text stringlengths 16 352k | source stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|
The following highways are numbered 998:
United States
Louisiana Highway 998
MD 998, Maryland
Pennsylvania Route 998 (former)
Puerto Rico Highway 998 (former) | wiki |
A backpack is a cloth sack carried on one's back and secured with straps.
Backpack may also refer to:
Part of some sorts of equipment (e.g. breathing sets, flamethrowers) which is carried on the back
"Backpack", a song from Justin Bieber album Journals
Plymouth Backpack, a concept car
Backpack, a character in Dora the Explorer
Badge Backpack, a repository for collecting and displaying digital badges from a variety of sources | wiki |
Faint or Fainting may refer to:
Syncope (medicine), a medical term for fainting
Lightheadedness, in the sense of "feeling faint"
"Faint" (song), by Linkin Park
The Faint, a dance-punk/rock band
"Faint" (M&M's advertisement), a Christmas-themed advertisement promoting the M&M's brand
See also
Feint (disambiguation) | wiki |
Due to Einstein's prolific output, the term Einstein effect may refer to any one of a large number of possible effects in different fields of physics.
These may include:
Gravitational redshift
Gravitational lensing
and more specifically,
The Bose-Einstein effect
The Einstein-de Haas effect
See also
List of things named after Albert Einstein | wiki |
Melanocytic oral lesions are an extremely uncommon condition characterized by pigmented lesions of the mucous membranes.
See also
List of cutaneous conditions
Mucosal squamous cell carcinoma
Mucous membrane
Oral florid papillomatosis
References
Conditions of the mucous membranes
Oral mucosal pathology
Lesion | wiki |
Amanda Cartier (born November 14, 1977, in Houston, Texas) is an American female race car driver with residence in San Francisco, California, United States. She currently competes in both the Formula Pro USA Western Championships. and Formula 4 United States Championship series.
Racing career
Cartier began her racing career in 2014 by spending two years racing Rotax 125 TAG karts in the Simraceway Arrive and Drive Series with 2nd overall place in the championship in 2015. She then furthered her training by completing the Simraceway Formula 3 School of Racing program located at Sonoma Raceway.
Her F4 racing career started in 2019 when she made her professional racing debut running a half-season in the SCCA Pro Racing sanctioned Formula Pro USA Western Championships with the World Speed Motorsports team. She would go on to win two F4 Masters Class trophies at Sonoma Raceway, ending the season as F4 Masters Vice-Champion and an overall 6th place in the season points championship.
Currently, she had joined in the F4 U.S. Championship support race during the 2019 Formula 1 US Grand Prix at the Circuit of the Americas with two other women. She has announced to continue with Formula Pro USA Championships in 2020.
Racing record
FPUSA F4 Series Results
(key) (Races in bold indicate class win) (Races in italics indicate pole position)
USF4 Series Results
(key) (Races in bold indicate class win) (Races in italics indicate pole position)
References
External links
Profile at Driver Database
Website
American female racing drivers
Racing drivers from Houston
Racing drivers from Texas
1977 births
Living people
21st-century American women
United States F4 Championship drivers | wiki |
Abby is a given name.
Abby may also refer to:
Abby (film), a 1974 blaxploitation/horror film about a woman possessed by an African demon
Abby (TV series), a 2003 television series starring Sydney Tamiia Poitier
Tropical Storm Abby, three tropical cyclones each in the Atlantic Ocean and Western Pacific Ocean
Andrew Arthur Abbie (1905-1976), Australian anatomist and anthropologist
ABBY, former book award of the American Booksellers Association, now called the Indies Choice Book Awards
See also
Abbey (disambiguation)
Aby (disambiguation)
Abi (disambiguation)
Abby's, an American sitcom television series | wiki |
Michael Clayton is a 2007 film starring George Clooney.
Michael Clayton may also refer to:
Mike Clayton (golfer) (born 1957), Australian professional golfer
Michael Clayton (American football) (born 1982), former American football wide receiver
Michael Clayton (soundtrack), the soundtrack for the film
Clayton, Michael | wiki |
A trumpeter's wart is a cutaneous condition characterized by a firm, fibrous, hyperkeratotic nodule on the upper lip of a trumpet player.
References
Conditions of the mucous membranes | wiki |
Volbeat (band), een Deense band
Volbeat (Pokémon), een Pokémon | wiki |
Statue of Jorge Matute Remus may refer to:
Statue of Jorge Matute Remus (Centro, Guadalajara), Jalisco, Mexico
Statue of Jorge Matute Remus (Rotonda de los Jaliscienses Ilustres), Centro, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico | wiki |
Kicker Vencill is an American swimmer, who won a lawsuit against a dietary supplement company for having contaminated multivitamins which caused him to be suspended from swimming for two years from 2003, even though they were prescribed to him by his doctor. The court awarded him over US$500,000.
He started swimming aged four in Richmond, Kentucky. He went on to swim for Model Laboratory School in high school and Western Kentucky in college. He represented America at the 2001 World University Games.
References
American male swimmers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
A control city is a city, locality, or other location posted on a series of traffic signs along a particular stretch of road indicating destinations on that route. Together with route numbers and cardinal directions, these focal points aid the motorist navigating along a highway system. Such cities appear on signs at junctions to indicate where the intersecting road goes and where the road ahead goes. They are also typically used on distance signs.
Different countries have different practices as far as focal points on directional signs are concerned, and the term control city is not used globally. Where a sign contains a number of destinations for a particular direction, not all of those destinations may be considered a control city. In most countries, control cities are perceived to be the destinations on signs that aid longer-distance traffic, as opposed to local traffic. Accordingly, local destinations on a sign, which only appear incidentally, would in a number of countries not be considered control cities.
While a control city may not appear on the signs of every single junction, the control city would at least appear on major junctions.
Description
Mostly towns and cities are used as control cities. Other than major towns in a country or region, towns close to major intersections or the end of a particular route are often selected as control city. However, all sorts of other potential destinations can be selected as control city, such as states and regions, frequently visited objects, and names of prominent intersecting roads. Narrow-passes carrying a lot of traffic often also take the role of control city. Examples would be major bridges (the Golden Gate Bridge is a control city within San Francisco), tunnels (e.g. the Holland Tunnel in New York City), or mountain passes (e.g. the Gotthard Pass featuring prominently on signs in Switzerland). In border areas, the border itself regularly features as a control city, e.g. the U.S.-Mexico border for Interstate 5 southbound.
The control city is typically on or close to the route for which it serves as the primary focal point. In exceptional situations, towns along prominent intersecting roads could serve as such, notably when the vast majority of traffic would turn off to that intersecting road. Equally, towns beyond a route's terminus could serve as control city. Particularly when a route merges into another route, a major town along that other route could serve as control city. In the United States, for instance, New Jersey Route 18 southbound says it goes to Point Pleasant but never does. This is because of the stub end at exit 6.
While the vast majority of control cities are sizeable towns, minor towns or even unincorporated localities may feature as control city. This is particularly the case if they are located close to junctions of major roads or near the terminus of a road. Major roads in Poland, for instance, feature many signs that refer to small villages close to the border, since that border marks the route's terminus. Signs in Australia's Northern Territory generally will not refer beyond the state border, with the last control city on the Stuart Highway being SA Border and the same applying on routes heading to Queensland and South Australia. On the other hand, there are also instances where larger cities have not been selected as control city because of the proximity of a bigger city downstream on the road.
A common principle identified in signposting is the principle of continuity. Once a particular destination has featured on a sign, it should feature on all signs that contain forward destinations for that direction. Sometimes particular towns are used on a one-off basis at major intersections, but they would then not be considered the control city for that particular road.
Europe
Unlike in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, roads in Continental Europe are not signed with directional banners (east, west, north, and south). The motorist accordingly needs to rely on the combination of the control city and the route number as navigation tools. Possibly as a result of this, control cities (whatever they are called) tend to feature rather prominently on the route signs of European countries when compared to signage in North America. Routes tend to feature more signs that contain information for the route forward and those signs often contain a larger number of focal points.
In this context, and bearing in mind that in Europe every country has its own style of signposting, the term control city is not always in use, but most countries use concepts that have a similar role to that of a control city in North America.
Some, but not all, countries like Poland and Switzerland label border crossings and foreign cities as control cities with a European abbreviation symbol (D for Germany, NL for the Netherlands, UA for Ukraine etc.).
The border crossing control city in Poland would have priority over other towns along the way even if the signposted border village/town is smaller than many towns along the way or when the particular border crossing is no longer operational due to Poland adopting the Schengen Agreement in 2007.
Belgium
In Belgium, the route network very much centers around the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, and Liège. On roads leading to these towns, the relevant town typically features as the primary focal point of the route and as the most distant focal point on the distance signs placed after each intersection. On other roads, provincial capitals play a comparable role as control city, while larger towns outside Belgium feature on routes leading out of Belgium.
France
All French localities have been divided into five categories for signposting purposes, mostly based on their size (though smaller towns with a strategic position in the road network could be promoted while larger suburban towns could be relegated one category). Towns in categories 3, 4, and 5 feature as the focal points on forward signs and distance signs of motorways. On non-motorways, these towns are signposted against a green background whereas other towns are signposted with black letters against a white background. The towns in category 5 are the biggest towns of France, which are also the pivotal points in the French motorway network.
Signs on, and leading to, French motorways generally refer to some three or four towns on that motorway. In other words, there are no stand-out towns that could be referred to as the French equivalent of a control city. The towns signposted have been picked from the three categories signposted along motorways, with towns in category 5 signposted from the biggest distance out (typically, on any motorway that leads to a town in category 5, the first category 5 town ahead is signposted).
Germany
In the German guidelines for directional signage on motorways, the concept of the Hauptfernziel (translating as main distant focal point) has a role that is comparable to that of a control city in North America. This control city appears on roads leading to a motorway and at on-ramps. The Hauptfernziel is also the most distant point that features on distance signs, which are placed after each exit. Directional signage along motorways tends to also refer to towns other than the Hauptfernziel. These could be local focal points (known as Nahziele), but also smaller towns downstream.
Under German guidelines, a town close to a road's terminus should serve as Hauptfernziel, except that towns close to major functions could also take that role. The major towns of Germany typically double as Hauptfernziel on this basis, notwithstanding the fact that motorways often pass by rather than terminate there. A prominent town that does not feature as Hauptfernziel on a major route would be Düsseldorf, which despite being a regional capital sits squeezed between the major junctions at Oberhausen and Cologne and has no major motorway junction itself. On the longer motorways of Germany, the distance between Hauptfernziele is usually some , though less in densely populated areas.
Distance signs on motorways also often feature the Hauptfernziel of one or more intersecting motorways. These are separated from towns along the route proper with a horizontal line.
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, directional banners are used on the M50 (Ó Thuaidh/NORTHBOUND and Ó Dheas/SOUTHBOUND) and on the N40 (Siar/WESTBOUND and Soir/EASTBOUND).
On national roads (which include motorways), the control city is usually a large town at or near the termination of the road. A town on an intersecting road may be used as a control city with its name enclosed in parentheses.
Italy
Road signs in Italy normally feature one focal point used per direction of a longer stretch of road. This could be considered the control city of that road. Often, this is the town close to the route's terminus, but it could also be a town close to a major intersection or an otherwise major town. Milan, for instance, has this role along the A4 between Turin and Trieste.
On longer non-motorways, a provincial capital often takes the role of control city despite not being close to the route's terminus or a major intersection. Intersecting routes also feature as control city. This often occurs on beltways and spur routes.
In addition to signs showing a route's single control city, Italian routes generally also feature ancillary signs that feature other towns in a particular direction. Unlike the control city, these other towns are not necessarily to be found on subsequent signs along the route signposted. These towns feature on the directional signage for information purposes only.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the guidelines for signposting feature a distinction between regular control cities (called hoofddoel) and network cities (called netwerkdoel). The class, a group of ten cities in each part of the country where major roads intersect, is being signposted in addition to regular control cities. The references to network control cities serve to guide long-distance traffic through the country, unlike the reference to the first regular control city which is seldom more than away. Network control cities can also be towns on an intersecting road. Since 2010, efforts are being made to create even more prominent references to the towns of Amsterdam and Rotterdam; the former drawing many tourists and the latter drawing many professional drivers to its port. On roads not leading to a network control city, the route's terminus is often signposted in addition to the control city.
Scandinavia
Each of the Scandinavian countries has its own style of signposting, but their styles reveal similarities. Signs on roads in the countries typically feature one town that takes the role of the control city of that particular road. As distances in Scandinavia are longer and the area is sparsely populated, this can be a town that is several hundred kilometers away. Other than local destinations, signs in Scandinavia do not commonly feature other cities in addition to this major town. On less important roads, the town featuring as control city is often the route's terminus. On the main axes of Scandinavia, notably the main North-South routes E4 and E6, larger towns along the routes have been chosen to also appear as control city.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the term control city is not commonly used. Rather, motorists are referred to a primary destination. Primary destinations are typically towns located close to strategic intersections. In London and other large cities, boroughs and major intersections are also in use as primary destinations, with the financial centre itself being signposted as The City. One particular intersection outside London that made it to primary destination is Scotch Corner, the split between two routes from the South into Scotland.
On signs in the United Kingdom, cardinal directions are not used, but one specific aspect of UK signage is the use of regions as a focal point along roads. These regions, which may appear a cardinal direction (e.g. the North, as appears on the A1), serve to direct long-distance traffic. Primary destinations, on the other hand, are typically relatively nearby. As directional signs typically only contain the first one or two primary destinations, traffic needs to rely on the regional focal points to see the general bearing of the route.
Primary destinations that are not on the designated road are shown in brackets as in the image below:
North America
Canada
Canada lacks a coherently signed national highway system—even for the Trans-Canada Highway routes—and there is no mutual agreement for designating control cities across provincial boundaries.
Control cities are particularly necessary for highways that do not follow strict linear directions. Ontario's Queen Elizabeth Way, for example, wraps around the western end of Lake Ontario, with segments proceeding both east and west at different points. Compass directions are not used and the control cities of Toronto and (for the opposite direction) Hamilton/Niagara/Fort Erie are the only bearings provided.
Each of the 400-series highways uses control cities, but the common Ontario practice is to use smaller, closer urban centres as alternatives to out-of-province cities. For example, on Highway 401, Cornwall displaces Montreal as eastbound control city for most of the St. Lawrence valley. Windsor, London, Toronto, Kingston, Cornwall, and (briefly) Montreal are control cities while larger cities such as Oshawa and Mississauga are omitted due to their proximity to Toronto.
The pattern of control city signage is sometimes inconsistent in Ontario. For example; while Barrie and Newmarket are signed as control cities for Highways 400 and 404 respectively, on exit signage along Highway 401, London and Kingston are not shown as control cities on signage along these highways as they approach Highway 401. Along Highway 400, the control cities of Toronto, Barrie, Parry Sound, and Sudbury are consistently signed along its southern section, but Barrie and Parry Sound are omitted in its northern section: eg; northbound, the control city changes to Sudbury even before the highway reaches Parry Sound, while Toronto is signed in two different sections southbound.
The Ministère des Transports du Québec typically uses large urban centres as control cities, even if they are far away and/or outside the province. For example, signs in Montreal, Quebec, indicate control cities as far as Toronto and Ottawa on major Autoroutes 20 and 40 respectively. New York City and Vermont are used as control cities for Autoroutes 15 and 35 respectively. This may cause confusion to motorists unfamiliar with this convention, as the control cities change at the continuations of these autoroutes into the adjoining jurisdictions.
The New Brunswick Department of Transportation tends to use cities within the province as control cities. The Trans-Canada Highway uses Edmundston, Fredericton, Moncton, and Sackville as control cities from north to south. Bordering provinces are used sparingly, and only after they are the only remaining destination on the highway. Route 95, the link between the Trans-Canada Highway and Interstate 95, uses only Houlton, Maine as a control city to the west.
United States
The control cities on the Interstate Highway network are selected by the states and contained in the "List of Control Cities for Use in Guide Signs on Interstate Highways," which is published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials as Part III of the AASHTO Guidelines for Supplemental Guide Signing. Control cities on other U.S. roads are often selected on the basis of general principles, as opposed to specific lists of towns.
U.S. federal lists are in practice not always followed. This may be the result of towns having gained importance since the list was last updated or in order to have local (intrastate) interests prevail over towns elsewhere. On the other hand, there are also instances where intrastate control cities have been left out so that long-distance focal points could be added. There are also instances where the name of another state has prevailed over the official control city, e.g. the signs in Boston heading to the state of Maine ("All Maine Points" appears twice on northbound I-95 just south of Portsmouth, NH.).
On the U.S. federal list, control cities have often been selected by virtue of being located close to an intersection of two US-interstates. This has resulted in a number of very minor localities having control city status. Some examples:
Interstate 8 heading eastbound in California from its starting point in San Diego signs El Centro and Yuma as control cities until the Arizona state line. This may be due to the fact that there are no cities in California or Arizona with a population of more than 200,000 that are along the freeway besides the aforementioned San Diego. Conversely, however, its Arizona route only signs Phoenix and Tucson heading east, while San Diego is the only control city signed heading west. Phoenix lies significantly north of Interstate 8, but may be signed to aid travelers from San Diego to Arizona’s capital and largest city. It is omitted after Exit 115 heading eastbound, from where only Tucson is signed until the freeway defaults onto eastbound Interstate 10 (which eventually reaches that city).
Interstate 10 heading eastbound from its starting point to the California–Arizona state line uses the following towns as control cities: San Bernardino, Indio, and Blythe. Besides Exit 145 in Indio, there is no mention of Phoenix as a control city during this stretch of freeway despite it being the next city after San Bernardino with a population over 200,000. Conversely, Los Angeles is used as the westbound lanes’ control city as far as the eastern city limits of Phoenix until the state line.
Interstate 10 heading eastbound in El Paso uses Van Horn, Texas, a small city west of the western terminus of I-20; the junction of I-10 and US 90 is also near Van Horn. Both Van Horn and San Antonio are used, due to the latter being the next major city along the route.
Interstate 10 in Louisiana uses Lake Charles and Lafayette as control cities in both directions. In Texas, Baton Rouge was previously listed as the eastbound control city beginning in Beaumont to the Texas-Louisiana state line. Recently updated signs now list Lake Charles as the eastbound control city starting in Beaumont at the request of the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development.
From New Orleans to the Louisiana-Mississippi state line, I-10 eastbound signs list the smaller communities of Slidell, Louisiana and Bay St. Louis, Mississippi as control cities, rather than Gulfport, one of the two largest cities (with Biloxi) along the Mississippi Gulf Coast.
Interstate 49 in Louisiana uses Opelousas, a small city, as a control city northbound from Interstate 10 in Lafayette to the junction of I-49 and US 190, and southbound from Louisiana Highway 1 in Alexandria to US 190. US 190 is heavily traveled between Opelousas and Baton Rouge, even with the presence of I-10, probably the reason why Opelousas is listed as a control city.
Interstate 55 heading northbound out of LaPlace, Louisiana uses Hammond, where it crosses Interstate 12. I-12 east from its origin in Baton Rouge to I-55 uses Hammond as the control city, as does I-12 west from its ending at the I-10/Interstate 59 junction in Slidell to I-55. Hammond's use is likely due to its location of Southeastern Louisiana University, the state's third largest public university.
On Interstate 55 south in Mississippi, all signs south of Jackson list New Orleans as the control city.
Interstate 40 in Arizona uses Flagstaff eastbound from the California state line to the junction of I-40 and Interstate 17, and westbound from the New Mexico state line to I-17. This is because Flagstaff is I-17's northern terminus; I-17 north from Phoenix uses Flagstaff for the same reason as well. Flagstaff is also the gateway to the Grand Canyon National Park.
As Interstate 69 is not complete to Indianapolis as of 2019, the northbound approaches south of Bloomington do not have any control city. Instead they simply read "I-69 North". North of Bloomington, however, Indianapolis is used as a control city. This is due to this section of interstate running concurrent with State Road 37, which does currently connect to Indianapolis, and has it as a northbound control city. The entire interstate does currently use Evansville as the control city on the southbound approaches.
Likewise in Kentucky, I-69 uses Henderson as a control city due to the fact of the highway currently dead-ending there.
Interstate 70 in Missouri often uses several intermediate towns between the large cities at opposite ends of the state along the highway, Kansas City and St. Louis. Columbia is most commonly listed due to its central location within the state and the presence of the state's flagship university, the University of Missouri.
In the St. Louis area, Indianapolis is not listed as a control city on eastbound I-70 until the highway crosses into Illinois. Also, Louisville is not listed as a control city on Interstate 64 eastbound until entering Illinois. St. Louis is the control city on I-64 westbound beginning in Louisville, and I-70 westbound beginning in Indianapolis.
In the Kansas City area, Topeka is not listed as a control city on westbound I-70 in Kansas City, Missouri until the highway enters the Downtown Loop. Conversely, St. Louis is listed as the control city on eastbound I-70 beginning with the junction at Interstate 435 in Kansas City, Kansas.
I-55 in Missouri also uses intermediate cities as control cities, notably Cape Girardeau, the largest city along the route between St. Louis and Memphis. Most I-55 northbound signs in Tennessee and Arkansas list St. Louis as the control city.
Limon, Colorado, (estimated population 1,930 in 2017) is listed as a control city along Interstate 70 in Colorado eastbound starting in Denver, and westbound starting at the Colorado-Kansas state line. For a brief time, Limon was also used as a control city for 253 miles of Interstate 70 in Kansas westbound from Salina to the state line. The control cities are now Hays from mile markers 253 to 161, and Denver from mile marker 161 to the state line.
Interstate 75 in Michigan uses the Mackinac Bridge as a control point between Sault Ste. Marie and Saginaw.
Interstate 76, Interstate 70, and PA Route 66 all use New Stanton, Pennsylvania as a control city, due to the fact that it is at PA 66's terminus as well as the beginning of the I-70/76 Concurrency. Additionally, Breezewood is used as a control city between the Interstate 76 and Interstate 70 heading to Washington, DC. However, I-70 contains a freeway gap in downtown Breezewood.
Interstate 84 in Oregon heading eastbound from Portland uses The Dalles, Pendleton, LaGrande, Baker City, and Ontario as control cities. Boise, Idaho isn't signed until the freeway reaches Ontario.
Going westbound from Pendleton, Portland becomes the control city on I-84, skipping over The Dalles.
Interstate 94 in Michigan uses Marshall, Michigan as a control city between Battle Creek and Jackson.
However, in many other instances, the next major city near or along the route is used as a control city, often skipping over minor localities where two US-interstates meet. For instance:
Interstate 10 in Arizona heading eastbound from Tucson to the New Mexico state line uses El Paso, Texas as a control city and skips over Las Cruces, New Mexico, a smaller city (compared to El Paso) where the southern terminus of Interstate 25 is located.
Interstate 40 in Arizona heading westbound from Flagstaff uses Los Angeles as a control city instead of Barstow, California (the western terminus of I-40 at Interstate 15) or Kingman. Interstate 15 uses Los Angeles as a control city south of Las Vegas as well. I-40 and I-15 do not go anywhere near Los Angeles, but the use of it as a control city on I-40 is probably a holdover from the days when the route was US 66 (the western terminus was in Santa Monica), and US 91 (which ended in Long Beach) for I-15, as well as the fact that most of the California bound traffic on I-40 and I-15 are headed to the Los Angeles area.
Interstate 20 in Texas heading westbound from Midland–Odessa to its western terminus at Interstate 10 uses El Paso as a control city, as does I-10 west from San Antonio. I-20 doesn't travel all the way to El Paso but merges into I-10.
Interstate 8 in Arizona uses Tucson as a control city eastbound from Yuma to Casa Grande, where it defaults onto Interstate 10. Phoenix is also used but between Yuma and Gila Bend; this is because travelers headed to Phoenix take AZ 85 from Gila Bend to I-10.
Interstate 84 east from Hartford to its terminus at Interstate 90 near Sturbridge, Massachusetts uses Boston.
Interstate 90 in Washington does not use Ellensburg, Washington as a control city between Spokane and Seattle.
Interstate 5 in Washington uses Portland, Oregon as the southbound control city from Seattle to the Oregon state line (skipping over Tacoma and Olympia).
Interstate 80 in Ohio heading eastbound from Cleveland uses New York City as a control city instead of the 10 listed municipalities in Pennsylvania and the Delaware Water Gap.
Some beltways or spurs which run through multiple states have different rules on control cities in each state. One instance is Interstate 435, the beltway in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. Signs for I-435 in Kansas do not have control cities listed, while in Missouri, one of five control cities is listed, depending upon direction and location: Des Moines, St. Joseph, St. Louis, Topeka and Wichita.
According to Section 2E.13 of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, control cities must appear on guide signs:
At interchanges between freeways (example US-1 in gallery)
At separation points of overlapping freeway routes (example US-2 in gallery)
On directional signs on intersecting routes, to guide traffic entering the freeway (example US-3 in gallery)
On pull-through signs (example US-4 in gallery)
On the bottom line of post-interchange distance signs (example US-5 in gallery)
Since the cities on post-interchange distance signs are listed in ascending order of distance, the control city of routes in the United States is typically the most distant locality on the signs of a particular road.
Oceania
Australia
Freeways in Australia, while not using the term 'Control City', operate on much the same system as in the United States and Europe. Directional markers are not used, instead the next large towns or cities which are likely to be the destination, or known waypoints for motorists, are used.
Within cities major suburbs will usually be used - In the eastern suburbs of Melbourne Chadstone & Dandenong, which are connecting hubs with the national route 1, Princes Highway, are used as route markers. Traveling inbound, depending upon the driver's location in Melbourne's east one of these markers will generally be used along with a marker 'City' referring to the Central Business District. The marker 'City' is only used when within the metropolitan area of a city, outside of the metropolitan area routes traveling towards that city will use the city's full name.
Outside of cities, major regional centers or capital cities will generally be used as markers.
The same principle applies to major and secondary surface roads in Australia, with the most major suburb or town, or the road's terminus in either direction being used as the 'control city'. On the main routes connecting Australia's major cities, the next interstate capital is often used signposted in addition to the next regional centre. The Northern Queensland town of Cairns has a similar status.
In some circumstances a major infrastructure location, most often Airports, will be used as a 'Control' City. In the case of surface roads if they connect to a freeway, motorway or tollway sometimes this connection will be used as a signing point.
Guidelines to control city selection
There is no absolute threshold of community size or distance away, or absolute necessity that it has to be a city per se in order to be selected. Even some highways will terminate several miles before the so-called "control city" and "borrow" another route to continue toward there, even if a north–south highway has to externalize its control city to an east–west highway.
For instance, Interstate 75 in Michigan uses the Mackinac Bridge as a "control city", and even U.S. Route 127 in Michigan does it as far south as Mt. Pleasant. Another idiosyncrasy with control cities is there is no absolute rule that the city has to be reached before the control city changes, for instance Interstate 94 in Michigan uses Chicago as a control city as far as the Metro Detroit area, whereas some in-between cities such as Jackson are used within of there. Other control cities are used where a city can be several miles east of a north-south route, such as U.S. Route 35 using Charleston, West Virginia, as a control city even though the southern junction is at Scott Depot, West Virginia, in which Interstate 64 goes east toward Charleston. Another example is Interstate 65, as Chicago, Illinois is used as a control city north of Indianapolis, Indiana, but I-65 terminates at Interstate 90 and the Indiana Toll Road in Gary, Indiana, 26 miles southeast of Downtown Chicago, and I-90 goes northwest into Chicago via the Toll Road, Chicago Skyway Bridge and Dan Ryan Expressway. In the case of concurrencies, another control city from the overlapping highway can take over, and sometimes two locations are used together.
Other idiosyncrasies involve forcing a control city to be within the state or province. For instance Ontario highway 401 uses Kingston, Ontario as a control city, even though Montreal in the neighboring province is bigger, though it is not too far from Kingston either. This tactic, however, forces cities within the province to represent the majority of the length so as to not have much distance of remainder to the control city in the neighboring province.
Gallery
Notes
External links
Interstate Control Cities, AASHTO
List of Control Cities for Use in Guide Signs on Interstate Highways (includes control cities signposted despite being omitted from the AASHTO list)
Transport in Canada
Transportation in the United States
Interstate Highway System | wiki |
The Battle of Clark's House was a Western Virginia military operation in Mercer County on May 1 that was a part of Jackson's 1862 Campaign that was outside of the Shenandoah Valley.
References
Clark's House
Mercer County, West Virginia
Clark's House
May 1862 events | wiki |
The Seleucid king Seleucus V Philometor (Greek: Σέλευκος Ε΄ ὁ Φιλομήτωρ; 126/125 BC), ruler of the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom, was the eldest son of Demetrius II Nicator and Cleopatra Thea. The epithet Philometor means "mother-loving" and in the Hellenistic world usually indicated that the mother acted as co-regent for the prince.
Biography
Just before Antiochus VII Sidetes died fighting the Parthians in late 129, the Parthian king Phraates II had released Demetrius II, who entered Syria in ca. September 129. This forced Seleucus V's half-brother Antiochus IX to flee to Cyzicus. Cleopatra Thea remarried Demetrius and reunited him with his two sons, Seleucus V and Antiochus VIII.
Antiochus VII had taken a son, also named Seleucus, and Seleucus V's sister, Laodice, on his campaign against Parthia, and when Antiochus was killed, this Seleucus and Laodice were captured. Phraates married Laodice and showed this Seleucus (not to be confused with Seleucus V) great favor. As Demetrius II fought a civil war against the usurper, Alexander II Zabinas, Phraates sent this Seleucus back to Syria with the body of his father, Antiochus VII, to claim the Seleucid throne as puppet king of the Parthians. Yet this Seleucus failed and returned to Parthia, where he later died.
Instead, after his father was murdered outside of Tyre in 125, Seleucus V claimed the throne as the eldest son of Demetrius II; however, he was soon killed by his own mother. According to Appian, Cleopatra Thea had aided in the death of Demetrius, and therefore, she was afraid that Seleucus V might avenge the assassination of his father. This encouraged Cleopatra Thea to remove Seleucus in favor of his younger brother, Antiochus VIII.
See also
List of Syrian monarchs
Timeline of Syrian history
References
2nd-century BC Seleucid rulers
Seleucid rulers
125 BC deaths
2nd-century BC rulers in Asia
Year of birth unknown
Seleucus 05 | wiki |
Ron McGovney (født 2. november 1962 i Los Angeles, Californien) var den første bassist i heavy metal-bandet Metallica.
Metallica
Bassister fra USA
Personer fra Los Angeles | wiki |
Blood, Sweat & Heels is an American reality television series that premiered on January 5, 2014, on Bravo. It depicts the personal, professional, and social circle of several women who all reside in New York City.
The premiere episode of Blood, Sweat and Heels ranked as a network best for a series premiere on Bravo at that time, averaging 2.5 million viewers and 1.4 million in the adults 18-49 viewership demo. The cast of the first season included Melyssa Ford, Demetria Lucas, Brie Bythewood, Mica Hughes, Daisy Lewellyn, and Geneva S. Thomas. The season concluded on March 23, 2014, with a 90-minute reunion show. Brie Bythewood was dismissed from the series after the first season, and was replaced by two newcomers, Chantelle Fraser and Arzo Anwar.
In April 2014, Bravo renewed Blood, Sweat and Heels for a second season, which premiered on March 29, 2015.
On April 8, 2016, series star Daisy Lewellyn died after battling bile duct cancer. She was 36. She learned of the disease in 2015, after makeup artists noticed an unusual coloring in her eye. In the season two finale, she celebrated completing her radiation treatments.
Cast
Melyssa Ford
Demetria Lucas D'Oyley
Mica Hughes
Geneva S. Thomas
Daisy Lewellyn
Brie Bythewood (season 1)
Chantelle Fraser (season 2)
Arzo Anwar (season 2)
Episodes
Season 1 (2014)
Season 2 (2015)
References
External links
2010s American reality television series
2014 American television series debuts
2015 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Bravo (American TV network) original programming
Television shows set in New York (state)
Women in New York City | wiki |
Tim Foley may refer to:
Tim Foley (defensive back) (born 1948), American football player for the Miami Dolphins
Tim Foley (offensive tackle) (born 1958), American footballplayer for the Baltimore Colts | wiki |
In photography, the sunny 16 rule (also known as the sunny rule) is a method of estimating correct daylight exposures without a light meter. Apart from the advantage of independence from a light meter, the sunny 16 rule can also aid in achieving correct exposure of difficult subjects. As the rule is based on incident light, rather than reflected light as with most camera light meters, very bright or very dark subjects are compensated for. The rule serves as a mnemonic for the camera settings obtained on a sunny day using the exposure value (EV) system.
The basic rule is, "On a sunny day set aperture to and shutter speed to the [reciprocal of the] ISO film speed [or ISO setting] for a subject in direct sunlight."
Using the rule
The basic rule is, "On a sunny day set aperture to and shutter speed to the [reciprocal of the] ISO film speed [or ISO setting] for a subject in direct sunlight."
For example:
On a sunny day and with ISO 100 film / setting in the camera, one sets the aperture to and the shutter speed (i.e. exposure time) to or seconds (on some cameras second is the available setting nearest to second).
On a sunny day with ISO 200 film / setting and aperture at , set shutter speed to or .
On a sunny day with ISO 400 film / setting and aperture at , set shutter speed to or .
As with other light readings, shutter speed can be changed as long as the f-number is altered to compensate, e.g. second at gives equivalent exposure to second at . More in general, the adjustment is done such that for each stop in aperture increase (i.e., decreasing the f-number), the exposure time has to be halved, and vice versa. This follows the more general rule derived from the mathematical relationship between aperture and exposure time—within reasonable ranges, exposure is inversely proportional to the square of the aperture ratio and proportional to exposure time; thus, to maintain a constant level of exposure, a change in aperture by a factor c requires a change in exposure time by a factor and vice versa. A change in the aperture of 1 stop always corresponds to a factor close to the square root of 2, thus the above rule.
Alternative rule
An elaborated form of the sunny 16 rule is to set shutter speed nearest to the reciprocal of the ISO film speed / setting and f-number according to this table:
{| class="wikitable"
! Aperture
! Lighting conditions
! Shadow detail
|-
| 22
| Snow/sand
| Dark with sharp edges
|-
| 16
| Sunny
| Distinct
|-
| 11
| Slight overcast
| Soft around edges
|-
| 8
| Overcast
| Barely visible
|-
| 5.6
| Heavy overcast
| No shadows
|-
| 4
| Open shade/sunset
| No shadows
|-
| Add one stop
| Backlighting
| n/a
|}
See also
Looney 11 rule
References
External links
Guide to Photography Sunny 16 and film exposure guide.
Photographic techniques
Rules of thumb | wiki |
Ehle – fiume tedesco
Jennifer Ehle – attrice statunitense | wiki |
The Kingdom of Ireland (; , ) was a monarchy on the island of Ireland that was a client state of England and then of Great Britain. It existed from 1542 until 1801. It was ruled by the monarchs of England and then of Great Britain, and administered from Dublin Castle by a viceroy appointed by the English king: the Lord Deputy of Ireland. It had a parliament, composed of Anglo-Irish and native nobles. From 1661 until 1801, the administration controlled an army. A Protestant state church, the Church of Ireland, was established. Although styled a kingdom, for most of its history it was, de facto, an English dependency. This status was enshrined in Poynings' Law and in the Declaratory Act of 1719.
The territory of the kingdom comprised that of the former Lordship of Ireland which was founded in 1177 by King Henry II of England as part of the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. By the 16th century, the effective area of English rule had shrunk greatly; most of Ireland was held by Gaelic nobles as principalities and chiefdoms. By the terms of the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the Parliament of Ireland created Henry VIII of England as "King of Ireland". There followed an expansion of English control during the Tudor conquest. This in turn sparked the Desmond Rebellions and the Nine Years' War. The conquest of the island was completed early in the 17th century. The conquest involved the confiscation of land from the native Irish and the colonisation of the land with Protestant settlers from Great Britain.
In its early years, the kingdom had limited recognition; no Catholic country in Europe recognised Henry VIII or his successor, Edward VI, as kings of Ireland. The succeeding monarchs of the kingdom, Mary I and Philip II, were devout Catholics and so gained recognition from Pope Paul IV as co-monarchs of Ireland (1554–58). With the exception of James II of England, for the remainder of its existence, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by Protestant monarchs. Their Catholic subjects, who made up most of the population, suffered officially sanctioned discrimination. Ireland suffered particularly harsh conditions during the years of The Protectorate, a period of military dictatorship in the British Isles under the control of Oliver Cromwell. This discrimination was one of the main drivers behind several conflicts which broke out: the Irish Confederate Wars (1641–1653), the Williamite War in Ireland (1689–1691), the Armagh disturbances (1780s–1790s), and the republican Irish Rebellion of 1798.
The Protestant Ascendancy, meeting in their Parliament of Ireland, passed the Acts of Union 1800 which abolished both the parliament itself and the kingdom. The act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. On the first day of 1801, a new state — the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland — was established which united the parliaments of Ireland and of Great Britain into a single legislature — the Parliament of the United Kingdom — which still convenes today at the Palace of Westminster.
History
Background
The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155. It granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae (Latin for "Lord of Ireland"). Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere. In return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrian's successor Pope Alexander III in 1172.
When Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England. He had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Clement VII refused Henry's request and Henry subsequently refused to recognise the Roman Catholic Church's vestigial sovereignty over Ireland, and was excommunicated again in late 1538 by Pope Paul III. The Treason Act (Ireland) 1537 was passed to counteract this.
Tudor Ireland
Following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the king's Dublin administration; a situation that was not to last for long.
Henry VIII was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe. After the death of Edward VI, Henry's son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of "personal union" of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law. In this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning monarch of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England.
In line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the King's Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592.
In 1593 war broke out, as Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, led a confederation of Irish lords and Spain against the crown, in what later became known as the Nine Years' War. A series of stunning Irish victories brought English power in Ireland to the point of collapse by the beginning of 1600, but a renewed campaign under Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy forced Tyrone to submit in 1603, completing the Tudor conquest of Ireland.
Stuart Ireland
In 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England and Ireland, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. James established the Plantation of Ulster in 1606, the largest of all English and Scottish plantations in Ireland. Its legacy can be seen today, as most of Ulster remains a part of the United Kingdom, and retains a Protestant and Pro-Union majority in its population.
The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639. During the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the creation of the republican Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. The kingdom's order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charles's reign was backdated to his father's execution in 1649.
Grattan's Patriots
Poynings' Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence. Parliament in this period came to be known as Grattan's Parliament, after the principal Irish leader of the period, Henry Grattan. Although Ireland had legislative independence, executive administration remained under the control of the executive of the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1788–1789 a Regency crisis arose when King George III became ill. Grattan wanted to appoint the Prince of Wales, later George IV, as Regent of Ireland. The king recovered before this could be enacted.
United Irishmen
The Irish Rebellion of 1798, and the rebels' alliance with Great Britain's longtime enemy the French, led to a push to bring Ireland formally into the British Union. By the Acts of Union 1800, voted for by both Irish and British Parliaments, the Kingdom of Ireland merged on 1 January 1801 with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Parliament ceased to exist, though the executive, presided over by the Lord Lieutenant, remained in place until 1922.
Viceroy
The Kingdom of Ireland was governed by a Lord Deputy or viceroy. The post was held by senior nobles such as Thomas Radcliffe. From 1688 the title was usually Lord Lieutenant.
In the absence of a Lord Deputy, lords justices ruled.
While some Irishmen held the post, most of the lords deputy were English noblemen. While the viceroy controlled the Irish administration as the monarch's representative, in the eighteenth century the political post of Chief Secretary for Ireland became increasingly powerful.
Parliament
The kingdom's legislature was bicameral with a House of Lords and a House of Commons. By the terms of Poynings' Law (1494) and other acts, the parliament's powers were greatly circumscribed. The legislature was content to "rubber stamp" acts or "suggestions" from the English parliament.
Roman Catholics and dissenters, mostly Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists, were excluded from membership of the Irish parliament from 1693. Furthermore, their rights were restricted by a series of laws called the Penal Laws. They were denied voting rights from 1728 until 1793. The Grattan Parliament succeeded in achieving the repeal of Poynings' Law in 1782. This allowed progressive legislation and gradual liberalisation was effected. Catholics and Dissenters were given the right to vote in 1793, but Catholics were still excluded from the Irish Parliament and senior public offices in the kingdom. As in Great Britain and the rest of Europe, voting and membership of parliament was restricted to property owners. In the 1720s, the parliament was housed in a new building at College Green, Dublin.
Church of Ireland
When Henry VIII was excommunicated by the Catholic Church in 1538, all but two of the bishops in the island of Ireland followed the doctrine of the Church of England, although almost no clergy or laity did so. Having paid their Annates to the Papacy, the bishops had no reason to step down, and in the 1530s nobody knew how long the reformation would last. Unlike Henry VIII, this hierarchy was not excommunicated by the Papacy. They retained control of what became the State Church of the new Kingdom in 1542. As the established church, it retained possession of most Church property (including a great repository of religious architecture and other items, though some were later destroyed). In 1553, Irish Catholics were heartened by the coronation of Queen Mary I. In 1555, she persuaded the Pope to recognise the Kingdom in the papal bull "Ilius".
In 1558, a Protestant — Elizabeth I — ascended the throne. With the exception of James II of England, all the following monarchs adhered to Anglicanism. Contrary to the official plan, the substantial majority of the population remained strongly Roman Catholic, despite the political and economic advantages of membership of the state church. Despite its numerical minority, however, the Church of Ireland remained the official state church until it was disestablished on 1 January 1871 by the Liberal government under William Ewart Gladstone.
Ethnic conflict
The legacy of the Kingdom of Ireland remains a bone of contention in Irish-British relations to this day because of the constant ethnic conflict between the native Irish inhabitants and primarily the new Anglo-Irish settlers across the island. Their background espoused English culture (law, language, dress, religion, economic relations and definitions of land ownership) in Ireland as it later did across much of what was to become the British Empire. However Gaelic culture and Irish language, was maintained to a significant extent by the majority of the original native population. Sometimes this was presented as "barbaric", "savage" which later was perceived by the native population as a mark of undesirability in respect of maintaining and learning the language. While the Lordship of Ireland had existed since the 12th century and nominally owed allegiance to the English monarchy, many kingdoms of Gaelic Ireland continued to exist; this came to an end with the Kingdom of Ireland, where the whole island was brought under the centralised control of an Anglo-centric system based in Dublin. This phase of Irish history marked the beginning of an officially organised policy of settler colonialism, orchestrated from London and the incorporation of Ireland into the British Empire (indeed Ireland is sometimes called "England's first colony"). The theme is prominently addressed in Irish postcolonial literature.
The religion of the native majority and its clergy — the Catholic Church — was actively persecuted by the state. A set of Penal Laws favoured those who adhered to the established church - the Church of Ireland. They oppressed those native Irish who refused to abjure their religion. A similar experience happened to English, Scottish and Welsh Catholics during the same period. There is some perception that during Tudor times, elements within the government at times engaged in and advanced a genocidal policy against the Irish Gaels, while during the Plantations of Ireland (particularly successful in Ulster) the local population were displaced in a project of ethnic cleansing where regions of Ireland became de-Gaelicised. This in turn led to bloody retaliations, which drag on to modern times. Some of the native inhabitants, including their leadership, were permitted to flee into exile from the country following ending up on the losing side in conflicts (i.e. the Flight of the Earls and the Flight of the Wild Geese) or in the case of the Cromwellian regime were forced into indentured servitude (although the same happened to English persons involved in the Cromwellian regime) in the Caribbean, following mass land confiscation for the benefit of New English settlers.
On the other hand, the fact that the kingdom had been a unitary state gave Irish nationalists in 1912–22 a reason to expect that in the process of increasing self-government the island of Ireland would be treated as a single political unit.
Coat of arms
The arms of the Kingdom of Ireland were blazoned: Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent. These earliest arms of Ireland are described in an entry that reads: Le Roi d'Irlande, D'azur à la harpe d'or, in a 13th-century French roll of arms, the Armorial Wijnbergen, also known as the Wijnbergen Roll, said to be preserved in The Hague, in the Netherlands but currently untraced; a copy is held in the Royal Library in Brussels (Collection Goethals, ms. 2569). This may have been an aspirational depiction for a putative High-King, for it was not related to the Lordship of Ireland at that time by the English king, who only assumed the title "King of Ireland" later in the reign of Henry VIII
A crown was not part of the arms but use of a crowned harp was apparently common as a badge or as a device. A crowned harp also appeared as a crest although the delineated crest was: a wreath Or and Azure, a tower (sometime triple-towered) Or, from the port, a hart springing Argent.
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Keating, Geoffrey : The History of Ireland, from the Earliest Period to the English Invasion (Foras Feasa Ar Éirinn) Translated by John O'Mahony 1866 Full text at Internet Archive
Pawlisch, Hans S., : Sir John Davies and the Conquest of Ireland: A Study in Legal Imperialism :Cambridge University Press, 2002 :
External links
The English in Ireland and the Practice of Massacre by John Minahane
1542 establishments in Ireland
1800 disestablishments in Ireland
Former countries in Europe
Former kingdoms in Ireland
History of the United Kingdom by country
Island countries
Monarchy in Ireland
States and territories disestablished in 1800
States and territories established in 1542
Ireland | wiki |
The Unforgiven er en single fra heavy metalbandet Metallica. Sangen kommer fra deres album Metallica også kaldet The Black Album.
Se også
The Black Album
The Unforgiven II
Metallica-sange | wiki |
The women's marathon T54 was a marathon event in athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing, for wheelchair athletes. It was the only marathon event held for women (whereas there were four marathons held for men, in various categories). Wheelchair athletes with a disability level more severe than T54 (i.e., T53) were permitted to compete in the T54 marathon. Ten athletes, from seven countries, took part; defending champion Kazu Hatanaka of Japan was not among them.
The result was extremely close. Edith Hunkeler of Switzerland won the gold medal, setting a new Paralympic record in 1:39:59, just one second ahead of the United States' Amanda McGrory, and two seconds ahead of compatriot Sandra Graf. The top eight athletes finished within a minute of one another, and the top five within five seconds.
Results
See also
Marathon at the Paralympics
References
New York Times article, with a picture of Edith Hunkeler crossing the finish line
Women's marathon T54
Summer Paralympics
Marathons at the Paralympics
2008 Summer Paralympics
Summer Paralympics marathon T54 | wiki |
The Office of Strategy, Policy, and Plans is part of the United States Department of Homeland Security. It was created by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017, replacing the former Office of Policy, and creating a new Senate-confirmed Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Strategy, Policy, and Plans position.
Chad Wolf was confirmed by the Senate as the first Under Secretary on November 13, 2019. The current Under Secretary is Robert P. Silvers, who was confirmed by the US Senate on August 5, 2021 and sworn in on August 10th.
List of Under Secretaries
James D. Nealon (acting), July 10, 2017 – February 8, 2018
Chad Wolf (acting), February 8, 2018 - November 13, 2019
Chad Wolf November 13, 2019 – January 20, 2021
Kelli Ann Burriesci (acting), January 20, 2021 – August 10, 2021
Robert P. Silvers August 10, 2021 – present
References
External links
United States Department of Homeland Security agencies | wiki |
The Crawford Texas Peace House is an anti-war activist organization located in Crawford, Texas near the home of President George W. Bush. It gained international attention in August 2005 during the protest of Cindy Sheehan, who is listed as serving on the board of directors.
In March 2007, it came to light that the Crawford Peace House had lost its corporate charter due to the required paperwork not being submitted to the state since May 2006. In addition, former Peace House member Sara Oliver claims that several hundreds of thousands of dollars in donations are unaccounted for. Oliver now holds the right to use the group's name, and is demanding an investigation. The name was then changed to the Crawford Texas Peace House.
Peace House co-founder John Wolf states that $285,000 was raised in 2005, and was spent legitimately.
References
External links
Crawford Peace House official site
Video
Interview with Crawford Peace House co-founder and spokesperson Hadi Jawad, from 19 August 2005 Democracy Now program
Anti–Iraq War groups
Corporate scandals
Organizations based in Texas
2003 establishments in Texas
Organizations established in 2003 | wiki |
The Law of the Four Just Men is a 1921 thriller novel by the British writer Edgar Wallace. It was the fourth in a series of stories featuring The Four Just Men, a group of vigilante crime fighters.
References
Bibliography
Victor E. Neuburg. The Batsford Companion to Popular Literature. Batsford Academic and Educational, 1982.
1921 British novels
Novels by Edgar Wallace
British thriller novels | wiki |
The Men's 100 metres B was a sprinting event in athletics at the 1976 Summer Paralympics in Toronto for blind athletes. (Visually impaired athletes may also have been permitted to take part; the specifics are unclear from the International Paralympic Committee's records.) It was the first time that sprinting events had taken place for athletes other than wheelchair athletes.
Thirty-one athletes from seventeen nations competed in the heats, and the top six advanced to the final. Two athletes ran under twelve seconds in the heats: Winford Haynes of the United States (11.6s) and Mats Lindblad of Sweden (11.8s). They were joined in the final by Norway's Terje Hansen (12.0s) and by three athletes who had run their heat in 12.1s. In the final, Haynes won gold in 11.4s, a tenth of a second ahead of Australian athletes Faulkner and Gianni, who finished almost simultaneously for silver and bronze. Hansen was fourth, while Lindblad withdrew before the final.
Results
Final
References
Men's 100 metres B | wiki |
Starman is a 1984 American science fiction romance drama film directed by John Carpenter that tells the story of a non-corporeal alien who has come to Earth and cloned a human body (portrayed by Jeff Bridges) in response to the invitation found on the gold phonograph record installed on the Voyager 2 space probe. The original screenplay was written by Bruce A. Evans and Raynold Gideon, with Dean Riesner making uncredited re-writes.
The film received positive reviews but faltered in its initial box office debut. Bridges was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role. It inspired the short-lived Starman television series in 1986.
Plot
The Voyager 2 space probe, launched in 1977, carries a gold phonographic disk with a message of peace, inviting alien civilizations to visit Earth. The probe is intercepted by an alien planet, which then sends a small scout vessel to establish first contact with Earth. Instead of greeting the alien craft, the U.S. government shoots it down. Crashing in Chequamegon Bay, Wisconsin, the lone alien occupant, looking like a floating ball of glowing energy, finds the home of recently widowed Jenny Hayden. The alien uses a lock of hair from her deceased husband, Scott, to clone a body for himself as Jenny watches in terror. The alien "Starman" has seven small silver spheres with him which provide energy to perform miraculous feats. He uses the first to send a message to his people stating that Earth is hostile and his spacecraft has been destroyed. He arranges to rendezvous with them in three days' time. He then uses the second sphere to create a holographic map of the United States, coercing Jenny into taking him to the rendezvous in Arizona.
Initially hostile to and frightened of him, Jenny attempts to escape. Having a very basic understanding of the English language from the Voyager 2 disk, the Starman learns to communicate with Jenny and assures her that he means no harm. He explains that if he does not reach the rendezvous point, Arizona's Barringer Crater, in three days, he will die. Sympathetic but still wary, Jenny teaches him how to drive a car and use credit cards, so he can continue the journey alone. When he resurrects a dead deer, she is deeply moved and decides to stay with him. The authorities pursue the pair across the country. A police officer shoots and critically wounds Jenny. To escape, the Starman crashes their car into a gas tanker and uses another sphere to protect them from the explosion. They take refuge in a mobile home that is being towed. He uses another silver sphere to heal Jenny. After being assured that Jenny will recover, he proceeds to hitchhike toward Arizona without her, but Jenny manages to catch up to him while he and his driver are stopped at a roadblock. Reunited, they hitchhike together, resuming their journey towards the crater.
Later, while stowing away on a railroad boxcar, they have sex. The Starman tells Jenny, "I gave you a baby tonight." Jenny explains that she is infertile and cannot have children, but he assures her that she is pregnant. He explains that Scott is the posthumous father, as Starman used Scott's DNA to clone himself. As a child also of Starman, their son will possess all the Starman's knowledge and will grow up to be a teacher. Starman offers to stop the pregnancy if she wishes, but Jenny joyfully embraces him, accepting the gift. They accidentally travel too far on the train and arrive in Las Vegas. Jenny loses her wallet. The Starman uses one of their last quarters in a slot machine, which he manipulates to win the $500,000 jackpot. They buy a new car to complete their journey to Arizona.
National Security Agency director George Fox learns that the Starman's flight trajectory, prior to being shot down, was to the Barringer Crater and arranges to have the Army capture the Starman, dead or alive. SETI scientist Mark Shermin, another government official involved in the case, criticizes Fox's heavy-handed approach and reminds him that the Starman was invited to Earth. Appalled to learn that Fox is planning to vivisect the alien, Shermin then resolves to help the Starman escape rather than let Fox capture him.
Jenny and the slowly dying Starman reach the crater as Army helicopters pursue them. Just as they are surrounded, a large, spherical spaceship appears and descends into the crater. Light surrounds the couple and the Starman is fully healed immediately. As he prepares to leave, he tells Jenny he will never see her again. Jenny asks him to take her with him, but he says she would die on his world. He then gives her his last silver sphere, telling her that their son will know what to do with it. Jenny watches as the ship departs.
Cast
Production
Starman spent five years in development at Columbia. The original script by Bruce A. Evans and Raynold Gideon was purchased by the studio at the urging of executive producer Michael Douglas, shortly before it optioned Steven Spielberg's Night Skies. Screenwriter Dean Riesner came onto the project in late 1981 after director Mark Rydell left the project due to artistic differences with Douglas. Riesner worked on seven rewrites of Starman with six different directors, but did not receive screen credit because, according to him, "the Writers Guild, in their infinite wisdom, decided I didn't contribute 50 percent of the screenplay." Other uncredited writers who worked on the script were Edward Zwick and Diane Thomas. Columbia abandoned Night Skies, with a similar plot to Starman, on the grounds that it is a more Disney-like story aimed at children, whereas Starman was for a more mature audience. Night Skies was eventually retitled E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which became the highest-grossing film of its time, upon which Riesner commented, "Goes to show how wrong you can be in this business."
According to Riesner, producers at Columbia were concerned at the initial box office returns for E.T., because Starman (while Riesner was working its second rewrite) was too similar. Adrian Lyne had briefly worked on the project before departing to direct Flashdance for Paramount. He was replaced by John Badham, who then left to direct WarGames as soon as he saw E.T., and concurred that the two projects were too similar. Riesner was charged with keeping Starman essentially the same while making it distinct from E.T, and would work with three subsequent directors: Tony Scott, Peter Hyams, and John Carpenter. Whereas Scott was more interested in style than narrative drive and wanted to cast Philip Anglim, and Hyams pushed for a more conventional science fiction approach, Carpenter, who was eager to shed his image as a maker of exploitative thrillers, wished to emphasize the cross-country rapport that develops between the two leads, as in The Defiant Ones, The 39 Steps, and It Happened One Night over special effects. Riesner dropped the "heavy political implications" from the script to comply with this.
Parts of the film were shot in Monument Valley, Utah.
Reception
Box office
Starman grossed $2.9 million in its opening weekend, debuting at number 6. It was released the same week as David Lynch's film Dune and one week after the release of Peter Hyams's film 2010: The Year We Make Contact. The film grossed a total of $28.7 million from its domestic run.
Critical response
The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 86% based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "What initially begins as sci-fi transforms into a surprisingly sweet, offbeat drama, courtesy of John Carpenter's careful direction." The aggregator Metacritic gives the film a score of 71 out of 100, based on seven critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four and wrote "Starman contains the potential to be a very silly movie, but the two actors have so much sympathy for their characters that the movie, advertised as space fiction, turns into one of 1984's more touching love stories." In a highly positive review praising the film along with its actors and director, Janet Maslin stated "If Starman doesn't make a major difference in Jeff Bridges's career, Mr. Bridges is operating in the wrong galaxy." Duane Byrge wrote for The Hollywood Reporter that the film had "an amusing and appealing storyline" and a "winning performance" by Jeff Bridges, describing it as "an often on-target look at current American culture". However, he found the script "one-dimensional in certain plotting aspects, especially in regard to the single-minded military forces", but praised it for "an uplifting and humane message" and Carpenter for "fluid storytelling", and commended the "evocative score and the special visual effects" as "first-rate".
Mark Harrison wrote for Den of Geek that it was "a classic sci-fi date movie" and "not only an outlier in [Carpenter's] body of work but also an inarguable product of his direction". According to Harrison, Carpenter had taken "a potential E.T. knock-off and turned it into a modern spin on a more classical Hollywood genre", and praised it for a "canny reversal of gender roles" where "Bridges is the naïve ingenue who knows nothing about the world (or our world, anyway) and Allen is the more cynical character who is pulled into a cross-country adventure with him." He added "the film really lives or dies on the chemistry of the leads. Fortunately, Bridges and Allen are both on spectacular form here", believing that Karen Allen's portrayal "might be her best ever performance." He concluded that "Starman is a bittersweet, genre-bending date movie that really ought to be celebrated as one of the more lovable entries in the John Carpenter canon."
Alan Jones awarded it four stars out of five for Radio Times, arguing that "John Carpenter's religious sci-fi parable has as much heart and emotion as it does special effects, and gives Oscar-nominated Jeff Bridges a real chance to stretch his acting talent." He described it as "funny, suspenseful and moving" and concluded that "this engaging space odyssey is one of Carpenter's best efforts." Halliwell's Film Guide was less positive, describing it as a "derivative but eccentric science-fiction fantasy with lapses of narrative and a general attempt to make the love story predominant over the hardware". The review by Time Out called it "a rather lame sci-fi love story" which "lacks the drive, energy and surprise which one associates with Carpenter." It continued "The best special effects are in the first five minutes. Thereafter, it's all rather predictable. The normally excellent Bridges shuffles his way through a robotic performance as though he's just been unplugged, and the film's (very) basic gag – his naïve response to what he experiences – wears thin pretty quick." Colin Greenland reviewed Starman for Imagine magazine, and stated that it "starts well, with engaging performances from Karen Allen as the woman trying not to go crazy and Jeff Bridges as the man in the borrowed body. But then director John Carpenter changes his mind, and turns it into an irritatingly soft-headed love story. What a waste of a promising idea."
Awards and honors
Jeff Bridges was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, making Starman the only film by John Carpenter to receive an Academy Award nomination. Bridges was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Drama and was awarded the Saturn Award for Best Actor. Karen Allen also received a nod for Best Actress from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films. The film itself was nominated Best Science Fiction Film. Jack Nitzsche received a Golden Globe nomination for his score.
The film was nominated for, but does not appear on the following lists:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10: Nominated Science Fiction Film
Soundtrack
The soundtrack to Starman was released on December 14, 1984. The album also contains a rendition of "All I Have to Do Is Dream" performed by stars Jeff Bridges and Karen Allen.
Home media
The film was released Blu-ray on August 11, 2009.
Remake
In April 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shawn Levy will direct and produce a remake written by Arash Amel. Michael Douglas, who was a producer of the original, is also on board to produce, while Dan Cohen and Robert Mitas are executive producing, and Matt Milam and Adam North are overseeing the project for Columbia. In 2021, Levy declared the remake to be improbable, as he could not find a good draft that was worthy of adaptation.
In popular culture
The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra covered "Starman Leaves (End Title)" for their 2005 cover compilation album, The Science Fiction Album. The 2010 single "Symphonies" by Dan Black, and its remix featuring Kid Cudi, sampled CoPPO's cover of the song. At the end of the music video the lead character is beamed away by a bright circular spaceship, similar to the manner in which the Starman from the film departs Earth. The music video itself contains scenes which pay homage to several Jeff Bridges films, including Tron and King Kong.
See also
Starman (TV series)
References
External links
LA Weekly interview with John Carpenter on the making of Starman
1984 films
1980s romance films
1980s science fiction films
Alien visitations in films
American science fiction romance films
Columbia Pictures films
Films adapted into television shows
Films directed by John Carpenter
Films scored by Jack Nitzsche
Films set in Wisconsin
Films set in Arizona
Films shot in Colorado
Films shot in Iowa
Films shot in Tennessee
Films shot in the Las Vegas Valley
Films shot in Utah
1980s English-language films
1980s American films
Films shot in Monument Valley | wiki |
Champions Juniors, is a French comedy film from 1951, directed by Pierre Blondy, written by Roger Cauvin, starring Louis de Funès. It is a short film.
References
External links
Champions Juniors (1951) at the Films de France
1951 films
French comedy films
1950s French-language films
French black-and-white films
1951 comedy films
Films scored by Joseph Kosma
1950s French films | wiki |
Constipation is a bowel dysfunction that makes bowel movements infrequent or hard to pass. The stool is often hard and dry. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, and feeling as if one has not completely passed the bowel movement. Complications from constipation may include hemorrhoids, anal fissure or fecal impaction. The normal frequency of bowel movements in adults is between three per day and three per week. Babies often have three to four bowel movements per day while young children typically have two to three per day.
Constipation has many causes. Common causes include slow movement of stool within the colon, irritable bowel syndrome, and pelvic floor disorders. Underlying associated diseases include hypothyroidism, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, colon cancer, diverticulitis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Medications associated with constipation include opioids, certain antacids, calcium channel blockers, and anticholinergics. Of those taking opioids about 90% develop constipation. Constipation is more concerning when there is weight loss or anemia, blood is present in the stool, there is a history of inflammatory bowel disease or colon cancer in a person's family, or it is of new onset in someone who is older.
Treatment of constipation depends on the underlying cause and the duration that it has been present. Measures that may help include drinking enough fluids, eating more fiber, consumption of honey and exercise. If this is not effective, laxatives of the bulk-forming agent, osmotic agent, stool softener, or lubricant type may be recommended. Stimulant laxatives are generally reserved for when other types are not effective. Other treatments may include biofeedback or in rare cases surgery.
In the general population rates of constipation are 2–30 percent. Among elderly people living in a care home the rate of constipation is 50–75 percent. People spend, in the United States, more than on medications for constipation a year.
Definition
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Most commonly, constipation is thought of as infrequent bowel movements, usually fewer than 3 stools per week. However, people may have other complaints as well including:
Straining with bowel movements
Excessive time needed to pass a bowel movement
Hard stools
Pain with bowel movements secondary to straining
Abdominal pain
Abdominal bloating.
the sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation.
The Rome III Criteria are a set of symptoms that help standardize the diagnosis of constipation in various age groups. These criteria help physicians to better define constipation in a standardized manner.
Causes
The causes of constipation can be divided into congenital, primary, and secondary. The most common kind is primary and not life-threatening. It can also be divided by the age group affected such as children and adults.
Primary or functional constipation is defined by ongoing symptoms for greater than six months not due to an underlying cause such as medication side effects or an underlying medical condition. It is not associated with abdominal pain, thus distinguishing it from irritable bowel syndrome. It is the most common kind of constipation, and is often multifactorial. In adults, such primary causes include: dietary choices such as insufficient dietary fiber or fluid intake, or behavioral causes such as decreased physical activity. In the elderly, common causes have been attributed to insufficient dietary fiber intake, inadequate fluid intake, decreased physical activity, side effects of medications, hypothyroidism, and obstruction by colorectal cancer. Evidence to support these factors however is poor.
Secondary causes include side effects of medications such as opiates, endocrine and metabolic disorders such as hypothyroidism, and obstruction such as from colorectal cancer or ovarian cancer. Celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity may also present with constipation. Cystocele can develop as a result of chronic constipation.
Diet
Constipation can be caused or exacerbated by a low-fiber diet, low liquid intake, or dieting. Dietary fiber helps to decrease colonic transport time, increases stool bulk but simultaneously softens stool. Therefore, diets low in fiber can lead to primary constipation.
Medications
Many medications have constipation as a side effect. Some include (but are not limited to) opioids, diuretics, antidepressants, antihistamines, antispasmodics, anticonvulsants, tricyclic antidepressants, antiarrythmics, beta-adrenoceptor antagonists, anti-diarrheals, 5-HT3 receptor antagonists such as ondansetron, and aluminum antacids. Certain calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine and verapamil can cause severe constipation due to dysfunction of motility in the rectosigmoid colon. Supplements such as calcium and iron supplements can also have constipation as a notable side effect.
Medical conditions
Metabolic and endocrine problems which may lead to constipation include: pheochromocytoma, hypercalcemia, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, porphyria, chronic kidney disease, pan-hypopituitarism, diabetes mellitus, and cystic fibrosis. Constipation is also common in individuals with muscular and myotonic dystrophy.
Systemic diseases that may present with constipation include celiac disease and systemic sclerosis.
Constipation has a number of structural (mechanical, morphological, anatomical) causes, namely through creating space-occupying lesions within the colon that stop the passage of stool, such as colorectal cancer, strictures, rectocoles, anal sphincter damage or malformation and post-surgical changes. Extra-intestinal masses such as other malignancies can also lead to constipation from external compression.
Constipation also has neurological causes, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease. In infants, Hirschsprung's disease is the most common medical disorder associated with constipation. Anismus occurs in a small minority of persons with chronic constipation or obstructed defecation.
Spinal cord lesions and neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and pelvic floor dysfunction can also lead to constipation.
Chagas disease may cause constipation through the destruction of the myenteric plexus.
Psychological
Voluntary withholding of the stool is a common cause of constipation. The choice to withhold can be due to factors such as fear of pain, fear of public restrooms, or laziness. When a child holds in the stool a combination of encouragement, fluids, fiber, and laxatives may be useful to overcome the problem. Early intervention with withholding is important as this can lead to anal fissures.
Congenital
A number of diseases present at birth can result in constipation in children. They are as a group uncommon with Hirschsprung's disease (HD) being the most common. There are also congenital structural anomalies that can lead to constipation, including anterior displacement of the anus, imperforate anus, strictures, and small left colon syndrome.
Pathophysiology
Diagnostic approach
The diagnosis is typically made based on a person's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small hard pellets (like those excreted by rabbits) qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Constipation is traditionally defined as three or fewer bowel movements per week. Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distension, abdominal pain, headaches, a feeling of fatigue and nervous exhaustion, or a sense of incomplete emptying. Although constipation may be a diagnosis, it is typically viewed as a symptom that requires evaluation to discern a cause.
Description
Distinguish between acute (days to weeks) or chronic (months to years) onset of constipation because this information changes the differential diagnosis. This in the context of accompanied symptoms helps physicians discover the cause of constipation. People often describe their constipation as bowel movements that are difficult to pass, firm stool with lumpy or hard consistency, and excessive straining during bowel movements. Bloating, abdominal distension, and abdominal pain often accompany constipation. Chronic constipation (symptoms present at least three days per month for more than three months) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found.
Poor dietary habits, previous abdominal surgeries, and certain medical conditions can contribute to constipation. Diseases associated with constipation include hypothyroidism, certain types of cancer, and irritable bowel syndrome. Low fiber intake, inadequate amounts of fluids, poor ambulation or immobility, or medications can contribute to constipation. Once the presence of constipation is identified based on a culmination of the symptoms described above, then the cause of constipation should be figured out.
Separating non-life-threatening from serious causes may be partly based on symptoms. For example, colon cancer may be suspected if a person has a family history of colon cancer, fever, weight loss, and rectal bleeding. Other alarming signs and symptoms include family or personal history of inflammatory bowel disease, age of onset over 50, change in stool caliber, nausea, vomiting, and neurological symptoms like weakness, numbness and difficulty urinating.
Examination
A physical examination should involve at least an abdominal exam and rectal exam. Abdominal exam may reveal an abdominal mass if there is significant stool burden and may reveal abdominal discomfort. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, the presence of hemorrhoids, blood and whether any perineal irregularities are present including skin tags, fissures, anal warts. Physical examination is done manually by a physician and is used to guide which diagnostic tests to order.
Diagnostic tests
Functional constipation is common and does not warrant diagnostic testing. Imaging and laboratory tests are typically recommended for those with alarm signs or symptoms.
The laboratory tests performed depends on the suspected underlying cause of the constipation. Tests may include CBC (complete blood count), thyroid function tests, serum calcium, serum potassium, etc.
Abdominal X-rays are generally only performed if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal extensive impacted fecal matter in the colon, and may confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms.
Colonoscopy may be performed if an abnormality in the colon like a tumor is suspected. Other tests rarely ordered include anorectal manometry, anal sphincter electromyography, and defecography.
Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of the bowel contents and are vital for normal defecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude, and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction (SDD). Mechanisms that can normalize these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation.
Criteria
The Rome III Criteria for functional constipation must include two or more of the following and present for the past three months, with symptoms starting for at least 6 months prior to diagnosis.
Straining during defecation for at least 25% of bowel movements
Lumpy or hard stools in at least 25% of defecations
Sensation of incomplete evacuation for at least 25% of defecations
Sensation of anorectal obstruction/blockage for at least 25% of defecations
Manual maneuvers to facilitate at least 25% of defecations
Fewer than 3 defecations per week
Loose stools are rarely present without the use of laxatives
There are insufficient criteria for irritable bowel syndrome
Prevention
Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. Following the relief of constipation, maintenance with adequate exercise, fluid intake, and high-fiber diet is recommended.
Treatment
A limited number of cases require urgent medical intervention or will result in severe consequences.
The treatment of constipation should focus on the underlying cause if known. The National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) break constipation in adults into two categories: chronic constipation of unknown cause, and constipation due to opiates.
In chronic constipation of unknown cause, the main treatment involves the increased intake of water and fiber (either dietary or as supplements). The routine use of laxatives or enemas is discouraged, as having bowel movements may come to be dependent upon their use.
Fiber supplements
Soluble fiber supplements such as psyllium are generally considered first-line treatment for chronic constipation, compared to insoluble fibers such as wheat bran. Side effects of fiber supplements include bloating, flatulence, diarrhea, and possible malabsorption of iron, calcium, and some medications. However, patients with opiate-induced constipation will likely not benefit from fiber supplements.
Laxatives
If laxatives are used, milk of magnesia or polyethylene glycol are recommended as first-line agents due to their low cost and safety. Stimulants should only be used if this is not effective. In cases of chronic constipation, polyethylene glycol appears superior to lactulose. Prokinetics may be used to improve gastrointestinal motility. A number of new agents have shown positive outcomes in chronic constipation; these include prucalopride and lubiprostone. Cisapride is widely available in third world countries, but has been withdrawn in most of the west. It has not been shown to have a benefit on constipation, while potentially causing cardiac arrhythmias and deaths.
Enemas
Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. A large volume or high enema can be given to cleanse as much of the colon as possible of feces, and the solution administered commonly contains castile soap which irritates the colon's lining resulting in increased urgency to defecate. However, a low enema is generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.
Physical intervention
Constipation that resists the above measures may require physical intervention such as manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool using the hands; see fecal impaction).
Regular exercise
Regular exercise can help improve chronic constipation.
Surgical intervention
In refractory cases, procedures can be performed to help relieve constipation. Sacral nerve stimulation has been demonstrated to be effective in a minority of cases. Colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis is another intervention performed only in patients known to have a slow colonic transit time and in whom a defecation disorder has either been treated or is not present. Because this is a major operation, side effects can include considerable abdominal pain, small bowel obstruction, and post-surgical infections. Furthermore, it has a very variable rate of success and is very case dependent.
Prognosis
Complications that can arise from constipation include hemorrhoids, anal fissures, rectal prolapse, and fecal impaction. Straining to pass stool may lead to hemorrhoids. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended, hard and diffusely tender. Severe cases ("fecal impaction" or malignant constipation) may exhibit symptoms of bowel obstruction (nausea, vomiting, tender abdomen) and encopresis, where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the mass of impacted fecal matter in the colon.
Epidemiology
Constipation is the most common chronic gastrointestinal disorder in adults. Depending on the definition employed, it occurs in 2% to 20% of the population. It is more common in women, the elderly and children. Specifically constipation with no known cause affects females more often affected than males. The reasons it occurs more frequently in the elderly is felt to be due to an increasing number of health problems as humans age and decreased physical activity.
12% of the population worldwide reports having constipation.
Chronic constipation accounts for 3% of all visits annually to pediatric outpatient clinics.
Constipation-related health care costs total $6.9 billion in the US annually.
More than four million Americans have frequent constipation, accounting for 2.5 million physician visits a year.
Around $725 million is spent on laxative products each year in America.
History
Since ancient times different societies have published medical opinions about how health care providers should respond to constipation in patients. In various times and places, doctors have made claims that constipation has all sorts of medical or social causes. Doctors in history have treated constipation in reasonable and unreasonable ways, including use of a spatula mundani.
After the advent of the germ theory of disease then the idea of "auto-intoxication" entered popular Western thought in a fresh way. Enema as a scientific medical treatment and colon cleansing as alternative medical treatment became more common in medical practice.
Since the 1700s in the West there has been some popular thought that people with constipation have some moral failing with gluttony or laziness.
Special populations
Children
Approximately 3% of children have constipation, with girls and boys being equally affected. With constipation accounting for approximately 5% of general pediatrician visits and 25% of pediatric gastroenterologist visits, the symptom carries a significant financial impact upon the healthcare system. While it is difficult to assess an exact age at which constipation most commonly arises, children frequently experience constipation in conjunction with life-changes. Examples include: toilet training, starting or transferring to a new school, and changes in diet. Especially in infants, changes in formula or transitioning from breast milk to formula can cause constipation. The majority of constipation cases are not tied to a medical disease, and treatment can be focused on simply relieving the symptoms.
Postpartum women
The six-week period after pregnancy is called the postpartum stage. During this time, women are at increased risk of being constipated. Multiple studies estimate the prevalence of constipation to be around 25% during the first 3 months. Constipation can cause discomfort for women, as they are still recovering from the delivery process especially if they have had a perineal tear or underwent an episiotomy. Risk factors that increase the risk of constipation in this population include:
Damage to the levator ani muscles (pelvic floor muscles) during childbirth
Forceps-assisted delivery
Lengthy second stage of labor
Delivering a large child
Hemorrhoids
Hemorrhoids are common in pregnancy and also may get exacerbated when constipated. Anything that can cause pain with stooling (hemorrhoids, perineal tear, episiotomy) can lead to constipation because patients may withhold from having a bowel movement so as to avoid pain.
The pelvic floor muscles play an important role in helping pass a bowel movement. Injury to those muscles by some of the above risk factors (examples- delivering a large child, lengthy second stage of labor, forceps delivery) can result in constipation. Enemas may be administered during labor and these can also alter bowel movements in the days after giving birth. However, there is insufficient evidence to make conclusions about the effectiveness and safety of laxatives in this group of people.
See also
Obstructed defecation
Rectal tenesmus
References
External links
Constipation - Introduction (UK NHS site)
Constipation Guideline - the World Gastroenterology Organisation (WGO)
Conditions diagnosed by stool test
Digestive disease symptoms
Diseases of intestines
Nursing diagnoses
Waterborne diseases
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
Eclipse er en af ESPs standard guitarmodeller i serien ESP USA. Udseendet minder meget om Gibson Les Paul-model.
Guitarmodeller | wiki |
Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.
Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lubricant and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas under certain circumstances. Sufficiently high doses of laxatives may cause diarrhea.
Some laxatives combine more than one active ingredient.
Laxatives may be administered orally or rectally.
Types
Bulk-forming agents
Bulk-forming laxatives, also known as roughage, are substances, such as fiber in food and hydrophilic agents in over-the-counter drugs, that add bulk and water to stools so that they can pass more easily through the intestines (lower part of the digestive tract).
Properties
Site of action: small and large intestines
Onset of action: 12–72 hours
Examples: dietary fiber, Metamucil, Citrucel, FiberCon
Bulk-forming agents generally have the gentlest of effects among laxatives, making them ideal for long-term maintenance of regular bowel movements.
Dietary fiber
Foods that help with laxation include fiber-rich foods. Dietary fiber includes insoluble fiber and soluble fiber, such as:
Fruits, such as bananas, though this depends on their ripeness, kiwifruits, prunes, apples (with skin), pears (with skin), and raspberries
Vegetables, such as broccoli, string beans, kale, spinach, cooked winter squash, cooked taro and poi, cooked peas, and baked potatoes (with skin)
Whole grains
Bran products
Nuts
Legumes, such as beans, peas, and lentils
Emollient agents (stool softeners)
Emollient laxatives, also known as stool softeners, are anionic surfactants that enable additional water and fats to be incorporated in the stool, making it easier for them to move through the gastrointestinal tract.
Properties
Site of action: small and large intestines
Onset of action: 12–72 hours
Examples: Docusate (Colace, Diocto), Gibs-Eze
Emollient agents prevent constipation rather than treating long-term constipation.
Lubricant agents
Lubricant laxatives are substances that coat the stool with slippery lipids and decrease colonic absorption of water so that the stool slides through the colon more easily. Lubricant laxatives also increase the weight of stool and decrease intestinal transit time.
Properties
Site of action: colon
Onset of action: 6–8 hours
Example: mineral oil
Mineral oil is the only nonprescription lubricant. Mineral oil may decrease the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and some minerals.
One example is Liquid paraffin.
Hyperosmotic agents
Hyperosmotic laxatives are substances that cause the intestines to hold more water within and create an osmotic effect that stimulates a bowel movement.
Properties
Site of action: colon
Onset of action: 12–72 hours (oral), 0.25–1 hour (rectal)
Examples: glycerin suppositories (Hallens), sorbitol, lactulose, and PEG (Colyte, MiraLax)
Lactulose works by the osmotic effect, which retains water in the colon; lowering the pH through bacterial fermentation to lactic, formic and acetic acid; and increasing colonic peristalsis. Lactulose is also indicated in portal-systemic encephalopathy. Glycerin suppositories work mostly by hyperosmotic action, but the sodium stearate in the preparation also causes local irritation to the colon.
Solutions of polyethylene glycol and electrolytes (sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, and sometimes sodium sulfate) are used for whole bowel irrigation, a process designed to prepare the bowel for surgery or colonoscopy and to treat certain types of poisoning. Brand names for these solutions include GoLytely, GlycoLax, Cosmocol, CoLyte, Miralax, Movicol, NuLytely, Suprep, and Fortrans. Solutions of sorbitol (SoftLax) have similar effects.
Saline laxative agents
Saline laxatives are non-absorbable osmotically active substances that attract and retain water in the intestinal lumen, increasing intraluminal pressure that mechanically stimulates evacuation of the bowel. Magnesium-containing agents also cause the release of cholecystokinin, which increases intestinal motility and fluid secretion. Saline laxatives may alter a patient's fluid and electrolyte balance.
Properties
Site of action: small and large intestines
Onset of action: 0.5–3 hours (oral), 2–15 minutes (rectal)
Examples: sodium phosphate (and variants), magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt)
Stimulant agents
Stimulant laxatives are substances that act on the intestinal mucosa or nerve plexus, altering water and electrolyte secretion. They also stimulate peristaltic action and can be dangerous under certain circumstances.
Properties
Site of action: colon
Onset of action: 6–10 hours
Examples: senna, bisacodyl
Prolonged use of stimulant laxatives can create drug dependence by damaging the colon's haustral folds, making a user less able to move feces through the colon on their own. A study of patients with chronic constipation found that 28% of chronic stimulant laxative users lost haustral folds over the course of one year, while none of the control group did.
Miscellaneous
Castor oil is a glyceride that is hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipase to ricinoleic acid, which produces laxative action by an unknown mechanism.
Properties
Site of action: colon, small intestine (see below)
Onset of action: 2–6 hours
Examples: castor oil
Long-term use of castor oil may result in loss of fluid, electrolytes, and nutrients.
Serotonin agonist
These are motility stimulants that work through activation of 5-HT4 receptors of the enteric nervous system in the gastrointestinal tract. However, some have been discontinued or restricted due to potentially harmful cardiovascular side-effects.
Tegaserod (brand name Zelnorm) was removed from the general U.S. and Canadian markets in 2007, due to reports of increased risks of heart attack or stroke. It is still available to physicians for patients in emergency situations that are life-threatening or require hospitalization.
Prucalopride (brand name Resolor) is a current
drug approved for use in the EU since October 15, 2009, in Canada (brand name Resotran) since December 7, 2011, and in the United States since December 2018.
Chloride channel activators
Lubiprostone is used in the management of chronic idiopathic constipation and irritable bowel syndrome. It causes the intestines to produce a chloride-rich fluid secretion that softens the stool, increases motility, and promotes spontaneous bowel movements (SBM).
Comparison of available agents
Effectiveness
For adults, a randomized controlled trial found PEG (MiraLax or GlycoLax) 17 grams once per day to be superior to tegaserod at 6 mg twice per day. A randomized controlled trial found greater improvement from two sachets (26 grams) of PEG versus two sachets (20 grams) of lactulose. 17 grams per day of PEG has been effective and safe in a randomized controlled trial for six months. Another randomized controlled trial found no difference between sorbitol and lactulose.
For children, PEG was found to be more effective than lactulose.
Problems with use
Laxative abuse
Some of the less significant adverse effects of laxative abuse include dehydration (which causes tremors, weakness, fainting, blurred vision, kidney damage), low blood pressure, fast heart rate, postural dizziness and fainting; however, laxative abuse can lead to potentially fatal acid-base and electrolyte imbalances. For example, severe hypokalaemia has been associated with distal renal tubular acidosis from laxative abuse. Metabolic alkalosis is the most common acid-base imbalance observed. Other significant adverse effects include rhabdomyolysis, steatorrhoea, inflammation and ulceration of colonic mucosa, pancreatitis, kidney failure, factitious diarrhea and other problems. The colon will need more quantities of laxatives to keep functioning, this will result in a lazy colon, infections, irritable bowel syndrome, and potential liver damages.
Although some patients with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa abuse laxatives in an attempt to lose weight, laxatives act to speed up the transit of feces through the large intestine, which occurs after the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine is already complete. Thus, studies of laxative abuse have found that effects on body weight reflect primarily temporary losses of body water rather than energy (calorie) loss.
Laxative gut
Physicians warn against the chronic use of stimulant laxatives due to concern that chronic use could cause the colonic tissues to get worn out over time and not be able to expel feces due to long-term overstimulation. A common finding in patients having used stimulant laxatives is a brown pigment deposited in the intestinal tissue, known as melanosis coli.
Historical and health fraud uses
Laxatives, once called physicks or purgatives, were used extensively in pre-modern medicine to treat many conditions for which they are now generally regarded as ineffective in evidence-based medicine. Likewise, laxatives (often termed colon cleanses) may be promoted in alternative medicine for various conditions of quackery, such as "mucoid plaque".
See also
ATC code A06
Bowel management
Cathartic
Dietary fiber
Diuretic
Maltitol
Enema
Suppository
Transanal irrigation
References
Gastroenterology | wiki |
Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. The aim of this activity is to expel the body of calories eaten from the binging phase of the process. Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time. Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed. This may be done by vomiting or taking laxatives.
Other efforts to lose weight may include the use of diuretics, stimulants, water fasting, or excessive exercise. Most people with bulimia are at a normal weight. The forcing of vomiting may result in thickened skin on the knuckles, breakdown of the teeth and effects on metabolic rate and caloric intake which cause thyroid dysfunction. Bulimia is frequently associated with other mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, borderline personality disorder, bipolar disorder and problems with drugs or alcohol. There is also a higher risk of suicide and self-harm.
Bulimia is more common among those who have a close relative with the condition. The percentage risk that is estimated to be due to genetics is between 30% and 80%. Other risk factors for the disease include psychological stress, cultural pressure to attain a certain body type, poor self-esteem, and obesity. Living in a culture that commercializes or glamorizes dieting and having parental figures who fixate about weight are also risks.
Diagnosis is based on a person's medical history; however, this is difficult, as people are usually secretive about their binge eating and purging habits. Further, the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa takes precedence over that of bulimia. Other similar disorders include binge eating disorder, Kleine–Levin syndrome, and borderline personality disorder.
==Signs and symptoms==
Bulimia typically involves rapid and out-of-control eating, which may stop when the person is interrupted by another person or the stomach hurts from over-extension, followed by self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging. This cycle may be repeated several times a week or, in more serious cases, several times a day and may directly cause:
Chronic gastric reflux after eating, secondary to vomiting
Dehydration and hypokalemia due to renal potassium loss in the presence of alkalosis and frequent vomiting
Electrolyte imbalance, which can lead to abnormal heart rhythms, cardiac arrest, and even death
Esophagitis, or inflammation of the esophagus
Mallory-Weiss tears
Boerhaave syndrome, a rupture in the esophageal wall due to vomiting
Oral trauma, in which repetitive insertion of fingers or other objects causes lacerations to the lining of the mouth or throat
Russell's sign: calluses on knuckles and back of hands due to repeated trauma from incisors
Perimolysis, or severe dental erosion of tooth enamel
Swollen salivary glands (for example, in the neck, under the jaw line)
Gastroparesis, or delayed gastric emptying
Constipation or diarrhea
Tachycardia or palpitations
Hypotension
Peptic ulcers
Infertility
Constant weight fluctuations are common
Elevated blood sugar, cholesterol, and amylase levels may occur
Hypoglycemia may occur after vomiting
These are some of the many signs that may indicate whether someone has bulimia nervosa:
A fixation on the number of calories consumed
A fixation on and extreme consciousness of one's weight
Low self-esteem and/or self-harming
Suicidal tendencies
An irregular menstrual cycle in women
Regular trips to the bathroom, especially soon after eating
Depression, anxiety disorders and sleep disorders
Frequent occurrences involving consumption of abnormally large portions of food
The use of laxatives, diuretics, and diet pills
Compulsive or excessive exercise
Unhealthy/dry skin, hair, nails, and lips
Fatigue, or exhaustion
As with many psychiatric illnesses, delusions can occur, in conjunction with other signs and symptoms, leaving the person with a false belief that is not ordinarily accepted by others.
People with bulimia nervosa may also exercise to a point that excludes other activities.
Interoceptive
People with bulimia exhibit several interoceptive deficits, in which one experiences impairment in recognizing and discriminating between internal sensations, feelings, and emotions. People with bulimia may also react negatively to somatic and affective states. In relation to interoceptive sensitivity, hyposensitive individuals may not detect feelings of fullness in a normal and timely fashion, and therefore are prone to eating more calories.
Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating.
Related disorders
People with bulimia are at a higher risk to have an affective disorder, such as depression or general anxiety disorder. One study found 70% had depression at some time in their lives (as opposed to 26% for adult females in the general population), rising to 88% for all affective disorders combined. Another study in the Journal of Affective Disorders found that of the population of patients that were diagnosed with an eating disorder according to the DSM-V guidelines about 27% also suffered from bipolar disorder. Within this article, the majority of the patients were diagnosed with bulimia nervosa, the second most common condition reported was binge-eating disorder. Some individuals with anorexia nervosa exhibit episodes of bulimic tendencies through purging (either through self-induced vomiting or laxatives) as a way to quickly remove food in their system. There may be an increased risk for diabetes mellitus type 2. Bulimia also has negative effects on a person's teeth due to the acid passed through the mouth from frequent vomiting causing acid erosion, mainly on the posterior dental surface.
Research has shown that there is a relationship between bulimia and narcissism. According to a study by the Australian National University, eating disorders are more susceptible among vulnerable narcissists. This can be caused by a childhood in which inner feelings and thoughts were minimized by parents, leading to "a high focus on receiving validation from others to maintain a positive sense of self".
The medical journal Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation notes that a "substantial rate of patients with bulimia nervosa" also have Borderline personality disorder.
A study by the Psychopharmacology Research Program of the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine "leaves little doubt that bipolar and eating disorders—particularly bulimia nervosa and bipolar II disorder—are related." The research shows that most clinical studies indicate that patients with bipolar disorder have higher rates of eating disorders, and vice versa. There is overlap in phenomenology, course, comorbidity, family history, and pharmacologic treatment response of these disorders. This is especially true of "eating dysregulation, mood dysregulation, impulsivity and compulsivity, craving for activity and/or exercise."
Studies have shown a relationship between bulimia's effect on metabolic rate and caloric intake with thyroid dysfunction.
Causes
Biological
As with anorexia nervosa, there is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism.
There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. Studies have shown that women with hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovary syndrome have a dysregulation of appetite, along with carbohydrates and fats. This dysregulation of appetite is also seen in women with bulimia nervosa. In addition, gene knockout studies in mice have shown that mice that have the gene encoding estrogen receptors have decreased fertility due to ovarian dysfunction and dysregulation of androgen receptors. In humans, there is evidence that there is an association between polymorphisms in the ERβ (estrogen receptor β) and bulimia, suggesting there is a correlation between sex hormones and bulimia nervosa.
Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited. However, people with bulimia nervosa may share dopamine D2 receptor-related vulnerabilities with those with substance use disorders.
Dieting, a common behaviour in bulimics, is associated with lower plasma tryptophan levels. Decreased tryptophan levels in the brain, and thus the synthesis of serotonin, such as via acute tryptophan depletion, increases bulimic urges in currently and formerly bulimic individuals within hours.
Abnormal blood levels of peptides important for the regulation of appetite and energy balance are observed in individuals with bulimia nervosa, but it remains unknown if this is a state or trait.
In recent years, evolutionary psychiatry as an emerging scientific discipline has been studying mental disorders from an evolutionary perspective. If eating disorders, Bulimia nervosa in particular, have evolutionary functions or if they are new modern "lifestyle" problems is still debated.
Social
Media portrayals of an 'ideal' body shape are widely considered to be a contributing factor to bulimia. In a 1991 study by Weltzin, Hsu, Pollicle, and Kaye, it was stated that 19% of bulimics undereat, 37% of bulimics eat an average or normal amount of food, and 44% of bulimics overeat. A survey of 15- to 18-year-old high school girls in Nadroga, Fiji, found the self-reported incidence of purging rose from 0% in 1995 (a few weeks after the introduction of television in the province) to 11.3% in 1998. In addition, the suicide rate among people with bulimia nervosa is 7.5 times higher than in the general population.
When attempting to decipher the origin of bulimia nervosa in a cognitive context, Christopher Fairburn et al.s cognitive-behavioral model is often considered the golden standard. Fairburn et al.'s model discusses the process in which an individual falls into the binge-purge cycle and thus develops bulimia. Fairburn et al. argue that extreme concern with weight and shape coupled with low self-esteem will result in strict, rigid, and inflexible dietary rules. Accordingly, this would lead to unrealistically restricted eating, which may consequently induce an eventual "slip" where the individual commits a minor infraction of the strict and inflexible dietary rules. Moreover, the cognitive distortion due to dichotomous thinking leads the individual to binge. The binge subsequently should trigger a perceived loss of control, promoting the individual to purge in hope of counteracting the binge. However, Fairburn et al. assert the cycle repeats itself, and thus consider the binge-purge cycle to be self-perpetuating.
In contrast, Byrne and Mclean's findings differed slightly from Fairburn et al.s cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa in that the drive for thinness was the major cause of purging as a way of controlling weight. In turn, Byrne and Mclean argued that this makes the individual vulnerable to binging, indicating that it is not a binge-purge cycle but rather a purge-binge cycle in that purging comes before bingeing. Similarly, Fairburn et al.s cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa is not necessarily applicable to every individual and is certainly reductionist. Every one differs from another, and taking such a complex behavior like bulimia and applying the same one theory to everyone would certainly be invalid. In addition, the cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa is very culturally bound in that it may not be necessarily applicable to cultures outside of Western society. To evaluate, Fairburn et al..'s model and more generally the cognitive explanation of bulimia nervosa is more descriptive than explanatory, as it does not necessarily explain how bulimia arises. Furthermore, it is difficult to ascertain cause and effect, because it may be that distorted eating leads to distorted cognition rather than vice versa.
A considerable amount of literature has identified a correlation between sexual abuse and the development of bulimia nervosa. The reported incident rate of unwanted sexual contact is higher among those with bulimia nervosa than anorexia nervosa.
When exploring the etiology of bulimia through a socio-cultural perspective, the "thin ideal internalization" is significantly responsible. The thin-ideal internalization is the extent to which individuals adapt to the societal ideals of attractiveness. Studies have shown that young women that read fashion magazines tend to have more bulimic symptoms than those women who do not. This further demonstrates the impact of media on the likelihood of developing the disorder. Individuals first accept and "buy into" the ideals, and then attempt to transform themselves in order to reflect the societal ideals of attractiveness. J. Kevin Thompson and Eric Stice claim that family, peers, and most evidently media reinforce the thin ideal, which may lead to an individual accepting and "buying into" the thin ideal. In turn, Thompson and Stice assert that if the thin ideal is accepted, one could begin to feel uncomfortable with their body shape or size since it may not necessarily reflect the thin ideal set out by society. Thus, people feeling uncomfortable with their bodies may result in body dissatisfaction and may develop a certain drive for thinness. Consequently, body dissatisfaction coupled with a drive for thinness is thought to promote dieting and negative effects, which could eventually lead to bulimic symptoms such as purging or bingeing. Binges lead to self-disgust which causes purging to prevent weight gain.
A study dedicated to investigating the thin ideal internalization as a factor of bulimia nervosa is Thompson's and Stice's research. Their study aimed to investigate how and to what degree media affects the thin ideal internalization. Thompson and Stice used randomized experiments (more specifically programs) dedicated to teaching young women how to be more critical when it comes to media, to reduce thin-ideal internalization. The results showed that by creating more awareness of the media's control of the societal ideal of attractiveness, the thin ideal internalization significantly dropped. In other words, less thin ideal images portrayed by the media resulted in less thin-ideal internalization. Therefore, Thompson and Stice concluded that media greatly affected the thin ideal internalization. Papies showed that it is not the thin ideal itself, but rather the self-association with other persons of a certain weight that decide how someone with bulimia nervosa feels. People that associate themselves with thin models get in a positive attitude when they see thin models and people that associate with overweight get in a negative attitude when they see thin models. Moreover, it can be taught to associate with thinner people.
Diagnosis
The onset of bulimia nervosa is often during adolescence, between 13 and 20 years of age, and many cases have previously experienced obesity, with many relapsing in adulthood into episodic bingeing and purging even after initially successful treatment and remission. A lifetime prevalence of 0.5 percent and 0.9 percent for adults and adolescents, respectively, is estimated among the United States population. Bulimia nervosa may affect up to 1% of young women and, after 10 years of diagnosis, half will recover fully, a third will recover partially, and 10–20% will still have symptoms.
Adolescents with bulimia nervosa are more likely to have self-imposed perfectionism and compulsivity issues in eating compared to their peers. This means that the high expectations and unrealistic goals that these individuals set for themselves are internally motivated rather than by social views or expectations.
Criteria
Bulimia nervosa can be difficult to detect, compared to anorexia nervosa, because bulimics tend to be of average or slightly above average weight. Many bulimics may also engage in significantly disordered eating and exercise patterns without meeting the full diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa. Recently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders was revised, which resulted in the loosening of criteria regarding the diagnoses of bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. The diagnostic criteria utilized by the DSM-5 includes repetitive episodes of binge eating (a discrete episode of overeating during which the individual feels out of control of consumption) compensated for by excessive or inappropriate measures taken to avoid gaining weight. The diagnosis also requires the episodes of compensatory behaviors and binge eating to happen a minimum of once a week for a consistent time period of 3 months. The diagnosis is made only when the behavior is not a part of the symptom complex of anorexia nervosa and when the behavior reflects an overemphasis on physical mass or appearance. Purging often is a common characteristic of a more severe case of bulimia nervosa.
Treatment
There are two main types of treatment given to those with bulimia nervosa; psychopharmacological and psychosocial treatments.
Psychotherapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy is the primary treatment for bulimia. Antidepressants of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) or tricyclic antidepressant classes may have a modest benefit. While outcomes with bulimia are typically better than in those with anorexia, the risk of death among those affected is higher than that of the general population. At 10 years after receiving treatment about 50% of people are fully recovered.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which involves teaching a person to challenge automatic thoughts and engage in behavioral experiments (for example, in session eating of "forbidden foods") has a small amount of evidence supporting its use.
By using CBT people record how much food they eat and periods of vomiting with the purpose of identifying and avoiding emotional fluctuations that bring on episodes of bulimia on a regular basis. Barker (2003) states that research has found 40–60% of people using cognitive behaviour therapy to become symptom free. He states in order for the therapy to work, all parties must work together to discuss, record and develop coping strategies. Barker (2003) claims by making people aware of their actions they will think of alternatives. People undergoing CBT who exhibit early behavioral changes are most likely to achieve the best treatment outcomes in the long run. Researchers have also reported some positive outcomes for interpersonal psychotherapy and dialectical behavior therapy.
Maudsley family therapy, developed at the Maudsley Hospital in London for the treatment of anorexia, has been shown promising results in bulimia.
The use of CBT has been shown to be quite effective for treating bulimia nervosa (BN) in adults, but little research has been done on effective treatments of BN for adolescents. Although CBT is seen as more cost-efficient and helps individuals with BN in self-guided care, Family Based Treatment (FBT) might be more helpful to younger adolescents who need more support and guidance from their families. Adolescents are at the stage where their brains are still quite malleable and developing gradually. Therefore, young adolescents with BN are less likely to realize the detrimental consequences of becoming bulimic and have less motivation to change, which is why FBT would be useful to have families intervene and support the teens. Working with BN patients and their families in FBT can empower the families by having them involved in their adolescent's food choices and behaviors, taking more control of the situation in the beginning and gradually letting the adolescent become more autonomous when they have learned healthier eating habits.
Medication
Antidepressants of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) class may have a modest benefit. This includes fluoxetine, also known as prozac, which is FDA approved, for the treatment of bulimia, other antidepressants such as sertraline may also be effective against bulimia. Topiramate may also be useful but has greater side effects. Compared to placebo, the use of a single antidepressant has been shown to be effective. Combining medication with counseling can improve outcomes in some circumstances. Some positive outcomes of treatments can include: abstinence from binge eating, a decrease in obsessive behaviors to lose weight and in shape preoccupation, less severe psychiatric symptoms, a desire to counter the effects of binge eating, as well as an improvement in social functioning and reduced relapse rates.
Alternative medicine
Some researchers have also claimed positive outcomes in hypnotherapy. The first use of hypnotherapy in Bulimic patients was in 1981. When it comes to hypnotherapy, Bulimic patients are easier to hypnotize than Anorexia Nervosa patients. In Bulimic patients, hypnotherapy focuses on learning self-control when it comes to binging and vomiting, strengthening stimulus control techniques, enhancing ones ego, improving weight control, and helping overweight patients see their body differently (have a different image).
Risk Factors
Being female and having bulimia nervosa takes a toll on mental health. Women frequently reported an onset of anxiety at the same time of the onset of bulimia nervosa. Another concern with eating disorders is developing a coexisting substance use disorder.
Epidemiology
There is little data on the percentage of people with bulimia in general populations. Most studies conducted thus far have been on convenience samples from hospital patients, high school or university students. These have yielded a wide range of results: between 0.1% and 1.4% of males, and between 0.3% and 9.4% of females. Studies on time trends in the prevalence of bulimia nervosa have also yielded inconsistent results. According to Gelder, Mayou and Geddes (2005) bulimia nervosa is prevalent between 1 and 2 percent of women aged 15–40 years. Bulimia nervosa occurs more frequently in developed countries and in cities, with one study finding that bulimia is five times more prevalent in cities than in rural areas. There is a perception that bulimia is most prevalent amongst girls from middle-class families; however, in a 2009 study girls from families in the lowest income bracket studied were 153 percent more likely to be bulimic than girls from the highest income bracket.
There are higher rates of eating disorders in groups involved in activities which idealize a slim physique, such as dance, gymnastics, modeling, cheerleading, running, acting, swimming, diving, rowing and figure skating. Bulimia is thought to be more prevalent among Caucasians; however, a more recent study showed that African-American teenage girls were 50 percent more likely than Caucasian girls to exhibit bulimic behavior, including both binging and purging.
History
Etymology
The term bulimia comes from Greek boulīmia, "ravenous hunger", a compound of βοῦς bous, "ox" and λιμός, līmos, "hunger". Literally, the scientific name of the disorder, bulimia nervosa, translates to "nervous ravenous hunger".
Before the 20th century
Although diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa did not appear until 1979, evidence suggests that binging and purging were popular in certain ancient cultures. The first documented account of behavior resembling bulimia nervosa was recorded in Xenophon's Anabasis around 370 B.C, in which Greek soldiers purged themselves in the mountains of Asia Minor. It is unclear whether this purging was preceded by binging. In ancient Egypt, physicians recommended purging once a month for three days to preserve health. This practice stemmed from the belief that human diseases were caused by the food itself. In ancient Rome, elite society members would vomit to "make room" in their stomachs for more food at all-day banquets. Emperors Claudius and Vitellius both were gluttonous and obese, and they often resorted to habitual purging.
Historical records also suggest that some saints who developed anorexia (as a result of a life of asceticism) may also have displayed bulimic behaviors. Saint Mary Magdalen de Pazzi (1566–1607) and Saint Veronica Giuliani (1660–1727) were both observed binge eating—giving in, as they believed, to the temptations of the devil. Saint Catherine of Siena (1347–1380) is known to have supplemented her strict abstinence from food by purging as reparation for her sins. Catherine died from starvation at age thirty-three.
While the psychological disorder "bulimia nervosa" is relatively new, the word "bulimia", signifying overeating, has been present for centuries. The Babylon Talmud referenced practices of "bulimia", yet scholars believe that this simply referred to overeating without the purging or the psychological implications bulimia nervosa. In fact, a search for evidence of bulimia nervosa from the 17th to late 19th century revealed that only a quarter of the overeating cases they examined actually vomited after the binges. There was no evidence of deliberate vomiting or an attempt to control weight.
20th century
Globally, bulimia was estimated to affect 3.6 million people in 2015. About 1% of young women have bulimia at a given point in time and about 2% to 3% of women have the condition at some point in their lives. The condition is less common in the developing world. Bulimia is about nine times more likely to occur in women than men. Among women, rates are highest in young adults. Bulimia was named and first described by the British psychiatrist Gerald Russell in 1979.
At the turn of the century, bulimia (overeating) was described as a clinical symptom, but rarely in the context of weight control. Purging, however, was seen in anorexic patients and attributed to gastric pain rather than another method of weight control.
In 1930, admissions of anorexia nervosa patients to the Mayo Clinic from 1917 to 1929 were compiled. Fifty-five to sixty-five percent of these patients were reported to be voluntarily vomiting to relieve weight anxiety. Records show that purging for weight control continued throughout the mid-1900s. Several case studies from this era reveal patients with the modern description of bulimia nervosa. In 1939, Rahman and Richardson reported that out of their six anorexic patients, one had periods of overeating, and another practiced self-induced vomiting. Wulff, in 1932, treated "Patient D", who would have periods of intense cravings for food and overeat for weeks, which often resulted in frequent vomiting. Patient D, who grew up with a tyrannical father, was repulsed by her weight and would fast for a few days, rapidly losing weight. Ellen West, a patient described by Ludwig Binswanger in 1958, was teased by friends for being fat and excessively took thyroid pills to lose weight, later using laxatives and vomiting. She reportedly consumed dozens of oranges and several pounds of tomatoes each day, yet would skip meals. After being admitted to a psychiatric facility for depression, Ellen ate ravenously yet lost weight, presumably due to self-induced vomiting. However, while these patients may have met modern criteria for bulimia nervosa, they cannot technically be diagnosed with the disorder, as it had not yet appeared in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders at the time of their treatment.
An explanation for the increased instances of bulimic symptoms may be due to the 20th century's new ideals of thinness. The shame of being fat emerged in the 1940s when teasing remarks about weight became more common. The 1950s, however, truly introduced the trend of aspiration for thinness.
In 1979, Gerald Russell first published a description of bulimia nervosa, in which he studied patients with a "morbid fear of becoming fat" who overate and purged afterward. He specified treatment options and indicated the seriousness of the disease, which can be accompanied by depression and suicide. In 1980, bulimia nervosa first appeared in the DSM-III.
After its appearance in the DSM-III, there was a sudden rise in the documented incidents of bulimia nervosa. In the early 1980s, incidents of the disorder rose to about 40 in every 100,000 people. This decreased to about 27 in every 100,000 people at the end of the 1980s/early 1990s. However, bulimia nervosa's prevalence was still much higher than anorexia nervosa's, which at the time occurred in about 14 people per 100,000.
In 1991, Kendler et al. documented the cumulative risk for bulimia nervosa for those born before 1950, from 1950 to 1959, and after 1959. The risk for those born after 1959 is much higher than those in either of the other cohorts.
See also
Anorectic Behavior Observation Scale
Eating recovery
Evolutionary psychiatry
Binge eating disorder
List of people with bulimia nervosa
References
External links
Eating disorders
Culture-bound syndromes
Vomiting
Self-harm
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate | wiki |
The first-person shooter video game Halo 3 was the focus of an extensive marketing campaign which began with the game's developer, Bungie, announcing the game via a trailer at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2006. Microsoft, the game's publisher, planned a five-pronged marketing strategy to maximize sales and to appeal to casual and hard-core gamers. Bungie produced trailers and video documentaries to promote the game, partnering with firms such as Digital Domain and Weta Workshop. Licensed products including action figures, toys, and Halo 3-branded soda were released in anticipation of the game; the franchise utilized more than forty licensees to promote the game, and the advertising campaign ultimately cost more than $40 million.
While Halo 2s release had set industry records, the mainstream press was not fully involved in covering the game; part of Microsoft's strategy was to fully involve casual readers and the press in the story. The saturation of advertising and promotions led Wired to state: "The release of Halo 3 this week was an event that stretched far beyond our little gaming world. Everyone from The New York Times to Mother Jones wanted to cover it."
Released on September 25, 2007, Halo 3 became the biggest entertainment debut in history, earning more than $170 million in a few days and selling a record 3,300,000 copies in its first week of sales alone. Halo 3s marketing won several awards, and was cited as evidence of the increasing mainstream popularity of games.
Development
Jerret West, a product manager from Microsoft, said at a marketing conference that Halo 3s marketing team had a mandate from Microsoft executive Peter Moore: "Don't screw up." Much of the marketing organization was handled by Microsoft's former corporate vice president of global marketing, Jeff Bell. A key challenge the team identified early on was that core gamers knew the game was coming out, but there was "a perception problem... we wanted to invite people into the console and into Xbox 360 and to play Halo 3 as a mass-market entertainment product," according to product manager Chris Lee. Since Halo 3 was released as an Xbox 360 exclusive, part of the marketing push was to sell more Xbox consoles, which had encountered sluggish sales.
Microsoft planned advertising and promotions to appeal to both casual and hardcore gamers in a five-pronged marketing strategy. The first stage was to kick off marketing via a television commercial. The second stage was a beta test of the game to drive preorders and press attention. The third stage was the start of an alternate reality game. The fourth phase was partner promotions, capped off with a final advertising campaign, titled "Believe".
Though Microsoft used forms of viral marketing for promotion (including the alternate reality game or ARG), the main focus of the company's efforts was traditional media outlets. Because there already was interest in the title among the gaming community, Microsoft did not feel the need to run a social media campaign, instead banking on the gaming community to spread the word itself. The focus on traditional media would help expand the fan base beyond established gamers and convince the public that the game was a cultural milestone. To build public interest, Microsoft made public statements that Halo 3 would surpass media sales records, including the July 2007 record of $166 million set by the launch of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
Microsoft's target was to sell 1.5 million copies of the game. Marketing research suggested that the "Halo faithful" could only be counted on to buy 75% of that amount, meaning that 375,000 copies would have to be sold to non-fans. Thus marketing goals were to attract an audience beyond the Halo nation, and to break sales records; in short, to "make Halo 3 a true cultural phenomenon". The team upped their goals to not only selling the target number of copies, but making Halo 3 the biggest entertainment launch ever.
Promotional videos
A significant form of marketing was done by the release of videos. While Bungie often partnered with other companies to create advertisements, they also produced their own video documentaries, or "ViDocs", detailing the behind-the-scenes development of aspects of Halo 3, including redesigning enemy Brutes, additions to multiplayer, and other game features. The first ViDoc was released shortly after the game's announcement and was a "making-of" style video, while the final ViDoc made its debut on September 20, 2007.
Trailers and shorts
Halo 3 was officially announced via a cinematic trailer rendered in real-time, shown at Microsoft's press conference at E3 2006 on May 9. The trailer is set in the dry plains of Africa, with the ruins of a space elevator and other damage visible. The Master Chief is slowly revealed walking through smoke and dust, occasionally obscured by distorted images of the artificial intelligence Cortana transmitting a message composed of portions of the character's lines in the Cortana Letters, as well as a line from the poem "The Hollow Men". The distorted voice of Cortana was a deliberate clue to the character's predicament in Halo 3, with a Bungie staff member stating, "We don't know what has happened to her...We don't know it's Cortana. It could be any sort of bizarre, almost Satanic sort of voice. Something seems wrong." The trailer featured music by Martin O'Donnell, with the addition of a piano and brass section to the classic Halo theme.
Advertising company McCann Erickson created a second trailer that was aired only once on December 4, 2006. The video used a mix of computer-created graphics and live action; computer graphics were produced by Digital Domain and directed by Joseph Kosinski. The spot, dubbed "Starry Night", was seen by 7.9 million viewers in its broadcast and watched more than 3.5 million times on YouTube by September 2007. The final trailer, shown during E3 2007 on July 11, consisted of actual campaign cinematics and gameplay.
The video teasers for Halo 3 included a series of videos directed by Neill Blomkamp, the proposed director of a possible Halo film produced by Peter Jackson. Unlike previous trailers and videos, the shorts were the first to depict the Halo universe in a live-action setting. The production was a collaboration between Weta Workshop, Neill Blomkamp and Bungie. When asked about the shorts, Neill said that he hoped that it would help to interest movie studios in his currently inactive movie project, since it lost its studio support in October 2006. GameTrailers released a compilation of the three videos edited together, titling it Landfall.
The first live action video, titled Arms Race, was originally shown at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2007. It was followed up by another short, Combat, which featured Covenant and human vehicles and weapons. The final video in the series aired on October 4, 2007 and was used by Discovery Channel to promote their reality show Last One Standing. The short ties the events depicted to the beginning of Halo 3, which begins as the Master Chief plummets to Earth.
"Believe" campaign
The last major advertising campaign before and during Halo 3s release was a series of videos marketed with the tagline "Believe", beginning September 11, 2007. These videos, with an estimated cost of $10 million, were directed by Rupert Sanders (known for video game advertisements) and made to depict a generic representation of a single battle in Halo 3. Live-action videos featured elderly war veterans at the "Museum of Humanity" reminiscing about the Human-Covenant war and the role the Master Chief played. The Believe website allowed visitors to pan the length of a massive diorama over in size and over twelve feet tall, with handcrafted human and Covenant figures represented at one-twelfth scale. According to Microsoft, the unusual presentation of a model rather than computer graphics was chosen to look at "the themes that lie at the heart of the Halo trilogy—war, duty, sacrifice, and most importantly the heroism of Master Chief." The musical score for the 'Museum of Humanity' video is a selection entitled "For All of Us" and was composed for the video by Jay Green with Big Science Music.
The diorama was built through a collaboration between Los Angeles, California-based New Deal Studios and Stan Winston Studios. Director Rupert Sanders had actors stand in for the marines, capturing their facial expressions and using them as the basis of the miniatures. Character assets from Bungie, including alien models and armor, were recreated and rebuilt for reuse. The twisted city ruins the diorama is set in were inspired by bombed-out Afghanistan suburbs. Special attention was paid to creating a photo-realistic setting which was recognizably Halo.
Public beta testing
On April 10, 2007, Bungie announced that a beta test of the multiplayer component of Halo 3 would run from May 16 to June 6, open to select members of the public. Players could enter the beta in several ways. Testers were selected from those who signed up on the Halo3.com website following the "Starry Night" commercial, or from the first 13,333 players to register after playing three hours of Halo 2 on Xbox Live. Players could also buy a specially-marked copy of the Xbox 360 title Crackdown, which allowed players to download the beta upon its release.
The public portion of the beta consists of matchmaking play on three multiplayer maps: Valhalla, High Ground and Snowbound. The public beta also contained a limited version of the "saved films" feature, which allows players to save and watch their played games. The day the public beta began, problems were reported from owners of Crackdown that they could not download the beta. Bungie announced that the Microsoft team found a solution and that the issue would be resolved shortly; a patch was distributed for Crackdown that fixed the problem. Bungie also extended the beta until June 10 to compensate for the issue. According to Jerret West, global group product manager, allowing users into the beta created "a psychological investment" in the game. "The idea was basically to make the beta launch huge and let the tastemakers make the launch for you... to really drive it beyond the gaming press." The beta caused a spike in preorders for the retail version of the game.
Alternate reality game
A component of Halo 3s marketing was an alternate reality game or ARG called "Iris". Alternate reality games, which involve cross-media gameplay and player participation, had been previously used for the promotion of Halo 2 in the form of the influential and award-winning I Love Bees. Soon after the Halo 3 public beta ended, a user named "AdjutantReflex" appeared in the official Halo 3 forums on Bungie and began posting. A Circuit City advertisement was leaked onto the web days earlier, revealing the web address of an interactive comic which could be manipulated to reveal the IP addresses of another series of sites. One website was the home of the "Society of the Ancients" a group supposedly interested in evidence of Forerunner artifacts left on Earth. Another featured a Forerunner object which gradually revealed text logs and video clips.
Merchandise and promotions
The launch of Halo 3 coincided with the release of various games, action figures, and collectible toys. WizKids developed a Clix collectible miniatures game entitled Halo ActionClix which was released on September 18, 2007. The tabletop game features miniature figures from the Halo universe, including characters and vehicles. Halo ActionClix figures were occasionally bundled with the game in promotional packs, and Gamestation stores in the United Kingdom offered a Master Chief figurine to the first 1000 pre-orders of the Halo 3 Legendary Edition.
While previous Halo action figure series were produced by Joyride Studios, Todd McFarlane produced several sets of Halo 3-related action figures. In addition to articulated figures released throughout 2008, McFarlane also released 12" inarticulate and more detailed figurines in November. Other companies which produced Halo 3 figures and statues include Kotobukiya, a Japanese company specializing in high-end statues and replicas, and Weta Collectibles, a division spawned from the famed physical effects company Weta Workshop. Weta Collectibles auctioned four of the statues in their lineup, specially cast in solid sterling silver, for auction on eBay during August.
Microsoft collaborated with other companies to produce Halo-themed merchandise and promotions at retailers and vendors. PepsiCo created a variant of Mountain Dew called Game Fuel. 7-Eleven sold a Slurpee version of the drink. Burger King announced a special promotion starting September 24, 2007 featuring Halo designs and characters on food wrappings. Microsoft sponsored the #40 car driven by David Stremme for Chip Ganassi Racing in the Dover 400 Nextel Cup Series. The racecar featured a Halo 3 inspired paintjob featuring the title for the game printed prominently on the hood and rear bumper, as well as large pictures of Master Chief on each of the rear fenders.
Launch and impact
More than 10,000 retail stores in the United States held midnight launch parties for Halos release, in addition to other locations around the globe. Microsoft coordinated its own multiple-city launch parties, and Bungie staff members travelled around the world to host parties, in addition to a launch party held at Bungie's workplace; Larry Hryb attended the New York City launch party. Sponsored launches featured prize giveaways and chances for fans to play Halo against celebrities and Bungie team members. The BFI IMAX Theater in London was devoted to Halo 3, while some areas in the United Kingdom cancelled midnight launches fearing unruliness from the large crowds.
Halo 3 was phenomenally successful upon release. The game made $170 million in US sales on the first day of release, generating more money in 24 hours than any other American entertainment property up to that point. Halo would make an additional $130 million by week's end and sell 3.3 million units by the end of the month. By 2008, Halo 3 had sold 4.8 million units in the United States for a total of 8.1 million units worldwide, making it the best-selling game of 2007 in the United States.
Critics and publications pointed to the massive marketing and launch of Halo 3 as evidence that video games had "finally hit the mainstream". Video game critic Steve West of CinemaBlend.com pointed out the Halo 3 phenomenon as evidence of the mainstreaming of video games, stating that "...Like movies, radio, and television before, games are becoming more and more accepted in the popular culture." To capitalize on the mainstream attention, Joystiq sister site Xbox360Fanboy noted, "Microsoft contends that such a [marketing] push is necessary to maintain the appearance of 'a big budget, mass media event'."
At the PRWeek awards Microsoft won the "Technology Campaign of the Year" along with Edelman for Halo 3s launch. At the 2008 ANDY Awards, the "Believe" campaign won the "GRANDY", the grand prize. Halo 3s advertising also won five "gold cubes", one "silver cube" and two distinctive merit certificates at the Art Directors Club Annual Awards Ceremony, most of the awards relating to the Believe campaign.
References
External links
Bungie Media Player at Bungie
New Deal Studios
Article about New Deal Studios and Halo 3
Halo (franchise)
Halo 3 | wiki |
Bluefin or Blue Fin and variants may refer to:
Fish
Bluefin tuna, multiple species of tuna
Bluefin damsel (Neoglyphidodon melas), damselfish
Bluefin driftfish (Psenes pellucidus)
Bluefin gurnard (Chelidonichthys kumu), fish in the sea robin family
Bluefin stoneroller (Campostoma pauciradii), fish in the family Cyprinidae
Bluefin trevally (Caranx melampygus), marine fish in the jack family
False bluefin trevally (Carangoides orthogrammus), fish in the jack family
Other uses
Blue Fin, a 1978 Australian family movie
Bluefin Robotics, a maker of autonomous underwater vehicles
Bluefin-21, an underwater vehicle used in the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 search
Bluefin Labs, Massachusetts television analytics company
New York Bluefins, a professional ice hockey team based in New York in the Federal Hockey League (2010–2013)
MV Blue Fin, a cargo ship built in 1945 and sunk in 1965
See also | wiki |
LGBT psychology is a field of psychology of surrounding the lives of LGBT individuals, in the particular the diverse range of psychological perspectives and experiences of these individuals. It covers different aspects such as identity development including the coming out process, parenting and family practices and support for LGBT individuals, as well as issues of prejudice and discrimination involving the LGBT community.
Definition
LGBTQ psychology stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer psychology. This list is not inclusive to all people within the community and the plus represents other identities not covered within the acronym. In the past this field was known as Lesbian and Gay psychology. Now it also includes Bisexual and Transgender identities and behaviors. In addition, the "Q" stands for Queer which includes sexual identities and behaviors that go beyond traditional sex and gender labels, roles, and expectations.
It is important to note that the word "queer" was historically a slur used towards people within the community. Those who identify as queer today have reclaimed this label as self-identification. However, due to the traditional use of the word, many people in the LGBT community continue to reject this label. Some of the identities that fall under the term queer are aromatic, demi-sexual, asexual, non-binary, agender, genderfluid, genderqueer, pansexual, intersex, genderqueer, etc.
The names for this field are different in different parts of the world. In the UK and USA, the acronym LGBT is widely used. The terms 'lesbian', 'gay', 'bisexual', 'trans' and 'queer' are not used all around the world and definitions vary.
Apart from the terms above, there are other words and phrases that are used to define sexuality and gender identity. These words and phrases typically come from western cultures. In contrast, in non-western cultures, the range of sexual and gender identities and practices are labelled and categorized using different languages, which naturally also involve different concepts compared to Western ones.
It is concerned with the study of LGBTQ individuals' sexuality – sexual identities and behaviors – thereby validating their unique identities and experiences. This research focus is affirmative for LGBT individuals, as it challenges prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and discriminatory policies and practices towards the LGBTQ community.
It also includes the study of heterosexuality – other-sex romantic attraction, preferences and behaviors, as well as heteronormativity – the traditional view of heterosexuality being the universal norm. This line of research aims to understand heterosexuality from a psychological perspective, with the additional goal of challenging heterosexuality as the norm in the field of psychology and in society as a whole.
The overall goal of LGBTQ psychology is to raise awareness of LGBT issues in scholarly work and psychological research. In raising this awareness, LGBT+ psychology aims to be one of the fields in which inclusive, non-heterosexist, non-genderist approaches are applied in psychological research and practice. These approaches reject the notion that heterosexuality is the 'default' and acknowledge a spectrum of genders outside of the traditional binary, allowing for more inclusive and accurate research. In line with LGBTQ psychology being an inclusive field of study and practice, it welcomes scholars or professionals from any branch of psychology with an interest in LGBTQ research.
Umbrella Terms
The 'Q' in LGBTQ is an umbrella term for identities or sexualities that do not fall within lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender identities. For example, the term non-binary is used to house many identities within the LGBTQ community. Non-binary is a term that is used to define identities that do not fall within the traditional gender binary. This means that any identities that do not classify as male or female would technically fall within the non-binary umbrella term. Identities that are usually associated with the non-binary umbrella term are genderqueer, agender, intersex, etc. Transgender is also an umbrella term for any identities that do not identify as the genders that they were assigned at birth. Non-binary can also be used within the transgender umbrella term.
History
Sexology
Sexology is a part of the historical foundation upon which LGBTQ psychology was built. The work of early sexologists, in particular those who contributed to the establishment of sexology as a scientific field of sexuality and gender ambiguity, is highly relevant and seminal to the field of LGBT psychology.
As previously mentioned, sexology is a scientific field of study focusing on sexuality and gender identity. In the field of sexology, a broad classification spectrum known as inversion, is used to define homosexuality. On this spectrum, early sexologists included both 'same-sex sexuality' and 'cross-gender identification' as belonging to this all-inclusive category. More contemporary sexology researchers conceptualize and categorize sexuality and gender diversity separately. In terms of LGB sexualities, this would fall under sexual diversity. As for transsexuality, this would be placed under gender diversity. Important figures in this field include Magnus Hirschfeld and Karl-Heinrich Ulrichs.
The historical emergence of 'gay affirmative' psychology
Gay affirmative psychology was first established in the 1970s. It was founded with the mission of 1) challenging the idea and view of homosexuality as a mental illness and 2) affirming the normal and healthy psychological functioning of homosexual individuals by dispelling beliefs and attitudes of homosexuality being associated with mental illness. There has been a lot of stigma surrounding the LGBTQ community which may result in feelings of self-hate. Gay affirmative therapy has been implemented with the purpose of combatting the influence that LGBTQ oppression may have had on the individuals in the community.
Following this field's mission, most of the research conducted in this area has naturally looked at the pathologization of homosexuality. In relation to this, much attention has also been placed on heterosexual and cis-gender (i.e. non-trans) individuals' lived experiences.
In the 1980s, the name gay affirmative psychology changed to Lesbian and Gay psychology to denote that this branch of psychology spanned both the lives and experiences of gay men and lesbian women. Later on, additional terms were included in the name of this field. Variations of LGB, LGBTQ, LGBTQ+ or LGBTQIA+ are used to refer to the field of LGBTQ psychology.
Due to the variation in the terminology to define this field, it has led to significant discussion and debate regarding which term is the most inclusive of all individuals. Though there continues to be ongoing debate surrounding the terminology used to define the field of LGBTQ psychology, this in fact highlights the field's concern over the diversity in human sexuality and gender orientation. Further, the various letters within the LGBTQ acronym indicates the diversity and variation in the scope of research that is conducted within the field – namely the types of research questions and the types of methodological approaches used to address these questions.
Traditionally, LGBTQ psychology has largely focused on researching the experiences of gay men and lesbian women meeting the following criteria:
Young
Caucasian
Middle-class
Healthy
Residing in urban areas
Individuals may benefit from gay affirmative therapy if their therapist shares the same experience as them, but there may be a bias alongside having a therapist that is a part of the LGBTQ community. Heterosexual therapists may also hold stigma or not have the knowledge to be able to properly handle a client that belongs to the LGBTQ community.
The scope of research within the field of LGBTQ psychology has been somewhat lacking in breadth and diversity due to most of the observations regarding LGBTQ psychology to be based in behavioral research. A majority of the research done on LGBTQ psychology has been through the use of physical observations and still lacks psychological research.
Overall, LGBTQ psychology is a sub-discipline of psychology that incorporates multiple perspectives and approaches regarding the populations of study, topics of research, and the theories and methodologies that inform the ways in which this research is carried out.]
Mental health
LGBTQ individuals experience a significant amount of stigma and discrimination at various stages of their lives. Often this stigmatization and discrimination persists throughout their lifetime. Specific acts of stigmatization and discrimination against LGBTQ individuals include physical and sexual harassment. Hate crimes are also included. These negative experiences put LGBTQ individuals' physical and emotional well-being at risk. As a result of these experiences, LGBTQ individuals typically experience a higher frequency of mental health issues compared to those who do not belong to the LGBTQ population. More than half of the LGBTQ+ community have depression and a little less than half have PTSD or anxiety disorder.
The following list shows the different mental health issues that LGBTQ individuals may experience:
Anxiety
Depression
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Phobic disorder
Trauma
Substance abuse
Self-harming behaviors
Suicidal tendencies and suicide
The list above is by no means complete or exhaustive, rather it shows the range and severity of the issues that LGBTQ individuals often experience. These issues usually result from a combination of negative experiences and a perpetual difficulty accepting their LGBTQ identity in an anti-LGBT society.
Suicidal tendencies and suicide are serious issues for LGBTQ youth. Compared to their non-LGBT peers, LGBTQ youth typically engage in a higher rate (around 3 to 4 times higher) of attempted suicides. People who identify as transgender are almost nine times more likely to attempt suicide than a person who does not identify in that way. A reason the number of LGBTQ+ community members who experience poor mental health is high is because it is found that many have had experiences where health care providers disrespected them. This causes one to postpone care or not return to a doctor again. Without professional help, symptoms of mental illness worsen. In school, LGBTQ youth have a higher likelihood of experiencing verbal and physical abuse due to their sexual orientation, gender identity and expression. LGBTQ youth quickly learn from these negative social experiences that they are more likely to receive negative judgment and treatment, and often rejection, from those around them. This becomes a vicious cycle in which LGBTQ youths' self-beliefs and self-perceptions are negatively reinforced by society. Evidently, the high rates of mental health issues among LGBTQ communities has been perpetuated, and continues to be so, by systemic prejudice and discrimination against LGBTQ individuals.
Nevertheless, LGBTQ individuals do not necessarily experience the same types of prejudice or discrimination, nor do they respond in the same ways to prejudice or discrimination. What is common are the reasons leading to prejudice and discrimination. In the context of LGBT-targeted prejudice and discrimination, it broadly relates to sexual orientation issues (e.g. LGB) or gender identity issues (e.g. transgender). Our basic needs as human beings include being our true selves and being accepted for who we are. Feeling loved for who we are is an important aspect of a healthy mind. Due to discrimination, LGBTQ+ individuals experience more stress and low self-esteem. Systemic prejudice and discrimination leads to LGBT individuals experiencing substantial amounts of stress on a long-term basis. It also influences LGBTQ individuals to internally assimilate all the negativity they receive, emphasizing the differences they have with others. This, in turn, causes LGBT individuals to experience guilt and shame regarding their identity, feelings and actions.
The coming out process involving LGBTQ individuals can also create a lot of added pressure from family, peers and society. This process is about LGBTQ individuals openly proclaiming their sexual orientation and/or gender identity to others. In addition, LGBTQ individuals also experience other negative outcomes, for example:
Sexual orientation and/or gender transition
Internalized oppression of sexual orientation and/or gender identity
Exclusion and ostracization
Removed or reduced family or social support
Facilitating mental health well-being for LGBTQ individuals is a highly pertinent matter.
The main factors in promoting positive mental health for LGBTQ individuals are as follows:
Presence of family and peer support
Community-based and workplace support
Understanding, appropriate and positive feedback provided during the coming out process
Defining, assessing and handling the social factors influencing LGBTQ individuals' health outcomes
Gender
In the past, a lot of LGBTQ studies were mainly based around the idea of sexuality, but more recently there have been more studies around the gender binary. As the community has become more inclusive and understanding of different identities over time, there has been an addition to the focus of LGBTQ psychology surrounding queer gender identities. Identities such as non-binary, transgender and gender queer may have different experiences in their coming of age and may need guidance or therapy based in those specific experiences. People that have queer identities have different experiences than people who are of homosexuality and need resources that pertain to their specific issues or needs. For example, transgender people may go through hormone therapy or face oppression that is not the same as cisgendered people who are a part of the LGBTQ community.
LGBTQ identity development in youth
There is an increasing trend of LGBT youth coming out and openly embracing and establishing their sexual or gender identities to people around them. Since 2000 the average age of coming out was around 14. This age compared to the average age of 16 recorded between 1996 and 1998, and 20 during the 1970s, shows that LGBTQ youth are comfortably recognizing their sexual or gender identities at an earlier age. Based on the large aggregate of research on identity development, in particular sexuality and gender identity, it appears that young people have an awareness of their LGBTQ identity from an early age. This awareness can be observed starting in childhood, specifically the feeling of being different from their peers and having non-normative appearances, behaviors and interests.
During adolescence, there are gradual shifts in young people's attitudes and behaviors regarding themselves and others. At the beginning of adolescence, young people are more aware of, and concerned about how they and others present against gender and sexuality norms. In the middle of adolescence, young people tend to hold more biased, stereotypical attitudes and show more negative behaviors towards LGBTQ individuals and topics. It is clear that the early adolescence years make it easy for LGBTQ youth who have come out to have negative or unpleasant social experiences. These experiences could involve peers intentionally excluding them from friendship groups, peers engaging in persistent, harmful acts of bullying, and more.
While there appears to be more and more LGBTQ youth coming out about their sexual and gender identities, there are also youth who do not come out and are against the idea of coming out. Thus far, psychological theory surrounding LGBTQ identity development suggests that individuals who do not come out, or are against the idea of coming out are either in denial about their identity or wish to come out but are unable to. Aside from the fact that LGBTQ youth are more vulnerable to experiencing negative social reactions and treatment as a result of coming out, there may also be other reasons for this. Firstly, the higher visibility of diverse sexualities and gender identities could influence young people in becoming more reluctant towards concretely defining their sexuality and gender identity(Savin-Williams, 2005). Young people are turning away from these types of labels in opposition of social identity labels, demonstrating the importance of their sexuality and gender identity within their personal identity. As well, LGBTQ individuals from ethnic and cultural minority groups often refrain from using sexual identity labels, which they see as westernized concepts that do not relate to them.
Schools
Current data regarding LGBTQ families and their children show an increasing number of such families, as in the United States of America, and suggests that this number is continuously increasing. Children of LGBTQ parents are at risk of being the targets of discrimination and violence against LGBTQ individuals in the education system. School has become such an unsafe place for certain LGBTQ individuals that absences have skyrocketed due to not feeling safe from violence and verbal harassment. These attacks at their identity can lead to chronic sadness and thoughts of suicide. The abuse that many LGBTQ+ students face have led to thoughts of feeling like there is something wrong with them. Therefore, this is an important issue that must be addressed to ensure the physical and psychological well-being of children from LGBT families. Apart from children of LGBT families having negative school experiences, LGBTQ parents also face challenges with regards to anti-LGBT bias and related negative behaviors that are often a part of the school climate.
LGBTQ parents can refer to the following strategies to facilitate a more safe, positive and welcoming experience in interacting with schools and school personnel: school choice, engagement, and advocacy. Many schools are not particularly inclusive of LGBTQ individuals, as anti-LGBT language is often used and cases of harassment and victimization with regards to sexual orientation or gender identity often occur. Therefore, parental choice of the school in which their child enrolls is crucial. As far as parents are able to select a school for their child, selecting a school that is inclusive of LGBTQ individuals is one way to ensure a more positive school experience for themselves and for their children. Parental engagement with schools in terms of volunteering and other forms of involvement, such as being on parent-teacher organizations, allows LGBTQ parents to be more involved in issues which may concern their child. Parents can access resources that provide information on how parents can facilitate dialogue and collaboration with teachers and schools, enabling them to become proactive advocates of their child's education and school experience.
School-based interventions are also effective in improving the experiences of children from LGBTQ families. Typically, these interventions target school climate, in particular the aspects which pertain to homophobia and transphobia. Enforcing anti-bullying/harassment policies and laws in schools can protect students from LGBTQ families from being victims of bullying and harassment. Having these policies in place generally allows students to have fewer negative experiences in school, such as a lower likelihood of mistreatment by teachers and other students. Implementing professional development opportunities for school staff on how to provide appropriate support for students from LGBTQ families will not only facilitate a more positive school experience for students, but will in turn, lead to a more positive school climate in general. Although these laws do take a step in the right direction to contribute to students feeling safe at school, another way for teachers to show their support and make them feel welcome is by putting up pride flags. This can make one feel included. Once one feels safe with the teacher to be themselves, the student will be more open to talking about their struggles. The next step is educating teachers on the resources they can use to help these children. Using an LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum where LGBTQ individuals, history and events are portrayed in a more positive manner allows students to become more aware and more accepting of LGBT-related issues. Specific ways in which LGBT matters can be incorporated into the curriculum include: talking about diverse families (e.g. same-sex couples and LGBTQ parents), discussing LGBTQ history (e.g. talking about significant historical events and movements related to the LGBTQ community), using LGBT-inclusive texts in class and celebrating LGBT events (e.g. LGBTQ History Month in October or LGBTQ Pride Month in June).
Further, organizing LGBTQ student clubs (e.g. Gay-Straight Alliances) are a positive resource and source of support for students from LGBTQ families. Studies conducted on Gay-Straight Alliance (GSA) clubs have repeatedly shown a reduction in hopelessness of LGBTQ individuals who were victimized for their sexual orientation and helps decrease the risk of suicide attempts or ideation. With their inclusion of heterosexual youth, GSAs help foster a safe school environment for LGBT individuals by decreasing victimization and fear for safety. In addition to GSAs, schools that adopt safe school programs such as safe zones, diversity trainings, ally trainings, or implementation of anti-discrimination and anti-harassment policies reduce bullying and facilitate a safer school environment.
Workplace Discrimination
People that identify as a part of the LGBTQ+ community often face adversity and discrimination in the workplace. In an experimental study entitled, "Documented Evidence of Employment Discrimination & Its Effects on LGBT People," conducted by Brad Sears and Christy Mallory of the UCLA School of Law, resumes that associated applicants with a gay organization and ones that did not mention anything about the LGBTQ+ community were both sent to potential employers. Individuals' resumes that were associated with the LGBTQ+ community were less likely to receive an interview. Individuals that are able to receive an interview and get the job, furthermore, are susceptible to discrimination during work. LGBTQ+ individuals are more likely to experience discrimination in their place of work than someone who has not identified their sexuality. Discrimination often leads to health problems whether that be mental or physical. Someone who is frequently discriminated against is most likely to not show up to work, quit their job, and not put their effort into the tasks they are given due to their state of mind and the health issues that arise. To avoid workplace discrimination, many individuals will hide who they are by changing their overall appearance and keeping their sexuality a secret.
Pride
Pride celebrations allow the LGBTQ+ community to celebrate their identity. It is a day where LGBTQ+ individuals and allies come together to look back on the history and how far the community has come. They celebrate the pain that they experienced and continue to experience and they feel surrounded by people that love them for who they are. A feeling of connection and validation is important for good health and Pride is the place for people of all identities to connect. People are more likely to attend pride if they feel as though their sexual identity makes up a major part of who they are as a person. Pride is an important way to normalize being a part of the LGBTQ+ community and to make society more accepting, but there are still other ways to show that being a member of the community is not shameful.
Types of applications outside the theoretical perspective
Effective treatment methods
Expressive writing
Research has found that writing about traumatic or negative experiences (known as "expressive writing") can be an effective way to reduce psychological stress that stem from such events. When youth engaged in expressive writing on issues related to their LGBTQ identity, their mental health well-being improved. This improvement was especially significant in youth who did not have much social support, or who wrote about more serious topics, as well as in individuals who were less open about their sexualities or had not come out. Expressive writing interventions have been shown to produce positive emotional outcomes for a variety of issues, including illness, childhood trauma, and relationship stress. Writing therapy is the use of expressive writing along with other methods in a therapy setting.
Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) – Effective Skills to Empower Effective Men (ESTEEM)
Cognitive-behavioural therapy focuses on changing thoughts and feelings that lead to negative behaviors, into more positive thoughts, feelings and behaviours. This treatment method is effective for a variety of mental health issues, including those related to LGBTQ identities. CBT can help reduce depression and anxiety and promote healthy coping mechanisms within LGBTQ youth. The ESTEEM program targeted stress-related thoughts and feelings that result from LGBTQ discrimination and stigma. Individuals who participated in the ESTEEM program experienced fewer depression-related thoughts and feelings and they also consumed less alcohol.
Parent and family-based LGBT treatment and education
Many LGBTQ youth may receive backlash from their families due to their sexuality or sexual identity. This may result in mental health issues such as suicide or depression. The unacceptability of an LGBTQ youth's sexuality within a household may result in mistreatment or in more severe cases, removing said person from the home. Family members not accepting their child for who they are has made it three times more likely that as an adult they will partake in the use of illegal drugs. Due to these factors, an average of 28% of LGBTQ youth have suicidal thoughts and 15%-40% make suicidal attempts each year.
Family-based treatment catering to suicidal LGBTQ adolescents where parents were given significant periods of time to process their feelings about and towards their child was found to be effective. For example, parents had time to think through how they felt about their child's LGBTQ orientation, and be made aware of how their responses towards their child could potentially reflect attitudes of devaluation. Adolescents that took part in this treatment had fewer suicidal thoughts and fewer depression-related thoughts and feelings. What is especially noteworthy is that these positive gains were sustained for many youth. While these results have been found to be effective, this method of therapy is only helpful if the family or parents are willing to go through the process of unlearning any stigma they may have against their relative being part of the LGBTQ community.
Noneffective Treatment methods
Conversion therapy (CT)
Conversion therapy focuses on altering homosexual and/or transgender individuals to heterosexual and cis-gender identities. Conversion therapy consists of a variety of approaches ranging from aversion and hormonal therapy, to religious-based techniques such as threats of eternal damnation or use of prayer. Little empirical evidence exists for CT, as most evidence is anecdotal or lacks acknowledgement of participants potentially faking or experiencing dissonance-induced rationalization. Long-term effects of CT, such as decreased overall sex drive, shame, fear, low self-esteem, and increased depression and anxiety have been observed in individuals that participated in CT programs. Due to the lack of scientific support, association with psychosocial health problems, and rejection of the practice by organizations like the American Psychiatric Association (APA), use of conversion therapy is often considered ethically problematic. Given the above concerns, there are multiple countries and various U.S. jurisdictions banning conversion therapy.
See also
LGBT youth vulnerability
References
LGBT studies
Sexual orientation and psychology | wiki |
Landscape Arch is the longest of the many natural rock arches located in Arches National Park, Utah, United States and among the longest natural stone arches in the world.
Description
The arch is among many in the Devils Garden area in the north of the park. Landscape Arch was named by Frank Beckwith who explored the area in the winter of 1933–1934 as the leader of an Arches National Monument scientific expedition. The arch can be accessed by a graded gravel trail.
The Natural Arch and Bridge Society (NABS) considers Landscape Arch the fifth longest natural arch in the world, after four arches in China. The span of Landscape Arch was measured at , ±, in 2004. NABS measured the span of the slightly shorter Kolob Arch in Zion National Park at in 2006.
The most recent recorded rockfall events occurred in the 1990s when one large slab fell in 1991 and then two additional large rockfalls occurred in 1995. Since the rockfalls, the trail beneath the arch has been closed.
See also
List of longest natural arches
Delicate Arch
Durdle Door
Wall Arch
Xianren Bridge
References
External links
Natural Arch and Bridge Society article
Natural arches of Grand County, Utah
Natural arches of Utah
Arches National Park | wiki |
18O or variant, may refer to:
Oxygen 18 (18O), an isotope of oxygen with atomic mass number 18 (8 protons + 10 neutrons)
2019 Catalan general strike (18-O)
18º, a way to write the ordinal number 18th (eighteenth)
See also
δ18O
O-18 (disambiguation) and O18
18 (disambiguation)
O (disambiguation)
180 (disambiguation) (one-eight-zero; 180)
I80 (disambiguation) (i-eight-zero; I80)
l80 (disambiguation) (L-eight-zero; l80) | wiki |
Broken World may refer to:
"Broken World" (Millennium), an episode of the television series Millennium
"Broken World" (song), a song by Millencolin
Dungeon Siege II: Broken World, an expansion pack for the video game Dungeon Siege II | wiki |
Cunt is a vulgarism primarily referring to the female genitalia, see vulva.
Cunt may also refer to:
Cunt (album), by Australian grindcore band Blood Duster
Cunt: The Movie, a DVD produced by a group of Melbourne high school students
Cunt: A Declaration of Independence, a 1998 feminist book by Inga Muscio
"Gilded Cunt," a song by extreme heavy metal band Cradle of Fifth from the album Nymphetamine
CuNT, an acronym for a copper nanotube
See also
Cunt splice, an archaic nautical term for a form of rope splice
Cunt cap, a type of cap
Cuntline, an archaic nautical term for the "valley" between the strands of a rope or cable
The Fucking Cunts Treat Us Like Pricks - 1984 album by Flux of Pink Indians
See You Next Tuesday (disambiguation), a euphemistic backronym
Cnut the Great, king of England | wiki |
The ramp effect (or ramping effect) is a phenomenon involved in drug addiction whereby an addict develops a resistance to a substance, and thus requires increasingly large quantities of that substance to achieve the same effect. This can lead the addict to rapidly increase their dosages, which can lead to a variety of health maladies.
After the ramp effect has begun, it may be very difficult to deprive an addict of their substance, or even to reduce the dosage. Much of drug rehabilitation consists of resisting and reversing the ramping effect.
See also
Drug tolerance
Substance dependence
Drug rehabilitation | wiki |
Miller Library may refer to:
U. Grant Miller Library at Washington & Jefferson College
Miller Library at Colby College
Henry Miller Memorial Library
Elisabeth C. Miller Library, a unit of University of Washington Botanic Gardens
Willis L. Miller Library, a branch of South Georgia Regional Library | wiki |
The 1987–88 FA Cup was the 107th season of the world's oldest knockout football competition, The Football Association Challenge Cup, or FA Cup for short. The competition was won by Wimbledon F.C.'s Crazy Gang who defeated league champions Liverpool through a headed goal by Lawrie Sanchez, thus denying Liverpool the double. They would be one of three clubs other than Manchester United, Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool to win the trophy in the following 20 years (the others being Everton and Tottenham Hotspur) before Portsmouth's victory in the 2008 final. This was Wimbledon's only FA Cup title during its lifetime.
The tournament started in August 1987 with non-league teams competing in a qualifying competition.
First round proper
Teams from the Football League Third and Fourth Division entered in this round plus Kidderminster Harriers, Burton Albion, Altrincham and Telford United, were given byes. The first round of games were played over the weekend 14–15 November 1987, with the exception of the Welling United – Carshalton Athletic game. Replays were played in the midweek fixtures on 16th-17th. All other replays were played on 28 November.
Second round proper
The second round of games were played over 5–6 December 1987, with replays being played at various dates afterwards (no replay was played on the same night as another).
Third round proper
Teams from the Football League First and Second Division entered in this round. The third round of games in the FA Cup were played over the weekend 9–11 January 1988, with the first set of replays being played on 12–13 January. Three games went to second replays and one of these to a third replay.
Fourth round proper
The fourth round of games were played over the weekend 30 January – 1 February 1988, with replays being played on 3 February. A second replay was then played on 9 February. Holders Coventry City were eliminated by Watford.
Fifth round proper
The fifth set of games were played over the weekend 20–21 February 1988, with replays on 23–24 February.
Sixth round proper
The sixth round of FA Cup games were played over the weekend 12–13 March 1988. There were no replays.
Semi-finals
Luton Town's fine season in the cup competitions culminated in a semi-final clash with Wimbledon at White Hart Lane. Wimbledon emerged as 2-1 winners to reach the FA Cup final, in only their second season in the First Division and their 11th in the Football League.
On the same day, First Division leaders Liverpool took on a resurgent Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough. Top scorer John Aldridge found the net twice in a 2-1 win.
Referee:- Keith Hackett (Sheffield)
Referee:- George Courtney (Spennymoor)
Final
Television Coverage
The right to show FA Cup games were, as with Football League matches, shared between the BBC and ITV. The stations would alternate between showing a live game and a highlights programme. No games from Rounds 1 or 2 were shown. Occasional highlights of replays would be shown on either the BBC or ITV.
These matches were.
1Footage available on YouTube
References
External links
The FA Cup at TheFA.com
FA Cup at BBC.co.uk
FA Cup news at Reuters.co.uk
FA Cup seasons
Fa Cup, 1987-88
1987–88 domestic association football cups | wiki |
Outlaw Country (2012), een film uit 2012
Outlaw (country), ook wel progressieve country, een countrymuziekstijl die zijn hoogtij had in de jaren zeventig
Outlaw Country (Sirius XM), een Canadees radiostation met outlaw-countrymuziek | wiki |
The Last Shot is a 2004 comedy film
The Last Shot may also refer to:
The Last Shot (1951 film), a 1951 West German drama film
The Last Shot (basketball), Michael Jordan's game-winning shot in Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals
Last Shot: A Final Four Mystery, a young adult novel by John Feinstein
Last Shot (Gregg Hurwitz novel), a novel by Gregg Hurwitz
Nothing Underneath, a 1985 giallo film also known as The Last Shot
Last shot, in contract law
"Last Shot", a song by Kip Moore | wiki |
Jugging is the process of stewing whole animals, mainly game or fish, for an extended period in a tightly covered container such as a casserole or an earthenware jug.
In France a similar stew of a game animal (historically thickened with the animal's blood) is known as a civet.
Jugged hare
One common traditional dish that involves jugging is jugged hare (a similar stew is known as civet de lièvre in France), which is a whole hare, cut into pieces, marinated and cooked with red wine and juniper berries in a tall jug that stands in a pan of water. It is traditionally served with the hare's blood (or the blood is added right at the very end of the cooking process) and port wine.
Jugged hare is described in the influential 18th-century cookbook, The Art of Cookery by Hannah Glasse, with a recipe titled, "A Jugged Hare", that begins, "Cut it into little pieces, lard them here and there ..." The recipe goes on to describe cooking the pieces of hare in water in a jug that is set within a bath of boiling water to cook for three hours. Beginning in the nineteenth century, Glasse has been widely credited with having started the recipe with the words "First, catch your hare". This attribution is apocryphal. Her actual directions are, "Take your Hare when it is cas'd, and make a pudding ..." To 'case' means to take off the skin [not "to catch"]. Both the Oxford English Dictionary and The Dictionary of National Biography discuss the attribution.
However, having a freshly caught, or shot, hare enables one to obtain its blood. A freshly killed hare is prepared for jugging by removing its entrails and then hanging it in a larder by its hind legs, which causes the blood to accumulate in the chest cavity. One method of preserving the blood after draining it from the hare (since the hare itself is usually hung for a week or more) is to mix it with red wine vinegar in order to prevent it coagulating, and then to store it in a freezer.
Many other British cookbooks from before the middle of the 20th century have recipes for jugged hare. Merle and Reitch have this to say about Jugged Hare, for example:
In 2006, a survey of 2021 people for the television channel UKTV Food found that only 1.6% of the people aged under 25 recognized jugged hare by name. 7 out of 10 of those people stated that they would refuse to eat jugged hare if it were served at the house of a friend or a relative.
Civet de lapin
Civet de lapin (rabbit stew) is an alternative to civet de lièvre. It is considered a speciality of the cuisine of Martinique.
Jugged kippers
Another jugged dish, also traditional in the United Kingdom, is jugged kippers, which is kippers (with the heads and tails removed) in a covered jug, cooked in boiling water. Recipe books recommend jugging kippers as one way of avoiding the strong smell that kippers have.
See also
List of cooking techniques
List of meat dishes
References
Further reading
Mrs Beeton's recipe for Jugged Hare
Another detailed recipe, with alternatives
Bishop's recipe includes a note that "in some parts of the country" the hare is cooked in ale with bacon.
A recipe for Jugged Steak
A modern French recipe for civet de lièvre, using a pressure cooker
Two recipes for jugging pigeons
Blood dishes
Cooking techniques
Meat dishes
Stews | wiki |
The Tides of Time () is a science fiction novel by John Brunner. It was first published in the United States by Ballantine Del Rey Books in 1984. The novel tells the story of two people on an isolated island, each time they awoke from sleep, they lived a different life in a different time.
Reception
Dave Langford reviewed The Tides of Time for White Dwarf #78, and stated that "Brunner's philosophical contention probably needs a whole book. Here it gets about 30 pages, and it's a tribute to his skill that he keeps you reading until then."
Reviews
Review by Bob Collins (1984) in Fantasy Review, December 1984
Review by Richard E. Geis (1985) in Science Fiction Review, Spring 1985
Review by Robert Coulson (1985) in Amazing Stories, May 1985
Review by Tom Easton (1985) in Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, July 1985
Review by Roland J. Green (1986) in Far Frontiers, Volume IV/Winter 1985
Review by David Willis (1986) in Paperback Inferno, #61
Review [German] by Michael Nagula (1988) in Das Science Fiction Jahr Ausgabe 1988
Review by Peter T. Garratt (1989) in Interzone, #32 November–December 1989
References
1984 British novels
1984 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Del Rey books
Novels about time travel
Novels by John Brunner | wiki |
Living in a Dream may refer to:
"Living in a Dream" (Finger Eleven song), 2010
"Living in a Dream" (Pseudo Echo song), 1986
"Det vackraste", a 1995 Swedish song, released with the English title "Living in a Dream"
Living in a Dream (album), a 2005 live album by Arc Angels
See also
Living a Dream, a 2005 album by Katherine Jenkins
Livin' on a Dream, a 2007 album by Robin Beck
"Living in a Child's Dream" a 1967 single by the Masters Apprentices
Living the Dream (disambiguation) | wiki |
A peremptory writ of mandamus (also peremptory writ of mandate or simply peremptory mandamus) is an absolute and unqualified writ (a formal written command) to the defendant to do the act in question. It is issued when the defendant defaults on, or fails to show sufficient cause in answer to, an alternative mandamus. It is one of the three types of a mandamus.
A more exact definition of a peremptory writ of mandate is "a final order of a court to any governmental body, government official or a lower court to perform an act the court finds is an official duty required by law."
Distinguishing from other kinds of mandamus
A peremptory writ of mandate "is distinguished from an alternative writ of mandate (mandamus), which orders the governmental agency, court or officials to obey the order or show cause at a hearing why it should not."
This may also be distinguished from a continuing mandamus, which asks for an officer or other authority to perform its tasks expeditiously for an unstipulated period of time for preventing miscarriage of justice.
"The usual practice is for anyone desiring such an order is to file a petition for the alternative writ. If the officials do not comply with the order and fail to convince the court that the writ of mandate should not be issued, then the court will issue the peremptory writ. In some emergency situations or when there is no conceivable reason for the government not to follow the law, then the peremptory writ will be issued after a notice of hearing without the alternative writ."
In some jurisdictions or court systems, all types or kinds of writs are bunched together under a single procedural framework. In New York civil practice, any writ is titled a proceeding against (a) body or officer.
California
In California, writs of mandate are usually issued first in the alternative and then, if the filing party prevails, as a peremptory writ. However, in certain cases, the court of appeal or Supreme Court may grant a 'peremptory writ in the first instance', granting the requested relief immediately. Although a peremptory writ in the first instance is issued without a formal response from the real party in interest, the court must first issue a Palma notice to advise the real party in interest that a peremptory writ in the first instance is being considered, and give them an opportunity to submit an informal response.
References
Prerogative writs | wiki |
In software engineering and mathematics, numerical error is the error in the numerical computations.
Types
It can be the combined effect of two kinds of error in a calculation.
the first is caused by the finite precision of computations involving floating-point or integer values
the second usually called truncation error is the difference between the exact mathematical solution and the approximate solution obtained when simplifications are made to the mathematical equations to make them more amenable to calculation. The term truncation comes from the fact that either these simplifications usually involve the truncation of an infinite series expansion so as to make the computation possible and practical, or because the least significant bits of an arithmetic operation are thrown away.
Measure
Floating-point numerical error is often measured in ULP (unit in the last place).
See also
Loss of significance
Numerical analysis
Error analysis (mathematics)
Round-off error
Kahan summation algorithm
Numerical sign problem
References
Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms, Nicholas J. Higham,
"Computational Error And Complexity In Science And Engineering", V. Lakshmikantham, S.K. Sen,
Computer arithmetic
Numerical analysis | wiki |
Cutta dom är den första singeln från Ken Rings album Äntligen hemma. Låten är producerad av den norske musikproducenten Tommy Tee.
Spår
Cutta dom
Cutta dom (instrumental)
Cutta dom (acapella)
Musiksinglar 2004 | wiki |
Admiral Lee may refer to:
Fitzhugh Lee III (1905−1992), American vice admiral
FitzRoy Henry Lee (1699−1750), British vice admiral
Kent Lee (1923−2017), American vice admiral
Phillip Lee Jr., American chaplain and rear admiral
Richard Lee (Royal Navy officer) (1765−1837), British admiral
Robert C. Lee (1888−1971), rear admiral
Samuel Phillips Lee (1812−1897), American rear admiral
Willis Augustus Lee (1888−1945), American vice admiral
Lee Chung-wei, Taiwanese vice admiral
Lee Hsi-ming, Taiwanese admiral
Lee Jye, Taiwanese admiral
John Lee-Barber (1905−1995), British rear admiral
Charles Vaughan-Lee (1867−1928), British rear admiral | wiki |
Salar de Chalviri, also known as Salar de Ohalviri, is a salt flat in the heart of Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, in the Sur Lípez Province, Potosí Department, in southwest Bolivia. It is located at an elevation of approximately . Salvador Dalí Desert is located to the southwest of the salt flat.
References
Lakes of Potosí Department
Chalviri | wiki |
Grayback or Greyback may refer to:
Grayback (fish)
Dowitcher, a wading bird
An American duck, Aythya americana
A character in the Battle Realms: Winter of the Wolf video game expansion pack
Greyback, an American Civil War Confederate currency
USS Grayback, either of two US Navy submarines
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
Grayback is a general name given to several species of fish from North America, such as the alewife, cisco and Menominee whitefish.
Geographic distribution
Found on the Atlantic coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Nova Scotia to North Carolina, in streams and rivers, the Great Lakes, and in the Seneca and Cayuga Lakes.
References
Fish common names | wiki |
Martial law in the United States refers to times in United States history in which in a region, state, city, or the whole United States was placed under the control of a military body. On a national level, both the US President and the US Congress have the power, within certain constraints, to impose martial law since both can be in charge of the militia. In each state, the governor has the power to impose martial law within the borders of the state. In the United States, martial law has been used in a limited number of circumstances, such as New Orleans during the Battle of New Orleans; after major disasters, such as the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, or during riots, such as the Omaha race riot of 1919 or the 1920 Lexington riots; local leaders declared martial law to protect themselves from mob violence, such as Nauvoo, Illinois, during the Illinois Mormon War, or Utah during the Utah War; or in response to chaos associated with protests and rioting, such as the 1934 West Coast waterfront strike, in Hawaii after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and during the Civil Rights Movement in response to the Cambridge riot of 1963.
Legal basis
The martial law concept in the United States is closely tied to the right of habeas corpus, which is, in essence, the right to a hearing and trial on lawful imprisonment, or more broadly, the supervision of law enforcement by the judiciary. The ability to suspend habeas corpus is related to the imposition of martial law. Article 1, Section 9 of the US Constitution states, "The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it." There have been many instances of the use of the military within the borders of the United States, such as during the Whiskey Rebellion and in the South during the Civil Rights Movement, but those acts are not tantamount to a declaration of martial law. Deployment of troops does not necessarily mean that the civil courts cannot function, which is one of the keys, as the US Supreme Court noted, to martial law.
In United States law, martial law is limited by several court decisions that were handed down between the American Civil War and World War II. In 1878, Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act, which forbids US military involvement in domestic law enforcement without congressional approval.
Throughout history, martial law has been imposed at least 68 times in limited, usually local areas of the United States. Martial law was declared for these reasons: Twice for war or invasion, seven times for domestic war or insurrection, eleven times for riot or civil unrest, 29 times for labor dispute, four times for natural disaster and fifteen times for other reasons. Habeas corpus was suspended federally only once in 1863 during the Civil War.
History
American Revolution
As a result of the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the Massachusetts Government Act, one of the Intolerable Acts, which suppressed town meetings and assemblies, and imposed appointed government, tantamount to martial law.
New Orleans in War of 1812
During the War of 1812, US General Andrew Jackson imposed martial law in New Orleans, Louisiana before repulsing the British in the Battle of New Orleans. Martial law was also imposed in a four-mile radius around the vicinity. When word came of the end of the war, Jackson maintained martial law, contending that he had not gotten official word of the peace. A judge demanded habeas corpus for a man arrested for sedition. Rather than comply with the writ, Jackson had the judge arrested.
Nauvoo, Illinois, during the Illinois Mormon War (1843)
In 1843, Missouri sought to extradite Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, for allegedly attempting to murder Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs. He escaped arrest with the help of members of his church, and was discharged on a writ of habeas corpus in the Municipal Court of Nauvoo, where he was mayor, even though it was outside the court's jurisdiction. People in the neighboring town of Carthage, Illinois, felt that Smith was abusing his position in order to avoid arrest. They requested that Governor Ford call out the militia to take Smith into custody, which Governor Ford declined to do. A group of ex-Mormons published a paper called the Nauvoo Expositor which detailed Smith's alleged abuse of power. Together with the Nauvoo City Council, Smith ordered the destruction of the Nauvoo Expositor. This caused an uproar in neighboring towns, which interpreted the order as an attack on the freedom of speech. Smith was charged with causing a riot, which the Nauvoo courts dismissed. Neighboring cities raised money for a militia to go and capture Smith. Governor Ford arrived in Carthage and sent word to Smith that if he did not surrender, Ford would call out the militia. On June 18, Smith declared martial law in Nauvoo and called out the Nauvoo Legion, an organized city militia of about 5,000 men, to protect Nauvoo from outside violence. Ford sent a group of men and abolished martial law. By this time, Smith had escaped into Iowa but was convinced by his supporters to return. He was arrested for treason against the state of Illinois for declaring martial law. While awaiting trial in Carthage Jail, Smith was murdered by a mob. In 1845, Nauvoo was stripped of its charter for abuse of authority. This led to a series of conflicts known as the Illinois Mormon War.
Utah War (1857)
Tension between Utah territory and the federal government was strained in 1857 due to the influence of theodemocracy in Governor Brigham Young's semi-theocratic government, Utah's rejection of federal appointees, and Utah's acceptance of polygamy. In 1857, President James Buchanan sent U.S. forces to the Utah Territory in what became known as the Utah War. The Mormons, fearing that the large U.S. military force had been sent to annihilate them, made preparations for defense. On 15 September, Young publicly declared martial law in Utah. It was widely circulated throughout the territory and was delivered by messenger to Col. Alexander with the approaching army. The most important provision forbade "all armed forces of every description from coming into this Territory, under any pretense whatsoever". It also commanded that "all the forces in said Territory hold themselves in readiness to march at a moment's notice to repel any and all such invasion". But more important to California- and Oregon-bound travelers was the third section that stated, "Martial law is hereby declared to exist in this Territory...and no person shall be allowed to pass or repass into, through or from this territory without a permit from the proper officer." Brigham Young ordered the people in Salt Lake City, Utah, to burn their homes and retreat south to Provo, Utah. Meanwhile, the Mormons harassed the approaching army. Eventually, Brigham Young was removed as governor and replaced by Alfred Cumming.
Baltimore (1861)
In April 1861, secessionists severed railroad links around Baltimore to prevent the passage of federal troops and materiel southward. Union general Benjamin Butler entered the city the following month and took over administration from civilian authorities, despite having no federal authority to do so.
Ex parte Milligan (1863)
On September 15, 1863, President Lincoln imposed Congressionally authorized martial law. The authorizing act allowed the President to suspend habeas corpus throughout the entire United States (which he had already done under his own authority on April 27, 1861). Lincoln imposed the suspension on "prisoners of war, spies, or aiders and abettors of the enemy," as well as on other classes of people, such as draft dodgers. The President's proclamation was challenged in Ex parte Milligan, 71 US 2 [1866]. The Supreme Court ruled that Lincoln's imposition of martial law (by way of suspension of habeas corpus) was unconstitutional in areas where the local courts were still in session.
The Great Chicago Fire (1871)
In response to the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, Chicago mayor Roswell B. Mason declared a state of martial law and placed General Philip Sheridan in charge of the city on October 9, 1871. After the fire was extinguished, there were no widespread disturbances and martial law was lifted within a few days.
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho (1892)
In 1892, in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, striking mineworkers blew up a mill and shot at strike-breaking workers. The explosion leveled a four-story building and killed one person. The governor declared martial law. At the same time, a request was made for federal troops to back guardsmen. Over 600 people were arrested. The list was whittled down to two dozen ringleaders who were tried in the military court. While in prison, the mine workers formed a new union, the Western Federation of Miners.
San Francisco earthquake of 1906
Following the earthquake of 1906, the federal troops stationed in the Presidio were pressed into martial law service. They were posted throughout the city, and all dynamite was confiscated. The dynamite was used to destroy buildings in the path of fires to prevent the fires from spreading.
Colorado Coalfield War (1914 and 1917)
In 1914, the imposition of martial law climaxed during the Colorado Coalfield War. Dating back decades, the conflicts came to a head in Ludlow, Colorado, in 1913. The Colorado National Guard was called in to quell the strikers. For a time, the peace was kept, but it is reported that the make-up of the Guard stationed at the mines began to shift from impartial normal troops to companies of loyal mine guards. Clashes increased and the proclamation of martial law was made by the governor, eventually resulting in the Ludlow Massacre. President Wilson sent in federal troops, eventually ending the violence.
On August 19, 1917, the Spokane office of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW, or Wobblies) was raided, leaders arrested, and martial law was declared. The military authority was the National Guard, controlled by the U.S. War Department. This occurred in reaction to a demand by IWW leader James Rowan that all prisoners of the "class war" (he meant Wobbly strikers and strike leaders involved in a statewide lumber strike) be released or Spokane would face a general strike. The repression of the democratic, radical union in Spokane and across the state took place in the context of the Wobbly-led loggers' and sawmill workers' ongoing strike for the eight-hour day and sanitary conditions in the camps. The IWW was militant, radical, vocal and consistently nonviolent. The larger context of the repression of the union was war hysteria, combined with employer opposition to union demands. The nationwide suppression of the IWW during the war involved physical violence, vandalism, and the imprisonment of hundreds of union members and leaders.
West Virginia Coal Wars (1920-1921)
During the events of the West Virginia Coal Wars (1920–1921), martial law was declared in the state of West Virginia. At the behest of Governor Cornwell, federal troops had been dispatched to Mingo County to deal with the striking miners. The army officer in charge acted, ostensibly, under the Suspension Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution (selectively; accounts show that he jailed only union miners), and did not allow assembly of any kind. If his soldiers found any union miners, they immediately took them and imprisoned them. The jails filled up so quickly that he had to release miners. As it went, miners were arrested, jailed, and released without any sort of trial. After a time, when the trial of Sid Hatfield began, the military occupation and "veritable military dictatorship" (Governor Cornwell) of the army officer ended. Many of the miners were not released from jail. It was only the first of three times that federal troops would be called to quiet the miners in the West Virginia Mine War.
Minneapolis, Minnesota (1934)
In 1934, Minnesota Governor Floyd B. Olson placed the city of Minneapolis under martial law and deployed the National Guardsmen of the 34th Infantry Division due to escalating violence during the Minneapolis general strike of 1934 after Bloody Friday when police opened fire on picketers.
On July 26, and these deaths of protesters at the hands of the police, Farmer-Labor governor Olson declared martial law and mobilized four thousand National Guardsmen of the 34th Infantry. Following this mobilization, there was no further loss of life.
Between July 26 and August 1, the National Guard began issuing operating permits to truck drivers, and engaging in roving patrols, curfews, and security details. On August 1, National Guard troops seized strike headquarters and placed arrested union leaders in a stockade at the state fairgrounds in Saint Paul. The next day, the headquarters were restored to the union and the leaders released from the stockade, as the National Guard carried out a token raid on the Citizens Alliance headquarters.
The union appealed to the Central Labor Union for a general strike and the governor issued an ultimatum that he would stop all trucks by midnight, August 5, if there was no settlement. Nevertheless, by August 14, there were thousands of trucks operating under military permits. Although the strike was gravely weakened by martial law and economic pressure, union leaders made it clear that it would continue.
On August 21, a federal mediator got acceptance of a settlement proposal from A. W. Strong, head of the Citizens Alliance, incorporating the union's major demands. The settlement was ratified and the back of employer resistance to unionization in Minneapolis was broken.
San Francisco, California (1934)
In 1934, California Governor Frank Merriam placed the docks of San Francisco under martial law, citing "riots and tumult" resulting from a dock worker's strike. The governor threatened to place the entire city under martial law. The National Guard was called in to open the docks, and a citywide institution of martial law was averted when goods began to flow. The guardsmen were empowered to make arrests and to then try detainees or turn them over to the courts.
Territory of Hawaii in World War II (1941-1944)
During World War II (1939–1945) what is now the State of Hawaii was held under martial law from December 7, 1941, to October 24, 1944, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After the war, one of the federal judges for the islands, Judge J. Frank McLaughln, condemned the conduct of martial law, saying, "Gov. Poindexter declared lawfully martial law but the Army went beyond the governor and set up that which was lawful only in conquered enemy territory namely, military government which is not bound by the Constitution. And they ... threw the Constitution into the discard and set up a military dictatorship."
Russell County, Alabama (1954–55)
Alabama Governor Gordon Persons placed Russell County under martial law in June 1954 due to the pervasive influence of organized crime gangs. The National Guard assumed law enforcement duties in the county for the remainder of the year, shut down gang-controlled establishments, and oversaw the first lawful elections in decades.
Freedom Riders (1961)
On May 21, 1961, Governor Patterson of Alabama declared martial law "as a result of outside agitators coming into Alabama to violate our laws and customs" which had led to "outbreaks of lawlessness and mob action." The "outside agitators" were "Freedom Riders", peaceful civil rights activists challenging the already-illegal racial segregation in the South.
2007 National Defense Authorization Act
H.R. 5122, also known as the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 was a bill passed in the United States Congress on September 29, 2006, and signed by President George W. Bush on October 17, 2006, becoming Public Law 109-364. In addition to allocating funding for the armed forces, it also gave the president the power to declare martial law and to take command of the National Guard units of each state without the consent of state governors.
On April 2, 2007, US Senate held hearings about recent changes to the Insurrection Act of 1807, (in Sec 1072 of Defense Authorization Act) where Sen. Patrick Leahy of Vermont sought to reverse the 2006 amendments to the Insurrection Act, which had given the US President new powers to use military for domestic disturbance, terrorism, insurrection, etc, and even changed the name from "Insurrection Act" to "Enforcement of the Laws to Restore Public Order." In the Senate Hearing, Senator Kit Bond testified: "Mr. Chairman, the measure that was included in last year's congressional Defense Authorization Act I think was ill-conceived, unnecessary, and dumb. Even some of the members of the SASC who should have did not know about it. But this is an influential panel, and you know how it has changed the old law, and we now know that all 50 of our Nation's Governors, Adjutants General, and local law enforcement are opposed to it. Nobody knows where it came from. Allowing the President to invoke the Act and declare martial law where public order breaks down as a result of natural disaster, epidemic, terrorist attack, is very ambiguous and gives him broad authority potentially to usurp the role of the Governors".
Based on opposition by Congress, individual state Governors, law enforcement community, and absence of clarity on who even introduced these changes, the 'Enforcement of the Laws to Restore Public Order' law was repealed on January 28, 2008, (based on Sen. Pat Leahy's S. 513 proposal to repeal) and the previous Insurrection Act was restored. As of 2020, the Insurrection Act of 1807 still applies in limiting a US President's ability under Title 10 to federalize National Guard troops for martial law purposes.
References
Further reading
Macomb, Alexander, Major General of the United States Army, The Practice of Courts-Martial, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1841) 154 pages.
Macomb, Alexander, Major General of the United States Army, A Treatise on Martial Law, and Courts-Martial as Practiced in the United States. (Charleston: J. Hoff, 1809), republished (New York: Lawbook Exchange, 2007). .
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Edited by Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Oxford University Press, 2004.
Black's Law Dictionary: Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern. Henry Campbell Black. St. Paul: West Pub. Co., 1979.
Emergency laws in the United States
United States
Military law | wiki |
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight (ca. 10–11 kg for an average person) and reaches maximum mass between the ages of 25 and 30. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
The human skeleton performs six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. The human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate childbirth. Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones.
Divisions
Axial
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).
The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.
Appendicular
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions
The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
Movement
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.
Protection
The skeleton helps to protect many vital internal organs from being damaged.
The skull protects the brain
The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.
Storage
The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.
Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.
Sex differences
Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. It is not known whether or to what extent those differences are genetic or environmental.
Skull
A variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin.
Dentition
Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.
Long bones
Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.
Pelvis
The human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.
Women's pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women's pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.
Clinical significance
There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.
Arthritis
Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis, can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.
Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing Hormone replacement therapy.
History
India
Suśruta-saṃhitā, composed between 6th century BCE and 5th century CE speaks of 360 bones. Books on Salya-Shastra (surgical science) know of only 300. The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards. The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified. The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition. The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).
Hellenistic world
The study of bones in ancient Greece started under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria, is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria, as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals. According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices were taboo and thus completely banned. The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim. Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seems to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performed surgery, there may be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.
Renaissance
Leonardo da Vinci made studies of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time. Many artists, Antonio del Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on the muscles. Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy, authored the book De humani corporis fabrica, which contained many illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone instead of two. Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton.
18th century
As early as 1797, the death goddess or folk saint known as Santa Muerte has been represented as a skeleton.
See also
List of bones of the human skeleton
Distraction osteogenesis
References
Bibliography
Endocrine system
Skeleton, Human | wiki |
Bernard Morel may refer to:
Bernard Morel (fencer)
Bernard Morel (economist) | wiki |
A common year starting on Monday is any non-leap year (i.e., a year with 365 days) that begins on Monday, 1 January, and ends on Monday, 31 December. Its dominical letter hence is G. The most recent year of such kind was 2018 and the next one will be 2029 in the Gregorian calendar, or likewise, 2019 and 2030 in the Julian calendar, see below for more. This common year is one of the three possible common years in which a century year can begin on and occurs in century years that yield a remainder of 300 when divided by 400. The most recent such year was 1900 and the next one will be 2300.
Any common year that starts on Sunday, Monday or Tuesday has two Friday the 13ths: those two in this common year occur in April and July. Leap years starting on Sunday share this characteristic, but also have another in January.
In this common year, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is on its earliest possible date, January 15, Valentine's Day, U.S. Independence Day and Halloween fall on a Wednesday, President's Day is on February 19, Saint Patrick's Day is on a Saturday, Juneteenth is on a Tuesday, Memorial Day is on May 28, Labor Day is on September 3, Thanksgiving is on its earliest possible date, November 22, and Christmas is on a Tuesday.
Calendars
Applicable years
Gregorian calendar
In the (currently used) Gregorian calendar, along with Sunday, Wednesday, Friday or Saturday, the fourteen types of year (seven common, seven leap) repeat in a 400-year cycle (20871 weeks). Forty-three common years per cycle or exactly 10.75% start on a Monday. The 28-year sub-cycle only spans across century years divisible by 400, e.g. 1600, 2000, and 2400.
400 year cycle (add any multiple of 400 to a number in the following list to get a year with this calendar.)
century 1: 1, 7, 18, 29, 35, 46, 57, 63, 74, 85, 91
century 2: 103, 114, 125, 131, 142, 153, 159, 170, 181, 187, 198
century 3: 210, 221, 227, 238, 249, 255, 266, 277, 283, 294, 300
century 4: 306, 317, 323, 334, 345, 351, 362, 373, 379, 390
Julian calendar
In the Julian calendar, the fourteen types of year (seven common, seven leap) repeat in a 28-year cycle (1461 weeks). This sequence occurs exactly once within a cycle, and every common letter thrice.
As the Julian calendar repeats after 28 years that means it will also repeat after 700 years, i.e. 25 cycles. The year's position in the cycle is given by the formula ((year + 8) mod 28) + 1). Years 6, 12 and 23 of the cycle are common years beginning on Monday. 2017 is year 10 of the cycle. Approximately 10.71% of all years are common years beginning on Monday.
References
Gregorian calendar
Julian calendar
Monday | wiki |
Judgment of God may refer to:
Judgement of God, the English language title for the 1952 French film Le Jugement de Dieu;
Eschatology, the theological field dealing with the ultimate destiny of humans and the universe, including
The Last Judgment in Christian eschatology
Qiyamah in Islamic eschatology
Jewish eschatology | wiki |
An oyster glove is a special glove worn to protect the hand holding an oyster when opening it with an oyster knife. The oyster glove is worn only on the hand holding the oyster. These gloves traditionally are made with a heavy leather palm but are now often made of chain mail.
References
Gloves
Kitchenware | wiki |
Concord Sky (formerly YSL Residences) is a mixed-use skyscraper under construction in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. YSL is an acronym for "Yonge Street Living". Upon completion, the building will surpass First Canadian Place in height to become Canada's second-tallest skyscraper, after The One. If the building is completed before The One is finished, then the building will briefly become the tallest building in Canada.
History
When YSL Residences was first proposed in 2017, the plan called for the construction of a 98-storey, 343.9 m (1128 ft) tall building with a sloping south face that was pinched-in partway up. However, following a hearing with the LPAT in 2018, the building's height was scaled back considerably to (making it a mere shy of supertall status), but had various community amenities not present in the original proposal added. The building now features a sloping north face with inset balconies.
In 2020, the project was put on pause due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Developer Cresford Development went into receivership and construction has not resumed. The existing building on site was removed except for its facade, which is to be preserved, leaving a pit and construction office on site.
In 2021, the project was sold to Canadian developer Concord Adex and rebranded as Concord Sky. Units began presale the same year, with construction to resume in the near future.
See also
List of tallest buildings in Canada
List of tallest buildings in Ontario
List of tallest buildings in Toronto
References
External links
Skyscrapers in Toronto
Buildings and structures under construction in Canada | wiki |
L'acéthion est un organothiophosphate de formule brute utilisé comme insecticide.
Notes et références
Insecticide
Acéthion
Thiophosphate | wiki |
Dinothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Dinothrips hainanensis
Dinothrips juglandis
Dinothrips longicauda
Dinothrips monodon
Dinothrips spinosus
Dinothrips sumatrensis
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Microstays are residency periods in a hotel room of less than a full night stay, choosing the check-in time and length of the stay in hours. Although such short stays have not been commonly offered by mainstream hotels in the Western hospitality industry, doing so emerged as a trend in the World Travel Market Global Trends Report 2013. Bookings for less than a full night stay became more popular in Europe as a way to increase revenue by offering greater flexibility. By offering microstays, hotels can take advantage of their available inventory and sometimes sell the same room twice in a day.
See also
Stayr and Getstayr.com – Hotel & Workspace bookings by the hour!
ByHours and Dayuse.com – Two microstay booking services
Day room (hotel) – Hotel bookings for brief stays especially for daytime use or layovers near airports and cruise ship ports
Love hotel – Hotels catering to microstay clients for sexual encounters
References
Hotel terminology
Tourist accommodations | wiki |
Fraud is intentional deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right.
Fraud or Frauds may also refer to:
Fraud (book), 2006 non-fiction book
Fraud (film), 2016 conceptual documentary film
Frauds (film), 1993 Australian film
Frauds (soundtrack), soundtrack of the 1993 film
Fraud (TV series), 2022 Pakistani television series | wiki |
"Wall of Shame" () is a phrase that is most commonly associated with the Berlin Wall. In this context, the phrase was coined by Willy Brandt, and it was used by the government of West Berlin, and later popularized in the English-speaking world and elsewhere from the beginning of the 1960s. Inspired by its usage in reference to the Berlin Wall, the term has later been used more widely.
For example, the term "Wall of Shame" can be applied to things, including physical barriers (walls, fences, etc.) serving dishonourable or disputed separation purposes (like the Berlin Wall and the American border wall), physical and virtual bulletin boards listing names or images for purposes of shaming, and even lists in print (i.e., walls of text naming people, companies, etc. for the purpose of shaming them, or as record of embarrassment).
Additionally, "Wall of Shame" may be a significant part in the building of a "Hall of Shame", although, more often, a "Wall of Shame" is a monument in its own right (i.e., a wall not having been erected as part of any "Hall of Shame" endeavour). More recently, the term "Wall of Shame" has been used in reference to the Mexico–United States barrier, the Egypt–Gaza barrier and the Israeli West Bank barrier.
Applied to Japanese culture
The earliest use of the term, which is a translation of a Japanese phrase, may have been by Ruth Benedict, in her influential book, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1948), and other anthropologists discussing the honor shame culture of Japan.
Applied to the Berlin Wall
The term was used by the government of West Berlin to refer to the Berlin Wall, which surrounded West Berlin and separated it from East Berlin and the GDR. In 1961, the government of East Germany named the erected wall as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart", a part of the inner German border; many Berliners, however, called it "Schandmauer" ("Wall of Shame").
The term was coined by governing mayor Willy Brandt. Outside Germany it first appeared as "Wall of Shame" in a cover story published by TIME in 1962, and President of the United States John F. Kennedy used the term in his Annual Message to the US Congress on the State of the Union, 14 January 1963. Often, graffiti would be painted on points, where a street would intersect with the wall, often reading, "Road blocked by Wall of Shame".
The Berlin Wall was referred to as the "Wall of Shame" in many more recent notable contexts, such as:
The academic article, "The Democratic Invention", by Mário Soares, former Prime Minister and later President of Portugal (1986–1996)
The "Our Europe" speech by Jacques Chirac, President of France, to the Bundestag, 27 June 2000
A speech in 2002 by Romano Prodi, Prime Minister of Italy and former President of the European Commission
Other uses
In 1998, UNIFEM organized a photo exhibit at the United Nations that contrasted a "wall of shame", focusing on women's plight and suffering, with a "wall of hope", showcasing initiatives to end violence against women.
An academic paper by M. Lachance (York University) talks about the Quebec "wall of shame".
Peru's "Wall of Shame", a ten foot high wall outside Lima, separating San Juan de Miraflores and Surco.
The 2016 separation wall around the Ain al-Hilweh camp in Lebanon, intended to separate the local Palestinian-Lebanese population from the surrounding society.
The Egypt–Gaza barrier
The Israeli West Bank barrier
The Mexico–United States barrier
See also
The Shame
References
Walls
Berlin Wall
Separation barriers
1960s neologisms
Political metaphors
es:Muro de la Vergüenza | wiki |
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. It is the main storage form of glucose in the human body.
Glycogen functions as one of two forms of energy reserves, glycogen being for short-term and the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) for long-term storage. In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. In the liver, glycogen can make up 5–6% of the organ's fresh weight: the liver of an adult, weighing 1.5 kg, can store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass): the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells, white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
The amount of glycogen stored in the body mostly depends on physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits (in particular oxidative type 1 fibres). Different levels of resting muscle glycogen are reached by changing the number of glycogen particles, rather than increasing the size of existing particles though most glycogen particles at rest are smaller than their theoretical maximum.
Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times; in fasting individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself; however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle glucose uptake from the blood, thereby increasing the amount of blood glucose available for use in other tissues. Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system. The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.
Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids). As such it is also found as storage reserve in many parasitic protozoa.
Structure
Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 8–12 glucose units and 2,000-60,000 residues per one molecule of glycogen.
Like amylopectin, glucose units are linked together linearly by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α(1→6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain.
Each glycogen is essentially a ball of glucose trees, with around 12 layers, centered on a glycogenin protein, with three kinds of glucose chains: A, B, and C. There is only one C-chain, attached to the glycogenin. This C-chain is formed by the self-glucosylation of the glycogenin, forming a short primer chain. From the C-chain grows out B-chains, and from B-chains branch out B- and A-chains. The B-chains have on average 2 branch points, while the A-chains are terminal, thus unbranched. On average, each chain has length 12, tightly constrained to be between 11 and 15. All A-chains reach the spherical surface of the glycogen.
Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles (18 mg) of potassium per gram of glycogen.
Glucose is an osmotic molecule, and can have profound effects on osmotic pressure in high concentrations possibly leading to cell damage or death if stored in the cell without being modified. Glycogen is a non-osmotic molecule, so it can be used as a solution to storing glucose in the cell without disrupting osmotic pressure.
Functions
Liver
As a meal containing carbohydrates or protein is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Blood glucose from the portal vein enters liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.
After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. When it is needed for energy, glycogen is broken down and converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8–12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the rest of the body for fuel.
Glucagon, another hormone produced by the pancreas, in many respects serves as a countersignal to insulin. In response to insulin levels being below normal (when blood levels of glucose begin to fall below the normal range), glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts and stimulates both glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from other sources).
Muscle
Muscle cell glycogen appears to function as an immediate reserve source of available glucose for muscle cells. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally, as well. As muscle cells lack glucose-6-phosphatase, which is required to pass glucose into the blood, the glycogen they store is available solely for internal use and is not shared with other cells. This is in contrast to liver cells, which, on demand, readily do break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.
Apparent optimality
In 1999, Meléndez et al showed that the structure of glycogen is optimal under a particular metabolic constraint model. In detail, the glycogen structure is the optimal design that maximizes a fitness function based on maximizing three quantities: the number of glucose units on the surface of the chain available for enzymic degrading, the number of binding sites for the degrading enzymes to attach to, the total number of glucose units stored; and minimizing one quality: total volume.
If each chain has 0 or 1 branch points, we obtain essentially a long chain, not a sphere, and it would occupy too big a volume with only a few terminal glucose units for degrading. If each chain has 3 branch points, the glycogen would fill up too quickly. The balance-point is 2.
With that branch number 2, the chain length needs to be at least 4. As modelled by Meléndez et al, the fitness function reaches maximum at 13, then declines slowly.
Empirically, the branch number is 2 and the chain length ranges 11-15 for most organisms ranging from vertebrates to bacteria and fungi. The only significant exception is oyster, with glycogen chain length ranging 2-30, averaging 7.
History
Glycogen was discovered by Claude Bernard. His experiments showed that the liver contained a substance that could give rise to reducing sugar by the action of a "ferment" in the liver. By 1857, he described the isolation of a substance he called "la matière glycogène", or "sugar-forming substance". Soon after the discovery of glycogen in the liver, A. Sanson found that muscular tissue also contains glycogen. The empirical formula for glycogen of ()n was established by Kekulé in 1858.
Metabolism
Synthesis
Glycogen synthesis is, unlike its breakdown, endergonic—it requires the input of energy. Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate (UTP), which reacts with glucose-1-phosphate, forming UDP-glucose, in a reaction catalysed by UTP—glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP-glucose initially by the protein glycogenin, which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen, since glycogenin is a homodimer. After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue, the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP-glucose, adding α(1→4)-bonded glucose to the nonreducing end of the glycogen chain.
The glycogen branching enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from a nonreducing end to the C-6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue deeper into the interior of the glycogen molecule. The branching enzyme can act upon only a branch having at least 11 residues, and the enzyme may transfer to the same glucose chain or adjacent glucose chains.
Breakdown
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose-1-phosphate:
In vivo, phosphorolysis proceeds in the direction of glycogen breakdown because the ratio of phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate is usually greater than 100. Glucose-1-phosphate is then converted to glucose 6 phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase. A special debranching enzyme is needed to remove the α(1→6) branches in branched glycogen and reshape the chain into a linear polymer. The G6P monomers produced have three possible fates:
G6P can continue on the glycolysis pathway and be used as fuel.
G6P can enter the pentose phosphate pathway via the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase to produce NADPH and 5 carbon sugars.
In the liver and kidney, G6P can be dephosphorylated back to glucose by the enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. This is the final step in the gluconeogenesis pathway.
Clinical relevance
Disorders of glycogen metabolism
The most common disease in which glycogen metabolism becomes abnormal is diabetes, in which, because of abnormal amounts of insulin, liver glycogen can be abnormally accumulated or depleted. Restoration of normal glucose metabolism usually normalizes glycogen metabolism, as well.
In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high insulin levels prevent the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Glucagon is a common treatment for this type of hypoglycemia.
Various inborn errors of metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown. These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.
Glycogen depletion and endurance exercise
Long-distance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers, and cyclists, often experience glycogen depletion, where almost all of the athlete's glycogen stores are depleted after long periods of exertion without sufficient carbohydrate consumption. This phenomenon is referred to as "hitting the wall" in running and "bonking" in cycling.
Glycogen depletion can be forestalled in three possible ways:
First, during exercise, carbohydrates with the highest possible rate of conversion to blood glucose (high glycemic index) are ingested continuously. The best possible outcome of this strategy replaces about 35% of glucose consumed at heart rates above about 80% of maximum.
Second, through endurance training adaptations and specialized regimens (e.g. fasting, low-intensity endurance training), the body can condition type I muscle fibers to improve both fuel use efficiency and workload capacity to increase the percentage of fatty acids used as fuel, sparing carbohydrate use from all sources.
Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores. This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion.
When athletes ingest both carbohydrate and caffeine following exhaustive exercise, their glycogen stores tend to be replenished more rapidly; however, the minimum dose of caffeine at which there is a clinically significant effect on glycogen repletion has not been established.
See also
Chitin
Peptidoglycan
References
External links
Exercise physiology
Glycobiology
Hepatology
Nutrition
Polysaccharides | wiki |
Toy of the Year may refer to:
Toy of the Year award at the American International Toy Fair (US trade fair)
Toy of the Year award by the Toy Retailers Association (UK trade body)
Toy of the Year award in Parenting (magazine) (US magazine)
German Game of the Year award Spiel des Jahres (German board and card game award)
Speciality Toy of the Year award by the Toy Industry Association (US trade association) | wiki |
Moss agate is a semi-precious gemstone formed from silicon dioxide. It is a form of chalcedony which includes minerals of a green color embedded in the stone, forming filaments and other patterns suggestive of moss. The field is a clear or milky-white quartz, and the included minerals are mainly oxides of manganese or iron. It is not a true form of agate, because it does not have concentric banding.
Moss agate can be clear or milky white, with green dendritic inclusions that resemble moss. The colors are formed due to trace amounts of metal present as an impurity, such as chrome or iron. The metals can make different colors depending on their valence (oxidation state). Despite its name, moss agate does not contain organic matter and is usually formed from weathered volcanic rocks.
Moss agate is found in countries across the world, including India, Brazil, Uruguay, central European countries, and the United States. In the U.S., Montana moss agate is found in the alluvial gravels of the Yellowstone River and its tributaries between Sidney and Billings, Montana. It was originally formed in the Yellowstone National Park area of Wyoming as a result of volcanic activity. In Montana moss agate the red color is the result of iron oxide and the black color is the result of manganese oxide.
The gemstone has also been known as "Mocha stone" after the Arabian city of Mocha in Yemen, once a source.
References
External links
Mindat with location data
Agates | wiki |
Laura Anthony may refer to:
Laura Anthony (author), pseudonym of Lori Wilde, American author of contemporary romance novels
Laura Anthony (reporter), general assignment reporter at KGO-TV, San Francisco, California | wiki |
The Fourteenth Amendment may refer to:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which grants citizenship to everyone born in the U.S. and subject to its jurisdiction and protects civil and political liberties
Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, which guarantees free access to information on abortion in other countries
Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India
Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, which gave party leaders the power to dismiss dissenting members of parliament
Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, which repealed some of the provisions allowing for floor-crossing, that had been added by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments | wiki |
Base unit may refer to:
Base unit (measurement), in physics, a unit of measurement from which derived units may be compounded
SI base unit, a base unit in the SI system
An administrative unit of the United States Army Air Forces | wiki |
A humouse is an immunodeficient mouse reconstituted with a human immune system, also generally known as humanised mouse. Although conventional mouse models have allowed for an increased understanding of mammalian immune systems, this knowledge cannot necessarily be directly applied to humans due to biological differences between the two species.
Humice could theoretically be used as novel pre-clinical models of the human immune system, with uses including assessing vaccine efficacy.
See also
Immunology
Knockout mouse
References
Immunology mice | wiki |
Bed and breakfast is a type of guest accommodation.
Bed & Breakfast may also refer to:
Bed & Breakfast (band), a German boy band
"Bed & Breakfast" (Bob's Burgers), an episode of the television series Bob's Burgers
Bed and Breakfast (album), two albums released by Spookey Ruben
Bed and breakfasting, or wash sale, a share dealing technique used to establish a loss for tax purposes
Films
Bed and Breakfast (1930 film), directed by Walter Forde, starring Jane Baxter and Richard Cooper
Bed and Breakfast (1938 film), directed by Walter West
Bed & Breakfast (1992 film), directed by Robert Ellis Miller, starring Roger Moore, Talia Shire, Colleen Dewhurst, and Nina Siemaszko
Bed & Breakfast (2010 film), directed by Márcio Garcia and written by Leland Douglas | wiki |
Night photography (also called nighttime photography) refers to the activity of capturing images outdoors at night, between dusk and dawn. Night photographers generally have a choice between using artificial lighting and using a long exposure, exposing the shot for seconds, minutes, or even hours in order to give photosensitive film or an image sensor enough time to capture a desirable image. With the progress of high-speed films, higher-sensitivity digital sensors, wide-aperture lenses, and the ever-greater power of urban lights, night photography is increasingly possible using available light.
History
The very long exposure times of early photographic processes didn't mean people didn't try to take photographs at night from quite early on. The development of mechanical clock drives meant cameras attached to telescopes could eventually capture successful images of celestial objects.
The first-known attempt at astronomical photography was by Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, inventor of the daguerreotype process which bears his name, who attempted in 1839 to photograph the Moon. Tracking errors in guiding the telescope during the long exposure meant the photograph came out as an indistinct fuzzy spot.
John William Draper, New York University Professor of Chemistry, physician and scientific experimenter managed to make the first successful photograph of the moon a year later on March 23, 1840, taking a 20-minute-long daguerreotype image using a 5-inch (13 cm) reflecting telescope.
The increasing use of street lighting throughout the second half of the 19th century meant it was possible to capture nighttime scenes despite the long exposure times of the equipment of the period.
Developments in illumination, especially through the use of electricity, coincided with the shortening of exposure times. By the beginning of the 20th century newspapers and journals often showed night time views usually of illuminated urban streets or places of amusement such as Coney Island.
In the early 1900s, a few notable photographers, Alfred Stieglitz and William Fraser, began working at night. The first known female night photographer is Jessie Tarbox Beals. The first photographers known to have produced large bodies of work at night were Brassai and Bill Brandt. In 1932, Brassai published Paris de Nuit, a book of black-and-white photographs of the streets of Paris at night. During World War II, British photographer Brandt took advantage of the black-out conditions to photograph the streets of London by moonlight.
Photography at night found several new practitioners in the 1970s, beginning with the black and white photographs that Richard Misrach made of desert flora (1975–77). Joel Meyerowitz made luminous large format color studies of Cape Cod at nightfall which were published in his influential book, Cape Light (1979). Jan Staller’s twilight color photographs (1977–84) of abandoned and derelict parts of New York City captured uncanny visions of the urban landscape lit by the glare of sodium vapor street lights.
By the 1990s, British-born photographer Michael Kenna had established himself as the most commercially successful night photographer. His black-and-white landscapes were most often set between dusk and dawn in locations that included San Francisco, Japan, France, and England. Some of his most memorable projects depict the Ford Motor Company's Rouge River plant, the Ratcliffe-on-Soar Power Station in the East Midlands in England, and many of the Nazi concentration camps scattered across Germany, France, Belgium, Poland and Austria.
During the beginning of the 21st century, the popularity of digital cameras made it much easier for beginning photographers to understand the complexities of photographing at night. Today, there are hundreds of websites dedicated to night photography.
Subjects
Common subjects photographed at night or in low light include the following:
Celestial bodies – the Moon, stars, planets, etc. (see astrophotography and star trail)
City skylines
Factories and industrial areas, particularly those that are brightly lit and are emitting smoke, steam, or another aerosol
Fireworks
Nightlife or rock concerts
Lit caves
Roads with or without cars
Abandoned buildings or other artificial structures that are only moonlit
Bodies of water that are reflecting moonlight or city lights – lakes, rivers, canals, etc.
Lightning during thunderstorms
Aurora (northern or southern lights)
Lava
Amusement rides
Lit aircraft
Bioluminescence
Technique and equipment
The following techniques and equipment are generally used in night photography.
A tripod is usually necessary due to the long exposure times. Alternatively, the camera may be placed on a steady, flat object e.g. a table or chair, low wall, window sill, etc.
A shutter release cable or self timer is almost always used to prevent camera shake when the shutter is released.
Manual focus, since autofocus systems usually operate poorly in low light conditions. Newer digital cameras incorporate a Live View mode which often allows very accurate manual focusing.
A stopwatch or remote timer, to time very long exposures where the camera's bulb setting is used.
A camera lens with a wide aperture, preferably one with aspherical elements that can minimize coma
A smartphone with a night photography mode, such as Night Mode on Huawei phones, Night Sight on Google Pixel phones, Night Mode on Samsung Galaxy phones, Night Mode on iPhone 11 Pro and Nightscape on Oneplus phones
Long exposures and multiple flashes
The long-exposure multiple-flash technique is a method of night or low-light photography which use a mobile flash unit to expose various parts of a building or interior using a long exposure.
This technique is often combined with using coloured gels in front of the flash unit to provide different colours in order to illuminate the subject in different ways. It is also common to flash the unit several times during the exposure while swapping the colours of the gels around to mix colours on the final photo. This requires some skill and a lot of imagination since it is not possible to see how the effects will turn out until the exposure is complete. By using this technique, the photographer can illuminate specific parts of the subject in different colours creating shadows in ways which would not normally be possible.
Painting with light
When the correct equipment is used such as a tripod and shutter release cable, the photographer can use long exposures to photograph images of light. For example, when photographing a subject try switching the exposure to manual and selecting the bulb setting on the camera. Once this is achieved trip the shutter and photograph your subject moving a flashlight or any small light in various patterns. Experiment with this outcome to produce artistic results. Multiple attempts are usually needed to produce a desired result.
High ISO
Advanced imaging sensors along with sophisticated software processing makes low-light photography with High ISO possible without tripod or long exposure. Digital SLRs have high end APS-C and full-frame digital SLR sensors which have a very large dynamic range and high sensitivity, making them capable of night photography. These large sensor cameras are able to collect more light than smaller sensors due to the size of the imaging area. Combined with large aperture lenses and other equipment and techniques, this allows for photography with high quality in very dark locations.
BSI-CMOS is another type of CMOS sensor that is gradually entering the compact camera segment which is superior to the traditional CCD sensors. Cameras with small sensors such as: Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100, Nikon 1 J2 and Canon PowerShot G1X give good images up to ISO 400.
Moonlight photography
Moonlight photography (capturing scenes on Earth illuminated by moonlight) greatly differs from lunar photography (capturing scenes on the Moon illuminated by direct sunlight). The Moon has an effective albedo of approximately 0.12, comparable to worn asphalt concrete. Since the Moon is essentially a dark body in direct sunlight, photographing its surface needs an exposure comparable to what a photographer would use for ordinary, mid-brightness surfaces (buildings, trees, faces, etc.) with an overcast sky.
The sunlight reflected from the full Moon onto Earth is about 1/250,000 of the brightness of direct sunlight in daytime. Since , full-moon photography requires 18 stops more exposure than sunlight photography, for which the sunny 16 rule is a commonly used guideline.
Reciprocity failure
Imagine a directly sunlit exposure of 1/100 second at ISO 100 and f/16 (the baseline of sunny 16). Adding 18 stops to convert from the Sun to the Moon could result in a shutter speed of 8 seconds at ISO 400 and f/2 (+10 stops of time, +2 stops of ISO, +6 stops of aperture). However, on most chemical film, such an exposure would turn out too dark. This is because film does not expose in linear proportion to the light it absorbs, an effect called reciprocity failure. At light levels as dim as moonlight, it needs more light than a linear extrapolation of daylight values would suggest.
For example, testing shows that Kodak Portra needs 1 extra stop for a nominal 8-second exposure, so in this case it would need 16 seconds.
In practice, moonlight photography often uses exposures of several minutes. Digital cameras generally have less reciprocity failure, but do show image noise in low light.
Examples
Published night photographers
This section includes significant night photographers who have published books dedicated to night photography, and some of their selected works.
Brassai
Paris de Nuit, Arts et metiers graphiques, 1932.
Harold Burdekin and John Morrison
London Night, Collins, 1934.
Jeff Brouws
Inside the Live Reptile Tent, Chronicle Books, 2001.
Alan Delaney
London After Dark, Phaidon Press, 1993.
Neil Folberg
Celestial Nights, Aperture Foundation, 2001.
Karekin Goekjian
Light After Dark, Lucinne, Inc. ASIN B0006QOVCG
Todd Hido
Outskirts, Nazraeli Press, 2002.
Peter Hujar
Night, Matthew Marks Gallery/Fraenkel Gallery, 2005.
Rolfe Horn
28 Photographs, Nazraeli Press.
Lance Keimig
Night Photography, Finding Your Way In The Dark, Focal Press, 2010.
Brian Kelly
Grand Rapids: Night After Night, Glass Eye, 2001.
Michael Kenna
The Rouge, RAM Publications, 1995.
Night Work, Nazraeli Press, 2000.
William Lesch
Expansions, RAM Publications, 1992.
O. Winston Link
The Last Steam Railroad in America, Harry Abrams, 1995.
Tom Paiva
Industrial Night, The Image Room, 2002.
Troy Paiva
Night Vision: The Art of Urban Exploration, Chronicle Books, 2008.
Lost America: The Abandoned Roadside West, MBI Publishing, 2003.
Andrew Sanderson
Night Photography, Amphoto Books.
Bill Schwab
Bill Schwab: Photographs, North Light Press, 1999.
Gathering Calm, North Light Press, 2005.
Jan Staller
Frontier New York, Hudson Hills Press, 1988.
Zabrina Tipton
At Night in San Francisco, San Francisco Guild of the Arts Press, 2006.
Giovanna Tucker
"How to Night Photography", 2011.
Nora Vrublevska and Dan Squires
"Cambridge at Night", 2013.
Volkmar Wentzel
Washington by Night, Fulcrum Publishing, 1998.
See also
Available light
Light painting
References
External links
Comprehensive tutorials and articles about how to do night photography by The Nocturnes
Photography by genre
Night in culture
Photographic techniques | wiki |
In basketball, an uncontested shot is any kind of shot in which the shooter has no one contesting or interfering with the shot. It encompasses shots from a layup, a slam dunk, and jump shots. In competitive leagues, an uncontested shot is one in which a defender is not within five feet of the shooter or one in which a defender is not near enough to alter the offensive player's shot in any way. The primary strategy of most offensive plays is to gain an uncontested shot and defensively to prevent one.
Basketball terminology | wiki |
The discography of Wu-Tang Clan leader RZA consists of four studio albums, two compilation albums, one instrumental album, 2 EP's and five singles.
Albums
Studio albums
Collaboration albums
Compilation albums
Instrumental albums
Soundtracks
Extended plays
Singles
Other charted songs
Guest appearances
See also
RZA production discography
Wu-Tang Clan discography
References
Hip hop discographies
Discographies of American artists | wiki |
The Faroe Islands are an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark. Nationals of Nordic countries are free to enter, reside and work in the Faroe Islands, and nationals of other countries exempt from visas for short stays in the Schengen Area may also visit the Faroe Islands without a visa. In addition, travel between the Faroe Islands and the Schengen Area is not subject to document checks. However, the Faroe Islands are not part of the European Union or the Schengen Area, so nationals of EU or Schengen countries, except for Nordic countries, do not have the right to reside in the Faroe Islands freely, and visas or resident permits issued for entering Schengen countries are not valid for travel to the Faroe Islands. Specific visas for the Faroe Islands can be obtained in consular establishments of the Kingdom of Denmark, and their conditions are similar to the those for Schengen visas. Visas for the Faroe Islands are not valid for travel to the Schengen Area.
Visa exemptions
Freedom of movement
Nationals of Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden) are free to enter, reside and work in the Faroe Islands.
Short stays
Nationals of countries exempt from visas for short stays in the Schengen Area (EU, Schengen and Annex II countries) may visit the Faroe Islands without a visa for up to 90 days.
Visas and residence permits issued for entering Schengen countries are not valid for travel to the Faroe Islands, so nationals of countries that are not exempt must have a specific visa for the Faroe Islands. This visa may be requested from a Danish diplomatic mission or the Danish Immigration Service. The application procedure for this visa is the same as for a Schengen visa, and it is possible to request both visas with a single application.
Travel documents
Nationals of EU and Schengen countries may travel to the Faroe Islands with a passport or identity card. Nationals of other countries must hold a passport to travel to the Faroe Islands.
Travel documents are not checked when travelling directly between the Faroe Islands and the Schengen Area, but travellers are still advised to carry acceptable identification.
See also
Visa policy of Greenland
Visa policy of the Schengen Area
References
Foreign relations of the Faroe Islands
Faroe Islands | wiki |
Jonathan Bourne (1811–1889) was a New Bedford alderman, major investor in the whaling business, member of executive councils of Massachusetts governors George D. Robinson and Oliver Ames, and namesake of the town of Bourne.
References
1811 births
1889 deaths
Bourne, Massachusetts
19th-century American businesspeople | wiki |
David Sharp peut faire référence à :
David Sharp (1972-2006), alpiniste britannique ;
David Sharp (1840–1922), médecin et entomologiste britannique. | wiki |
The Abaza is an indigenous breed of goat from north-east Turkey. They are used for dairying, but also have relatively good meat production. Due to its small population size, there is a high degree of inbreeding within this breed, placing it "at risk".
Their hair is short, soft and pinkish-white in colour, with coloured markings around the mouth, eyes and on the legs. The males have long, flat, scimitar-shaped horns, while the females are usually polled.
As dairy goats, this breed has well-developed udders, and an average lactation yield of around . The milk produced from Abaza goats is used to create Abaza cheese, a nationally and internationally renowned semi-hard, lightly salted cheese.
References | wiki |
Giant Killers or Giant Killer may refer to:
Air traffic control
Giant Killer (call sign), used in the United States
Entertainment
Giantkiller, a comic book series
"Giant Killer" (story), a 1945 sci-fi short story by A. Bertram Chandler
Giant Killers (video game), a 2001 football-management simulator video game
Giant Killers (band), a 1994 performer on Top of the Pops
Giant Killers (EP), a 2017 release by Japanese idol group BiSH
The Giant Killer the UK title for the 2013 film Jack the Giant Killer, starring Ben Cross
Sports
Giant killers (sports), an underdog team or person that defeats an expected winner
1967 Oregon State Beavers football team, nicknamed "Giant Killers" for their performance
See also
Giant-killing (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Skokie River (or East Fork of the North Branch of the Chicago River) is a river that flows through the northern suburbs of Chicago, Illinois. It flows almost parallel to the shore of Lake Michigan, and historically discharged its outflow into that lake via the Chicago River. However, the construction of the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in 1900 caused the drainage of the Chicago River, including its Skokie River tributary, to flow southwestward towards the Mississippi River.
The Skokie River rises from a flat area, historically a wetland, on the west side of the city of Waukegan. Flowing southward through the North Shore suburbs of Lake County, the river enters Cook County and discharges its flow into the North Branch of the Chicago River at Wilmette Golf Club between Morton Grove and Wilmette. More than 1,100 houses occupy parcels of property located in New Trier Township within the Skokie River floodplain.
History
The Skokie River was traditionally a wetland river that flowed very slowly through a valley left behind by two parallel sand dunes that bordered Lake Michigan. In early historical times, the river had no defined banks, was filled with wet prairie grasses and forbs, and swelled or shrank in line with the seasons and with recent precipitation and runoff.
The river had a large population of fish and waterbirds. A seasonal village of the Native Americans stood at the river's mouth in what is now Morton Grove. The Pottawatomi called the long, low lakeside swale Chewab Skokie, or "big wet prairie." They did not conceptualize the drainage as a river, but as a long, ribbon-shaped wetland.
The river today
As time passed, the drainage area of the Skokie River became some of the most valuable suburban land in the United States. It stood adjacent to key commuter lines of the Chicago and North Western Railway and the Milwaukee Road (both now operated by Metra), and was valuable to developers as early as the late 19th century. As the river and its drainage area were flood-prone, this created problems.
The Skokie River, in the 20th century, became one of the most altered rivers in the Chicago area. The river and its tributaries were extensively ditched, embanked, and landscaped. In Lake County, the river valley west of suburbs such as Highland Park and Lake Forest became home to a series of golf course developments, with the river re-landscaped into a gently descending staircase of water hazards.
Further south in Cook County, much of the river basin was acquired by the Forest Preserve District of Cook County in the early 20th century and then, in the 1930s, landscaped by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) into the Skokie Lagoons Forest Preserve. For a time, the Skokie Lagoons project utilized ten separate CCC companies, making the lagoons the largest CCC project in the United States. The wetlands were dredged and replaced with seven artificial lagoons as much as deep, in line with pastoral landscape appreciation patterns of the time. The lagoons cover in area. The Forest Preserve District took some limited actions in the 1990s to alter some of the lagoons and try to restore a vestige of the original Skokie River wetland terrain.
The Skokie River floodplain continues to be re-landscaped for multiple uses. In 2013, the Wilmette Golf Club, which is located in re-landscaped wetlands at the river's mouth, was scheduled to rebuild its grounds to reduce (but not eliminate) course flooding. As of 2013, the Forest Preserve District periodically restocks the Skokie River with fish matching some of the species present in early historical times, including bass, walleye, northern pike, channel catfish, bluegill, crappie, and bullheads. Authorities try to keep carp, an invasive alien, under control.
In 2019, threats to property values caused by the placements of properties within the Skokie River floodplain were cited as justification for lowering the assessments of more than 1,100 local parcels of residential property by amounts as much as $1.0 million per parcel. The assessment-relief plan was later reversed after a public outcry.
See also
List of Illinois rivers
References
External links
Skokie Lagoons Forest Preserve
Chicago Audubon Society
Rivers of Illinois
Rivers of Cook County, Illinois
Rivers of Lake County, Illinois
Tributaries of the Illinois River | wiki |
The Consensus Model or Systems Perspective of criminal justice argues that the organizations of a criminal justice system either do, or should, work cooperatively to produce justice, as opposed to competitively.
A criminal justice model in which the majority of citizens in a society share the same values and beliefs. Criminal acts conflict with these values and beliefs.
See also
Conflict Model
References
Criminal law
Law enforcement theory | wiki |
In criminal justice, clearance rate is calculated by dividing the number of crimes that are "cleared" (a charge being laid) by the total number of crimes recorded. Clearance rates are used by various groups as a measure of crimes solved by the police.
Clearance rates can be problematic for measuring the performance of police services and for comparing various police services. This is because a police force may employ a different way of measuring clearance rates. For example, each police force may have a different method of recording when a "crime" has occurred and different criteria for determining when a crime has been "cleared." A given police force may appear to have a much better clearance rate because of its calculation methodology.
Some U.S. police forces have been criticized for overuse of "exceptional clearance", which is intended to classify as "cleared" cases where probably cause to arrest a suspect exists, but police are unable to do so for reasons outside their control (such as death or incarceration in a foreign country).
In System Conflict Theory, it is argued that clearance rates cause the police to focus on appearing to solve crimes (generating high clearance rate scores) rather than actually solving crimes. Further focus on clearance rates may result in effort being expended to attribute crimes (correctly or incorrectly) to a criminal, which may not result in retribution, compensation, rehabilitation or deterrence.
References
Further reading
Schmalleger, Frank. Criminal Justice Today, An Introductory Text For The 21st Century.
External links
- "The Post has mapped more than 52,000 homicides in major American cities over the past decade and found that across the country, there are areas where murder is common but arrests are rare."
See also
Criminal investigation
List of unsolved deaths
Criminology
Law enforcement
Crime statistics
Ratios
Social statistics indicators | wiki |
Since 1890, the French baccalauréat exam, required to receive a high school diploma, has traditionally scored students on a scale (Barème) of 0-20, as do most secondary school and university classes. Although the traditional scale stops at 20/20, French baccalauréat results can be higher than 20/20 due to supplementary "options". French universities traditionally grade in a stricter way than secondary schools, which means that students are unlikely to receive marks as high as they did in secondary school. Famously, in Preparatory Class for 'Grandes Écoles' (CPGE), an optional 2-4 year preparation for the most elite universities in France, students are graded so harshly that class ranking, rather than individual grades, usually reflects an individual's performance, especially when comparing the grades to secondary or university grades. Often, an average grade of 7-8 in Preparatory Class for 'Grandes Écoles' (CPGE) can be considered as a satisfactory grade if the best grade in the class is only a 12.
On the diplôme national du brevet, awarded for passing the 10th year exam (9th grade), and also on University of Paris, Sorbonne transcripts, scores above 12 on the scale of 20 confer the following mentions (honors):
16–20: Mention très bien: TB
14–15.9: bien: B
12–13.9: assez bien: AB
Other scales in French schools
In recent years, the French government began to explore possible conversion of the 0–20 grading scale to 0–4 or 0–5. Since 2008, the College Gabriel-Séailles, a middle school in southern France, has abolished grading altogether.
Primary schools generally use a 10-point grading scale or a letter grade.
The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) scale is gaining popularity in the post-secondary education system, since it is the standard for comparing study performance throughout the European Union. The GPA grading scale is becoming more and more common as well since it eases the comparison with American students.
Some Grandes écoles use "exotic" systems, like Ecole Centrale de Lille, which uses a three-letter scale system:
A: Excellent
S: Satisfactory (satisfaisant)
I: Fail (insuffisant)
History
In 12th Century Europe, students were evaluated by oral disputation in Latin. In the 14th century, some written examinations occurred, but were rare. By the 16th century the Catholic Church was struggling against the Protestant Reformation, and trying to advance Catholic scholarship as a defense of doctrine, to which end The Society of Jesus was created, and with it Jesuit Colleges. One of which, the Collegio Romano, published the Ratio Studiorum in 1599, a book of rules for Jesuit education in which official procedures for examinations, competitions, and homework were outlined along with a method for ranking and classifying students. During the Ancien Régime in France (15th-18th Centuries), oral examination was still the most common method of evaluating students. In 1558, a school in Portugal was the first European school to distribute prizes to the best students, and by the end of the century other schools were following suit. By the end of the 18th century, schools in France were beginning to publish bulletins with student evaluations and class rankings and the Jesuite College at Caen would develop a numerical 4 point ranking ("4 niveaux: 1 = bien; 2 = assez bien; 3 = médiocre; 0 = mal"). Even in the early years of the Baccalauréat (created in 1808), the oral evaluation committee members expressed their appraisal of candidates with colored balls (Red for "favorable", white for "abstention", black for "unfavorable"). In the Second French Empire, the representation of colored balls was converted into a numerical system of 0-5, and then in 1890 the numerical system of 0-20 was created along with the modern French baccalauréat, which comprises several stages of written examinations
In the student rebellions of, 1968, the bulletin of January 6, 1969 recommended a change from the 0-20 grading scale to a qualitative evaluation such as "very satisfactory", "unsatisfactory", etc., Or adopting a more general (A, B, C, D, E) letter system, or a simplified numerical system (1,2,3,4,5). Before the change could be fully implemented, the recommendation was reversed in a bulletin on July 9, 1971 which recommended the continuation of the 0-20 system.
Comparison with American grades
There is no exact formula for converting scores between the French 0–20 scale and American grades, and there are several reasons why the systems are not entirely commensurate. For instance, some American institutions use rank based grading and grading curves, that is, shifting the grades of a class so that the highest scores align with the highest grades on the grading scale and the lowest scores align with the lowest grades on the scale or aligning the median achieved score within the class to a fixed point on the grading scale. Likewise some American institutions use weighted grades, wherein grades for advanced classes are augmented in the official transcripts to compensate for the difficulty of the classes. French schools use neither, the result being that in a university, a 20 is almost never awarded. Grades over 14 are extremely rare, and scores over 12 indicate that the student is in the top 10–20% of the class. About half of all French Law School students at Paris Sorbonne I maintain an average of 10–12, while the median grade at Cornell Law School is 3.35 (B+), at Duke University School of Law is 3.30 (B+), at UC Davis School of Law is 3.25–3.35 (B/B+), and at Columbia Law School the median GPA is estimated at 3.4 (B+).
Even though no exact conversion exists between the two systems, there are several scales that approximate a conversion and many American universities require that grades from foreign institutions, such as grades in the French 20 point scale, be converted into the American system on applications. While other sources suggest that students should not make their own calculations directly for the application.
Table of various conversion scales for university level classes:
Table of various conversion scales for secondary school classes:
The UK Honors degree system compared to grades in France
Converting the UK Honors scale into its French equivalent:
Honors terminology compared to American and Latin Honors
French diplomas grant "Mentions" similar to American "Honors" or "Latin Honors" titles
References
External links
World Education Services "Education in France"
French – American Grade Comparison
France
Grading
Grading | wiki |
Following is a list of minerals that serve as copper ores in the copper mining process:
References
Copper ores
Mining-related lists | wiki |
Onion skinning, in 2D computer graphics, is a technique used in creating animated cartoons and editing movies to see several frames at once. This way, the animator or editor can make decisions on how to create or change an image based on the previous image in the sequence.
In traditional animation, the individual frames of a movie were initially drawn on thin onionskin paper over a light source. The animators (mostly inbetweeners) would put the previous and next drawings exactly beneath the working drawing, so that they could draw the 'in between' to give a smooth motion.
In computer software, this effect is achieved by making frames translucent and projecting them on top of each other.
This effect can also be used to create motion blurs, as seen in The Matrix when characters dodge bullets.
See also
Anime Studio
Adobe Flash
TVPaint
3ds max
External links
Onion Skinning in I Can Animate
Shape Shifter at Aniboom. To see onion skinning, press 'o' then create a shape, add a frame, move your shape, and repeat.
Animation techniques
Computer graphic techniques | wiki |
Square stitch is an off-loom bead weaving stitch that mimics the appearance of beadwork created on a loom. Loom patterns and even cross stitch embroidery patterns may be used for square stitch pieces. Because each bead in a square stitch piece is connected by thread to each of the four beads surrounding it, this stitch is very strong.
How to
Cut thread about arms length and thread the needle
Thread one bead and hold it on the thread about 6 inches from the end
Thread your needle the same direction the thread is currently going through the bead. this creates a stop bead; the rest of the work will not fall off. The bead should be stuck on the thread 6 inches from the end.
String a number of beads; can be an odd or even number
To start the next row, string one more bead. thread your needle back through the last bead of the first row, the thread is now coming out the end of the first row. thread your needle through the bead just added for the next row. The bead should be stacked right above the first row.
String one more bead and thread the needle through the bead on the previous row that the new bead should sit on top of.
Thread the needle back through the bead that is being added.
Continue this to the end of the row
Once the final bead is added to the second row, thread the needle through all of the first row beads and then the second row beads
Turn your work and repeat steps 5–8.
Everytime the end of the row is reached, repeat step 9.
Once the final row is reached, thread the rest of the string throughout the piece and cut off the extra, if any.
See also
Peyote stitch
Brick stitch
External links
Square Stitch Instruction
Square Stitch Video Tutorial
Weaving
Beadwork | wiki |
Hapelothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Hapelothrips albipes
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
A twig is a thin, often short, branch of a tree or bush.
The buds on the twig are an important diagnostic characteristic, as are the abscission scars where the leaves have fallen away. The color, texture, and patterning of the twig bark are also important, in addition to the thickness and nature of any pith of the twig.
There are two types of twig: vegetative twigs and fruiting spurs. Fruiting spurs are specialized twigs that generally branch off the sides of branches and are stubby and slow-growing, with many annular ring markings from seasons past. The age and rate of growth of a twig can be determined by counting the winter terminal bud scale scars, or annular ring marking, down the length of the twig.
Twigs can be useful in starting fire. They can be used as kindling wood, bridging the gap between highly flammable tinder (dry grass and leaves) and firewood.
References
Plant morphology
Building materials | wiki |
"I Got the Blues" is a song recorded by the Rolling Stones. Written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, it appears on their 1971 album Sticky Fingers. It is a slow-paced, bluesy song featuring languid guitars with heavy blues and soul influences.
Reception
In his review, Richie Unterberger compares the Stones' take on their early influences, saying, "Musically, it's very much in the school of slow Stax ballads, by [Otis] Redding and some others, with slow reverbed guitars with a gospel feel, dignified brass, and a slow buildup of tension." A notable reference point is the Otis Redding-ballad "I've Been Loving You Too Long", a song that the Stones themselves had recorded in 1965 and very similar in style and buildup.
Recording
Recorded during the months of March through May 1970, the song features Mick Jagger on lead vocals, Keith Richards on harmony vocals, Mick Taylor and Richards on guitars, Bill Wyman on bass, Charlie Watts on drums, and Billy Preston on Hammond organ. Stones' recording veterans Bobby Keys and Jim Price performed on the saxophone and trumpet, respectively.
References
External links
Complete Official Lyrics
The Rolling Stones songs
1971 songs
Songs written by Jagger–Richards
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Miller | wiki |
In Hungary, a 5-point grade system is used. There are only whole numbers in report cards, but for grading exams, there are also fractions (such as 3/4, which is between 3 and 4). Some teachers use lines above (rarely) or under (more commonly) the numbers to draw a clearer distinction: e.g., 4- is worse than a 4 but better than a 3, a 3' (3-plus), or a 3/4 (3 < 3' < 3/4 < 4, < 4); sometimes they even use multiple lines.
For unusually good performance, the grade 5* can be awarded, but is less frequently used in secondary schools. 1 is the only failing grade. When grading a student's attitude or diligence, only the grades 2-5 are used.
References
Hungarian Grading System Grading System in Hungary
Hungary
Grading
Academia in Hungary | wiki |
Classical music generally refers to the art music of the Western world, considered to be distinct from Western folk music or popular music traditions
Classical music may also refer to:
Classical period (music)
Classical Music (magazine)
Classical music blog
For other traditions see list of classical and art music traditions
By country
Australian classical music
Classical music of Birmingham
Italian classical music
Russian classical music
Classical music in Kosovo
Classical music in Scotland
Classical music of the United Kingdom
Classical music of the United States
Non-Western traditions
List of classical and art music traditions
Andalusian classical music
Byzantine music
Indian classical music
Gagaku
Ottoman music
Persian traditional music
Yayue
See also
Art music
List of classical music concerts with an unruly audience response | wiki |
The Women's 100 metres B1 was a sprinting event in athletics at the 1984 Summer Paralympics, for blind athletes. For the first time, category B was subdivided, with totally blind athletes running in the B1 event. Sixteen athletes took part, representing thirteen nations. Defending champion Grazyna Kozlowska of Poland was not among them. Spain's Purificacion Santamarta, competing in the event for the first time, won gold and set a new world record in 14.46s.
The International Paralympic Committee's database does not record any heats, merely a "final round" in which all sixteen athletes took part. Of these, fifteen have a recorded time and rank, while Greece's Ekaterini Lakassa has none. The records do not specify whether she was a non-starter, or whether she failed to finish due to injury, or whether she was disqualified.
Results
"Final round"
References
Women's 100 metres B | wiki |
The 37th World Artistic Gymnastics Championships were held in Anaheim, California, United States, from 16 to 24 August 2003.
Tie-breakers were not used at this competition. If two gymnasts received identical scores in the event finals, they were both awarded medals for their placement.
Medalists
Men
Qualification
Team
All-around
Floor exercise
Pommel horse
Rings
Vault
Parallel bars
Horizontal bar
Women
Qualification
Team
Note: Annia Hatch and Ashley Postell were originally named to the US team, but both withdrew from the competition due to a knee injury (Hatch) and a severe case of the flu (Postell). Chellsie Memmel and Terin Humphrey were flown in as alternates to replace them. After a successful performance in the qualification round, Courtney Kupets severely injured her Achilles tendon and the US was then down to 5 athletes, as it was too late to call in their third alternate (Samantha Sheehan) after competition had already begun.
All-around
Vault
Uneven bars
Balance beam
Floor exercise
Daiane dos Santos became the first Brazilian female world champion in gymnastics.
Medal count
Overall
Men
Women
References
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
W
Artistic World 2003
G
2003 in sports in California
International sports competitions in California | wiki |
The Men's 100 metres B1 was a sprinting event in athletics at the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, for blind athletes. Seven athletes took part, representing six nations. They included defending champion Winford Haynes, of the United States. Haynes was unable to retain his title, outrun by Soviet athletes who were making their Paralympic Games début.
The International Paralympic Committee's database does not record any heats, merely a final round in which the seven athletes took part.
Results
References
Men's 100 metres B1 | wiki |
Benoxathian is an α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist. It was studied in animals for its antihypertensive (blood pressure lowering) effects in the 1980s.
References
2-Phenoxyethanamines
Abandoned drugs
Alpha-1 blockers
Pyrogallol ethers | wiki |
Kasepekang is a punishment under Balinese customary law. The persons (or entire families) subject to it are shunned by their local community.
It is the most severe sentence imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils, which also impose lesser sanctions such as fines or public shaming. According to a 2010 New York Times report describing the increasing importance of customary law in Indonesia since 1998, "in a society where the entire cycle of life and religion is tied to ancestral villages, kasepekang is likened to a social and spiritual death sentence."
See also
Balinese people
References
Balinese culture
Punishments
Shunning | wiki |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.