundles) and the clips separately; the clips can then be sewn on by the purchaser or by a stylist.
This technique is the least permanent and lacks the disadvantages such as traction alopecia associated with glue extensions. The hair weft has small toupée clips sewn onto them. Usually a set of clip-in extensions averages eight strips of human hair in varying widths from two inches to eight inches. Starting at the nape of the neck, the hair is sectioned neatly, then the weft is placed onto this section with the clips open and facing the scalp. Each clip is snapped into place. It can be helpful to lightly backcomb each section for a more secure grip. This is repeated until each clip-in weft is in place. Clip-ins can be worn for an entire day; however, some people take them off to sleep.
Bonding is a method of weaving that lasts for a shorter period of time in comparison to sew-in weaving. It involves the application of hair glue to a section of wefted hair then onto a person's natural hair; special hair adhesives are used in bonding to prevent damage to one's natural hair. This technique is commonly used and does not cause damage to the hair unless taken out without proper directions from a professional. It is advised that weave bonding be installed for up to 3 weeks because the glue begins to loosen up and lessens the attractiveness of the hair. There are 2 types of bonding methods: soft bond and hard bond. Soft bond is flexible and comfortable to wear and is made using latex/acrylic based adhesives. Hard bond is the industry term for bonding treatments whose adhesive contains cyanoacrylate, or super glue. Hard bond adhesives last longer than soft bond adhesives because it is not water based and therefore less susceptible to deterioration. Nonetheless, the hard bond adhesives are not as comfortable as the soft bond adhesive because they are rigid. These bond attachments generally last 4–6 weeks before a maintenance appointment is necessary.
Fusion method involves a machine similar to a hot glue gun used to attach human hair extensions to individual strands of one's natural hair of about 1/8 to 1/4 inch squared sections for a truly authentic look. Another option for fusion attachments is using hair which is pre-tipped with a keratin adhesive. A heat clamp is then used to melt the adhesive to attach the extension hair to the natural hair. Fusion weave allows washing hair frequently and the use of regular hair products such as hair gels. This technique is very time consuming taking 3 or more hours. They need re-positioning every 2–3 months as the natural hair grows. Due to various chemicals in the glue, which may cause hair loss and scalp irritation, combined with heat, this method is more damaging to natural hair.
Micro ring (also known as micro-bead or micro loop) hair extensions use small metal rings or beads (usually aluminum) and can sometimes be lined with silicone to attach the extension hair. They are fixed to small sections of natural hair and tightened using a special tool that clamps the bead around the natural hair.
The micro-beads are designed to be small enough so that they are not visible in normal use. They need re-positioning every two to three months as the natural hair grows and the micro-beads move away from the scalp.
As they do not use heat or adhesives, these hair extensions should cause less damage than some types of extensions, if placed correctly and properly taken care of. Today, there are many sizes available for micro rings/beads from about . The sizing makes a difference on the weight of the extensions, the feel, and the visibility. Some micro-beads are so tiny that they mimic a non-surgical hair transplant. The stylist installing the extensions should determine what size of micro rings/beads is best for the client's hair length and texture, prior to installation on the head.
Netting is a technique which involves braiding natural tresses under a thin, breathable net that serves as a flat surface onto which stylists can weave extensions. This method requires the use of hair net or cap to be placed over the person's hair that has been braided. Netting provides more flexibility than track placement because the stylist is not limited to sewing extensions to a braid. With netting there is the option of sewing the hair wefts onto the net or gluing. This technique is not as time-consuming when compared to the other hair techniques because it takes about 2–4 hours to complete.
The most recent development in weave extensions is lace fronts, which are made from a nylon mesh material formed into a cap that is then hand-ventilated by knotting single strands of hair into the tiny openings of the cap, giving the hair a more natural and authentic continuity than typical extensions. It has few variations including straight, wavy and curly. Furthermore, the extension units can be woven in or attached to a person's hairline with special adhesives. To ensure a proper fit, head measurements are taken into account with this type of weave. A lace frontal is best placed by a professional since more advanced weaving and hair extensions are used. This method is commonly used because it makes it possible to have access to a certain part of the scalp.
Tracking involves the braiding of a person's natural hair. This is one of the most commonly used methods as it is quite fast and lasts considerably longer than other techniques. However, it does not allow for regular hair maintenance. In order to prevent the hair from being bumpy or uneven, the hair is sewn horizontally or vertically across the head from one side to the other starting from the bottom. The braided hair is then sewn down and the hair weft extensions are sewn onto the braids. A weave can consist of a few tracks, or the whole head can be braided for a full head weave. With a full head weave, the braids are sewn down or covered with a net. Extensions are then sewn to the braids. The number of tracks used depends on the desired look.
Types of hair
The most popular and commonly available form of hair is known as premium hair. It is sold in most beauty supply stores or online. The roots and tips of hairs are interwoven in premium hair which causes tangling. This is due to the opposing cuticle layers catching onto one another. However, as it is the most inexpensive type of hair, it is a best seller.
Premium hair comes in two types:
Regular premium hair: generally the least expensive type of hair. The cuticles are present in different directions and the hair is prone to tangling.
"Tangle-free" premium hair: this is obtained by chemically removing the cuticles using an acid bath. This process reduces the friction among hairs, leaving the remaining hair tangle-free. In order to give the appearance of natural healthy hair, a laminate is applied to the hair to give it a shiny and silky look.
Synthetic fiber
Synthetic fibers are made of various different materials and contain no human hair. Synthetic fibers come in weave (weft) and single strands (bulk) for braids. They do not last as long as human hair because they can be easily damaged by friction and heat. The quality of fibers varies greatly. Depending on quality, they may never look like human hair, as they can be stiff and move differently from human hair. Synthetic fibers are much less expensive than human hair. Heating appliances such as curling irons, flat irons, and straightening combs generally should never be used on most types of synthetic hair. There are some newer versions of synthetic fibers that are more resistant, human-like fibers that can be heat processed allowing for heat styling.
Futura
Futura is a type of synthetic fiber that can withstand heat up to 400 °F (200 °C), and can actually outlast human hair. It is very similar to human hair given it is tangle-free and has a natural sheen. It can be straightened or curled, however, it takes longer to set and futura cannot be colored. It is sometimes sold as a human hair blend.
Human hair
The human hair shaft is made up of dead, hard protein, called keratin, in three layers. The inner layer is called the medulla and may not be present. The next layer is the cortex and the outer layer is the cuticle. The cortex makes up the majority of the hair shaft. The cuticle is formed by tightly packed scales in an overlapping structure similar to roof shingles. Most hair-conditioning products attempt to affect the cuticle. There are pigment cells that are distributed throughout the cortex, giving the hair its characteristic color. The cuticle is a hard shingle-like layer of overlapping cells, some five to twelve deep, formed from dead cells that form scales which give the hair shaft strength and protect the inner structure of the hair. The hair cuticle is the first line of defense against all forms of damage; it acts as a protective barrier for the softer inner structures, including the medulla and cortex.
The cuticle is responsible for much of the mechanical strength of the hair fiber. A healthy cuticle is more than just a protective layer, as the cuticle also controls the water content of the fiber. Much of the shine that makes healthy hair so attractive is due to the cuticle. In the hair industry, the only way to obtain the very best hair (with cuticle intact and facing the same direction) is to use the services of "hair collectors," who cut the hair directly from people's heads, and bundle it as ponytails. This hair is called virgin cuticle hair, or just cuticle hair.
*Hair extensions made of true virgin, raw (cuticle) hair have the most durability and ease of use as the integrity of the hair has not been broken or altered by the method of collection. This continues to be true if this hair is then simply wefted or sewn on a track, without any processed chemical or steamed done on the hair.
Human hair industry
The selling of human hair for weaves, wigs, and other hair styling products is an industry that generates hundreds of millions of dollars annually and is growing as a large export economy in some Asian countries, such as India, at a rate of 10–30 percent annually. In India, a large portion of the hair is sourced from Hindu temples where hair is donated for religious practices, particularly in honor of the Hindu god venkateswara swamy (Balaji). This hair is highly sought out for its 'virgin', untreated qualities, as well as its great length. From there the hair is cleaned and the color can be altered for international style tastes.
Color, texture and quality
Color
Artificial hair colors:
Manufacturers of artificial hair use a standard scale to classify the hair by color. The lower the number on the package, generally, the darker the color. 1 usually denotes darkest black, and would become lighter with increasing number value, ending at the lightest blonde, then finally white. These colors vary greatly from one manufacturer to another, and certain specialty hair suppliers also create their own signature patterns and colors.
Human hair colors:
Come in an endless variety from platinum blonde to darkest natural black. True raw blonde human hair is scarce and is highly sought after.
Textures of human and artificial hair
Textures of artificial hair vary from very straight to extremely curly, or kinky. The exact names of curl patterns vary by brand, and the possibilities of curl patterns with synthetic hair are endless, but some examples of packaged textures include:
Silky straight - straight and smooth, East Asian-like hair.
Yaki - straight, usually mimicking the texture of relaxed Afro-Caribbean hair.
Deep wave - while generally not a true 'wave', it can be made to look like spiral curls/3a hair.
Loose deep wave or romance wave - looser version of the deep wave, softer, more romantic curls.
Kinky curly (very tightly coiled "s" or "z" shaped curl pattern ) - often used to recreate the look of natural Afro-Caribbean hair.
Wet and wavy, can be packaged as Spanish wave or Indian wave - usually human hair is used, and is either naturally curly or permanently waved to appear so. Characterized as having soft, natural-looking curls that revert to a curly state when wet, characteristic of South Asian and Latin American hair.
Textures of human hair vary from very straight to extremely curly or kinky, and all the naturally occurring textures that are in-between. The exact curl patterns vary by person and so the possibilities of curl patterns with true raw hair are endless.
Coarse or smooth straight - Straight with or without a wave.
Curly wave - similar to the look and feel of spiral curls/3a hair.
Deep wave - looser version of the deep wave.
Kinky curly (very tightly coiled "s" or "z" shaped curl pattern ) - It is often used to recreate the look of natural Afro-Caribbean hair.
Hair preparation terminology
Virgin hair is hair that hasn't been colored or processed in any way and may or may not still be growing from the head. This should include any steam processes.
Raw hair is hair that also has not been colored or processed in any way. This includes steam processes. Some consider this to be less evasive and not actually processed as the raw or virgin undergoes a multiple day steaming process to create long-lasting curls or wave patterns without the damage of chemicals. This process guarantees consistent curls and waves that have a uniform texture. Premium raw or virgin hair has had absolutely no processes of any sort including steam done on the hair. This is essential as true premium raw/virgin hair has a naturally occurring texture that when matched to the owner of the raw/virgin hair extensions creates a look that is unbeatable in look and feel.
Remy hair is the modern spelling of the word 'remis', which derives from the French verb 'remettre' (meaning 'to put back'). Historically, it meant that all hair (human or animal) in any given bundle was 'put back' to the original direction it grew in (i.e. when there was no 'upside-down' or inverted hair), and that it was thereby re-aligned root to point (tip). Over time, its meaning along with its spelling has changed. Today it means that the hair in question was never inverted in the first place because it had been cut from the donor and kept in its original grown alignment. However, nowadays the word 'remy' does not always mean that a bundle of hair is indeed non-inverted, as the majority of the factories that produce wigs tend to sell incorrectly labelled products. Very often the hair gets passed on as "remy" owing to the fact that most people, including many hair professionals, are unable to detect the difference. To do so, one needs to receive special training to "feel" the cuticles of hair. Whereas real remy hair preparation requires intensive labor and high skills, many so-called 'remy' hair products have been simply acid-treated in factories to have a large portion of the cuticles removed, so that tangling could be prevented.
Single drawn or double drawn hair may be produced from any ponytail or group of ponytails. The single drawn bundles will result in only the shortest hairs being removed from the original ponytail. The amount of shortest hairs removed depends upon the hair preparers' (workers') instructions. The equipment used is a hackle and not a drawing board (or drawing mat). The single drawn hair bundle will contain a variety of different hair strand lengths, only the very shortest having been removed. It is commonplace in the hair extension industry to call any hair 'single drawn' regardless of whether it has been drawn at all. The quality of the hair itself is irrelevant to the drawing process. It is generally of a lower price bracket than double-drawn hair due to shorter hair still being contained within.
Double drawn indicates the manual hand process of sorting any given amount of hair into its various lengths and later retying accordingly into new bundles. The equipment used is a pair of drawing boards (or drawing mats). The result being that each new bundle formed contains only the same lengths of hair strands. The term 'double' is used because the process involves drawing (pulling out) the hair from drawing boards (or drawing mats) twice. The hair is drawn first in one direction and then afterwards in the other direction. Double drawn hair will have (nearly) as many hair strands at one end as the other and appear much thicker and not wispy at the end. This process is very laborious, and therefore makes the hair very expensive. There are not many articles available to explain this precise procedure due to industry secrecy. It is commonplace in the hair extension industry to call any hair 'double drawn', even when it isn't. It is likely that hair labeled as 'double drawn' has not been drawn at all.
Methods of integration
The misnomer of 'tracks' comes from the common, long-lasting method of integrating wefts, known as the 'track and sew' method. The 'tracks' are usually cornrows, braided in the direction of how the hair will fall. Toward the face or away, with or without a part, the tracks build the foundation of how the end result will look. The wefts are then sewn onto the braids, usually with a specially made, blunt-ended needle. The needle can be curved or straight. There are many different colors of specially-made thread to choose from, depending on what color of hair you will be integrating. Darker hair lends to darker thread. When the hair is braided at a high level of tension, the client is at risk for traction alopecia.
Wefts may also be bonded directly to the clients' hair using special bonding glue. Care must be taken not to bond the wefts directly to the scalp, as it can cause sensitivities in some clients. A patch test is frequently recommended, as per manufacturer's directions. Glue has become less popular since it was discovered that glue can cause severe and often permanent health issues such as headaches, bald spots and dermatitis.
The "invisible part" is a technique used by hair stylists that hides any evidence that the person is wearing an extension. The extension will appear as if it is growing directly from the person's scalp. This look can be achieved with either the sew-in or glue method. This technique allows a long lasting method of attaching commercial hair to the natural hair. Application generally takes about an hour. It will last about 8 weeks.
Bulk hair can also be bonded to the hair, using many different methods, from clips to adhesive.
In South East Asia, the practical method of lengthening-re-bondage has been in use since the mid-19th century. The lengthening-re-bondage method consists of two treatments. The first treatment consists of re-bonding and ironing. The second treatment of lengthening-re-bondage involves gentle pulling and tugging of the hair. These two treatments are highly effective in lengthening hair without causing serious damage.
Bulk hair can also be added with thread if bonding is not suitable. This may be because the wearer has excessively oily hair or because there is a need to wash hair daily. Adding hair extensions with thread means that damage to the natural hair can be avoided and that the hair extension attachment areas are not vulnerable to external elements like heat, oils and water.
Shampooing and styling of integrations
Shampooing of artificial hair integrations can be as easy as shampooing real hair, with some considerations. For instance, many manufacturers suggest using a mild shampoo, or even a wig shampoo.
Directions included with the integrations may indicate what type of shampoo to use; the methods of brushing, combing and drying that are most advisable; and what heat setting to use when drying the hair, or if it is even advisable to do so.
The same care taken when shampooing must also be used when styling artificial hair. It is often recommended that the texture of hair purchased should be the style in which the hair is worn. Using heat to straighten curly hair, or to curl straight hair, damages it. The more damage the hair sustains, the shorter the lifespan of the artificial hair.
Most human hair extensions can be treated as real hair, albeit more gently. *Since human hair extensions are usually heavily processed to achieve uniform color and texture, a mild shampoo is recommended, along with a light conditioner to reduce tangling. When shampooing it is suggested that a sulfate-free and alcohol-free product be used, since those contents cause frizz and dry out the hair. Cool water is also recommended when shampooing, to reduce or prevent matting and excessive tangling. Having to remove snarls and tangles loosens the foundation of the integrations and further damages the hair. It is best to shampoo the hair in a top down motion.
*An important factor concerning the care of true, raw (remy, virgin) human hair extensions, since this hair has had absolutely no processes, chemical or steam done, is that these extensions are simply human hair and can be simply shampooed or washed as much as desired.
Human rights
In July 2020 American authorities seized 11.8 tons of natural hair products which had allegedly been produced in the Xinjiang re-education camps by slave labor. The products were seized at the border in New York due to the suspected human rights violations associated with their production.
See also
List of hairstyles
References
Further reading
External links
Hairstyles
Wigs
Human appearance
Articles containing video clips
Cultural appropriation | wiki |
Interstate 80N is a former designation in Ohio. It ran along what is now the following highways (Italics denote never-built roads):
from near Milan to Elyria
alone from Elyria to Cleveland
The entire length of I-490
A short portion of unbuilt I-290
A section of unbuilt highway connecting to Interstate 480
from Maple Heights to I-480's east terminus
A section of unbuilt highway connecting to mainline I-80, which is now Interstate 76
Interstate 80N ended at a junction with the mainline route of I-80 around Ravenna. The road at which I-80N ended is now Interstate 76.
See also
List of Interstate Highways in Ohio
External links
80N
N (Ohio)
Cleveland area expressways
Transportation in Cleveland
80N | wiki |
JFK Airport station may refer to:
New York City Subway
Howard Beach–JFK Airport station
Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport station
See also
Jamaica station
JFK Airport | wiki |
Le Fils may refer to:
The Son (2002 film), 2002 Belgian-French mystery film directed by Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne.
The Son (Zeller play), 2018 play by Florian Zeller
Le Fils, 1973 French film directed by Pierre Granier-Deferre
Le Fils, 1957 novel by Georges Simenon
Le Fils, 2011 novel by Michel Rostain | wiki |
In computing, an input device is a piece of equipment used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system, such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, cameras, joysticks, and microphones.
Input devices can be categorized based on:
modality of input (e.g., mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)
whether the input is discrete (e.g., pressing of key) or continuous (e.g., a mouse's position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)
the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g., two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications)
Keyboard
A keyboard is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each button, or key, can be used to either input an alphanumeric character to a computer, or to call upon a particular function of the computer. It acts as the main text entry interface for most users.
Types
Keyboards are available in many form factors, depending on the use case. Standard keyboards can be categorized by its size and number of keys, and the type of switch it employs. Other keyboards cater to specific use cases, such as a numeric keypad or a keyer.
Desktop keyboards are typically large, often have full key travel distance, and features such as multimedia keys and a numeric keypad. Keyboards on laptops and tablets typically compromise on comfort to achieve a thin figure.
There are various switch technologies used in modern keyboards, such as mechanical switches (which use springs), scissor switches (usually found on a laptop keyboard), or a membrane.
Other keyboards do not have physical keys, such as a virtual keyboard, or a projection keyboard.
Ergonomic keyboard A keyboard placing design emphasis on ergonomics and comfort.
Chorded keyboard A keyboard used by pressing several keys together.
Thumb keyboard A miniature keyboard found in PDAs and mobile phones.
Keyer A chorded keyboard without the board.
Numeric keypad While some keyboards include a them (commonly found at the right side), numeric keypads can be found as independent devices.
Pointing device
A pointing device allows a user to input spatial data to a computer. It is commonly used as a simple and intuitive way to select items on a computer screen on a graphical user interface (GUI), either by moving a mouse pointer, or, in the case of a touch screen, by physically touching the item on screen. Common pointing devices include mice, touchpads, and touch screens.
Whereas mice operate by detecting their displacement on a surface, analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection.
Types
Pointing devices can be classified on:
Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the pointer appears. Touchscreens and light pens involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input include the mouse and trackball.
Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g., with a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)
Direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be either absolute or relative. For example, digitizing graphics tablets that do not have an embedded screen involve indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an absolute input mode, but they may also be set up to simulate a relative input mode like that of a touchpad, where the stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned. Embedded LCD tablets, which are also referred to as graphics tablet monitors, are the extension of digitizing graphics tablets. They enable users to see the real-time positions via the screen while being used.
mouse A hand-held pointing device that is moved across a surface.
touchpad or trackpad A flat surface operated by moving a finger across its surface.
touch screen A layer placed over a computer screen, used by physically touching it.
trackball Similar to a mouse, a trackball has a ball held by a socket. Instead of moving the mouse, the user rolls the ball with their finger.
graphics tablet, digitizer, or drawing tablet A flat surface on which a pen is used, usually to draw images or capture signatures.
Sensors
A sensor is an input device which produces data based on physical properties.
Sensors are commonly found in mobile devices to detect their physical orientation and acceleration, but may also be found in desktop computers in the form of a thermometer used to monitor system temperature.
Types
Accelerometer Detects acceleration.
Gyroscope Detects spatial orientation.
Magnetometer Similar to a compass, a magnetometer senses magnetic heading.
Proximity sensor Detects whether an object is in proximity.
Barometer Measures atmospheric pressure. May be used to determine elevation above sea level.
Ultrasonic transducer Detects movement and range of objects using ultrasound.
LIDAR Detects the range of objects using laser.
Thermometer Measures temperature. Usually uses a thermistor or thermocouple.
Some sensors can be built with MEMS, which allows them to be microscopic in size.
High-degree of freedom input devices
Some devices allow many continuous degrees of freedom as input. These can be used as pointing devices, but are generally used in ways that don't involve pointing to a location in space, such as the control of a camera angle while in 3D applications. These kinds of devices are typically used in virtual reality systems (CAVEs), where input that registers six degrees of freedom is required.
Composite devices
Input devices, such as buttons and joysticks, can be combined on a single physical device that could be thought of as a composite device. Many gaming devices have controllers like this. Technically mice are composite devices, as they both track movement and provide buttons for clicking, but composite devices are generally considered to have more than two different forms of input.
Types
Joystick Consists of a stick pivoting on a stationary base.
Gamepad, or joypad Hand held device often used to play modern video games.
Paddle A paddle could be a game controller consisting of a dial and a button, or an input device such as a Griffin PowerMate or a Microsoft Surface Dial.
Racing wheel An imitation steering wheel that can be used to play racing video games.
Wii Remote A remote control used with the Nintendo Wii video game console which integrates an accelerometer and pointing capabilities.
Video input devices
Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats depending on the user's requirement.
Many video input devices use a camera sensor.
Types
Digital camera
Digital camcorder
Portable media player
Webcam
Microsoft Kinect Sensor
Image scanner
Fingerprint scanner
Barcode reader
3D scanner
Laser rangefinder
Eye gaze tracker
Voice recorder
Voice input devices are used to capture sound. In some cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound. Audio input devices allow a user to send audio info to a computer for processing, recording, or carrying out commands. Devices such as microphones allow users to speak to the computer in order to record a voice message or navigate software. Aside from recording, audio input devices are also used with speech recognition software.
Types
Microphones
MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument
Punched paper
Punched cards and punched tapes were much used in the 20th century. A punched hole represented a one; its absence represented a zero. There were mechanical and optical readers.
Other types
Gesture recognition
Digital pen
Magnetic ink character recognition
Sip-and-puff#Computer input device
See also
Output device
Peripheral
Sensor
Display device
References
General references
Further reading
N. P. Milner. 1988
A review of human performance and preferences with different input devices to computer systems. In Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the British Computer Society on People and computers IV, D. M. Jones and R. Winder (Eds.). Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 341–362.
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
Brefonalol is a beta-adrenergic antagonist that reduces heart frequency and blood pressure and dilates blood vessels. It has been studied in around 1990, but is not known to be marketed .
References
Beta blockers
2-Quinolones
Phenylethanolamines | wiki |
The Common Access Card, also commonly referred to as the CAC, is a smart card about the size of a credit card. It is the standard identification for Active Duty United States Defense personnel, to include the Selected Reserve and National Guard, United States Department of Defense (DoD) civilian employees, United States Coast Guard (USCG) civilian employees and eligible DoD and USCG contractor personnel. It is also the principal card used to enable physical access to buildings and controlled spaces, and it provides access to defense computer networks and systems. It also serves as an identification card under the Geneva Conventions (especially the Third Geneva Convention). In combination with a personal identification number, a CAC satisfies the requirement for two-factor authentication: something the user knows combined with something the user has. The CAC also satisfies the requirements for digital signature and data encryption technologies: authentication, integrity and non-repudiation.
The CAC is a controlled item. As of 2008, DoD has issued over 17 million smart cards. This number includes reissues to accommodate changes in name, rank, or status and to replace lost or stolen cards. As of the same date, approximately 3.5 million unterminated or active CACs are in circulation. DoD has deployed an issuance infrastructure at over 1,000 sites in more than 25 countries around the world and is rolling out more than one million card readers and associated middleware.
Issuance
The CAC is issued to Active United States Armed Forces (Regular, Reserves and National Guard) in the Department of Defense and the U.S. Coast Guard; DoD civilians; USCG civilians; non-DoD/other government employees and State Employees of the National Guard; and eligible DoD and USCG contractors who need access to DoD or USCG facilities and/or DoD computer network systems:
Active Duty U.S. Armed Forces (to include Cadets and Midshipmen of the U.S. Service Academies)
Reserve members of the U.S. Armed Forces
National Guard (Army National Guard and Air National Guard) members of the U.S. Armed Forces
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
United States Public Health Service
Emergency-Essential Employees
Contingency Contractor Employees
Contracted college & university ROTC Cadets and Midshipmen
Deployed Overseas Civilians
Non-Combatant Personnel
DoD/Uniformed Service Civilians residing on military installations in CONUS, Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, or Guam
DoD/Uniformed Service Civilians or Contracted Civilian residing in a foreign country for at least 365 days
Presidential Appointees approved by the United States Senate
DoD Civilian employees, and United States Military veterans with a Veterans Affairs Disability rating of 100% P&T
Eligible DoD and USCG Contractor Employees
Non-DoD/other government and state employees of the National Guard
Future plans include the ability to store additional information through the incorporation of RFID chips or other contactless technology to allow seamless access to DoD facilities.
The program that is currently used to issue CAC IDs is called the Real-Time Automated Personnel Identification System (RAPIDS). RAPIDS interfaces with the Joint Personnel Adjudication System (JPAS), and uses this system to verify that the candidate has passed a background investigation and FBI fingerprint check. Applying for a CAC requires DoD form 1172-2 to be filled out and then filed with RAPIDS.
The system is secure and monitored by the DoD at all times. Different RAPIDS sites have been set up throughout military installations in and out of combat theater to issue new cards.
Design
On the front of the card, the background shows the phrase "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE" repeated across the card. A color photo of the owner is placed on the top left corner. Below the photo is the name of the owner. The top right corner displays the expiration date. Other information on the front include (if applicable) the owner's pay grade, rank and federal identifier. A PDF417 stacked two-dimensional barcode is displayed on the bottom left corner. And, an integrated circuit chip (ICC) is placed near the bottom-middle of the card.
There are three color code schemes used on the front of the CAC. A blue bar across the owner's name shows that the owner is a non-U.S. citizen. A green bar shows that the owner is a contractor. No bar is for all other personnel—including military personnel and civil workers, among others.
The back of the card has a ghost image of the owner. And if applicable, the card also contains the date of birth, blood type, DoD benefits number, Geneva Convention category, and DoD Identification Number (also used as the Geneva Convention number, replacing the previously used Social Security Number). The DoD number is also known as the Electronic data interchange Personal Identifier (EDIPI). A Code 39 linear barcode, as well as a magnetic strip is placed on the top and bottom of the card. The DoD ID/EDIPI number stays with the owner throughout his or her career with the DoD or USCG, even when he or she changes armed services or other departments within the DoD or the USCG. For retired U.S. military personnel who subsequently become DoD or USCG civilians or DoD or USCG contractors, the DoD ID/EDIPI Number on their CAC will be the same as on their DD Form 2 Retired ID Card. For non-military spouses, unremarried former spouses, and widows/widowers of active, Reserve or Retired U.S. military personnel who themselves become DoD or USCG civilians or DoD or USCG contractors, the DoD ID/EDIPI Number on their CAC will be the same as on their DD 1173 Uniformed Services Privilege and Identification Card (e.g., Dependent ID card).
The front of the CAC is fully laminated, while the back is only laminated in the lower half (to avoid interference with the magnetic stripe).
The CAC is said to be resistant to identity fraud, tampering, counterfeiting, and exploitation and provides an electronic means of rapid authentication.
There are currently four different variants of CACs. The Geneva Conventions Identification Card is the most common CAC and is given to active duty/reserve armed forces and uniformed service members. The Geneva Convention Accompany Forces Card is issued to emergency-essential civilian personnel. The ID and Privilege Common Access Card is for civilians residing on military installations. The ID card is for DOD/Government Agency identification for civilian employees.
Encryption
Until 2008, all CACs were encrypted using 1,024-bit encryption. Starting 2008, the DoD switched to 2,048-bit encryption. Personnel with the older CACs had to get new CACs by the deadline. On October 1, 2012, all certificates encrypted with less than 2,048-bits were placed on revocation status, rendering legacy CACs useless except for visual identification.
Usage
The CAC is designed to provide two-factor authentication: what you have (the physical card) and what you know (the PIN). This CAC technology allows for rapid authentication, and enhanced physical and logical security. The card can be used in a variety of ways.
Visual identification
The CAC can be used for visual identification by way of matching the color photo with the owner. This is used for when the user passes through a guarded gate, or purchases items from a store, such as a PX/BX that require a level of privileges to use the facility. Some states allow the CAC to be used as a government-issued ID card, such as for voting or applying for a drivers license.
Magnetic stripe
The magnetic stripe can be read by swiping the card through a magnetic stripe reader, much like a credit card. The magnetic stripe is actually blank when the CAC is issued. However, its use is reserved for localized physical security systems. The magnetic stripe was removed first quarter 2018.
Integrated circuit chip (ICC)
The integrated circuit chip (ICC) contains information about the owner, including the PIN and one or more PKI digital certificates. The ICC comes in different capacities, with the more recent versions issued at 64 and 144 kilobytes (KB).
The CAC can be used for access into computers and networks equipped with one or more of a variety of smartcard readers. Once inserted into the reader, the device asks the user for a PIN. Once the PIN is entered, the PIN is matched with the stored PIN on the CAC. If successful, the EDIPI number is read off the ID certificate on the card, and then sent to a processing system where the EDIPI number is matched with an access control system, such as Active Directory or LDAP. The DoD standard is that after three incorrect PIN attempts, the chip on the CAC will lock.
The EDIPI number is stored in a PKI certificate. Depending on the owner, the CAC contains one or three PKI certificates. If the CAC is used for identification purposes only, an ID certificate is all that is needed. However, in order to access a computer, sign a document, or encrypt email, signature and encryption certificates are also required.
A CAC works in virtually all modern computer operating systems. Besides the reader, drivers and middleware are also required in order to read and process a CAC. The only approved Microsoft Windows middleware for CAC is ActivClient—available only to authorized DoD personnel. Other non-Windows alternatives include LPS-Public—a non-hard drive based solution.
DISA now requires all DoD-based intranet sites to provide user authentication by way of a CAC in order to access the site. Authentication systems vary depending on the type of system, such as Active Directory, RADIUS, or other access control list.
CAC is based on X.509 certificates with software middleware enabling an operating system to interface with the card via a hardware card reader. Although card manufacturers such as Schlumberger provided a suite of smartcard, hardware card reader and middleware for both Linux and Windows, not all other CAC systems integrators did likewise. In an attempt to correct this situation, Apple Federal Systems has done work for adding some support for Common Access Cards to their later Snow Leopard operating system updates out of the box using the MUSCLE (Movement for the Use of Smartcards in a Linux Environment) project. The procedure for this was documented historically by the Naval Postgraduate School in the publication "CAC on a Mac" although today the school uses commercial software. According to the independent military testers and help desks, not all cards are supported by the open source code associated with Apple's work, particularly the recent CACNG or CAC-NG PIV II CAC cards. Third party support for CAC Cards on the Mac are available from vendors such as Centrify and Thursby Software. Apple's Federal Engineering Management suggest not using the out-of-the-box support in Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard but instead supported third party solutions. Mac OS X 10.7 Lion has no native smart card support. Thursby's PKard for iOS software extends CAC support to Apple iPads and iPhones. Some work has also been done in the Linux realm. Some users are using the MUSCLE project combined with Apple's Apple Public Source Licensed Common Access Card software. Another approach to solve this problem, which is now well documented, involves the use of a new project, CoolKey, to gain Common Access Card functionality. This document is available publicly from the Naval Research Laboratory's Ocean Dynamics and Predictions Branch. The Software Protection Initiative offers a LiveCD with CAC middleware and DoD certificate within a browser-focused, minimized Linux OS, called LPS-Public that works on x86 Windows, Mac, and Linux computers.
Bar codes
The CAC has two types of bar codes: PDF417 in the front and Code 39 in the rear.
PDF417 Sponsor Barcode
PDF417 Dependent Barcode
RFID technology
There are also some security risks in RFID. To prevent theft of information in RFID, in November 2010, 2.5 million radio frequency shielding sleeves were delivered to the DoD, and another roughly 1.7 million more were to be delivered the following January 2011. RAPIDS ID offices worldwide are required to issue a sleeve with every CAC. When a CAC is placed in a holder along with other RFID cards, it can also cause problems, such as attempting to open a door with an access card when it is in the same holder as a CAC. Despite these challenges at least one civilian organization, NOAA, uses the RFID technology to access facilities nationwide. Access is usually granted after first removing the CAC from the RF shield and then holding it against a reader either mounted on a wall or located on a pedestal. Once the CAC is authenticated to a local security server either the door will release or a signal will be displayed to security guards to grant access to the facility.
Common problems
The ICC is fragile and regular wear can make the card unusable. Older cards tend to de-laminate with repeated insertion/removal from readers, but this problem appears to be less significant with the newer (PIV-compliant) cards. Also, the gold contacts on the ICC can become dirty and require cleaning with either solvents or a rubber pencil eraser.
Fixing or replacing a CAC typically requires access to a RAPIDS facility, causing some practical problems. In remote locations around the world without direct Internet access or physical access to a RAPIDS facility, a CAC is rendered useless if the card expires, or if the maximum number of re-tries of the PIN is reached. Based on the regulations for CAC use, a user on TAD / TDY must visit a RAPIDS facility to replace or unlock a CAC, usually requiring travel to another geographical location or even returning to one's home location. The CAC PMO has also created a CAC PIN Reset workstation capable of resetting a locked CAC PIN.
For some DoD networks, Active Directory (AD) is used to authenticate users. Access to the computer's parent Active Directory is required when attempting to authenticate with a CAC for a given computer, for the first time. Use of, for example a field replaced laptop computer that was not prepared with the user's CAC before shipment would be impossible to use without some form of direct access to Active Directory beforehand. Other remedies include establishing contact with the intranet by using public broadband Internet and then VPN to the intranet, or even satellite Internet access via a VSAT system when in locations where telecommunications is not available, such as in a natural disaster location.
See also
References
External links
Identity documents of the United States
Smart cards
United States Department of Defense publications | wiki |
Stitches () is a 2011 Israeli short film directed by Adiya Imri Orr. It had its world premiere at the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival. The film was named a critics choice, and received the festival's 2012 Student Visionary Award.
Synopsis
Amit and Noa are life partners in their 30s. While in the hospital after the birth of their first daughter, the women finally tell the truth to each other.
Cast
Riki Blich - Amit
Itzik Golan - Shaul - Piper
Shira Katznlanbogen - Noa
References
External links
2011 films
2011 drama films
2011 LGBT-related films
2010s Hebrew-language films
Israeli LGBT-related films
Israeli short films
Lesbian-related films
Student films
2011 short films
Israeli drama films | wiki |
Stages: Three Days in Mexico es un DVD oficial lanzado por Britney Spears en el año 2002. El DVD contiene el detrás de escena de Britney Spears durante su "Dream Within A Dream" Tour y cierre en la Ciudad de México. Cuando ella estaba punto de cumplir los 21 años de edad.
Contenido
"Stages: Three Days In Mexico"
Cobertura de la estancia de Britney Spears en la Ciudad de México.
"Stages" Interactive Photobook
Special Features
"Britney In Japan" Featurette
Interviews (Big Rob, Felicia, Richard Channer)
Características del DVD
Género: Documental
Idioma: Inglés
Formato: NTSC
Región: Región 2
Videoálbumes de Britney Spears
Videoálbumes de 2002 | wiki |
Cicloprolol is a beta-adrenoceptor antagonist.
Synthesis
See also
Betaxolol
References
Beta blockers
Cyclopropanes
N-isopropyl-phenoxypropanolamines | wiki |
Pleasure refers to experience that feels good, that involves the enjoyment of something. It contrasts with pain or suffering, which are forms of feeling bad. It is closely related to value, desire and action: humans and other conscious animals find pleasure enjoyable, positive or worthy of seeking. A great variety of activities may be experienced as pleasurable, like eating, having sex, listening to music or playing games. Pleasure is part of various other mental states such as ecstasy, euphoria and flow. Happiness and well-being are closely related to pleasure but not identical with it. There is no general agreement as to whether pleasure should be understood as a sensation, a quality of experiences, an attitude to experiences or otherwise. Pleasure plays a central role in the family of philosophical theories known as hedonism.
Overview
"Pleasure" refers to experience that feels good, that involves the enjoyment of something. The term is primarily used in association with sensory pleasures like the enjoyment of food or sex. But in its most general sense, it includes all types of positive or pleasant experiences including the enjoyment of sports, seeing a beautiful sunset or engaging in an intellectually satisfying activity. Pleasure contrasts with pain or suffering, which are forms of feeling bad. Both pleasure and pain come in degrees and have been thought of as a dimension going from positive degrees through a neutral point to negative degrees. This assumption is important for the possibility of comparing and aggregating the degrees of pleasure of different experiences, for example, in order to perform the Utilitarian calculus.
The concept of pleasure is similar but not identical to the concepts of well-being and of happiness. These terms are used in overlapping ways, but their meanings tend to come apart in technical contexts like philosophy or psychology. Pleasure refers to a certain type of experience while well-being is about what is good for a person. Many philosophers agree that pleasure is good for a person and therefore is a form of well-being. But there may be other things besides or instead of pleasure that constitute well-being, like health, virtue, knowledge or the fulfillment of desires. On some conceptions, happiness is identified with "the individual’s balance of pleasant over unpleasant experience". Life satisfaction theories, on the other hand, hold that happiness involves having the right attitude towards one's life as a whole. Pleasure may have a role to play in this attitude, but it is not identical to happiness.
Pleasure is closely related to value, desire, motivation and right action. There is broad agreement that pleasure is valuable in some sense. Axiological hedonists hold that pleasure is the only thing that has intrinsic value. Many desires are concerned with pleasure. Psychological hedonism is the thesis that all our actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain. Freud's pleasure principle ties pleasure to motivation and action by holding that there is a strong psychological tendency to seek pleasure and to avoid pain. Classical utilitarianism connects pleasure to ethics in stating that whether an action is right depends on the pleasure it produces: it should maximize the sum-total of pleasure.
Sources and types of pleasure
Many pleasurable experiences are associated with satisfying basic biological drives, such as eating, exercise, hygiene, sleep, and sex. The appreciation of cultural artifacts and activities such as art, music, dancing, and literature is often pleasurable. Pleasure is sometimes subdivided into fundamental pleasures that are closely related to survival (food, sex, and social belonging) and higher-order pleasures (e.g., viewing art and altruism). Bentham listed 14 kinds of pleasure; sense, wealth, skill, amity, a good name, power, piety, benevolence, malevolence, memory, imagination, expectation, pleasures dependent on association, and the pleasures of relief. Some commentators see 'complex pleasures' including wit and sudden realisation, and some see a wide range of pleasurable feelings.
Theories of pleasure
Pleasure comes in various forms, for example, in the enjoyment of food, sex, sports, seeing a beautiful sunset or engaging in an intellectually satisfying activity. Theories of pleasure try to determine what all these pleasurable experiences have in common, what is essential to them. They are traditionally divided into quality theories and attitude theories. An alternative terminology refers to these theories as phenomenalism and intentionalism. Quality theories hold that pleasure is a quality of pleasurable experiences themselves while attitude theories state that pleasure is in some sense external to the experience since it depends on the subject's attitude to the experience. More recently, dispositional theories have been proposed that incorporate elements of both traditional approaches.
Quality theories
In everyday language, the term "pleasure" is primarily associated with sensory pleasures like the enjoyment of food or sex. One traditionally important quality-theory closely follows this association by holding that pleasure is a sensation. On the simplest version of the sensation theory, whenever we experience pleasure there is a distinctive pleasure-sensation present. So a pleasurable experience of eating chocolate involves a sensation of the taste of chocolate together with a pleasure-sensation. An obvious shortcoming of this theory is that many impressions may be present at the same time. For example, there may be an itching sensation as well while eating the chocolate. But this account cannot explain why the enjoyment is linked to the taste of the chocolate and not to the itch. Another problem is due to the fact that sensations are usually thought of as localized somewhere in the body. But considering the pleasure of seeing a beautiful sunset, there seems to be no specific region in the body at which we experience this pleasure.
These problems can be avoided by felt-quality-theories, which see pleasure not as a sensation but as an aspect qualifying sensations or other mental phenomena. As an aspect, pleasure is dependent on the mental phenomenon it qualifies, it cannot be present on its own. Since the link to the enjoyed phenomenon is already built into the pleasure, it solves the problem faced by sensation theories to explain how this link comes about. It also captures the intuition that pleasure is usually pleasure of something: enjoyment of drinking a milkshake or of playing chess but not just pure or object-less enjoyment. According to this approach, pleasurable experiences differ in content (drinking a milkshake, playing chess) but agree in feeling or hedonic tone. Pleasure can be localized, but only to the extent that the impression it qualifies is localized.
One objection to both the sensation theory and the felt-quality theory is that there is no one quality shared by all pleasure-experiences. The force of this objection comes from the intuition that the variety of pleasure-experiences is just too wide to point out one quality shared by all, for example, the quality shared by enjoying a milkshake and enjoying a chess game. One way for quality theorists to respond to this objection is by pointing out that the hedonic tone of pleasure-experiences is not a regular quality but a higher-order quality. As an analogy, a vividly green thing and a vividly red thing do not share a regular color property but they share "vividness" as a higher-order property.
Attitude theories
Attitude theories propose to analyze pleasure in terms of attitudes to experiences. So to enjoy the taste of chocolate it is not sufficient to have the corresponding experience of the taste. Instead, the subject has to have the right attitude to this taste for pleasure to arise. This approach captures the intuition that a second person may have exactly the same taste-experience but not enjoy it since the relevant attitude is lacking. Various attitudes have been proposed for the type of attitude responsible for pleasure, but historically the most influential version assigns this role to desires. On this account, pleasure is linked to experiences that fulfill a desire had by the experiencer. So the difference between the first and the second person in the example above is that only the first person has a corresponding desire directed at the taste of chocolate.
One important argument against this version is that while it is often the case that we desire something first and then enjoy it, this cannot always be the case. In fact, often the opposite seems to be true: we have to learn first that something is enjoyable before we start to desire it. This objection can be partially avoided by holding that it does not matter whether the desire was there before the experience but that it only matters what we desire while the experience is happening. This variant, originally held by Henry Sidgwick, has recently been defended by Chris Heathwood, who holds that an experience is pleasurable if the subject of the experience wants the experience to occur for its own sake while it is occurring. But this version faces a related problem akin to the Euthyphro dilemma: it seems that we usually desire things because they are enjoyable, not the other way round. So desire theories would be mistaken about the direction of explanation. Another argument against desire theories is that desire and pleasure can come apart: we can have a desire for things that are not enjoyable and we can enjoy things without desiring to do so.
Dispositional theories
Dispositional theories try to account for pleasure in terms of dispositions, often by including insights from both the quality theories and the attitude theories. One way to combine these elements is to hold that pleasure consists in being disposed to desire an experience in virtue of the qualities of this experience. Some of the problems of the regular desire theory can be avoided this way since the disposition does not need to be realized for there to be pleasure, thereby taking into account that desire and pleasure can come apart.
Philosophy
Pleasure plays a central role in theories from various areas of philosophy. Such theories are usually grouped together under the label "hedonism".
Ethics
Pleasure is related not just to how we actually act, but also to how we ought to act, which belongs to the field of ethics. Ethical hedonism takes the strongest position on this relation in stating that considerations of increasing pleasure and decreasing pain fully determine what we should do or which action is right. Ethical hedonist theories can be classified in relation to whose pleasure should be increased. According to the egoist version, each agent should only aim at maximizing her own pleasure. This position is usually not held in very high esteem. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, is a family of altruist theories that are more respectable in the philosophical community. Within this family, classical utilitarianism draws the closest connection between pleasure and right action by holding that the agent should maximize the sum-total of everyone's happiness. This sum-total includes the agent's pleasure as well, but only as one factor among many.
Value
Pleasure is intimately connected to value as something that is desirable and worth seeking. According to axiological hedonism, it is the only thing that has intrinsic value or is good in itself. This position entails that things other than pleasure, like knowledge, virtue or money, only have instrumental value: they are valuable because or to the extent that they produce pleasure but lack value otherwise. Within the scope of axiological hedonism, there are two competing theories about the exact relation between pleasure and value: quantitative hedonism and qualitative hedonism. Quantitative hedonists, following Jeremy Bentham, hold that the specific content or quality of a pleasure-experience is not relevant to its value, which only depends on its quantitative features: intensity and duration. On this account, an experience of intense pleasure of indulging in food and sex is worth more than an experience of subtle pleasure of looking at fine art or of engaging in a stimulating intellectual conversation. Qualitative hedonists, following John Stuart Mill, object to this version on the grounds that it threatens to turn axiological hedonism into a "philosophy of swine". Instead, they argue that the quality is another factor relevant to the value of a pleasure-experience, for example, that the lower pleasures of the body are less valuable than the higher pleasures of the mind.
Beauty
A very common element in many conceptions of beauty is its relation to pleasure. Aesthetic hedonism makes this relation part of the definition of beauty by holding that there is a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause pleasure or that the experience of beauty is always accompanied by pleasure. The pleasure due to beauty does not need to be pure, i.e. exclude all unpleasant elements. Instead, beauty can involve mixed pleasure, for example, in the case of a beautifully tragic story. We take pleasure from many things that are not beautiful, which is why beauty is usually defined in terms of a special type of pleasure: aesthetic or disinterested pleasure. A pleasure is disinterested if it is indifferent to the existence of the beautiful object. For example, the joy of looking at a beautiful landscape would still be valuable if it turned out that this experience was an illusion, which would not be true if this joy was due to seeing the landscape as a valuable real estate opportunity. Opponents of aesthetic hedonism have pointed out that despite commonly occurring together, there are cases of beauty without pleasure. For example, a cold jaded critic may still be a good judge of beauty due to her years of experience but lack the joy that initially accompanied her work. A further question for hedonists is how to explain the relation between beauty and pleasure. This problem is akin to the Euthyphro dilemma: is something beautiful because we enjoy it or do we enjoy it because it is beautiful? Identity theorists solve this problem by denying that there is a difference between beauty and pleasure: they identify beauty, or the appearance of it, with the experience of aesthetic pleasure.
History
Hellenistic philosophy
The ancient Cyrenaics posited pleasure as the universal aim for all people. Later, Epicurus defined the highest pleasure as aponia (the absence of pain), and pleasure as "freedom from pain in the body and freedom from turmoil in the soul". According to Cicero (or rather his character Torquatus) Epicurus also believed that pleasure was the chief good and pain the chief evil. The Pyrrhonist philosopher Aenesidemus claimed that following Pyrrhonism's prescriptions for philosophical skepticism produced pleasure.
Medieval philosophy
In the 12th century, Razi's "Treatise of the Self and the Spirit" (Kitab al Nafs Wa’l Ruh) analyzed different types of pleasure- sensuous and intellectual, and explained their relations with one another. He concludes that human needs and desires are endless, and "their satisfaction is by definition impossible."
Schopenhauer
The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer understood pleasure as a negative sensation, one that negates the usual existential condition of suffering.
Psychology
Pleasure is often regarded as a bipolar construct, meaning that the two ends of the spectrum from pleasure to suffering are mutually exclusive. That is part of the circumplex model of affect. Yet, some lines of research suggest that people do experience pleasure and suffering at the same time, giving rise to so-called mixed feelings. Pleasure is considered one of the core dimensions of emotion. It can be described as the positive evaluation that forms the basis for several more elaborate evaluations such as "agreeable" or "nice". As such, pleasure is an affect and not an emotion, as it forms one component of several different emotions. The clinical condition of being unable to experience pleasure from usually enjoyable activities is called anhedonia. An active aversion to obtaining pleasure is called hedonophobia.
Pleasure and belief
The degree to which something or someone is experienced as pleasurable not only depends on its objective attributes (appearance, sound, taste, texture, etc.), but on beliefs about its history, about the circumstances of its creation, about its rarity, fame, or price, and on other non-intrinsic attributes, such as the social status or identity it conveys. For example, a sweater that has been worn by a celebrity is more desired than an otherwise identical sweater that has not, though considerably less so if it has been washed.
Motivation and behavior
Pleasure-seeking behavior is a common phenomenon and may indeed dominate our conduct at times. The thesis of psychological hedonism generalizes this insight by holding that all our actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain. This is usually understood in combination with egoism, i.e. that each person only aims at her own happiness. Our actions rely on beliefs about what causes pleasure. False beliefs may mislead us and thus our actions may fail to result in pleasure, but even failed actions are motivated by considerations of pleasure, according to psychological hedonism. The paradox of hedonism states that pleasure-seeking behavior commonly fails also in another way. It asserts that being motivated by pleasure is self-defeating in the sense that it leads to less actual pleasure than following other motives.
Sigmund Freud formulated his pleasure principle in order to account for the effect pleasure has on our behavior. It states that there is a strong, inborn tendency of our mental life to seek immediate gratification whenever an opportunity presents itself. This tendency is opposed by the reality principle, which constitutes a learned capacity to delay immediate gratification in order to take the real consequences of our actions into account. Freud also described the pleasure principle as a positive feedback mechanism that motivates the organism to recreate the situation it has just found pleasurable, and to avoid past situations that caused pain.
Cognitive biases
A cognitive bias is a systematic tendency of thinking and judging in a way that deviates from a normative criterion, especially from the demands of rationality. Cognitive biases in regard to pleasure include the peak–end rule, the focusing illusion, the nearness bias and the future bias.
The peak–end rule affects how we remember the pleasantness or unpleasantness of experiences. It states that our overall impression of past events is determined for the most part not by the total pleasure and suffering it contained but by how it felt at its peaks and at its end. For example, the memory of a painful colonoscopy is improved if the examination is extended by three minutes in which the scope is still inside but not moved anymore, resulting in a moderately uncomfortable sensation. This extended colonoscopy, despite involving more pain overall, is remembered less negatively due to the reduced pain at the end. This even increases the likelihood for the patient to return for subsequent procedures. Daniel Kahneman explains this distortion in terms of the difference between two selves: the experiencing self, which is aware of pleasure and pain as they are happening, and the remembering self, which shows the aggregate pleasure and pain over an extended period of time. The distortions due to the peak–end rule happen on the level of the remembering self. Our tendency to rely on the remembering self can often lead us to pursue courses of action that are not in our best self-interest.
A closely related bias is the focusing illusion. The "illusion" occurs when people consider the impact of one specific factor on their overall happiness. They tend to greatly exaggerate the importance of that factor, while overlooking the numerous other factors that would in most cases have a greater impact.
The nearness bias and the future bias are two different forms of violating the principle of temporal neutrality. This principle states that the temporal location of a benefit or a harm is not important for its normative significance: a rational agent should care to the same extent about all parts of their life. The nearness bias, also discussed under the labels "present bias" or "temporal discounting", refers to our tendency to violate temporal neutrality in regards to temporal distance from the present. On the positive side, we prefer pleasurable experiences to be near rather than distant. On the negative side, we prefer painful experiences to be distant rather than near. The future bias refers to our tendency to violate temporal neutrality in regards to the direction of time. On the positive side, we prefer pleasurable experiences to be in the future rather than in the past. On the negative side, we prefer painful experiences to be in the past rather than in the future.
Reward system
Pleasure centers
Motivation
While all pleasurable stimuli can be seen as rewards, some rewards do not evoke pleasure. Based upon the incentive salience model of reward – the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces approach behavior and consummatory behavior – an intrinsic reward has two components: a "wanting" or desire component that is reflected in approach behavior, and a "liking" or pleasure component that is reflected in consummatory behavior. Some research indicates that similar mesocorticolimbic circuitry is activated by quite diverse pleasures, suggesting a common neural currency. Some commentators opine that our current understanding of how pleasure happens within us remains poor, but that scientific advance gives optimism for future progress.
Animal pleasure
In the past, there has been debate as to whether pleasure is experienced by other animals rather than being an exclusive property of humankind; however, it is now known that animals do experience pleasure, as measured by objective behavioral and neural hedonic responses to pleasurable stimuli.
See also
References
Further reading
Draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, and tastes.
M.L. Kringelbach. The pleasure center: Trust Your Animal Instincts (2009). Oxford University Press. . A general overview of the neuroscience of pleasure.
External links
Emotions
Feeling | wiki |
Happiness, in the context of mental or emotional states, is positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. Other forms include life satisfaction, well-being, subjective well-being, flourishing and eudaimonia.
Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social psychology and positive psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics.
Definitions
"Happiness" is subject to debate on usage and meaning, and on possible differences in understanding by culture.
The word is mostly used in relation to two factors:
the current experience of the feeling of an emotion (affect) such as pleasure or joy, or of a more general sense of 'emotional condition as a whole'. For instance Daniel Kahneman has defined happiness as "what I experience here and now". This usage is prevalent in dictionary definitions of happiness.
appraisal of life satisfaction, such as of quality of life. For instance Ruut Veenhoven has defined happiness as "overall appreciation of one's life as-a-whole." Kahneman has said that this is more important to people than current experience.
Some usages can include both of these factors. Subjective well-being (swb) includes measures of current experience (emotions, moods, and feelings) and of life satisfaction. For instance Sonja Lyubomirsky has described happiness as "the experience of joy, contentment, or positive well-being, combined with a sense that one's life is good, meaningful, and worthwhile." Eudaimonia, is a Greek term variously translated as happiness, welfare, flourishing, and blessedness. Xavier Landes has proposed that happiness include measures of subjective wellbeing, mood and eudaimonia.
These differing uses can give different results. Whereas Nordic countries often score highest on swb surveys, South American countries score higher on affect-based surveys of current positive life experiencing.
The implied meaning of the word may vary depending on context, qualifying happiness as a polyseme and a fuzzy concept.
A further issue is when measurement is made; appraisal of a level of happiness at the time of the experience may be different from appraisal via memory at a later date.
Some users accept these issues, but continue to use the word because of its convening power.
Changes of meaning over time
Happiness may have had a different meaning at the time of drafting of the US Declaration of Independence compared to now.
Measurement
People have been trying to measure happiness for centuries. In 1780, the English utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham proposed that as happiness was the primary goal of humans it should be measured as a way of determining how well the government was performing.
Today, happiness is typically measured using self-report surveys. Self-reporting is prone to cognitive biases and other sources of errors, such as peak–end rule. Studies show that memories of felt emotions can be inaccurate. Affective forecasting research shows that people are poor predictors of their future emotions, including how happy they will be.
Happiness economists are not overly concerned with philosophical and methodological issues and continue to use questionaries to measure average happiness of populations.
Several scales have been developed to measure happiness:
The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) is a four-item scale, measuring global subjective happiness from 1999. The scale requires participants to use absolute ratings to characterize themselves as happy or unhappy individuals, as well as it asks to what extent they identify themselves with descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals.
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) from 1988 is a 20-item questionnaire, using a five-point Likert scale (1 = very slightly or not at all, 5 = extremely) to assess the relation between personality traits and positive or negative affects at "this moment, today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past year, and in general". A longer version with additional affect scales was published 1994.
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is a global cognitive assessment of life satisfaction developed by Ed Diener. A seven-point Likert scale is used to agree or disagree with five statements about one's life.
The Cantril ladder method has been used in the World Happiness Report. Respondents are asked to think of a ladder, with the best possible life for them being a 10, and the worst possible life being a 0. They are then asked to rate their own current lives on that 0 to 10 scale.
Positive Experience; the survey by Gallup asks if, the day before, people experienced enjoyment, laughing or smiling a lot, feeling well-rested, being treated with respect, learning or doing something interesting. 9 of the top 10 countries in 2018 were South American, led by Paraguay and Panama. Country scores range from 85 to 43.
Since 2012, a World Happiness Report has been published. Happiness is evaluated, as in "How happy are you with your life as a whole?", and in emotional reports, as in "How happy are you now?," and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these verbal contexts. Using these measures, the report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness. In subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reports.
The UK began to measure national well-being in 2012, following Bhutan, which had already been measuring gross national happiness.
Academic economists and international economic organizations are arguing for and developing multi-dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. There are many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgements partly reflect the presence of salient constraints, and fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course. Although these factors play a role in happiness, they do not all need to improve simultaneously to help one achieve an increase in happiness.
Happiness has been found to be quite stable over time.
Philosophy
Relation to morality
Philosophy of happiness is often discussed in conjunction with ethics. Traditional European societies, inherited from the Greeks and from Christianity, often linked happiness with morality, which was concerned with the performance in a certain kind of role in a certain kind of social life.
Happiness remains a difficult term for moral philosophy. Throughout the history of moral philosophy, there has been an oscillation between attempts to define morality in terms of consequences leading to happiness and attempts to define morality in terms that have nothing to do with happiness at all.
Connections between happiness and morality have been studied in a variety of ways in psychology. Empirical research suggests that laypeople's judgments of a person's happiness in part depend on perceptions of that person's morality, suggesting that judgments of others' happiness involve moral evaluation. A large body of research also suggests that engaging in prosocial behavior can increase happiness.
Ethics
Ethicists have made arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Utilitarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior. Critics of this view include Thomas Carlyle, Ferdinand Tönnies and others within the German philosophical tradition.
Aristotle
Aristotle described eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) as the goal of human thought and action. Eudaimonia is often translated to mean happiness, but some scholars contend that "human flourishing" may be a more accurate translation. Aristotle's use of the term in Nicomachiean Ethics extends beyond the general sense of happiness.
In the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for their own sake, unlike riches, honour, health or friendship. He observed that men sought riches, or honour, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. For Aristotle the term eudaimonia, which is translated as 'happiness' or 'flourishing' is an activity rather than an emotion or a state. Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical Greek word consists of the word "eu" ("good" or "well-being") and "daimōn" ("spirit" or "minor deity", used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune). Thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way.
Specifically, Aristotle argued that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. He arrived at this claim with the "Function Argument". Basically, if it is right, every living thing has a function, that which it uniquely does. For Aristotle human function is to reason, since it is that alone which humans uniquely do. And performing one's function well, or excellently, is good. According to Aristotle, the life of excellent rational activity is the happy life. Aristotle argued a second-best life for those incapable of excellent rational activity was the life of moral virtue.
The key question Aristotle seeks to answer is "What is the ultimate purpose of human existence?" A lot of people are seeking pleasure, health, and a good reputation. It is true that those have a value, but none of them can occupy the place of the greatest good for which humanity aims. It may seem like all goods are a means to obtain happiness, but Aristotle said that happiness is always an end in itself.
Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating that "Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does". Nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate goal and the aim of one's existence, in his words "makes one contemptible." Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." He introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers.
These small, "last men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle are meant to seem contemptible to Nietzsche's reader. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.
Causes and achievement methods
Theories on how to achieve happiness include "encountering unexpected positive events", "seeing a significant other", and "basking in the acceptance and praise of others".
Some others believe that happiness is not solely derived from external, momentary pleasures.
Research on positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligmann covers a broad range of levels and topics, including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life." The psychiatrist George Vaillant and the director of longitudinal Study of Adult Development at Harvard University Robert J. Waldinger found that those who were happiest and healthier reported strong interpersonal relationships. Research showed that adequate sleep contributes to well-being. Good mental health and good relationships contribute more than income to happiness. In 2018, Laurie R. Santos course titled "Psychology and the Good Life" became the most popular course in the history of Yale University and was made available for free online to non-Yale students.
Some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way. Kahneman has said that "“When you look at what people want for themselves, how they pursue their goals, they seem more driven by the search for satisfaction than the search for happiness.”
Self-fulfilment theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, self-actualization is reached. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. The concept of flow is the idea that after our basic needs are met we can achieve greater happiness by altering our consciousness by becoming so engaged in a task that we lose our sense of time. Our intense focus causes us to forget any other issues, which in return promotes positive emotions.
Erich Fromm said "Happiness is the indication that man has found the answer to the problem of human existence: the productive realization of his potentialities and thus, simultaneously, being one with the world and preserving the integrity of his self. In spending his energy productively he increases his powers, he „burns without being consumed.""
Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Ronald Inglehart has traced cross-national differences in the level of happiness based on data from the World Values Survey. He finds that the extent to which a society allows free choice has a major impact on happiness. When basic needs are satisfied, the degree of happiness depends on economic and cultural factors that enable free choice in how people live their lives. Happiness also depends on religion in countries where free choice is constrained.
Sigmund Freud said that all humans strive after happiness, but that the possibilities of achieving it are restricted because we "are so made that we can derive intense enjoyment only from a contrast and very little from the state of things."
The idea of motivational hedonism is the theory that pleasure is the aim for human life.
Positive psychology
Since 2000 the field of positive psychology has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and has produced many different views on causes of happiness, and on factors that correlate with happiness. Numerous short-term self-help interventions have been developed and demonstrated to improve happiness.
Indirect approaches
Various writers, including Camus and Tolle, have written that the act of searching or seeking for happiness is incompatible with being happy.
John Stuart Mill believed that for the great majority of people happiness is best achieved en passant, rather than striving for it directly. This meant no self-consciousness, scrutiny, self-interrogation, dwelling on, thinking about,
imagining or questioning on one's happiness. Then, if otherwise fortunately circumstanced, one would "inhale happiness with the air you breathe."
William Inge said that "on the whole, the happiest people seem to be those who have no particular cause for being happy except the fact that they are so." Orison Swett Marden said that "some people are born happy."
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy is a popular therapeutic method used to change habits by merely changing thoughts. It focuses on emotional regulation and uses a lot of positive psychology practices. It is often used for people with depression or anxiety, and works towards how to lead a happier life.
Effects
Positive
There is a wealth of cross-sectional studies on happiness and physical health that shows consistent positive relationships. Follow-up studies appear to show that happiness does not predict longevity in sick populations, but that it does predict longevity among healthy populations.
Low mood is correlated with many negative life outcomes such as suicide, poor health, substance abuse, and low life expectancy. By extension, happiness protects from those negative outcomes.
Negative
June Gruber argued that happiness may trigger a person to be more sensitive, more gullible, less successful, and more likely to undertake high risk behaviours. She also conducted studies suggesting that seeking happiness can have negative effects, such as failure to meet over-high expectations. Iris Mauss has shown that the more people strive for happiness, the more likely they will set up too high of standards and feel disappointed. One study shows that women who value happiness more tend to react less positively to happy emotions. A 2012 study found that psychological well-being was higher for people who experienced both positive and negative emotions.
Society and culture
Government
Jeremy Bentham believed that public policy should attempt to maximize happiness, and he even attempted to estimate a "hedonic calculus". Thomas Jefferson put the "pursuit of happiness" on the same level as life and liberty in the United States Declaration of Independence. Presently, many countries and organizations regularly measure population happiness through large-scale surveys, e.g., Bhutan.
Richer nations tend to have higher measures of happiness than poorer nations. The relationship between wealth and happiness is not linear and the same GDP increase in poor countries will have more effect on happiness than in wealthy countries.
Some political scientists argue that life satisfaction is positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong labor unions. Others argue that happiness is strongly correlated with economic freedom, preferably within the context of a western mixed economy, with free press and a democracy.
Cultural values
Personal happiness can be affected by cultural factors. Hedonism appears to be more strongly related to happiness in more individualistic cultures.
One theory is that higher SWB in richer countries is related to their more individualistic cultures. Individualistic cultures may satisfy intrinsic motivations to a higher degree that collectivistic cultures, and fulfilling intrinsic motivations, as opposed to extrinsic motivations, may relate to greater levels of happiness, leading to more happiness in individualistic cultures.
Cultural views on happiness have changed over time. For instance Western concern about childhood being a time of happiness has occurred only since the 19th century. Not all cultures seek to maximize happiness, and some cultures are averse to happiness. It has been found in Western cultures that individual happiness is the most important. Some other cultures have opposite views and tend to be aversive to the idea of individual happiness. For example, people living in Eastern Asian cultures focus more on the need for happiness within relationships with others and even find personal happiness to be harmful to fulfilling happy social relationships.
Religion
People in countries with high cultural religiosity tend to relate their life satisfaction less to their emotional experiences than people in more secular countries.
Buddhism
Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings. For ultimate freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). Buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.
Hinduism
In Advaita Vedanta, the ultimate goal of life is happiness, in the sense that duality between Atman and Brahman is transcended and one realizes oneself to be the Self in all.
Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.
Confucianism
The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who had sought to give advice to ruthless political leaders during China's Warring States period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self), and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if one did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", then that force would shrivel up (Mencius, 6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.
Judaism
Happiness or simcha () in Judaism is considered an important element in the service of God. The biblical verse "worship The Lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs," () stresses joy in the service of God. A popular teaching by Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a 19th-century Chassidic Rabbi, is "Mitzvah Gedolah Le'hiyot Besimcha Tamid," it is a great mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. When a person is happy they are much more capable of serving God and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.
Christianity
The primary meaning of "happiness" in various European languages involves good fortune, blessing, or a similar happening. The meaning in Greek philosophy refers primarily to ethics.
In Christianity, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, Latin equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia ("blessed happiness"), described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a beatific vision of God's essence in the next life.
According to Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, man's last end is happiness: "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness." Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.
According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "Consequently happiness consists principally in such an operation, viz. in the contemplation of Divine things." And, "the last end cannot consist in the active life, which pertains to the practical intellect." So: "Therefore the last and perfect happiness, which we await in the life to come, consists entirely in contemplation. But imperfect happiness, such as can be had here, consists first and principally in contemplation, but secondarily, in an operation of the practical intellect directing human actions and passions."
Human complexities, like reason and cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. In temporal life, the contemplation of God, the infinitely Beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. Beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.
Islam
Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), the Sufi thinker, wrote that "The Alchemy of Happiness", is a manual of religious instruction that is used throughout the Muslim world and widely practiced today.
Genetics and heritability
, no evidence of happiness causing improved physical health has been found; the topic is being researched at the Lee Kum Sheung Center for Health and Happiness at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.
A positive relationship has been suggested between the volume of the brain's gray matter in the right precuneus area and one's subjective happiness score.
Sonja Lyubomirsky has estimated that 50 percent of a given human's happiness level could be genetically determined, 10 percent is affected by life circumstances and situation, and a remaining 40 percent of happiness is subject to self-control.
When discussing genetics and their effects on individuals it is important to first understand that genetics do not predict behavior. It is possible for genes to increase the likelihood of individuals being happier compared to others, but they do not 100 percent predict behavior.
At this point in scientific research, it has been hard to find a lot of evidence to support this idea that happiness is affected in some way by genetics. In a 2016 study, Michael Minkov and Michael Harris Bond found that a gene by the name of SLC6A4 was not a good predictor of happiness level in humans.
On the other hand, there have been many studies that have found genetics to be a key part in predicting and understanding happiness in humans. In a review article discussing many studies on genetics and happiness, they discussed the common findings. The author found an important factor that has affected scientist findings this being how happiness is measured. For example, in certain studies when subjective wellbeing is measured as a trait heredity is found to be higher, about 70 to 90 percent. In another study, 11,500 unrelated genotypes were studied, and the conclusion was the heritability was only 12 to 18 percent. Overall, this article found the common percent of heredity was about 20 to 50 percent.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
The World Database of Happiness – a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life.
Personal life
Positive mental attitude
Concepts in ethics
Philosophy of love
Emotions
Pleasure | wiki |
The 2015–16 film awards season began in November 2015 with the Gotham Independent Film Awards 2015 and ended in February 2016 with the 88th Academy Awards. Major winners for the year included The Revenant, Mad Max: Fury Road, Spotlight, Room, and Steve Jobs, among others.
Award ceremonies
Films by awards gained
References
American film awards | wiki |
Eleventh Amendment may refer to:
The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution, restricting the ability to sue states in Federal court
The Eleventh Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, which permits the state to ratify the Maastricht Treaty
The Eleventh Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa | wiki |
Nipradilol is a beta blocker and nitric oxide donor.
References
Beta blockers
Nitrate esters
Isopropylamino compounds
Secondary alcohols
Secondary amines
Phenol ethers | wiki |
Pafenolol is a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist.
References
Beta blockers
Ureas
Isopropylamino compounds
N-isopropyl-phenoxypropanolamines | wiki |
David Challinor (1920–2008) was an American biologist, naturalist, and science advisor.
References
2008 deaths
American naturalists
1920 births
Harvard University alumni
20th-century naturalists | wiki |
Paper Flowers may refer to:
Paper Flowers (1959 film), a 1959 Hindi film
Paper Flowers (1977 film), a 1977 Mexican film
"Paper Flowers" (song), by Alicia Keys from the album Keys
Paper Flower (film), 2011 film directed and produced by Brent Ryan Green
See also
Paper flower (disambiguation) | wiki |
Primidolol is a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist.
References
Beta blockers
Pyrimidinediones | wiki |
Airplane mode is a setting for smartphones.
Airplane mode can also refer to:
Airplane Mode (2019 film), starring Logan Paul
Airplane Mode (2020 film), a Brazilian film
"Airplane Mode", a song by Flobots from Survival Story
Modalità aereo ('Airplane mode'), a 2019 Italian comedy film
See also
Aircraft dynamic modes, describing the dynamic stability of an aircraft | wiki |
Velingrad Peninsula (, ) is the ice-covered peninsula projecting 22.5 km in northwest direction from Graham Coast on the west side of Antarctic Peninsula. Bounded by Barilari Bay to the northeast and Holtedahl Bay to the southwest, and separated from Biscoe Islands to the northwest by Grandidier Channel. Its base is surmounted by Chiren Heights. The UK station Prospect Point operated at the west extremity of the peninsula in 1957–59.
The peninsula is named after the city of Velingrad in Southern Bulgaria.
Location
Velingrad Peninsula is centred at . British mapping in 1971 and 1976.
Maps
British Antarctic Territory. Scale 1:200000 topographic map. DOS 610 Series, Sheet W 65 64. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK, 1971.
British Antarctic Territory. Scale 1:200000 topographic map. DOS 610 Series, Sheet W 66 64. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK, 1976.
Antarctic Digital Database (ADD). Scale 1:250000 topographic map of Antarctica. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Since 1993, regularly upgraded and updated.
References
Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer. Antarctic Place-names Commission. (details in Bulgarian, basic data in English)
Velingrad Peninsula. SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica
External links
Velingrad Peninsula. Copernix satellite image
Peninsulas of Graham Land
Bulgaria and the Antarctic
Graham Coast | wiki |
The Pan-Africa Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA) is an international organization of research scientists dedicated to vector control and elimination of diseases like malaria.
The organization also aims to spread information on the study of mosquitoes and connect Africans from across the continent. PAMCA was first established in Kenya, and has chapter offices located in Tanzania and Nigeria.
PAMCA works with organizations including KEMRI and the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) in Tanzania to form networks and collaborate on research projects.
They also organize conferences where entomologists discuss topics in mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue, malaria, and yellow fever.
See also
American Mosquito Control Association
German Mosquito Control Association
References
Health in Africa
Research institutes in Kenya
Medical and health organisations based in Kenya | wiki |
Ridazolol is a pharmaceutical drug acting as a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist. It was investigated in the 1980 and 90s for its effects on coronary heart disease and essential hypertension (high blood pressure).
It is not known to be marketed anywhere in the world.
References
Beta blockers
Chloroarenes
Pyridazines | wiki |
Hydroxynefazodone is a phenylpiperazine compound and a major metabolite of the antidepressant nefazodone. It has similar biological activity and a similar elimination half-life (1.5 to 4 hours) to those of nefazodone, and may contribute significantly to its effects.
See also
Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor
References
5-HT1A agonists
5-HT2A antagonists
Alpha-1 blockers
Antidepressants
Anxiolytics
H1 receptor antagonists
Human drug metabolites
meta-Chlorophenylpiperazines
Secondary alcohols
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
Triazoles | wiki |
Tiprenolol is a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist.
References
Beta blockers
Thioethers
N-isopropyl-phenoxypropanolamines | wiki |
Tibor Takács may refer to:
Tibor Takács (canoeist), Hungarian sprint canoeist
Tibor Takács (director) (born 1954), Hungarian-Canadian director | wiki |
Suede (pronounced ) is a type of leather with a fuzzy, napped finish, commonly used for jackets, shoes, fabrics, purses, furniture, and other items. The term comes from the French , which literally means "gloves from Sweden". The term was first used by The Oxford English Dictionary in 1884.
Suede is made from the underside of the animal skin, which is softer and more pliable than the outer skin layer, though not as durable.
Production
Suede leather is made from the underside of the skin, primarily from lamb, although goat, calf, and deer are commonly used. Splits from thick hides of cow and deer are also sueded, but, due to the fiber content, have a shaggy nap.
Characteristics
Because suede does not include the tough exterior skin layer, it is less durable, but softer, than the standard "full-grain" leather. Its softness, thinness, and pliability make it suitable for clothing and delicate uses; suede was originally used for women's gloves, hence its etymology (see above). Suede leather is also popular in upholstery, shoes, bags, and other accessories, and as a lining for other leather products. Due to its textured nature and open pores, suede may become dirty and quickly absorb liquids.
In popular culture
Suede's absorbent nature was highlighted in the Seinfeld episode "The Jacket", in which Jerry ventures outside into the snow and ruins his exorbitantly priced suede jacket.
"Blue Suede Shoes" is a well-known early rock-n-roll song written by Carl Perkins and also covered by Elvis Presley.
"Weird Al" Yankovic wrote and performed the song "King of Suede".
"Suedehead" A skinhead subculture and song by English singer/songwriter "Morrissey".
See also
Nap (fabric)
Shearing (textiles)
Nubuck
Voris, 1930s–1940s American fashion designer who worked exclusively in suede
References
Further reading
External links
Leather
Textile techniques | wiki |
Tolamolol is a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist.
References
Beta blockers
Abandoned drugs | wiki |
The 19th Academy Awards were held on March 13, 1947, honoring the films of 1946, hosted by Jack Benny.
The Best Years of Our Lives won seven of its eight nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, and both male acting Oscars. The Academy awarded Harold Russell—a World War II veteran who had lost both hands in the war—an Honorary Academy Award for "bringing hope and courage to his fellow veterans" for his role as Homer Parrish, believing that, as a non-actor, he would not win the Best Supporting Actor award for which he was nominated. Russell also won the competitive award, making him the only person in Academy history to receive two Oscars for the same performance.
This was the first time since the 2nd Academy Awards that every category had, at most, five nominations.
Awards
Nominees were announced on February 9, 1947. Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface.
Academy Honorary Awards
Laurence Olivier "for his outstanding achievement as actor, producer and director in bringing Henry V to the screen".
Harold Russell "for bringing hope and courage to his fellow veterans through his appearance in The Best Years of Our Lives".
Ernst Lubitsch "for his distinguished contributions to the art of the motion picture".
Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award
Samuel Goldwyn
Academy Juvenile Award
Claude Jarman Jr.
Presenters
Lionel Barrymore (Presenter: Best Supporting Actress)
Douglas Fairbanks Jr. (Presenter: Short Subject Awards, the Scientific & Technical Awards and Documentary Awards)
Joan Fontaine (Presenter: Best Actor)
Greer Garson (Presenter: Best Art Direction)
Rex Harrison (Presenter: Best Film Editing, Best Sound Recording and Best Special Effects)
Van Johnson (Presenter: Best Original Song)
Eric Johnston (Presenter: Best Motion Picture)
Ray Milland (Presenter: Best Actress)
Robert Montgomery (Presenter: Writing Awards)
Donald Nelson (Presenter: Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award)
Ronald Reagan and Jane Wyman (Presenters: Show Introduction)
Anne Revere (Presenter: Best Supporting Actor)
Ann Sheridan (Presenter: Best Cinematography)
Shirley Temple (Presenter: Honorary Awards)
Lana Turner (Presenter: Scoring Awards)
Billy Wilder (Presenter: Best Director)
Performers
Hoagy Carmichael
Dick Haymes
Andy Russell
Dinah Shore
Multiple nominations and awards
The following 16 films received multiple nominations:
8 nominations: The Best Years of Our Lives
7 nominations: The Yearling
6 nominations: The Jolson Story
5 nominations: Anna and the King of Siam and It's a Wonderful Life
4 nominations: Henry V, The Killers and The Razor's Edge
3 nominations: Brief Encounter
2 nominations: Blue Skies, Centennial Summer, Duel in the Sun, The Green Years, The Harvey Girls, Notorious and To Each His Own
The following four films received multiple awards:
7 wins: The Best Years of Our Lives
2 wins: Anna and the King of Siam, The Jolson Story and The Yearling
See also
4th Golden Globe Awards
1946 in film
1st Tony Awards
References
Academy Awards ceremonies
1946 film awards
1947 in Los Angeles
1947 in American cinema
March 1947 events in the United States | wiki |
A light float is a type of lighted navigational aid forming an intermediate class between lightvessels and large lighted buoys; they are generally smaller than lightvessels and carry less powerful lights. In times when most lightvessels were crewed, the term was sometimes also used to describe a full-size lightvessel converted to unmanned operation.
Light floats usually have a boat-shaped platform: this was found to ride the strong tides of rivers and estuaries better than buoys. Light floats are still deployed instead of smaller lighted buoys in waters where strong currents may be experienced.
References
Nautical terminology
Navigational aids | wiki |
Online dating, also known as Internet dating, Virtual dating, or Mobile app dating, is a relatively recent method used by people with a goal of searching for and interacting with potential romantic or sexual partners, via the internet. An online dating service is a company that promotes and provides specific mechanisms for the practice of online dating, generally in the form of dedicated websites or software applications accessible on personal computers or mobile devices connected to the internet. A wide variety of unmoderated matchmaking services, most of which are profile-based with various communication functionalities, is offered by such companies.
Online dating services allow users to become "members" by creating a profile and uploading personal information including (but not limited to) age, gender, sexual orientation, location, and appearance. Most services also encourage members to add photos or videos to their profile. Once a profile has been created, members can view the profiles of other members of the service, using the visible profile information to decide whether or not to initiate contact. Most services offer digital messaging, while others provide additional services such as webcasts, online chat, telephone chat (VOIP), and message boards. Members can constrain their interactions to the online space, or they can arrange a date to meet in person.
A great diversity of online dating services currently exists. Some have a broad membership base of diverse users looking for many different types of relationships. Other sites target highly specific demographics based on features like shared interests, location, religion, sexual orientation or relationship type. Online dating services also differ widely in their revenue streams. Some sites are completely free and depend on advertising for revenue. Others utilize the freemium revenue model, offering free registration and use, with optional, paid, premium services. Still others rely solely on paid membership subscriptions.
Matching algorithms
In 2012, social psychologists Benjamin Karney, Harry Reis, and others published an analysis of online dating in Psychological Science in the Public Interest that concluded that the matching algorithms of online dating services are only negligibly better at matching people than if they were matched at random. In 2014, Kang Zhao at the University of Iowa constructed a new approach based on the algorithms used by Amazon and Netflix, based on recommendations rather than the autobiographical notes of match seekers. Users' activities reflect their tastes and attractiveness, or the lack thereof, they reasoned. This algorithm increases the chances of a response by 40%, the researchers found. E-commerce firms also employ this "collaborative filtering" technique. Nevertheless, it is still not known what the algorithm for finding the perfect match would be.
However, while collaborative filtering and recommender systems have been demonstrated to be more effective than matching systems based on similarity and complementarity, they have also been demonstrated to be highly skewed to the preferences of early users and against racial minorities such as African Americans and Hispanic Americans which led to the rise of niche dating sites for those groups. In 2014, the Better Business Bureau's National Advertising Division criticized eHarmony's claims of creating a greater number of marriages and more durable and satisfying marriages than alternative dating websites, and in 2018, the Advertising Standards Authority banned eHarmony advertisements in the United Kingdom after the company was unable to provide any evidence to verify its advertisements' claims that its website's matching algorithm was scientifically proven to give its users a greater chance of finding long-term intimate relationships.
In 2016, Consumer Reports surveyed approximately 115,000 online dating service subscribers across multiple platforms and found that while 44 percent of survey respondents stated that usage of online dating services led to a serious long-term intimate relationship or marriage, a subset of approximately 9,600 subscribers that had used at least one online dating service within the previous two years rated satisfaction with the services they used lower than Consumer Reports surveys of technical support service consumers for those services and rated satisfaction with free online dating services as slightly more satisfactory than services with paid subscriptions.
Trends
Social trends and public opinions
Opinions and usage of online dating services also differ widely. A 2005 study of data collected by the Pew Internet & American Life Project found that individuals are more likely to use an online dating service if they use the Internet for a greater number of tasks, and less likely to use such a service if they are trusting of others. It is possible that the mode of online dating resonates with some participants' conceptual orientation towards the process of finding a romantic partner. That is, online dating sites use the conceptual framework of a "marketplace metaphor" to help people find potential matches, with layouts and functionalities that make it easy to quickly browse and select profiles in a manner similar to how one might browse an online store. Under this metaphor, members of a given service can both "shop" for potential relationship partners and "sell" themselves in hopes of finding a successful match.
Attitudes towards online dating improved visibly between 2005 and 2015, the Pew Research Center found. In particular, the number of people who thought that online dating was a good way to meet people rose from 44% in 2005 to 59% in 2015 whereas those who believed that people to used online dating services were desperate fell from 29% to 23% during the same period. Although only a negligible number of people dated online in 2005, that rose to 11% in 2013 and then 15% in 2015. In particular, the number of American adults who had used an online dating site went from 9% in 2013 to 12% in 2015 while those who used an online dating software application on their mobile phones jumped from 3% to 9% during the same period. This increase was driven mainly by people aged 18 to 24, for whom usage almost tripled. At the same time, usage among those between the ages of 55 and 64 doubled. People in their mid-30s to mid-50s all saw noticeable increases in usage, but people aged 25 to 34 saw no change. Nevertheless, only one in three had actually gone out on a date with someone they met online. About one in five, especially women, at 30%, compared to 16% for men, asked for help with their online profile. Only five out of a hundred said they were married to or in a committed long-term relationship with someone they met online. For comparison, 88% of Americans who were with their current spouse or partner for no more than five years said their met their mates offline.
Online daters may have more liberal social attitudes compared to the general population in the United States. According to a 2015 study by the Pew Research Center, people who had used online dating services had a higher opinion of such services than those who had not. 80% of the users said that online dating sites are a good way to meet potential partners, compared to 55% of non-users. In addition, online daters felt that online dating is easier and more efficient than other methods (61%), and gives access to a larger pool of potential partners (62%), compared to 44% and 50% of non-users, respectively. Meanwhile, 60% of non-users thought that online dating was a more dangerous way of meeting people and 24% deemed people who dated online were desperate, compared to 45% and 16% of online daters, respectively. Nevertheless, a similar number of online daters (31%) and non-users (32%) agreed that online dating kept people from settling down. In all, there was little difference among the sexes with regards to their opinions on online dating. Safety was, however, the exception, with 53% of women and only 38% of men expressing concern.
It is not clear that social networking websites and online dating services are leading to the formation of long-term intimate relationships more efficiently. In 2000, a majority of U.S. households had personal computers, and in 2001, a majority of U.S. households had internet access. In 1995, Match.com was created, followed by eHarmony in 2000, Myspace and Plenty of Fish in 2003, Facebook and OkCupid in 2004, Zoosk in 2007, and Tinder in 2012. In 2011, the percentage of all U.S. adults who were married declined to a historic low at 51 percent, while from 2007 to 2017 the percentage of U.S. adults living without spouses or partners rose to 42 percent (including 61 percent of adults under the age of 35) because declines in marriage since 1960 (when 72 percent of U.S. adults were married) have not been offset by increases in cohabitation. In 2014, the percentage of U.S. adults above the age of 25 who had never married rose to a record one-fifth (with the rate of growth in the category accelerating since 2000).
Psychologists Douglas T. Kenrick, Sara E. Gutierres, Laurie L. Goldberg, Steven Neuberg, Kristin L. Zierk, and Jacquelyn M. Krones have demonstrated experimentally that following exposure to photographs or stories about desirable potential mates, human subjects decrease their ratings of commitment to their current partners, while social psychologist David Buss has estimated that approximately 30 percent of the men on Tinder are married, and a significant criticism of Facebook has been its effect on its users' marriages. In 2012, Benjamin Karney, Harry Reis, and their co-authors suggested that the availability of a large pool of potential partners "may lead online daters to objectify potential partners and might even undermine their willingness to commit to one of them." In October 2019, a Pew Research Center survey of 4,860 U.S. adults showed that 54 percent of U.S. adults believed that relationships formed through dating sites or apps were just as successful as those that began in person, 38 percent believed these relationships were less successful, while only 5 percent believed them to be more successful.
Mate preferences and mating strategies
Online dating services offer goldmines of information for social scientists studying human mating behavior.
Data from the Chinese online dating giant Zhenai.com reveals that while men are most interested in how a woman looks, women care more about a man's income. Profession is also quite important. Chinese men favor women working as primary school teachers and nurses while Chinese women prefer men in the IT or finance industry. Women in IT or finance are the least desired. Zhenai enables users to send each other digital "winks." For a man, the more money he earns the more "winks" he receives. For a woman, her income does not matter until the 50,000-yuan mark (US$7,135), after which the number of "winks" falls slightly. Men typically prefer women three years younger than they are whereas women look for men who are three years older on average. However, this changes if the man becomes exceptionally wealthy; the more money he makes the more likely he is to look for younger women.
In general, people in their 20s employ the "self-service dating service" while women in their late 20s and up tend to use the matchmaking service. This is because of the social pressure in China on "leftover women," meaning those in their late 20s but still not married. Women who prefer not to ask potentially embarrassing questions – such as whether both spouses will handle household finances, whether or not they will live with his parents, or how many children he wants to have, if any – will get a matchmaker to do it for them. Both sexes prefer matchmakers who are women.
In a 2009 paper, sociologist George Yancey from the University of North Texas observed that prior research from the late 1980s to the early 2000s revealed that African-Americans were the least desired romantic partners compared to all other racial groups in the United States, a fact that is reflected in their relatively low interracial marriage rates. (They were also less likely to form interracial friendships than other groups.) According to data from the U.S. Census, 5.4% of all marriages in the U.S. in 2005 were between people of different races. For his research, Yancey downloaded anonymized data of almost a thousand heterosexual individuals from Yahoo! Personals. He discovered that Internet daters felt lukewarm towards racial exogamy in general. In particular, 45.8% of whites, 32.6% of blacks, 47.6% of Hispanics, and 64.4% of Asians were willing to out-date with any other racial group. Dating members of one's own racial group was the most popular option, at 98.0% for whites, 92.1% for blacks, 93.2% for Hispanics, and 92.2% for Asians. Those who were more willing to out-date than average tended to be younger men. Education was not a predictor of willingness to out-date. This means that the higher interracial marriage rates among the highly educated were due to the fact that higher education provided more opportunities to meet people of different races.
There is, however, great variation along gender lines. In 2008, Cynthia Feliciano, Belinda Robnett, and Golnaz Komaie from the University of California, Irvine, investigated the preferences of online daters long gendered and racial lines by selecting profiles on Yahoo! Personals – then one of the top Internet romance sites in the U.S.– of 6,070 heterosexual individuals, 1558 of whom white, between the ages of 18 and 50 living within 50 miles (80 km) of New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Atlanta. They found that consistent with prior research, including speed-dating studies, women tended to be pickier than men. In fact, while 29% of white men wanted to date only white women, 64% of white women were willing to date white men only. Of those who stated a racial preference, 97% of white men excluded black women, 48% Latinas, and 53% Asian women. In contrast, white men are excluded by 76% of black women, 33% Latinas, and only 11% Asian women. Similarly, 92% of white women exclude black men, 77% exclude Latinos, and 93% exclude Asian men. 71% of black men, 31% of Latinos, and 36% of Asian men excluded white women. In short, after opposite-sex members of their own group, white men were open to dating Asian women, and white women black men than members of other racial or ethnic groups. At the same time, Latinos were generally favored by both white men and women willing to out-date.
Feliciano, Robnett, and Komaie found that white women who described themselves as athletic, average, fit, or slim were more likely to exclude black men than those who considered themselves large, thick, or voluptuous. Body type, however, was not a predictor for white women's avoidance of Asian men, nor was it for the white men's preferences. On the other hand, white men with a particular body type in mind were considerably more likely to exclude black women while women who preferred a particular height were slightly more likely to exclude Asian men. Women who deemed themselves very liberal or liberal were less likely than apolitical, moderate, or conservative women to exclude black men. In contrast, left-leaning white women were slightly more likely to exclude Asian men. Being Jewish was the perfect predictor of black exclusion. All white men and women who identified as Jewish and who had a racial preference excluded blacks, and all white Jewish women also avoided Asian men. White men with a religious preference were four times as likely to exclude black women, and white women with the same were twice as likely to exclude black men. However, religious preferences were not linked to avoiding Asians.
Prior research has shown that in the absence of direct personal contact, one's perception of members of a different group is often shaped by stereotypes, or "cognitive structures that contain the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human group," which are typically reinforced by mass media. Feliciano, Robnett, and Komaie found some support for this. In particular, white men's exclusion of black women was linked to the perception that black women deviate from (Western) idealized notions of femininity, for example by being bossy, while their favoring Asian women was likely due to the latter's portrayal in the media as "the embodiment of perfect womanhood" and "good wives." On the other hand, white women's exclusion of Asian men correlated with the stereotype that the latter were asexual or lacked masculinity whereas their preferring black men corresponded with the latter's positive portrayal in the media as "independent and respected." Feliciano, Robnett, and Komaie observed that their findings on mate preferences mirrored actual cohabitation and marriage patterns.
In a separate paper from 2011 analyzing the same data set, Cynthia Feliciano and Belinda Robnett found in general, gender was a predictor of openness to dating outside of one's racial or ethnic group, with 74% of women and 58% of men stating a racial preference, though there was considerable variation among each. Latinos were quite open to out-dating, with only 15% of men and 16% of women preferring to date only other Latinos. 45% of black women and 23% of black men would rather not date non-blacks. 6% of Asian women and 21% of Asian men decided against out-dating. In addition, 4% of white women, 8% of black women, 16% of Latino women, and 40% of Asian women wanted to date only outside of their respective race or ethnicity. Therefore, all groups except white women were willing to out-date, albeit with great variations. 55% of Latino men excluded Asian women while 73% of Asian women excluded Latino men. An overwhelming majority of Asians, 94%, excluded blacks. By contrast, 81% of Latinos and 76% of Latinas avoided the same. For blacks willing to out-date, Latinos were most preferred.
In 2018, Elizabeth Bruch and M.E.J. Newman from the University of Michigan published in the journal Science Advances a study of approximately 200,000 heterosexual individuals living in New York City, Chicago, Boston and Seattle, who used a certain "popular, free online-dating service." The researchers were able to discern some general trends in the overall desirability of a given individual. For a man, his desirability increased till the age of 50; for a woman, her desirability declined steeply after the age of 18 till the age of 65. In terms of educational attainment, the more educated a man was, the more desirable he became; for a woman, however, her desirability rose up to the bachelor's degree before declining. Bruch suggested that besides individual preferences and partner availability, this pattern may be due to the fact that by the late 2010s, women were more likely to attend and graduate from university. In order to estimate the desirability of a given individual, the researchers looked at the number of messages they received and the desirability of the senders.
Developmental psychologist Michelle Drouin, who was not involved in the study, told The New York Times this finding is in accordance with theories in psychology and sociology based on biological evolution in that youth is a sign of fertility. She added that women with advanced degrees are often viewed as more focused on their careers than family. Licensed psychotherapist Stacy Kaiser told MarketWatch men typically prefer younger women because "they are more easy to impress; they are more (moldable) in terms of everything from emotional behavior to what type of restaurant to eat at," and because they tend to be "more fit, have less expectations and less baggage." On the other hand, women look for (financial) stability and education, attributes that come with age, said Kaiser. These findings regarding age and attractiveness are consistent with earlier research by the online dating services OKCupid and Zoosk. In an 2010 blog post, OKCupid observed that, "The median 30-year-old man spends as much time messaging teenage girls as he does women his own age." By analyzing data from between 2013 and 2017, OKCupid discovered that 61% what they called "successful" conversations, or those with "at least at four messages back and forth with contact exchange" took place between a man who was older than the woman. In half of these, the man was at least five years older. 2018 data from Zoosk revealed that 60% of men desired younger women, while 56% of younger women felt attracted to older men.
Aided by the text-analysis program Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count, Bruch and Newman discovered that men generally had lower chances of receiving a response after sending more "positively worded" messages. When a man tried to woo a woman more desirable than he was, he received a response 21% of the time; by contrast, when a woman attempted to court a man, she received a reply about half the time. In fact, over 80% of the first messages in the data set obtained for the purposes of the study were from men, and women were highly selective in choosing whom to respond to, a rate of less than 20%. Therefore, studying women's replies yielded much insight into their preferences. Bruch and Newman were also able to establish the existence of dating 'leagues'. Generally speaking, people were able to accurately estimate where they ranked on the dating hierarchy. Very few responded to the messages of people less desirable than they were. Nevertheless, although the probability of a response is low, it is well above zero, and if the other person does respond, it can a self-esteem booster, said Kaiser. Co-author of the study Mark Newman told BBC News, "There is a trade-off between how far up the ladder you want to reach and how low a reply rate you are willing to put up with." Bruch and Newman found that while people spent a lot of time crafting lengthy messages to those they considered to be a highly desirable partner, this hardly made a difference, judging by the response rate. Keeping messages concise is well-advised. Previous studies also suggest that about 70% of the dating profile should be about oneself and the rest about the desired partner.
At least three quarters of the sample surveyed attempted to date aspirationally, meaning they tried to initiate a relationship with someone who was more desirable, 25% more desirable, to be exact. Bruch recommended sending out more greeting messages, noting that people sometimes managed to upgrade their 'league'. Michael Rosenfeld, a sociologist not involved with the study, told The Atlantic, "The idea that persistence pays off makes sense to me, as the online-dating world has a wider choice set of potential mates to choose from. The greater choice set pays dividends to people who are willing to be persistent in trying to find a mate." Using optimal stopping theory, one can show that the best way to select the best potential partner is to reject the first 37%, then pick the one who is better than the previous set. The probability of picking the best potential mate this way is 37%. (This is approximately the reciprocal of Euler's number, . See derivation of the optimal policy.) However, making online contact is only the first step, and indeed, most conversations failed to birth a relationship. As two potential partners interact more and more, the superficial information available from a dating website or smartphone application becomes less important than their characters. Bruch and Newman found that overall, white men and Asian women were the most desired in all the four cities.
Despite being a platform designed to be less centered on physical appearance, OkCupid co-founder Christian Rudder stated in 2009 that the male OkCupid users who were rated most physically attractive by female OkCupid users received 11 times as many messages as the lowest-rated male users did, the medium-rated male users received about four times as many messages, and the one-third of female users who were rated most physically attractive by the male users received about two-thirds of all messages sent by male users. Data released by Tinder has shown that of the 1.6 billion swipes it records per day, only 26 million result in matches (a match rate of approximately only 1.63%), despite users logging into the app on average 11 times per day, with male user sessions averaging 7.2 minutes and female user sessions averaging 8.5 minutes (or 79.2 minutes and 93.5 minutes per day respectively). Also, a Tinder user interviewed anonymously in an article published in the December 2018 issue of The Atlantic estimated that only one in 10 of their matches actually resulted in an exchange of messages with the other user they were matched with, with another anonymous Tinder user saying, "Getting right-swiped is a good ego boost even if I have no intention of meeting someone."
According to University of Texas at Austin psychologist David Buss, "Apps like Tinder and OkCupid give people the impression that there are thousands or millions of potential mates out there. One dimension of this is the impact it has on men's psychology. When there is ... a perceived surplus of women, the whole mating system tends to shift towards short-term dating," and there is a feeling of disconnect when choosing future partners. In addition, the cognitive process identified by psychologist Barry Schwartz as the "paradox of choice" (also referred to as "choice overload" or "fear of a better option") was cited in an article published in The Atlantic that suggested that the appearance of an abundance of potential partners causes online daters to be less likely to choose a partner and be less satisfied with their choices of partners.
Before 2012, most online dating services matched people according to their autobiographical information, such as interests, hobbies, future plans, among other things. But the advent of Tinder that year meant that first impressions could play a crucial role. For social scientists studying human courtship behavior, Tinder offers a much simpler environment than its predecessors. In 2016, Gareth Tyson of the Queen Mary University of London and his colleagues published a paper analyzing the behavior of Tinder users in New York City and London. In order to minimize the number of variables, they created profiles of white heterosexual people only. For each sex, there were three accounts using stock photographs, two with actual photographs of volunteers, one with no photos whatsoever, and one that was apparently deactivated. The researchers pointedly only used pictures of people of average physical attractiveness. Tyson and his team wrote an algorithm that collected the biographical information of all the matches, liked them all, then counted the number of returning likes.
They found that men and women employed drastically different mating strategies. Men liked a large proportion of the profiles they viewed, but received returning likes only 0.6% of the time; women were much more selective but received matches 10% of the time. Men received matches at a much slower rate than women. Once they received a match, women were far more likely than men to send a message, 21% compared to 7%, but they took more time before doing so. Tyson and his team found that for the first two-thirds of messages from each sex, women sent them within 18 minutes of receiving a match compared to five minutes for men. Men's first messages had an average of a dozen characters, and were typical simple greetings; by contrast, initial messages by women averaged 122 characters.
Tyson and his collaborators found that the male profiles that had three profile pictures received 238 matches while the male profiles with only one profile picture received only 44 matches (or approximately a 5 to 1 ratio). Additionally, male profiles that had a biography received 69 matches while those without received only 16 matches (or approximately a 4 to 1 ratio). By sending out questionnaires to frequent Tinder users, the researchers discovered that the reason why men tended to like a large proportion of the women they saw was to increase their chances of getting a match. This led to a feedback loop in which men liked more and more of the profiles they saw while women could afford to be even more selective in liking profiles because of a greater probability of a match. The mathematical limit of the feedback loop occurs when men like all profiles they see while women find a match whenever they like a profile. It was not known whether some evolutionarily stable strategy has emerged, nor has Tinder revealed such information.
Tyson and his team found that even though the men-to-women ratio of their data set was approximately one, the male profiles received 8,248 matches in total while the female profiles received only 532 matches in total because the vast majority of the matches for both the male and female profiles came from male profiles (with 86 percent of the matches for the male profiles alone coming from other male profiles), leading the researchers to conclude that homosexual men were "far more active in liking than heterosexual women." On the other hand, the deactivated male account received all of its matches from women. The researchers were not sure why this happened.
Niche dating sites
Sites with specific demographics have become popular as a way to narrow the pool of potential matches. Successful niche sites pair people by race, sexual orientation or religion. In March 2008, the top 5 overall sites held 7% less market share than they did one year ago while the top sites from the top five major niche dating categories made considerable gains. Niche sites cater to people with special interests, such as sports fans, racing and automotive fans, medical or other professionals, people with political or religious preferences, people with medical conditions, or those living in rural farm communities.
Some dating services have been created specifically for those living with HIV and other venereal diseases in an effort to eliminate the need to lie about one's health in order to find a partner. Public health officials in Rhode Island and Utah claimed in 2015 that Tinder and similar apps were responsible for uptick of such conditions.
Economic trends
Although some sites offer free trials and/or profiles, most memberships can cost upwards of $60 per month. In 2008, online dating services in the United States generated $957 million in revenue.
Most free dating websites depend on advertising revenue, using tools such as Google AdSense and affiliate marketing. Since advertising revenues are modest compared to membership fees, this model requires numerous page views to achieve profitability. However, Sam Yagan describes dating sites as ideal advertising platforms because of the wealth of demographic data made available by users.
Online matchmaking services
In 2008, a variation of the online dating model emerged in the form of introduction sites, where members have to search and contact other members, who introduce them to other members whom they deem compatible. Introduction sites differ from the traditional online dating model, and attracted many users and significant investor interest.
In China, the number of separations per a thousand couples doubled, from 1.46 in 2006 to about three in 2016, while the number of actual divorces continues to rise, according to the Ministry of Civil Affairs. Demand for online dating services among divorcees keeps growing, especially in the large cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen and Guangzhou. In addition, more and more people are expected to use online dating and matchmaking services as China continues to urbanize in the late 2010s and 2020s.
Reception
Trust and safety issues
As online dating services are not required to routinely conduct background checks on members, it is possible for profile information to be misrepresented or falsified. Also, there may be users on dating services that have illicit intentions (i.e. date rape, procurement, ...).
OKCupid once introduced a real name policy, but that was later taken removed due to unpopularity with its users.
Only some online dating services are providing important safety information such as STD status of its users or other infectious diseases, but many do not.
Some online dating services which are popular amongst members of queer communities are sometimes used by people as a means of meeting these audiences for the purpose of gaybashing or trans bashing.
A form of misrepresentation is that members may lie about their height, weight, age, or marital status in an attempt to market or brand themselves in a particular way. Users may also carefully manipulate profiles as a form of impression management. Online daters have raised concerns about ghosting, the practice of ceasing all communication with a person without explaining why. Ghosting appears to be becoming more common. Various explanations have been suggested, but social media is often blamed, as are dating apps and the relative anonymity and isolation in modern-day dating and hookup culture, which make it easier to behave poorly with few social repercussions.
Online dating site members may try to balance an accurate representation with maintaining their image in a desirable way. One study found that nine out of ten participants had lied on at least one attribute, though lies were often slight; weight was the most lied about attribute, and age was the least lied about. Furthermore, knowing a large amount of superficial information about a potential partner's interests may lead to a false sense of security when meeting up with a new person. Gross misrepresentation may be less likely on matrimonials sites than on casual dating sites.
Some profiles may not even represent real humans but rather they may be fake "bait profiles" placed online by site owners to attract new paying members, or "spam profiles" created by advertisers to market services and products.
Opinions on regarding the safety of online dating are mixed. Over 50% of research participants in a 2011 study did not view online dating as a dangerous activity, whereas 43% thought that online dating involved risk.
Billing complaints
Online subscription-based services can suffer from complaints about billing practices. Some online dating service providers may have fraudulent membership fees or credit card charges. Some sites do not allow members to preview available profiles before paying a subscription fee. Furthermore, different functionalities may be offered to members who have paid or not paid for subscriptions, resulting in some confusion around who can view or contact whom.
Consolidation within the online dating industry has led to different newspapers and magazines now advertising the same website database under different names. In the UK, for example, Time Out ("London Dating"), The Times ("Encounters"), and The Daily Telegraph ("Kindred Spirits"), all offer differently named portals to the same service—meaning that a person who subscribes through more than one publication has unwittingly paid more than once for access to the same service.
Imbalanced gender ratios
Little is known about the sex ratio controlled for age. eHarmony's membership is about 57% female and 43% male, whereas the ratio at Match.com is about the reverse of that. On specialty niche websites where the primary demographic is male, there is typically a very unbalanced ratio of male to female or female to male. As of June 2015, 62% of Tinder users were male and 38% were female.
Studies have suggested that men are far more likely to send messages on dating sites than women. In addition, men tend to message the most attractive women regardless of their own attractiveness. This leads to the most attractive women on these sites receiving an overwhelming number of messages, which can in some cases result in them leaving the site.
There is some evidence that there may be differences in how women online rate male attractiveness as opposed to how men rate female attractiveness. The distribution of ratings given by men of female attractiveness appears to be the normal distribution, while ratings of men given by women is highly skewed, with 80% of men rated as below average.
Allegations of discrimination
Gay rights groups have complained that certain websites that restrict their dating services to heterosexual couples are discriminating against homosexuals. Homosexual customers of the popular eHarmony dating website have made many attempts to litigate discriminatory practices. eHarmony was sued in 2007 by a lesbian claiming that "[s]uch outright discrimination is hurtful and disappointing for a business open to the public in this day and age." In light of discrimination by sexual orientation by dating websites, some services such as GayDar.net and Chemistry.com cater more to homosexual dating.
Lawsuits filed against online dating services
A 2011 class action lawsuit alleged Match.com failed to remove inactive profiles, did not accurately disclose the number of active members, and does not police its site for fake profiles; the inclusion of expired and spam profiles as valid served to both artificially inflate the total number of profiles and camouflage a skewed gender ratio in which active users were disproportionately single males. The suit claimed up to 60 percent were inactive profiles, fake or fraudulent users. Some of the spam profiles were alleged to be using images of porn actresses, models, or people from other dating sites. Former employees alleged Match routinely and intentionally over-represented the number of active members on the website and a huge percentage were not real members but 'filler profiles'.
A 2012 class action against Successful Match ended with a November 2014 California jury award of $1.4 million in compensatory damages and $15 million in punitive damages. SuccessfulMatch operated a dating site for people with STDs, PositiveSingles, which it advertised as offering a "fully anonymous profile" which is "100% confidential". The company failed to disclose that it was placing those same profiles on a long list of affiliate site domains such as GayPozDating.com, AIDSDate.com, HerpesInMouth.com, ChristianSafeHaven.com, MeetBlackPOZ.com, HIVGayMen.com, STDHookup.com, BlackPoz.com, and PositivelyKinky.com. This falsely implied that those users were black, Christian, gay, HIV-positive or members of other groups with which the registered members did not identify. The jury found PositiveSingles guilty of fraud, malice, and oppression as the plaintiffs' race, sexual orientation, HIV status, and religion were misrepresented by exporting each dating profile to niche sites associated with each trait.
In 2013, a former employee sued adultery website Ashley Madison claiming repetitive strain injuries as creating 1000 fake profiles in one three week span "required an enormous amount of keyboarding" which caused the worker to develop severe pain in her wrists and forearms. AshleyMadison's parent company, Avid Life Media, countersued in 2014, alleging the worker kept confidential documents, including copies of her "work product and training materials." The firm claimed the fake profiles were for "quality assurance testing" to test a new Brazilian version of the site for "consistency and reliability."
In January 2014, an already-married Facebook user attempting to close a pop-up advertisement for Zoosk.com found that one click instead copied personal info from her Facebook profile to create an unwanted online profile seeking a mate, leading to a flood of unexpected responses from amorous single males.
In 2014, It's Just Lunch International was the target of a New York class action alleging unjust enrichment as IJL staff relied on a uniform, misleading script which informed prospective customers during initial interviews that IJL already had at least two matches in mind for those customers' first dates regardless of whether or not that was true.
In 2014, the US Federal Trade Commission fined UK-based JDI Dating (a group of 18 websites, including Cupidswand.com and FlirtCrowd.com) over US$600000, finding that "the defendants offered a free plan that allowed users to set up a profile with personal information and photos. As soon as a new user set up a free profile, he or she began to receive messages that appeared to be from other members living nearby, expressing romantic interest or a desire to meet. However, users were unable to respond to these messages without upgrading to a paid membership ... [t]he messages were almost always from fake, computer-generated profiles — 'Virtual Cupids' — created by the defendants, with photos and information designed to closely mimic the profiles of real people." The FTC also found that paid memberships were being renewed without client authorisation.
On June 30, 2014, co-founder and former marketing vice president of Tinder, Whitney Wolfe, filed a sexual harassment and sex discrimination suit in Los Angeles County Superior Court against IAC-owned Match Group, the parent company of Tinder. The lawsuit alleged that her fellow executives and co-founders Rad and Mateen had engaged in discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation against her, while Tinder's corporate supervisor, IAC's Sam Yagan, did nothing. IAC suspended CMO Mateen from his position pending an ongoing investigation, and stated that it "acknowledges that Mateen sent private messages containing 'inappropriate content,' but it believes Mateen, Rad and the company are innocent of the allegations". In December 2018, The Verge reported that Tinder had dismissed Rosette Pambakian, the company's vice president of marketing and communication who had accused Tinder's former CEO Greg Blatt of sexual assault, along with several other employees who were part of the group of Tinder employees who had previously sued the Match Group for $2 billion.
Government regulation
U.S. government regulation of dating services began with the International Marriage Broker Regulation Act (IMBRA) which took effect in March 2007 after a federal judge in Georgia upheld a challenge from the dating site European Connections. The law requires dating services meeting specific criteria—including having as their primary business to connect U.S. citizens/residents with foreign nationals—to conduct, among other procedures, sex offender checks on U.S. customers before contact details can be provided to the non-U.S. citizen. In 2008, the state of New Jersey passed a law which requires the sites to disclose whether they perform background checks.
In the People's Republic of China, using a transnational matchmaking agency involving a monetary transaction is illegal. The Philippines prohibits the business of organizing or facilitating marriages between Filipinas and foreign men under the Republic Act 6955 (the Anti-Mail-Order Bride Law) of June 13, 1990; this law is routinely circumvented by basing mail-order bride websites outside the country.
Singapore's Social Development Network is the governmental organization facilitating dating activities in the country. Singapore's government has actively acted as a matchmaker for singles for the past few decades, and thus only 4% of Singaporeans have ever used an online dating service, despite the country's high rate of internet penetration.
In December 2010, a New York State Law called the "Internet Dating Safety Act" (S5180-A) went into effect that requires online dating sites with customers in New York State to warn users not to disclose personal information to people they do not know.
See also
Comparison of online dating websites
FOSTA-SESTA
List of social networking services
Matrimonial website
Mobile dating
Online dating applications
Online identity
Timeline of online dating services
Sexual selection in humans
Stable marriage problem and the Gale–Shapley algorithm
References
Further reading
Pew Internet & American Life Project study of online dating in the United States
, November 7, 2019 CBS News
Dating
Intimate relationships
Matchmaking
Social media
Dating service | wiki |
Vinland Saga («Винландские саги»):
Vinland Saga — историческая манга, автором которой является Макото Юкимура.
Vinland Saga — второй мини-альбом германо-норвежской группы Leaves’ Eyes, выпущен в 2005 году.
См. также
Винланд — название территории Северной Америки, данное исландским викингом Лейфом Эрикссоном примерно в 1000 году н. э. | wiki |
Light water or Lightwater may refer to:
Science
Deuterium-depleted water, which has a lower concentration of deuterium than occurs naturally on Earth
Water, especially water that is not heavy water
Water, the coolant in a light-water reactor type of nuclear reactor
Other uses
Lightwater, a town in Surrey, England
See also
Semiheavy water, the result of replacing one of the protium in light water to deuterium
Heavy water, a form of water that contains a larger than normal amount of the hydrogen isotope deuterium | wiki |
In Romanian primary schools, a 4-point grading scale is used:
Foarte Bine (FB, very good)
Bine (B, good)
Suficient/Satisfăcător (S, pass)
Insuficient/Nesatisfăcător (I, fail)
In secondary schools, high schools, and universities, a 10-point scale is used, 5 being the minimum grade for passing.
Specifications such as + and −, half grades, and grades like 6/7 are sometimes used. Note that the grades used in primary school are derived from this scale, with Insufficient meaning "4 or less", and the other grades standing for 5-6, 7-8 and 9-10 respectively. A 10 is not an uncommon grade, especially in low-interest subjects. A 9 is usually considered an excellent grade. The average grade ranges between 7 and 8. A very poor performance is usually awarded a 3 or 4, while a 1 is often reserved for cases of academic dishonesty or some other unacceptable behavior. Grades with 2 decimal digits can also be awarded, e.g. 7.38 means "'very' satisfactory", although in the register (catalog, where grades are written) the grade will be rounded. Grades with 2 decimal digits can also be awarded in certificates of final examinations in secondary schools, but in that case, they are not rounded.
The same system (10-point scale) is used in Moldova, Finland and Vietnam, including in primary school. However, in Finland all grades lower than 4 have been consolidated into a grade of 4.
References
https://www.uoradea.ro/display2268
External links
About ECTS credits
Romania
Grading
Grading | wiki |
Sightsmap was a sightseeing popularity heatmap overlaid on Google Maps, based on crowdsourcing: the number of Panoramio photos taken at each place in the world.
The goal of the site is to find and explore places interesting for tourism and sightseeing.
The most popular places are shown on the map with an appropriate crowd-sourced name, attached links, tagcloud and colour-coded markers in the order of the relative popularity in the currently visible map area.
Users can filter popular places by their estimated population, type and tags. The site offers also tools for travel planning, adding bookmarks and personal notes to places.
The place names are selected by the Wikipedia readership numbers and Foursquare checkins, augmented using the automated analysis of photo titles.
A tag cloud of weighted categories is computed from the photo titles and attached to a place.
The data sources have been harvested using public web API-s (Panoramio and Foursquare) or downloaded in the already converted semantic format: Wikipedia downloaded in the form of the DBpedia RDF database, complemented with the Wikipedia public logfiles, and the Geonames database.
The site was created in 2012 by Tanel Tammet, with significant contributions in 2012 and 2013 by Priit Järv and Ago Luberg.
References
External links
Crowdsourcing
Route planning websites
Geographical databases
Google Maps
American travel websites | wiki |
Freedom House is a think tank based in Washington, D.C., United States.
Freedom House may also refer to:
Freedom House (Roxbury, Massachusetts), community organization
Freedom House Ambulance Service, the first emergency medical technician service in America, founded in 1967
Freedom House Museum, also known as the Franklin and Armfield Office, anti-slavery museum in Alexandria, Virginia, United States
Inter-Korean House of Freedom, an administration building on the South Korea side of the Joint Security Area between North and South Korea
See also
Liberty House (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Hanged Man is een Amerikaanse dramafilm uit 1964 onder regie van Don Siegel.
Verhaal
Een schutter gelooft dat zijn vriend vermoord is en hij gaat zelf op zoek naar de moordenaars. Al spoedig raakt hij verwikkeld in een netwerk van corrupte vakbonden.
Rolverdeling
|-
|||Harry Pace
|-
|||Arnie Seeger
|-
|||Lois Seeger
|-
|||Gaylord Grebb
|-
|||Whitey Devlin
|-
|||Celine
|-
|||Oom Picaud
|-
|||Otis Honeywell
|-
|||Receptionist
|-
|||De Jongen
|-
|||Al
|-
|||Piccolo
|-
|||Nieuwslezer
|-
|||Zichzelf
|-
|||Zichzelf
|}
Externe link
Film uit 1964
Amerikaanse film
Dramafilm
Film van Don Siegel | wiki |
This article is about the grades that are used in Sweden.
Primary school
In the Swedish grundskola [Kindergarten – Ninth grade] (primary/elementary and secondary/high school, officially called "compulsory school" by Skolverket), students are currently (December 2012) graded from the sixth grade and onward. Students can be graded:
A – Exemplary
B – Excellent
C – Good
D – Adequate
E – Acceptable
F – Fail, not passed
If a student has not attended enough classes (e.g. due to sickness, late start, truancy), they will instead be marked with an *-, that gives the same points (0p) as an *F, despite not being an actual grade.
A reform came into full effect from the beginning of the autumn semester in 2011 which graded students from the sixth grade, and the grade is more similar to the system of the upper secondary school (gymnasium), with grades F-A. According to Skolverket, the change is due to a lot of students (~10 %) failing in courses in Swedish, Swedish as a second language, English or mathematics in the 9th year.
Secondary school
In the gymnasium (three-year pre-university course, similar to the UK sixth form college, officially called "upper secondary school" by Skolverket, despite there being no such thing as a "lower secondary school"), the same grading system as the primary school was used until 2011, when it was changed to a six-degree system A–F (A being the highest and F for having failed). Grades are assigned based on individual achievements rather than relative performance. Formally, the grade should reflect the degree of attainment of stated learning outcomes and objectives.
Grade points
Average grades are used for entrance to a specific program of courses in the gymnasium, or to higher educational institutes such as universities. To numerically determine an average grade for a student, every subject grade corresponds to a certain number of points.
This can be shown by the grade forms below;
[Bild] Picture & Art= B (17.5)
[Engelska] English= A (20)
[Hemkunskap] Home economics= C (15)
[Idrott] Physical education= B (17.5)
[Matematik] Math= A (20)
[Musik] Music= D (12.5)
[Biologi] Biology= B (17.5)
[Fysik] Physics= A (20)
[Kemi] Chemistry= C (15)
[Historia] History= B (17.5)
[Samhällskunskap] Social studies= A (20)
[Religionskunskap] Religious knowledge= A (20)
[Geografi] Geography= B (17.5)
[Träslöjd/Textilslöjd] Wood work/Needle work= E (10)
[Svenska/Svenska som andraspråk] Swedish/Swedish as a second language= A (20)
[Moderna språk] Foreign languages (French, Spanish, German, Chinese)= B (17.5)
Which gives a sum of 277.5 points, or an average point of 17.34, which symbolizes the grade of a C, even if you could place it as a weak B (B-), when a B is represented of a grade point of 17.5 or higher. When this grade isn't really that much the grade is counted as the grade below, in this case a C, which is represented by 15 points or higher.
If the student has parents from, or was born in a foreign country, they have the right to get education in their native language and also gets a valid grade in that language. Because you can only file 16 grades this gives the student the opportunity to choose which subject not to count, possibly the worst. Depending on schools the students can study another subject (Technics, Languages etc.), where the same procedure is used to file only the allowed 16 grades.
Historically
1996–2011
From 1996 to the end of the 2011 academic year, grades ranged from "IG", "G", "VG", to "MVG" ("IG" being failed). The grading scale was changed by the secondary school reforms of 2011 from the start of the 2011 autumn semester, primarily to make the distinction of grades clearer and to make the grading of students fairer. The IG-MVG system was translated into a numerical GPA like number for application purposes etc., where MVG equalled 20.0, VG 15.0, G 10.0 and IG 0 and the highest achievable GPA thus being 20.0. This system is still (2019) in use for students who started their secondary school with these grades.
20th century
Until 1996 relative grades on the scale 1–5 were used, with 5 being the highest grade. The scale was intended to follow a normal distribution on a national level, with a mean of 3 and a standard deviation of 1.
Up until 1962 yet another scale was used:
A – Berömlig (Excellent)
a – Med utmärkt beröm godkänd (Passed with great credit)
AB – Med beröm godkänd (Passed with credit)
Ba – Icke utan beröm godkänd (Passed, not without credit)
B – Godkänd (Passed)
Bc – Icke fullt godkänd (Not entirely passable)
C – Underkänd (Fail)
D – "Klandervärt" (Humiliation)
Though unused for over 40 years, this scale retains some cultural significance, and the standard law school grading scale used today is based on it (see below).
University level
On university level the following standard grading scale has been defined:
VG – Väl godkänd (Passed with distinction)
G – Godkänd (Passed)
U – Underkänd (Fail)
As long as relative grading is not used, however, individual universities may choose to use any other scale. For example, in the fields of engineering and technology, the passing grades of VG and G are commonly replaced with 5, 4 and 3, whereas law schools consistently employ a scale of AB, Ba and B as passing grades. Further, a number of universities are currently in the process of transitioning to an ECTS based scale, with an A to F grading, pursuant to the Bologna process. Many universities (e.g. KTH and Stockholm University) finished the transition process in 2007 or 2008.
Prior to transitioning to the Bologna Process, the private university Stockholm School of Economics (Sw. Handelshögskolan i Stockholm) adopted its own grading scale:
B – "Berömlig" (Excellent)
MBG – "Med Beröm Godkänd" (Passed with distinction)
G – "Godkänd" (Passed)
where B corresponded to a >=85% score, MBG >= 70% and G >= 50%.
After spring 2016 all new students enrolled at the Stockholm School of Economics follow a new grading scale:
80%- Utmärkt (Excellent)
70–79%- Mycket Väl Godkänd (Very Good)
60–69%- Väl Godkänd (Good)
50–59%- Godkänd (Pass)
See also
Education in Sweden
Bologna process, section Sweden
References
Sweden
Grading
Grading | wiki |
World UFO Day is an awareness day for people to gather together and watch the skies for unidentified flying objects (UFO). The day is celebrated by some on June 24, and others on July 2. June 24 is the date that reporter Kenneth Arnold wrote is generally considered to be the first widely reported UFO in the United States, while July 2 the supposed UFO crash in the 1947 Roswell incident. July 2 was declared as the official World UFO Day by the World UFO Day Organisation.It is believed that the first World UFO Day was celebrated in 2001 by UFO researcher Haktan Akdogan.
The stated goal of the July 2 celebration is to raise awareness of "the undoubted existence of UFOs" and to encourage governments to declassify their files on UFO sightings.
World UFO Day is celebrated by stirring conversations about how and why humans are not the only beings in the Universe. The WUFDO (World UFO Day Organisation)promotes various events and educational workshops with the idea of getting people to know about UFOS.
See also
World Contact Day
References
External links
Flying Saucer Day / World UFO Day celebrated on July 2
World UFO Day, celebrated on July 2
Ovni.net World UFO Day, celebrated on June 24
UFO culture
UFO day
June observances
July observances | wiki |
In Switzerland, the 6-point grading scale is usually applied, where 1 represents the lowest possible grade, and 6 represents the highest possible grade. (Percentages represent the minimum needed for the grade to be achieved).
6 (Excellent; best possible grade; exceptional performance, 95%)
5.5 (Very good, 85%)
5 (Good, 75%)
4.5 (Satisfactory, 65%)
4 (Sufficient, 55%)
3.5 (Insufficient, 45%)
3 (Poor, 35%)
2.5 (Very poor, 25%)
2 (Very poor) (15%)
1.5 (Very poor, 5%)
1 (Very poor, 0%)
Grade averages between 5.5 and 6 are very hard to get. An average of 6 is nearly impossible.
Exams
Quarter steps are usually used in exams to indicate grades between integer grades: e.g., 5.25. Sometimes, finer grained systems are used with steps of one-tenth. This is often the case in exams in which the grade is a linear function of the number of achieved points (Grade = achieved_point/max_points*5 + 1).
Certificates
Certificate grades are either rounded to integers or half-integers. After having rounded the individual grades, a weighted mean is used to calculate the overall result. The weight of a grade is normally proportional to the number of hours the according subject was taught per week. To pass a year, this overall result needs to be sufficient. Sometimes further conditions need to be fulfilled, such as a maximum allowed number of grades below four. At university level, classes can often be repeated individually in case of an insufficient grade, so not the whole year or semester needs to be repeated.
In a typical exam, the average result will be somewhat above 4 with a variance between 0.5 and 1. This of course varies depending on the kind of exam, the tested class, the school level, the region, the teacher and other factors.
Cantonal differences
Since education is in the responsibility of the cantons (except for the federal universities), grading notations may differ depending on the region. In some regions, + and − are used to indicate marks below or above an integer. Sometimes the − is used to indicate a better grade if it stands after the grade and a lower grade if it stands before the grade (in which case − is a symbol for "bis", e.g. 'to', rather than 'minus'), for example −5 (4.75) is lower than 5 which is lower than 5− (5.25) in that system. In some regions, decimal grades are used: 5.5, 4.5, etc.
Universities
At university level, in some cases, Latin expressions are used. The Latin grades for a passed final exam in law at the University of Zurich, for example, are "summa cum laude" (excellent), "magna cum laude" (very good), "cum laude" (good) and "rite" (sufficient).
References
Switzerland
Grading
Grading | wiki |
The Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) is a headquarters-level staff of the United States Department of Defense. It is the principal civilian staff element of the U.S. Secretary of Defense, and it assists the Secretary in carrying out authority, direction and control of the Department of Defense in the exercise of policy development, planning, resource management, fiscal, and program evaluation responsibilities. OSD (along with the Joint Staff) is the Secretary of Defense's support staff for managing the Department of Defense, and it corresponds to what the Executive Office of the President of the U.S. is to the U.S. president for managing the whole of the Executive branch of the federal government.
OSD includes the immediate offices of the Secretary (SECDEF) and the Deputy Secretary of Defense (DEPSECDEF), as well as the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering; Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment; Under Secretary of Defense for Policy; Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller); Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness; and Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence & Security. All of these positions are Presidential appointments which require U.S. Senate confirmation, as do each of their sole deputies.
Other positions include the Assistant Secretaries of Defense, Assistants to the Secretary of Defense, General Counsel, Director, Operational Test and Evaluation, Director of Administration and Management, and other staff offices that the Secretary establishes in order to assist in carrying out their assigned responsibilities.
Composition of OSD
The Secretary and Deputy Secretary manage several Under Secretaries each of whom in turn manage several Assistant Secretaries of Defense. There are also several special officers reporting directly to the Secretary of Defense.
Major elements of OSD (listed hierarchically):
Secretary of Defense (SecDef) and Deputy Secretary of Defense (DepSecDef)
Special officers reporting directly to Secretary and Deputy
Executive Secretary of the Department of Defense (ExecSec)
General Counsel of the Department of Defense
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Intelligence Oversight (ATSD(IO))
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs (ATSD(PA))
Chief Information Officer (DoD CIO)
Senior Designated Officials of SECDEF-Empowered Cross Functional Teams
Assistant Secretaries reporting directly to Secretary and Deputy
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Legislative Affairs (LA)
Under Secretaries
Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)/Chief Financial Officer (C/CFO)
Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (A&S)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defense Programs (NCB)
Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security (I&S)
Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness (P&R)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs (HA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (M&RA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Readiness
Executive Director, Defense Human Resources Activity (DHRA)
Executive Director, Force Resiliency
Executive Director, Personnel and Readiness
Under Secretary of Defense for Policy (P)
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Policy
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Indo-Pacific Security Affairs (IPSA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs (GSA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense and Hemispheric Affairs (HD&HA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (ISA)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict (SO&LIC)
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Space Policy
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Strategy, Plans, and Capabilities
Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering
Directors
Director of Administration and Management (DA&M)
Director of Cost Assessment and Program Evaluation (CAPE)
Director of Family Policy
Director of Force Transformation
Director of Net Assessment
Director of the Office of Corrosion Policy and Oversight
Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E)
Director of Small Business Programs
Former elements
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and Information Integration (NII)
Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO)
Major reorganizations
The composition of OSD is in a state of consistent flux, as Congress and DoD routinely create new offices, redesignate existing ones, and abolish others.
Obama administration changes
During the Obama administration, Congress has sought to clarify the organization of OSD, and has worked with the department to move toward a standardization of official naming conventions. Many Defense officials, including the Deputy Secretary of Defense (DEPSECDEF), all five Under Secretaries of Defense (USDs), and all Assistant Secretaries of Defense (ASDs), as well as any officials specifically designated in U.S. Code have historically been considered Presidentially-Appointed, Senate-Confirmed (PAS) officials, in that the Senate must provide "advice and consent" for each individual before he or she can operate in an official capacity. In a March 2009 letter, Senator Carl Levin, Chairman of the Senate Armed Service Committee, wrote that the department was apparently exercising the authority to appoint other significant officials—termed Deputy Under Secretaries of Defense (DUSDs)—"without statutory authorization, without limitation, and without Senate confirmation." Levin was "concerned that the proliferation of DUSDs at multiple levels of the organization could muddy lines of authority and may not be in the best interest of the Department of Defense." Subsequent legislation established five Senate-confirmed Principal Deputies (i.e., "first assistants"), one for each Under Secretary of Defense.
The FY10 NDAA gave the Department of Defense until January 1, 2011, to eliminate or redesignate all other Deputy Under Secretaries who are not Principal Deputy Under Secretaries of Defense (PDUSDs). The FY11 NDAA extended this deadline to January 1, 2015. During that time, the Secretary may, at his or her discretion, appoint within OSD five additional non-PAS DUSDs beyond the five statutory PAS-PDUSDs. The USD(I) appears to be maintaining at least three non-PAS DUSDs, although they have been renamed. The USD (AT&L) has maintained the non-PAS DUSD for Installations and Environment, though the FY11 NDAA recommended merging this post with the newly created ASD for Operational Energy Plans and Programs. The USD(P) has maintained a non-PAS DUSD for Strategy, Plans, and Forces, though the FY11 NDAA recommended eliminating this position.
Nevertheless, a number of positions have been redesignated or eliminated during the Obama administration, pursuant to statutory language contained in the National Defense Authorization Acts of FY10 and FY11. and subsequent internal DoD reports.
Director for Defense Intelligence = DDI, DUSD = Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, ASD = Assistant Secretary of Defense, DASD = Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense
See also
The Air Staff
Headquarters Marine Corps
The Joint Staff
Office of the Secretary of the Army
Office of the Secretary of the Navy
Office of the Secretary of the Air Force
Secretary of Defense-Empowered Cross-Functional Teams
References
External links
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics (AcqWeb)
1947 establishments in Virginia
Government agencies established in 1947
United States Department of Defense agencies | wiki |
Craig Jones – pilota motociclistico britannico
Craig Jones – tastierista statunitense | wiki |
Falconry is the hunting of wild animals in their natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. Small animals are hunted; squirrels and rabbits often fall prey to these birds. Two traditional terms are used to describe a person involved in falconry: a "falconer" flies a falcon; an "austringer" (Old French origin) flies a hawk (Accipiter, some buteos and similar) or an eagle (Aquila or similar). In modern falconry, the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), and the peregrine falcon (Falco perigrinus) are some of the more commonly used birds of prey. The practice of hunting with a conditioned falconry bird is also called "hawking" or "gamehawking", although the words hawking and hawker have become used so much to refer to petty traveling traders, that the terms "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to most use of trained birds of prey to catch game. Many contemporary practitioners still use these words in their original meaning, however.
In early English falconry literature, the word "falcon" referred to a female peregrine falcon only, while the word "hawk" or "hawke" referred to a female hawk. A male hawk or falcon was referred to as a "tiercel" (sometimes spelled "tercel"), as it was roughly one-third less than the female in size. This traditional Arabian sport grew throughout Europe. Falconry is also an icon of Arabian culture.
Birds used in contemporary falconry
Several raptors are used in falconry. They are typically classed as:
"Broadwings": Buteo and Parabuteo spp., and eagles (red-tailed hawks, Harris hawks, golden eagles)
"Shortwings": Accipiter (Cooper's hawk, goshawks, sparrow hawks)
"Longwings": Falcons (peregrine falcons, kestrels, gyrfalcons, saker falcons)
Owls are also used, although they are far less common.
In determining whether a species can or should be used for falconry, the species' behavior in a captive environment, its responsiveness to training, and its typical prey and hunting habits are considered. To some degree, a species' reputation will determine whether it is used, although this factor is somewhat harder to objectively gauge.
Species for beginners
In North America, the capable red-tailed hawk is commonly flown by beginner falconers during their apprenticeship. Opinions differ on the usefulness of the kestrel for beginners due to its inherent fragility. In the UK, beginner falconers are often permitted to acquire a larger variety of birds, but Harris's hawk and the red-tailed hawk remain the most commonly used for beginners and experienced falconers alike. Red-tailed hawks are held in high regard in the UK due to the ease of breeding them in captivity, their inherent hardiness, and their capability hunting the rabbits and hares commonly found throughout the countryside in the UK. Many falconers in the UK and North America switch to accipiters or large falcons following their introduction with easier birds. In the US, accipiters, several types of buteos, and large falcons are only allowed to be owned by falconers who hold a general license. The three kinds of falconry licenses in the United States, typically, are the apprentice class, general class, and master class.
Soaring hawks and the common buzzard (Buteo)
The genus Buteo, known as "hawks" in North America and not to be confused with vultures, has worldwide distribution, but is particularly well represented in North America. The red-tailed hawk, ferruginous hawk, and rarely, the red-shouldered hawk are all examples of species from this genus that are used in falconry today. The red-tailed hawk is hardy and versatile, taking rabbits, hares, and squirrels; given the right conditions, it can catch the occasional duck or pheasant. The red-tailed hawk is also considered a good bird for beginners. The Eurasian or common buzzard is also used, although this species requires more perseverance if rabbits are to be hunted.
Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)
Parabuteo unicinctus is one of two representatives of the Parabuteo genus worldwide. The other is the white-rumped hawk (P. leucorrhous). Arguably the best rabbit or hare raptor available anywhere, Harris's hawk is also adept at catching birds. Often captive-bred, Harris's hawk is remarkably popular because of its temperament and ability. It is found in the wild living in groups or packs, and hunts cooperatively, with a social hierarchy similar to wolves. This highly social behavior is not observed in any other bird-of-prey species, and is very adaptable to falconry. This genus is native to the Americas from southern Texas and Arizona to South America. Harris's hawk is often used in the modern technique of car hawking (or drive-by falconry), where the raptor is launched from the window of a moving car at suitable prey.
True hawks (Accipiter)
The genus Accipiter is also found worldwide. Hawk expert Mike McDermott once said, "The attack of the accipiters is extremely swift, rapid, and violent in every way." They are well known in falconry use both in Europe and North America. The northern goshawk has been trained for falconry for hundreds of years, taking a variety of birds and mammals. Other popular Accipiter species used in falconry include Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk in North America and the European sparrowhawk in Europe and Eurasia.
Harriers (Circus)
New Zealand is likely to be one of the few countries to use a harrier species for falconry; there, falconers successfully hunt with the Australasian harrier (Circus approximans).
Falcons (Falco)
The genus Falco is found worldwide and has occupied a central niche in ancient and modern falconry. Most falcon species used in falconry are specialized predators, most adapted to capturing bird prey such as the peregrine falcon and merlin. A notable exception is the use of desert falcons such the saker falcon in ancient and modern falconry in Asia and Western Asia, where hares were and are commonly taken. In North America, the prairie falcon and the gyrfalcon can capture small mammal prey such as rabbits and hares (as well as the standard gamebirds and waterfowl) in falconry, but this is rarely practiced. Young falconry apprentices in the United States often begin practicing the art with American kestrels, the smallest of the falcons in North America; debate remains on this, as they are small, fragile birds, and can die easily if neglected. Small species, such as kestrels, merlins and hobbys are most often flown on small birds such as starlings or sparrows, but can also be used for recreational bug hawking – that is, hunting large flying insects such as dragonflies, grasshoppers, and moths.
Owls (Strigidae)
Owls (family Strigidae) are not closely related to hawks or falcons. Little is written in classic falconry that discusses the use of owls in falconry. However, at least two species have successfully been used, the Eurasian eagle-owl and the great horned owl. Successful training of owls is much different from the training of hawks and falcons, as they are hearing- rather than sight-oriented. (Owls can only see black and white, and are long-sighted.) This often leads falconers to believe that they are less intelligent, as they are distracted easily by new or unnatural noises, and they do not respond as readily to food cues. However, if trained successfully, owls show intelligence on the same level as those of hawks and falcons.
Booted eagles (Aquila)
The Aquila (all have "booted" or feathered tarsi) genus has a nearly worldwide distribution. The more powerful types are used in falconry; for example golden eagles have reportedly been used to hunt wolves in Kazakhstan, and are now most widely used by the Altaic Kazakh eagle hunters in the western Mongolian province of Bayan-Ölgii to hunt foxes, and other large prey, as they are in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan. Most are primarily ground-oriented, but occasionally take birds. Eagles are not used as widely in falconry as other birds of prey, due to the lack of versatility in the larger species (they primarily hunt over large, open ground), the greater potential danger to other people if hunted in a widely populated area, and the difficulty of training and managing an eagle. A little over 300 active falconers are using eagles in Central Asia, with 250 in western Mongolia, 50 in Kazakhstan, and smaller numbers in Kyrgyzstan and western China.
Sea eagles (Haliaëtus)
Most species of genus Haliaëtus catch and eat fish, some almost exclusively, but in countries where they are not protected, some have been effectively used in hunting for ground quarry.
Husbandry, training, and equipment
See Hack (falconry) and Falconry training and technique. They can be trained by nurturing a deep bond between the falconer and Falcon.They should cover the falcon’s head with a leather band if not hunting.
Falconry around the world
Falconry is currently practiced in many countries around the world. The falconer's traditional choice of bird is the northern goshawk and peregrine falcon. In contemporary falconry in both North America and the UK, they remain popular, although Harris' hawks and red-tailed hawks are likely more widely used. The northern goshawk and the golden eagle are more commonly used in Eastern Europe than elsewhere. In the west asia, the saker falcon is the most traditional species flown against the houbara bustard, sandgrouse, stone-curlew, other birds, and hares. Peregrines and other captive-bred imported falcons are also commonplace. Falconry remains an important part of the Arab heritage and culture. The UAE reportedly spends over US$27 million annually towards the protection and conservation of wild falcons, and has set up several state-of-the-art falcon hospitals in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The Abu Dhabi Falcon Hospital is the largest falcon hospital in the whole world. Two breeding farms are in the Emirates, as well as those in Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Every year, falcon beauty contests and demonstrations take place at the ADIHEX exhibition in Abu Dhabi.
Eurasian sparrowhawks were formerly used to take a range of small birds, but are really too delicate for serious falconry, and have fallen out of favour now that American species are available.
In North America and the UK, falcons usually fly only after birds. Large falcons are typically trained to fly in the "waiting-on" style, where the falcon climbs and circles above the falconer and/or dog and the quarry is flushed when the falcon is in the desired commanding position. Classical game hawking in the UK had a brace of peregrine falcons flown against the red grouse, or merlins in "ringing" flights after skylarks. Rooks and crows are classic game for the larger falcons, and the magpie, making up in cunning what it lacks in flying ability, is another common target. Short-wings can be flown in both open and wooded country against a variety of bird and small mammal prey. Most hunting with large falcons requires large, open tracts where the falcon is afforded opportunity to strike or seize its quarry before it reaches cover. Most of Europe practices similar styles of falconry, but with differing degrees of regulation.
Medieval falconers often rode horses, but this is now rare with the exception of contemporary Kazakh and Mongolian falconry. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia, the golden eagle is traditionally flown (often from horseback), hunting game as large as foxes and wolves.
In Japan, the northern goshawk has been used for centuries. Japan continues to honor its strong historical links with falconry (takagari), while adopting some modern techniques and technologies.
In Australia, although falconry is not specifically illegal, it is illegal to keep any type of bird of prey in captivity without the appropriate permits. The only exemption is when the birds are kept for purposes of rehabilitation (for which a licence must still be held), and in such circumstances it may be possible for a competent falconer to teach a bird to hunt and kill wild quarry, as part of its regime of rehabilitation to good health and a fit state to be released into the wild.
In New Zealand, falconry was formally legalised for one species only, the swamp/Australasian harrier (Circus approximans) in 2011. This was only possible with over 25 years of effort from both Wingspan National Bird of Prey Center and the Raptor Association of New Zealand. Falconry can only be practiced by people who have been issued a falconry permit by the Department of Conservation. Tangent aspects, such as bird abatement and raptor rehabilitation, also employ falconry techniques to accomplish their goals.
Falconry today
Falcons can live into their midteens, with larger hawks living longer and eagles likely to see out middle-aged owners. Through the captive breeding of rescued birds, the last 30 years have had a great rebirth of the sport, with a host of innovations; falconry's popularity, through lure flying displays at country houses and game fairs, has probably never been higher in the past 300 years. Ornithologist Tim Gallagher, editor of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Living Bird magazine, documented his experiences with modern falconry in a 2008 book, Falcon Fever.
Making use of the natural relationship between raptors and their prey, falconry is now used to control pest birds and animals in urban areas, landfills, commercial buildings, hotels, and airports.
Falconry centres or bird-of-prey centres house these raptors. They are responsible for many aspects of bird-of-prey conservation (through keeping the birds for education and breeding). Many conduct regular flying demonstrations and educational talks, and are popular with visitors worldwide.
Such centres may also provide falconry courses, hawk walks, displays, and other experiences with these raptors.
Clubs and organizations
In the UK, the British Falconers' Club (BFC) is the oldest and largest of the falconry clubs. BFC was founded in 1927 by the surviving members of the Old Hawking Club, itself founded in 1864. Working closely with the Hawk Board, an advisory body representing the interests of UK bird of prey keepers, the BFC is in the forefront of raptor conservation, falconer education, and sustainable falconry. Established in 1927, the BFC now has a membership over 1,200 falconers. It began as a small and elite club, but it is now a sizeable democratic organisation that has members from all walks of life, flying hawks, falcons, and eagles at legal quarry throughout the British Isles.
The North American Falconers Association (NAFA), founded in 1961, is the premier club for falconry in the US, Canada, and Mexico, and has members worldwide. NAFA is the primary club in the United States and has a membership from around the world. Most USA states have their own falconry clubs. Although these clubs are primarily social, they also serve to represent falconers within their states in regards to that state's wildlife regulations.
The International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey, founded in 1968, currently represents 156 falconry clubs and conservation organisations from 87 countries worldwide, totalling over 75,000 members.
The Saudi Falcons Club preserves the historical heritage associated with the falconry culture, and spreads awareness and provides training to protect falcons and flourish falconry.
Captive breeding and conservation
The successful and now widespread captive breeding of birds of prey began as a response to dwindling wild populations due to persistent toxins such as PCBs and DDT, systematic persecution as undesirable predators, habitat loss, and the resulting limited availability of popular species for falconry, particularly the peregrine falcon. The first known raptors to breed in captivity belonged to a German falconer named Renz Waller. In 1942–43, he produced two young peregrines in Düsseldorf in Germany.
The first successful captive breeding of peregrine falcons in North America occurred in the early 1970s by the Peregrine Fund, professor and falconer Heinz Meng, and other private falconer/breeders such as David Jamieson and Les Boyd who bred the first peregrines by means of artificial insemination. In Great Britain, falconer Phillip Glasier of the Falconry Centre in Newent, Gloucestershire, was successful in obtaining young from more than 20 species of captive raptors. A cooperative effort began between various government agencies, non-government organizations, and falconers to supplement various wild raptor populations in peril. This effort was strongest in North America where significant private donations along with funding allocations through the Endangered Species Act of 1972 provided the means to continue the release of captive-bred peregrines, golden eagles, bald eagles, aplomado falcons and others. By the mid-1980s, falconers had become self-sufficient as regards sources of birds to train and fly, in addition to the immensely important conservation benefits conferred by captive breeding.
Between 1972 and 2001, nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the U.S. were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the U. S. Endangered Species Act was passed, and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list on August 25, 1999. Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2001, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.
Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive-breeding stock used by the Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the extirpation of the eastern subspecies (Falco peregrinus anatum), its near extirpation in the Midwest, and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-native subspecies was justified to optimize the genetic diversity found within the species as a whole. Such strategies are common in endangered species reintroduction scenarios, where dramatic population declines result in a genetic bottleneck and the loss of genetic diversity.
Laws regulating the hunting, import and export of wild falcons vary across Asia, and effective enforcement of current national and international regulations is lacking in some regions. It is possible that the spread of captive-bred falcons in falcon markets in the Arabian Peninsula has mitigated this demand for wild falcons.
Hybrid falcons
The species within the genus Falco are closely related, and some pairings produce viable offspring. The heavy northern gyrfalcon and Asiatic saker are especially closely related, and whether the Altai falcon is a subspecies of the saker or descendants of naturally occurring hybrids is not known. Peregrine and prairie falcons have been observed breeding in the wild and have produced offspring. These pairings are thought to be rare, but extra-pair copulations between closely related species may occur more frequently and/or account for most natural occurring hybridization. Some male first-generation hybrids may have viable sperm, whereas very few first-generation female hybrids lay fertile eggs. Thus, naturally occurring hybridization is thought to be somewhat insignificant to gene flow in raptor species.
The first hybrid falcons produced in captivity occurred in western Ireland when veteran falconer Ronald Stevens and John Morris put a male saker and a female peregrine into the same moulting mews for the spring and early summer, and the two mated and produced offspring.
Captive-bred hybrid falcons have been available since the late 1970s, and enjoyed a meteoric rise in popularity in North America and the UK in the 1990s. Hybrids were initially "created" to combine the horizontal speed and size of the gyrfalcon with the good disposition and aerial ability of the peregrine. Hybrid falcons first gained large popularity throughout the Arabian Peninsula, feeding a demand for particularly large and aggressive female falcons capable and willing to take on the very large houbara bustard, the classic falconry quarry in the deserts of the West Asia. These falcons were also very popular with Arab falconers, as they tended to withstand a respiratory disease (aspergillosis from the mold genus Aspergillus) in stressful desert conditions better than other pure species from the Northern Hemisphere.
Artificial selection and domestication
Some believe that no species of raptor have been in captivity long enough to have undergone successful selective breeding for desired traits. Captive breeding of raptors over several generations tends to result, either deliberately, or inevitably as a result of captivity, in selection for certain traits, including:
Ability to survive in captivity
Ability to breed in captivity
Suitability (in most cases) for interactions with humans for falconry: Birds that demonstrated an unwillingness to hunt with men were most often discarded, rather than being placed in breeding projects
With gyrfalcons in areas away from their natural Arctic tundra habitat, better disease resistance
With gyrfalcons, feather color
Escaped falconry birds
Falconers' birds are inevitably lost on occasion, though most are found again. The main reason birds can be found again is because, during free flights, birds usually wear radio transmitters or bells. The transmitters are in the middle of the tail, on the back, or attached to the bird's legs.
Records of species becoming established in Britain after escaping or being released include:
Escaped Harris hawks reportedly bred in the wild in Britain.
The return of the goshawk as a breeding bird to Britain since 1945 is due in large part to falconers' escapes; the earlier British population was wiped out by gamekeepers and egg collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
A pair of European eagle owls bred in the wild in Yorkshire for several years, feeding largely or entirely on rabbits. The pair are most likely captive escapees. If this will lead to a population becoming established is not yet known.
In 1986, a lost captive-bred female prairie falcon (which had been cross-fostered by an adult peregrine in captivity) mated with a wild male peregrine in Utah. The prairie falcon was trapped and the eggs removed, incubated, and hatched, and the hybrid offspring were given to falconers. The wild peregrine paired with another peregrine the next year.
Falconry in Hawaii is prohibited largely due to the fears of escaped non-native birds of prey becoming established on the island chain and aggravating an already rampant problem of invasive species impacts on native wildlife and plant communities.
Regulations
In Great Britain
In sharp contrast to the US, falconry in Great Britain is permitted without a special license, but a restriction exists of using only captive-bred birds. In the lengthy, record-breaking debates in Westminster during the passage of the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Bill, efforts were made by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and other lobby groups to have falconry outlawed, but these were successfully resisted. After a centuries-old but informal existence in Britain, the sport of falconry was finally given formal legal status in Great Britain by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which allowed it to continue, provided all captive raptors native to the UK were officially ringed and government-registered. DNA testing was also available to verify birds' origins. Since 1982, the British government's licensing requirements have been overseen by the Chief Wildlife Act Inspector for Great Britain, who is assisted by a panel of unpaid assistant inspectors.
British falconers are entirely reliant upon captive-bred birds for their sport. The taking of raptors from the wild for falconry, although permitted by law under government licence, has not been allowed in recent decades.
Anyone is permitted to possess legally registered or captive-bred raptors, although falconers are anxious to point out this is not synonymous with falconry, which specifically entails the hunting of live quarry with a trained bird. A raptor kept merely as a pet or possession, although the law may allow it, is not considered to be a falconer's bird. Birds may be used for breeding or kept after their hunting days are over, but falconers believe it is preferable that young, fit birds are flown at quarry.
In the United States
In the United States, falconry is legal in all states except Hawaii, and in the District of Columbia. A falconer must have a state permit to practice the sport. (Requirements for a federal permit were changed in 2008 and the program discontinued effective January 1, 2014.) Acquiring a falconry license in the United States requires an aspiring falconer to pass a written test, have equipment and facilities inspected, and serve a minimum of two years as an apprentice under a licensed falconer, during which time, the apprentice falconer may only possess one raptor. Three classes of the falconry license have a permit issued jointly by the falconer's state of residence and the federal government. The aforementioned apprentice license matriculates to a general class license, which allows the falconer to up to three raptors at one time. (Some jurisdictions may further limit this.) After a minimum of five years at general level, falconers may apply for a master class license, which allows them to keep up to five wild raptors for falconry and an unlimited number of captive-produced raptors. (All must be used for falconry.) Certain highly experienced master falconers may also apply to possess golden eagles for falconry.
Within the United States, a state's regulations are limited by federal law and treaties protecting raptors. Most states afford falconers an extended hunting season relative to seasons for archery and firearms, but species to be hunted, bag limits, and possession limits remain the same for both. No extended seasons for falconry exist for the hunting of migratory birds such as waterfowl and doves.
Federal regulation of falconry in North America is enforced under the statutes of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (MBTA), originally designed to address the rampant commercial market hunting of migratory waterfowl during the early 20th century. Birds of prey suffered extreme persecution from the early 20th century through the 1960s, where thousands of birds were shot at conspicuous migration sites, and many state wildlife agencies issued bounties for carcasses. Due to widespread persecution and further impacts to raptor populations from DDT and other toxins, the act was amended in 1972 to include birds of prey. (Eagles are also protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1959.) Under the MBTA, taking migratory birds, their eggs, feathers, or nests is illegal. Take is defined in the MBTA to "include by any means or in any manner, any attempt at hunting, pursuing, wounding, killing, possessing, or transporting any migratory bird, nest, egg, or part thereof". Falconers are allowed to trap and otherwise possess certain birds of prey and their feathers with special permits issued by the Migratory Bird Office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and by state wildlife agencies (issuers of trapping permits).
The Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) restricts the import and export of most native birds species and are listed in the CITES Appendices I, II, and III.
The Wild Bird Conservation Act, legislation put into effect circa 1993, regulates importation of any CITES-listed birds into the United States.
Some controversy exists over the issue of falconer's ownership of captive-bred birds of prey. Falconry permits are issued by states in a manner that entrusts falconers to "take" (trap) and possess permitted birds and use them only for permitted activities, but does not transfer legal ownership. No legal distinction is made between native wild-trapped vs. captive-bred birds of the same species. This legal position is designed to discourage the commercial exploitation of native wildlife.
History
Evidence suggests that the art of falconry may have begun in Mesopotamia, with the earliest accounts dating to around 2,000 BC. Also, some raptor representations are in the northern Altai, western Mongolia. The falcon was a symbolic bird of ancient Mongol tribes. Some disagreement exists about whether such early accounts document the practice of falconry (from the Epic of Gilgamesh and others) or are misinterpreted depictions of humans with birds of prey. During the Turkic Period of Central Asia (seventh century AD), concrete figures of falconers on horseback were described on the rocks in Kyrgyz. Falconry was probably introduced to Europe around AD 400, when the Huns and Alans invaded from the east. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) is generally acknowledged as the most significant wellspring of traditional falconry knowledge. He is believed to have obtained firsthand knowledge of Arabic falconry during wars in the region (between June 1228 and June 1229). He obtained a copy of Moamyn's manual on falconry and had it translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch. Frederick II himself made corrections to the translation in 1241, resulting in De Scientia Venandi per Aves. King Frederick II is most recognized for his falconry treatise, De arte venandi cum avibus (The Art of Hunting with Birds). Written himself toward the end of his life, it is widely accepted as the first comprehensive book of falconry, but also notable in its contributions to ornithology and zoology. De arte venandi cum avibus incorporated a diversity of scholarly traditions from east to west, and is one of the earliest challenges to Aristotle's explanations of nature.
Historically, falconry was a popular sport and status symbol among the nobles of medieval Europe, and Asia. Many historical illustrations left in Rashid al Din's "Compendium chronicles" book described falconry of the middle centuries with Mongol images. Falconry was largely restricted to the noble classes due to the prerequisite commitment of time, money, and space. In art and other aspects of culture, such as literature, falconry remained a status symbol long after it was no longer popularly practiced. The historical significance of falconry within lower social classes may be underrepresented in the archaeological record, due to a lack of surviving evidence, especially from nonliterate nomadic and nonagrarian societies. Within nomadic societies such as the Bedouin, falconry was not practiced for recreation by noblemen. Instead, falcons were trapped and hunted on small game during the winter to supplement a very limited diet.
In the UK and parts of Europe, falconry probably reached its zenith in the 17th century, but soon faded, particularly in the late 18th and 19th centuries, as firearms became the tool of choice for hunting. (This likely took place throughout Europe and Asia in differing degrees.) Falconry in the UK had a resurgence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when a number of falconry books were published. This revival led to the introduction of falconry in North America in the early 20th century. Colonel R. Luff Meredith is recognized as the father of North American falconry.
Throughout the 20th century, modern veterinary practices and the advent of radio telemetry (transmitters attached to free-flying birds) increased the average lifespan of falconry birds, and allowed falconers to pursue quarry and styles of flight that had previously resulted in the loss of their hawk or falcon.
Timeline
722–705 BC – An Assyrian bas-relief found in the ruins at Khorsabad during the excavation of the palace of Sargon II (Sargon II) has been claimed to depict falconry. In fact, it depicts an archer shooting at raptors and an attendant capturing a raptor. A. H. Layard's statement in his 1853 book Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon is "A falconer bearing a hawk on his wrist appeared to be represented in a bas-relief which I saw on my last visit to those ruins."
680 BC – Chinese records describe falconry.
Fourth century BC - Aristotle wrote that in Thrace, the boys who want to hunt small birds, take hawks with them. When they call the hawks addressing them by name, the hawks swoop down on the birds. The small birds fly in terror into the bushes, where the boys catch them by knocking them down with sticks; in case the hawks themselves catch any of the birds, they throw them down to the hunters. When the hunting finishes, the hunters give a portion of all that is caught to the hawks. He also wrote that in the city of Cedripolis (Κεδρίπολις), men and hawks jointly hunt small birds. The men drive them away with sticks, while the hawks pursue closely, and the small birds in their flight fall into the clutches of the men. Because of this, they share their prey with the hawks.
Third century BC - Antigonus of Carystus wrote the same story about the city of Cedripolis.
355 AD – Nihon-shoki, a largely mythical narrative, records hawking first arriving in Japan from Baekje as of the 16th emperor Nintoku.
Second–fourth century – the Germanic tribe of the Goths learned falconry from the Sarmatians.
Fifth century – the son of Avitus, Roman Emperor 455–56, from the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, who fought at the Battle of Châlons with the Goths against the Huns, introduced falconry in Rome.
500 – a Roman floor mosaic depicts a falconer and his hawk hunting ducks.
Early seventh century – Prey caught by trained dogs or falcons is considered halal in Quran. By this time, falconry was already popular in the Arabian Peninsula.
818 – Japanese Emperor Saga ordered someone to edit a falconry text named Shinshuu Youkyou.
875 – Western Europe and Saxon England practiced falconry widely.
991 – In the poem The Battle of Maldon describing the Battle of Maldon in Essex, before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons' leader Byrhtnoth says, "let his tame hawk fly from his hand to the wood".
1070s – The Bayeux Tapestry shows King Harold of England with a hawk in one scene. The king is said to have owned the largest collection of books on the sport in all of Europe.
1100 – Norman nobility distinguished falconry from the sport of 'hawking'. Normans practiced falconry by horseback and 'hawking' by foot.
Around 1182 – Niketas Choniates wrote about hawks that are trained to hunt at the Byzantine Empire.
Around the 1240s – The treatise of an Arab falconer, Moamyn, was translated into Latin by Master Theodore of Antioch, at the court of Frederick II, it was called De Scientia Venandi per Aves and much copied.
1250 – Frederick II wrote in the last years of his life a treatise on the art of hunting with birds: De arte venandi cum avibus.
1285 – The Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri, a Persian treatise on falconry, was compiled by Taymur Mirza, an English translation of which was produced in 1908 by D. C. Phillott.
1325 – The Libro de la caza, by the prince of Villena, Don Juan Manuel, includes a detailed description of the best hunting places for falconry in the kingdom of Castile.
1390s – In his Libro de la caza de las aves, Castilian poet and chronicler Pero López de Ayala attempts to compile all the available correct knowledge concerning falconry.
1486 – See the Boke of Saint Albans
Early 16th century – Japanese warlord Asakura Norikage (1476–1555) succeeded in captive breeding of goshawks.
1580s – Spanish drawings of Sambal people recorded in the Boxer Codex showed a culture of falconry in the Philippines.
1600s – In Dutch records of falconry, the town of Valkenswaard was almost entirely dependent on falconry for its economy.
1660s – Tsar Alexis of Russia writes a treatise that celebrates aesthetic pleasures derived from falconry.
1801 – Joseph Strutt of England writes, "the ladies not only accompanied the gentlemen in pursuit of the diversion [falconry], but often practiced it by themselves; and even excelled the men in knowledge and exercise of the art."
1864 – The Old Hawking Club is formed in Great Britain.
1921 – Deutscher Falkenorden is founded in Germany. Today, it is the largest and oldest falconry club in Europe.
1927 – The British Falconers' Club is founded by the surviving members of the Old Hawking Club.
1934 – The first US falconry club, the Peregrine Club of Philadelphia, is formed; it became inactive during World War II and was reconstituted in 2013 by Dwight A. Lasure of Pennsylvania.
1941 – Falconer's Club of America formed
1961 – Falconer's Club of America was defunct
1961 – North American Falconers Association formed
1968 – International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey formed
1970 – Peregrine falcons were listed as an endangered species in the U.S., due primarily to the use of DDT as a pesticide (35 Federal Register 8495; June 2, 1970).
1970 – The Peregrine Fund is founded, mostly by falconers, to conserve raptors, and focusing on peregrine falcons.
1972 – DDT banned in the U.S. (EPA press release – December 31, 1972) but continues to be used in Mexico and other nations.
1999 – Peregrine falcon removed from the Endangered Species List in the United States, due to reports that at least 1,650 peregrine breeding pairs existed in the U.S. and Canada at that time. (64 Federal Register 46541-558, August 25, 1999)
2003 – A population study by the USFWS shows peregrine falcon numbers climbing ever more rapidly, with well over 3000 pairs in North America
2006 – A population study by the USFWS shows peregrine falcon numbers still climbing. (Federal Register circa September 2006)
2008 – USFWS rewrites falconry regulations virtually eliminating federal involvement. {Federal Register: October 8, 2008 (Volume 73, Number 196)}
2010 – Falconry is added to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Falconry in Britain in Early 12th century
Medieval Normans distinguished falconry from the sport of 'hawking'. Normans practiced falconry by horseback and 'hawking' by foot. An immediate impact of the Norman Conquest of England was a penchant for falconry enjoyed by Norman nobility. So much so, in fact, that they outlawed commoners from hunting particular lands so that nobility could freely enjoy both sports. Both falconry and 'hawking' were central to Norman cultural identity in medieval times. Normans transported their falcons on a frame called a cadge.
The Book of St Albans
The often-quoted Book of Saint Albans or Boke of St Albans, first printed in 1486, often attributed to Dame Juliana Berners, provides this hierarchy of hawks and the social ranks for which each bird was supposedly appropriate.
Emperor: Eagle, vulture, and merlin
King: gyr falcon and the tercel of the gyr falcon
Prince: falcon gentle and the tercel gentle
Duke: falcon of the loch
Earl: Peregrine falcon
Baron: bustard
Knight: sacre and the sacret
Esquire: lanere and the laneret
Lady: marlyon
Young man: hobby
Yeoman: goshawk
Poor man: tercel
Priest: sparrowhawk
Holy water clerk: musket
Knave or servant: kestrel
This list, however, was mistaken in several respects.
1) Vultures are not used for falconry.
3) 4) 5) These are usually said to be different names for the peregrine falcon. But there is an opinion that renders 4) as "rock falcon" = a peregrine from remote rocky areas, which would be bigger and stronger than other peregrines. This could also refer to the Scottish peregrine.
6) The bustard is not a bird of prey, but a game species that was commonly hunted by falconers; this entry may have been a mistake for buzzard, or for busard which is French for "harrier"; but any of these would be a poor deal for barons; some treat this entry as "bastard hawk", possibly meaning a hawk of unknown lineage, or a hawk that could not be identified.
7) Sakers were imported from abroad and very expensive, and ordinary knights and squires would be unlikely to have them.
8) Contemporary records have lanners as native to England.
10) 15) Hobbies and kestrels are historically considered to be of little use for serious falconry (the French name for the hobby is faucon hobereau, hobereau meaning local/country squire. That may be the source of the confusion), however King Edward I of England sent a falconer to catch hobbies for his use. Kestrels are coming into their own as worthy hunting birds, as modern falconers dedicate more time to their specific style of hunting. While not suitable for catching game for the falconer's table, kestrels are certainly capable of catching enough quarry that they can be fed on surplus kills through the molt.
12) An opinion holds that since the previous entry is the goshawk, this entry ("Ther is a Tercell. And that is for the powere [= poor] man.") means a male goshawk and that here "poor man" means not a labourer or beggar, but someone at the bottom of the scale of landowners.
The relevance of the "Boke" to practical falconry past or present is extremely tenuous, and veteran British falconer Phillip Glasier dismissed it as "merely a formalised and rather fanciful listing of birds".
Falconry in Britain in 1973
A book about falconry published in 1973 says:
Most falconry birds used in Britain were taken from the wild, either in Britain, or taken abroad and then imported.
Captive breeding was initiated. The book mentions a captive-bred goshawk and a brood of captive-bred red-tailed hawks. It describes as a new and remarkable event captive breeding hybrid young in 1971 and 1972 from John Morris's female saker and Ronald Stevens's peregrine falcon.
Peregrine falcons were suffering from the post–World War II severe decline caused by pesticides. Taking wild peregrines in Britain was only allowed to train them to keep birds off Royal Air Force airfields to prevent bird strikes.
The book does not mention telemetry.
Harris hawks were known to falconers but unusual. For example, the book lists a falconry meet on four days in August 1971 at White Hill and Leafield in Dumfriesshire in Scotland; the hawks flown were 11 goshawks and one Harris hawk. The book felt it necessary to say what a Harris hawk is.
The usual species for a beginner was a kestrel.
A few falconers used golden eagles.
Falcons in falconry would have bells on their legs so the hunters could find them. If the bells fell off the falcon, the hunter would not be able to find his bird easily. The bird usually died if it could not find a way to remove the leather binding on its feet.
Intangible cultural heritage
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed falconry as a living human heritage element of 11 countries, including the United Arab Emirates, Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, France, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Spain, and the Syrian Arab Republic. Austria and Hungary were added in 2012, and Germany, Italy, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and Portugal were added in 2016. With a total of eighteen countries, falconry is the largest multi-national nomination on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Literature and film
In historic literature of Mongols, The Secret History of Mongol is one of earliest books that described Bodonchar Munkhag, first leader of the Borjigan tribe as having first caught a falcon and fed it until spring. Through falconry, he not only survived, but also made it his tribal custom. His eighth-generation descendent Esukhei Baatar (hereo) was also in falconry, and he was the father of Genghis Khan. Through Genghis Khan's Great Mongol empire, this custom was introduced to China, Korea, Japan, and Europe, as well as the Western Asia.
In the Tale XXXIII of the Tales of Count Lucanor by the prince of Villena, Lo que sucedió a un halcón sacre del infante don Manuel con una garza y un águila, the tale tries to teach a moral based on a story about falconry lived by the father of the author.
In the ninth novel of the fifth day of Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron, a medieval collection of novellas, a falcon is central to the plot: Nobleman Federigo degli Alberighi has wasted his fortune courting his unrequited love until nothing is left but his brave falcon. When his lady comes to see him, he gives her the falcon to eat. Knowing his case, she changes her mind, marries him, and makes him rich.
Famous explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton wrote an account of falconry in India, Falconry in the Valley of the Indus, first published in 1852 and now available in modern reprints.
A 17th-century English physician-philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, wrote a short essay on falconry.
T.H. White was a falconer and wrote The Goshawk about his attempt to train a hawk in the traditional art of falconry. Falconry is also featured and discussed in The Once and Future King.
In Virginia Henley's historical romance books, The Falcon and the Flower, The Dragon and the Jewel, The Marriage Prize, The Border Hostage, and Infamous, numerous mentions to the art of falconry are made, as these books are set at dates ranging from the 1150s to the 16th century.
The main character, Sam Gribley, in the children's novel My Side of the Mountain, is a falconer. His trained falcon is named Frightful.
William Bayer's novel Peregrine set in the world of falconry, about a rogue peregrine falcon in New York City, won the 1982 Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Mystery.
Stana Katic, the Canadian actress who played Detective Kate Beckett on Castle, enjoys falconry in her spare time. She has said that "It gives me self-respect."
In the book and movie The Falcon and the Snowman about two Americans who sold secrets to the Soviets, one of the two main characters, Christopher Boyce, is a falconer.
In The Royal Tenenbaums, Richie keeps a falcon named Mordecai on the roof of his home in Brooklyn.
In James Clavell's Shōgun, Toranaga, one of the main characters, practices falconry throughout the book, often during or immediately before or after important plot events. His thoughts also reveal an analogy between his falconry and his use of other characters towards his ends.
The 1985 film Ladyhawke involved a medieval warrior who carried a red-tailed hawk as a pet, but in truth, the hawk was actually his lover, who had been cursed by an evil bishop to keep the two apart.
In The Dark Tower series, the main character, Roland, uses a hawk named David, to win a trial by combat to become a Gunslinger.
"The Falconer" is a recurring sketch on Saturday Night Live, featuring Will Forte as a falconer who constantly finds himself in mortal peril and must rely on his loyal falcon, Donald, to rescue him.
Gabriel García Márquez's novel Chronicle of a Death Foretolds main character, Santiago Nasar, and his father are falconers.
Hodgesaargh is a falconer based in Lancre Castle in Terry Pratchett's Discworld books. He is an expert and dedicated falconer who unluckily seems to only keep birds that enjoy attacking him.
Fantasy author Mercedes Lackey is a falconer and often adds birds of prey to her novels. Among the Tayledras or Hawkbrother race in her Chronicles of Valdemar, everyone bonds with a specially bred raptor called a bondbird, which has limited powers of speech mind-to-mind and can scout and hunt for its human bondmate.
Crime novelist Andy Straka is a falconer and his Frank Pavlicek private eye series features a former NYPD homicide detective and falconer as protagonist. The books include A Witness Above, A Killing Sky, Cold Quarry (2001, 2002, 2003), and Kitty Hitter (2009).
In Irish poet William Butler Yeats's poem, "The Second Coming", Yeats uses the image of "The falcon cannot hear the falconer" as a metaphor for social disintegration.
American poet Robert Duncan's poem "My Mother Would Be a Falconress"
The comic book Gold Ring by Qais M. Sedki and Akira Himekawa features falconers and falcons.
The Marvel Comics character The Falcon is both named after the animal, but is a falconer himself, fighting crime with his falcon Redwing.
C. J. Box's Joe Pickett series of novels has a recurring character, Nate Romanowski, who is a falconer.
A Kestrel for a Knave is a novel by British author Barry Hines, published in 1968. It is set in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, and tells of Billy Casper, a young working-class boy troubled at home and at school, who only finds solace when he finds and trains a kestrel, which he names "Kes". The film made from the book in 1969 by Ken Loach is also called Kes.
Barry Hines was inspired by his younger brother Richard, who like Billy Casper, took kestrels from the wild and trained them. (He trained the three hawks used in the film Kes.) He has written of this in his memoir No Way But Gentleness: A Memoir of How Kes, My Kestrel, Changed My Life (Bloomsbury, 2016).
H is for Hawk (Vintage, 2015) by Helen Macdonald, which won the Samuel Johnson Prize and Costa Book of the Year prizes in 2014, tells of how she trained a goshawk and mourned her father in the same year. It has echoes of T.H. White's The Goshawk.
Dragonheart features Brok, the brutal knight for the iron fisted King Einon, who proved a capable falconer and owns a falcon.
On The Mummy Returns, Ardeth Bay proved a capable falconer and owned a saker falcon named after the Egyptian god Horus. Sadly, while delivering a message, Horus was shot to death by Lock-Nah with a rifle.
Avatar: The Last Airbender featured falconry, involving many using messenger hawks to deliver messages. Also the assassin, Combustion Man showed talents with falconry. owned a raven eagle, which he used to intercept a messenger hawk carrying information about Aang's whereabouts. The raven eagle tied the hawk up, stole the message it was carrying, and delivered it to Combustion Man, thus keeping the Avatar's survival after the Coup of Ba Sing Se a secret.
English language words and idioms derived from falconry
These English language words and idioms are derived from falconry:
See also
Abu Dhabi Falcon Hospital
Animal training
Anti-hunting
Car hawking
Falconer's knot
Falconry training and technique
Hack (falconry)
Hunting
Hunting dog
Hunting with eagles
Jess (falconry)
Parahawking
Takagari
Notes
References
Further reading
: site for North Americans interested in falconry. Much information for this entry was due to her research.
.
(the excerpt on the language of falconry comes from this book).
.
Soma, Takuya. 2012. ‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol.7), pp. 103–111.
Soma, Takuya. 2013. ‘Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers’, Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp. 10–14.
External links
.
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity | wiki |
Rugby Challenge 2006 est un jeu vidéo de rugby à XV sorti en 2006 sur PlayStation 2, Xbox et Windows. Le jeu a été édité par Ubisoft et Hip Interactive et développé par Swordfish Studios.
Système de jeu
Accueil
Gamekult : 5/10
Jeuxvideo.com : 12/20
Références
Lien externe
Jeu vidéo de rugby à XV
Jeu vidéo sorti en 2006
Jeu Xbox
Jeu PlayStation 2
Jeu Windows
Jeu vidéo développé au Royaume-Uni
Jeu Ubisoft | wiki |
An S corporation, for United States federal income tax, is a closely held corporation (or, in some cases, a limited liability company (LLC) or a partnership) that makes a valid election to be taxed under Subchapter S of Chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code. In general, S corporations do not pay any income taxes. Instead, the corporation's income and losses are divided among and passed through to its shareholders. The shareholders must then report the income or loss on their own individual income tax returns.
Overview
S corporations are ordinary business corporations that elect to pass corporate income, losses, deductions, and credits through to their shareholders for federal tax purposes. The term "S corporation" means a "small business corporation" which has made an election under § 1362(a) to be taxed as an S corporation.
The S corporation rules are contained in Subchapter S of Chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code (sections 1361 through 1379). The United States Congress, acting on the Department of Treasury's suggestion of 1946, created this chapter in 1958 as part of a larger package of miscellaneous tax items. S status combines the legal environment of C corporations with U.S. federal income taxation similar to that of partnerships.
As with partnerships, the income, deductions, and tax credits of an S corporation flow through to shareholders annually, regardless of whether distributions are made. Thus, income is taxed at the shareholder level and not at the corporate level. Payments to S shareholders by the corporation are distributed tax-free to the extent that the distributed earnings were previously taxed.
Versus C corporations
Like a C corporation, an S corporation is generally a corporation under the law of the state in which the entity is organized. With modern incorporation statutes making the establishment of a corporation relatively easy, firms that might traditionally have been run as partnerships or sole proprietorships are often run as corporations with a small number of shareholders in order to take advantage of the beneficial features of the corporate form; this is particularly true of firms established prior to the advent of the modern limited liability company. Therefore, taxation of S corporations resembles that of partnerships.
Unlike a C corporation, an S corporation is not eligible for a dividends received deduction and not subject to the ten percent of taxable income limitation applicable to charitable contribution deductions.
Eligibility
A corporation is eligible if it:
Has no more than 100 shareholders,
Has shareholders who are all individuals (exceptions are made for various tax-exempt organizations, estates, and trusts)
Has no nonresident as shareholders, and
Has only one class of stock.
A limited liability company (LLC) is eligible to be taxed as an S corporation under the check-the-box regulations at § 301.7701-2. The LLC first elects to be taxed as a corporation, at which point it becomes a corporation for tax purposes; then it makes the S corporation election under section 1362(a).
Shareholder requirements
Shareholders must be U.S. citizens or residents (not nonresident), and must be natural persons, so corporations and partnerships are ineligible shareholders. Certain trusts, estates, and tax-exempt corporations, notably 501(c)(3) corporations, are permitted to be shareholders. An S corporation may be a shareholder in another, subsidiary S corporation if the first S corporation owns 100% of the stock of the subsidiary corporation, and an election is made to treat the subsidiary corporation as a "qualified subchapter S subsidiary" (QSub). After the election is made, the subsidiary corporation is not treated as a separate corporation for tax purposes, and all "assets, liabilities, and items of income, deduction, and credit" of the QSub are treated belonging to the parent S corporation.
Spouses (and their estates) are automatically treated as a single shareholder. Families, defined as individuals descended from a common ancestor, plus spouses and former spouses of either the common ancestor or anyone lineally descended from that person, are considered a single shareholder as long as any family member elects such treatment.
Stock requirements
An S corporation may only have one class of stock. A single class of stock means that all outstanding shares of stock confer "identical rights to distribution and liquidation proceeds," i.e. profits and losses are allocated to shareholders proportionately to each one's interest in the business. § 1.1361-1(l)(1). Differences in voting rights are disregarded, which means that an S corporation may have voting and nonvoting stock. If a corporation meets the foregoing requirements and wishes to be taxed under Subchapter S, its shareholders may file Form 2553: "Election by a Small Business Corporation" with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The Form 2553 must be signed by all of the corporation's shareholders. If a shareholder resides in a community property state, the shareholder's spouse generally must also sign the 2553.
The S corporation election must typically be made by the fifteenth day of the third month of the tax year for which the election is intended to be effective, or at any time during the year immediately preceding the tax year. Congress has directed the IRS to show leniency with regard to late S elections. Accordingly, often, the IRS will accept a late S election. If a corporation that has elected to be treated as an S corporation ceases to meet the requirements (for example, if as a result of stock transfers, the number of shareholders exceeds 100 or an ineligible shareholder such as a nonresident acquires a share), the corporation will lose its S corporation status and revert to being a regular C corporation.
An S corporation's election will also terminate if, for each of three consecutive years, (i) its passive investment income exceeds 25% of gross receipts and (ii) it has accumulated earnings and profits. § 1362(d)(3). An S corporation will only have accumulated earnings and profits if it was a C corporation at some time, or acquired or merged with a C corporation.
Taxation
The S election affects the treatment of the corporation for Federal income tax purposes. The election does not change the requirements for that corporation for other Federal taxes such as FICA and Federal unemployment taxes.
Distributions
While an S corporation is not taxed on its profits, the owners of an S corporation are taxed on their proportional shares of the S corporation's profits.
Actual distributions of funds, as opposed to distributive shares, typically have no effect on shareholder tax liability. The term "pass through" refers not to assets distributed by the corporation to the shareholder, but instead to the portion of the corporation's income, losses, deductions or credits that are reported to the shareholder on Schedule K-1 and are shown by the shareholder on his or her own income tax return. A distribution to a shareholder that is in excess of the shareholder's basis in his or her stock is taxed to the shareholder as capital gain.
Quarterly estimated taxes must be paid by the individual to avoid tax penalties, even if this income is "phantom income".
Example
Widgets Inc., an S-Corp, makes $10,000,000 in net income (before payroll) in 2006 and is owned 51% by Bob and 49% by John. Keeping it simple, Bob and John both draw salaries of $94,200 (which is the Social Security Wage Base for 2006, after which no further Social Security tax is owed).
Employee salaries are subject to FICA tax (Social Security & Medicare tax)—currently 15.3 percent (6.2% Social Security paid by the employee; 6.2% Social Security paid by the employer; 1.45% employee Medicare and 1.45% employer Medicare). The distribution of the additional profits from the S corporation will be done without any further FICA tax liability.
If for some reason, Bob (as the majority owner) were to decide not to distribute the money, both Bob and John would still owe taxes on their pro-rata allocation of business income, even though neither received any cash distribution. To avoid this "phantom income" scenario, S corporations commonly use shareholder agreements that stipulate at least enough distribution must be made for shareholders to pay the taxes on their distributive shares.
Conversion from C corporation
S corporations that have previously been C corporations may also, in certain circumstances, pay income taxes on untaxed profits that were generated when the corporation operated as a C corporation. This is very common with uncollected accounts receivable or appreciated real estate.
For example, if an S corporation that was formerly a C corporation sells an appreciated asset (such as real estate) and the appreciation occurred during the time the corporation was a C corporation, the S corporation will probably pay C corporation taxes on the appreciation—even though the corporation is now an S corporation. This Built In Gain (BIG) tax rate is 35% on the appreciated property, but is only realized if the BIG property is sold within 10 years (starting from the first day of the first tax year of conversion to S-Corp status). The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 reduced that 10-year recognition period to seven years (if that seventh year precedes either 2009 or 2010). The Small Business Jobs Act of 2010 further reduced the recognition period to five years.
Federal tax
Taxable income to shareholders
If a shareholder owns more than 2% of the outstanding stock, amounts paid for group health insurance for that shareholder are included on their W-2 as "wages". The same applies to amounts contributed to Health Savings Accounts (HSA).
Filing Form 1120S
Form 1120S generally must be filed by March 15 of the year immediately following the calendar year covered by the return or, if a fiscal year (a year ending on the last day of a month other than December) is used, by the 15th day of the third month immediately following the last day of the fiscal year. The corporation must complete a Schedule K-1 for each person who was a shareholder at any time during the tax year and file it with the IRS along with Form 1120S. The second copy of the Schedule K-1 must be mailed to the shareholder.
FICA
As is the case for any other corporation, the FICA tax is imposed only with respect to employee wages and not on distributive shares of shareholders. Although FICA tax is not owed on distributive shares, the IRS and equivalent state revenue agencies may recategorize distributions paid to shareholder-employees as wages if shareholder-employees are not paid a reasonable wage for the services they perform in their positions within the company.
Reporting compliance
In 2005, the IRS launched a study to assess the reporting compliance of S corporations The study began in late 2005 and examined 5,000 randomly selected S corporation returns from tax years 2003 and 2004. The IRS intends to use the results to measure compliance in recording of income, deductions and credits from S corporations, and to formulate future audit criteria to better target likely non-compliant returns. This is part of a larger IRS effort to improve tax compliance and reduce the estimated $300 billion gap in gross reported figures each year. A large portion of that gap is thought to come from small businesses (and particularly S corporations, which are now the most common corporate entity, numbering over four million in 2011, up from three million in 2002 and about 750,000 in 1985).
State tax
States impose tax laws and regulations for corporate income and distributions, some of which may be directed specifically at S Corporations. Some but not all states recognize a state tax law equivalent to an S corporation, so that the S corporation in certain states may be treated the same way for state income tax purposes as it is treated for Federal purposes. A state taxing authority may require that a copy of the Form 1120S return be submitted to the state with the state income tax return.
Some states such as New York and New Jersey require a separate state-level S election in order for the corporation to be treated, for state tax purposes, as an S corporation.
California
S corporations pay a franchise tax of 1.5% of net income in the state of California (minimum $800). This is one factor to be taken into consideration when choosing between a limited liability company and an S corporation in California. For highly profitable enterprises, the LLC franchise tax fees (minimum $800), which are based on gross revenues, may be lower than the 1.5% net income tax. Conversely, for high-gross-revenue, low-profit-margin businesses, the LLC franchise tax fees may exceed the S corporation net income tax.
Delaware
S Corporations operating in the City of Wilmington are not subject to the city's 1.25% net profits tax. Employee wages are subject to the city's 1.25% wage tax.
New York City
In New York City, S corporations are subject to the full corporate income tax at an 8.85% rate. If one can demonstrate that a portion of its business was done outside the city, that portion will not be subject to the additional tax.
Philadelphia
In Philadelphia, S corporations are subject to the city's income tax (6.35%) and gross receipts tax (1.415%), but not the net profits tax (3.8907%). They pay Pennsylvania's flat personal income tax rate of 3.07% instead of the corporate 9.99%.
References
External links
Choose a Business Structure—U.S. Small Business Administration
Instructions for Form 1120S—U.S. Internal Revenue Service
26 CFR 1.1368-2 - Accumulated adjustments account (AAA)—Legal Information Institute
Corporate taxation in the United States
Types of business entity | wiki |
Dear Genevieve is a television show on the U.S. cable network HGTV, hosted by Genevieve Gorder.
The series debuted in January 2009, on HGTV. The show focuses on how Gorder designs a room or an area for a family, after they have written to the show asking for help.
Episodes
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
Season 4
See also
HGTV Design Star
References
External links
Dear Genevieve on HGTV
Dear Genevieve on IMDb
HGTV original programming
2009 American television series debuts
2012 American television series endings | wiki |
This is a list of American television-related events in 1978.
Events
Programs
Series on air
ABC
American Bandstand (1952–1989)
The Edge of Night (1956–1984)
General Hospital (1963–present)
One Life to Live (1968–2012)
All My Children (1970–2011)
Monday Night Football (1970–present)
Schoolhouse Rock! (1973–1996)
The Six Million Dollar Man (1973–1978)
Happy Days (1974–1984)
Baretta (1975–1978)
Barney Miller (1975–1982)
Good Morning America (1975–present)
Ryan's Hope (1975–1989)
Tom and Jerry (1965–1972, 1975–1977, 1980–1982)
Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–1979)
Charlie's Angels (1976–1981)
Family Feud (1976–1985, 1988–1995, 1999–present)
Laverne & Shirley (1976–1983)
What's Happening!! (1976–1979)
Eight Is Enough (1977–1981)
Fantasy Island (1977–1984)
The Love Boat (1977–1986)
Soap (1977–1981)
Three's Company (1977–1984)
CBS
Love of Life (1951–1980)
Search for Tomorrow (1951–1986)
The Guiding Light (1952–2009)
Face the Nation (1954–present)
Captain Kangaroo (1955–1984)
As the World Turns (1956–2010)
The Carol Burnett Show (1967–1978)
60 Minutes (1968–present)
Hawaii Five-O (1968–1980)
All in the Family (1971–1979)
The Bob Newhart Show (1972–1978)
Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids (1972–1984)
M*A*S*H (1972–1983)
Maude (1972–1978)
The Price Is Right (1972–present)
The Waltons (1972–1981)
Barnaby Jones (1973–1980)
Kojak (1973–1978, 2005)
Match Game '78 (1962–1969, 1973–1984, 1990–1991, 1998–1999)
The Young and the Restless (1973–present)
Good Times (1974–1979)
Rhoda (1974–1978)
Tattletales (1974–1978, 1982–1984)
The Jeffersons (1975–1985)
One Day at a Time (1975–1984)
Alice (1976–1985)
Wonder Woman (1976–1979)
The Amazing Spider-Man (1977–1979)
Lou Grant (1977–1982)
NBC
Meet the Press (1947–present)
The Today Show (1952–present)
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992)
The Doctors (1963–1982)
Another World (1964–1999)
Days of Our Lives (1965–present)
The Wonderful World of Disney (1969–1979)
The Tomorrow Show (1973–1982)
Card Sharks (1978-1981)
Chico and the Man (1974–1978)
Columbo (1971–1978)
Dean Martin Celebrity Roast (1974–1984)
Land of the Lost (1974–1976)
Little House on the Prairie (1974–1983)
Police Woman (1974–1978)
The Rockford Files (1974–1980)
Saturday Night Live (1975–present)
Wheel of Fortune (1975–present)
The Gong Show (1976–1980)
Quincy, M.E. (1976–1983)
The Bionic Woman (1976–1978)
CHiPs (1977–1983)
PBS
Sesame Street (1969–present)
Masterpiece Theatre (1971–present)
Nova (1974–present)
The Letter People (1977–1996)
In syndication
Candid Camera (1948–2014)
Truth or Consequences (1950–1988)
The Lawrence Welk Show (1955–1982)
The Mike Douglas Show (1961–1981)
Hee Haw (1969–1992)
Soul Train (1971–2006)
Dinah! (1974–1980)
Match Game PM (1975–1981)
In Search of... (1976–1982)
The P.T.L. Club (1976–1987)
The Muppet Show (1976–1981)
This Week in Baseball (1977–1998, 2000–present)
HBO
Inside the NFL (1977–present)
Nickelodeon
Pinwheel (1977–1991)
Shows that took place
Best Friends Whenever (2015) They time traveled to 1978.
Debuting this year
Resuming this year
Ending this year
Made-for-TV movies and miniseries
Television stations
Station launches
Network affiliation changes
Station closures
Births
Deaths
See also
1978 in the United States
List of American films of 1978
References
External links
List of 1978 American television series at IMDb | wiki |
Market tightness is a measure of the liquidity of a market. High market tightness indicates relatively low liquidity and high transaction costs, whereas low market tightness indicates high liquidity and low transaction costs. For example, during the dotcom bubble, information technology companies were very difficult and expensive to buy a part of, through stock, loan, or other methods, due to the tightness of competition in the market.
Equity markets
In equity markets, market tightness is measured using percentage relative spread.
Housing markets
In housing markets, measures of market tightness include the probability of achieving a sale and house price appreciation. Tighter housing markets result in greater seller bargaining power and higher sale prices.
Labour markets
Labour market tightness is measured as the ratio of job vacancies per unemployed person or jobseeker.
References
Market structure | wiki |
Charles E. Johnston (October 30, 1881 – July 10, 1951) was the eighth president of Kansas City Southern Railway.
References
Kansas City Southern Historical Society, The Kansas City Southern Lines. Retrieved August 15, 2005.
1881 births
1951 deaths
20th-century American railroad executives
Kansas City Southern Railway | wiki |
In mathematics, a partial group algebra is an associative algebra related to the partial representations of a group.
Examples
The partial group algebra is isomorphic to the direct sum:
See also
Group ring
Group representation
Notes
References
Algebras
Representation theory of groups | wiki |
Marjorie's wrasse, Cirrhilabrus marjorie, is a species of wrasse native to the coral reefs of the Fiji. This species can reach a standard length of . It can be found at depths from , most often between . The specific name honours Marjorie Awai, the Curator of the Florida Aquarium, and who was formerly a Curatorial Assistant in the ichthyology Department at the Bishop Museum in Hawaii.
References
External links
Marjorie's wrasse
Taxa named by Gerald R. Allen
Taxa named by John Ernest Randall
Fish described in 2003 | wiki |
Christopher Jones (gymnast), Brits gymnast
Christopher Jones (waterpoloër), Brits waterpoloër
Christopher Jones (wielrenner), Amerikaans wielrenner
Christopher Jones (bisschop), Iers bisschop | wiki |
Job A. Edson (February 14, 1854 – July 30, 1928) was twice the president of Kansas City Southern Railway.
References
Kansas City Southern Historical Society, The Kansas City Southern Lines. Retrieved August 15, 2005.
1854 births
1928 deaths
20th-century American railroad executives
Kansas City Southern Railway
19th-century American businesspeople | wiki |
Gary Cohen is an American environmental activist and health advocate. In 1996 he co-founded Health Care Without Harm, an organization that advocates for health-care corporations and hospitals to adopt more environmentally friendly practices, especially in regards to climate change. For example, they advocate for increased professional training for staff and doctors and for the cessation of incinerating medical waste. He was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2015.
References
Living people
MacArthur Fellows
American environmentalists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Clark University alumni | wiki |
Nebraska Highway 17 is a highway in southwestern Nebraska. It has a southern terminus at the Kansas border south of Culbertson and a northern terminus in Culbertson at an intersection with U.S. Highway 6 and U.S. Highway 34. The highway extends into Kansas at its southern terminus via K-117.
Route description
Nebraska Highway 17 begins at the Kansas state border, continuing from K-117. It heads northward with some slight turns along the way. There are no major intersections along its route. It continues northward into Culbertson where it ends at an intersection with US 6 and US 34.
Major intersections
References
External links
The Nebraska Highways Page: Highways 1 to 30
Nebraska Roads: NE 11-20
017
Transportation in Hitchcock County, Nebraska | wiki |
Screener steht für:
Screener (Informatik), Teil eines Compilers
Screener (Film), Ansichtskopie eines Films sowie darauf basierende Schwarzkopien
Screener, illegal (in einem Kino) abgefilmtes Werk, siehe Cam-Rip | wiki |
The following is a list of events affecting American television during 1991.
Events
Programs
Debuts
Returning this year
Entering syndication this year
A list of programs (current or canceled) that have accumulated enough episodes (between 65 and 100) or seasons (3 or more) to be eligible for off-network syndication and/or basic cable runs.
Changes of network affiliation
The following shows aired new episodes on a different network than previous first-run episodes:
Ending this year
Made-for-TV movies and miniseries
Television stations
Station launches
Network affiliation changes
Station closures
Births
Deaths
See also
1991 in the United States
List of American films of 1991
References
External links
List of 1991 American television series at IMDb
1990s in American television | wiki |
The volleyball tournaments at the 2015 European Games in Baku were played between 13 and 28 June. 12 teams participated in the two indoor tournaments, while 32 pairs took part in each of the beach volleyball events.
Qualification
Indoor volleyball
Each event will accept twelve entered teams. Qualification for indoor volleyball for the 2015 European Games is based on European rankings. Those rankings shall be taken on 1 January 2015, and based on the CEV Entry Ranking/Euro league participations. As hosts, Azerbaijan shall be entitled to entry in both indoor events, and nations will be restricted to single team of 14 players in each event.
Beach volleyball
Each event will accept 32 entered teams. Qualification for beach volleyball will be based on the CEV Beach Volleyball Ranking on 1 January 2015. The top 30 teams in the rankings will be invited to enter, subject to a maximum entry of two teams per nation, while two team places will be reserved in each event for hosts Azerbaijan.
2016 Summer Olympics Qualification
FIVB has awarded Beach Volleyball the same ranking points as the continental tour masters which will be used for Rio 2016 Olympic Qualification purposes.
Timetable
First version of the competition schedule.
Medal summary
References
Sports at the 2015 European Games
2015
Volleyball competitions in Azerbaijan | wiki |
Saskatoon is the largest city in Saskatchewan, and thus is home to many sports teams across a variety of sports.
Baseball
Basketball
Football
Hockey
University
Others
References | wiki |
Fort Custer may refer to:
Fort Custer (Montana), a historic U.S. Army fort in Montana, constructed in 1877, and abandoned in 1898
Fort Custer Training Center, a Michigan Army National Guard training facility in Michigan, built in 1917
See also
Fort Custer National Cemetery, Michigan
Fort Custer Recreation Area, Michigan | wiki |
Microdontothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Microdontothrips argus
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Instruments used specially in radiology are as follows:
Image gallery
References
Medical physics
Medical imaging
Medical equipment | wiki |
Mixothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Mixothrips craigheadi
Mixothrips nakaharai
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Five Stand is a type of shotgun sport shooting similar to sporting clays, trap and skeet. There are five stations, or stands and six to eighteen strategically placed clay target throwers(called traps). Shooters shoot in turn at various combinations of clay birds. Each station will have a menu card that lets the shooter know the sequence of clay birds (i.e. which trap the clay bird will be coming from). The shooter is presented with 5 targets at each station, first a single bird followed by two pairs. Pairs can be either "report pairs," in which the second bird will be launched after the shooter fires at the first; or "true pairs" when both birds launch at the same time. After shooting at the 5 birds on the menu at that station, the shooter proceeds to the next stand, where they find a new menu of 5 targets.
Typical five stand targets are a rabbit, chandelle, overhead, standard skeet high house and low house shots, teal (launched straight up into the air), trap (straight ahead from ground level), and an incoming bird.
References
External links
NSCA Official Rules & Regulations: Sporting Clays, NSCA5-Stand, & Parcours De Chasse
Shotgun shooting sports | wiki |
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks (the trading name of Scottish and Southern Energy Power Distribution Limited, Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission plc, Scottish Hydro Electric Power Distribution plc and Southern Electric Power Distribution plc) is one of two energy companies in the UK to be involved both in electricity transmission and distribution.
The company forms part of the SSE plc group, which is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks manages two distribution networks and one transmission network. The company manages two of the fourteen distribution licenses in Great Britain. The company's electricity distribution and transmission networks carry electricity to over 3.7 million homes and businesses across the north of the Central Belt of Scotland, as well as Central Southern England. The company operates in the United Kingdom with head offices in Perth, Scotland and Reading, England.
History
Origins
The company has its origins in two public sector electricity supply authorities. Scottish Hydroelectric, founded as the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board in 1943, was established to design, construct and manage hydroelectricity projects in the Highlands of Scotland, and took over a further generation and distribution responsibilities when the UK's electricity industry was nationalized in 1948. Southern Electric, founded as Southern Electricity Board in 1948, was created to distribute electricity in Southern England. While the Southern Electricity Board was a distribution-only authority with no power generation capacity of its own, the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board was a broader spectrum organisation which did have power-generating capabilities. Because of its history and location, the Hydroelectric Board was responsible for most of the UK's hydroelectric generating capacity.
Both authorities were privatized and re-branded in 1990/91, initially retaining their pre-privatization geographic and functional bases.
Post-privatization
In 1998, Scottish and Southern Energy was formed following a merger between Scottish Hydroelectric and Southern Electric. This part of the SSE plc group is now referred to as Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks.
Rebranding
In September 2016, the well-known trading names of Scottish and Southern Energy Power Distribution (SSEPD), Scottish Hydro Electric Power Distribution (SHEPD), Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission (SHET), and Southern Electric Power Distribution (SEPD), merged into a single trading entity known as the Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks. The licensee names of the four did not change.
As part of the rebranding, Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks changed their logo, color scheme, imagery set, social media channels, and website. They also introduced a new company motto centred around being a part of the community they serve: "Powering our Community."
Partnerships
In November 2022, SSE sold a 25% stake in SSEN Transmission (the trading name for Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission) to Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan.
Operations
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks operate the economically regulated electricity distribution and transmission networks across the north of the Central Belt of Scotland and also Central Southern England, delivering power to 3.7 million homes. With a work force of over 4,000 working from 85 depots and offices, they look after a network that consists of:
130,000 km of overhead lines and underground cables
106,000 substations
Over 100 subsea cables, powering island communities such as Orkney and Hebrides.
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks—Central Southern England
The Central Southern England network is the larger of two distribution networks and delivers electrical supplies to over 12.9 million customers across central southern England. The operational region ranges from rural communities in Hampshire, Dorset, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire to towns and cities including Bournemouth, Oxford, Portsmouth, Reading, Southampton, Slough, Swindon and in parts of West London. They also distribute electricity to and across the Isle of Wight.
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks—Northern Scotland
The Northern Scotland network is the smaller of the two, and delivers electricity to some 740,000 customers. This operating region covers a quarter of the UK landmass, and has challenges both regarding distance and location. As well as the major towns and cities of Aberdeen, Dundee, Inverness and Perth, they connect to most Scottish islands with over 100 subsea cable links, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides, Arran and the Orkney Islands. They also serve the Shetland Islands, which runs as a separate electrical system without a connection to the mainland.
Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission (SHE Transmission)
Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission owns and maintains the 132 kV and 275 kV electricity transmission network in the north of Scotland, in some of the UK's most challenging geographical terrains. Some of their circuits are situated over 750 meters above sea level and or up to 250 km long. The operating area contains a vast renewable energy resource, utilized in forms such as wind and marine generation. These generators are all dependent on SHE Transmission for transportation to the load centers to the south.
Independent distribution network operator
In addition to the distribution network operators who are licensed for a specific geographic area, there are also independent distribution network operators (IDNOs). IDNOs own and operate electricity distribution networks, which are predominantly network extensions connected to an existing distribution network. Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks also provides distribution services in South Scotland as an IDNO and in all other English and Welsh areas.
Services
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks provides a number of services across its distribution areas.
In the event of a power outage, it is the responsibility of Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks to repair the fault and get power back on for affected areas. Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks also has a Priority Services Register to support customers with disabilities or particular vulnerabilities in the event of a power outage.
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks has a team dedicated to dealing with non-emergency electricity network jobs in central southern England and northern Scotland. These services range from shrouding overhead power cables to locating underground electricity cables so that those cables can be worked around safely.
A spokesperson for the Energy Networks Association said “The charges for connection applications have been introduced following a recent government consultation, which found that the majority of industry supported the change."
Economically-regulated businesses
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks transmits and distributes electricity to around 3.7 million businesses, offices, and homes through some 130,000 kilometres of overhead lines and underground cables.
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem).
SSE transmit the Electricity via their poles that are usually situated on private land, not belonging to SSE. In this instance SSE must use a legal process called 'Wayleave' to access the property. The land owners have the ultimate right to refuse wayleave, or charge them a reasonable rate for the usage of the land.
Currently SSE offer £8.77 a year for a pole on NFU land, although private land owners with no easement on deeds have the option to legally refuse this and have SSE remove their equipment.
Controversy
In 2013 SSE were found guilty of misleading customers and fined a record (at the time) £10.5M by Ofgem.
Shortly after this, Head of SSE at the time Ian Marchant, on an £840,000 salary, left the company with a £400,000 pension plan.
In 2020 SSE were fined £2m by Ofgem over inside information in the energy markets.
In 2021 SSE are pressing ahead with the UKs largest offshore windfarm in Shetland, despite heavy local opposition.
See also
SSE plc
Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem)
References
External links
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks
Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks – Transmission
SSE plc
Electric power companies of Scotland
Electric power transmission system operators in the United Kingdom | wiki |
A. amphibius may refer to:
Arvicola amphibius, a species of mammal
Andamia amphibius, a species of fish | wiki |
Public Domain Mark (PDM) is a symbol used to indicate that a work is free of known copyright restrictions and therefore in the public domain. It is analogous to the copyright symbol, which is commonly used to indicate that a work is copyrighted, often as part of a copyright notice. The Public Domain Mark was developed by Creative Commons and is only an indicator of the public domain status of a work – it itself does not release a copyrighted work into the public domain like CC0.
The symbol is encoded in Unicode as , which was added in Unicode 13.0.
As there is no single definition of public domain and copyright laws differ by jurisdiction, a work can be in the public domain in some countries while still being under copyright in others (so called hybrid status). It is also difficult to assess the legal status of many works. The PDM is recommended to be used only for works that are likely free from any copyright restrictions worldwide.
See also
CC0
Public Domain
Wikimedia Commons category containing media files marked with the Public Domain Mark
References
External links
Public Domain Mark
Creative Commons
Public domain | wiki |
Free House may refer to:
Free House (horse), an American Thoroughbred racehorse
Free house (pub), a British pub that is owned independently of the breweries that supply it
See also
Freihaus, a house within a town's walls but legally outside the town's domain | wiki |
Munk kan hentyde til flere artikler:
Munk – en mand, der har viet sit liv til sin religion
Munk (efternavn) – et efternavn
Munk (adelsslægter) – navnet på nogle uddøde danske adelsslægter
Munk (gruppe) – navnet på en musikgruppe
Munk (spurv) – en spurvefugl
Se også | wiki |
McDonald's Restaurants of Canada, Limited () is the Canadian master franchise of the fast food restaurant chain McDonald's, owned by the American parent McDonald's Corporation. One of Canada's largest fast-food restaurant chains, the franchise sells food items, including hamburgers, chicken, French fries and soft drinks all across the country. McDonald's is known for its high fat and calorie foods, but it also has alternatives such as salads, juice and milk. McDonald's was Canada's largest food service operator before being overtaken by Tim Hortons in 2005. The slogans used in Canada are "i'm lovin' it" in English and "c'est ça que j'm" in French.
McDonald's Canadian operations are based in Don Mills in North York, Toronto. The current McDonald's Canada President is Jacques Mignault.
McDonald's Canadian logo is identified with the local red maple leaf placed in the company's golden arches.
Origins
Chicago-born George Cohon founded the company. The first store opened in 1967 as the Western Canadian franchisee and operated with the U.S. operations. Cohon was the Eastern Canadian franchise and opened his store in 1968 on Oxford Street West in London, Ontario. In 1971, Cohon merged the two operations to one national operation. Cohon was responsible for developing the eastern Canadian franchises. Western franchise owners opened the first McDonald's restaurant in Canada on June 1, 1967 in Richmond, British Columbia. This McDonald's was the first location opened outside of the United States. As of 2021, McDonald's Canada had 1,452 stores (including restaurants inside many Walmart Canada locations) in Canada, and more than 90,000 Canadian employees.
1980s & 90s
In the 80s McDonald's saw massive expansion in Canada. It also was a food sponsor at EXPO 86 with their floating restaurant nicknamed the 'McBarge'.
In 1989 McDonald's was awarded the concessionary rights to the newly built SkyDome in Toronto. One of the requirements was to sell hotdogs, resulting in the first time McDonalds sold the product. Part of the stadium also included the largest McDonalds in Canada. The now closed restaurant was located at the base of the CN Tower; the location was popular with tourists and is now office space.
McDonald's restaurants are present in all of the provinces and territories with the exception of Nunavut. The flagship location opened in 2013 near the Yonge-Dundas Square in Toronto.
In 2019, McDonald's Canada donated 50 cents from every medium, large and extra large coffee purchased at these locations, all day long. Last year's event raised more than $10,000 for the Alzheimer Society of Hastings-Prince Edward. In September of that year, McDonald's Canada observed its third annual McDelivery Night.
Products
Executives
As of June 2022:
George A. Cohon, O.C., O.Ont., B.Sc., J.D., Ph.D. (Hon.), Founder
Michele Boudria, President & CEO
Jeff Kroll, Senior Vice President and Chief Strategy Officer
Alex Snelling, Chief People Officer
Jeff McLean, Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Officer
Use of the Temporary Foreign Workers Program
McDonald's Canada faced severe criticism for its use and alleged abuse of the Temporary Foreign Workers Program (TFWP). Several of its franchises are under federal investigation for abuse of Filipino workers brought into Canada under the TFWP. After a public outcry, McDonald's Canada stated that it would undertake a comprehensive review of its use of TFWP. In a conference call to the franchisees about the program, McDonald's Canada CEO John Betts stated: "the fact of the matter is we are a big bad company corporate you know, bad company. And these poor maligned employees, are who they are ... This has been an attack on our brand ... This is an attack on our people. It's bullshit." He pointed out that he has spoken with Employment Minister Jason Kenney, and the minister fully understands McDonald's Canada's concerns. Following this and other similar controversies, the government halted the TFWP for the entire restaurant industry.
Gallery
See also
List of hamburger restaurants
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies
Companies based in North York
Restaurants established in 1967
Fast-food chains of Canada
McDonald's subsidiaries
1967 establishments in British Columbia | wiki |
A crowned crane is a bird of the genus Balearica:
Black crowned crane (Balearica pavonina)
Grey crowned crane (Balearica regulorum)
Some authorities use the term "crowned crane" to refer generally to the genus Balearica. Likewise, the International Ornithological Committee, who standardize common species names, have also used the group name "crowned crane" in the common names of the extant species of the genus Balearica.
See also
Red-crowned crane or Japanese crane (Grus japonensis)
References
Birds by common name | wiki |
Context may refer to:
Context (language use), the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use, language variation, and discourse summary
Computing
Context (computing), the virtual environment required to suspend a running software program
Lexical context or runtime context of a program, which determines name resolution; see Scope (computer science)
Context awareness, a complementary to location awareness
Context menu, a menu in a graphical user interface that appears upon user interaction
ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system
ConTEXT, a text editor for Microsoft Windows
Operational context, a temporarily defined environment of cooperation
Context (term rewriting), a formal expression with a hole
Other uses
Context (festival), an annual Russian festival of modern choreography
Archaeological context, an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record
Opaque context, the linguistic context in which substitution of co-referential expressions does not preserve truth
Trama (mycology) (context or flesh), the mass of non-hymenial tissues that composes the mass of a fungal fruiting body
Context (rapper), also known as Context MC, stage name of George Musgrave
See also
Contextual (disambiguation)
Contextualization (disambiguation)
Locality (disambiguation)
State (disambiguation) | wiki |
A fidelity bond or fidelity guarantee is a form of insurance protection that covers policyholders for losses that they incur as a result of fraudulent acts by specified individuals. It usually insures a business for losses caused by the dishonest acts of its employees.
While called bonds, these obligations to protect an employer from employee-dishonesty losses are really insurance policies. These insurance policies protect from losses of company monies, securities, and other property from employees who have a manifest intent to i) cause the company to sustain a loss and ii) obtain an improper financial benefit, either for themselves or another party. There are also many other coverage extensions available through the purchase of additional insuring agreements. These are common to most crime insurance policies (burglary, fire, general theft, computer theft, disappearance, fraud, forgery, etc.) and are designed to further protect specific company assets.
First-party vs. third-party fidelity bonds
There are two types of fidelity bonds: first-party and third-party. First-party fidelity bonds protect businesses against intentionally wrongful acts (fraud, theft, forgery, etc.) committed by employees of that business. Third-party fidelity bonds protect businesses against intentionally wrongful acts committed by people working for them on a contract basis (e.g., consultants or independent contractors).
In business partnerships, it is the responsibility of the business working as a contractor or subcontractor to carry third-party fidelity bond coverage, though it is typically the other party who requests or requires such coverage. In many cases, businesses in finance or banking require their contractors to carry third-party fidelity bond coverage to prevent losses from theft.
Commercial crime vs. financial institution bonds
The fidelity bond marketplace is, generally speaking, split into two main type of policies; financial institution bonds (to protect financial institutions such as banks, stock brokers, insurance companies etc.) and commercial crime policies (non-financial institutions). Within each category there are different policy forms designed for specific types of institutions. These include:
Financial Institution Bonds, Standard Form No. 14 for Brokers/Dealers
Financial Institution Bonds, Standard Form No. 15 for Mortgage Bankers and Finance Companies
Credit Union Blanket Bond, Standard Form No. 23 for Credit Unions
Financial Institution Bonds, Standard Form No. 24 for Commercial Banks, Savings Banks and Savings and Loan Associations
Financial Institution Bonds, Standard Form No. 25 for Insurance Companies
Commercial Crime Policy
Commercial Crime Policy for Public Entities
Emerging trends
Fidelity insurers need to not only understand the threat posed to companies from traditional elements such as employee dishonesty, robbery or cheque forgery, they need to stay informed of emerging trends or evolving threat vectors.
Social engineering fraud
Also known as business email compromise (BEC) or impersonation fraud (and by a variety of other names), social engineering fraud typically involves someone impersonating a person close to the insured company (an employee, an executive, a vendor or a client) and tricking the company into transferring funds to the fraudster. These funds are often then quickly transferred offshore, making recovery very challenging. Despite the pervasiveness of this threat (the FBI estimated that between January 2015 and February 2017, over $3 billion have been lost by companies around the world to this scam), most traditional insurance policies do not cover this type of loss. Many policyholders have challenged insurance companies' assertions that this is not a covered loss in court; however a series of recent (2017) North American cases support the insurers' positions, notably American Tooling Center, Inc. v. Travelers Casualty and Surety Company of America, The Brick Warehouse LP v. Chubb Insurance Company of Canada, and Taylor & Lieberman v. Federal Insurance Company.
The industry has responded to these events by making an extension of coverage available but they are typically subject to additional premium, robust underwriting questions, and are often sublimited.
By country
Australia
In Australia, this type of employer protection is usually called employee dishonesty insurance coverage. (Other names, such as "Fidelity Cover" may also be used by specific insurance agencies or brokers.)
Nigeria
Several forms of fidelity guarantee cover are available: an individual policy or "floater policy", relating to a named employee; a collective policy, covering a group of employees; or a "blanket policy" which would cover a generic category of employee, such as those who handle the company's cash.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, this type of employee dishonesty insurance is called fidelity guarantee insurance coverage.
United States
In the United States, various service providers to pension plans governed by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) are required to obtain and maintain fidelity bond coverage in prescribed amounts.
References
Types of insurance | wiki |
Kekulé may refer to:
August Kekulé (1829–1896), later August Kekule von Stradonitz, German organic chemist
Non-Kekulé molecule
Alexander Kekulé, a German medical microbiologist, virologist and academic
Kekulé Program a program for entering chemical structures into a database
Kekulé (crater), on the Moon
Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz (1839–1911), German archeologist, nephew of August
Stephan Kekulé von Stradonitz (1863–1933), German genealogist, son of August | wiki |
Natasha Morrison (née le ) est une athlète jamaïcaine, spécialiste des épreuves de sprint.
Biographie
Elle participe aux championnats du monde 2015, à Pékin, où elle se classe septième de l'épreuve du 100 m, en 11 s 02 après avoir porté son record personnel à 10 s 96 en demi-finale. Alignée également sur 4 × 100 m, elle remporte en tant que deuxième relayeuse le titre mondial en compagnie de Veronica Campbell-Brown, Elaine Thompson et Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce. L'équipe de Jamaïque établit à cette occasion un nouveau record des championnats en 41 s 07.
Palmarès
Records
Notes et références
Liens externes
Sprinteuse jamaïcaine
Coureuse de 100 mètres
Championne du monde d'athlétisme
Naissance en novembre 1992
Championne olympique jamaïcaine
Athlète (femme) aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020 | wiki |
Symphonic Dances may refer to:
Symphonic Dances (Rachmaninoff), an orchestral suite
Symphonic Dances (Grieg)
Symphonic Dances by Paul Hindemith
Symphonic Dances by Clifton Williams
Symphonic Dances from West Side Story, by Leonard Bernstein, from his music for West Side Story | wiki |
"Sitting on the fence" is a common idiom used in English to describe a person's lack of decisiveness, neutrality or hesitance to choose between two sides in an argument or a competition, or inability to decide due to lack of courage. This is done either in order to remain on good terms with both sides, or due to apathy regarding the situation and not wanting to choose a position with which one doesn't actually agree. As a result, someone who "sits on the fence" will maintain a neutral and non-committal view regarding any of the other parties involved.
References
See also
Ambivalence
Cold feet
Mugwump
English-language idioms | wiki |
Samsung NX20 — системный беззеркальный цифровой фотоаппарат, старшая модель семейства Samsung NX. Представлен 19 апреля 2012 года на смену Samsung NX10 и её модернизированной версии NX11. Основные особенности — 20-мегапиксельный сенсор с чувствительностью до 12 800 ISO, откидной дисплей и встроенная поддержка Wi-Fi.
Фотоаппарат поступил в продажу 17 мая 2012, стоимость версии с объективом 18-55mm F3.5-5.6 — 1099 долларов США. В 2014 году ему на смену была выпущена модель Samsung NX30.
Примечания
Ссылки
Samsung NX20 Product Page
Обзор Samsung NX20: топовая беззеркалка с Wi-Fi на сайте hi-tech.mail.ru (27 августа 2012).
Фотоаппараты Samsung
Беззеркальные системные фотоаппараты
APS-C фотоаппараты
Фотоаппараты, появившиеся в 2012 году
Лауреаты EISA 2012-2013 | wiki |
Water loss may refer to:
Dehydration (disambiguation)
Leakage of water, especially in water supply networks
s.a. Non-revenue water | wiki |
RCVS may refer to:
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome | wiki |
Multipart stationery is paper that is blank, or preprinted as a form to be completed, comprising a stack of several copies, either on carbonless paper or plain paper, interleaved with carbon paper. The stationery may be bound into books with tear-out sheets to be filled in manually, continuous stationery (fanfold sheet or roll) for use in suitable computer printers, or as individual stacks, usually crimped together.
The purpose is to produce multiple simultaneous copies of a document produced by handwriting with a pen that applies pressure, such as a ballpoint pen, or with an impact printer. The pressure of writing or impact printing on the carbon or carbonless paper transfers the content to the copy sheets. Depending upon requirements, up to typically four copies of the original can be made, with the quality and readability decreasing towards the bottom copies. This type of stationery can be used whenever multiple copies are required, of quality adequate for the purpose, usually noticeably inferior to, for example, laser-printed output. Typically a company may need a document such as an invoice to give to a customer (original), with a copy for their own accounting department (first copy), and possibly further copies for other purposes. The paper stock used is typically of low weight—thin—to transfer more printing pressure. The different copies can be on paper of different colour to distinguish them, and preprinted content may vary between copies.
References
Stationery | wiki |
Tongzhi in Love is a 2008 30-minute documentary film directed by Ruby Yang which portrays the life of gay men in China. The film was produced by Thomas Lennon and features music by Bill Frisell and Brian Keane. The film's world premiere was at the Silverdocs Film Festival in Washington, D.C. on 18 June 2008 and the West Coast premiere at the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco on 28 June 2008. (Film was previously known as A Double Life and appears under that title in the Frameline catalog.) "Tongzhi" means "comrade" and has become a slang term for "gay" in several Asian countries. This film was shown at many film festivals and garnered several prestigious awards which include the Golden Gate Award for best documentary short the 52nd San Francisco International Film Festival and the Silver Award at Mix Brasil Festival of Diversity.
See also
Homosexuality in China
External links
Film Excerpts
2008 films
2008 short documentary films
Documentary films about LGBT topics
Chinese LGBT-related films
Documentary films about China
American short documentary films
Films directed by Ruby Yang
2008 LGBT-related films
2000s American films | wiki |
Vietnamese iced coffee () is a traditional Vietnamese coffee recipe. It is created using coffee roasted between medium and dark. The drink is made by passing hot water through the grounds into a cup that already contains condensed milk. To serve the cold drink, ice is added to the cup.
Variations
Variations involve additions of ice, sugar or condensed milk. A popular variation is cà phê sữa đá (or nâu đá in the North), which is iced coffee served with sweetened condensed milk. This is done by putting two to three teaspoons or more of condensed milk into the cup prior to the drip filter process. Other variations include:
Black coffee (hot or cold) - Cà phê đen
White coffee/Saigon style coffee - bạc xỉu: Hot or iced milk with some added coffee, similar to a macchiato. Popular in Saigon.
Pandan coffee - Cà phê lá dứa: Made with coffee, Pandan paste, and honey.
Coconut coffee - Cà phê dừa: Made with coffee, coconut milk, and condensed milk.
Blended coffee/Coffee shake - Sinh tố cà phê-
Egg coffee - Cà phê trứng: Made with brewed coffee, chicken egg yolk, and condensed milk. It has a similar taste and texture to tiramisu and eggnog. Popular in Hanoi.
Salted cream coffee - Cà phê kem mặn: a variation from Huế.
Avocado coffee - Cà phê bơ: coffee grounds, avocado, condensed milk, and vanilla powder
History
Coffee was introduced into Vietnam in 1857 by a French Catholic priest in the form of a single Coffea arabica tree. The beverage was adopted with regional variations. Because of limitations on the availability of fresh milk, as the dairy farming industry was still in its infancy, the French and Vietnamese began to use sweetened condensed milk with a dark roast coffee.
Vietnam did not become a major exporter of coffee until the Đổi Mới reforms and opening of the economy after the war. Now, many coffee farms exist across the central highlands. Vietnam is now the largest producer of the Robusta variety of coffee and the second largest producer of coffee worldwide.
Vietnamese Coffee Chains
See also
Egg coffee
Cuban espresso, similar sweetened coffee.
Indian filter coffee, similarly produced (drip from metal filter) coffee.
List of coffee beverages
References
External links
Cà phê sữa đá, it's what's should be in your cup [sic] at ChestBrew.com
History of Vietnamese Coffee and photographed step-by-step brewing at HungryHuy.com
Illustrated instructions at wanderingspoon.com
Vietnamese coffee recipe and notes at Coffeefaq.com
Vietnamese drinks
Coffee drinks
1857 introductions | wiki |
HGH peut faire référence à :
Hormone de croissance humaine () ;
;
. | wiki |
Helen Frye or Fry may refer to:
Helen Fisher Frye (1918–2014), American educator and civil rights activist
Helen J. Frye (1930–2011), American judge
Helen Frye (writer), British writer and poet, see 1970 in literature
Helen Varner Vanderbilt Frye (1908–1979), American and former wife to Cornelius Vanderbilt IV and Jack Frye
Helen Kemp Frye (1910–1986) Canadian educator, editor and artist, first wife of Northrop Frye
Helen Fry (born 1967), historian
Helen Fry, a song on The Felice Brothers (album) | wiki |
The Giraffes can be one of the following bands:
The Giraffes (Brooklyn band)
The Giraffes (album)
The Giraffes (Seattle band)
See also
Giraffe (disambiguation) | wiki |
C. acaulis may refer to:
Carex acaulis, a sedge
Carlina acaulis, a thistle
Cryptanthus acaulis, a bromeliad
Cymopterus acaulis, an umbellifer | wiki |
Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (), is a religious and cultural holiday held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century and is observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion (especially the Church of Ireland), the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Lutheran Church. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and, by extension, celebrates the heritage and culture of the Irish in general. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, céilithe, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Christians who belong to liturgical denominations also attend church services and historically the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol were lifted for the day, which has encouraged and propagated the holiday's tradition of alcohol consumption.
Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador (for provincial government employees), and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. It is also widely celebrated in the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, Argentina, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand, especially amongst Irish diaspora. Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival. Modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. However, there has been criticism of Saint Patrick's Day celebrations for having become too commercialised and for fostering negative stereotypes of the Irish people.
Saint Patrick
Saint Patrick was a 5th-century Romano-British Christian missionary and Bishop in Ireland. Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration, which was allegedly written by Patrick himself. It is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano-British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church. According to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland. It says that he spent six years there working as a shepherd and that during this time he found God. The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, where a ship would be waiting to take him home. After making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest.
According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity. The Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted thousands.
Patrick's efforts were eventually turned into an allegory in which he drove "snakes"(druids) out of Ireland, despite the fact that actual snakes were not known to inhabit the region.
Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick. Over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Ireland's foremost saint.
Celebration and traditions
Today's Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have been greatly influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora, especially in North America. Until the late 20th century, Saint Patrick's Day was often a bigger celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland.
Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, Irish traditional music sessions (céilithe), and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. There are also formal gatherings such as banquets and dances, although these were more common in the past. Saint Patrick's Day parades began in North America in the 18th century but did not spread to Ireland until the 20th century. The participants generally include marching bands, the military, fire brigades, cultural organisations, charitable organisations, voluntary associations, youth groups, fraternities, and so on. However, over time, many of the parades have become more akin to a carnival. More effort is made to use the Irish language, especially in Ireland, where 1 March to St Patrick's Day on 17 March is Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish language week").
Since 2010, famous landmarks have been lit up in green on Saint Patrick's Day as part of Tourism Ireland's "Global Greening Initiative" or "Going Green for St Patrick's Day". The Sydney Opera House and the Sky Tower in Auckland were the first landmarks to participate and since then over 300 landmarks in fifty countries across the globe have gone green for Saint Patrick's Day.
Christians may also attend church services, and the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol are lifted for the day. Perhaps because of this, drinking alcohol – particularly Irish whiskey, beer, or cider – has become an integral part of the celebrations. The Saint Patrick's Day custom of "drowning the shamrock" or "wetting the shamrock" was historically popular. At the end of the celebrations, especially in Ireland, a shamrock is put into the bottom of a cup, which is then filled with whiskey, beer, or cider. It is then drunk as a toast to Saint Patrick, Ireland, or those present. The shamrock would either be swallowed with the drink or taken out and tossed over the shoulder for good luck.
Irish Government ministers travel abroad on official visits to various countries around St Patrick's Day to promote Ireland.
Wearing green and shamrocks
On Saint Patrick's Day, it is customary to wear shamrocks, green clothing or green accessories. Saint Patrick is said to have used the shamrock, a three-leaved plant, to explain the Holy Trinity to the pagan Irish. This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had many triple deities, which may have aided St Patrick in his evangelisation efforts. Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of the triskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity". Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish. Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian contexticons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with a cross in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other".
The first association of the colour green with Ireland is from a legend in the 11th century Lebor Gabála Érenn (The Book of the Taking of Ireland). It tells of Goídel Glas (Goídel the green), the eponymous ancestor of the Gaels and creator of the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx). Goídel is bitten by a venomous snake but saved from death by Moses placing his staff on the snakebite, leaving him with a green mark. His descendants settle in Ireland, a land free of snakes. One of the first, Íth, visits Ireland after climbing the Tower of Hercules and being captivated by the sight of a beautiful green island in the distance.
The colour green was further associated with Ireland from the 1640s, when the green harp flag was used by the Irish Catholic Confederation. Later, James Connolly described this flag as representing "the sacred emblem of Ireland's unconquered soul". Green ribbons and shamrocks have been worn on St Patrick's Day since at least the 1680s. Since then, the colour green and its association with St Patrick's Day have grown. The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick, an Irish fraternity founded in about 1750, adopted green as its colour. The Order of St Patrick, an Anglo-Irish chivalric order founded in 1783, instead adopted blue as its colour, which led to blue being associated with Saint Patrick. In the 1790s, the colour green was adopted by the United Irishmen. This was a republican organisation—founded mostly by Protestants but with many Catholic members—who launched a rebellion in 1798 against British rule. Ireland was first called "the Emerald Isle" in "When Erin First Rose" (1795), a poem by a co-founder of the United Irishmen, William Drennan, which stresses the historical importance of green to the Irish. The phrase "wearing of the green" comes from a song of the same name about United Irishmen being persecuted for wearing green. The flags of the 1916 Easter Rising featured green, such as the Starry Plough banner and the Proclamation Flag of the Irish Republic. When the Irish Free State was founded in 1922, the government ordered all post boxes be painted green, with the slogan "green paint for a green people"; in 1924, the government introduced a green Irish passport.
The wearing of the 'St Patrick's Day Cross' was also a popular custom in Ireland until the early 20th century. These were a Celtic Christian cross made of paper that was "covered with silk or ribbon of different colours, and a bunch or rosette of green silk in the centre".
Ireland
Saint Patrick's feast day, as a kind of national day, was already being celebrated by the Irish in Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. Saint Patrick's feast day was finally placed on the liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church in the early 1600s, due to the influence of Waterford-born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding. Saint Patrick's Day thus became a holy day of obligation for Catholics in Ireland. It is also a feast day in the Church of Ireland, part of the Anglican Communion. The church calendar avoids the observance of saints' feasts during certain solemnities, moving the saint's day to a time outside those periods. Saint Patrick's Day is occasionally affected by this requirement, when 17 March falls during Holy Week. This happened in 1940, when Saint Patrick's Day was officially observed on 3 April to avoid it coinciding with Palm Sunday, and again in 2008, where it was officially observed on 15 March. Saint Patrick's Day will not fall within Holy Week again until 2160. However, the popular festivities may still be held on 17 March or on a weekend near to the feast day.
In 1903, Saint Patrick's Day became an official public holiday in Ireland due to the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act 1903, an act of the United Kingdom parliament introduced by Irish MP James O'Mara.
The first Saint Patrick's Day parade in Ireland was held in Waterford in 1903, hundreds of years after the first parade in North America. The week of Saint Patrick's Day 1903 had been declared Irish Language Week by the Gaelic League and in Waterford they opted to have a procession on Sunday 15 March. The procession comprised the Mayor and members of Waterford Corporation, the Trades Hall, the various trade unions and bands who included the 'Barrack St Band' and the 'Thomas Francis Meagher Band'. The parade began at the premises of the Gaelic League in George's St and finished in the Peoples Park, where the public were addressed by the Mayor and other dignitaries. On Tuesday 17 March, most Waterford businesses—including public houses—were closed and marching bands paraded as they had two days previously.
On Saint Patrick's Day 1916, the Irish Volunteers—an Irish nationalist paramilitary organisation—held parades throughout Ireland. The authorities recorded 38 St Patrick's Day parades, involving 6,000 marchers, almost half of whom were reported to be armed. The following month, the Irish Volunteers launched the Easter Rising against British rule. This marked the beginning of the Irish revolutionary period and led to the Irish War of Independence and Civil War. During this time, Saint Patrick's Day celebrations in Ireland were muted, although the day was sometimes chosen to hold large political rallies.
The celebrations remained low-key after the creation of the Irish Free State; the only state-organized observance was a military procession and trooping of the colours, and an Irish-language mass attended by government ministers. In 1927, the Irish Free State government banned the selling of alcohol on St Patrick's Day, although it remained legal in Northern Ireland. The ban was not repealed until 1961.
The first official, state-sponsored Saint Patrick's Day parade in Dublin took place in 1931. Public St Patrick's Day festivities in Ireland have been cancelled three times, all for public health reasons. In 2001, celebrations were postponed to May due to the foot-and-mouth outbreak, while in 2020 and 2021 they were cancelled outright due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In Northern Ireland, the celebration of Saint Patrick's Day was affected by sectarian divisions. A majority of the population were Protestant Ulster unionists who saw themselves primarily as British, while a substantial minority were Catholic Irish nationalists who saw themselves primarily as Irish. Although it was a public holiday, Northern Ireland's unionist government did not officially observe St Patrick's Day. During the conflict known as the Troubles (late 1960s–late 1990s), public St Patrick's Day celebrations were rare and tended to be associated with the Catholic community. In 1976, loyalists detonated a car bomb outside a pub crowded with Catholics celebrating St Patrick's Day in Dungannon; four civilians were killed and many injured. However, some Protestant unionists attempted to 're-claim' the festival, and in 1985 the Orange Order held its own Saint Patrick's Day parade. Since the end of the conflict in 1998 there have been cross-community St Patrick's Day parades in towns throughout Northern Ireland, which have attracted thousands of spectators.
In the mid-1990s the government of the Republic of Ireland began a campaign to use Saint Patrick's Day to showcase Ireland and its culture. The government set up a group called St Patrick's Festival, with the aims of creating a world-class national festival and "to project, internationally, an accurate image of Ireland as a creative, professional and sophisticated country with wide appeal". The first Saint Patrick's Festival was held on 17 March 1996. In 1997, it became a three-day event, and by 2006, the festival was five days long. More than 675,000 people attended the 2009 parade, and that year's festival saw almost 1 million visitors, who took part in festivities that included concerts, outdoor theatre performances, and fireworks. From 2006 to 2012 the Skyfest formed the centrepiece of the Saint Patrick's Festival.
The week around Saint Patrick's Day is Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish Language Week"), when more Irish language events are held and there is more effort to use the language.
Christian leaders in Ireland have expressed concern about the secularisation of Saint Patrick's Day. In The Word magazine's March 2007 issue, Fr Vincent Twomey wrote, "It is time to reclaim St Patrick's Day as a church festival". He questioned the need for "mindless alcohol-fuelled revelry" and concluded that "it is time to bring the piety and the fun together".
One of the biggest celebrations outside the cities is in Downpatrick, County Down, where Saint Patrick is said to be buried. The shortest Saint Patrick's Day parade in the world formerly took place in Dripsey, County Cork. The parade lasted just 23.4 metres and traveled between the village's two pubs. The tradition began in 1999, but ended after five years when one of the pubs closed.
Celebrations elsewhere
Europe
England
In England, the British Royals traditionally present bowls of shamrock to members of the Irish Guards, a regiment in the British Army, following Queen Alexandra introducing the tradition in 1901. Since 2012 the Duchess of Cambridge has presented the bowls of shamrock to the Irish Guards. While female royals are often tasked with presenting the bowls of shamrock, male royals have also undertaken the role, such as King George VI in 1950 to mark the 50th anniversary of the formation of the Irish Guards, and in 2016 the Duke of Cambridge in place of his wife. Fresh Shamrocks are presented to the Irish Guards, regardless of where they are stationed, and are flown in from Ireland.
While some Saint Patrick's Day celebrations could be conducted openly in Britain pre 1960s, this would change following the commencement by the IRA's bombing campaign on mainland Britain and as a consequence this resulted in a suspicion of all things Irish and those who supported them which led to people of Irish descent wearing a sprig of shamrock on Saint Patrick's day in private or attending specific events. Today after many years following the Good Friday Agreement, people of Irish descent openly wear a sprig of shamrock to celebrate their Irishness.
Christian denominations in Great Britain observing his feast day include The Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.
Birmingham holds the largest Saint Patrick's Day parade in Britain with a city centre parade over a two-mile (3 km) route through the city centre. The organisers describe it as the third biggest parade in the world after Dublin and New York.
London, since 2002, has had an annual Saint Patrick's Day parade which takes place on weekends around the 17th, usually in Trafalgar Square. In 2008 the water in the Trafalgar Square fountains was dyed green. In 2020 the Parade was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Liverpool has the highest proportion of residents with Irish ancestry of any English city. This has led to a long-standing celebration on Saint Patrick's Day in terms of music, cultural events and the parade.
Manchester hosts a two-week Irish festival in the weeks prior to Saint Patrick's Day. The festival includes an Irish Market based at the city's town hall which flies the Irish tricolour opposite the Union Flag, a large parade as well as a large number of cultural and learning events throughout the two-week period.
Malta
The first Saint Patrick's Day celebrations in Malta took place in the early 20th century by soldiers of the Royal Dublin Fusiliers who were stationed in Floriana. Celebrations were held in the Balzunetta area of the town, which contained a number of bars and was located close to the barracks. The Irish diaspora in Malta continued to celebrate the feast annually.
Today, Saint Patrick's Day is mainly celebrated in Spinola Bay and Paceville areas of St Julian's, although other celebrations still occur at Floriana and other locations. Thousands of Maltese attend the celebrations, "which are more associated with drinking beer than traditional Irish culture."
Norway
Norway has had a Saint Patrick's Day parade in Oslo since 2000, first organized by Irish expatriates living in Norway, and partially coordinated with the Irish embassy in Oslo.
Russia
The first Saint Patrick's Day parade in Russia took place in 1992. Since 1999, there has been a yearly "Saint Patrick's Day" festival in Moscow and other Russian cities. The official part of the Moscow parade is a military-style parade and is held in collaboration with the Moscow government and the Irish embassy in Moscow. The unofficial parade is held by volunteers and resembles a carnival. In 2014, Moscow Irish Week was celebrated from 12 to 23 March, which includes Saint Patrick's Day on 17 March. Over 70 events celebrating Irish culture in Moscow, St Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Voronezh, and Volgograd were sponsored by the Irish Embassy, the Moscow City Government, and other organisations.
In 2017, the Russian Orthodox Church added the feast day of Saint Patrick to its liturgical calendar, to be celebrated on .
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a large Irish expatriate community. The community established the Sarajevo Irish Festival in 2015, which is held for three days around and including Saint Patrick's Day. The festival organizes an annual a parade, hosts Irish theatre companies, screens Irish films and organizes concerts of Irish folk musicians. The festival has hosted numerous Irish artists, filmmakers, theatre directors and musicians such as Conor Horgan, Ailis Ni Riain, Dermot Dunne, Mick Moloney, Chloë Agnew and others.
Scotland
The Scottish town of Coatbridge, where the majority of the town's population are of Irish descent, also has a Saint Patrick's Day Festival which includes celebrations and parades in the town centre.
Glasgow has a considerably large Irish population; due, for the most part, to the Irish immigration during the 19th century. This immigration was the main cause in raising the population of Glasgow by over 100,000 people. Due to this large Irish population, there are many Irish-themed pubs and Irish interest groups who hold yearly celebrations on Saint Patrick's day in Glasgow. Glasgow has held a yearly Saint Patrick's Day parade and festival since 2007.
Switzerland
While Saint Patrick's Day in Switzerland is commonly celebrated on 17 March with festivities similar to those in neighbouring central European countries, it is not unusual for Swiss students to organise celebrations in their own living spaces on Saint Patrick's Eve. Most popular are usually those in Zurich's Kreis 4. Traditionally, guests also contribute with beverages and dress in green.
Lithuania
Although it is not a national holiday in Lithuania, the Vilnia River is dyed green every year on the Saint Patrick's Day in the capital Vilnius.
Americas
Canada
One of the longest-running and largest Saint Patrick's Day () parades in North America occurs each year in Montreal, whose city flag includes a shamrock in its lower-right quadrant. The yearly celebration has been organised by the United Irish Societies of Montreal since 1929. The parade has been held yearly without interruption since 1824. Saint Patrick's Day itself, however, has been celebrated in Montreal since as far back as 1759 by Irish soldiers in the Montreal Garrison following the British conquest of New France.
In Saint John, New Brunswick Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated as a week-long celebration. Shortly after the JP Collins Celtic Festival is an Irish festival celebrating Saint John's Irish heritage. The festival is named for a young Irish doctor James Patrick Collins who worked on Partridge Island (Saint John County) quarantine station tending to sick Irish immigrants before he died there himself.
In Manitoba, the Irish Association of Manitoba runs a yearly three-day festival of music and culture based around Saint Patrick's Day.
In 2004, the CelticFest Vancouver Society organised its first yearly festival in downtown Vancouver to celebrate the Celtic Nations and their cultures. This event, which includes a parade, occurs each year during the weekend nearest Saint Patrick's Day.
In Quebec City, there was a parade from 1837 to 1926. The Quebec City St-Patrick Parade returned in 2010 after more than 84 years. For the occasion, a portion of the New York Police Department Pipes and Drums were present as special guests.
There has been a parade held in Toronto since at least 1863.
The Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team was known as the Toronto St. Patricks from 1919 to 1927, and wore green jerseys. In 1999, when the Maple Leafs played on Saint Patrick's Day, they wore green St Patrick's retro uniforms.
Some groups, notably Guinness, have lobbied to make Saint Patrick's Day a national holiday.
In March 2009, the Calgary Tower changed its top exterior lights to new green CFL bulbs just in time for Saint Patrick's Day. Part of an environmental non-profit organisation's campaign (Project Porchlight), the green represented environmental concerns. Approximately 210 lights were changed in time for Saint Patrick's Day, and resembled a Leprechaun's hat. After a week, white CFLs took their place. The change was estimated to save the Calgary Tower some $12,000 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 104 tonnes.
Since 2019, the City of Waterloo, Ontario has had to contend with an ever-growing massive street party that has coincided with the Saint Patrick's Day celebrations. In 2023, police could be seen putting fences up on Ezra Avenue to discourage partiers to participate in the unauthorized event that has cost the city as much as $750,000 a year for police, paramedics, and municipal services.
United States
Saint Patrick's Day, while not a legal holiday in the United States, is nonetheless widely recognised and observed throughout the country as a celebration of Irish and Irish-American culture. Celebrations include prominent displays of the colour green, religious observances, numerous parades, and copious consumption of alcohol. The holiday has been celebrated in what is now the U.S since 1600, with the first parade occurring in 1601.
It is customary for the Irish Taoiseach (Irish Prime Minister) to meet with the President of the United States on or around Saint Patrick's Day. Traditionally the Taoiseach presents the US President a Waterford Crystal bowl filled with shamrocks. This tradition began in 1952 when the Irish Ambassador to the US, John Hearne, sent a box of shamrocks to President Harry S. Truman. From then it became a yearly custom for the Irish ambassador to send Saint Patrick's Day shamrocks to an official in the US President's administration, although on some occasions the shamrocks were given personally by the Irish Taoiseach or Irish President to the US President in Washington. After the meeting between Taoiseach Albert Reynolds and President Bill Clinton in 1994, the presenting of the shamrocks became a yearly custom.
Mexico
The Saint Patrick's Battalion is honored in Mexico on Saint Patrick's Day.
Argentina
In Buenos Aires, a party is held in the downtown street of Reconquista, where there are several Irish pubs; in 2006, there were 50,000 people in this street and the pubs nearby. Neither the Catholic Church nor the Irish community, the fifth largest in the world outside Ireland, take part in the organisation of the parties.
Montserrat
The island of Montserrat is known as the "Emerald Island of the Caribbean" because of its founding by Irish refugees from Saint Kitts and Nevis. Montserrat is one of three places where Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday, along with Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The holiday in Montserrat also commemorates a failed slave uprising that occurred on 17 March 1768.
Oceania
Australia
Saint Patrick's Day is not a public holiday in Australia, although it is celebrated each year across the country's states and territories. Festivals and parades are often held on weekends around 17 March in cities such as Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Melbourne. On occasion, festivals and parades are cancelled. For instance, Melbourne's 2006 and 2007 Saint Patrick's Day festivals and parades were cancelled due to sporting events (Commonwealth Games and Australian Grand Prix) being booked on and around the planned Saint Patrick's Day festivals and parades in the city. In Sydney the parade and family day was cancelled in 2016 due to financial problems. However, Brisbane's Saint Patrick's Day parade, which was cancelled at the outbreak of World War II and wasn't revived until 1990, was not called off in 2020 as precaution for the COVID-19 pandemic, in contrast to many other St Patrick's Day parades around the world.
The first mention of Saint Patrick's Day being celebrated in Australia was in 1795, when Irish convicts and administrators, Catholic and Protestant, in the penal colony came together to celebrate the day as a national holiday, despite a ban against assemblies being in place at the time. This unified day of Irish nationalist observance would soon dissipate over time, with celebrations on Saint Patrick's Day becoming divisive between religions and social classes, representative more of Australianness than of Irishness and held intermittingly throughout the years. Historian Patrick O'Farrell credits the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin and Archbishop Daniel Mannix of Melbourne for re-igniting St Patrick's Day celebrations in Australia and reviving the sense of Irishness amongst those with Irish heritage. The organisers of the St Patrick's festivities in the past were, more often than not, the Catholic clergy which often courted controversy. Bishop Patrick Phelan of Sale described in 1921 how the authorities in Victoria had ordered that a Union Jack be flown at the front of the St Patrick's Day parade and following the refusal by Irishmen and Irish-Australians to do so, the authorities paid for an individual to carry the flag at the head of the parade. This individual was later assaulted by two men who were later fined in court.
New Zealand
From 1878 to 1955, Saint Patrick's Day was recognised as a public holiday in New Zealand, together with St George's Day (England) and St Andrew's Day (Scotland). Auckland attracted many Irish migrants in the 1850s and 1860s, and it was here where some of the earliest Saint Patrick's Day celebrations took place, which often entailed the hosting of community picnics. However, this rapidly evolved from the late 1860s onwards to include holding parades with pipe bands and marching children wearing green, sporting events, concerts, balls and other social events, where people displayed their Irishness with pride. While Saint Patrick's Day is no longer recognised as a public holiday, it continues to be celebrated across New Zealand with festivals and parades at weekends on or around 17 March.
Asia
Saint Patrick's parades are now held in many locations across Japan. The first parade, in Tokyo, was organised by The Irish Network Japan (INJ) in 1992.
The Irish Association of Korea has celebrated Saint Patrick's Day since 1976 in Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. The place of the parade and festival has been moved from Itaewon and Daehangno to Cheonggyecheon.
In Malaysia, the St Patrick's Society of Selangor, founded in 1925, organises a yearly St Patrick's Ball, described as the biggest Saint Patrick's Day celebration in Asia. Guinness Anchor Berhad also organises 36 parties across the country in places like the Klang Valley, Penang, Johor Bahru, Malacca, Ipoh, Kuantan, Kota Kinabalu, Miri and Kuching.
International Space Station
Astronauts on board the International Space Station have celebrated the festival in different ways. Irish-American Catherine Coleman played a hundred-year-old flute belonging to Matt Molloy and a tin whistle belonging to Paddy Moloney, both members of the Irish music group The Chieftains, while floating weightless in the space station on Saint Patrick's Day in 2011. Her performance was later included in a track called "The Chieftains in Orbit" on the group's 2012 album, Voice of Ages.
Chris Hadfield took photographs of Ireland from Earth orbit, and a picture of himself wearing green clothing in the space station, and posted them online on Saint Patrick's Day in 2013. He also posted online a recording of himself singing "Danny Boy" in space.
Criticism
Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have been criticised, particularly for their association with public drunkenness and disorderly conduct. Some argue that the festivities have become too commercialised and tacky, and have strayed from their original purpose of honouring Saint Patrick and Irish heritage. Irish American journalist Niall O'Dowd has criticised attempts to recast Saint Patrick's Day as a celebration of multiculturalism rather than a celebration of Irishness.
Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have also been criticised for fostering demeaning stereotypes of Ireland and Irish people. An example is the wearing of 'leprechaun outfits', which are based on derogatory 19th century caricatures of the Irish. In the run up to Saint Patrick's Day 2014, the Ancient Order of Hibernians successfully campaigned to stop major American retailers from selling novelty merchandise that promoted negative Irish stereotypes.
Some have described Saint Patrick's Day celebrations outside Ireland as displays of "Plastic Paddyness"; where foreigners appropriate and misrepresent Irish culture, claim Irish identity, and enact Irish stereotypes.
LGBT groups in the US were long banned from marching in Saint Patrick's Day parades in New York City and Boston, resulting in the landmark Supreme Court decision of Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston. In New York City, the ban was lifted in 2014, but LGBT groups still find that barriers to participation exist. In Boston, the ban on LGBT group participation was lifted in 2015.
Sports events
Traditionally the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship were held on Saint Patrick's Day in Croke Park, Dublin, but since 2020 these now take place in January. The Interprovincial Championship was previously held on 17 March but this was switched to games being played in Autumn.
The Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup, Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup and Ulster Schools Senior Cup are held on Saint Patrick's Day. The Connacht Schools Rugby Senior Cup is held on the weekend before Saint Patrick's Day.
Horse racing at the Cheltenham Festival attracts large numbers of Irish people, both residents of Britain and many who travel from Ireland, and usually coincides with Saint Patrick's Day.
The Six Nations Championship is an annual international rugby Union tournament competed by England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland, and Wales and reaches its climax on or around Saint Patrick's Day. On St Patrick's Day 2018, Ireland defeated England 24–15 at Twickenham, London to claim the third Grand Slam in their history.
The Saint Patrick's Day Test is an international rugby league tournament that is played between the US and Ireland. The competition was first started in 1995 and continued in 1996, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2011, and 2012. Ireland won the first two tests as well as the one in 2011, with the US winning the remaining 5. The game is usually held on or around 17 March to coincide with Saint Patrick's Day.
The major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada that play during March often wear special third jerseys to acknowledge the holiday. Examples include the Buffalo Sabres (who have worn special Irish-themed practice jerseys), Toronto Maple Leafs (who wear Toronto St. Patricks throwbacks), New York Knicks, Toronto Raptors, and most Major League Baseball teams. The New Jersey Devils have worn their green-and-red throwback jerseys on or around Saint Patrick's Day in recent years.
See also
Gaelic calendar, also known as Irish calendar
"It's a Great Day for the Irish"
Order of St. Patrick
Saint Patrick's Breastplate
St. Patrick's Day Snowstorm of 1892
Saint Urho
Unofficial Saint Patrick's Day
References
External links
Saint Patrick's Day History – slideshow by The Huffington Post
Day
1783 establishments in Ireland
1903 establishments in Ireland
Catholic holy days
Catholic Church in the United States
Festivals in Ireland
Irish culture
Irish folklore
Irish-American culture
Irish-Australian culture
Irish-Canadian culture
Irish-New Zealand culture
March observances
National days
Observances in Australia
Parades
Public holidays in Canada
Public holidays in Mexico
Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland
Patrick
Public holidays in the United States
Spring (season) events in the Republic of Ireland
Anglican saints
British flag flying days | wiki |
Keeney House or Keeney Hall may refer to:
(by state then city)
Keeney Hall, a contributing building in Old Wethersfield Historic District, Wethersfield, Connecticut
Keeney Memorial Cultural Center, in Old Wethersfield, Connecticut
Keeney House (Le Roy, New York), NRHP-listed
John W. Keeney and Erena Alexander Rogers Farm, Franklin Township, Michigan, NRHP-listed
Keeney Quadrangle, a Brown University building, Providence, Rhode Island
Keeney House (Ogden, Utah), a historic hotel in Ogden, Utah | wiki |
This is a list of heavy metal artists from the formative years of the movement (formed between 1963 and 1981). For bands that formed after 1981, please consult the lists for each heavy metal subgenre. In the late 1960s, a number of bands began pushing the limits of blues rock into a new genre which would be called heavy metal.
In 1981, three of the "Big Four" thrash metal bands emerged (Metallica, Slayer and Anthrax), to be joined on the scene in 1983 by Megadeth.
Heavy metal bands formed between 1963 and 1981
See also
Heavy metal genres
List of alternative metal bands
List of black metal bands
List of Celtic metal bands
List of Christian metal bands
List of crust punk bands
List of death metal bands
List of deathcore bands
List of doom metal bands
List of folk metal bands
List of glam metal bands and artists
List of gothic metal bands
List of grindcore bands
List of groove metal bands
List of industrial metal bands
List of mathcore bands
List of melodic death metal bands
List of metalcore bands
List of nu metal bands
List of new wave of American heavy metal bands
List of new wave of British heavy metal bands
List of new wave of traditional heavy metal bands
List of post-metal bands
List of power metal bands
List of progressive metal bands
List of sludge metal bands
List of speed metal bands
List of symphonic black metal bands
List of symphonic metal bands
List of thrash metal bands
List of Viking metal bands
Gallery
References | wiki |
Edging may refer to:
Using an edger gardening tool
Edging (climbing), a climbing technique
Edging (orgasm), a form of orgasm control
Edging (forging), an open-die forging process that concentrates material for further processing
"Edging" (song), by Blink-182, 2022
See also
Edge (disambiguation) | wiki |
Prodrive may refer to:
Prodrive, a motorsport and automotive engineering group based in Banbury, Oxfordshire, England
Prodrive F1, a proposed Formula One team run by Prodrive Ltd
Prodrive P2, a prototype two-seater sports car designed, engineered and built by Prodrive Ltd
Tickford Racing, an Australian Supercar team formerly known as Prodrive Racing Australia | wiki |
Blues musicians are musical artists who are primarily recognized as writing, performing, and recording blues music. They come from different eras and include styles such as ragtime-vaudeville, Delta and country blues, and urban styles from Chicago and the West Coast. In the last several decades, blues music has developed a less regional character and has been influenced by rhythm and blues, rock, and other popular music.
Pre-1940 blues
1940–1979 blues
Blues since 1980
See also
List of nicknames of blues musicians
Lists of blues musicians by genre
References
Citations
Sources
Blues | wiki |
The University of Michigan Credit Union (UMCU) is a non-profit financial cooperative headquartered in Ann Arbor, Michigan. It has over $1 billion in assets and over 100,000 members . UMCU is not operated by the University of Michigan but has strong ties with it, based on its origins as a credit union for university employees.
History
UMCU was founded on November 8, 1954 as the University of Michigan Employee’s Credit Union, with membership limited to University of Michigan employees. It was initially located in an office in the University of Michigan's Administration Building. In 1982, the credit union expanded its membership to include university alumni and was renamed the University of Michigan Credit Union.
Branch locations
UMCU has nine branches in or near Ann Arbor, three in Flint, one on the Eastern Michigan University campus and one in Dearborn.
References
External links
UMCU
Credit Union Service Centers
CO-OP Network
Credit unions based in Michigan
University of Michigan
Banks established in 1954
Companies based in Ann Arbor, Michigan
1954 establishments in Michigan | wiki |
The Church of Santa María (Spanish: Iglesia de Santa María) is a church located in Fuenmayor, Spain. It was declared Bien de Interés Cultural in 1981.
References
Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in La Rioja (Spain) | wiki |
Church of Santa María may refer to:
Church of Santa María (Fuenmayor), Spain
Church of Santa María (Cogolludo), Spain
Church of Santa María (Lebeña), Spain
Church of Santa María (Salvatierra), Spain
Church of Santa María (Arcos de la Frontera), Spain
Church of Santa María (Ateca), Spain | wiki |
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