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"At the Ballet" is a song from the musical A Chorus Line.
Production
Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical noted:
Synopsis
The dancers explain their experiences with attending dance school, as well as family-related trauma. No matter how dark the rest of their world seems, they always feel happy and engaged "at the ballet".
Musicals101 explains "At the Ballet" as a "poignant tribute to the escape Sheila, Bebe, and Maggie found in the beauty of ballet."
Analysis
Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical explains: "Sheila, Bebe, and Maggie sing the same wistful melody; then their harmonies grow and build, one layering on the other".
Critical reception
AussieTheatre.com described it as a "poignant song".
References
Songs about dancing
Songs about theatre
Songs from A Chorus Line
Songs written by Marvin Hamlisch
1975 songs | wiki |
The year 1927 in television involved some significant events.
Below is a list of television-related events during 1927.
Global television events
Births
References | wiki |
The year 1926 in television involved some significant events.
Below is a list of television-related events during 1926.
Global television events
Births
References | wiki |
Anal leakage may refer to:
Steatorrhea, a type of oily anal discharge
Keriorrhea, a type of oily discharge caused by eating deep sea fish
Fecal incontinence, liquid fecal incontinence is a sub-type of fecal incontinence
Fecal leakage, a type of fecal incontinence causing minor staining of undergarments in adults
Encopresis, liquid fecal soiling and fecal incontinence in children
See also
Rectal discharge | wiki |
An ochrea (Latin ocrea, greave or protective legging), also spelled ocrea, is a plant structure formed of stipules fused into a sheath surrounding the stem, and is typically found in the Polygonaceae.
In palms it denotes an extension of the leaf sheath beyond the petiole insertion.
References
Plant morphology | wiki |
The fifth season of the American television comedy series The Goldbergs premiered on ABC on September 27, 2017 and concluded on May 16, 2018. The season is produced by Adam F. Goldberg Productions, Happy Madison Productions, Doug Robinson Productions, and Sony Pictures Television, and the executive producers are Adam F. Goldberg, Doug Robinson, and Seth Gordon.
The show explores the daily lives of the Goldberg family, a family living in Jenkintown, Pennsylvania in the 1980s. Beverly Goldberg (Wendi McLendon-Covey), the overprotective matriarch of the Goldbergs is married to Murray Goldberg (Jeff Garlin). They are the parents of three children, Erica (Hayley Orrantia), Barry (Troy Gentile), and Adam (Sean Giambrone). AJ Michalka was demoted to recurring for this season, while Sam Lerner was promoted to a regular cast member.
ABC renewed The Goldbergs for its fifth and sixth seasons in May 2017.
Cast
Main cast
Wendi McLendon-Covey as Beverly Goldberg
Sean Giambrone as Adam Goldberg
Troy Gentile as Barry Goldberg
Hayley Orrantia as Erica Goldberg
Sam Lerner as Geoff Schwartz
George Segal as Albert "Pops" Solomon
Jeff Garlin as Murray Goldberg
Recurring cast
Alison Rich as Erica "Valley Erica" Coolidge
Episodes
Ratings
References
The Goldbergs (2013 TV series) seasons
2017 American television seasons
2018 American television seasons | wiki |
Whooping cough, also known as pertussis or the 100-day cough, is a highly contagious bacterial disease. Initial symptoms are usually similar to those of the common cold with a runny nose, fever, and mild cough, but these are followed by two or three months of severe coughing fits. Following a fit of coughing, a high-pitched whoop sound or gasp may occur as the person breathes in. The violent coughing may last for 10 or more weeks, hence the phrase "100-day cough". A person may cough so hard that they vomit, break ribs, or become very tired from the effort. Children less than one year old may have little or no cough and instead have periods where they cannot breathe. The time between infection and the onset of symptoms is usually seven to ten days. Disease may occur in those who have been vaccinated, but symptoms are typically milder.
Pertussis is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. It is spread easily through the coughs and sneezes of an infected person. People are infectious from the start of symptoms until about three weeks into the coughing fits. Those treated with antibiotics are no longer infectious after five days. Diagnosis is by collecting a sample from the back of the nose and throat. This sample can then be tested by either culture or by polymerase chain reaction.
Prevention is mainly by vaccination with the pertussis vaccine. Initial immunization is recommended between six and eight weeks of age, with four doses to be given in the first two years of life. Protection from pertussis decreases over time, so additional doses of vaccine are often recommended for older children and adults. Vaccination during pregnancy is highly effective at protecting the infant from pertussis during their vulnerable early months of life, and is recommended in many countries. Antibiotics may be used to prevent the disease in those who have been exposed and are at risk of severe disease. In those with the disease, antibiotics are useful if started within three weeks of the initial symptoms, but otherwise have little effect in most people. In pregnant women and children less than one year old, antibiotics are recommended within six weeks of symptom onset. Antibiotics used include erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Evidence to support interventions for the cough, other than antibiotics, is poor. About 50% of infected children less than a year old require hospitalization and nearly 0.5% (1 in 200) die.
An estimated 16.3 million people worldwide were infected in 2015. Most cases occur in the developing world, and people of all ages may be affected. In 2015, pertussis resulted in 58,700 deaths – down from 138,000 deaths in 1990. Outbreaks of the disease were first described in the 16th century. The bacterium that causes the infection was discovered in 1906. The pertussis vaccine became available in the 1940s.
Signs and symptoms
The classic symptoms of pertussis are a paroxysmal cough, inspiratory whoop, and fainting, or vomiting after coughing. The cough from pertussis has been documented to cause subconjunctival hemorrhages, rib fractures, urinary incontinence, hernias, and vertebral artery dissection. Violent coughing can cause the pleura to rupture, leading to a pneumothorax. Vomiting after a coughing spell or an inspiratory whooping sound on coughing, almost doubles the likelihood that the illness is pertussis. The absence of a paroxysmal cough or posttussive emesis, though, makes it almost half as likely.
The illness usually starts with mild respiratory symptoms include mild coughing, sneezing, or a runny nose (known as the catarrhal stage). After one or two weeks, the coughing classically develops into uncontrollable fits, sometimes followed by a high-pitched "whoop" sound, as the person tries to inhale. About 50% of children and adults "whoop" at some point in diagnosed pertussis cases during the paroxysmal stage.
This stage usually lasts two to eight weeks, or sometimes longer. A gradual transition then occurs to the convalescent stage, which usually lasts one to four weeks. This stage is marked by a decrease in paroxysms of coughing, although paroxysms may occur with subsequent respiratory infection for many months after the onset of pertussis.
Symptoms of pertussis can be variable, especially between immunized and non-immunized people. Those that are immunized can present with a more mild infection; they may only have the paroxysmal cough for a couple of weeks, and it may lack the "whooping" characteristic. Although immunized people have a milder form of the infection, they can spread the disease to others who are not immune.
Incubation period
The time between exposure and the development of symptoms is on average 7–14 days (range 6–20 days), rarely as long as 42 days.
Cause
Pertussis is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. It is an airborne disease (through droplets) that spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of an infected person.
Spread from animals
Uncertainties have existed of B. pertussis and whooping cough as a zoonotic disease since around 1910, but in the 1930s knowledge was gained that the bacteria lost their virulent power when repeatedly spread on agar media. This explained the difficulties to reproduce results from different studies as the pre-inoculating handlings of the bacteria were not standardized among scientists.
Today it is established that at least some primate species are highly susceptible to B. pertussis and develop clinical whooping cough in high incidence when exposed to low inoculation doses. The bacteria may be present in wild animal populations, but this is not confirmed by laboratory diagnosis, although whooping cough is known among wild gorillas. Several zoos also have a long-standing custom of vaccinating their primates against whooping cough.
Mechanism
After the bacteria are inhaled, they initially adhere to the ciliated epithelium in the nasopharynx. Surface proteins of B. pertussis, including filamentous hemaglutinin and pertactin, mediate attachment to the epithelium. The bacteria then multiply. In infants, who experience more severe disease, the bacteria spread down to the lungs.
The bacteria secretes a number of toxins. Tracheal cytotoxin, a fragment of peptidoglycan, kills ciliated epithelial cells and thereby inhibits the mucociliary elevator by which mucus and debris are removed. TCT may contribute to the cough characteristic of pertussis. The cough may also be caused by a yet-to-be identified "cough toxin". Pertussis toxin causes lymphocytosis by an unknown mechanism. The elevated number of white blood cells leads to pulmonary hypertension, a major cause of death by pertussis. In infants who develop encephalopathy, cerebral hemorrhage and cortical atrophy occur, likely due to hypoxia.
Diagnosis
Based on symptoms
A physician's overall impression is most effective in initially making the diagnosis. Single factors are much less useful. In adults with a cough of less than 8 weeks, vomiting after coughing or a "whoop" is supportive. If there are no bouts of coughing or there is a fever the diagnosis is unlikely. In children who have a cough of less than 4 weeks vomiting after coughing is somewhat supportive but not definitive.
Lab tests
Methods used in laboratory diagnosis include culturing of nasopharyngeal swabs on a nutrient medium (Bordet–Gengou medium), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), direct fluorescent antibody (DFA), and serological methods (e.g. complement fixation test). The bacteria can be recovered from the person only during the first three weeks of illness, rendering culturing and DFA useless after this period, although PCR may have some limited usefulness for an additional three weeks.
Serology may be used for adults and adolescents who have already been infected for several weeks to determine whether antibody against pertussis toxin or another virulence factor of B. pertussis is present at high levels in the blood of the person.
Differential diagnosis
A similar, milder disease is caused by B. parapertussis.
Prevention
The primary method of prevention for pertussis is vaccination. Evidence is insufficient to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics in those who have been exposed, but are without symptoms. Preventive antibiotics, however, are still frequently used in those who have been exposed and are at high risk of severe disease (such as infants).
Vaccine
Pertussis vaccines are effective at preventing illness and are recommended for routine use by the World Health Organization and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The vaccine saved an estimated half a million lives in 2002.
The multicomponent acellular pertussis vaccine is 71–85% effective, with greater effectiveness against more severe strains. However, despite widespread vaccination, pertussis has persisted in vaccinated populations and is today "one of the most common vaccine-preventable diseases in Western countries". The 21st-century resurgences in pertussis infections is attributed to a combination of waning immunity and bacterial mutations that elude vaccines.
Immunization does not confer lifelong immunity; a 2011 CDC study indicated that protection may only last three to six years. This covers childhood, which is the time of greatest exposure and greatest risk of death from pertussis.
An effect of widespread immunization on society has been the shift of reported infections from children aged 1–9 years to infants, adolescents, and adults, with adolescents and adults acting as reservoirs for B. pertussis and infecting infants who have had fewer than three doses of vaccine.
Infection induces incomplete natural immunity that wanes over time. A 2005 study said estimates of the duration of infection-acquired immunity range from 7 to 20 years and the different results could be the result of differences in levels of circulating B. pertussis, surveillance systems, and case definitions used. The study said protective immunity after vaccination wanes after 4–12 years. One study suggested that the availability of vaccine exemptions increases the number of pertussis cases.
Some studies have suggested that while acellular pertussis vaccines are effective at preventing the disease, they have a limited impact on infection and transmission, meaning that vaccinated people could spread pertussis even though they may have only mild symptoms or none at all. Pertussis infection in these persons may be asymptomatic, or present as illness ranging from a mild cough to classic pertussis with persistent cough (i.e., lasting more than 7 days). Even though the disease may be milder in older persons, those who are infected may transmit the disease to other susceptible persons, including unimmunized or incompletely immunized infants. Older persons are often found to have the first case in a household with multiple pertussis cases, and are often the source of infection for children.
Treatment
The antibiotics erythromycin, clarithromycin, or azithromycin are typically the recommended treatment. Newer macrolides are frequently recommended due to lower rates of side effects. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) may be used in those with allergies to first-line agents or in infants who have a risk of pyloric stenosis from macrolides.
A reasonable guideline is to treat people age >1 year within 3 weeks of cough onset and infants age <1 year and pregnant women within 6 weeks of cough onset. If the person is diagnosed late, antibiotics will not alter the course of the illness, and even without antibiotics, they should no longer be spreading pertussis. When used early, antibiotics decrease the duration of infectiousness, and thus prevent spread. Short-term antibiotics (azithromycin for 3–5 days) are as effective as long-term treatment (erythromycin 10–14 days) in eliminating B. pertussis with fewer and less severe side effects.
People with pertussis are most infectious during the first two weeks following the onset of symptoms.
Effective treatments of the cough associated with this condition have not been developed. The use of over the counter cough medications is discouraged and has not been found helpful.
Prognosis
While most healthy older children and adults fully recover, infection in newborns is particularly severe. Pertussis is fatal in an estimated 0.5% of US infants under one year of age. First-year infants are also more likely to develop complications, such as: apneas (31%), pneumonia (12%), seizures (0.6%) and encephalopathy (0.15%). This may be due to the ability of the bacterium to suppress the immune system.
Epidemiology
Worldwide, whooping cough affects around 16 million people yearly. One estimate for 2013 stated it resulted in about 61,000 deaths – down from 138,000 deaths in 1990. Another estimated 195,000 child deaths yearly from the disease worldwide. This is despite generally high coverage with the DTP and DTaP vaccines. Pertussis is one of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths worldwide. About 90% of all cases occur in developing countries.
Before vaccines, an average of 178,171 cases was reported in the U.S., with peaks reported every two to five years; more than 93% of reported cases occurred in children under 10 years of age. The actual incidence was likely much higher. After vaccinations were introduced in the 1940s, pertussis incidence fell dramatically to approximately 1,000 by 1976. Incidence rates have increased since 1980. In 2015, 20,762 people were reported to have been infected in the United States.
Pertussis is the only vaccine-preventable disease that is associated with increasing deaths in the U.S. The number of deaths increased from four in 1996 to 17 in 2001, almost all of which were infants under one year. In Canada, the number of pertussis infections has varied between 2,000 and 10,000 reported cases each year over the last ten years, and it is the most common vaccine-preventable illness in Toronto.
In 2009 Australia reported an average of 10,000 cases a year, and the number of cases had increased. In the U.S. pertussis in adults has increased significantly since about 2004.
In 2017, India had a reported 23,766 reported pertussis cases, making it one of the highest reported number of cases of the year. Other countries, such as Germany, had reported 16,183 cases, while Australia and China had a reported number of 12,114 and 10,390 pertussis cases.
US outbreaks
In 2010, 10 babies in California died and health authorities declared an epidemic with 5,978 confirmed, probable and suspected cases. They found that doctors had failed to correctly diagnose the babies' condition during several visits. Statistical analysis identified significant overlap in communities with a cluster of nonmedical child exemptions and cases. The number of exemptions varied widely among communities, but tended to be highly clustered. In some schools, more than 75 % of parents filed for vaccination exemptions. The data suggest vaccine refusal based on nonmedical reasons and personal belief exacerbated the outbreak. Other factors included reduced duration of immunity following the acellular vaccine and most vaccinated adults and older children not receiving a booster shot.
In April and May 2012, pertussis was declared to be at epidemic levels in Washington, with 3,308 cases. In December 2012 Vermont declared an epidemic of 522 cases. Wisconsin had the highest incidence rate, with 3,877 cases, although it did not make an official epidemic declaration.
History
Discovery
B. pertussis was discovered in 1906 by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou, who also developed the first serology and vaccine. Efforts to develop an inactivated whole-cell vaccine began soon after B. pertussis was cultured that year. In the 1920s, Louis W. Sauer developed a weak vaccine for whooping cough at Evanston Hospital (Evanston, IL). In 1925 Danish physician Thorvald Madsen was the first to test a whole-cell vaccine on a wide scale. Madsen used the vaccine to control outbreaks in the Faroe Islands in the North Sea.
Vaccine
In 1932 an outbreak of whooping cough hit Atlanta, Georgia, prompting pediatrician Leila Denmark to begin her study of the disease. Over the next six years her work was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, and in partnership with Emory University and Eli Lilly & Company, she developed the first pertussis vaccine. In 1942 American scientists Grace Eldering, Loney Gordon, and Pearl Kendrick combined the whole-cell pertussis vaccine with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids to generate the first DTP combination vaccine. To minimize the frequent side effects caused by the pertussis component, Japanese scientist Yuji Sato developed an acellular vaccine consisting of purified haemagglutinins (HAs: filamentous strep throat and leukocytosis-promoting-factor HA), which are secreted by B. pertussis. Sato's acellular pertussis vaccine was used in Japan starting in 1981. Later versions of the acellular vaccine in other countries consisted of additional defined components of B. pertussis and were often part of the DTaP combination vaccine.
References
External links
Pertussis at Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
PBS NOVA – Vaccines: Calling The Shots
Bacterial diseases
Pediatrics
Articles containing video clips
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Disorders causing seizures
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
Vaccine-preventable diseases | wiki |
Battlefield is a video game series developed by DICE, and published by Electronic Arts. The series debuted with the Battlefield 1942. The games take place during historical events, an alternate history, and in the future. Gameplay is mainly composed of first-person shooter aspects, with a large emphasis on vehicle combat on land, in the air, and to some extent, the sea. A commercial success, the Battlefield series had sold 4.4 million units as of October 2004.
Games
References
External links
Official Battlefield series website
Battlefield (video game series)
Battlefield | wiki |
Deep Thunder is een onderzoeksproject van IBM dat poogt om de kortetermijn lokale weersvoorspelling te verbeteren door middel van high-performance computing. Het maakt deel uit van IBM's Deep Computing initiatief dat ook de schaakcomputer Deep Blue voortbracht.
Externe link
Deep Thunder project
Supercomputer | wiki |
Ⲥ (minuscule : ⲥ), appelé sēmma, est une lettre de l’alphabet copte utilisée dans l’écriture du copte, de l’ancien nubien et du nobiin.
Utilisation
Représentations informatiques
Le sēmma a été représenté avec les mêmes caractères que le sigma grec jusqu’à la publication d’Unicode 4.1 en mars 2005, à partir de laquelle il est représenté avec des caractères qui lui sont propres. Il peut donc être représenté à l’aide des caractères (Grec et copte, Copte) suivants :
Voir aussi
Alphabet copte
Lettre copte | wiki |
Krystal – personaggio della serie di videogiochi Star Fox
Krystal – variante del nome proprio di persona femminile Crystal
Krystal – catena di Fast food statunitense
Krystal Steal – pornodiva statunitense
Krystal – cantante e attrice sudcoreana
Krystal – film del 2017 diretto da William H. Macy | wiki |
The American Revolution: Written in Scriptural, or, Ancient Historical Style is a 1796 account of the American Revolution written by Richard Snowden (1753–1825).
Overview
Despite adopting the "scriptural" style, the work is relatively devoid of religious material. The work was aimed at schoolchildren, with Snowden writing that the style was chosen as the style "most suitable to the capacities of young people". The work was published with verse numbers and uses English of the Jacobean Era, similar to that found in the King James Version of the Bible published in 1611.
In the work, modern place names are replaced with archaic-sounding names, e.g. France is called Gaul.
References
External links
Read The American Revolution at the Internet Archive.
1796 non-fiction books
18th-century history books
History books about the American Revolution
Works in the style of the King James Version | wiki |
Group A of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup will take place from 20 to 30 July 2023. The group consists of hosts New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines and Switzerland. The top two teams will advance to the round of 16.
Teams
Notes
Standings
In the round of 16:
The winners of Group A will advance to play the runners-up of Group C.
The runners-up of Group A will advance to play the winners of Group C.
Matches
All times listed are local, NZST (UTC+12).
New Zealand vs Norway
Philippines vs Switzerland
New Zealand vs Philippines
Switzerland vs Norway
Switzerland vs New Zealand
Norway vs Philippines
Discipline
Fair play points will be used as tiebreakers in the group if the overall and head-to-head records of teams are tied. These are calculated based on yellow and red cards received in all group matches as follows:
first yellow card: minus 1 point;
indirect red card (second yellow card): minus 3 points;
direct red card: minus 4 points;
yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points;
Only one of the above deductions will be applied to a player in a single match.
References
External links
2023 FIFA Women's World Cup | wiki |
Group B of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup will take place from 20 to 31 July 2023. The group consists of hosts Australia, the Republic of Ireland, Nigeria and Canada. The top two teams will advance to the round of 16.
Teams
Notes
Standings
In the round of 16:
The winners of Group B will advance to play the runners-up of Group D.
The runners-up of Group B will advance to play the winners of Group D.
Matches
All times listed are local.
Australia vs Republic of Ireland
The match was originally scheduled to take place at Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney. However, FIFA confirmed on 31 January 2022 (Australia time) that the match would be moved to Stadium Australia, Sydney, due to significant interest in tickets.
Nigeria vs Canada
Canada vs Republic of Ireland
Australia vs Nigeria
Canada vs Australia
Republic of Ireland vs Nigeria
Discipline
Fair play points will be used as tiebreakers in the group if the overall and head-to-head records of teams are tied. These are calculated based on yellow and red cards received in all group matches as follows:
first yellow card: minus 1 point;
indirect red card (second yellow card): minus 3 points;
direct red card: minus 4 points;
yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points;
Only one of the above deductions will be applied to a player in a single match.
References
External links
2023 FIFA Women's World Cup | wiki |
The Scion bbX was first concept car to be revealed by Toyota for its daughter company, Scion. The concept was first shown at the New York International Auto Show in 2003. The design of the bbX was the basis for the Scion xB, which was sold for two generations from 2003 to 2015.
External links
Unofficial Scion bbx site
bbX | wiki |
Pulldown may refer to:
Pulldown (casting), a type of casting defect
Pull-down resistor, a type of resistor use
Pull-down assay, a biochemical protein extraction technique
Pull-down menu. See Menu (computing)
Fitness
Pulldown exercise, a compound exercise designed to stress and develop the Latissimus dorsi.
A mark (Australian football)
Media
Negative pulldown, the difference between 2-, 3-, and 4-perf movie camera frame movements
Pull-down curtain
Telecine, the methods of 3:2 pulldown in video conversion
See also
Pull up (disambiguation) | wiki |
Portugal men's national hockey team may refer to:
Portugal men's national field hockey team
Portugal men's national ice hockey team
Portugal national roller hockey team | wiki |
The Standard and Poor's 500, or simply the S&P 500, is a stock market index tracking the stock performance of 500 large companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices. As of December 31, 2020, more than $5.4 trillion was invested in assets tied to the performance of the index.
The S&P 500 index is a free-float weighted/capitalization-weighted index. As of August 31, 2022, the nine largest companies on the list of S&P 500 companies accounted for 27.8% of the market capitalization of the index and were, in order of highest to lowest weighting: Apple, Microsoft, Alphabet (including both class A & C shares), Amazon.com, Tesla, Berkshire Hathaway, UnitedHealth Group, Johnson & Johnson and ExxonMobil. The components that have increased their dividends in 25 consecutive years are known as the S&P 500 Dividend Aristocrats.
The index is one of the factors in computation of the Conference Board Leading Economic Index, used to forecast the direction of the economy.
The index is associated with many ticker symbols, including ^GSPC, .INX, and $SPX, depending on market or website.
The S&P 500 is maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, a joint venture majority-owned by S&P Global, and its components are selected by a committee.
The average annualized return since its inception in 1928 through Dec. 31, 2021, is 11.82%. The average annualized return since adopting 500 stocks into the index in 1957 through Dec. 31, 2021, is 11.88%.
Investing in the S&P 500
Mutual and exchange-traded funds
Index funds, including mutual funds and exchange-traded funds (ETFs), can replicate, before fees and expenses, the performance of the index by holding the same stocks as the index in the same proportions. ETFs that replicate the performance of the index are issued by The Vanguard Group (), iShares (), and State Street Corporation (), and the most liquid based on average daily volume is currently (), although SPY has a much higher expense ratio of 0.09% compared to just 0.03% for VOO and IVV. Mutual funds that track the index are offered by Fidelity Investments, T. Rowe Price, and Charles Schwab Corporation.
Direxion offers leveraged ETFs that attempt to produce three times the daily result of either investing in () or shorting () the S&P 500 index.
Derivatives
In the derivatives market, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) offers futures contracts that track the index and trade on the exchange floor in an open outcry auction, or on CME's Globex platform, and are the exchange's most popular product.
The Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) offers options on the S&P 500 index as well as on S&P 500 index ETFs, inverse ETFs, and leveraged ETFs.
History
In 1860, Henry Varnum Poor formed Poor's Publishing, which published an investor's guide to the railroad industry.
In 1923, Standard Statistics Company (founded in 1906 as the Standard Statistics Bureau) began rating mortgage bonds and developed its first stock market index consisting of the stocks of 233 U.S. companies, computed weekly.
In 1926, it developed a 90-stock index, computed daily.
In 1941, Poor's Publishing merged with Standard Statistics Company to form Standard & Poor's.
On Monday, March 4, 1957, the index was expanded to its current 500 companies and was renamed the S&P 500 Stock Composite Index.
In 1962, Ultronic Systems became the compiler of the S&P indices including the S&P 500 Stock Composite Index, the 425 Stock Industrial Index, the 50 Stock Utility Index, and the 25 Stock Rail Index.
On August 31, 1976, The Vanguard Group offered the first mutual fund to retail investors that tracked the index.
On April 21, 1982, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange began trading futures based on the index.
On July 1, 1983, Chicago Board Options Exchange began trading options based on the index.
Beginning in 1986, the index value was updated every 15 seconds, or 1,559 times per trading day, with price updates disseminated by Reuters.
On January 22, 1993, the Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipts exchange-traded fund issued by State Street Corporation began trading.
On September 9, 1997, CME Group introduced the S&P E-mini futures contract.
In 2005, the index transitioned to a public float-adjusted capitalization-weighting.
Friday, September 17, 2021, was the final trading date for the original SP big contract which began trading in 1982.
Selection criteria
Like other indices managed by S&P Dow Jones Indices, but unlike indices such as the Russell 1000 Index which are strictly rule-based, the components of the S&P 500 index are selected by a committee. When considering the eligibility of a new addition, the committee assesses the company's merit using eight primary criteria: market capitalization, liquidity, domicile, public float, Global Industry Classification Standard and representation of the industries in the economy of the United States, financial viability, length of time publicly traded, and stock exchange. Over the past few years, there has been a decline in the number of S&P 500 companies with classified boards. Requirements to be added to the index include:
Market capitalization must be greater than or equal to US$12.7 billion
Annual dollar value traded to float-adjusted market capitalization is greater than 0.75.
Minimum monthly trading volume of 250,000 shares in each of the six months leading up to the evaluation date
Must be publicly listed on either the New York Stock Exchange (including NYSE Arca or NYSE American) or NASDAQ (NASDAQ Global Select Market, NASDAQ Select Market or the NASDAQ Capital Market).
The company should be from the U.S.
Securities that are ineligible for inclusion in the index are limited partnerships, master limited partnerships and their investment trust units, OTC Bulletin Board issues, closed-end funds, exchange-traded funds, Exchange-traded notes, royalty trusts, tracking stocks, preferred stock, unit trusts, equity warrants, convertible bonds, investment trusts, American depositary receipts, and American depositary shares.
Since 2017, companies with dual share classes are not added to the index.
The market cap eligibility criteria are for addition to an index, not for continued membership. As a result, an index constituent that appears to violate criteria for addition to that index is not removed unless ongoing conditions warrant an index change.
A stock may rise in value when it is added to the index since index funds must purchase that stock to continue tracking the index.
In October 2021, Bloomberg News reported that a study alleged that some companies purchase ratings from S&P Global to increase their chances of entering the S&P 500 Index—even without meeting the full criteria for inclusion.
Index value calculation
The index is a free-float capitalization-weighted index; that is, companies are weighted in the index in proportion to their market capitalizations. For purposes of determining the market capitalization of a company for weighting in the index, only the number of shares available for public trading ("public float") is used; shares held by insiders or controlling shareholders that are not publicly traded are excluded from the calculation.
The formula to calculate the S&P 500 index value is
where is the price of the i-th stock in the index, is the corresponding number of shares publicly available ("float") for that stock, and is a normalization factor.
The , currently around 8.3 billion, is a number that is adjusted to keep the value of the index consistent despite corporate actions that affect market capitalization and would otherwise affect the calculation formula, such as additional share issuance, share buybacks, special dividends, constituent changes, rights offerings, and corporate spin-offs. Stock splits do not affect the divisor since they do not affect market capitalization. When a company is dropped and replaced by another with a different market capitalization, the divisor needs to be adjusted in such a way that the value of the S&P 500 index remains constant. All divisor adjustments are made after the close of trading and after the calculation of the closing value of the S&P 500 index.
For example, Apple had 16.41 billion common shares outstanding as of May 27,2022. It closed the day at a market price of $146 per share. That gives the company a free-float market capitalization of 16.41 billion shares x $146/shares = $2.40 trillion. Assuming that all companies included in S&P 500 sum to a total market capitalization of $38.29 trillion, the S&P 500 index level is then 38.29 trillion/8.3 billion = 4,613.25.
Performance
The average annual total return and compound annual growth rate of the index, including dividends, since inception in 1926 has been approximately 9.8% (6% after inflation), and the annual standard deviation of the return over the same time period is 20.81%; however, there were several years where the index declined over 30%. The index has posted annual increases 70% of the time. However, the index has made new highs on only 5% of trading days, meaning that on 95% of trading days, the index has closed below its all-time high.
Price history & milestones
On August 12, 1982, the index closed at 102.42.
On Black Monday (1987), the index realized its worst daily percentage loss, falling 20.47% in a single day.
On February 12, 1997, the index closed above 800 for the first time.
On February 2, 1998, the index closed above 1,000 for the first time.
On March 24, 2000, at the peak of the dot-com bubble, the index reached an intraday high of 1,552.87; this high was not exceeded until May 30, 2007. On October 10, 2002, during the stock market downturn of 2002, the index fell to 768.83, a decline of approximately 50% from its high in March 2000.
On May 30, 2007, the index closed at 1,530.23, setting its first all-time closing high in more than 7 years. The index achieved a new all-time intraday high on October 11, 2007, at 1,576.09.
Between the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, and the end of 2008, the index closed either up or down 3% in one day 29 times. On October 13, 2008, the index closed up 11.6%, its best single-day percentage gain since being founded in 1957.
On November 20, 2008, the index closed at 752.44, its lowest since early 1997.
The index ended 2008 at 903.25, a yearly loss of 38.5%. The index continued to decline in early 2009, closing at 676.53 on March 9, 2009, its lowest close in 13 years. The drawdown from the high in October 2007 to the low in March 2009 was 56.8%, the largest since World War II.
At the trough of the United States bear market of 2007–2009, on March 6, 2009, the index was at 666. By March 23, 2009, the index had risen 20% from its low, closing at 822.92.
The index closed 2009 at 1,115.10, the second-best year of the decade.
On April 14, 2010, the index closed at 1,210.65, its first close above 1,200 since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. By July 2, 2010, it had fallen to 1,022.58, its lowest point of the year.
On April 29, 2011, the index closed at a post-crisis high of 1,363.61. However, after the August 2011 stock markets fall, on October 4, 2011, the index briefly broke below 1,100.
The index rose 13% in 2012 despite significant volatility amid electoral and fiscal uncertainty and round 3 of quantitative easing. On December 31, 2012, the index closed at 1,426.19, an annual gain of 13% and its biggest gain in 3 years.
On March 28, 2013, the index surpassed its closing high of 1,565.15, recovering all its losses from the Great Recession. On April 10, 2013, it closed above the intraday high from 2007.
On August 26, 2014, the index closed above 2,000 for the first time.
On March 2, 2015, the index reached an all-time closing high, while the Nasdaq Composite closed above 5,000 for the first time since 2000.
After the 2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence, a period of over a year with no new record highs ended on July 11, 2016, with the index closing at 2,137.16.
In June 2017, the index posted the largest weekly rise since the 2016 United States presidential election.
For the full year 2017, the index was up 19.4%, its best year since 2013. On September 25, 2017, the index closed above 2,500 for the first time.
The index rose sharply in January 2018, extending one of its longest monthly winning streaks, only to fall 4% in February 2018 during a month of extremely high volatility, including a day in which the VIX doubled. It was the first monthly decline in 11 months. In the third quarter of 2018, the index posted its best quarter since 2013. However, the index fell 11% in the month of December 2018, its worst December performance since the Great Depression. The index fell 6% in 2018, its worst year in a decade.
However, in 2019, the index posted its best first half in 22 years including the best June since 1938. On July 10, 2019, the index reached 3,000 for the first time. The index rose 31.5% in 2019, one of its best years.
On February 19, 2020, the index hit a new closing peak of 3,386.15; however, it fell 10% in the next six trading days, its fastest drop from a new peak as a result of the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 recession. On March 23, 2020, at the trough of the 2020 stock market crash, the index had fallen 34% from its peak. Overall, the index fell 20% during the first quarter of 2020, its worst quarter since 2008. However, this was followed by a 20% gain in the second quarter, its biggest quarterly gain since 1998. The index reached a new record high on August 18, 2020. In the following months the index reached several all-time highs. On April 1, 2021, the index closed above 4,000 for the first time.
In 2021, the index closed 70 days of the year at a new record closing price, the second highest number ever recorded, behind the 77 closing highs recorded in 1995. 2021 also marked the first year since 2005 when the S&P 500 beat the other two closely watched U.S. stock indices: the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the Nasdaq Composite.
On January 3, 2022, the index reached a record of 4796.56.
Returns by year
Returns are generally quoted as price returns (excluding returns from dividends). However, they can also be quoted as total return, which include returns from dividends and the reinvestment thereof, and "net total return", which reflects the effects of dividend reinvestment after the deduction of withholding tax.
See also
List of S&P 500 companies
SPDR S&P 500 Trust ETF (symbol SPY)
References
0500
1957 introductions
American stock market indices | wiki |
Mike Campbell (*1950), Amerikaans gitarist
Michael Campbell (golfer) (*1969), Nieuw-Zeelands golfer
Michael Campbell (atleet) (*1978), Jamaicaans hardloper | wiki |
Algebraic semantics may refer to:
Algebraic semantics (computer science)
Algebraic semantics (mathematical logic) | wiki |
La liste suivante recense les différents championnats automobiles se déroulant en Australie.
Course unique
Références
Compétition automobile en Australie
Australie | wiki |
The Hazelwood Tree is a giant sequoia in the Giant Forest, the sequoia grove where the largest living tree in the world, named General Sherman, grows. It is located on a hillside just west of the Hazelwood Nature Trail. The tree had a volume of and was the 17th largest giant sequoia, before losing half its trunk in a lightning storm in 2002. The tree was measured in 1989.
See also
List of largest giant sequoias
List of individual trees
References
Individual giant sequoia trees
Sequoia National Park | wiki |
Bikini Karate Babes is a 2002 2D fighting video game that uses digitized graphics, developed by Creative Edge Studios. It features an all-female cast of 19 fighters, all clad in bikinis and played by real actresses. The game was developed as a response to the treatment of women in contemporary fighting games, who would be portrayed in skimpy, sexualized clothing while male characters were fully dressed.
The game received strongly negative reviews, with a 8.5% aggregate score on GameRankings and a 1.5 out of 10 from IGN. Nonetheless, its developer Creative Edge Studios referred to it as a "solid seller". A sequel, Bikini Karate Babes 2: Warriors of Elysia, was released in 2011.
Gameplay
The game plays similarly to other 2D fighting games and has been likened to Street Fighter: The Movie and Mortal Kombat. There are 8 characters to select from initially and 11 more that can be unlocked. All the characters' names are based on goddesses of mythology, and each character's traits correspond to that fact. Each character has a set of moves and combos, which can be performed by use of the directional buttons and the three basic attack buttons, Punch, Kick and Special. The Special button pressed alone produces a grab move which, unlike other fighting games, varies depending on the opponent.
Each character has an array of martial arts moves, a grab move and also a mystical move, which varies from firing a projectile to invisibility to teleportation. Examples include Thalia's tickle grab, Lucina's mystic move which has her lowering her bikini top and shooting a laser beam from her breasts, Zaria's grab which has her turning her opponent around then pushing her backside away with her own, and Venus's grab in which she strips her opponent of her bikini top making her too embarrassed to fight. Several other moves make a fighter remove her bikini top/bottom, but the bare parts are always somewhat covered (in Lucina's aforementioned move, because of the flare of the laser); full nudity is never shown in the game.
Bikini Karate Babes features 10 distinct game modes:
Arcade – 1-Player Story Mode.
Battle Babes – 2-player Mode.
Team Fight – Each player selects up to 8 characters. When one is defeated, the next takes her place.
Marathon – The player attempts to defeat as many opponents as possible.
Practice
Challenge – The player challenges a specific fighter to get access to her Sweet Stuff (see note below).
Spectacle – Two CPU-controlled fighters of the player's choice fight amongst themselves.
Top Collector – The player plays as Venus against 5 specific fighters, and win if they use Venus' special throw to remove all her opponents' bikinis.
Vegas – The player places bets as they watch the BKB fighters fight amongst themselves.
Invincible Mode – Same as Arcade Mode but the player's life does not run out.
Development
Bikini Karate Babes was created in order to "poke fun at the state of fighting games of the day." This was in response to fighting games featuring women characters with increasingly revealing clothing while male characters appeared in full body armor.
The grab sequences were recorded with both fighters together in the scene, a total of 342 unique sequences were filmed for the game.
Reception
The game generated media attention but reviews were largely negative. Video gaming website IGN scored the game 1.5 out of 10, an "unbearable" rating. Creative Edge Studios have stated that Bikini Karate Babes has been "a solid seller", despite the negative press.
Sequels
The sequel, named Bikini Karate Babes 2: Warriors of Elysia was released in North America on June 21, 2011. The graphics were upgraded from 8-bit to 24-bit images. Travis Riggs was the creative director and music director for the project. The game has been developed for various mobile devices with improved soundtrack, animation, and visual effect. Twenty-four unique sounding tracks have been invented by Andy Sikorski. Hybrids of heavy metal, classic music, hip-hop, techno and traditional Arabic songs have been invented in the process of creating the soundtrack.
A third title, Bikini Karate Babes 3 is available for Android devices.
References
External links
Demo of the game
The sequel's homepage.
2002 video games
Bikinis
Fighting games
MacOS games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games with digitized sprites
Windows games
Karate video games | wiki |
Zener can refer to:
Zener diode, a type of electronic diode
Zener effect, a type of electrical breakdown which is employed in a Zener diode
Zener pinning, the influence of a dispersion of fine particles on the movement of low- and high angle grain boundaries through a polycrystalline material
Clarence Zener, the American physicist after whom the diode, effect, and pinning are named
Karl Zener, the American psychologist after whom the cards are named
Zener cards, cards used to conduct experiments for extra-sensory perception | wiki |
Hubble è un cratere lunare di 81,84 km situato nella parte nord-orientale della faccia visibile della Luna.
Il cratere è dedicato all'astronomo statunitense Edwin Hubble.
Crateri correlati
Alcuni crateri minori situati in prossimità di Hubble sono convenzionalmente identificati, sulle mappe lunari, attraverso una lettera associata al nome.
Note
Altri progetti
Collegamenti esterni
Hubble
Caratteristiche esogeologiche lunari con crateri correlati | wiki |
Ashishim is a red lentil pancake dish of Ancient Israelite origin. According to the Talmud, it was a common dish eaten by Jews in antiquity.
History
Ashishim are pancakes or fritters made with crushed red lentils, eggs, flour and sesame seeds, which are mixed together to create a batter which is then deep fried and topped with a honey syrup, similar to the Sephardic Jewish sfinj.
Ashishim are mentioned numerous times in ancient Jewish texts, such as in the Torah, the Song of Songs, and in the Mishnah. A detailed recipe for making ashishim can be found in the Jerusalem Talmud.
See also
Bimuelos- a similar Sephardic Jewish dish
References
Israelites
Israeli cuisine
Jewish cuisine
Pancakes
Lentil dishes | wiki |
The following is a list of episodes from the series Voltron: Legendary Defender. The first season was released on June 10, 2016. The first episode in Netflix is triple-length, creating a cumulative runtime for the season equal to the industry standard of 13 episodes, while other streaming services such as iTunes and Amazon have three separated episodes with the normal length of 23 minutes. The second season was released on January 20, 2017, the third season was released on August 4, 2017 and the fourth season was released on October 13, 2017. A fifth season was released on March 2, 2018, while the sixth season was released on June 15, 2018. A seventh season was released on August 10, 2018. The eighth and final season was released on December 14, 2018. In South Korea (where the show was animated), the series was divided into three seasons of twenty-six episodes each.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2016)
Season 2 (2017)
Season 3 (2017)
Season 4 (2017)
Season 5 (2018)
Season 6 (2018)
Season 7 (2018)
Season 8 (2018)
Shorts
A series of shorts were released on the DreamWorksTV YouTube channel in the style of in-character vlogs.
References
External links
Voltron | wiki |
Mark Scanlon may refer to:
Mark Scanlon (cyclist) (born 1980), Irish cyclist
Mark Scanlon (surfer), Australian surfer | wiki |
F3 is an outline font format created by Folio, Inc. Sun Microsystems acquired Folio in 1988, and included 57 F3 fonts and the F3 interpreter, TypeScaler, in its OpenWindows desktop environment. The font format allowed for hinting. The extension of F3 Font Format outlines is .f3b.
References
External links
Font formats
Sun Microsystems software | wiki |
Divergent double subduction (abbreviated as DDS), also called outward dipping double-sided subduction, is a special type of subduction process in which two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate. In conventional plate tectonics theory, an oceanic plate subducts under another plate and new oceanic crust is generated somewhere else, commonly along the other side of the same plates However, in divergent double subduction, the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. This results in the closure of ocean and arc–arc collision.
This concept was first proposed and applied to the Lachlan Fold Belt in southern Australia. Since then, geologists have applied this model to other regions such as the Solonker Suture Zone of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, the Jiangnan Orogen, the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision zone and the Baker terrane boundary. Active examples of this system are (1) the Molucca Sea Collision Zone in Indonesia, in which the Molucca Sea Plate subducts below the Eurasian Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate on two sides, and (2) the Adriatic Plate in the central Mediterranean, subducting both on its western side (beneath the Apennines and Calabria) and on its eastern side (beneath the Dinarides).
Note that the term divergent is used to describe one oceanic plate subducting in different directions on two opposite sides. This sense should not be confused with the use of the same term in divergent plate boundary, which refers to a spreading center, where two separate plates move away from each other.
Evolution of divergent double subduction system
The complete evolution of a divergent double subduction system can be divided into four major stages.
Initial stage
As the central oceanic plate subducts on both sides into the two overriding plates, the subducting oceanic slab brings fluids down and the fluids are released in the mantle wedge. This initiates the partial melting of the mantle wedge and the magma eventually rise into the overriding plates, resulting in the formation of two volcanic arcs on the two overriding plates. At the same time, sediment deposits on the two margins of the overriding plates, forming two accretionary wedges. As the plate subducts and rollback occurs, the ocean becomes narrower and the subduction rate reduces as the oceanic plate becomes closer to an inverted "U" shape.
Second stage
The ocean is closed eventually as subduction continues. The two overriding plates meet, collide, and weld together by a "soft" collision. The inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate inhibits the continued subduction of the plate because the mantle material below the plate is trapped.
Third stage
The dense oceanic plate has a high tendency to sink. As it sinks, it breaks along the oceanic plate and the welded crust above and a gap is created. The extra space created leads to the decompression melting of mantle wedge materials. The melts flow upward and fill the gap and intrude the oceanic plate and welded crust as mafic dykes intrusion. Eventually, the oceanic plate completely breaks apart from the welded crust as it continues to sink.
Final stage
When the oceanic plate breaks apart from the crust and sinks into the mantle, underplating continues to occur. At the same time, the sinking oceanic plate starts to dewater and release the fluids upward to aid the partial melting of mantle and the crust above. It results in extensive magmatism and bimodal volcanism.
Magmatic and metamorphic features
Arc magmatism
Unlike one sided subduction where only one magmatic arc is generated on the overriding plate, two parallel magmatic arcs are generated on both colliding overriding plates when the oceanic plate subducts on two sides. Volcanic rocks indicating arc volcanism can be found on both sides of the suture zone. Typical rock types include calc-alkaline basalt, andesites, dacite and tuff. These arc volcanic rocks are enriched in large ion lithophile element (LILE) and light rare earth element (LREE) but depleted in niobium, hafnium and titanium.
Extensive intrusions
Partial melting of mantle generate mafic dyke intrusion. Because the mantle is the primary source, these dykes record isotopic characteristics of the depleted mantle in which the 87Sr/86Sr ratio is near 0.703 and samarium-neodymium dating is positive. On the other hand, partial melting of the lower crust (accretionary complex) leads to S-type granitoid intrusions with enriched aluminium oxide throughout the evolution of divergent double subduction.
Bimodal volcanism
When the oceanic plate detaches from the overlying crust, intense decompressional melting of mantle is induced. Large amount of hot basaltic magma intrude and melt the crust which generate rhyolitic melt. This results in alternating eruption of basaltic and rhyolitic lava.
Low grade metamorphism
Without continental collision and deep subduction, high grade metamorphism is not common like other subduction zones. Most of the sedimentary strata and volcanics in the accretionary wedge experience low to medium grade metamorphism up to greenschist or amphibolite facies only.
Structural features
Thrusting and folding
When the two overriding plates converge, two accretionary wedges will develop. The two accretionary wedges are in opposite direction. Thus, direction of thrust and vergence of the folds in the accretionary wedges are opposite also. However, this proposed feature may not be observed because of the continuous deformation. For example, in the modern day example of Molucca Sea Collision Zone, the continuous active collision causes the Sangihe Arc to override the Halmahera Arc and the back arc of Halmahera Arc to overthrust itself. In this case, complex fold thrust belt including the accretionary complex is formed. In the future, the Sangihe Arc will override the Halmahera Arc and the rock records in Halmahera will disappear.
Unconformity
When the two overriding plates collide and the ocean basin is closed, sedimentation ceases. Sinking of the oceanic plate drag down the welded crust to form a basin that allows continued sedimentation. After the oceanic plate completely detaches from the crust above, isostatic rebound occurs, leaving a significant unconformity in the sedimentary sections.
Factors controlling the evolution of divergent double subduction system
In nature, the inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate in divergent double subduction should not be always perfectly symmetrical like the idealized model. An asymmetrical form is preferred like the real example in Molucca Sea where the length of the subducted slab is longer on its western side beneath the Sangihe Arc while a shorter slab on its eastern side beneath the Halmahera Arc. 3D numerical modelling had been done to simulate divergent double subduction, to evaluate different factors that can affect the evolution and geometry of the system discerned below.
Width of the oceanic plate
The width of the plate determines whether the divergent double subduction can be sustained. The inverted "U" shape of the oceanic plate is not an effective geometry for it to sink because of the mantle materials beneath. Those mantle materials need to escape by toroidal flow at the edge of the subducted oceanic plate. With a narrow oceanic plate (width < 2000 km), the trapped mantle beneath the oceanic plate can effectively escape by toroidal flow. In contrast, for a persistent oceanic plate (width > 2000 km), the trapped mantle beneath the oceanic plate cannot escape effectively by toroidal flow and the system cannot be sustained. Therefore, divergent double subduction can only occur in small narrow oceanic plate but not in large width oceanic plate. This also explains why it is rare in nature and most subduction zones are single sided.
Order of subduction
Order of subduction control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction. The side that begins to subduct earlier enters the eclogitization level earlier. The density contrast between the plate and the mantle increases which makes the sinking of the plate faster, creating a positive feedback. It results in an asymmetrical geometry where the slab length is longer on the side which subducts earlier. The slab pull, amount of poloidal flow and the rate of convergence on the side with shorter length will be reduced.
It remains unclear how initiation occurs for both sides of a single plate if subduction is in form of divergent double subduction, even though this subduction type has been clearly observed . This is because it's difficult to break a moving oceanic plate (i.e., acting as a trailing edge, which moving in the reverse direction of the ongoing, earlier-initiated subduction) due to lack of compression required for forced (induced) subduction initiation. Therefore, self-consistent initiation of divergent double subduction, together with other forms of double subduction, requires further studies of structural and magmatic records.
State of motion of the overriding plates
The state of motion of overriding plates control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction and the position of collision. The length of the subducting slab beneath a stagnant overriding plate is shorter because the mantle flow is weaker and the subduction is slower. In contrast, the length of the subducting slab beneath a free moving plate is longer. Additionally, the position of collision is shifted more to the side with stagnant plate as the rollback is faster on the free moving side.
Thickness of the overriding plates
Thickness of the overriding plates have similar effect as state of motion of overriding plates to control the geometry of divergent doubled subduction and the position of collision. A thicker overriding plate hinders subduction because of the larger friction. It results in a shorter slab. Vice versa, a thinner overriding plate have a longer slab.
Density contrast between oceanic plate and mantle
Larger density contrast between oceanic plate and mantle create a larger negative buoyancy of the oceanic plate. It results in a faster subduction and a stronger rollback. Therefore, the mantle flow induced by the rollback (poloidal flow) is also enhanced. The convergence rate is increased, resulting in a faster and more vigorous collision between the two overriding plates.
References
Subduction | wiki |
Samuel Seabury (1729–1796) was the first American Episcopal bishop and the Episcopal Church's second presiding bishop.
Samuel Seabury may also refer to:
Samuel Seabury (1801–1872), rector of the Church of the Annunciation in New York City
Samuel Seabury (judge) (1873–1958), judge of the New York Court of Appeals | wiki |
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines.
Mass Production may also refer to:
Mass Production (band), an American funk/disco group
Mass Production (Iggy Pop), a 1977 track from the album The Idiot | wiki |
Moldavia estuvo representada en los Juegos Paralímpicos de Atenas 2004 por tres deportistas masculinos. El equipo paralímpico moldavo no obtuvo ninguna medalla en estos Juegos.
Referencias
Enlaces externos
Moldavia
V 2004
Moldavia en 2004 | wiki |
Walking with Dinosaurs is a television documentary produced by the BBC.
Walking with Dinosaurs may also refer to:
Walking with Dinosaurs (film), 2013
Walking with Dinosaurs (video game), 2013
See also
Walking with... | wiki |
Convicts is a 1991 film directed by Peter Masterson. It stars Robert Duvall and Lukas Haas. It is based on the Horton Foote play The Orphan's Home.
Summary
A boy works with convicts on the sugarcane plantation of a senile Civil War veteran in 1902 Texas.
Cast
Robert Duvall as Soll Gautier
Lukas Haas as Horace Robedaux
James Earl Jones as Ben Johnson
Starletta DuPois as Martha Johnson
Carlin Glynn as Asa
References
External links
1991 films
Films directed by Peter Masterson
Films set in 1902
Films set in Texas
Films with screenplays by Horton Foote
1991 drama films
1990s English-language films | wiki |
Underplay may refer to:
Underplay, a term associated with Minimisation in psychology
Underplay (cards), to follow suit with a lower card | wiki |
Spodium, (Latin for ashes or soot) refers to burned bone (usually used for medical purposes), or the act of divination with ash.
Spodium may also refer to other types of ash, such as the scrapings from the inside of a furnace.
Spodium has a long history of medical usage, mentioned by Hippocrates and, for example, in the Medical Poem of Salerno "...Who knows the cause why Spodium stancheth bleeding?..." (in this case spodium referring to oxen bone ashes).
Incineration
History of ancient medicine | wiki |
Pedicab usually refer to the cycle rickshaw.
Pedicab may also refer to:
Pedicab (band), a Filipino rock group
"Pedicab Confessions", a The Apprentice (U.S. TV series) episode
Pedicab Driver, a 1989 Hong Kong martial arts film
Pedicab (film)
See also
Rickshaw (disambiguation) | wiki |
Outsourcing is the practice of contracting a business function to a third party.
Outsourced may also refer to:
Outsourced (album), a comedy album by Russell Peters
Outsourced (film)
Outsourced (TV series) | wiki |
The Distinguished Flying Cross may refer to:
Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom), including Commonwealth countries
Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) | wiki |
Operational plan may refer to:
Military purposes, see Operation plan or "OPLAN"
Business purposes, see Business operations
Operational planning, see operational planning | wiki |
Hulk este un personaj ficțional, un supererou, care apare în cărțile de benzi desenate publicate de Marvel Comics. Creat de Stan Lee și Jack Kirby, personajul a apărut prima oară în The Incredible Hulk #1 (mai 1962). Hulk este un monstru umanoid mutant, gigantic, verde, iradiat, cu o forță incredibilă și care nu își poate controla furia.
Legături externe
Hulk at the Big Comic Book Database
Hulk at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators
Vezi și
Lou Ferrigno
Personaje create de Jack Kirby
Personaje create de Stan Lee
Benzi desenate de Stan Lee
Benzi desenate de Jack Kirby
Personaje fictive | wiki |
Hamad bin Khalifa Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Doha, Qatar. It is the home ground of Al Ahli SC (Doha) and Al-Sailiya SC. The stadium holds 18,000 people. In addition to QSL matches, the stadium also hosts regular track and field meets.
References
Football venues in Qatar
AFC Asian Cup stadiums
Sports venues in Doha
Multi-purpose stadiums in Qatar | wiki |
Cloudburst, un film de Francis Searle sorti en 1951.
Cloudburst, un film de Thom Fitzgerald sorti en 2011. | wiki |
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Sixes (Georgia)
Sixes (Oregon)
Sixes, folyó Oregonban | wiki |
Triathlon has been included in the Summer Youth Olympics since their inauguration. Unlike the Summer Olympic competition, a mixed relay is competed, in which competitors are paired across national boundaries to create evenly matched multinational teams, as part of the Youth Olympic Games' spirit of cooperation.
Medalists
Boys' individual
Girls' individual
Mixed relay
Medal table
As of the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.
See also
Triathlon at the Summer Olympics
References
International Olympic Committee results database
External links
Youth Olympic Games
Youth Olympic Games
Triathlon | wiki |
Marden Sports Complex is a multi-use stadium in Marden, South Australia. It is mainly used for soccer and is the home ground for National Premier League side Adelaide Blue Eagles. It was also used for the 2004 OFC Nations Cup and the 2006 AFC Women's Asian Cup.
The stadium was built in 2000 and has a capacity of 6,000 people.
It was co-host to the group stage of the 2004 OFC Nations Cup alongside Hindmarsh Stadium, with Marden hosting five games including one Socceroos match, a 6–1 win over Fiji featuring a Tim Cahill hattrick. Two years later the stadium hosted one match of the 2006 AFC Women's Asian Cup, a 5–0 win by the Matildas against Thailand.
It has been used by other Adelaide-based teams for FFA Cup matches, including Adelaide City's famous 1–0 win over A-League side Western Sydney Wanderers. A-League outfit Adelaide United has also hosted FFA Cup matches at the venue including their Round of 32 victory against Wellington Phoenix in 2014, victories against the Newcastle Jets and Melbourne Victory in 2017 and a victory against the Central Coast Mariners in 2018.
Adelaide United's W-League side also plays its home games at the ground.
References
External links
Official Website of Adelaide Blue Eagles
Soccerway page
Sports complexes in Australia
Soccer venues in South Australia
Sports venues in Adelaide
Sports venues completed in 2000
2000 establishments in Australia
A-League Women stadiums | wiki |
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that analyzes class relations and societal conflict, that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, and a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxist methodology uses economic and sociopolitical inquiry and applies that to the critique and analysis of the development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change.
Marxist bibliography
See also
Marxists Internet Archive
References
External links
Marxists Internet Archive | wiki |
B. crispa may refer to:
Boettgeria crispa, a gastropod species
Buddleja crispa, a bush species
Byrsonima crispa, a nance tree species in the genus Byrsonima
See also
Crispa (disambiguation) | wiki |
Dolichandrone spathacea, also known as tui or mangrove trumpet tree ( or แคป่า, khae thale or khae pa; , tue or tuy), is a species of plant in the family Bignoniaceae. It is found from South India, Sri Lanka to New Caledonia.
Cultural significance
In Sri Lanka, it is known as "දිය දග - diya daga" in Sinhala.
In Southeast Asia, the leaves and barks of the Dolichandrone spathacea are used as traditional herbal medicine which is used to treat bacterial infections such as oral thrush, bronchitis, and gastrointestinal diseases.
The flower is edible and it is part of Thai cuisine, where it is known as Dok Khae Thale or Dok Khae Pa, being sometimes confused with Markhamia stipulata —also having the alternative name แคป่า Dok Khae Pa in Thai. The Dolichandrone spathacea flower, however, is white and not yellowish or red and looks thinner. It is usually eaten sauteed or in Kaeng som.
See also
Markhamia stipulata, also known as แคป่า khae pa in Thai
Sesbania grandiflora, known as ดอกแค khae in Thai
Edible flowers
List of Thai ingredients
References
External links
spathacea
Flora of tropical Asia | wiki |
Teresa is an 1886 novel by the Italian writer Neera, real name Anna Radius Zuccari. The story of the heroine Teresa Caccia has parallels with Zuccari's own early life.
References
1886 novels
Italian novels | wiki |
Cycle oil is a light lubricating oil suited for use on bicycles and similar devices. It is a liquid residue produced in the petroleum industry when catalytic cracking is employed to convert heavy hydrocarbon fractions remaining from earlier stages of crude oil refining into more valuable lighter products.
Catalytic cracking produces petrol (gasoline), liquid petroleum gas (LPG), unsaturated olefin compounds, cracked gas oils, cycle oil, light gases and a solid coke residue. Cycle oil may be processed further to break it down into more useful products; in particular it may be mixed with heavier products and put through the refining process again (recycled).
References
Further reading
Petroleum based lubricants
Oils | wiki |
Le Nokia E65 est un téléphone mobile produit par Nokia en suivant le standard 3G. Il fut mis sur le marché en février 2007.
Caractéristiques
Format : slider
Plateforme logicielle : Symbian S60 edition(9.0)
Quadribandes GSM / EDGE 850/900/1800/1900
définition 240 × 320 pixels
16 millions de couleurs
Appareil photo 2 mégapixels
Lecteur audio supportant les formats MP3 et AAC
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth version 1.2
de mémoire intégrée
Slot pour carte mémoire microSD
Enregistreur vocal intégré
Autonomie : en parole 6 h / en veille 192 h (environ )
Dimensions
105 × 49 ×
Poids :
Volume :
Références
Source
Site de Nokia Belgique
Support officiel France du Nokia E65
Test du Nokia E65 sur Mobinaute
Test du Nokia E65 sur 01net
E65
Produit lancé en 2007
de:Nokia Eseries#Nokia E65 | wiki |
Alexander's band or Alexander's dark band is an optical phenomenon associated with rainbows which was named after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described this phenomenon in Aphrodisias, Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's Meteorology (also known as: Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's De Meteorologica or On Aristotle's Meteorology 4), commentary 41.
The dark band occurs due to the deviation angles of the primary and secondary rainbows. Both bows exist due to an optical effect called the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index of water prevents light from being deviated at smaller angles. The minimum deviation angle for the primary bow is 137.5°. Light can be deviated up to 180°, causing it to be reflected right back to the observer. Light which is deviated at intermediate angles brightens the inside of the rainbow.
The minimum deviation angle for the secondary bow is about 230°. The fact that this angle is greater than 180° makes the secondary bow an inside-out version of the primary. Its colors are reversed, and light which is deviated at greater angles brightens the sky outside the bow.
Between the two bows lies an area of unlit sky referred to as Alexander's band. Light which is reflected by raindrops in this region of the sky cannot reach the observer, though it may contribute to a rainbow seen by another observer elsewhere.
References
External links
Atmospheric optical phenomena
de:Alexanders dunkles Band
fr:Arc-en-ciel#La bande sombre d'Alexandre | wiki |
Offset ink is a specific type of ink used in conjunction with offset printing presses, such as those used to produce letterpress or lithography prints. Such ink must be specially formulated to resist other chemicals it will come in contact with on the printing press. It is crucial that offset ink resist water-in-ink emulsification (e.g. repel rather than absorb water). It also should withstand degradation by the fountain solution that covers the non-printing areas of the engraved plate.
Offset ink needs to be very rich in pigment so that its full color vibrancy is perceptible, even in minute quantity.
References
Ainsworth, Mitchell, C., "Inks and Their Composition and Manufacture," Charles Griffin and Company Ltd, 1904.
Inks
Printing materials
Visual arts materials | wiki |
In common usage, a scoop is any specialized spoon used to serve food.
In the technical terms used by the food service industry and in the retail and wholesale food utensil industries, there is a clear distinction between three types of scoop: the disher, which is used to measure a portion e.g. cookie dough, to make melon balls, and often to serve ice cream (although manufacturers frequently advise against using dishers for ice cream and other frozen foods); ice cream scoops, and the scoop which is used to measure or to transfer an unspecified amount of a bulk dry foodstuff such as rice, flour, or sugar.
Disher
Dishers are usually hemispherical like an ice cream scoop, while measuring scoops are usually cylindrical, and transfer scoops are usually shovel-shaped. Some dishers have mechanical levers which help expel the disher's contents. Traditionally dishers are sized by the number of scoops per quart but may also be sized by ounces, the diameter of the bowl, or the number of tablespoons they hold.
Ice cream scoop
Some higher-end ice cream scoops have a thermally conductive liquid in the handle to help keep the ice cream from freezing to the scoop's metal.
History
Alfred L. Cralle, a porter in a drug store and at a hotel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, noticed that servers at the hotel had trouble with ice cream sticking to serving spoons, and he developed an ice cream scoop. On June 10 1896, Cralle applied for a patent on his invention. He was awarded patent 576,395 on 2 February 1897. The patented "Ice Cream Mold and Disher," was an ice cream scoop with a built-in scraper to allow for one-handed operation. Cralle's functional design is reflected in modern ice cream scoops.
Transfer scoop
Transfer scoops (a.k.a. utility scoops) are used to transfer bulk foods from large storage containers to smaller containers, and generally do not have any measurement markings, as their purpose is to transfer, and taking time to adjust the amount in a scoop would slow the transfer rate.
Other types
Ice scoop
Coffee scoop
Spooner
Dipper
French fry scoop
Standard sizes
The table below is the standard definition in the U.S. food industry, but actual capacity varies by manufacturer.
See also
Ladle
References
Spoons
American inventions
Serving utensils
Customary units of measurement in the United States | wiki |
The following is the list of world records in finswimming recognised by the sport's governing body, Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). CMAS does not recognise short course records.
Requirements for recognition of records
As of January 2013, CMAS recognises world and other records for the following techniques and distances for both males and females in the age groups of Senior (i.e. 18 years and older) and Junior (i.e. 12 to 17 years old) where these are made in an Olympic-size swimming pool (i.e. 50m length) and are measured by electronic automatic officiating equipment:
Surface finswimming (SF) - individual races for distances of 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m, 800m and 1500m, and relays for 4 × 100 m and 4 × 200 m.
Bi-Fins (BF, also known as ‘Stereo-fins’) - 50m, 100m, 200m and 400m.
Apnoea finswimming (AP also known as ‘apnea’) - 50m.
Immersion finswimming (IM) - 100m, 400m and 800m.
The International Rules also allow for recognition of a record swimming time in the first lap of a relay race or an immediate distance as part of a longer swimming distance. Records made at the CMAS World and Continental Championships and at the World Games are automatically registered. Records made outside of the above-mentioned competitions can be recognised as subject to the attempt being an individual attempt and that at least three days public notice of the attempt is given. National records can be recognised if a record's time is equal to or better than the prevailing world record.
As of January 2013, the International Rules do not discuss the matter of records made for open water/long distance finswimming.
Records
Men
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Mixed
Junior – boys
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Junior – mixed
See also
List of European records in finswimming
References
External links
CMAS Finswimming Commission Records webpage
World records Updated 4 September 2022
World junior records Updated 1 March 2022
Finswimming
Finswimming records
World records in swimming | wiki |
East Coast Radio may refer to:
East Coast Radio (Australia)
East Coast Radio (Ireland)
East Coast Radio (South Africa) | wiki |
Water metering is the practice of measuring water use. Water meters measure the volume of water used by residential and commercial building units that are supplied with water by a public water supply system. They are also used to determine flow through a particular portion of the system.
In most of the world water meters are calibrated in cubic metres (m3) or litres, but in the United States and some other countries water meters are calibrated in cubic feet (ft.3) or US gallons on a mechanical or electronic register. Modern meters typically can display rate-of-flow in addition to total volume.
Several types of water meters are in common use, and may be characterized by the flow measurement method, the type of end-user, the required flow rates, and accuracy requirements.
In North America, standards for manufacturing water meters are set by the American Water Works Association. Outside of North America, most countries use ISO standards.
Types of metering devices
There are two common approaches to flow measurement: displacement and velocity, each making use of a variety of technologies. Common displacement designs include oscillating piston and nutating disc meters. Velocity-based designs include single- and multi-jet meters and turbine meters.
There are also non-mechanical designs, for example, electromagnetic and ultrasonic meters, and meters designed for special uses. Most meters in a typical water distribution system are designed to measure cold potable water only. Specialty hot water meters are designed with materials that can withstand higher temperatures. Meters for reclaimed water have special lavender register covers to signify that the water should not be used for drinking.
Additionally, there are electromechanical meters, like prepaid water meters and automatic meter reading meters. The latter integrates an electronic measurement component and a LCD with a mechanical water meter. Mechanical water meters normally use a reed switch, hall or photoelectric coding register as the signal output. After processing by the microcontroller unit (MCU) in the electronic module, the data are transmitted to the LCD or output to an information management system.
Water meters are generally owned, read and maintained by a public water provider such as a city, rural water association or private water company. In some cases an owner of a mobile home park, apartment complex or commercial building may be billed by a utility based on the reading of one meter, with the costs shared among the tenants based on some sort of key (size of flat, number of inhabitants or by separately tracking the water consumption of each unit in what is called submetering).
Displacement water meters
Displacement meters are commonly referred to as Positive Displacement, or "PD" meters. Two common types are oscillating piston meters and nutating disk meters. Either method relies on the water to physically displace the moving measuring element in direct proportion to the amount of water that passes through the meter. The piston or disk moves a magnet that drives the register.
PD meters are generally very accurate at the low-to-moderate flow rates typical of residential and small commercial users and commonly range in size from 5/8" to 2". Because displacement meters require that all water flows through the meter to "push" the measuring element, they generally are not practical in large commercial applications requiring high flow rates or low-pressure loss. PD meters normally have a built-in strainer to protect the measuring element from rocks or other debris that could stop or break the measuring element. PD meters normally have bronze, brass or plastic bodies with internal measuring chambers made of moulded plastics and stainless steel.
Velocity water meters
A velocity-type meter measures the velocity of flow through a meter of known internal capacity. The speed of the flow can then be converted into a volume of flow to determine the usage. There are several types of meters that measure water flow velocity, including jet meters (single-jet and multi-jet), turbine meters, propeller meters and mag meters. Most velocity-based meters have an adjustment vane for calibrating the meter to the required accuracy.
Multi-jet meters
Multi-jet meters are very accurate in small sizes and are commonly used in ⅝" to 2" sizes for residential and small commercial users. Multi-jet meters use multiple ports surrounding an internal chamber to create multiple jets of water against an impeller, whose rotation speed depends on the velocity of water flow. Multi-jets are very accurate at low flow rates, but there are no large size meters since they do not have the straight-through flow path needed for the high flow rates used in large pipe diameters. Multi-jet meters generally have an internal strainer element that can protect the jet ports from getting clogged. Multi-jet meters normally have bronze alloy bodies or outer casings, with internal measuring parts made from modern thermoplastics and stainless steel.
Turbine meters
Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial users, fire protection and as master meters for the water distribution system. Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally available for 1-½" to 12" or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast iron or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but are greatly affected by the flow profile and fluid conditions.
Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter meeting the high flow rates requirements for fire protection. They are often approved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) for use in fire protection.
Fire hydrant meters are a specialized type of portable turbine meter attached to a fire hydrant to measure water flowing out of the hydrant. The meters are normally made of aluminium to keep their weight low and usually have a 3" capacity. Utilities often require them for measuring water used on construction sites, for pool filling, or where a permanent meter has not yet been installed.
Compound meters
A compound meter is used where high flow rates are necessary, but where at times there are also smaller rates of flow that need to be accurately measured. Compound meters have two measuring elements and a check valve to regulate flow between them. At high flow rates, water is normally diverted primarily or completely to the high flow element. The high flow element is typically a turbine meter. When flow rates drop to where the high flow element cannot measure accurately, a check valve closes to divert water to a smaller element that can measure the lower flow rates accurately. The low flow element is typically a multi-jet or PD meter. By adding the values registered by the high and low elements, the utility has a record of the total consumption of water flowing through the meter.
Electromagnetic meters
Magnetic flow meters, commonly referred to as "mag meters", are technically a velocity-type water meter, except that they use electromagnetic properties to determine the water flow velocity, rather than the mechanical means used by jet and turbine meters. Mag meters use the physics principle of Faraday's law of induction for measurement and require AC or DC electricity from a power line or battery to operate the electromagnets. Since mag meters have no mechanical measuring element, they normally have the advantage of being able to measure flow in either direction, and use electronics for measuring and totalizing the flow. Mag meters can also be useful for measuring raw (untreated/unfiltered) water and waste-water since there is no mechanical measuring element to get clogged or damaged by debris flowing through the meter. Strainers are not required with mag meters since there is no measuring element in the stream of flow that could be damaged. Since stray electrical energy flowing through the flow tube can cause inaccurate readings, most mag meters are installed with either grounding rings or grounding electrodes to divert stray electricity away from the electrodes used to measure the flow inside the flow tube.
Ultrasonic meters
Ultrasonic water meters use one or more ultrasonic transducer to send ultrasonic sound waves through the fluid to determine the velocity of the water. Since the cross-sectional area of the meter body is a fixed and known value, when the velocity of water is detected, the volume of water passing through the meter can be calculated with very high accuracy. Because of water density changes with temperature, most ultrasonic water meters also measure the water temperature as a component of the volume calculation.
There are 2 primary ultrasonic measurement technologies used in water metering:
Doppler effect meters which utilize the Doppler Effect to determine the velocity of water passing through the meter.
Transit Time meters which measure the amount of time required for the ultrasonic signal to pass between 2 or more fixed points inside the meter.
Ultrasonic meters may either be of flow-through or "clamp-on" design. Flow-through designs are those where the water passes directly through the meter, and are typically found in residential or commercial applications. Clamp-on designs are generally used for larger diameters where the sensors are mounted to the exterior of pipes, etc.
Ultrasonic water meters are typically very accurate (if built in), with residential meters capable of measuring down to 0.01 gallons or 0.001 cubic feet. In addition, they have wide flow measurement ranges, require little maintenance and have long lifespans due to the lack of internal mechanical components to wear out. While relatively new to the American water utility market, ultrasonic meters have been used in commercial applications for many years and are becoming widely accepted due to their advantages over traditional mechanical designs.
Prepaid water meters
Meters can be prepaid or postpaid, depending on the payment method. Most mechanical type water meters are of the postpaid type, as are electromagnetic and ultrasonic meters. With prepaid water meters, the user purchases and prepays for a given amount of water from a vending station. The amount of water credited is entered on media such as an IC or RF type card. The main difference is whether the card needs contact with the processing part of the prepaid water meter. In some areas, a prepaid water meter uses a keypad as the interface for inputting the water credit.
Registers
There are several types of registers on water meters. A standard register normally has a dial similar to a clock, with gradations around the perimeter to indicate the measuring unit and the amount of water used, if less than the lowest digit in a display similar to the odometer wheels in a car, their sum is the total volume used. Modern registers are normally driven by a magnetic coupling between a magnet in the measuring chamber attached to the measuring element and another attached to the bottom of the register. Gears in the register convert the motion of the measuring element to the proper usage increment for display on the sweep hand and the odometer-style wheels. Many registers also have a leak detector. This is a small visible disk or hand that is geared closer to the rotation speed of the drive magnet, so that very small flows that would be visually undetectable on the regular sweep hand can be seen.
With Automatic Meter Reading, manufacturers have developed pulse or encoder registers to produce electronic output for radio transmitters, reading storage devices, and data logging devices. Pulse meters send a digital or analog electronic pulse to a recording device. Encoder registers have an electronic means permitting an external device to interrogate the register to obtain either the position of the wheels or a stored electronic reading. Frequent transmissions of consumption data can be used to give smart meter functionality.
There are also some specialized types of registers such as meters with an LCD instead of mechanical wheels, and registers to output data or pulses to a variety of recording and controller devices. For industrial applications, the output is often 4-20 mA analog for recording or controlling different flow rates in addition to totalization.
Water meter reading
Different size meters indicate different resolutions of the reading. One rotation of the sweep hand may be equivalent to 10 gallons or to 1,000 gallons (1 to 100 ft.3, 0.1 to 10 m3). If one rotation of the hand represents 10 gallons, the meter has a 10-gallon sweep. Sometimes the last number(s) of the wheel display are non-rotating or printed on the dial face. The fixed zero number(s) are represented by the position of the rotating sweep hand. For example, if one rotation of the hand is 10 gallons, the sweep hand is on 7, and the wheel display shows 123456 plus a fixed zero, the actual total usage would be 1,234,567 gallons.
In the United States most utilities bill only to the nearest 100 or 1,000 gallons (10 to 100 ft.3, 1 to 10 m3), and often only read the leftmost 4 or 5 numbers on the display wheels. Using the above example, they would read and bill 1,234, rounding to 1,234,000 gallons based on a 1,000-gallon billing resolution. The most common rounding for a particular size meter is often indicated by differently coloured number wheels, the ones ignored being black, and the ones used for billing being white.
Prevalence
Water metering is common for residential and commercial drinking water supply in many countries, as well as for industrial self-supply with water. However, it is less common in irrigated agriculture, which is the major water user worldwide. Water metering is also uncommon for piped drinking water supply in rural areas and small towns, although there are examples of successful metering in rural areas in developing countries, such as in El Salvador.
Metering of water supplied by utilities to residential, commercial and industrial users is common in most developed countries, except for the United Kingdom where only about 52% of users are metered. In some developing countries metering is very common, such as in Chile where it stands at 96%, while in others it still remains low, such as in Argentina.
The percentage of residential water metering in selected cities in developing countries is as follows:
99% in Santiago de Chile (1998)
96% in Abidjan, Ivory Coast (1987)
62% in cities in Guatemala (2000)
30% in Lima, Peru (1991)
28% in Kathmandu, Nepal (2001)
2% in Buenos Aires, Argentina (1992)
Nearly two-thirds of OECD countries meter more than 90% of single-family houses. A few are also expanding their metering of apartments (e.g., France and Germany).
Benefits
The benefits of metering are that:
in conjunction with volumetric pricing it provides an incentive for water conservation,
it helps to detect water leaks in the distribution network, thus providing a basis for reducing the amount of non-revenue water;
it is a precondition for quantity-targeting of water subsidies to the poor.
Costs
The costs of metering include:
Investment costs to purchase, install and replace meters,
Recurring costs to read meters and issue bills based on consumption instead of bills based on monthly flat fees.
While the cost of purchasing residential meters is low, the total life cycle costs of metering are high. For example, retrofitting flats in large buildings with meters for every flat can involve major and thus costly plumbing work.
Problems
Problems associated with metering arise particularly in the case of intermittent supply, which is common in many developing countries. Sudden changes in pressure can damage meters to the extent that many meters in cities in developing countries are not functional. Also, some types of meters become less accurate as they age, and under-registering consumption leads to lower revenues if defective meters are not regularly replaced. Many types of meters also register air flows, which can lead to over-registration of consumption, especially in systems with intermittent supply, when water supply is re-established and the incoming water pushes air through the meters.
Water meters do not distinguish between air and water both are counted as fluid. There are two regulations where water companies and meter manufacturers do not comply and charge air for water. A measuring system shall be equipped with an effective air/vapor eliminator or other automatic means to prevent the passage of air/vapor through the meter. ref.[Handbook 44 – 2019 3.30. S.2.1.] Measuring systems shall incorporate a gas elimination device for the proper elimination of any air or undissolved gases which may be contained in the liquid before it enters the meter.
Effect on consumption
There is disagreement as to the effect of metering and water pricing on water consumption. The price elasticity of metered water demand varies greatly depending on local conditions. The effect of volumetric water pricing on consumption tends to be higher if the water bill represents a significant portion of household expenditures.
There is evidence from the UK that there is an instant drop in consumption of some 10% when meters are installed, although in most instances consumption isn't directly measured prior to meter installation, so the benefits are uncertain. Whilst metered water users in the UK do use less than unmetered users, in most areas metering is not compulsory for homes built before 1990, so the metered customers are to some extent a self-selecting group. There is also concern that water metering could be socially regressive, as householders on low incomes are less able to invest in water efficiency measures and may experience water poverty (defined as when a household spends more than 3% of net income on water and sewage services).
In Hamburg, Germany, domestic water consumption for metered flats (112 liter/capita/day) was 18% lower than for unmetered flats (137 liter/capita/day) in 1992.
See also
Advanced Metering Infrastructure
American Water Works Association
Automated meter reading
Curb box
Drinking water
Electricity Meter
Flow measurement
Gas meter
Meter Data Management
Public utility
Residential water use
Utility submeter
Water conservation
References
Further reading
American Water Works Association Manual of Water Supply Practices Manual M6, Water Meters — Selection, Installation, Testing, and Maintenance,
American Water Works Association standards C700-02: Cold-Water Meters—Displacement Type, Bronze Main Case
American Water Works Association standards C701-02: Cold-Water Meters—Turbine Type
American Water Works Association standards C702-01: Cold-Water Meters—Compound Type
American Water Works Association standards C703-96: Cold-Water Meters—Fire Service Type
American Water Works Association standards C707-05: Encoder-Type Remote-Registration Systems for Cold-Water Meters
American Water Works Association standards C708-05: Cold-Water Meters Multijet Type
External links
Manual Water Meters http://watflux.in/manual-water-meters/
Water Measurement Manual of the United States Bureau of Reclamation
How to read different size water meters (PDF file)
How Meter Keeps Tab On The Water You Use, Popular Science, July 1950 very detailed article with good illustrations
Typical Prepaid water meter introduction(PDF file)
Kosher Smart Water Meters
Flow meters
Public services
Water industry
Water supply
Water technology | wiki |
Osleidys Menéndez Sáez (; born November 14, 1979) is a retired Cuban track and field athlete who competed in the javelin throw. She was a World and Olympic Champion, and held the world record from 2001 to 2008. Her personal best of 71.70 m remains the North, Central American and Caribbean record and ranks her third on the overall list.
When winning the 2005 World Athletics Championships, Menéndez broke her own world record with a throw of 71.70 m. This record was broken by Olympic champion Barbora Špotáková in September 2008 with a throw of 72.28 m.
She won the Cuban National Games in 2004.
Personal bests
Javelin throw: 71.70 m – Helsinki, 14 August 2005
International competitions
References
External links
Tilastopaja biography
Ecured biography (in Spanish)
Picture of Osleidys Menéndez
1979 births
Living people
People from Matanzas Province
Cuban female javelin throwers
Olympic athletes of Cuba
Olympic gold medalists for Cuba
Olympic bronze medalists for Cuba
Olympic gold medalists in athletics (track and field)
Olympic bronze medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for Cuba
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Cuba
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 Pan American Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2003 Pan American Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2007 Pan American Games
Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
World Athletics Championships athletes for Cuba
World Athletics Championships medalists
World record setters in athletics (track and field)
Central American and Caribbean Games silver medalists for Cuba
Competitors at the 1998 Central American and Caribbean Games
Competitors at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games
Universiade gold medalists for Cuba
World Athletics Championships winners
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in athletics
Medalists at the 2001 Summer Universiade
Competitors at the 2001 Goodwill Games
Medalists at the 1999 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2003 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2007 Pan American Games
Goodwill Games gold medalists in athletics
21st-century Cuban women
20th-century Cuban women | wiki |
Lanolin (from Latin 'wool', and 'oil'), also called wool yolk, wool wax, or wool grease, is a wax secreted by the sebaceous glands of wool-bearing animals. Lanolin used by humans comes from domestic sheep breeds that are raised specifically for their wool. Historically, many pharmacopoeias have referred to lanolin as wool fat (adeps lanae); however, as lanolin lacks glycerides (glycerol esters), it is not a true fat. Lanolin primarily consists of sterol esters instead. Lanolin's waterproofing property aids sheep in shedding water from their coats. Certain breeds of sheep produce large amounts of lanolin.
Lanolin's role in nature is to protect wool and skin from climate and the environment; it also plays a role in skin (integumental) hygiene. Lanolin and its derivatives are used in the protection, treatment, and beautification of human skin.
Composition
A typical high-purity grade of lanolin is composed predominantly of long chain waxy esters (approximately 97% by weight) with the remainder being lanolin alcohols, lanolin acids and lanolin hydrocarbons.
An estimated 8,000 to 20,000 different types of lanolin esters are present in lanolin, resulting from combinations between the 200 or so different lanolin acids and the 100 or so different lanolin alcohols identified so far.
Lanolin’s complex composition of long-chain esters, hydroxyesters, diesters, lanolin alcohols, and lanolin acids means in addition to it being a valuable product in its own right, it is also the starting point for the production of a whole spectrum of lanolin derivatives, which possess wide-ranging chemical and physical properties. The main derivatisation routes include hydrolysis, fractional solvent crystallisation, esterification, hydrogenation, alkoxylation and quaternisation. Lanolin derivatives obtained from these processes are used widely in both high-value cosmetics and skin treatment products.
Hydrolysis of lanolin yields lanolin alcohols and lanolin acids. Lanolin alcohols are a rich source of cholesterol (an important skin lipid) and are powerful water-in-oil emulsifiers; they have been used extensively in skincare products for over 100 years. Notably, approximately 40% of the acids derived from lanolin are alpha-hydroxy acids (AHAs). The use of AHAs in skin care products has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Details of the AHAs isolated from lanolin can be seen in the table below.
Modern developments
In addition to general purity requirements, lanolin must meet official requirements for the permissible levels of pesticide residues. The Fifth Supplement of the United States Pharmacopoeia XXII published in 1992 was the first to specify limits for 34 named pesticides. A total limit of 40 ppm (i.e. 40 mg/kg) total pesticides was stipulated for lanolin of general use, with no individual limit greater than 10 ppm.
A second monograph also introduced into the US Pharmacopoeia XXII in 1992 was entitled 'Modified Lanolin'. Lanolin conforming to this monograph is intended for use in more exacting applications, for example on open wounds. In this monograph, the limit of total pesticides was reduced to 3 ppm total pesticides, with no individual limit greater than 1 ppm.
In 2000, the European Pharmacopoeia introduced pesticide residue limits into its lanolin monograph. This requirement, which is generally regarded as the new quality standard, extends the list of pesticides to 40 and imposes even lower concentration limits.
Some very high-purity grades of lanolin surpass monograph requirements. New products obtained using complex purification techniques produce lanolin esters in their natural state, removing oxidative and environmental impurities resulting in white, odourless, hypoallergenic lanolin. These ultra-high-purity grades of lanolin are ideally suited to the treatment of dermatological disorders such as eczema and on open wounds.
Lanolin attracted attention owing to a misunderstanding concerning its sensitising potential. A study carried out at New York University Hospital in the early 1950s had shown about 1% of patients with dermatological disorders were allergic to the lanolin being used at that time. By one estimate, this simple misunderstanding of failing to differentiate between the general healthy population and patients with dermatological disorders exaggerates the sensitising potential of lanolin by 5,000–6,000 times.
The European Cosmetics Directive, introduced in July 1976, contained a stipulation that cosmetics which contained lanolin should be labelled to that effect. This ruling was challenged immediately, and in the early 1980s, it was overturned and removed from the directive. Despite only being in force for a short period of time, this ruling did harm both to the lanolin industry and to the reputation of lanolin in general. The Cosmetics Directive ruling only applied to the presence of lanolin in cosmetic products; it did not apply to the many hundreds of its different uses in dermatological products designed for the treatment of compromised skin conditions.
Modern analytical methods have revealed lanolin possesses a number of important chemical and physical similarities to human stratum corneum lipids; the lipids which help regulate the rate of water loss across the epidermis and govern the hydration state of the skin.
Cryogenic scanning electron microscopy has shown that lanolin, like human stratum corneum lipids, consists of a mass of liquid crystalline material. Cross-polarised light microscopy has shown the multilamellar vesicles formed by lanolin are identical to those formed by human stratum corneum lipids. The incorporation of bound water into the stratum corneum involves the formation of multilamellar vesicles.
Skin bioengineering studies have shown the durational effect of the emollient (skin smoothing) action produced by lanolin is very significant and lasts for many hours. Lanolin applied to the skin at 2 mg/cm2 has been shown to reduce roughness by about 35% after one hour and 50% after two hours, with the overall effect lasting for considerably more than eight hours. Lanolin is also known to form semiocclusive (breathable) films on the skin. When applied daily at around 4 mg/cm2 for five consecutive days, the positive moisturising effects of lanolin were detectable until 72 hours after final application. Lanolin may achieve some of its moisturising effects by forming a secondary moisture reservoir within the skin.
The barrier repair properties of lanolin have been reported to be superior to those produced by both petrolatum and glycerol. In a small clinical study conducted on volunteer subjects with terribly dry (xerotic) hands, lanolin was shown to be superior to petrolatum in reducing the signs and symptoms of dryness and scaling, cracks and abrasions, and pain and itch. In another study, a high purity grade of lanolin was found to be significantly superior to petrolatum in assisting the healing of superficial wounds.
Applications
Lanolin and its many derivatives are used extensively in both the personal care (e.g., high value cosmetics, facial cosmetics, lip products) and health care sectors such as topical liniments. Lanolin is also found in lubricants, rust-preventive coatings, shoe polish, and other commercial products.
Lanolin is a relatively common allergen and is often misunderstood as a wool allergy. However, allergy to a lanolin-containing product is difficult to pinpoint and often other products containing lanolin may be fine for use. Patch testing can be done if a lanolin allergy is suspected.
It is frequently used in protective baby skin treatment and for sore nipples from breastfeeding.
Lanolin is used commercially in many industrial products ranging from rustproof coatings to lubricants. Some sailors use lanolin to create slippery surfaces on their propellers and stern gear to which barnacles cannot adhere. Commercial products (e.g. Lanocote) containing up to 85% lanolin are used to prevent corrosion in marine fasteners, especially when two different metals are in contact with each other and saltwater. The water-repellent properties make it valuable in many applications as a lubricant grease where corrosion would otherwise be a problem.
7-Dehydrocholesterol from lanolin is used as a raw material for producing vitamin D3 by irradiation with ultraviolet light.
Baseball players often use it to soften and break in their baseball gloves (shaving cream with lanolin is popularly used for this).
Anhydrous liquid lanolin, combined with parabens, has been used in trials as artificial tears to treat dry eye. Anhydrous lanolin is also used as a lubricant for brass instrument tuning slides.
Lanolin can also be restored to woollen garments to make them water and dirt repellent, such as for cloth diaper covers.
Lanolin is also used in lip balm products such as Carmex. For some people, it can irritate the lips.
Lanolin is sometimes used by people on continuous positive airway pressure therapy to reduce irritation with masks, particular nasal pillow masks that can often create sore spots in the nostrils.
Lanolin is a popular additive to moustache wax, particularly 'extra-firm' varieties.
Lanolin is used as a primary lubricating component in aerosol-based brass lubricants in the ammunition reloading process. Mixed warm 1:12 with highly concentrated ethanol (usually 99%), the ethanol acts as a carrier which evaporates quickly after application, leaving a fine film of lanolin behind to prevent brass seizing in resizing dies.
Lanolin, when mixed with ingredients such as neatsfoot oil, beeswax and glycerol, is used in various leather treatments, for example in some saddle soaps and in leather care products.
Production
Crude lanolin constitutes about 5–25% of the weight of freshly shorn wool. The wool from one Merino sheep will produce about 250–300 ml of recoverable wool grease. Lanolin is extracted by washing the wool in hot water with a special wool scouring detergent to remove dirt, wool grease (crude lanolin), suint (sweat salts), and anything else stuck to the wool. The wool grease is continuously removed during this washing process by centrifuge separators, which concentrate it into a waxlike substance melting at approximately .
References
External links
Animal glandular products
Waxes
Non-petroleum based lubricants
By-products | wiki |
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit may refer to one of the following video games:
Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit, by EA Canada, released in 1998
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2, by EA Black Box, released in 2002
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit (2010 video game), by Criterion Games, released in 2010
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit Remastered, a 2020 game in the Need for Speed franchise
See also
Need for Speed (disambiguation)
Hot pursuit (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Fifth Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance was held in London, England from April 26 to May 1, 1909. Twenty countries were represented. Representatives from twenty countries attended, with Carrie Chapman Catt presiding. Delegates included Johanna Munter (Denmark), Rosika Schwimmer (Hungary), Dr. Anita Augspurg (Germany), Zinaida Mirovitch (Russia), and Gina Krog (Norway).
The conference is sometimes referred to as the First Quinquennial International Woman Suffrage Alliance Meeting or the Fourth Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance.
References
Bibliography
External links
Report of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, Report of Fifth Conference and First Quinquennial, London, England, April 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, May 1, 1909
1909 conferences
1909 in London
Events in London
Women's suffrage
Women's conferences
1909 in women's history
History of women in the United Kingdom
April 1909 events
May 1909 events
Women in London | wiki |
The SW1911 (Smith & Wesson) is a stainless steel framed, single action, semi-automatic pistol based on the M1911, coming in either 9×19mm or .45 ACP.
Overview
In 2003, Smith & Wesson introduced their variation of the classic M1911 .45 ACP semi-automatic handgun, the SW1911. This firearm retains the M1911's well-known dimensions, operation, and feel, while adding a variety of modern touches. Updates to the design include serration at the front of the slide for easier operation and disassembly, a high "beaver-tail" grip safety, external extractor, lighter weight hammer and trigger, as well as updated internal safeties to prevent accidental discharges if dropped. S&W 1911s are available with black finished carbon steel slides and frames or bead blasted stainless slides and frames. They are also available with aluminum frames alloyed with scandium in either natural or black finishes. These updates have resulted in a firearm that is true to the M1911 design, with additions that would normally be considered "custom", with a price similar to equivalent designs from other manufacturers.
Smith & Wesson's Performance Center produces the top-of-the-line hand-fitted competition version knowns as the PC 1911. While most 1911s run around 38 to 39 ounces (1,100 to 1,100 g), the PC 1911 is heavier, at approximately 41 ounces (1,200 g).
Variants
Calibers
9mm
.45 ACP
Models
SW1911
SW1911SC E-Series
SW1911 CT E-Series
SW1911TA E-Series
SW1911 E-Series
SW1911 Pro Series
SW1911 100th Anniversary Special
SW1911 TFP
SW1911PD
SW1911DK
References
.45 ACP semi-automatic pistols
9mm Parabellum semi-automatic pistols
Smith & Wesson semi-automatic pistols
1911 platform
Semi-automatic pistols of the United States | wiki |
Juvenile may refer to:
Juvenile status, or minor (law), prior to adulthood
Juvenile (organism)
Juvenile (rapper) (born 1975), American rapper
Juvenile (2000 film), Japanese film
Juvenile (2017 film)
Juvenile (greyhounds), a greyhound competition
Juvenile particles, a type of volcanic ejecta
A two-year-old horse in horse racing terminology
See also
"The Juvenile", a song by Ace of Base
Juvenile novel
Any of "Heinlein juveniles"
Juvenile delinquency
Juvenilia, works by an author while a youth
Juvenal (disambiguation) | wiki |
James Fletcher Hamilton Henderson (December 18, 1897 – December 29, 1952) was an American pianist, bandleader, arranger and composer, important in the development of big band jazz and swing music. He was one of the most prolific black musical arrangers and, along with Duke Ellington, is considered one of the most influential arrangers and bandleaders in jazz history. Henderson's influence was vast. He helped bridge the gap between the Dixieland and the swing eras. He was often known as "Smack" Henderson (because of smacking sounds he made with his lips).
Biography
James Fletcher Hamilton Henderson was born in Cuthbert, Georgia. He grew up in a middle-class African American family. His father, Fletcher Hamilton Henderson (1857–1943), was the principal of the nearby Howard Normal Randolph School from 1880 until 1942. His home, now known as the Fletcher Henderson House, is a historic site. His mother, a teacher, taught him and his brother Horace to play the piano. He began lessons by the age of six. His father would occasionally lock Fletcher in his room to practice for hours. By age 13, Henderson possessed a keen ability to read music and sense pitch. He pursued the studies with his mother and further engaged himself in lessons on European art.
Although a talented musician, Henderson decided to dedicate himself to mathematics and science. At age 18, he moved to Atlanta, Georgia, and changed his name to Fletcher Henderson, giving up James, his grandfather's name. He attended Atlanta University (where he was a member of the fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha) and graduated in 1920 with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and mathematics. After graduation, he moved to New York City with the intention of attending Columbia University for a master's degree in chemistry, but there is no evidence that he actually enrolled. He did get a part-time job as a lab assistant in a downtown Manhattan chemistry firm, but this only lasted a year.
In New York City, Henderson shared an apartment with a pianist who worked as a musician in a riverboat orchestra. When his roommate was too sick to perform, Henderson took his place, which soon gave him a job as a full-time replacement. In late 1920, he found work as a song demonstrator with the Pace and Handy Music Co. Henderson now found that music would be more profitable than chemistry and left his job as a laboratory chemist to begin a life in music. When Harry Pace left the company to start Black Swan Records, he took Henderson with him to be musical director, a job which lasted from 1921 until 1923. From 1920 to 1923, he primarily played piano accompaniment for blues singers. Henderson toured with the Black Swan Troubadours featuring Ethel Waters from October 1921 to July 1922. After hearing cornetist Louis Armstrong, then around 20 years old, in New Orleans while on tour in April 1922, Henderson sent him an offer, but Armstrong refused because Henderson would not hire Zutty Singleton as well.
His activities up to the end of 1923 were mainly recording dates for Black Swan and other labels. His band at this point was only a pick-up unit for recordings, not a regular working band. In January 1924, the recording band became the house band at the Club Alabam at 216 W. 44th St. Despite many erroneous publications indicating otherwise, this 1924 band was Henderson's first working band.
In July 1924, the band began a brief engagement at the Roseland Ballroom. Although only meant to stay for a few months, the band was brought back for the autumn season. Henderson called on Armstrong for a second time to join the band. On October 13, 1924, history was made when Henderson's band began their re-engagement at Roseland, with Armstrong now in the orchestra. The band quickly became known as the best African American band in New York. By late 1924, the arrangements by Don Redman were featuring more solo work.
Redman arranged Armstrong's repertoire with the King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, such as turning "Dippermouth Blues" into "Sugar Foot Stomp". Armstrong played in the band for only a year, because he could not grow accustomed to the arrangements and to the "pretension" of the other band members.
Henderson's band boasted the formidable arranging talents of Don Redman. After Redman's departure from the band in 1927, Henderson took on some of the arranging, but Benny Carter was Redman's replacement as saxophone player and arranger from 1930–31, and Henderson also bought scores from freelance musicians (including John Nesbitt from McKinney's Cotton Pickers). Henderson developed his arranging skills from 1931 to the mid-1930s.
His band around 1925 included Armstrong, Howard Scott, Coleman Hawkins (who started with Henderson in 1923, playing the tuba parts on a bass saxophone, and quickly moving to tenor saxophone and a leading solo role), Charlie Dixon, Kaiser Marshall, Buster Bailey, Elmer Chambers, Charlie Green, and Ralph Escudero. In 1925, with Henry Troy, he wrote "Gin House Blues", recorded by Bessie Smith and Nina Simone, among others. His other compositions include "Soft Winds". Henderson recorded extensively in the 1920s for nearly every label, including Vocalion, Paramount, Columbia, Ajax, Pathé, Perfect, Edison, Emerson, Brunswick, and the dime-store labels Banner, Oriole, Regal, Cameo, and Romeo. From 1925 to 1930, he recorded primarily for Columbia and Brunswick/Vocalion under his own name and a series of acoustic recordings as the Dixie Stompers for Harmony Records and associated dime-store labels (Diva and Velvet Tone). Besides playing at the Roseland, Henderson played at the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem, playing until 3:30 in the morning.
During the 1930s, he recorded for Columbia, Crown (as "Connie's Inn Orchestra"), ARC (Melotone, Perfect, Oriole, Vocalion), Bluebird, Victor, and Decca. Starting in the early 1920s, he recorded popular hits and jazz tunes. In 1924 he and his band recorded 80 sides. His version of the pop tune "I Can't Get the One I Want", recorded about June 19, 1924, was issued on at least 23 labels.
In addition to Armstrong, lead trumpeters included Henry "Red" Allen, Joe Smith, Rex Stewart, Tommy Ladnier, Doc Cheatham and Roy Eldridge. Lead saxophonists included Coleman Hawkins, Buster Bailey, Benny Carter and Chu Berry. Sun Ra also worked as an arranger during the 1940s, during Henderson's engagement at the Club DeLisa in Chicago. Other jazz musicians who also played with Henderson included trumpeter Cootie Williams and trombonist Benny Morton.
Although Henderson's band was popular, he had little success in managing it and was still little-known outside of New York. His lack of recognition outside of Harlem had to do more with the times in which he lived, apparently lackluster management, and the hard times that resulted after the 1929 stock market crash. Henderson had a knack for finding talent, but he did not have much luck keeping it. On many occasions he lost talented members to other bandleaders. He also had trouble with finances. When the band split up in 1934, he was forced to sell some of his popular arrangements to Benny Goodman to keep them together.
After about 1931, his own arrangements became influential. In addition to arrangements for his band, he wrote arrangements for Teddy Hill, Isham Jones and Benny Goodman. His shoulder was injured in an auto accident in 1928. His wife, Leora, blamed the accident for his diminishing success. She said that John Hammond and Goodman bought Henderson's arrangements to support him, that Goodman always gave Henderson credit for the arrangements and said that he played them better than his own. In addition, Goodman and Hammond organized broadcasts and recordings to help Henderson when he was ill. 60 years later, two of his songs, "Queer Notions" and "Yeah, Man!" were performed in the Robert Altman film Kansas City (1996).
Benny Goodman
In 1935, Goodman's Orchestra was selected as a house band for the NBC radio program Let's Dance. Since Goodman needed new charts every week for the show, his friend John Hammond suggested that he purchase some from Henderson. Many of Goodman's hits from the swing era were played by Henderson, and his own band in the late 1920s and early 1930s, usually as head arrangements, which he transcribed from his own records and then sold to Goodman. However, his brother Horace Henderson recounted (in Ross Firestone's biography of Goodman, Swing, Swing, Swing) that the clarinetist made heavy demands on Henderson for fresh charts, while his band was engaged for the Let's Dance show in 1934–1935, and that he himself helped his brother complete some of them. The singer Helen Ward also stated that Henderson was delighted to hear the Goodman Orchestra realize his creations with such impeccable musicianship.
In 1939, Henderson disbanded his band and joined Goodman's, first as pianist and arranger and then working full-time as staff arranger. Henderson re-formed bands of his own several times in the 1940s and toured with Ethel Waters again in 1948 and 1949. He suffered a stroke in 1950, resulting in partial paralysis that ended his career as a pianist. He died in New York City in 1952, 11 days after his 55th birthday.
Contributions
Henderson, along with Don Redman, established the formula for swing music. The two broke the band into sections (sax section, trumpet section, etc). These sections worked together to create a unique sound. Sometimes, the sections would play in call-and-response style, and at other times one section would play supporting riffs behind the other.
Henderson was also responsible for bringing Louis Armstrong from Chicago to New York in October 1924, thus flipping the focal point of jazz in the history of the United States (although Armstrong left the band in November 1925 and returned to Chicago). He also played a key role in bringing improvisatory jazz styles from New Orleans and other areas of the country to New York, where they merged with a dance-band tradition that relied heavily on arrangements written out in musical notation.
Henderson created a band that was capable of playing dance music and complex arrangements. Louis Metcalf said: "The sight of Fletcher Henderson's men playing behind music stands brought on a learning-to-read-music kick in Harlem which hadn't cared before it. There were two years of real concentration. Everybody greeted you with 'How's studying?'"
A museum was established in Henderson's memory in his native Cuthbert, Georgia.
Selected discography
A Study in Frustration, Columbia, 1961
Hocus Pocus, Bluebird Records, 1992
Tidal Wave, GRP, 1994
Ken Burns Jazz: Fletcher Henderson, Columbia/Legacy, 2000
Sweet and Hot, Le Chant du Monde, 2007
First Impressions 1924–1931 Vol. 1, Decca Jazz Heritage Series, DL 9227
Swing's the Thing 1931–1934 Vol. 2, Decca Jazz Heritage Series, DL 79228
As arranger for Benny Goodman Orchestra
Sing, Sing, Sing (1992) (Bluebird/RCA)
The Harry James Years, Vol. 1 (1993) (Bluebird/RCA)
The Best of the Big Bands [under Goodman's name] (1933-1946/1989) (Columbia)
Genius of the Electric Guitar (Recorded under Goodman sextet's name, released under Charlie Christian's name) (1939–1941/1990) (Columbia)
References
Further reading
Walter C. Allen, Hendersonia - The Music of Fletcher Henderson and his Musicians - a Bio-Discography (1973)
Jeffrey Magee, The Uncrowned King of Swing: Fletcher Henderson and Big Band Jazz (2004)
Margery Dews, "Remembering: The Remarkable Henderson Family"
Gunther Schuller, The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930-1945 (The History of Jazz, Vol. 2) (1989)
Scott Yanow, Swing: Third Ear - The Essential Listening Companion (2000)
External links
Fletcher Henderson Profiles in Jazz by Scott Yanow
Fletcher Henderson 1897-1952 Red Hot Jazz Archive
Fletcher Henderson recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
African-American jazz composers
African-American jazz musicians
African-American jazz pianists
American jazz bandleaders
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American music arrangers
Big band bandleaders
Orchestral jazz musicians
Swing bandleaders
Swing pianists
Vaudeville performers
1897 births
1952 deaths
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
Musicians from New York City
Musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Clark Atlanta University alumni
Gennett Records artists
Paramount Records artists
Columbia Records artists
Vocalion Records artists
People from Cuthbert, Georgia
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century African-American musicians | wiki |
Avenging Angelo is a 2002 American direct-to-video action romantic comedy crime film directed by Martyn Burke and starring Sylvester Stallone, Madeleine Stowe, and Anthony Quinn. The film received mostly negative reviews.
Plot
Years ago, a mob boss named Lucio Malatesta (George Touliatos) pinned the murder of rival Sammy Carboni (Gino Marrocco) on another rival named Angelo Allieghieri (Anthony Quinn), which led to Sammy's son Gianni vowing revenge.
Frankie Delano (Sylvester Stallone) has spent his life safeguarding Angelo as well as Angelo's daughter, Jennifer Barrett (Madeleine Stowe), whose unsavory husband Kip Barrett (Harry Van Gorkum) has had their young son Rawley (Ezra Perlman) placed in a boarding school against Jennifer's wishes.
Jennifer was raised by her adoptive parents Whitney Towers (John Gilbert) and Peggy Towers (Dawn Greenhalgh) and is not aware that Angelo is her father.
After Angelo is killed in a restaurant by a hit man named Bruno (Billy Gardell), Frankie introduces himself, tells Jennifer who he is and what he has been doing.
A neurotic mess, Jennifer can barely handle the news that Kip is a philanderer, let alone the revelation that she is a gangster's daughter. But a DVD prepared by Angelo in the case of just such an event convinces Jennifer that it's the truth.
Jennifer certainly doesn't want a full-time bodyguard, even Frankie. She ditches Kip and then falls for Italian romance novelist Marcello (Raoul Bova), who lectures at her book club. Frankie has suspicions about Marcello, but his job is to stay on the sidelines.
Frankie rescues Jennifer from a string of attacks. With many of Angelo's enemies, including Lucio Malatesta, terminated, Frankie allows her to visit Italy with Marcello. But it turns out that Marcello is actually Gianni Carboni, who had Angelo killed. And now Gianni plans to kill Jennifer.
It is up to Frankie to protect her one more time.
Cast
Sylvester Stallone as Frankie Delano
Madeleine Stowe as Jennifer Allieghieri Barrett
Anthony Quinn as Angelo Allieghieri
Raoul Bova as Marcello/Gianni Carboni
Harry Van Gorkum as Kip Barrett
Billy Gardell as Bruno
George Touliatos as Lucio Malatesta
Production
Filming
The film was shot in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily.
Reception
Critical response
The film was met with mostly negative reviews by most critics. Scott Weinberg for eFILMCRITICS.com wrote that "Sly - despite his seemingly unquenchable desire to prove me otherwise - deserves better than this".
Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 13% approval rating based on 8 reviews, with an average score of 4.41/10.
References
External links
2001 films
2000s English-language films
Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario
Mafia comedy films
Films scored by Bill Conti
Films directed by Martyn Burke
2000s crime comedy films
Franchise Pictures films
Films produced by Elie Samaha
2001 comedy films
2002 comedy films
2002 films
2000s American films | wiki |
Constellation se poate referi la:
Vertu Constellation
Vertu Constellation Quest
Vertu Constellation Ayxta
Vertu Constellation 2006 | wiki |
Fults may refer to:-
Fults, Illinois, a village
The Fults Hill Prairie State Natural Area
Ralph Fults, depression era outlaw and escape artist | wiki |
Willie Gary "Bunk" Johnson (December 27, 1879 – July 7, 1949) was an American prominent jazz trumpeter in New Orleans. Johnson gave the year of his birth as 1879, although there is speculation that he may have been younger by as much as a decade. Johnson stated on his 1937 application for Social Security that he was born on December 27, 1889. Many jazz historians believe this date of birth to be the most accurate of the various dates Johnson gave throughout his life.
Biography
Education and early musical career
Johnson received lessons from Adam Olivier and began playing professionally in Olivier's orchestra. Johnson probably played a few adolescent jobs with Buddy Bolden, but was not a regular member of Bolden's Band (contrary to Johnson's claim). Johnson was regarded as one of the leading trumpeters in New Orleans in the years 1905–1915, in between repeatedly leaving the city to tour with minstrel shows and circus bands.
After he failed to appear for a New Orleans Mardi Gras parade job in 1915, he learned that krewe members intended to do him bodily harm. So he left town, touring with shows and then by the early 1920s settling in New Iberia, Louisiana.
In 1931, he lost his trumpet and front teeth when a fight broke out at a dance in Rayne, Louisiana, putting an end to his playing. He thereafter worked in manual labor, occasionally giving music lessons.
Career revival and first recordings
In 1938 and 1939, the writers of an early jazz history book, Jazzmen, interviewed several prominent musicians of the time, including Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet, and Clarence Williams, who spoke highly of Johnson in the old days in New Orleans. The writers tracked down Johnson's address, and traded several letters with him, where he recalled (and possibly embellished) his early career. Johnson stated that he could play again if he only had new teeth and a new trumpet. A collection was taken up by writers and musicians, and he was fitted with a set of dentures by Bechet's dentist brother, Leonard, and given a new trumpet. He made his first recordings in 1942, for Jazz Man Records.
Later touring career
These first recordings propelled Johnson (along with clarinetist George Lewis) into public attention. Johnson and his band played in New Orleans, San Francisco, Boston, and New York City and made many more recordings. Johnson's work in the 1940s shows why he was well regarded by his fellow musicians. On his best days he played with great imagination, subtlety, and beauty, as well as suggesting why he had not gained prominence earlier, for he was unpredictable, temperamental, with a passive-aggressive streak and a fondness for drinking alcohol to the point of impairment.
Death
Johnson suffered from a stroke in late 1948 and died in New Iberia the following year.
Legacy
Jazz historians have debated Johnson's legacy, and the extent to which his colorful reminiscences of his early career were accurate, misremembered, exaggerated, or untrue. Although in recent years, new evidence has appeared in jazz historian Vic Hobson's 2014 Creating Jazz Counterpoint. New Orleans, Barbershop Harmony, and the Blues, in which is stated that Buddy Bolden's band member Willy Cornish — who is seen on the only surviving picture of the Bolden Band — affirmed Bunk Johnson as a member of the early jazz group. This puts Johnson's own statements and recordings, in which he actively recreated the Bolden tunes, in a plausible and positive light, making them of great historical and musicological importance to the study of jazz and New Orleans jazz in particular.
His recordings have been reissued on CD. Johnson plays a small, but significant, role in Alan Schroeder's picture book Satchmo's Blues. In that book, Johnson serves as a source of musical inspiration to the young Louis Armstrong.
Johnson was a Catholic, and as of 2019 an annual Jazz Mass and procession was conducted in his hometown of New Iberia, beginning at St Edward Catholic Church and ending at Johnson's gravesite.
Selected discography
1942
The following records were recorded June, 1942, and released on Jazz Man Records.
"Down By The River / Panama": Jazz Man 8. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
"Weary Blues / Moose March": Jazz Man 9. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
"Storyville Blues / Bunk's Blues": Jazz Man 10. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
The following records were recorded October, 1942, and released on Milt Gabler's Jazz Information label, distributed by Commodore Records.
"Franklin Street Blues / Weary Blues": Jazz Information 12. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
"Shine / Yaaka Hula Hickey Dula": Jazz Information 15. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
"Sobbin' Blues No. 2 / Sometimes My Burden Is So Hard To Bear": Jazz Information 16. Recorded in New Orleans, 1942.
American Music Records, 1943-1946
The following records include recordings made for Bill Russell's American Music label between 1943 and 1946.
Bunk Plays The Blues And Spirituals: American Music 638 (10" LP). Recorded in New Orleans. Includes recordings by Johnson's working band (August 1944) and a brass band (May, 1945).
1944-1946: American Music 644 (10" LP). Recorded in New Orleans, May 1945, and New York, June 1946. Includes recordings by Johnson's working band (1945) and a trio featuring Don Ewell (1946).
New Orleans 1944: American Music 647 (10" LP). Recorded in New Orleans, August 1944.
Rare And Unissued Masters, Volume 1 (1943-1945): American Music AMCD-139. CD; reissued as ORG Music ORGM-2101 on LP for Record Store Day 2018. Includes further recordings by Johnson's working band (July–August 1944; May 1945) and Johnson's brass band (May, 1945); also includes duets with pianist Bertha Gonsoulin recorded in San Francisco, May 1943.
San Francisco, 1944
Bunk Johnson recorded for Good Time Jazz with the Yerba Buena Jazz Band in early 1944.
Bunk Johnson and the Yerba Buena Jazz Band: Spirituals & Jazz: Good Time Jazz L-17. Recorded in San Francisco, January–February 1944.
New York, 1945
Bunk Johnson recorded for Blue Note in March, 1945, and for Decca and RCA Victor in late 1945.
Sidney Bechet and Bunk Johnson: Days Beyond Recall: Blue Note BLP 7008. Recorded in New York, March 1945.
Hot Jazz: RCA Victor HJ-7. Album of four 78 RPM shellac records; recorded in New York, December 1945.
New Orleans Memories: Ace of Hearts AH 140. 12" LP, includes four recordings from a Decca session in New York, November 1945. Also includes recordings by Kid Ory and George Lewis.
New York, 1947
Bunk Johnson's final recordings were made for Columbia in December, 1947.
The Last Testament Of A Great New Orleans Jazzman: Columbia CL 829. 12" LP, recorded at Carnegie Recital Hall, New York City, December 1947.
References
External links
Detailed discussion of research on Bunk's early life and possible birthdates
The Swedish Bunk Johnson Society
Willie (Bunk) Johnson's WWI Draft Registration Card and essay
William Russell Jazz Collection at The Historic New Orleans Collection
1879 births
1949 deaths
Dixieland trumpeters
Dixieland bandleaders
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
African-American musicians
Blue Note Records artists
People from New Iberia, Louisiana
American male jazz musicians
The Eagle Band members
Good Time Jazz Records artists
African-American Catholics
20th-century African-American people | wiki |
The Honda S series is a series of convertible sports cars by Honda.
1962 Honda S360
1963 Honda S500
1964–1966 Honda S600
1966–1970 Honda S800
1999–2009 Honda S2000
2015–2022 Honda S660
S | wiki |
Central Motor Co., Ltd. was a Japanese manufacturer of cars within the Toyota Group. It was founded on 4 September 1950 by Ryuichi Tomiya. The company operated five plants, all located in Japan. It was one of the biggest export vehicle manufacturers of the concern. In July 2012 it was merged with two other Toyota subsidiaries operating in Tohoku to form Toyota Motor East Japan.
History
Central Motors was the operational successor of (Kamata, Tokyo). In 1950, employees of the Kamata Plant were made redundant after it was closed down by Toyota. They founded Central Motors that year and began producing light commercial vehicles for Toyota in 1956. In 1959, Toyota acquired the company and moved the production from Kamata to Sagamihara which would later also become the headquarters base. The company opened various facilities for auto parts production. A new assembly plant and headquarters were built in Ohira, Miyagi. The new facility started production in January 2011 and the Sagamihara plant was closed later that year.
On 1 July 2012, three Toyota subcontractors (Central Motors, Toyota Motors Tohoku and Kanto Auto Works) were combined into a single company, with all their manufacturing facilities and assets renamed as Toyota Motor East Japan, Inc.
After the merger of the three former companies, the corporate headquarters was established at the former Central Motors site in Miyagi. There were just over 1,500 employees at the Central Motors location.
Operations
At closing, Central Motors operated the following facilities:
Ohira, Miyagi (headquarters)
Ohira, Miyagi (car assembly plant)
Wakayanagi, Miyagi (auto parts plant)
Central Motors mainly manufactured vehicles meant for export to Europe or North America. Special vehicles such as police, fire department vehicles as well as campers were produced by the company. Production also included CKD kits of the Toyota Tundra.
Model gallery
Additional models that have no pictures yet:
Toyota Dyna (1957–1959)
Toyopet Type FS Ambulance (1961–1968)
Toyopet Corona Mark II PickUp (1968–1971)
Toyopet Crown Station Wagon (1973–1974)
Toyopet Corona Van (1970–1973)
Toyota Carina Surf (1982–1987)
Toyota Tundra (CKD kits only)
Notes
References
External links
Car manufacturers of Japan
Toyota subsidiaries
Companies based in Miyagi Prefecture
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1950
Japanese companies established in 1950
Ōhira, Miyagi | wiki |
The sulfur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which the sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and living systems. It is important in geology as it affects many minerals and in life because sulfur is an essential element (CHNOPS), being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur compounds can be used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration. The global sulfur cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation states, which play an important role in both geological and biological processes.
Steps of the sulfur cycle are:
Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate ().
Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing derivatives).
These are often termed as follows:
Assimilative sulfate reduction (see also sulfur assimilation) in which sulfate () is reduced by plants, fungi and various prokaryotes. The oxidation states of sulfur are +6 in sulfate and –2 in R–SH.
Desulfurization in which organic molecules containing sulfur can be desulfurized, producing hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S, oxidation state = –2). An analogous process for organic nitrogen compounds is deamination.
Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide produces elemental sulfur (S8), oxidation state = 0. This reaction occurs in the photosynthetic green and purple sulfur bacteria and some chemolithotrophs. Often the elemental sulfur is stored as polysulfides.
Oxidation in elemental sulfur by sulfur oxidizers produces sulfate.
Dissimilative sulfur reduction in which elemental sulfur can be reduced to hydrogen sulfide.
Dissimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate reducers generate hydrogen sulfide from sulfate.
Sulfur oxidation state
Sulfur has four main oxidation states in nature, which are −2, +2, +4, and +6. The common sulfur species of each oxidation state are listed as follows:
S2−: H2S, (CH3)2S, BaS
S0: native, or elemental, sulfur
S2+: SCl2
S4+: SO2, sulfite ()
S6+: (H2SO4, CaSO4), SF6
Sulfur sources and sinks
Sulfur is found in oxidation states ranging from +6 in to −2 in sulfides. Thus, elemental sulfur can either give or receive electrons depending on its environment. On the anoxic early Earth, most sulfur was present in minerals such as pyrite (FeS2). Over Earth history, the amount of mobile sulfur increased through volcanic activity as well as weathering of the crust in an oxygenated atmosphere. Earth's main sulfur sink is the oceans , where it is the major oxidizing agent.
When is assimilated by organisms, it is reduced and converted to organic sulfur, which is an essential component of proteins. However, the biosphere does not act as a major sink for sulfur, instead the majority of sulfur is found in seawater or sedimentary rocks including: pyrite rich shales, evaporite rocks (anhydrite and baryte), and calcium and magnesium carbonates (i.e. carbonate-associated sulfate). The amount of sulfate in the oceans is controlled by three major processes:
input from rivers
sulfate reduction and sulfide re-oxidation on continental shelves and slopes
burial of anhydrite and pyrite in the oceanic crust.
The primary natural source of sulfur to the atmosphere is sea spray or windblown sulfur-rich dust, neither of which is long lived in the atmosphere. In recent times, the large annual input of sulfur from the burning of coal and other fossil fuels has added a substantial amount SO2 which acts as an air pollutant. In the geologic past, igneous intrusions into coal measures have caused large scale burning of these measures, and consequential release of sulfur to the atmosphere. This has led to substantial disruption to the climate system, and is one of the proposed causes of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
Dimethylsulfide [(CH3)2S or DMS] is produced by the decomposition of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) from dying phytoplankton cells in the ocean's photic zone, and is the major biogenic gas emitted from the sea, where it is responsible for the distinctive “smell of the sea” along coastlines. DMS is the largest natural source of sulfur gas, but still only has a residence time of about one day in the atmosphere and a majority of it is redeposited in the oceans rather than making it to land. However, it is a significant factor in the climate system, as it is involved in the formation of clouds.
Biologically and thermochemically driven sulfate reduction
Through the dissimilatory sulfate reduction pathway, sulfate can be reduced either bacterially (bacterial sulfate reduction) or inorganically (thermochemical sulfate reduction). This pathway involves the reduction of sulfate by organic compounds to produce hydrogen sulfide, which occurs in both processes.
The main products and reactants of bacterial sulfate reduction (BSR) and thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) are very similar. For both, various organic compounds and dissolved sulfate are the reactants, and the products or by-products are as follows: H2S, CO2, carbonates, elemental sulfur and metal sulfides. However, the reactive organic compounds differ for BSR and TSR because of the mutually exclusive temperature regimes. Organic acids are the main organic reactants for BSR and branched/n-alkanes are the main organic reactants for TSR. The inorganic reaction products in BSR and TSR are H2S (HS−) and (CO2).
These processes occur because there are two very different thermal regimes in which sulfate is reduced, particularly in low-temperature and high-temperature environments. BSR usually occurs at lower temperatures from 0−80 °C, while TSR happens at much higher temperatures around 100–140 °C. Temperatures for TSR are not as well defined; the lowest confirmed temperature is 127 °C and the highest temperatures occur in settings around 160−180 °C. These two different regimes appear because at higher temperatures most sulfate-reducing microbes can no longer metabolize due to the denaturation of proteins or deactivation of enzymes, so TSR takes over. However, in hot sediments around hydrothermal vents BSR can happen at temperatures up to 110 °C.
BSR and TSR occur at different depths. BSR takes place in low-temperature environments, which are shallower settings such as oil and gas fields. BSR can also take place in modern marine sedimentary environments such as stratified inland seas, continental shelves, organic-rich deltas, and hydrothermal sediments which have intense microbial sulfate reduction because of the high concentration of dissolved sulfate in the seawater. Additionally, the high amounts of hydrogen sulfide found in oil and gas fields is thought to arise from the oxidation of petroleum hydrocarbons by sulfate. Such reactions are known to occur by microbial processes but it is generally accepted that TSR is responsible for the bulk of these reactions, especially in deep or hot reservoirs. Thus, TSR occurs in deep reservoirs where the temperatures are much higher. BSR is geologically instantaneous in most geologic settings, while TSR occurs at rates in the order of hundreds of thousands of years. Although much slower than BSR, even TSR appears to be a geologically fairly fast process.
BSR in shallow environments and TSR in deep reservoirs are key processes in the oceanic sulfur cycle. Approximately, 10% (of the total gas) of H2S is produced in BSR settings, whereas 90% of the H2S is produced in TSR settings. If there is more than a few percent of H2S in any deep reservoir, then it is assumed that TSR has taken over. This is due to the fact that thermal cracking of hydrocarbons doesn't provide more than a couple percent of H2S. The amount of H2S is affected by several factors such as, the availability of organic reactants and sulfate and the presence/availability of base and transition metals.
Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in hydrothermal vents
Hydrothermal vents emit hydrogen sulfide that support the carbon fixation of chemolithotrophic bacteria that oxidize hydrogen sulfide with oxygen to produce elemental sulfur or sulfate. The chemical reactions are as follows:
CO2 + 4 H2S + O2 → CH2O + 4 S0 + 3 H2O
CO2 + H2S + O2 + H2O → CH2O + + 2 H+
In modern oceans, Thiomicrospira, Halothiobacillus, and Beggiatoa are primary sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and form chemosynthetic symbioses with animal hosts. The host provides metabolic substrates (e.g., CO2, O2, H2O) to the symbiont while the symbiont generates organic carbon for sustaining the metabolic activities of the host. The produced sulfate usually combines with the leached calcium ions to form gypsum, which can form widespread deposits on near mid-ocean spreading centers.
δ34S
Although there are 25 known isotopes of sulfur, only four are stable and of geochemical importance. Of those four, two (32S, light and 34S, heavy) comprise (99.22%) of sulfur on Earth. The vast majority (95.02%) of sulfur occurs as 32S with only 4.21% in 34S. The ratio of these two isotopes is fixed in the Solar System and has been since its formation. The bulk Earth sulfur isotopic ratio is thought to be the same as the ratio of 22.22 measured from the Canyon Diablo troilite (CDT), a meteorite. That ratio is accepted as the international standard and is therefore set at δ = 0.00. Deviation from 0.00 is expressed as the δ34S which is a ratio in per mill (‰). Positive values correlate to increased levels of 34S, whereas negative values correlate with greater 32S in a sample.
Formation of sulfur minerals through non-biogenic processes does not substantially differentiate between the light and heavy isotopes, therefore sulfur isotope ratios in gypsum or barite should be the same as the overall isotope ratio in the water column at their time of precipitation. Sulfate reduction through biologic activity strongly differentiates between the two isotopes because of the more rapid enzymic reaction with 32S. Sulfate metabolism results in an isotopic depletion of −18‰, and repeated cycles of oxidation and reduction can result in values up to −50‰. Average present day seawater values of δ34S are on the order of +21‰.
Throughout geologic history the sulfur cycle and the isotopic ratios have coevolved with the biosphere becoming overall more negative with the increases in biologically driven sulfate reduction, but also show substantial positive excursion. In general positive excursions in the sulfur isotopes mean that there is an excess of pyrite deposition rather than oxidation of sulfide minerals exposed on land.
Marine sulfur cycle
The sulfur cycle in marine environments has been well-studied via the tool of sulfur isotope systematics expressed as δ34S. The modern global oceans have sulfur storage of , mainly occurring as sulfate with the δ34S value of +21‰. The overall input flux is with the sulfur isotope composition of ~3‰. Riverine sulfate derived from the terrestrial weathering of sulfide minerals (δ34S = +6‰) is the primary input of sulfur to the oceans. Other sources are metamorphic and volcanic degassing and hydrothermal activity (δ34S = 0‰), which release reduced sulfur species (such as H2S and S0). There are two major outputs of sulfur from the oceans. The first sink is the burial of sulfate either as marine evaporites (such as gypsum) or carbonate-associated sulfate (CAS), which accounts for (δ34S = +21‰). The second sulfur sink is pyrite burial in shelf sediments or deep seafloor sediments (; δ34S = −20‰). The total marine sulfur output flux is which matches the input fluxes, implying the modern marine sulfur budget is at steady state. The residence time of sulfur in modern global oceans is 13,000,000 years.
Evolution of the sulfur cycle
The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfides provides primary information on the evolution of the sulfur cycle.
The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly of sulfur) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction. Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.
4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δ34S value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no isotopic fractionation. All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the Archean (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.
3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.
3.5 Ga anoxyogenic photosynthesis is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δ34S is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with magmatically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria.
2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.
2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest sedimentary rocks to have a depleted δ 34S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction.
2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "Great Oxygenation Event", when redox conditions on Earth's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing. This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels.
At 1.8 Ga, Banded iron formations (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and Paleoproterozoic; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water. BIFs have alternating layers of iron oxides and chert. BIFs only form if the water is allowed to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe2+) meaning there cannot be free oxygen or sulfur in the water column because it would form Fe3+ (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution. Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe3+. It has been hypothesized that BIFs formed during the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO2 through the decomposition of their bodies, allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans.
Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water. In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower than present day values. The sulfate levels in the Proterozoic also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen. The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.
750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry. This was likely due to snowball Earth episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation. In the late Neoproterozoic high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its present-day value. In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.
During the last 600 million years, seawater SO4 has generally varied between +10‰ and +30‰ in δ34S, with an average value close to that of today. Notably changes in seawater δ34S occurred during extinction and climatic events during this time.
Over a shorter time scale (ten million years) changes in the sulfur cycle are easier to observe and can be even better constrained with oxygen isotopes. Oxygen is continually incorporated into the sulfur cycle through sulfate oxidation and then released when that sulfate is reduced once again. Since different sulfate sources within the ocean have distinct oxygen isotopic values it may be possible to use oxygen to trace the sulfur cycle. Biological sulfate reduction preferentially selects lighter oxygen isotopes for the same reason that lighter sulfur isotopes are preferred. By studying oxygen isotopes in ocean sediments over the last 10 million years were able to better constrain the sulfur concentrations in sea water through that same time. They found that the sea level changes due to Pliocene and Pleistocene glacial cycles changed the area of continental shelves which then disrupted the sulfur processing, lowering the concentration of sulfate in the sea water. This was a drastic change as compared to preglacial times before 2 million years ago.
The Great Oxidation Event and sulfur isotope mass-independent fractionation
The Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) is characterized by the disappearance of sulfur isotope mass-independent fractionation (MIF) in the sedimentary records at around 2.45 billion years ago (Ga). The MIF of sulfur isotope (Δ33S) is defined by the deviation of measured δ33S value from the δ33S value inferred from the measured δ34S value according to the mass dependent fractionation law. The Great Oxidation Event represented a massive transition of global sulfur cycles. Before the Great Oxidation Event, the sulfur cycle was heavily influenced by the ultraviolet (UV) radiation and the associated photochemical reactions, which induced the sulfur isotope mass-independent fractionation (Δ33S ≠ 0). The preservation of sulfur isotope mass-independent fractionation signals requires the atmospheric O2 lower than 10−5 of present atmospheric level (PAL). The disappearance of sulfur isotope mass-independent fractionation at ~2.45 Ga indicates that atmospheric pO2 exceeded 10−5 present atmospheric level after the Great Oxygenation Event. Oxygen played an essential role in the global sulfur cycles after the Great Oxygenation Event, such as oxidative weathering of sulfides. The burial of pyrite in sediments in turn contributes to the accumulation of free O2 in Earth's surface environment.
Economic importance
Sulfur is intimately involved in production of fossil fuels and a majority of metal deposits because of its ability to act as an oxidizing or reducing agent. The vast majority of the major mineral deposits on Earth contain a substantial amount of sulfur including, but not limited to: sedimentary exhalative deposits (SEDEX), Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc ore deposits (Mississippi Valley-Type MVT) and porphyry copper deposits. Iron sulfides, galena and sphalerite will form as by-products of hydrogen sulfide generation, as long as the respective transition or base metals are present or transported to a sulfate reduction site. If the system runs out of reactive hydrocarbons economically viable elemental sulfur deposits may form. Sulfur also acts as a reducing agent in many natural gas reservoirs and generally ore forming fluids have a close relationship with ancient hydrocarbon seeps or vents.
Important sources of sulfur in ore deposits are generally deep-seated, but they can also come from local country rocks, sea water, or marine evaporites. The presence or absence of sulfur is one of the limiting factors on both the concentration of precious metals and its precipitation from solution. pH, temperature and especially redox states determine whether sulfides will precipitate. Most sulfide brines will remain in concentration until they reach reducing conditions, a higher pH or lower temperatures.
Ore fluids are generally linked to metal rich waters that have been heated within a sedimentary basin under the elevated thermal conditions typically in extensional tectonic settings. The redox conditions of the basin lithologies exert an important control on the redox state of the metal-transporting fluids and deposits can form from both oxidizing and reducing fluids. Metal-rich ore fluids tend to be by necessity comparatively sulfide deficient, so a substantial portion of the sulfide must be supplied from another source at the site of mineralization. Bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate or a euxinic (anoxic and H2S-containing) water column is a necessary source of that sulfide. When present, the δ34S values of barite are generally consistent with a seawater sulfate source, suggesting baryte formation by reaction between hydrothermal barium and sulfate in ambient seawater.
Once fossil fuels or precious metals are discovered and either burned or milled, the sulfur become a waste product which must be dealt with properly or it can become a pollutant. There has been a great increase in the amount of sulfur in our present day atmosphere because of the burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur acts as a pollutant and an economic resource at the same time.
Human impact
Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle. The burning of coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of sulfur in the atmosphere and ocean and depleted the sedimentary rock sink. Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for millions of years until it was uplifted through tectonic events and then released through erosion and weathering processes. Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing rate. Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.
Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the geologic record. Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the atmosphere, some of which is transported globally. Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the Earth's crust at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 1012 gS/yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years ago. The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur (SO4) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth's crust. Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of sulfur, but they do produce massive changes in the annual flux of sulfur through the atmosphere.
When SO2 is emitted as an air pollutant, it forms sulfuric acid through reactions with water in the atmosphere. Once the acid is completely dissociated in water the pH can drop to 4.3 or lower causing damage to both man-made and natural systems. According to the EPA, acid rain is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Distilled water (water without any dissolved constituents), which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Rain naturally has a slightly acidic pH of 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a very weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the average rain pH is between 4.2 and 4.4. Since pH is on a log scale dropping by 1 (the difference between normal rain water and acid rain) has a dramatic effect on the strength of the acid. In the United States, roughly two thirds of all SO2 and one fourth of all NO3 come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal.
As it is an important nutrient for plants, sulfur is increasingly used as a component of fertilizers. Recently sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in Europe. Because of actions taken to limit acid rains atmospheric inputs of sulfur continue to decrease, As a result, the deficit in the sulfur input is likely to increase unless sulfur fertilizers are used.
See also
Sulfur metabolism
Microbial metabolism
Sulfide intrusion
Sulfate-reducing microorganisms
Redox
Sulfur
References
External links
EPA
Sulfur Oxidation from Soil Microbiology course at Virginia Tech University
Sulfur Cycle at Carnegie Mellon University
Lenntech
Metabolism
Soil biology
Soil chemistry
Sulfur
Biogeochemical cycle | wiki |
Salothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Salothrips indicus
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Red Claw may refer to:
Australian red claw crayfish
Red Claw (novel), a 2009 science fiction novel by Philip Palmer
"Red Claw", a 2014 dubstep song from Aleksander Vinter's album Orakel
Red Claw, a fictional character in The Land Before Time series
Red Claw, a fictional character in Batman: The Animated Series
Red Claw, a fictional organization in Arthur
Maine Red Claws, an NBA D-League basketball team affiliated to the NBA Boston Celtics | wiki |
Bandwagon or band wagon may refer to:
A vehicle serving as a mobile stage for musicians
Other usages derived from this:
Behaviour
Bandwagon effect, "copycat" behavior
Argumentum ad populum, or the bandwagon fallacy: "If many believe so, it is so"
Bandwagon fan, a person who likes a sport team just because of their recent success
Bandwagoning, a term in international relations
Arts and entertainment
The Band Wagon (musical), a 1931 American musical revue
The Bandwagon, a jazz trio headed by Jason Moran
Band Wagon (album), a 1975 album by Shigeru Suzuki
Bandwagon (magazine), an American bimonthly journal of the Circus Historical Society published since 1940
The Bandwagon (album), a live album by Jason Moran
Johnny Johnson and the Bandwagon, an American soul group, originally known as The Bandwagon
Film, radio and television
The Band Wagon, a 1953 MGM movie musical starring Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse
Bandwagon (film), a 1996 independent film written and directed by John Schultz
Bandwagon (U.S. TV series), a local music series on KEYC-TV in Mankato, Minnesota
Bandwagon (Australian TV series), an Australian television variety series
See also
Band Waggon, BBC Radio series with Arthur Askey and Richard Murdoch which ran from 1938 to 1940
Band Waggon (film), 1940 British film based on the radio series starring Askey and Murdoch
Johnny Johnson and the Bandwagon, a band from the late 1960s and early 1970s
The Bandwagon Project, a non-profit music therapy project
Wagon, a heavy four-wheeled vehicle | wiki |
In British English slang, a toff is a stereotype for someone with an aristocratic background or belonging to the landed gentry, particularly someone who exudes an air of superiority. For instance, the Toff, a character from the series of adventure novels by John Creasey, is an upper class crime sleuth who uses a common caricature of a toff – a line drawing with a top hat, monocle, bow-tie and cigarette with a holder – as his calling card.
The word "toff" is thought to come from the word "tuft", which was a gold tassel worn by titled undergraduates at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge. The Anglo-Saxon word "toforan" has a meaning of "superiority".
Ian Kelly's book, Beau Brummell: The Ultimate Dandy, page 159, says it derives from the brown liquid that dripped from an upper class gentleman's nose after taking snuff.
Hoorah Henry has a similar meaning.
See also
Nobby
Plebs
Toffs and Toughs
References
Slang terms for men
English culture
Stereotypes of the upper class
Social class in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature and mimicked in industry and engineering, in which there is a crossover of some property, usually heat or some chemical, between two flowing bodies flowing in opposite directions to each other. The flowing bodies can be liquids, gases, or even solid powders, or any combination of those. For example, in a distillation column, the vapors bubble up through the downward flowing liquid while exchanging both heat and mass.
The maximum amount of heat or mass transfer that can be obtained is higher with countercurrent than co-current (parallel) exchange because countercurrent maintains a slowly declining difference or gradient (usually temperature or concentration difference). In cocurrent exchange the initial gradient is higher but falls off quickly, leading to wasted potential. For example, in the adjacent diagram, the fluid being heated (exiting top) has a higher exiting temperature than the cooled fluid (exiting bottom) that was used for heating. With cocurrent or parallel exchange the heated and cooled fluids can only approach one another. The result is that countercurrent exchange can achieve a greater amount of heat or mass transfer than parallel under otherwise similar conditions.
See: flow arrangement.
Countercurrent exchange when set up in a circuit or loop can be used for building up concentrations, heat, or other properties of flowing liquids. Specifically when set up in a loop with a buffering liquid between the incoming and outgoing fluid running in a circuit, and with active transport pumps on the outgoing fluid's tubes, the system is called a countercurrent multiplier, enabling a multiplied effect of many small pumps to gradually build up a large concentration in the buffer liquid.
Other countercurrent exchange circuits where the incoming and outgoing fluids touch each other are used for retaining a high concentration of a dissolved substance or for retaining heat, or for allowing the external buildup of the heat or concentration at one point in the system.
Countercurrent exchange circuits or loops are found extensively in nature, specifically in biologic systems. In vertebrates, they are called a rete mirabile, originally the name of an organ in fish gills for absorbing oxygen from the water. It is mimicked in industrial systems. Countercurrent exchange is a key concept in chemical engineering thermodynamics and manufacturing processes, for example in extracting sucrose from sugar beet roots.
Countercurrent multiplication is a similar but different concept where liquid moves in a loop followed by a long length of movement in opposite directions with an intermediate zone. The tube leading to the loop passively building up a gradient of heat (or cooling) or solvent concentration while the returning tube has a constant small pumping action all along it, so that a gradual intensification of the heat or concentration is created towards the loop. Countercurrent multiplication has been found in the kidneys as well as in many other biological organs.
Three current exchange systems
Countercurrent exchange and cocurrent exchange are two mechanisms used to transfer some property of a fluid from one flowing current of fluid to another across a barrier allowing one way flow of the property between them. The property transferred could be heat, concentration of a chemical substance, or other properties of the flow.
When heat is transferred, a thermally-conductive membrane is used between the two tubes, and when the concentration of a chemical substance is transferred a semipermeable membrane is used.
Cocurrent flow—half transfer
In the cocurrent flow exchange mechanism, the two fluids flow in the same direction.
As the cocurrent and countercurrent exchange mechanisms diagram showed, a cocurrent exchange system has a variable gradient over the length of the exchanger. With equal flows in the two tubes, this method of exchange is only capable of moving half of the property from one flow to the other, no matter how long the exchanger is.
If each stream changes its property to be 50% closer to that of the opposite stream's inlet condition, exchange will stop when the point of equilibrium is reached, and the gradient has declined to zero. In the case of unequal flows, the equilibrium condition will occur somewhat closer to the conditions of the stream with the higher flow.
Cocurrent flow examples
A cocurrent heat exchanger is an example of a cocurrent flow exchange mechanism.
Two tubes have a liquid flowing in the same direction. One starts off hot at 60 °C, the second cold at 20 °C. A thermoconductive membrane or an open section allows heat transfer between the two flows.
The hot fluid heats the cold one, and the cold fluid cools down the warm one. The result is thermal equilibrium: Both fluids end up at around the same temperature: 40 °C, almost exactly between the two original temperatures (20 and 60 °C). At the input end, there is a large temperature difference of 40 °C and much heat transfer; at the output end, there is a very small temperature difference (both are at the same temperature of 40 °C or close to it), and very little heat transfer if any at all. If the equilibrium—where both tubes are at the same temperature—is reached before the exit of the liquid from the tubes, no further heat transfer will be achieved along the remaining length of the tubes.
A similar example is the cocurrent concentration exchange. The system consists of two tubes, one with brine (concentrated saltwater), the other with freshwater (which has a low concentration of salt in it), and a semi permeable membrane which allows only water to pass between the two, in an osmotic process. Many of the water molecules pass from the freshwater flow in order to dilute the brine, while the concentration of salt in the freshwater constantly grows (since the salt is not leaving this flow, while water is). This will continue, until both flows reach a similar dilution, with a concentration somewhere close to midway between the two original dilutions. Once that happens, there will be no more flow between the two tubes, since both are at a similar dilution and there is no more osmotic pressure.
Countercurrent flow—almost full transfer
In countercurrent flow, the two flows move in opposite directions.
Two tubes have a liquid flowing in opposite directions, transferring a property from one tube to the other. For example, this could be transferring heat from a hot flow of liquid to a cold one, or transferring the concentration of a dissolved solute from a high concentration flow of liquid to a low concentration flow.
The counter-current exchange system can maintain a nearly constant gradient between the two flows over their entire length of contact. With a sufficiently long length and a sufficiently low flow rate this can result in almost all of the property transferred. So, for example, in the case of heat exchange, the exiting liquid will be almost as hot as the original incoming liquid's heat.
Countercurrent flow examples
In a countercurrent heat exchanger, the hot fluid becomes cold, and the cold fluid becomes hot.
In this example, hot water at 60 °C enters the top pipe. It warms water in the bottom pipe which has been warmed up along the way, to almost 60 °C. A minute but existing heat difference still exists, and a small amount of heat is transferred, so that the water leaving the bottom pipe is at close to 60 °C. Because the hot input is at its maximum temperature of 60 °C, and the exiting water at the bottom pipe is nearly at that temperature but not quite, the water in the top pipe can warm the one in the bottom pipe to nearly its own temperature. At the cold end—the water exit from the top pipe, because the cold water entering the bottom pipe is still cold at 20 °C, it can extract the last of the heat from the now-cooled hot water in the top pipe, bringing its temperature down nearly to the level of the cold input fluid (21 °C).
The result is that the top pipe which received hot water, now has cold water leaving it at 20 °C, while the bottom pipe which received cold water, is now emitting hot water at close to 60 °C. In effect, most of the heat was transferred.
Conditions for higher transfer results
Nearly complete transfer in systems implementing countercurrent exchange, is only possible if the two flows are, in some sense, "equal".
For a maximum transfer of substance concentration, an equal flowrate of solvents and solutions is required. For maximum heat transfer, the average specific heat capacity and the mass flow rate must be the same for each stream. If the two flows are not equal, for example if heat is being transferred from water to air or vice versa, then, similar to cocurrent exchange systems, a variation in the gradient is expected because of a buildup of the property not being transferred properly.
Countercurrent exchange in biological systems
Countercurrent exchange in biological systems occurred following the discovery of countercurrent multiplication systems by Werner Kuhn.
Countercurrent exchange is used extensively in biological systems for a wide variety of purposes. For example, fish use it in their gills to transfer oxygen from the surrounding water into their blood, and birds use a countercurrent heat exchanger between blood vessels in their legs to keep heat concentrated within their bodies. In vertebrates, this type of organ is referred to as a rete mirabile (originally the name of the organ in the fish gills). Mammalian kidneys use countercurrent exchange to remove water from urine so the body can retain water used to move the nitrogenous waste products (see countercurrent multiplier).
Countercurrent multiplication loop
A countercurrent multiplication loop is a system where fluid flows in a loop so that the entrance and exit are at similar low concentration of a dissolved substance but at the far end of the loop there is a high concentration of that substance. A buffer liquid between the incoming and outgoing tubes receives the concentrated substance. The incoming and outgoing tubes do not touch each other.
The system allows the buildup of a high concentration gradually, by allowing a natural buildup of concentration towards the tip inside the in-going tube, (for example using osmosis of water out of the input pipe and into the buffer fluid), and the use of many active transport pumps each pumping only against a very small gradient, during the exit from the loop, returning the concentration inside the output pipe to its original concentration.
The incoming flow starting at a low concentration has a semipermeable membrane with water passing to the buffer liquid via osmosis at a small gradient. There is a gradual buildup of concentration inside the loop until the loop tip where it reaches its maximum.
Theoretically a similar system could exist or be constructed for heat exchange.
In the example shown in the image, water enters at 299 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Water passes because of a small osmotic pressure to the buffer liquid in this example at 300 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Further up the loop there is a continued flow of water out of the tube and into the buffer, gradually raising the concentration of NaCl in the tube until it reaches 1199 mg/L at the tip. The buffer liquid between the two tubes is at a gradually rising concentration, always a bit over the incoming fluid, in this example reaching 1200 mg/L. This is regulated by the pumping action on the returning tube as will be explained immediately.
The tip of the loop has the highest concentration of salt (NaCl) in the incoming tube—in the example 1199 mg/L, and in the buffer 1200 mg/L. The returning tube has active transport pumps, pumping salt out to the buffer liquid at a low difference of concentrations of up to 200 mg/L more than in the tube. Thus when opposite the 1000 mg/L in the buffer liquid, the concentration in the tube is 800 and only 200 mg/L are needed to be pumped out. But the same is true anywhere along the line, so that at exit of the loop also only 200 mg/L need to be pumped.
In effect, this can be seen as a gradually multiplying effect—hence the name of the phenomena: a 'countercurrent multiplier' or the mechanism: Countercurrent multiplication, but in current engineering terms, countercurrent multiplication is any process where only slight pumping is needed, due to the constant small difference of concentration or heat along the process, gradually raising to its maximum. There is no need for a buffer liquid, if the desired effect is receiving a high concentration at the output pipe.
In the kidney
A circuit of fluid in the Loop of Henle—an important part of the kidneys allows for gradual buildup of the concentration of urine in the kidneys, by using active transport on the exiting nephrons (tubules carrying liquid in the process of gradually concentrating the urea). The active transport pumps need only to overcome a constant and low gradient of concentration, because of the countercurrent multiplier mechanism
Various substances are passed from the liquid entering the nephrons until exiting the loop (See the nephron flow diagram). The sequence of flow is as follows:
Renal corpuscle: Liquid enters the nephron system at the Bowman's capsule.
Proximal convoluted tubule: It then may reabsorb urea in the thick descending limb. Water is removed from the nephrons by osmosis (and glucose and other ions are pumped out with active transport), gradually raising the concentration in the nephrons.
Loop of Henle Descending: The liquid passes from the thin descending limb to the thick ascending limb. Water is constantly released via osmosis. Gradually there is a buildup of osmotic concentration, until 1200 mOsm is reached at the loop tip, but the difference across the membrane is kept small and constant.
For example, the liquid at one section inside the thin descending limb is at 400 mOsm while outside it is 401. Further down the descending limb, the inside concentration is 500 while outside it is 501, so a constant difference of 1 mOsm is kept all across the membrane, although the concentration inside and outside are gradually increasing.
Loop of Henle Ascending: after the tip (or 'bend') of the loop, the liquid flows in the thin ascending limb. Salt–sodium Na+ and chloride Cl− ions are pumped out of the liquid gradually lowering the concentration in the exiting liquid, but, using the countercurrent multiplier mechanism, always pumping against a constant and small osmotic difference.
For example, the pumps at a section close to the bend, pump out from 1000 mOsm inside the ascending limb to 1200 mOsm outside it, with a 200 mOsm across. Pumps further up the thin ascending limb, pump out from 400 mOsm into liquid at 600 mOsm, so again the difference is retained at 200 mOsm from the inside to the outside, while the concentration both inside and outside are gradually decreasing as the liquid flow advances.
The liquid finally reaches a low concentration of 100 mOsm when leaving the thin ascending limb and passing through the thick one
Distal convoluted tubule: Once leaving the loop of Henle the thick ascending limb can optionally reabsorb and re increase the concentration in the nephrons.
Collecting duct: The collecting duct receives liquid between 100 mOsm if no re-absorption is done, to 300 or above if re-absorption was used. The collecting duct may continue raising the concentration if required, by gradually pumping out the same ions as the Distal convoluted tubule, using the same gradient as the ascending limbs in the loop of Henle, and reaching the same concentration.
Ureter: The liquid urine leaves to the Ureter.
Same principle is used in hemodialysis within artificial kidney machines.
History
Initially the countercurrent exchange mechanism and its properties were proposed in 1951 by professor Werner Kuhn and two of his former students who called the mechanism found in the Loop of Henle in mammalian kidneys a Countercurrent multiplier and confirmed by laboratory findings in 1958 by Professor Carl W. Gottschalk. The theory was acknowledged a year later after a meticulous study showed that there is almost no osmotic difference between liquids on both sides of nephrons. Homer Smith, a considerable contemporary authority on renal physiology, opposed the model countercurrent concentration for 8 years, until conceding ground in 1959. Ever since, many similar mechanisms have been found in biologic systems, the most notable of these: the Rete mirabile in fish.
Countercurrent exchange of heat in organisms
In cold weather the blood flow to the limbs of birds and mammals is reduced on exposure to cold environmental conditions, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes). This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather. The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, thereby reducing heat loss via this route, and forcing the blood returning from the extremities into the counter-current blood flow systems in the centers of the limbs. Birds and mammals that regularly immerse their limbs in cold or icy water have particularly well developed counter-current blood flow systems to their limbs, allowing prolonged exposure of the extremities to the cold without significant loss of body heat, even when the limbs are as thin as the lower legs, or tarsi, of a bird, for instance.
When animals like the leatherback turtle and dolphins are in colder water to which they are not acclimatized, they use this CCHE mechanism to prevent heat loss from their flippers, tail flukes, and dorsal fins. Such CCHE systems are made up of a complex network of peri-arterial venous plexuses, or venae comitantes, that run through the blubber from their minimally insulated limbs and thin streamlined protuberances. Each plexus consists of a central artery containing warm blood from the heart surrounded by a bundle of veins containing cool blood from the body surface. As these fluids flow past each other, they create a heat gradient in which heat is transferred and retained inside the body. The warm arterial blood transfers most of its heat to the cool venous blood now coming in from the outside. This conserves heat by recirculating it back to the body core. Since the arteries give up a good deal of their heat in this exchange, there is less heat lost through convection at the periphery surface.
Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and doesn't lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to .
Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water
Sea and desert birds have been found to have a salt gland near the nostrils which concentrates brine, later to be "sneezed" out to the sea, in effect allowing these birds to drink seawater without the need to find freshwater resources. It also enables the seabirds to remove the excess salt entering the body when eating, swimming or diving in the sea for food. The kidney cannot remove these quantities and concentrations of salt.
The salt secreting gland has been found in seabirds like pelicans, petrels, albatrosses, gulls, and terns. It has also been found in Namibian ostriches and other desert birds, where a buildup of salt concentration is due to dehydration and scarcity of drinking water.
In seabirds the salt gland is above the beak, leading to a main canal above the beak, and water is blown from two small nostrils on the beak, to empty it. The salt gland has two countercurrent mechanisms working in it:
a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'venules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with active transport powered by ATP.
b. The blood supply system to the gland is set in countercurrent exchange loop mechanism for keeping the high concentration of salt in the gland's blood, so that it doesn't leave back to the blood system.
The glands remove the salt efficiently and thus allow the birds to drink the salty water from their environment while they are hundreds of miles away from land.
Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research
Countercurrent Chromatography is a method of separation, that is based on the differential partitioning of analytes between two immiscible liquids using countercurrent or cocurrent flow. Evolving from Craig's Countercurrent Distribution (CCD), the most widely used term and abbreviation is CounterCurrent Chromatography or CCC, in particular when using hydrodynamic CCC instruments. The term partition chromatography is largely a synonymous and predominantly used for hydrostatic CCC instruments.
Distillation of chemicals such as in petroleum refining is done in towers or columns with perforated trays. Vapor from the low boiling fractions bubbles upward through the holes in the trays in contact with the down flowing high boiling fractions. The concentration of low boiling fraction increases in each tray up the tower as it is "stripped". The low boiling fraction is drawn off the top of the tower and the high boiling fraction drawn from the bottom. The process in the trays is a combination of heat transfer and mass transfer. Heat is supplied at the bottom, known as a "reboiler" and cooling is done with a condenser at the top.
Liquid-liquid extraction (also called 'solvent extraction' or 'partitioning') is a common method for extracting a substance from one liquid into another liquid at a different 'phase' (such as "slurry"). This method, which implements a countercurrent mechanism, is used in nuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fine organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, the production of vegetable oils and biodiesel, and other industries.
Gold can be separated from a cyanide solution with the Merrill-Crowe process using Counter Current Decantation (CCD). In some mines, Nickel and Cobalt are treated with CCD, after the original ore was treated with concentrated Sulfuric acid and steam in Titanium covered autoclaves, producing nickel cobalt slurry. The nickel and cobalt in the slurry are removed from it almost completely using a CCD system exchanging the cobalt and nickel with flash steam heated water.
Lime can be manufactured in countercurrent furnaces allowing the heat to reach high temperatures using low cost, low temperature burning fuel. Historically this was developed by the Japanese in certain types of the Anagama kiln. The kiln is built in stages, where fresh air coming to the fuel is passed downwards while the smoke and heat is pushed up and out. The heat does not leave the kiln, but is transferred back to the incoming air, and thus slowly builds up to 3000 °C and more.
Cement may be created using a countercurrent kiln where the heat is passed in the cement and the exhaust combined, while the incoming air draft is passed along the two, absorbing the heat and retaining it inside the furnace, finally reaching high temperatures.
Gasification: the process of creating methane and carbon monoxide from organic or fossil matter, can be done using a Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier which is built in a similar way to the Anagama kiln, and must therefore withstand more harsh conditions, but reaches better efficiency.
In nuclear power plants, water leaving the plant must not contain even trace particles of Uranium. Counter Current Decantation (CCD) is used in some facilities to extract water, totally clear of Uranium.
Zippe-type centrifuges use countercurrent multiplication between rising and falling convection currents to reduce the number of stages needed in a cascade.
Some Centrifugal extractors use counter current exchange mechanisms for extracting high rates of the desired material.
Some protein skimmers (devices used to clean saltwater pools and fish ponds of organic matter) use counter current technologies.
Countercurrent processes have also been used to study the behavior of small animals and isolate individuals with altered behaviors due to genetic mutations.
See also
Anagama kiln
Bidirectional traffic
Economizer
Heat recovery ventilation
Regenerative heat exchanger
Countercurrent multiplier
External links
Countercurrent multiplier animation from Colorado University.
Research about elephant seals using countercurrent heat exchange to keep heat from leaving their body while breathing out, during hibernation.
Patent for a snow mask with a removable countercurrent exchange module which keeps the warmth from leaving the mask when breathing out.
An industrial system for aerating waste water and sewage which works on the countercurrent exchange principle, without pipes. Air bubbles floating upwards meet water in a down current, causing more of the air to dissolve.
References
Chemical process engineering
Industrial processes
Animal anatomy
Renal physiology
Heat transfer | wiki |
Senithrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae, found in Western Australia, and first described by Laurence Mound and Kambiz Minaei in 2006. The genus contains just one species, Senithrips psomus.
Senithrips psomus is a fungus feeding thrips, whose holotype was collected on Barrow Island, Western Australia in Triodia angusta grassland.
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera
Taxa described in 2006
Taxa named by Laurence Alfred Mound | wiki |
Fenoverine (INN) is an antispasmodic [also known as spasmolytics] drug, which acts by inhibiting calcium channels [much in the same way as traditional calcium channel blockers, which are used as antianginal drugs]. In the case of Fenoverine, the relaxation occurs in abdominal / intestinal smooth muscles, while in case of antianginal drugs, the relaxation occurs in coronary vessels. Notably Fenoverine does not act as an antianginal agent.
Toxicity
Fenoverine is known to cause rhabdomyolysis.
References
Phenothiazines
Carboxamides
Piperazines
Benzodioxoles | wiki |
Giant Dipper ist der Name mehrerer Achterbahnen:
Giant Dipper (Belmont Park)
Giant Dipper (Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk) | wiki |
Spilothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Spilothrips varicolor
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Nachtfalter is the second musical release of Mondsucht.
Track listing
"Nachtfalter (Club Version)"–
"Nachtfalter (Original)"–
"Beast"–
"Nachtfalter (M-Version)"–
Info
All tracks written and produced by Mondsucht
Male vocals by Robert N.
Female vocals by Astrid M.
External links
Mondsucht Discography Info
2001 albums
Mondsucht albums
Alice In... albums | wiki |
Succinea guamensis é uma espécie de gastrópode da família Succineidae.
É endémica de Guam.
Referências
Mollusc Specialist Group 1996. Succinea guamensis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Dados de 7 de Agosto de 2007.
Succinea | wiki |
In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), a church membership council (formerly called a disciplinary council) is an ecclesiastical event during which a church member's status is considered, typically for alleged violations of church standards. If a church member is found to have committed an offense by a membership council, they may have their name removed from church records, or their church membership may be otherwise restricted. Church membership councils are at times referred to unofficially as church courts.
Purposes
According to the church's General Handbook, the purposes of church membership councils are to:
Help protect others;
Help a person access the redeeming power of Jesus Christ through repentance; and
Protect the integrity of the church.
Structure and procedures
Ward church membership council
A church membership council may convened by the bishop of a local ward (congregation). In such an instance, the council is composed of the bishop and his two counselors. The ward clerk will also be present to take notes of the proceedings. Attendance of the ward Relief Society president (for women) or elders quorum president (for men) is optional. After hearing all of the evidence in the case, the bishop and his counselors are encouraged to make a joint, unanimous decision on the outcome. However, the bishop has the final say and can theoretically make a decision over the protest of either or both of his counselors.
Stake church membership council
A stake church membership council is convened by the stake president in instances where it appears that a member who has received their temple endowment has committed an offense which may result in withdrawal of membership, or when the subject is a member of a bishop's immediate family. In such instances, the council is composed of the stake president and his two counselors. Attendance of the member's bishop, Relief Society president (for women), or elders quorum president (for men) is optional. The twelve members of the stake high council also participate when there are contested facts, they would add value and balance, the member requests their participation, or a member of the stake presidency or his family is involved. After hearing the evidence in the case and the submissions of the high councilors (if any)—one half of whom speak on behalf of the accused—the stake president and his counselors are encouraged to make a joint, unanimous decision on the outcome. However, the stake president has the final say and can theoretically make a decision over the protest of either or both of his counselors.
Mission membership council
A mission president can convene a church membership council for a full-time missionary within his mission or a member within a district of his mission. He can also authorize branch or district presidents in a district to convene church membership councils.
Common Council of the Church
If the need arises to convene a church membership council for the church's president or one of his counselors in the First Presidency, the Common Council of the Church must be convened by the church's presiding bishop. The Common Council is made up of the presiding bishop and his counselors and twelve other high priests selected by the presiding bishop. The Common Council has only been convened twice: In August 1838, after the return of Zion's Camp, the Council formally convened for the first time to consider charges made by Sylvester Smith against Joseph Smith, who was eventually cleared. In September 1844, Presiding Bishop Newel K. Whitney convened a Common Council which excommunicated Sidney Rigdon, who was the senior surviving member of the First Presidency after the death of Joseph Smith.
Evidence
The council begins by the presiding officer stating the reported misconduct and asking the accused person to admit or deny it. If the person denies the misconduct, the presiding officer or a designee presents the evidence of the misconduct. Evidence may be presented in the form of written or oral statements by witnesses or other documents. An accused person's previous confession cannot be used as evidence in a disciplinary council without the member's consent. The accused member is given a chance to question the witnesses against them. After the evidence against the accused is presented, the accused is permitted to present evidence in response. The accused can comment on the evidence and make any other statement they want to make. All witnesses and the accused may also be questioned by any member of the disciplinary council. No witness is placed under oath. Since the disciplinary council is an ecclesiastical court, rules of evidence that govern domestic courts do not apply.
If the accused person admits to the conduct in question, no evidence is presented before the council.
Decision
Once a decision has been reached by the church membership council, the decision is announced to the accused person and the presiding officer explains the conditions that are imposed by the decision. The accused is also informed of his or her right to appeal the decision. Other members of the church may be notified of the decision in certain circumstances.
Appeal
An accused member may appeal the decision of the church membership council within 30 days of the decision being made. Appeals of a ward memberhsip council are made to the stake church membership council (i.e. the stake president and his two counselors). An appeal of the decision of a stake or mission church membership council is to the church's First Presidency. An appeal of a decision of a church membership council convened by a branch president or a district president in a mission is to the mission president. The body hearing the appeal may vary the decision of the council in any way or let the original decision stand.
Records
The proceedings of the church membership council are submitted electronically to the office of the First Presidency where the information it contains is permanently stored. It is also reviewed by the body hearing the appeal if an appeal is made.
Stake presidents are permitted to request records of past councils for members of their stake from the office of the First Presidency. Bishops may request records of past councils for members of their ward.
In the case of withdrawal of membership, the person is removed from church records.
Qualifying offences
When a church membership council is mandatory
The LDS Church has instructed leaders that a church membership council is mandatory when evidence suggests that a member of the church may have committed any of the following offences against the standards of the church: Murder; rape; sexual assault conviction; child or youth abuse; abuse of a spouse or another adult; predatory behavior (violent, sexual, or financial); incest; child pornography; plural marriage; serious sin while holding a prominent church position; and most felony convictions.
When a church membership council may be appropriate
The LDS Church has instructed leaders that a church membership council may be appropriate when evidence suggests that a member may have committed any of the following offenses against the standards of the church (whether or not a disciplinary council will be held will depend on the facts of the situation and is generally left to the discretion of the bishop or stake president): attempted murder; sexual abuse, including assault and harassment; abuse of a spouse or another adult; adultery, fornication, or same-sex relations; cohabitation, civil unions and partnerships, or same-sex marriage; intensive or compulsive use of pornography that has caused significant harm to a member's marriage or family; robbery, burglary, theft, or embezzlement; perjury; serious sin while holding a position of authority or trust in the church or the community; serious sin that is widely known; abortion; pattern of serious sins; deliberate abandonment of family responsibilities, including nonpayment of child support and alimony; sale of illegal drugs; other serious criminal acts; apostasy; and embezzlement of church funds.
When a membership council is not appropriate
The LDS Church has instructed leaders that church membership councils are not appropriately held to resolve or deal with the following circumstances: inactivity in the church; not fulfilling church duties; not paying tithing; sins of omission; masturbation; not complying with the Word of Wisdom; using pornography, except for child pornography or intensive or compulsive use of pornography that has caused significant harm to a member's marriage or family; business failures or nonpayment of debts; and civil disputes.
Possible outcomes
A disciplinary council may reach one of four possible outcomes:
Remain in good standing. This is the result when the church membership council determines that no offense has taken place. However, even if it is determined that an offense did occur, the council may impose no formal action and instead give "cautionary counsel" or recommend consultation with the member's bishop for caution or counsel.
Personal counseling with the bishop or stake president and informal membership restriction (formerly known as "informal probation"). This action temporarily restricts or suspends a member's privileges of church membership in the way specified by the council. Possible actions could include suspending the right to partake of the sacrament, hold a church calling, exercise the priesthood, or enter the temple.
Formal membership restrictions (formerly known as "disfellowshipment"). A person who has formal membership restrictions is still a member of the Church but is no longer in good standing. A person with a formal membership restriction may not hold a temple recommend, serve in a church calling, or exercise the priesthood. Members under these restrictions may attend public meetings of the church, but may not give a sermon, teach a lesson, offer a public prayer, partake of the sacrament, or vote in sustaining church officers. However, such members may pay tithing and fast offerings and continue to wear the temple garment. If the member expresses repentance and abides by the conditions imposed upon them, formal membership restrictions usually last approximately one year. Only a reconvened church membership council can remove the condition of membership restriction. Formal membership restriction is considered a relatively severe action which is adequate for most serious transgressions.
Withdrawal of membership (formerly known as "excommunication"). An individual whose membership is withdrawn is no longer a member of the LDS Church. All of the restrictions of a formal membership restriction also apply to individuals who have their membership withdrawn. In addition, such a person is not permitted to pay tithing or fast offerings or wear the temple garment. Withdrawal of membership is the most serious sanction a church membership council can impose and is generally reserved for only the most severe offenses. Withdrawal of church membership is mandatory for murder and is almost always required for incest. Withdrawal of membership may also be appropriate for members who have had formal membership restrictions placed upon them and have not repented. Withdrawal of membership almost always lasts at least one year; only a reconvened membership council may approve a person's readmittance to the church through baptism.
See also
Ahkam
Church discipline - related practices of other denominations
Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline
Communicative action
Deviance (sociology)
Ex-Mormon
Excommunication § The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Group cohesiveness
Herem (censure)
List of former Latter Day Saints
Ostracism
Restorative justice
Right hand of Christian fellowship - compare with disfellowshipment
Shunning
Social alienation
Social engagement
Social exclusion
Social rejection
Social stigma
Stigma management
Taboo
Notes
References
Further reading
Sexuality and Mormonism
Latter Day Saint practices
Latter Day Saint terms
Organizational subdivisions of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Punishments in religion
Religious legal systems
Church discipline | wiki |
Robbers' rummy is a card game for two or more players. It is a variant of German Rummy dating to the early 20th century. Being derived from normal rummy, it emphasises arrangement of cards based on card matching rules (generally simplified, but thereby no less challenging), while abandoning the notions of card discards and scoring entirely.
Description
In Robbers' Rummy, not only are players allowed to lay off to existing melds as in basic Rummy, but they may also completely recombine the cards contained in the melds. In other words, players may 'rob' cards from already-made melds to make new ones. This makes it "much more exciting and engaging than any other [Rummy] variant...". Danyliuk describes it as "a fun, but difficult, variant of Rummy."
Object
The aim of Robber's Rummy is to be the first player to discard all the cards in hand by forming melds and placing them on table.
Cards
Robbers' rummy is played using two standard 52-card French packs, and 2 to 6 jokers.
Play
Initially, each player is dealt 11 to 13 cards from the shuffled pack, whose remainder, called the stock is placed face-down on the table. The goal of each player is to reduce the number of cards held in hand by placing them on the table, face-up, forming melds. A meld is:
Either any sequence by rank of three or more cards of the same suit (where the King may be followed by Ace, and 2, and so on),
Any three or four cards of equal rank, but of distinct suits.
Any one Joker card used within a meld must be identified as one card of appropriate rank and suit.
At each turn, a player may place one or more cards from their own hand on the table, such that melds are formed (or extended). For this purpose, each player may rearrange any or all melds on the table, including, if necessary, by reassigning the identification of Joker cards; provided all cards on the table form melds eventually, in completion of the placement. All cards which were on the table, before the placement of the own cards from hand, must remain on the table.
An essential point to recognize is that any meld consisting of four cards may be reduced to an equally regular three-card meld by removing or robbing one card, which in turn may be used to form other melds. The name Robbers' rummy reflects the characterization, by proponents of normal rummy, of such liberty in playing this game as excessive, or even "offensive."
Examples
On the table are ♣5–♣6–♣7–♣8–♣9; Ann holds the second ♣7 in her hand. She can now take the ♣5 and the ♣6 from the table and make a new meld with her ♣7.
On the table lie the ♦5–♦6–♦7 and ♠5–♠6–J; Ben holds ♣5, ♥6 and ♦9 in his hand. He can now combine these cards together with the table cards to form new melds as follows:♦5–♠5–♣5, ♦6–♥6–♠6 and ♦7–J–♦9.
Any jokers on the table may be re-used to represent a different card without having to be exchanged as in German Rummy, for example.
A player who was unable or disinclined to place at least one card from their own hand on the table accordingly, must draw one card from the stock into the hand. Alternatively, a player who did place one or more own cards on the table may draw one card from the stock, or must otherwise yield to the next player right away. After having drawn one card, the player at turn may still place any one or more cards on the table, and must then yield to the next player without drawing another card.
Danyliuk includes 2 additional rules:
The top card of the discard pile may only be used if it is immediately laid off or melded; it must not be added to the hand.
The player's first meld must score 40 points; cards may be laid off to existing melds in order to reach this total. To do this card values are assigned as follows: A = 1 or 11 depending on position, KQJ = 10 each, pips = 2-9 depending on face value.
Ending
The first player to meld or lay off all held cards is the winner.
References
See also
German Rummy
Liverpool Rummy
Machiavelli (Italian card game)
Rummy | wiki |
Blackbeard: Terror at Sea, a television special by the BBC, starring James Purefoy as Blackbeard. It aired in the United States on March 12, 2006 on National Geographic and was released on DVD in the Netherlands in July 2006, by Just Entertainment.
References
External links
Photos of James Purefoy
2006 television films
2006 films
British television films
BBC television dramas
Pirate films
Cultural depictions of Blackbeard | wiki |
InstallJammer es un programa creador de instaladores del estilo de Microsoft Windows escrito en Tcl usado para crear archivos autoextraíbles que muestran un asistente de instalación. Permite generar instaladores para Microsoft Windows desde Windows 98, FreeBSD, Linux (x86 y x64), Solaris, HP-UX y AIX.
El 16 de agosto de 2011, el desarrollo de InstallJammer fue descontinuado.
Referencias
Enlaces externos
Software libre
Software descontinuado | wiki |
Palmarès
Campione USBL (2005)
USBL Postseason MVP (2005)
All-USBL First Team (2005)
All-USBL Second Team (2004)
Miglior tiratore da tre punti USBL (2004)
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
A draw bench is a machine used to do cold work on a metal, such as changing the shape of the metal without applying heat and applying only pressure.
Machine construction
It consists of a chain drive, driven by a motor and a set of gears. The other end of the machine consists of a die mounted on a thick steel plate. The workpiece is inserted through the die and clamped on a trolley which then is hooked onto the chain for pulling across.
Die
The die is usually made of tungsten carbide with a steel housing. The die can be made to any desired shape (round, square, rectangular, triangular, half round, L-shaped, oval etc.).
Metal forming | wiki |
Tetragonothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Tetragonothrips murmekiai
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
Freezer Burn – film statunitense del 2007 diretto da Charles Hood
Freezer Burn – romanzo poliziesco del 1999 di Joe R. Lansdale
Freezer Burn – un personaggio dei fumetti Marvel Comics | wiki |
Don't You Worry may refer to:
"Don't You Worry" (Madasun song), 2000
"Don't You Worry" (Kelly Rowland song), 2019
"Don't You Worry" (Black Eyed Peas, Shakira and David Guetta song), 2022
See also
Don't Worry 'bout a Thing (disambiguation) | wiki |
Nexus 7 (2012) – tablet ideato da Google e prodotto da Asus, versione del 2012
Nexus 7 (2013) – tablet ideato da Google e prodotto da Asus, versione del 2013 | wiki |
Garwin can refer to:
Laura Garwin, Rhodes scholar, science journalist, and trumpeter, daughter of Richard
Richard Garwin, physicist, father of Laura
Garwin, Iowa, a town in the United States
Garwin International, a company in Canada and USA | wiki |
The 1929–30 Buffalo Bulls men's basketball team represented the University of Buffalo during the 1929–30 NCAA college men's basketball season. The head coach was Art Powell, coaching his fifteenth season with the Bulls.
Schedule
|-
References
Buffalo Bulls men's basketball seasons
Buffalo
Buffalo Bulls
Buffalo Bulls | wiki |
, est un jeu vidéo de golf développé par Camelot Software Planning et édité par Sony Computer Entertainment en 1997 sur PlayStation.
Accueil
En 2014, Marcus reconnaît encore le côté sympathique du jeu.
Postérité
Everybody's Golf est le premier jeu d'une série de jeux de golf.
Notes et références
Jeu vidéo de golf
Jeu PlayStation
Jeu vidéo sorti en 1997
Jeu vidéo développé au Japon
Jeu Camelot Software Planning
Jeu Sony Computer Entertainment
Everybody's Golf | wiki |
Gold(II) sulfate is the chemical compound with the formula or more correctly . This compound was previously thought to be a mixed-valent compound as AuIAuIII(SO4)2. But later, it was shown that it contained the diatomic cation, which made it the first simple inorganic gold(II) compound. The bond distance between the gold atoms in the diatomic cation is 249 pm.
Production and properties
Gold(II) sulfate is produced by reaction of sulfuric acid and gold(III) hydroxide. Gold(II) sulfate is unstable in air and oxidizes to hydrogen disulfoaurate(III)().
References
Gold compounds
Sulfates | wiki |
Lake of the Woods – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Wirginia, w hrabstwie Orange.
CDP w stanie Wirginia | wiki |
Xeroleptothrips is a genus of thrips in the family Phlaeothripidae.
Species
Xeroleptothrips tehuacanensis
References
Phlaeothripidae
Thrips
Thrips genera | wiki |
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