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The year 1953 in film involved some significant events.
Top-grossing films (U.S.)
The top ten 1953 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows:
Events
January 16 – A new Warner Bros. Pictures Inc. is incorporated following a Consent Judgment to divest their Stanley Warner Theaters.
February 5 – Walt Disney's production of J.M. Barrie's Peter Pan, starring Bobby Driscoll and Kathryn Beaumont, premieres to astounding acclaim from critics and audiences and quickly becomes one of the most beloved Disney films. This is the last Disney animated movie released in partnership RKO Pictures, becoming the last ever smash hit movie of the later company before it bankrupted in 1959.
July 1 – Stalag 17, directed by Billy Wilder and starring William Holden, premieres and is considered by the critics and audiences to be one of the greatest WWII Prisoner of War films ever made. Holden wins the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in the film.
August 5 – Fred Zinnemann's romantic and war masterpiece From Here to Eternity, starring Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, Deborah Kerr, Frank Sinatra, and Donna Reed, premieres.
August 27 – William Wyler's immortal romantic tale of Roman Holiday, starring Gregory Peck and Audrey Hepburn, premieres and propels Hepburn to super stardom.
September 16 – Religious epic The Robe, starring Richard Burton and Jean Simmons, debuts as the first widescreen anamorphic film in cinema history, filmed in CinemaScope grossing a record $36,000 for a single theatre in its first day. It went on to gross a record (for a single theater) $264,428 in its first week.
November 21 – Monogram Pictures, which had stopped releasing pictures under that banner from the start of the year, changes its name to Allied Artists Pictures Corporation.
Awards
Notable films released in 1953
United States unless stated
#
99 River Street, starring John Payne and Evelyn Keyes
The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T, starring Tommy Rettig, screenplay by Dr. Seuss
A
Abbott and Costello Go to Mars
Abbott and Costello Meet Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
Act of Love (Un acte d'amour), starring Kirk Douglas – (US/France)
The Actress, starring Spencer Tracy and Jean Simmons
Albert R.N., directed by Lewis Gilbert, starring Anthony Steel, Jack Warner, Robert Beatty, William Sylvester – (GB)
The All-American, starring Tony Curtis
All I Desire, starring Barbara Stanwyck
All the Brothers Were Valiant, starring Ann Blyth
Anarkali – (India)
Appointment in Honduras, directed by Jacques Tourneur, starring Ann Sheridan and Glenn Ford
Arrowhead, starring Charlton Heston and Jack Palance
B
Baaz, directed by and starring Guru Dutt – (India)
The Band Wagon, starring Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, Jack Buchanan, Nanette Fabray, Oscar Levant
The Bandit of Brazil (O Cangaceiro) – (Brazil)
Barabbas, directed by Alf Sjöberg – (Sweden)
The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, starring Paula Raymond and Cecil Kellaway
Beat the Devil, directed by John Huston, starring Humphrey Bogart, Jennifer Jones, Gina Lollobrigida – (Italy/GB/US)
The Beggar's Opera, starring Laurence Olivier and Dorothy Tutin – (GB)
Belinsky – (U.S.S.R.)
Ben and Me, featuring the voices of Sterling Holloway and Charles Ruggles
Beneath the 12-Mile Reef, starring Robert Wagner
Bienvenido Mr. Marshall, directed by Luis García Berlanga, starring Fernando Rey – (Spain)
The Big Heat, directed by Fritz Lang, starring Glenn Ford, Gloria Grahame, Lee Marvin
Big Leaguer, starring Edward G. Robinson
The Bigamist, directed by and starring Ida Lupino, with Joan Fontaine, Edmond O'Brien
Black Ermine – (Argentina)
Blowing Wild, starring Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck
The Blue Gardenia, starring Anne Baxter and Raymond Burr
A Blueprint for Murder, starring Joseph Cotten and Jean Peters
Bread, Love and Dreams (Pane, amore e fantasia), starring Vittorio De Sica and Gina Lollobrigida – (Italy)
Bright Road, the first feature-film appearance of Harry Belafonte (US)
The Brute (El Bruto), directed by Luis Buñuel, starring Pedro Armendáriz and Katy Jurado – (Mexico)
By the Light of the Silvery Moon, starring Doris Day and Gordon MacRae
C
The Caddy, starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis
Calamity Jane, starring Doris Day
Call Me Madam, starring Ethel Merman
The Captain's Paradise, starring Alec Guinness – (GB)
Cease Fire
The Charge at Feather River, starring Guy Madison
City Beneath the Sea, starring Robert Ryan, Anthony Quinn, Mala Powers
City That Never Sleeps, starring Gig Young, William Talman, Paula Raymond, Mala Powers
The Clown, starring Red Skelton
Confidentially Connie, starring Van Johnson and Janet Leigh
The Conquest of Everest – (documentary) – (GB)
The Cruel Sea, starring Jack Hawkins and Denholm Elliott – (GB)
Cry of the Hunted, starring Vittorio Gassman, Barry Sullivan, Polly Bergen
D
Dangerous Crossing, starring Jeanne Crain and Michael Rennie
Dangerous When Wet, starring Esther Williams
Decameron Nights, starring Joan Fontaine and Louis Jourdan
The Desert Rats, starring Richard Burton and James Mason
Desperate Moment, starring Dirk Bogarde and Mai Zetterling – (GB)
Devdas – (India)
Do Bigha Zamin (Two Acres of Land), directed by Bimal Roy – (India)
Donovan's Brain, starring Lew Ayres and Nancy Davis
Down Among the Sheltering Palms, starring Mitzi Gaynor, Gloria DeHaven, Jane Greer
Dream Wife, starring Cary Grant and Deborah Kerr
E
Él (Him), directed by Luis Buñuel, starring Arturo de Córdova – (Mexico)
The Earrings of Madame de..., directed by Max Ophüls, starring Charles Boyer – (France/Italy)
East of Sumatra, starring Anthony Quinn and Jeff Chandler
Easy to Love, starring Esther Williams
Easy Years (Anni facili), directed by Luigi Zampa – (Italy)
The Eddie Cantor Story, starring Keefe Brasselle
Entotsu no mieru basho (The Four Chimneys) – (Japan)
Esa pareja feliz (That Happy Couple), directed by Juan Antonio Bardem and Luis García Berlanga – (Spain)
Escape By Night, starring Bonar Colleano and Sid James – (GB)
Escape from Fort Bravo, directed by John Sturges, starring William Holden, Eleanor Parker, John Forsythe
F
Fair Wind to Java, starring Fred MacMurray and Vera Ralston
The Farmer Takes a Wife, starring Betty Grable
Fast Company, starring Howard Keel and Polly Bergen
Fear and Desire, directed by Stanley Kubrick
The Final Test, directed by Anthony Asquith, starring Jack Warner (GB)
Folly to Be Wise, directed by Frank Launder, starring Alastair Sim – (GB)
Footpath, starring Dilip Kumar – (India)
From Here to Eternity, directed by Fred Zinnemann, starring Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, Deborah Kerr, Frank Sinatra, Donna Reed – winner of 8 Oscars
G
Gate of Hell (Jigokumon) – (Japan)
A Geisha (Gion Bayashi), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi – (Japan)
Genevieve, starring Dinah Sheridan, John Gregson, Kay Kendall – (GB)
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, directed by Howard Hawks, starring Jane Russell and Marilyn Monroe
The Girl Next Door, starring June Haver and Dan Dailey
The Girl Who Had Everything, starring Elizabeth Taylor, William Powell, Fernando Lamas, Gig Young
Give a Girl a Break, directed by Stanley Donen, starring Debbie Reynolds, Marge Champion, Gower Champion
The Glass Wall, starring Vittorio Gassman and Gloria Grahame
The Golden Blade, starring Rock Hudson and Piper Laurie
The Great Adventure (Det stora äventyret), directed by Arne Sucksdorff – (Sweden)
The Great Sioux Uprising, starring Jeff Chandler
Gun Fury, starring Rock Hudson and Donna Reed
H
The Heart of the Matter, starring Trevor Howard – (GB)
The Hitch-Hiker, directed by Ida Lupino, starring Edmond O'Brien and William Talman
Hondo, starring John Wayne and Geraldine Page in her film debut
Houdini, starring (husband and wife) Tony Curtis and Janet Leigh
House of Wax, starring Vincent Price
How to Marry a Millionaire, starring Marilyn Monroe, Betty Grable, Lauren Bacall (Grable, Fox's top star of the 1940s, with Monroe, Fox's top star of the 1950s)
I
I Confess, directed by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Montgomery Clift and Anne Baxter
The I Don't Care Girl, starring Mitzi Gaynor
I Love Lucy, starring Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz
I, the Jury, starring Biff Elliot and Peggie Castle
Inferno, starring Robert Ryan
Interim, directed by Stan Brakhage, short film (25 ½ minutes); music by James Tenney)
The Intruder, starring Jack Hawkins – (GB)
Is Your Honeymoon Really Necessary?, starring Bonar Colleano and Diana Dors – (GB)
Island in the Sky, starring John Wayne
It Came from Outer Space, directed by Jack Arnold, starring Richard Carlson
J
Jennifer, starring Ida Lupino and Howard Duff
Jeopardy, starring Barbara Stanwyck, Barry Sullivan, Ralph Meeker
Julius Caesar, directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, starring Marlon Brando, James Mason, John Gielgud, Louis Calhern, Greer Garson, Deborah Kerr
K
The Kidnappers, starring Jon Whiteley – (GB)
King of the Khyber Rifles, starring Tyrone Power
Kiss Me Kate, starring Kathryn Grayson, Howard Keel, Ann Miller, released in 2-D and 3-D
L
The Lady Without Camelias (La signora senza camelie), directed by Michelangelo Antonioni – (Italy)
The Landowner's Daughter (Sinhá Moça), starring Anselmo Duarte – (Brazil)
Lagu Kenangan (), starring Titien Sumarni and AN Alcaff (Indonesia)
Latin Lovers, starring Lana Turner
Law and Order, a western starring Ronald Reagan
The Lawless Breed, starring Rock Hudson
Lili, starring Leslie Caron
The Limping Man, starring Lloyd Bridges – (GB)
A Lion Is in the Streets, starring James Cagney, Barbara Hale, Anne Francis
Little Boy Lost, starring Bing Crosby
Little Fugitive
The Living Desert, winner of Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature
Love in the City (L'Amore in Città), an anthology film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, Dino Risi, Federico Fellini and others – (Italy)
Love Letter (Koibumi) – (Japan)
M
Malta Story, directed by Brian Desmond Hurst, starring Alec Guinness, Jack Hawkins, Anthony Steel, Muriel Pavlow – (GB)
Man in the Attic, starring Jack Palance and Constance Smith
The Man Between, starring James Mason and Claire Bloom – (GB)
Man in the Dark, starring Edmond O'Brien and Audrey Totter
Man on a Tightrope, starring Fredric March and Gloria Grahame
Martin Luther – (US/West Germany)
The Master of Ballantrae, directed by William Keighley, starring Errol Flynn, Roger Livesey, Anthony Steel, Beatrice Campbell – (U.K.)
Meet Me at the Fair, starring Dan Dailey and Diana Lynn
Miss Sadie Thompson, starring Rita Hayworth
The Mississippi Gambler, starring Tyrone Power and Piper Laurie
Mogambo, starring Clark Gable, Ava Gardner, Grace Kelly (remake of 1932's Red Dust which starred Gable with Jean Harlow)
Money from Home, starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis
Monsieur Hulot's Holiday (Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot), directed by and starring Jacques Tati – (France)
La montaña sin ley
The Moon Is Blue, first U.S. movie to use the words "pregnant" and "virgin", directed by Otto Preminger, starring William Holden, David Niven, Maggie McNamara
The Moonlighter, starring Barbara Stanwyck and Fred MacMurray
N
The Naked Spur, starring James Stewart, Robert Ryan and Janet Leigh
The Net, directed by Anthony Asquith – (GB)
Niagara, starring Marilyn Monroe and Joseph Cotten
No Way Back (Weg Ohne Umkehr) – (West Germany)
P
Patita, starring Dev Anand and Usha Kiran – (India)
Peter Pan, a Walt Disney animation featuring the voice of Bobby Driscoll
The Phantom Stockman, starring Chips Rafferty – (Australia)
Pickup on South Street, directed by Sam Fuller, starring Richard Widmark, Jean Peters, Thelma Ritter
Plunder of the Sun, starring Glenn Ford
Pony Express, starring Charlton Heston (as Buffalo Bill)
The President's Lady (Charlton Heston's first turn at Andrew Jackson before The Buccaneer)
R
Remains to Be Seen, starring June Allyson and Van Johnson
Report News (Reportaje), starring Arturo de Córdova and Dolores del Río – (Mexico)
Return to Paradise, starring Gary Cooper
Ride, Vaquero!, starring Robert Taylor and Ava Gardner
The Robe, the first movie filmed in CinemaScope, starring Richard Burton and Jean Simmons
Rogue's March, starring Peter Lawford, Janice Rule
Roman Holiday, directed by William Wyler, starring Gregory Peck and Audrey Hepburn in her Oscar-winning first leading role
Rosanna (La Red) – (Mexico)
S
Salome, starring Rita Hayworth
Sawdust and Tinsel (Gycklarnas afton), directed by Ingmar Bergman – (Sweden)
Scared Stiff, starring Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, Lizabeth Scott and Carmen Miranda
Sea Devils, starring Rock Hudson and Yvonne De Carlo – (GB/US)
Seminole, starring Rock Hudson and Anthony Quinn
Shane, directed by George Stevens, starring Alan Ladd, Jean Arthur (in her final film role), Brandon deWilde, Ben Johnson, Jack Palance
Siamo Donne (We, the Women), starring Alida Valli and Ingrid Bergman – (Italy)
Small Town Girl, starring Jane Powell and Ann Miller
So Big, directed by Robert Wise, starring Jane Wyman, Sterling Hayden, Steve Forrest
So This Is Love, starring Kathryn Grayson and Merv Griffin
South Sea Woman, starring Burt Lancaster and Virginia Mayo
Split Second, starring Alexis Smith and Jan Sterling
Stalag 17, directed by Billy Wilder, starring William Holden (in his Oscar-winning role), Don Taylor, Harvey Lembeck, Robert Strauss, Otto Preminger, Peter Graves
Stars of the Russian Ballet (Mastera russkogo baleta), starring Galina Ulanova – (USSR)
The State Department Store (Állami Áruház) – (Hungary)
The Steel Lady, starring Rod Cameron and Tab Hunter
The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan, starring Robert Morley and Maurice Evans – (GB)
The Story of Little Muck (Die Geschichte vom kleinen Muck) – (East Germany)
The Story of Three Loves, trilogy starring James Mason, Leslie Caron, Kirk Douglas
Summer with Monika (Sommaren med Monika), directed by Ingmar Bergman, starring Harriet Andersson – (Sweden)
The Sun Shines Bright, directed by John Ford, starring Charles Winninger
T
Take Me to Town, directed by Douglas Sirk, starring Ann Sheridan and Sterling Hayden
Take the High Ground!, starring Richard Widmark and Karl Malden
Thérèse Raquin, directed by Marcel Carné, starring Simone Signoret – (France)
Three Perfect Wives (Las Tres perfectas casadas), starring Arturo de Córdova – (Mexico)
Thunder Over the Plains, starring Randolph Scott
Titanic, starring Barbara Stanwyck, Clifton Webb, Thelma Ritter, Brian Aherne, Robert Wagner
The Titfield Thunderbolt, directed by Charles Crichton, starring Stanley Holloway – (GB)
Tokyo Story (Tōkyō Monogatari), directed by Yasujirō Ozu – (Japan)
Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom
Torch Song, starring Joan Crawford
Treasure of the Golden Condor, directed by Delmer Daves, starring Cornel Wilde
Tropic Zone, starring Ronald Reagan
Trouble Along the Way, starring John Wayne
Trouble in Store, starring Norman Wisdom – (GB)
Tumbleweed, starring Audie Murphy
Twice Upon a Time, directed by Emeric Pressburger – (GB)
U
Ugetsu Monogatari, directed by Kenji Mizoguchi – (Japan)
V
The Vanquished (I Vinti), directed by Michelangelo Antonioni – (Italy)
I Vitelloni, directed by Federico Fellini – (France/Italy)
W
The Wages of Fear (Le Salaire de la Peur), directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot, starring Yves Montand – winner of Golden Bear and Palme d'Or awards – (France)
Walking My Baby Back Home, starring Janet Leigh and Donald O'Connor
War Arrow, starring Maureen O'Hara and Jeff Chandler
The War of the Worlds, starring Gene Barry
White Lightning, starring Stanley Clements and Steve Brodie
White Mane (Crin Blanc, Cheval Sauvage) – (France)
White Witch Doctor, starring Robert Mitchum and Susan Hayward
The Wild One, starring Marlon Brando
Y
Young Bess, starring Jean Simmons, Deborah Kerr, Charles Laughton
Serials
Canadian Mounties vs Atomic Invaders, starring Bill Henry
The Great Adventures of Captain Kidd, starring Richard Crane
Jungle Drums of Africa, starring Clayton Moore and Phyllis Coates
The Lost Planet, starring Judd Holdren
Short film series
Mickey Mouse (1928)-(1953)
Looney Tunes (1930–1969)
Terrytoons (1930–1964)
Merrie Melodies (1931–1969)
Popeye (1933–1957)
Donald Duck (1934)-(1956)
The Three Stooges (1934–1959)
Goofy (1939)-(1953)
Tom and Jerry (1940–1958)
Bugs Bunny (1940)-(1962)
Chip and Dale (1943–1956)
Droopy (1943–1958)
Sylvester the Cat (1944–1966)
Yosemite Sam (1945–1963)
Speedy Gonzales (1953–1968)
Births
January 7: John Dugan (actor), American actor
January 8:
Damián Alcázar, Mexican actor
Tonita Castro, Mexican-born American actress (died 2016)
January 11: John Sessions, British actor and comedian (died 2020)
January 27: Richard Bremmer, English actor
January 28: Susan Buckner, American former actress
January 30: Steven Zaillian, director
February 8: Mary Steenburgen, American actress
February 9: Vito Antuofermo, Italian-American actor
February 11: Philip Anglim, actor
February 19: Massimo Troisi, actor (died 1994)
February 21: Christine Ebersole, American actress and singer
March 2: Ezra Swerdlow, film producer (died 2018)
March 4:
Scott Hicks, director
Agustí Villaronga, Spanish director
March 15: Frances Conroy, American actress
March 16: Isabelle Huppert, French actress
March 24: Louie Anderson, American stand-up comedian and actor (died 2022)
April 6: Patrick Doyle, Scottish film composer
April 13: Harry Waters Jr., American actor and singer
April 16:
Jay O. Sanders, actor
Marshall Teague (actor), American actor
April 18: Rick Moranis, Canadian actor & comedian
April 23: James Russo, American actor
May 9: Amy Hill, American stand-up comedian, actress and voice actress
May 16: Pierce Brosnan, Irish actor
May 21: Nora Aunor, Filipino actress
May 24: Alfred Molina, English actor
May 30: Colm Meaney, Irish actor
June 5: Kathleen Kennedy (producer), American producer
June 7: Colleen Camp, American character actress and producer
June 12: David Thornton (actor), American actor
June 13: Tim Allen, American actor
June 15: Renée Victor, American actress
June 19: Ken Davitian, American character actor and comedian
June 21: Michael Bowen (actor), American actor
June 26:
Robert Davi, American actor, singer, writer and director
Peng Xiaolian, director (died 2019)
July 1: David Gulpilil, Indigenous-Australian actor (died 2021)
July 5: Harish Patel, Indian actor
July 11: Mindy Sterling, actress
July 13: Gil Birmingham, American actor
July 20: Lee Garlington, American actress
August 7: Lesley Nicol (actress), English actress
August 9: Alf Humphreys, Canadian actor (died 2018)
August 11: Hulk Hogan, wrestler
August 12: Selina Cadell, English actress
August 13: Victor Colicchio, American actor, screenwriter, musician and songwriter
August 14: James Horner, composer (died 2015)
August 18: Sergio Castellitto, Italian actor, director and screenwriter
August 27: Peter Stormare, Swedish actor
August 28: Dee Dee Rescher, American actress
August 30: Robin Harris, American comedian and actor (died 1990)
September 6: Anne Lockhart (actress), American actress
September 10: Amy Irving, actress
September 16: Kurt Fuller, American character actor
September 18: Anna Thomson, American actress
October 4:
Christopher Fairbank, English actor
Tchéky Karyo, French actor
October 9: Tony Shalhoub, actor
October 11:
David Morse, American actor, singer, director and writer
Bill Randolph, American actor
October 12: David Threlfall, English actor and director
October 15: Larry Miller, American comedian, actor, news podcaster and columnist
October 20: Bill Nunn, American actor (died 2016)
October 26: Maureen Teefy, actress
October 27: Peter Firth, English actor
October 30: Charles Martin Smith, American actor, writer and director
October 31: Michael J. Anderson, actor
November 3: Kate Capshaw, American actress
November 6: Ron Underwood, director
November 13: Tom Villard, American actor (died 1993)
November 20: Bembol Roco, Filipino actor
November 24: Glenn Withrow, American actor, director, producer and writer
November 27: Curtis Armstrong, American actor and singer
November 28: Pamela Hayden, American actress and voice actress
December 6
Gina Hecht, American actress
Tom Hulce, American actor
December 8
Kim Basinger, American actress
Sam Kinison, stand-up comedian (died 1992)
December 9: John Malkovich, American actor
December 11: Richard Carter, Australian actor and voice-over artist (died 2019)
December 14: Vijay Amritraj, Indian sports commentator and actor
December 17: Bill Pullman, actor
December 18: Melanie Kinnaman, American dancer and actress
December 22: Gregor Fisher, Scottish comedian and actor
December 23: John Callahan, actor (died 2020)
December 24: Timothy Carhart, American actor
December 29: Charlayne Woodard, American playwright and actress
December 31: James Remar, actor
Deaths
January 19: Arthur Hoyt, 78, American actor, Her Private Affair, Goldie Gets Along
February 2: Alan Curtis, 43, American actor, High Sierra, Buck Privates
February 27: Jessie Coles Grayson, 66, African-American contralto and actress, Cass Timberlane
March 5: Herman J. Mankiewicz, 55, American screenwriter, Citizen Kane, The Pride of the Yankees, Dinner at Eight, Man of the World
March 19: Irene Bordoni, 68, Corsican-American actress and singer, Paris, Louisiana Purchase
April 26: Rian James, 53, American screenwriter, 42nd Street, The Housekeeper's Daughter
May 30: Dooley Wilson, 67, American actor, Casablanca, Stormy Weather
June 5: Roland Young, 65, British actor, Topper, Ruggles of Red Gap, The Philadelphia Story, And Then There Were None
June 27: Chris-Pin Martin, 59, American actor, The Gay Caballero, Ride on Vaquero, Robin Hood of Monterey, King of the Bandits
June 30: Vsevolod Pudovkin, Soviet film director (born 1893)
July 3: Irving Reis, 47, American director, The Big Street, All My Sons
August 6
John Reinhardt, Austrian director, Sofia, Chicago Calling
Houseley Stevenson, American actor, Dark Passage, Kidnapped
August 9: Henri Étiévant, French actor, director (born 1870)
September 12: Lewis Stone, American actor (born 1879), Andy Hardy film series, The Prisoner of Zenda, Grand Hotel
October 6: Porter Hall, American actor (born 1888), Double Indemnity, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Going My Way, Miracle on 34th Street
October 8: Nigel Bruce, British actor (born 1895), Sherlock Holmes film series, Suspicion, Rebecca, The Rains Came, Treasure Island
October 13: Millard Mitchell, American character actor (born 1903), Singin' in the Rain, Winchester '73, The Gunfighter, The Naked Spur, Twelve O'Clock High
November 29: Sam De Grasse, Canadian actor (born 1875), Robin Hood, Blind Husbands
December 29: Violet MacMillan, American actress (born 1887), The Magic Cloak of Oz, Violet's Dreams
Debuts
Carroll Baker – Easy to Love
Harry Belafonte – Bright Road
Stanley Kubrick (director) – Fear and Desire
Steve McQueen – Girl on the Run
Geraldine Page – Hondo
Anthony Perkins – The Actress
Harry Shearer – Abbott and Costello Go to Mars
Maureen Stapleton – Main Street to Broadway
Notes
Film by year | wiki |
Window of Time is a children's book by Karen Weinberg and illustrated by Annelle Woggon Ratcliffe. It was published in 1991 by White Maine Publishing Company. Targeted to 8 to 12 year olds, the story follows a Westminster, Maryland-based boy living in 1988 who accidentally time traveled to the Battle of Gettysburg. The cover was designed by Harry A. West.
References
1991 children's books
Novels set during the American Civil War
American children's novels
1991 American novels | wiki |
A glove is a garment covering the hand, with separate sheaths or openings for each finger and the thumb. Gloves extending past the wrist are called gauntlets. Gloves protect and comfort hands against cold or heat, damage by friction, abrasion or chemicals, and disease; or in turn to provide a guard for what a bare hand should not touch.
Gloves are made of materials including cloth, knitted or felted wool, leather, rubber, latex, neoprene, silk, and (in mail) metal. Gloves of kevlar protect the wearer from cuts. Gloves and gauntlets are integral components of pressure suits and spacesuits.
Latex, nitrile rubber or vinyl disposable gloves are often worn by health care professionals as hygiene and contamination protection measures. Police officers often wear them to work in crime scenes to prevent destroying evidence in the scene. Many criminals wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints.
If there is an opening but no (or a short) covering sheath for each finger they are called fingerless gloves. Fingerless gloves are useful where dexterity is required that gloves would restrict. Cigarette smokers and church organists sometimes use fingerless gloves. Cycling gloves for road racing or touring are usually fingerless. Guitar players may also use fingerless gloves in circumstances where it is too cold to play with an uncovered hand.
A hybrid of glove and mitten contains open-ended sheaths for the four fingers (as in a fingerless glove, but not the thumb) and an additional compartment encapsulating the four fingers. This compartment can be lifted off the fingers and folded back to allow the individual fingers ease of movement and access while the hand remains covered. The usual design is for the mitten cavity to be stitched onto the back of the fingerless glove only, allowing it to be flipped over (normally held back by Velcro or a button) to transform the garment from a mitten to a glove. These hybrids are called convertible mittens or "glittens".
History
Gloves appear to be of great antiquity. They are depicted in an ancient Egyptian tomb dating to the 5th dynasty. According to some translations of Homer's The Odyssey, Laërtes is described as wearing gloves while walking in his garden so as to avoid the brambles. (Other translations, however, insist that Laertes pulled his long sleeves over his hands.) Herodotus, in The History of Herodotus (440 BC), tells how Leotychides was incriminated by a glove (gauntlet) full of silver that he received as a bribe. There are occasional references to the use of gloves among the Romans as well. Pliny the Younger (c. 100), his uncle's shorthand writer wore gloves in winter so as not to impede the elder Pliny's work.
A gauntlet, which could be a glove made of leather or some kind of metal armour, was a strategic part of a soldier's defense throughout the Middle Ages, but the advent of firearms made hand-to-hand combat rare. As a result, the need for gauntlets disappeared.
During the 13th century, gloves began to be worn by ladies as a fashion ornament. They were made of linen and silk, and sometimes reached to the elbow. Such worldly accoutrements were not for holy women, according to the early 13th century Ancrene Wisse, written for their guidance. Sumptuary laws were promulgated to restrain this vanity: against samite gloves in Bologna, 1294, against perfumed gloves in Rome, 1560.
A Paris corporation or guild of glovers (gantiers) existed from the thirteenth century. They made them in skin or in fur.
By 1440, in England glovers had become members of the Dubbers or Bookbinders Guild until they formed their own guild during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Glovers' Company was incorporated in 1613.
It was not until the 16th century that gloves reached their greatest elaboration, however, when Queen Elizabeth I set the fashion for wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled, and for putting them on and taking them off during audiences to draw attention to her beautiful hands. The 1592 "Ditchley" portrait of her features her holding leather gloves in her left hand. In Paris, the gantiers became gantiers parfumeurs, for the scented oils, musk, ambergris and civet, that perfumed leather gloves, but their trade, which was an introduction at the court of Catherine de Medici, was not specifically recognised until 1656, in a royal brevet. Makers of knitted gloves, which did not retain perfume and had less social cachet, were organised in a separate guild, of bonnetiers who might knit silk as well as wool. Such workers were already organised in the fourteenth century. Knitted gloves were a refined handiwork that required five years of apprenticeship; defective work was subject to confiscation and burning. In the 17th century, gloves made of soft chicken skin became fashionable. The craze for gloves called "limericks" took hold. This particular fad was the product of a manufacturer in Limerick, Ireland, who fashioned the gloves from the skin of unborn calves.
Embroidered and jeweled gloves formed part of the insignia of emperors and kings. Thus Matthew of Paris, in recording the burial of Henry II of England in 1189, mentions that he was buried in his coronation robes with a golden crown on his head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were found on the hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797 and on those of King Edward I when his tomb was opened in 1774.
Pontifical gloves are liturgical ornaments used primarily by the pope, the cardinals, and bishops. They may be worn only at the celebration of mass. The liturgical use of gloves has not been traced beyond the beginning of the 10th century, and their introduction may have been due to a simple desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but others suggest that they were adopted as part of the increasing pomp with which the Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the Frankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century.
When short sleeves came into fashion in the 1700s, women began to wear long gloves, reaching halfway up the forearm. By the 1870s, buttoned kid, silk, or velvet gloves were worn with evening or dinner dress, and long suede gloves were worn during the day and when having tea.
Mainly during the 19th century, the generic or trade name "Berlin gloves" was used for washable, thin white cotton gloves often worn by servants, such as butlers or waiters, and the less well-off in civilian life. The term was also used for white cotton gloves worn with the dress uniform by the American military in the First World War.
In 1905, The Law Times made one of the first references to the use of gloves by criminals to hide fingerprints, stating: For the future... when the burglar goes a-burgling, a pair of gloves will form a necessary part of his outfit.
Early Formula One race cars used steering wheels taken directly from road cars. They were normally made from wood, necessitating the use of driving gloves.
Disposable latex gloves were developed by the Australian company Ansell.
Types of glove
Commercial and industrial
Aircrew gloves: while they enable the wearer to touch a hot surface while retreating, they are insufficient for burn protection
Anti-vibration gloves
Barbed wire handler's gloves
Chainmail gloves are used by butchers, woodcutters and police
Chainsaw safety gloves
Cotton knitted gloves are used in automotive workshops, building maintenance, logistic material movement
Temperature protective gloves
Cut-resistant gloves
Fireman's gauntlets
Food service gloves
Gardening gloves
Impact protection gloves
Medical gloves
Military gloves
Rubber gloves
Sandblasting gloves
Welder's gloves
Sport and recreational
American football various position gloves
Archer's glove
Baseball glove or catcher's mitt: in baseball, the players in the field wear gloves to help them catch the ball and prevent injury to their hands.
Billiards glove
Boxing gloves: a specialized padded mitten
Cricket gloves
The batsmen wear gloves with heavy padding on the back, to protect the fingers in case of being struck with the ball.
The wicket keeper wears large webbed gloves.
Cycling gloves
Driving gloves intended to improve the grip on the steering wheel. Driving gloves have external seams, open knuckles, open backs, ventilation holes, short cuffs, and wrist snaps. The most luxurious are made from Peccary gloving leather.
Eton Fives glove
Falconry glove
Fencing glove
Football – goalkeeper glove
Gardening glove
Golf glove
Ice hockey glove
Gym gloves
Riding gloves
Racquetball gloves
Lacrosse gloves
Kendo kote
Motorcycling gloves
Oven gloves – or oven mitts, used when cooking
Paintball glove
Racing drivers gloves with long cuffs, intended for protection against heat and flame for drivers in automobile competitions.
Scuba diving gloves:
Cotton gloves; good abrasion, but no thermal protection
Dry gloves; made of rubber with a latex wrist seal to prevent water entry
Wet gloves; made of neoprene and allowing restricted water entry
Shooting glove
Biathlon glove – an articulated padded combination of a skiing glove and a shooting glove, offers cold temperature protection outside in winter, as well as padding to support the .22lr ammunition single-action / Fortner-action biathlon rifle, and is suitable for using with poles in cross country skiing.
Pistol glove – used in competition pistol shooting to improve performance and cushion the shooting hand.
Target rifle glove – open-fingered heavily padded one-hand (non-shooting) glove with non-skid surfaces, used to support the rifle in prone shooting position. Also may be used in kneeling, sitting and standing positions. The glove cushions and distributes the weight of the rifle, which varies from to , depending on type of rifle stock used.
Skiing gloves are padded and reinforced to protect from the cold, and from injury by skis.
Touchscreen gloves – made with conductive material to enable the wearer's natural electric capacitance to interact with capacitive touchscreen devices without the need to remove one's gloves
Finger tip conductivity; where conductive yarns or a conductive patch is found only on the tips of the fingers (typically the index finger and thumb) thus allowing for basic touch response
Full hand conductivity; where the entire glove is made from conductive materials allowing for robust tactile touch and dexterity good for accurate typing and multi-touch response
Underwater hockey gloves – with protective padding, usually of silicone rubber or latex, across the back of the fingers and knuckles to protect from impact with the puck; usually only one, either left- or right-hand, is worn depending on which is the playing hand.
Washing mitt or Washing glove: a tool for washing the body (one's own, or of a child, a patient, a lover).
Webbed gloves – a swim training device or swimming aid.
Weightlifting gloves
Wired glove
Power Glove – an alternate controller for use with the Nintendo Entertainment System
Wheelchair gloves – for users of manual wheelchairs
Lady's Fashion
Western lady's gloves for formal and semi-formal wear come in three lengths: wrist ("matinee"), elbow, and opera or full-length (over the elbow, reaching to the biceps). Satin and stretch satin are popular and mass-produced. Some women wear gloves as part of "dressy" outfits, such as for church and weddings. Long white gloves are common accessories for teenage girls attending formal events such as prom, quinceañera, cotillion, or formal ceremonies at church, such as confirmation.
Others
In Japan, white gloves are worn frequently. Work-oriented white gloves are worn for activities such as gardening and cleanup; "dress" white gloves are worn by professionals who want a clean public appearance, such as taxi drivers, police, politicians and elevator operators. However white gloves are not recommended for touching old books and similar antiquities.
Fingerless gloves
Fingerless gloves or "glovelettes" are garments worn on the hands which resemble regular gloves in most ways, except that the finger columns are half-length and opened, allowing the top-half of the wearer's fingers to be shown.
Fingerless gloves are often padded in the palm area, to provide protection to the hand, and the exposed fingers do not interfere with sensation or gripping. In contrast to traditional full gloves, often worn for warmth, fingerless gloves will often have a ventilated back to allow the hands to cool; this is commonly seen in weightlifting gloves.
Fingerless gloves are worn by bicyclists and motorcyclists to better grip the handlebars, as well as by skateboarders and rollerbladers, to protect the palms of the hands and add grip in the event of a fall. Some anglers, particularly fly fishermen, favour fingerless gloves to allow manipulation of line and tackle in cooler conditions. Fingerless gloves are common among marching band members, particularly those who play the clarinet or open-hole flute, due to the difficulty of covering small holes while wearing gloves. The lack of fabric on the fingertips allows for better use of touchscreens, as on smartphones and tablet computers. Professional MMA fighters are required to wear fingerless gloves in fights.
Leather gloves
Common uses
Leather gloves have been worn by people for thousands of years. The unique properties of leather allow for both a comfortable fit and useful grip for the wearer. The grain present on the leather and the pores present in the leather gives the gloves the unique ability to assist the wearer as they grip an object. As soft as a leather glove may be, its pores and grain provide a level of friction when "gripped" against an item or surface.
A common use for leather gloves is sporting events. In baseball, a baseball glove is an oversized leather glove with a web used for fielding the ball. Leather gloves are also used in handball, cycling, and American football.
Early Formula One racing drivers used steering wheels taken directly from road cars. They were normally made from wood, necessitating the use of driving gloves.
Leather gloves provide protection from occupational hazards. For example, beekeepers use leather gloves to avoid being stung by bees. Construction workers might use leather gloves for added grip and for protecting their hands. Welders use gloves too for protection against electrical shocks, extreme heat, ultraviolet and infrared.
Criminals have been known to wear leather gloves during the commission of crimes. Gloves are worn by criminals because the tactile properties of the leather allow for good grip and dexterity. These properties are the result of a grain present on the surface of the leather. The grain makes the surface of the leather unique to each glove. Investigators are able to dust for the glove prints left behind from the leather the same way in which they dust for fingerprints.
Leather dress gloves
Main types of gloving leather
Leather is a natural product with special characteristics that make it comfortable to wear, and give it great strength and flexibility. Because it is a natural product, with its own unique variations, every piece has its own individual characteristics. As they are worn and used, leather gloves (especially if they fit snugly) will conform to the wearer's hand. As this occurs the leather of the glove will become more malleable, and thus softer and more supple. This process is known as 'breaking-in' the glove. Overtime wear spots may appear on certain parts of the palm and fingertips, due to the constant use of those areas of the glove. Creases and wrinkles will appear on the palm side of the leather glove and will generally correspond to the locations of the hinge joints of the wearer's hands, including the interphalangeal articulations of hand, metacarpophalangeal joints, intercarpal articulations, and wrists.
Because the leather is natural as well as delicate, the wearer must take precaution as to not damage them. The constant handling of damp or wet surfaces will discolor lighter-colored gloves and stiffen the leather of any glove. The wearer will often unknowingly damage or stain their gloves while doing such tasks as twisting a wet door knob or wiping a running nose with a gloved hand.
Leather dress gloves that are worn very tight and possess very short, elasticized wrists, are most often referred to as cop gloves or law enforcement gloves because of their prevalence as issued duty gloves for many law enforcement agencies. It is common attire in leather subculture and BDSM communities.
Lambskin is widely used for fashion gloves and it is casual and country gloves. It is the most used material for gloves made in Europe in the known as French style.
Cowhide is often used for lower-priced gloves. This leather is generally considered too thick and bulky for the majority of glove styles, particularly finer dress gloves. It is, however, used for some casual styles of glove.
Deerskin has the benefit of great strength and elasticity, but has a more rugged appearance, with more grain on the surface, than "hairsheep". It is very hard-wearing and heavier in weight.
Goatskin is occasionally used for gloves. It is hard-wearing but coarser than other leathers and is normally used for cheaper gloves.
Hairsheep originates from sheep that grow hair, not wool. Hairsheep leather is finer and less bulky than other leathers. Its major benefits are softness of touch, suppleness, strength, and lasting comfort. It is very durable and is particularly suited for the manufacture of dress gloves.
Peccary is the world's rarest and most luxurious gloving leather. Peccary leather is very soft, difficult to sew, and hard-wearing.
Sheepskin, also called shearling, is widely used for casual and country gloves. It is very warm in cold weather, and as a leather reversed, it has still attached wool on the inside.
Slink lamb is used only in the most expensive lambskin gloves. Some of the finest lambskin comes from New Zealand.
Leather glove linings
Cashmere is warm, light in weight, and very comfortable to wear. Cashmere yarn comes from the hair of mountain goats, whose fleece allows them to survive the extreme weather conditions they are exposed to.
Silk is warm in winter and cool in summer and is used both in men's and women's gloves, but is more popular in women's.
Wool is well known for its natural warmth and comfort, as well as having a natural elasticity.
Other linings, which include wool mixtures and acrylics.
Component parts
The component parts that may be found in a leather dress glove are one pair of tranks, one pair of thumbs, four whole fourchettes, four half fourchettes, two gussets, and six quirks. Depending on the style of the glove there may also be roller pieces, straps, rollers, eyelets, studs, sockets and domes. Finally, linings will themselves consist of tranks, thumbs and fourchettes.
Stitching
The most popular types of leather glove sewing stitches used today are:
Hand stitched, which is most popular in men's gloves and some women's styles. Hand stitching is a very time-consuming and skilled process.
Inseam, which is mainly used on women's gloves, but occasionally on men's dress gloves.
Some glove terms
Button length is the measurement in inches that is used to determine the length/measurement from the base of the glove thumb to the cuff of the glove.
Fourchettes are the inside panels on the fingers of some glove styles.
Perforations are small holes that are punched in the leather. They are often added for better ventilation, grip, or aesthetics and can be as fine as a pin hole.
Points are the three, or sometimes single, line of decorative stitching on the back of the glove.
Quirks are found on only the most expensive hand sewn gloves. They are small diamond shaped pieces of leather sewn at the base of the fingers, where they are attached to the hand of the glove to improve the fit.
A strap and roller is used to adjust the closeness of the fit around the wrist.
A Vent is the 'V' shaped cut out of the glove, sometimes at the back, but more often on the palm, to give the glove an easier fit around the wrist.
Driving gloves
Driving gloves are designed for holding a steering wheel and transmitting the feeling of the road to the driver. They provide a good feel and protect the hands. They are designed to be worn tight and to not interfere with hand movements. The increased grip allows for more control and increased safety at speed.
True driver's gloves offer tactile advantages to drivers frequently handling a car near the limits of adhesion. Made of soft leather, drivers gloves are unlined with external seams.
Safety standards
Several European standards relate to gloves. These include:
EN 388: Protective against mechanical risks (abrasion / cut / tear / puncture)
EN 374: Protective against chemical and microorganisms
EN 420: General requirements for gloves includes sizing and a number of health and safety aspects including latex protein and chromium levels.
EN 60903: Electric shock
EN 407: Heat resistance
EN 511: Cold resistance
EN 1149: Antistatic
EN 10819: Anti Vibration gloves (TRM – Transmission Ratio Medium frequency range, TRH – Transmission Ratio High frequency range)
These exist to fulfill personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements.
Noted gloves
Tommie Smith and John Carlos held up their leather glove-clad fists at the awards ceremony of the 1968 Summer Olympics. Their actions were intended to symbolize Black Power.
Michael Jackson often wore a single jeweled glove on his right hand, which helped develop his signature look. It has been the object of several auctions.
A dark leather glove became an important piece of evidence in the O. J. Simpson murder case. Simpson's defense counsel famously quipped "if it doesn't fit, you must acquit". The glove presented as evidence shrank from having been soaked in blood, according to some analysis.
See also
Episcopal gloves (Catholic Church costumes)
Glove sizes
Golden Gloves
Singer with a Glove, 1878 Edgar Degas pastel
References
External links
"Fitting The Glove To The Job", September 1949, Popular Science
Gallery of Latvian souvenir mittens for 2006 NATO summit
O’Reilly, Jonquil (13 November 2015): "Gloves: Useful Symbols", Sotheby's article.
Winter clothes
Protective gear
Protestant vestments | wiki |
A phonograph record (also known as a gramophone record, especially in British English), a vinyl record, or simply a record is an analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. At first, the discs were commonly made from shellac, with earlier records having a fine abrasive filler mixed in. Starting in the 1940s polyvinyl chloride became common, hence the common use of the word "vinyl".
The phonograph record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century. It had co-existed with the phonograph cylinder from the late 1880s and had effectively superseded it by around 1912. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as the compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the record left the mainstream in 1991. Since the 1990s, records continue to be manufactured and sold on a smaller scale, and during the 1990s and early 2000s were commonly used by disc jockeys (DJs), especially in dance music genres. They were also listened to by a growing number of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence as a format for rock music in the early 21st century—9.2 million records were sold in the US in 2014, a 260% increase since 2009. Likewise, sales in the UK increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014.
, 48 record pressing facilities exist worldwide, 18 in the US and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of the record has led to the investment in new and modern record-pressing machines. Only two producers of lacquers (acetate discs or master discs) remain: Apollo Masters in California, and MDC in Japan. On February 6, 2020, a fire destroyed the Apollo Masters plant. According to the Apollo Masters website, their future is still uncertain.
Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches (12-inch, 10-inch, 7-inch) (although they were designed in millimeters), the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) at which they are played (, , , 45, 78), and their time capacity, determined by their diameter and speed (LP [long playing], 12-inch disc, rpm; SP [single], 10-inch disc, 78 rpm, or 7-inch disc, 45 rpm; EP [extended play], 12-inch disc or 7-inch disc, or 45 rpm); their reproductive quality, or level of fidelity (high-fidelity, orthophonic, full-range, etc.); and the number of audio channels (mono, stereo, quad, etc.).
The phrase broken record refers to a malfunction when the needle skips/jumps back to the previous groove and plays the same section over and over again indefinitely.
History
Predecessors
The phonautograph was invented on 25 March 1857 by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville, an editor and typographer of manuscripts at a scientific publishing house in Paris. One day while editing Professor Longet's Traité de Physiologie, he happened upon that customer’s engraved illustration of the anatomy of the human ear, and conceived of "the imprudent idea of photographing the word." In 1853 or 1854 (Scott cited both years) he began working on "" ("the problem of speech writing itself"), aiming to build a device that could replicate the function of the human ear.
Scott coated a plate of glass with a thin layer of lampblack. He then took an acoustic trumpet, and at its tapered end affixed a thin membrane that served as the analog to the eardrum. At the center of that membrane, he attached a rigid boar's bristle approximately a centimeter long, placed so that it just grazed the lampblack. As the glass plate was slid horizontally in a well formed groove at a speed of one meter per second, a person would speak into the trumpet, causing the membrane to vibrate and the stylus to trace figures that were scratched into the lampblack. On 25 March 1857, Scott received the French patent #17,897/31,470 for his device, which he called a phonautograph. The earliest known surviving recorded sound of a human voice was conducted on 9 April 1860 when Scott recorded someone singing the song "Au Clair de la Lune" ("By the Light of the Moon") on the device. However, the device was not designed to play back sounds, as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings, which he called phonautograms. By late 1857, with support from the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, Scott’s phonautograph was recording sounds with sufficient precision to be adopted by the scientific community, paving the way for the nascent science of acoustics.
The device’s true significance in the history of recorded sound was not fully realized prior to March 2008, when it was discovered and resurrected in a Paris patent office by First Sounds, an informal collaborative of American audio historians, recording engineers, and sound archivists founded to make the earliest sound recordings available to the public. The phonautograms were then digitally converted by scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, who were able to play back the recorded sounds, something Scott had never conceived of. Prior to this point, the earliest known record of a human voice was thought to be an 1877 phonograph recording by Thomas Edison. The phonautograph would play a role in the development of the gramophone, whose inventor, Emile Berliner, worked with the phonautograph in the course of developing his own device.
Edison invented the phonograph in 1877. Unlike the phonautograph, Edison's phonograph could both record and reproduce sound. Edison first tried recording sound on a wax-impregnated paper tape, with the idea of creating a "telephone repeater" analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. Although the visible results made him confident that sound could be physically recorded and reproduced, his notes do not indicate that he actually reproduced sound before his first experiment in which he used tinfoil as a recording medium several months later. The tinfoil was wrapped around a grooved metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately. The Scientific American article that introduced the tinfoil phonograph to the public mentioned Marey, Rosapelly and Barlow, as well as Scott as creators of devices for recording but, importantly, not reproducing sound.
For years, Edison refused to acknowledge the steady rise in preference for disc records. By 1910, with sales plummeting, Edison finally realized that demand for cylinder records was waning and adopted the disc with the introduction of the Edison Disc Phonograph.
Emile Berliner improved the quality of recordings while his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson, who owned a machine shop in Camden, New Jersey, eventually improved the mechanism of the gramophone with a spring motor and a speed regulating governor, resulting in a sound quality equal to Edison's cylinders. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons in the United States, Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized in 1901 to form the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden, New Jersey, whose products would come to dominate the market for several decades.
Berliner's Montreal factory, which became the Canadian branch of RCA Victor, still exists. There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner (Musée des ondes Emile Berliner).
78 rpm disc developments
Early speeds
Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130 rpm, and a variety of sizes. As early as 1894, Emile Berliner's United States Gramophone Company was selling single-sided 7-inch discs with an advertised standard speed of "about 70 rpm".
One standard audio recording handbook describes speed regulators, or governors, as being part of a wave of improvement introduced rapidly after 1897. A picture of a hand-cranked 1898 Berliner Gramophone shows a governor, and says that spring drives had replaced hand drives. It notes that:
The speed regulator was furnished with an indicator that showed the speed when the machine was running so that the records, on reproduction, could be revolved at exactly the same speed...The literature does not disclose why 78 rpm was chosen for the phonograph industry, apparently this just happened to be the speed created by one of the early machines and, for no other reason continued to be used.
In 1912, the Gramophone Company set 78 rpm as their recording standard, based on the average of recordings they had been releasing at the time, and started selling players whose governors had a nominal speed of 78 rpm. By 1925, 78 rpm was becoming standardized across the industry. However, the exact speed differed between places with alternating current electricity supply at 60 hertz (cycles per second, Hz) and those at 50 Hz. Where the mains supply was 60 Hz, the actual speed was 78.26 rpm: that of a 60 Hz stroboscope illuminating 92-bar calibration markings. Where it was 50 Hz, it was 77.92 rpm: that of a 50 Hz stroboscope illuminating 77-bar calibration markings.
Acoustic recording
Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound being collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was very irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer almost had to put his or her face in the recording horn. A way of reducing resonance was to wrap the recording horn with tape.
Even drums, if planned and placed properly, could be effectively recorded and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn. Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn could not be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad."
Electrical recording
During the first half of the 1920s, engineers at Western Electric, as well as independent inventors such as Orlando Marsh, developed technology for capturing sound with a microphone, amplifying it with vacuum tubes, then using the amplified signal to drive an electromechanical recording head. Western Electric's innovations resulted in a broader and smoother frequency response, which produced a dramatically fuller, clearer and more natural-sounding recording. Soft or distant sounds that were previously impossible to record could now be captured. Volume was now limited only by the groove spacing on the record and the amplification of the playback device. Victor and Columbia licensed the new electrical system from Western Electric and recorded the first electrical discs during the Spring of 1925. The first electrically recorded Victor Red Seal record was Chopin's "Impromptus" and Schubert's "Litanei" performed by pianist Alfred Cortot at Victor's studios in Camden, New Jersey.
A 1926 Wanamaker's ad in The New York Times offers records "by the latest Victor process of electrical recording". It was recognized as a breakthrough; in 1930, a Times music critic stated:
... the time has come for serious musical criticism to take account of performances of great music reproduced by means of the records. To claim that the records have succeeded in exact and complete reproduction of all details of symphonic or operatic performances ... would be extravagant ... [but] the article of today is so far in advance of the old machines as hardly to admit classification under the same name. Electrical recording and reproduction have combined to retain vitality and color in recitals by proxy.
The Orthophonic Victrola had an interior folded exponential horn, a sophisticated design informed by impedance-matching and transmission-line theory, and designed to provide a relatively flat frequency response. Victor's first public demonstration of the Orthophonic Victrola on October 6, 1925 at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel was front-page news in The New York Times, which reported:
The audience broke into applause ... John Philip Sousa [said]: '[Gentlemen], that is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine' ... The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics. It is not the result of innumerable experiments, but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory ... The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5,000 [cycles per second], or five and a half octaves ... The 'phonograph tone' is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process.
Sales of records plummeted precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the entire record industry in America nearly foundered. In 1932, RCA Victor introduced a basic, inexpensive turntable called the Duo Jr., which was designed to be connected to their radio receivers. According to Edward Wallerstein (the general manager of the RCA Victor Division), this device was "instrumental in revitalizing the industry".
78 rpm materials
The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78 rpm era, which lasted until 1948 in industrialized nations.
During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78 rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas. After the war, the use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering "De Luxe" transparent red vinyl pressings of some Red Seal classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies used vinyl formulations trademarked as Metrolite, Merco Plastic, and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.
78 rpm recording time
The playing time of a phonograph record is directly proportional to the available groove length divided by the turntable speed. Total groove length in turn depends on how closely the grooves are spaced, in addition to the record diameter. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as cylinder records. The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes. Because the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side, most popular recordings were limited to that duration. For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.
In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch discs. Eddie Condon explained: "Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development." The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of their capability: "Carnegie Drag" was 3m 15s; "Carnegie Jump", 2m 41s. But at the second session, on April 30, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: "Embraceable You" was 4m 05s; "Serenade to a Shylock", 4m 32s. Another way to overcome the time limitation was to issue a selection extending to both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded "Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean", written by themselves or, allegedly, by Bryan Foy, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Victor. Longer musical pieces were released as a set of records. In 1903 HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs. In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948. In popular music, the time limit of minutes on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on May 28, 1946. Because it ran 7m 57s, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record.
In the 78 era, classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, about 4–5 minutes per side. For example, on June 10. 1924, four months after the 12 February premier of Rhapsody in Blue, George Gershwin recorded an abridged version of the seventeen-minute work with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. It was released on two sides of Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s.
Record albums
German record company Odeon pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on four double-sided discs in a specially designed package.
78 rpm releases in the microgroove era
In 1968, Reprise planned to release a series of 78 rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time, called the Reprise Speed Series. Only one disc actually saw release, Randy Newman's "I Think It's Going to Rain Today", a track from his self-titled debut album (with "The Beehive State" on the flipside). Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest in the concept.
In 1978, guitarist and vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78 rpm record featuring two songs ("Alabama Jubilee" and "Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone") from his Champagne Charlie album.
In the 1990s Rhino Records issued a series of boxed sets of 78 rpm reissues of early rock and roll hits, intended for owners of vintage jukeboxes. The records were made of vinyl, however, and some of the earlier vintage 78 rpm jukeboxes and record players (the ones that were pre-war) were designed with heavy tone arms to play the hard slate-impregnated shellac records of their time. These vinyl Rhino 78's were softer and would be destroyed by old juke boxes and old record players, but play very well on newer 78-capable turntables with modern lightweight tone arms and jewel needles.
As a special release for Record Store Day 2011, Capitol re-released The Beach Boys single "Good Vibrations" in the form of a 10-inch 78 rpm record (b/w "Heroes and Villains"). More recently, The Reverend Peyton's Big Damn Band has released their tribute to blues guitarist Charley Patton Peyton on Patton on both 12-inch LP and 10-inch 78 rpm. Both are accompanied with a link to a digital download of the music, acknowledging the probability that purchasers might be unable to play the vinyl recording.
New sizes and materials
In 1931, RCA Victor launched the first commercially available vinyl long-playing record, marketed as program-transcription discs. These revolutionary discs were designed for playback at rpm and pressed on a 30 cm diameter flexible plastic disc, with a duration of about ten minutes playing time per side. RCA Victor's early introduction of a long-play disc was a commercial failure for several reasons including the lack of affordable, consumer playback equipment and consumer rejection during the Great Depression.
Unwilling to accept and license Columbia's system, in February 1949, RCA Victor released the first 45 rpm single, 7 inches in diameter with a large center hole. The 45 rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked, much as a conventional changer handled 78s. The short playing time of a single 45 rpm side meant that long works, such as symphonies, had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP, but RCA Victor claimed that the new high-speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inaudible or inconsequential. Early 45 rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene. They had a playing time of eight minutes.
Speeds
Shellac era
At least one attempt to lengthen playing time was made in the early 1920s. World Records produced records that played at a constant linear velocity, controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on speed governor.
In the 1920s, 78.26 rpm was standardized when stroboscopic discs and turntable edge markings were introduced to standardize the speeds of recording lathes. At that speed, a strobe disc with 92 lines would "stand still" in 60 Hz light. In regions of the world that use 50 Hz current, the standard was 77.92 rpm (and a disk with 77 lines).
The older 78 rpm format continued to be mass-produced alongside the newer formats using new materials in decreasing numbers until the summer of 1958 in the U.S., and in a few countries, such as the Philippines and India (both countries issued recordings by the Beatles on 78s), into the late 1960s. For example, Columbia Records' last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78 rpm records was an album called Young at Heart, issued in November, 1954.
Microgroove and vinyl era
Columbia and RCA Victor each pursued their R&D secretly.
The Seeburg Corporation introduced the Seeburg Background Music System in 1959, using a rpm 9-inch record with 2-inch center hole. Each record held 40 minutes of music per side, recorded at 420 grooves per inch.
The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc, with a much larger center hole. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds" (see also Format war). In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA Victor gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950. The 45 rpm size was gaining in popularity, too, and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951. By 1954, 200 million 45s had been sold.
Eventually the 12-inch (300 mm) rpm LP prevailed as the dominant format for musical albums, and 10-inch LPs were no longer issued. The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP record was an album called Hall of Fame, CL 2600, issued on October 26, 1956, containing six songs, one each by Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Johnnie Ray, Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and Frankie Laine.
The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play (EP), which achieved up to 10–15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were cheaper to produce and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45 rpm players. LP albums could be purchased one EP at a time, with four items per EP, or in a boxed set with three EPs or twelve items. The large center hole on 45s allows easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U.S. as three- and four-speed record players replaced the individual 45 players. One indication of the decline of the 45 rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45 rpm EP records, called Frank Sinatra (Columbia B-2641) was issued on 7 December 1959.
From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the U.S. the common home record player or "stereo" (after the introduction of stereo recording) would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player (78, 45, , and sometimes rpm); with changer, a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing, a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adapter that fit over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.
RCA Victor 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a "spider". These inserts, commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and invented by Thomas Hutchison, were prevalent starting in the 1960s, selling in the tens of millions per year during the 45 rpm heyday. In countries outside the U.S., 45s often had the smaller album-sized holes, e.g., Australia and New Zealand, or as in the United Kingdom, especially before the 1970s, the disc had a small hole within a circular central section held only by three or four lands so that it could be easily punched out if desired (typically for use in jukeboxes).
Capacitance Electronic Discs were videodiscs invented by RCA, based on mechanically tracked ultra-microgrooves (9541 grooves/inch) on a 12-inch conductive vinyl disc. Only a small portion of the tracking stylus was electrically active; this sensing electrode detected the changing capacitance between it and microscopic peaks and valleys of the conductive disc surface, while the entire stylus rides over many crests at once.
High fidelity
The term "high fidelity" was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better-sounding products claimed as providing "perfect" sound reproduction. The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s. After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies, especially stereo recordings, which became widely available in 1958, gave a boost to the "hi-fi" classification of products, leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers, loudspeakers, phonographs, and tape players. High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi-fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings.
Stereophonic sound
In this system, each of two stereo channels is carried independently by a separate groove wall, each wall face moving at 45 degrees to the plane of the record surface (hence the system's name) in correspondence with the signal level of that channel. By convention, the inner wall carries the left-hand channel and the outer wall carries the right-hand channel. While the stylus only moves horizontally when reproducing a monophonic disk recording, on stereo records the stylus moves vertically as well as horizontally. During playback, the movement of a single stylus tracking the groove is sensed independently, e.g., by two coils, each mounted diagonally opposite the relevant groove wall.
In 1957 the first commercial stereo two-channel records were issued first by Audio Fidelity followed by a translucent blue vinyl on Bel Canto Records, the first of which was a multi-colored-vinyl sampler featuring A Stereo Tour of Los Angeles narrated by Jack Wagner on one side, and a collection of tracks from various Bel Canto albums on the back.
Noise reduction systems
A similar scheme aiming at the high-end audiophile market, and achieving a noise reduction of about 20 to 25 dB(A), was the Telefunken/Nakamichi High-Com II noise reduction system being adapted to vinyl in 1979. A decoder was commercially available but only one demo record is known to have been produced in this format.
Availability of encoded disks in any of these formats stopped in the mid-1980s.
Yet another noise reduction system for vinyl records was the UC compander system developed by (ZWT) of (RFT). The system deliberately reduced disk noise by 10 to 12 dB(A) only to remain virtually free of recognizable acoustical artifacts even when records were played back without an UC expander. In fact, the system was undocumentedly introduced into the market by several East-German record labels since 1983. Over 500 UC-encoded titles were produced without an expander becoming available to the public. The only UC expander was built into a turntable manufactured by .
Formats
Types of records
The usual diameters of the holes on an EP record are .
Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches, e.g. 7-inch records, which are generally 45 rpm records. LPs were 10-inch records at first, but soon the 12-inch size became by far the most common. Generally, 78s were 10-inch, but 12-inch and 7-inch and even smaller were made—the so-called "little wonders".
Standard formats
Notes:
Before the mid-1950s the rpm LP was most commonly found in a 10-inch (25 cm) format. The 10-inch format disappeared from United States stores around 1957, supplanted by 12″ discs, but remained common in some markets until the mid-1960s. The 10-inch vinyl format was resurrected in the 1970s for marketing some popular recordings as collectible, and these are occasionally seen today.
The first disk recordings were invented by Emile Berliner and were pressed as 7-inch, approximately 78 rpm recordings between 1887 and 1900. They are rarely found today.
Columbia pressed many 7-inch rpm vinyl singles in 1949, but were dropped in early 1950 due to the popularity of the RCA Victor 45.
The EP Extended Play rpm 7-inch disc, which typically contained two selections (tracks) on each side, was incompatible with existing jukeboxes and unsuccessful when introduced in the U.S. in the 1960s, but was common in Europe and other parts of the world.
Original hole diameters were 0.286″ ±0.001″ for and 78.26 rpm records, and 1.504″ ±0.002″ for 45 rpm records.
Less common formats
Flexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s.
In March 1949, as RCA Victor released the 45, Columbia released several hundred 7-inch, rpm, small-spindle-hole singles. This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA Victor 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12-inch LP would be the album of choice.
The first release of the 45 came in seven colors: black 47-xxxx popular series, yellow 47-xxxx juvenile series, green (teal) 48-xxxx country series, deep red 49-xxxx classical series, bright red (cerise) 50-xxxx blues/spiritual series, light blue 51-xxxx international series, dark blue 52-xxxx light classics. Most colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems. However, yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952.
The first 45 rpm record created for sale was "PeeWee the Piccolo" RCA Victor 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on December 7, 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.
In the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.
Structure
Increasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with a recording on only one side. In the 1980s Columbia records briefly issued a series of less expensive one-sided 45 rpm singles.
Since its inception in 1948, vinyl record standards for the United States follow the guidelines of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
Vinyl quality
The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl. During the early 1970s, as a cost-cutting move, much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing. The technique was marketed by RCA Victor as the Dynaflex (125 g) process, but was considered inferior by most record collectors. Most vinyl records are pressed from a mix of 70% virgin and 30% recycled vinyl. Vinyl is a material that is sensitive for high temperatures as well as uneven temperatures on different parts of a record.
New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play.
180 gram vinyl is more expensive to produce only because it uses more vinyl. Manufacturing processes are identical regardless of weight. In fact, pressing lightweight records requires more care. An exception is the propensity of 200 g pressings to be slightly more prone to non-fill, when the vinyl biscuit does not sufficiently fill a deep groove during pressing (percussion or vocal amplitude changes are the usual locations of these artifacts). This flaw causes a grinding or scratching sound at the non-fill point.
Since most vinyl records contain up to 30% recycled vinyl, impurities can accumulate in the record and cause even a brand-new record to have audio artifacts such as clicks and pops. Virgin vinyl means that the album is not from recycled plastic, and will theoretically be devoid of these impurities.
The "orange peel" effect on vinyl records is caused by worn molds. Rather than having the proper mirror-like finish, the surface of the record will have a texture that looks like orange peel. This introduces noise into the record, particularly in the lower frequency range. With direct metal mastering (DMM), the master disc is cut on a copper-coated disc, which can also have a minor "orange peel" effect on the disc itself. As this "orange peel" originates in the master rather than being introduced in the pressing stage, there is no ill effect as there is no physical distortion of the groove.
Original master discs are created by lathe-cutting: a disc cutting lathe is used to cut a modulated groove into a blank record. The blank records for cutting used to be cooked up, as needed, by the cutting engineer, using what Robert K. Morrison describes as a "metallic soap", containing lead litharge, ozokerite, barium sulfate, montan wax, stearin and paraffin, among other ingredients. Cut "wax" sound discs would be placed in a vacuum chamber and gold-sputtered to make them electrically conductive for use as mandrels in an electroforming bath, where pressing stamper parts were made. Later, the French company Pyral invented a ready-made blank disc having a thin nitro-cellulose lacquer coating (approximately 7 mils thickness on both sides) that was applied to an aluminum substrate. Lacquer cuts result in an immediately playable, or processable, master record. If vinyl pressings are wanted, the still-unplayed sound disc is used as a mandrel for electroforming nickel records that are used for manufacturing pressing stampers.
The electroformed nickel records are mechanically separated from their respective mandrels. This is done with relative ease because no actual "plating" of the mandrel occurs in the type of electrodeposition known as electroforming, unlike with electroplating, in which the adhesion of the new phase of metal is chemical and relatively permanent. The one-molecule-thick coating of silver (that was sprayed onto the processed lacquer sound disc in order to make its surface electrically conductive) reverse-plates onto the nickel record's face. This negative impression disc (having ridges in place of grooves) is known as a nickel master, "matrix" or "father". The "father" is then used as a mandrel to electroform a positive disc known as a "mother". Many mothers can be grown on a single "father" before ridges deteriorate beyond effective use. The "mothers" are then used as mandrels for electroforming more negative discs known as "sons". Each "mother" can be used to make many "sons" before deteriorating. The "sons" are then converted into "stampers" by center-punching a spindle hole (which was lost from the lacquer sound disc during initial electroforming of the "father"), and by custom-forming the target pressing profile. This allows them to be placed in the dies of the target (make and model) record press and, by center-roughing, to facilitate the adhesion of the label, which gets stuck onto the vinyl pressing without any glue. In this way, several million vinyl discs can be produced from a single lacquer sound disc. When only a few hundred discs are required, instead of electroforming a "son" (for each side), the "father" is removed of its silver and converted into a stamper. Production by this latter method, known as the "two-step process" (as it does not entail creation of "sons" but does involve creation of "mothers", which are used for test playing and kept as "safeties" for electroforming future "sons") is limited to a few hundred vinyl pressings. The pressing count can increase if the stamper holds out and the quality of the vinyl is high. The "sons" made during a "three-step" electroforming make better stampers since they do not require silver removal (which reduces some high fidelity because of etching erasing part of the smallest groove modulations) and also because they have a stronger metal structure than "fathers".
Limitations
Shellac
One problem with shellac was that the size of the disks tended to be larger because it was limited to 80–100 groove walls per inch before the risk of groove collapse became too high, whereas vinyl could have up to 260 groove walls per inch.
Vinyl
Although vinyl records are strong and do not break easily, they scratch due to its soft material sometimes resulting in ruining the record. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself.
A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second—less than half the linear resolution.
There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the very best conditions (see Comparison of analog and digital recording). It is notable, however, that one technical advantage with vinyl compared to the optical CD is that if correctly handled and stored, the vinyl record will be playable for decades and possibly centuries, which is longer than some versions of the optical CD. For vinyl records to be playable for years to come, they need to be handled with care and stored properly. Guidelines for proper vinyl storage include not stacking records on top of each other, avoiding heat or direct sunlight and placing them in a temperature controlled area that will help prevent vinyl records from warping and scratching. Collectors store their records in a variety of boxes, cubes, shelves and racks.
Equalization
History of equalization
Further, even after officially agreeing to implement the RIAA equalization curve, many recording labels continued to use their own proprietary equalization even well into the 1970s. Columbia is one such prominent example in the US, as are Decca, Teldec and Deutsche Grammophon in Europe.
Sound fidelity
At the time of the introduction of the compact disc (CD) in 1982, the stereo LP pressed in vinyl continued to suffer from a variety of limitations:
The stereo image was not made up of fully discrete Left and Right channels; each channel's signal coming out of the cartridge contained a small amount of the signal from the other channel, with more crosstalk at higher frequencies. High-quality disc cutting equipment was capable of making a master disc with 30–40 dB of stereo separation at 1,000 Hz, but the playback cartridges had lesser performance of about 20 to 30 dB of separation at 1000 Hz, with separation decreasing as frequency increased, such that at 12 kHz the separation was about 10–15 dB. A common modern view is that stereo isolation must be higher than this to achieve a proper stereo soundstage. However, in the 1950s the BBC determined in a series of tests that only 20–25 dB is required for the impression of full stereo separation.
Thin, closely spaced spiral grooves that allow for increased playing time on a rpm microgroove LP lead to a tinny pre-echo warning of upcoming loud sounds. The cutting stylus unavoidably transfers some of the subsequent groove wall's impulse signal into the previous groove wall. It is discernible by some listeners throughout certain recordings, but a quiet passage followed by a loud sound will allow anyone to hear a faint pre-echo of the loud sound occurring 1.8 seconds ahead of time. This problem can also appear as "post"-echo, with a tinny ghost of the sound arriving 1.8 seconds after its main impulse.
LP versus CD
Audiophiles have differed over the relative merits of the LP versus the CD since the digital disc was introduced. In large part, the claim for vinyl superiority is due to the necessity for digital recordings to presume upper and lower bounds, sampling the tones and soundwaves within those limits and using the resulting information to store and recall the audio. Effectively, the digital recording is an idealized representation of a physical soundwave, while an analog recording captures the physical vibrations across their full frequency. Because most modern vinyl records are made from playbacks of files recorded digitally, there is no out-of-bounds audio to transfer to the disc. Vinyl's drawbacks, however, include surface noise, less resolution due to a lower dynamic range, and greater sensitivity to handling. Modern anti-aliasing filters and oversampling systems used in digital recordings have eliminated perceived problems observed with very early CD players.
There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs, though most of this is noise and not relevant to human hearing. According to Red Book specifications, the compact disc has a frequency response of 20 Hz up to 22,050 Hz, and most CD players measure flat within a fraction of a decibel from at least 0 Hz to 20 kHz at full output. Due to the distance required between grooves, it is not possible for an LP to reproduce as low frequencies as a CD. Additionally, turntable rumble and acoustic feedback obscures the low-end limit of vinyl but the upper end can be, with some cartridges, reasonably flat within a few decibels to 30 kHz, with gentle roll-off. Carrier signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz. The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person. High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages, a process called presbycusis.
Preservation
As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording, they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable.
Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest, from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists, archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result, typically onto a digital format, which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording. For example, Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s. Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer. However, for accurate transfer, professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter, tracking weight, equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high-quality analogue-to-digital converters.
As an alternative to playback with a stylus, a recording can be read optically, processed with software that calculates the velocity that the stylus would be moving in the mapped grooves and converted to a digital recording format. This does no further damage to the disc and generally produces a better sound than normal playback. This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of broken or otherwise damaged discs.
Current status
Groove recordings, first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century, held a predominant position for nearly a century—withstanding competition from reel-to-reel tape, the 8-track cartridge, and the compact cassette. The widespread popularity of Sony's Walkman was a factor that contributed to the vinyl's lessening usage in the 1980s. In 1988, the compact disc surpassed the gramophone record in unit sales. Vinyl records experienced a sudden decline in popularity between 1988 and 1991, when the major label distributors restricted their return policies, which retailers had been relying on to maintain and swap out stocks of relatively unpopular titles. First the distributors began charging retailers more for new products if they returned unsold vinyl, and then they stopped providing any credit at all for returns. Retailers, fearing they would be stuck with anything they ordered, only ordered proven, popular titles that they knew would sell, and devoted more shelf space to CDs and cassettes. Record companies also removed many vinyl titles from production and distribution, further undermining the availability of the format and leading to the closure of pressing plants. This rapid decline in the availability of records accelerated the format's decline in popularity, and is seen by some as a deliberate ploy to make consumers switch to CDs, which unlike today, were more profitable for the record companies.
In spite of their flaws, such as the lack of portability, records still have enthusiastic supporters. Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today, especially by independent rock bands and labels, although record sales are considered to be a niche market composed of audiophiles, collectors, and DJs. Old records and out-of-print recordings in particular are in much demand the world over.
In the United Kingdom, the popularity of indie rock caused sales of new vinyl records (particularly 7 inch singles) to increase significantly in 2006.
In the United States, annual vinyl sales increased by 85.8% between 2006 and 2007, although starting from a low base, and by 89% between 2007 and 2008. However, sales increases have moderated over recent years falling to less than 10% during 2017.
Figures released in the United States in early 2009 showed that sales of vinyl albums nearly doubled in 2008, with 1.88 million sold—up from just under 1 million in 2007. In 2009, 3.5 million units sold in the United States, including 3.2 million albums, the highest number since 1998.
Sales have continued to rise into the 2010s, with around 2.8 million sold in 2010, which is the most sales since record keeping began in 1991, when vinyl had been overshadowed by Compact Cassettes and compact discs.
In 2021, Taylor Swift sold 102,000 copies of her ninth studio album Evermore on vinyl. The sales of the record beat the largest sales in one week on vinyl since Nielsen started tracking vinyl sales in 1991. The sales record was previously held by Jack White who sold 40,000 copies of his second solo release, Lazaretto, on vinyl in 2014. In 2014, the sale of vinyl records was the only physical music medium with increasing sales with relation to the previous year. Sales of other mediums including individual digital tracks, digital albums and compact discs have fallen, the last having the greatest drop-in-sales rate.
In 2011, the Entertainment Retailers Association in the United Kingdom found that consumers were willing to pay on average £16.30 (€19.37, US$25.81) for a single vinyl record, as opposed to £7.82 (€9.30, US$12.38) for a CD and £6.80 (€8.09, US$10.76) for a digital download.
In 2015 the sales of vinyl records went up 32%, to $416 million, their highest level since 1988. There were 31.5 million vinyl records sold in 2015, and the number has increased annually ever since 2006. Vinyl sales continued to grow in 2017, comprising 14% of all physical album sales. The number one vinyl LP sold was the re-release of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
According to the RIAA's midyear report in 2020, phonograph record revenues surpassed those of CDs for the first time since the 1980s.
Less common recording formats
VinylVideo
VinylVideo is a format to store a low resolution black and white video on a vinyl record alongside encoded audio.
Capacitance Electronic Disc
Another example is the Capacitance Electronic Disc, a color video format, slightly better than VHS.
See also
Capacitance Electronic Disc (CED)
Conservation and restoration of vinyl discs
LP album
The New Face of Vinyl: Youth's Digital Devolution (photo documentary)
Phonograph cylinder
Record Store Day
Sound recording and reproduction
Unusual types of gramophone records
Notes
References
Further reading
Lawrence, Harold; "Mercury Living Presence". Compact disc liner notes. Bartók, Antal Dorati, Mercury 432 017–2. 1991.
International standard IEC 60098: Analogue audio disk records and reproducing equipment. Third edition, International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987.
College Physics, Sears, Zemansky, Young, 1974, LOC #73-21135, chapter: "Acoustic Phenomena"
Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Technical Guide to 78 rpm, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. 1992; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI.
Powell, James R., Jr. Broadcast Transcription Discs. 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI.
Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 rpm Recordings. Third Edition. 1993, 2001, 2007; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI.
Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music. Ninth edition, Oxford University Press, 1955.
From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph by Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch
The Fabulous Phonograph by Roland Gelatt, published by Cassell & Company, 1954 rev. 1977
Where Have All the Good Times Gone?: The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry Louis Barfe.
Pressing the LP Record by Ellingham, Niel, published at 1 Bruach Lane, PH16 5DG, Scotland.
Sound Recordings by Peter Copeland published 1991 by the British Library .
Vinyl: A History of the Analogue Record by Richard Osborne. Ashgate, 2012. .
"A Record Changer and Record of Complementary Design" by B. H. Carson, A. D. Burt, and H. I. Reiskind, RCA Review, June 1949
"Recording Technology History: notes revised July 6, 2005, by Steven Schoenherr", San Diego University (archived 2010)
External links
Playback equalization for 78 rpm shellacs and early LPs (EQ curves, index of record labels): Audacity Wiki
The manufacturing and production of shellac records. Educational video, 1942.
Reproduction of 78 rpm records including equalization data for different makes of 78s and LPs.
The Secret Society of Lathe Trolls, a site devoted to all aspects of the making of Gramophone records.
How to digitize gramophone records: Audacity Tutorial
Actual list of vinyl pressing plants: vinyl-pressing-plants.com
Dedicated museum for sound history: Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, Montreal, Canada
1894 in music
Articles containing video clips
Audio storage
Audiovisual introductions in 1894
Hip hop production
Recorded music
Turntablism | wiki |
Four Seasons Hotel and Tower may refer to:
Four Seasons Hotel Denver in Denver, Colorado, United States
Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong in Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
Four Seasons Hotel Miami in Miami, Florida, United States
Four Seasons Hotel Toronto in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
See also
Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts
Four Seasons Hotel and Residences
Four Seasons hotels and resorts | wiki |
West Street is part of an expressway in Manhattan, New York City.
West Street may also refer to:
West Street Chapel, a Methodist chapel in London
West Street District, a historic district in Boston, Massachusetts
West Street subway station, a Glasgow Subway station serving the Tradeston area
West Street (Manhattan), a section of the West Side Highway in New York City
See also
W Street (disambiguation) | wiki |
In cryptography, the term ciphertext expansion refers to the length increase of a message when it is encrypted. Many modern cryptosystems cause some degree of expansion during the encryption process, for instance when the resulting ciphertext must include a message-unique Initialization Vector (IV). Probabilistic encryption schemes cause ciphertext expansion, as the set of possible ciphertexts is necessarily greater than the set of input plaintexts. Certain schemes, such as Cocks Identity Based Encryption, or the Goldwasser-Micali cryptosystem result in ciphertexts hundreds or thousands of times longer than the plaintext.
Ciphertext expansion may be offset or increased by other processes which compress or expand the message, e.g., data compression or error correction coding.
References
Cryptography | wiki |
An installment loan is a type of agreement or contract involving a loan that is repaid over time with a set number of scheduled payments; normally at least two payments are made towards the loan. The term of loan may be as little as a few months and as long as 30 years. A mortgage loan, for example, is a type of installment loan.
The term is most strongly associated with traditional consumer loans, originated and serviced locally, and repaid over time by regular payments of principal and interest. These “installment loans” are generally considered to be safe and affordable alternatives to payday and title loans, and to open ended credit such as credit cards.
In 2007 the US Department of Defense exempted installment loans from legislation designed to prohibit predatory lending to service personnel and their families, acknowledging in its report the need to protect access to beneficial installment credit while closing down less safe forms of credit.
History
Lending has been practiced for many thousands of years and has manifested a variety of forms throughout that time. Primitive loan contracts from Mesopotamia as early as the tenth century B.C. evidence the development of a rudimentary system of credit which included the concept of interest, and the concept of paying the interest in installments at regular intervals. The payment of the interest on loans in installments can be discerned as early as the sixth century B.C. within such ancient contracts as the following contract for a loan of money, which is from ~ 550 B.C., wherein no security was given the creditor, but he received an interest of twenty per cent and that interest was made payable in installments at intervals of one (assumedly lunar) month: "One and a half manas of money belonging to Iddin-Marduk, son of Iqisha-apla, son of Nur-Sin, (is loaned) unto Ben-Hadad-natan, son of Addiya and Bunanit, his wife. Monthly the amount of a mana shall increase its sum by a shekel of money. From the first of the month Siman, of the fifth year of Nabonidus, King of Babylon, they shall pay the sum on the money. The call shall be made for the interest money at the house which belongs to Iba. Monthly shall the sum be paid." (From the Fordham University Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, Editor: Paul Halsall, "A Collection of Contracts from Mesopotamia, c. 2300 - 428 BCE").
A type of installment contract other than a loan involves the purchase of durable goods on credit. Such arrangements are usually referred to as "installment plans" rather than "installment loans". In the year 1807, the installment selling of durable goods was first introduced into the United States by a furniture store with the name of Cowperthwaite & Sons, which opened in New York City and soon after began extending credit to its customers for purchases of furniture items with payment by means of installments. Within a few years thereafter, such installment plans were being used by merchants engaged in the selling of furniture in other American cities as well. More well known installment plans used by Singer company for financing the purchase of their sewing machines were extended beginning in 1850. After Singer, other companies started to use installment loans. In 1899 in Boston, more than a half of furniture dealers used such kind of loans. Around 1890, installment loans were commonly used to finance sewing machines, radios, electric refrigerators, phonographs, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, jewelry and clothing. By 1924, 75% of automobiles were purchased with installment loans.
Tribal installment loans
Tribal installment loans are another version of installment loans. Unlike other forms of installment loans, which are offered by non bank lenders and overseen by state and federal regulators, tribal installment loans are offered by tribal lending entities and regulated by independent
tribal regulatory authorities.
See also
Hire purchase
References
Credit
Loans | wiki |
The Réseau Express Régional (; ), commonly abbreviated RER (), is a hybrid commuter rail and rapid transit system serving Paris and its suburbs. It acts as a combined city-centre underground rail system and suburbs-to-city-centre commuter rail. In the city centre it acts as a faster counterpart of the Paris Métro, having fewer stops. This has made it a model for proposals to improve transit within other cities.
The network consists of five lines: A, B, C, D and E. The network has 257 stations and has interchanges with the Métro and commuter rail within the City of Paris and the suburbs. The lines are identified by letters to avoid confusion with the Métro lines, which are identified by numbers. The network is still expanding: RER E, which opened in 1999, is planned for westward extension toward La Défense and Mantes-la-Jolie in two phases by 2024–2026.
Characteristics
The RER contains 257 stations, 33 of which are within the city of Paris, and runs over of track, including underground. Each line passes through the city almost wholly underground and on tracks dedicated to the RER, but some city center tracks are shared between line D and line B. The RER is operated partly by RATP, the authority that operates most public transport in Paris, and partly by SNCF, the national rail operator. The system uses a single fare structure and operates a through-service. Total traffic on the central sections of lines A and B, operated by RATP, was 452 million people in 2006; in the same year, total traffic on all Paris area commuter lines operated by SNCF (both RER and Transilien trains) was 657 million.
RATP manages 65 RER stations, including all stations on Line A east of Nanterre-Préfecture and those on the branch to Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It also operates stations on Line B south of Gare du Nord. Other stations on the two lines and those on lines C, D and E are operated by SNCF. Of the RER stations operated by RATP, 9 have interchanges with Métro lines, and 9 allow transfer to SNCF's Transilien service.
History
Origins
Its roots are in the 1936 Ruhlmann-Langewin plan of the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris (Metropolitan Railway Company of Paris) for a "métropolitain express" (express metro). The company's post-war successor, RATP, revived the scheme in the 1950s, and in 1960 an interministerial committee decided to go ahead with the construction of an east-west line. Subsequently, the central part of the RER was completed between 1962 and 1977 in a large-scale civil engineering project whose chief supervisor was Siavash Teimouri. As its instigator, RATP was granted authority to run the new link. The embryonic (and as yet unnamed) RER was not properly conceived until the 1965 Schéma directeur d'aménagement et d'urbanisme (roughly: "master plan for urban development"), which envisioned an H-shaped network with two north-south routes. Between 1969 and 1970 RATP purchased the Vincennes and Saint-Germain lines from SNCF, as the basis for the east-west link. Only a single north-south route crossing the Left Bank has so far come to fruition, although the Métro's line 13 has been extended to perform a similar function.
First phase
In the first phase of construction, the Vincennes and Saint-Germain lines became the ends of the east-west Line A, the central section of which was opened station by station between 1969 and 1977. On its completion, Line A was joined by the initial southern section of the north-south Line B. During this first phase, six new stations were built, three of which are entirely underground.
Construction was inaugurated by Robert Buron, then Minister for Public Works, at the Pont de Neuilly on 6 July 1961, four years before the publication of the official network blueprint. The rapid expansion of the La Défense business district in the west made the western section of the first line a priority. Nation, the first new station, was opened on 12 December 1969 and became for the next 8 years the new western terminus of the Vincennes line. The section from Étoile (not yet renamed after Charles de Gaulle) to La Défense was opened a few weeks later. It was later extended eastward to the newly built Auber station on 23 November 1971, and westward to Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 1 October 1972. The latter extension was achieved by a connection to the existing Saint-Germain-en-Laye line, the oldest railway line into Paris, at Nanterre.
The RER network came into being on 9 December 1977 with the joining of the eastern Nation-Boissy segment and the western Auber-Saint-Germain-en-Laye segment at Châtelet – Les Halles. The southern Ligne de Sceaux was simultaneously extended from Luxembourg to meet Line A at Châtelet – Les Halles, becoming the new Line B. The system of line letters was introduced to the public on this occasion, though it had been used internally by RATP and SNCF for some time.
Completion
A second phase, from the end of the 1970s, was carried out more slowly. SNCF gained the authorisation to operate its own routes, which became lines C, D and E. Extensive sections of suburban tracks were added to the network, but only four new stations were built. In this time period, the network was completed in the following stages:
Line C (along the Left Bank of the Seine) was added in 1979, involving the construction of a link between Invalides and Musée d'Orsay.
Line B was extended to Gare du Nord in 1981 with a new deep tunnel from Châtelet – Les Halles. It was later extended further northward.
Line D (north to south-east via Châtelet – Les Halles) was completed in 1995 with the construction of a deep tunnel between Châtelet – Les Halles and Gare de Lyon. No new building work was necessary at Châtelet – Les Halles, as additional platforms for Line D had been built at the time of the station's construction 20 years earlier.
Line E was added in 1999, connecting the north-east with Gare Saint-Lazare by means of a new deep tunnel from Gare de l'Est.
Finance
The RER's first phase of construction during the 1960s and 1970s was marked by scale and expense. In 1973 alone, FRF 2 billion were committed to the project in the budget. This equates to roughly €1.37 billion in 2005 terms, and closer to double that as a proportion of the region's (then much smaller) economic output. This and subsequent spending was partly sustained by the versement transport, a local tax levied on businesses. The tax was introduced in July 1971 and remains in effect.
Maps
Rolling stock
The predominance of suburban SNCF track on the RER network explains why RER trains use overhead line power and run on the left, like SNCF trains (except in Alsace-Moselle), contrary to the Métro where trains use third rail power and run on the right. RER trains run by the two different operators share the same track infrastructure, a practice called interconnection. On the RER, interconnection required the development of specific trains (MI 79 series for Materiel d'Interconnexion 1979, and MI 2N series for Materiel d'Interconnexion à 2 niveaux (double-deck interconnection stock)) capable of operating under both 1.5 kV direct current on the RATP network and 25 kV / 50 Hz alternating current on the SNCF network. The MS 61 series (Matériel Suburbain 1961) can be used only on the 1.5 kV DC network.
The RER's tunnels have unusually large cross-sections. This is due to a 1961 decision to build according to a standard set by the Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer, with space for overhead catenary power supply to trains. Single-track tunnels measure 6.30 m across and double-track tunnels up to 8.70 m, meaning a cross-sectional area of up to 50 square metres, larger than that of the stations on many comparable underground rail networks.
The first RER rolling stock in fact predated the formation of the RER by 40 years, with the Z 23000 stock used on the ligne de Sceaux (which was thereafter integrated into RER B) from 1937 until 27 February 1987. In 1965 the Z 5300 train was introduced, followed by the MS 61 in 1967 (refurbished 1985-1987 and 2006-2009), MI 79 in 1980, MI 84 and Z 8800 in 1985, Z 20500 in 1998, MI 2N in 1996, Z 20900 in 2001, MI 09 on 5 December 2011, Z 50000 (Francilien) in 2015 and Regio 2N (Z 57000) in 2019.
Many services are performed by double-decker train sets, usually operating in double formations.
Lines
Stations
Ten new stations have been built under the heart of Paris since the 1960s as part of the RER project. The six stations of Line A opened between 1969 and 1977 are:
Nation (1969): deep construction at the Place de la Nation.
Charles de Gaulle–Étoile (1970): deep construction at the Arc de Triomphe.
La Défense (1970): near-surface construction beneath the site of the yet-to-be-built Grande Arche de la Défense, just outside the Paris city boundary.
Auber (1971): deep construction near Gare Saint-Lazare.
Châtelet–Les Halles (1977): near-surface construction on the site of the former marketplace, claimed in 2017 to be the largest underground station in Europe.
Gare de Lyon (1977): near-surface construction beneath and alongside the main-line SNCF station.
Some controversy followed the construction of the Line A. Using the model of the existing Métro, and unlike any other underground network in the world, engineers elected to build the three new deep stations (Étoile, Auber and Nation) as single monolithic halls with lateral platforms and no supporting pillars. A hybrid solution of adjacent halls was rejected on the grounds that it "completely sacrificed the architectural aspect" of the oeuvre. The scale in question was vast: the new stations cathédrales were up to three times longer, wider and taller than Métro stations, and hence 20 or 30 times more voluminous. Most importantly, unlike the Métro they were to be constructed deep underground. The decision turned out to be expensive: around 8 billion francs for the three stations, equivalent to €1.2 billion in 2005 terms, with the two-level Auber the costliest of the three. The comparison was obvious and unfavourable with London's Victoria line, a deep line of constructed during the same period using a two-tunnel approach at vastly lower cost though with a lower capacity. However, the three stations represent undeniable engineering feats and are noticeably less claustrophobic than traditional underground stations.
Only two stations were inaugurated to complete Lines B, C and D:
Gare du Nord (1982): near-surface construction on two levels.
St-Michel - Notre-Dame (1988): deep construction on an existing stretch of the Line B between Luxembourg and Châtelet - Les Halles with two tunnels, common in other underground systems but unique in Paris. The station is situated on and built at the same time as the Luxembourg Châtelet tunnel.
Two stations were added to the network as part of Line E in the 1990s. They are notable for their lavishly spacious deep construction, a technique not used since Auber. Although similar to the three 1960s "cathedral stations" of Line A, their passenger traffic has so far proved vastly lower.
Magenta (1999): deep construction serving both Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est.
Haussmann - Saint-Lazare (1999): deep construction serving Gare Saint-Lazare and Auber.
Usage
Journey times, particularly on east-west and north-south routes, have been cut by the RER (and thanks to the cross-platform connection at Châtelet - Les Halles, even certain "diagonal" trips have reduced journey times).
Lines A and B reached saturation relatively quickly, exceeding by far all traffic expectations: up to 55,000 passengers per hour in each direction on Line A (1992), the highest such figure outside of East Asia. Despite a frequency of more than one train every two minutes, made possible by the installation of digital signalling in 1989, and the gradual introduction of double-decker trains from 1998 to 2017, the central stations of Line A are critically crowded at peak times.
Used for leisure journeys, the RER has had a major social impact. By bringing far-flung suburbs within easy reach of central Paris, the network has aided the reintegration of the traditionally insular capital with its periphery. The evidence of this social impact can be seen at Châtelet - Les Halles, whose neighbourhood and Forum des Halles leisure and shopping facilities are popular among banlieusards (suburbanites), in particular from eastern suburbs.
Future developments
Extensions to the RER focus on Line E, which ends at Haussmann - Saint-Lazare, serving only one side of Paris, unlike all other RER lines. Various Line E extensions have been proposed:
westward from Haussmann - St Lazare to Mantes-la-Jolie. Plans for this extension include an eight kilometer bored tunnel from the current western terminus at Haussmann - St Lazare, with new stations at Porte Maillot, La Défense, and Nanterre - La Folie, and a connection to the SNCF Normandy line in or near Nanterre, the transfer of the current Line A Poissy service to Line E, and its further extension down the Seine valley to Mantes.
eastward from Chelles-Gournay to Esbly and Meaux
eastward from Tournan to Coulommiers
Until the western section is in service, neither of the eastern extensions can be put into service, as the Haussmann - St Lazare station is at maximum capacity because all trains are currently forced to turn around at this station. Once the western extension is in service, Haussmann - St Lazare will become a through station and the eastern extensions will be possible. One of the primary reasons for the completion of Line E through Paris is to relieve overcrowding on Line A, especially during peak commute periods. Construction of the westward extension began in 2013, with the inauguration currently planned for 2023.
A new Line E station initially proposed at Rue de l'Évangile (eventually officially called Rosa Parks) on the approach to Gare de l'Est, opened in December, 2015.
Air quality
The RER has received criticism for its high level of particle pollution during busy periods, essentially due to train braking. Pollution by PM10 particles regularly reaches 400 μg/m3 at Auber, much more than at neighboring metro stations and eight times the EU Commission's daily average limit of 50 μg/m3.
See also
List of metro systems
List of RER stations
List of Paris Métro stations
Réseau Express de l'Aire urbaine Lyonnaise
Transport in France
Île-de-France tramway Line 11 Express
S-train
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
RATP (official, in )
RATP (official, in )
Interactive Map of the RER (from RATP's website)
Interactive Map of the Paris métro (from RATP's website)
Complete track map of the RER system by Franklin Jarrier, 10 November 2015
Metro-Pole (unofficial, dedicated to Paris public transport, )
BBC News Online - France's answer to Crossrail
Electric railways in France
RATP Group
Underground commuter rail | wiki |
A Richter's hernia occurs when the antimesenteric wall of the intestine protrudes through a defect in the abdominal wall. This is distinct from other types of abdominal hernias in that only one intestinal wall protrudes through the defect, such that the lumen of the intestine is incompletely contained in the defect, while the rest remains in the peritoneal cavity. If such a herniation becomes necrotic and is subsequently reduced during hernia repair, perforation and peritonitis may result. A Richter's hernia can result in strangulation and necrosis in the absence of intestinal obstruction. It is a relatively rare but dangerous type of hernia.
Richter's hernia have also been noted in laparoscopic port-sites, usually when the fascia is not closed for ports larger than 10mm. A high index of suspicion is required in the post operative period as this sinister problem can closely mimic more benign complications like port-site haematomas.
Treatment is resection and anastomosis.
Mortality increases with delay in surgical intervention.
References
Hernias | wiki |
The Essential Herbie Hancock is the forty-sixth album by American jazz musician and pianist Herbie Hancock. It is part of Sony BMG's The Essential series. Unlike the box set The Herbie Hancock Box, this 2-disc set is the first compilation of Hancock's music that included music from all the various recording labels for which Hancock recorded.
Track listing
Disc one
Disc two
References
Herbie Hancock compilation albums
2006 greatest hits albums
Columbia Records compilation albums | wiki |
Castor oil is a vegetable oil pressed from castor beans.
It is a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a distinct taste and odor. Its boiling point is and its density is 0.961 g/cm3. It includes a mixture of triglycerides in which about 90% of fatty acids are ricinoleates. Oleic acid and linoleic acid are the other significant components.
Castor oil and its derivatives are used in the manufacturing of soaps, lubricants, hydraulic and brake fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold-resistant plastics, waxes and polishes, nylon, and perfumes.
Etymology
The name probably comes from a confusion between the Ricinus plant that produces it and another plant, the Vitex agnus-castus. An alternative etymology, though, suggests that it was used as a replacement for castoreum.
Composition
Castor oil is well known as a source of ricinoleic acid, a monounsaturated, 18-carbon fatty acid. Among fatty acids, ricinoleic acid is unusual in that it has a hydroxyl functional group on the 12th carbon atom. This functional group causes ricinoleic acid (and castor oil) to be more polar than most fats. The chemical reactivity of the alcohol group also allows chemical derivatization that is not possible with most other seed oils. Because of its ricinoleic acid content, castor oil is a valuable chemical in feedstocks, commanding a higher price than other seed oils. As an example, in July 2007, Indian castor oil sold for about US$0.90/kg ($0.41/lb), whereas U.S. soybean, sunflower, and canola oils sold for about $0.30/kg ($0.14/lb).
Uses
Annually, 270,000–360,000 tonnes (600–800 million pounds) of castor oil are produced for a variety of uses.
Food and preservative
In the food industry, food-grade castor oil is used in food additives, flavorings, candy (e.g., polyglycerol polyricinoleate in chocolate), as a mold inhibitor, and in packaging. Polyoxyethylated castor oil (e.g., Kolliphor EL) is also used in the food industries.
In India, Pakistan, and Nepal, food grains are preserved by the application of castor oil. It stops rice, wheat, and pulses from rotting. For example, the legume pigeon pea is commonly available coated in oil for extended storage.
Traditional medicine
Use of castor oil as a laxative is attested to in the circa 1550 BCE Ebers Papyrus, and was in use several centuries earlier.
Although used in traditional medicine to induce labor in pregnant women, there is no clinical evidence that castor oil is effective for dilating the cervix or inducing labor.
According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that castor oil on the skin cures cancer or any other disease."
Emollient
Castor oil has been used in cosmetic products included in creams and as a moisturizer. It is often combined with zinc oxide to form an emollient and astringent, zinc and castor oil cream, which is commonly used to treat infants for nappy rash.
Coatings
Castor oil is used as a biobased polyol in the polyurethane industry. The average functionality (number of hydroxyl groups per triglyceride molecule) of castor oil is 2.7, so it is widely used as a rigid polyol and in coatings. One particular use is in a polyurethane concrete where a castor-oil emulsion is reacted with an isocyanate (usually polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) and a cement and construction aggregate. This is applied fairly thickly as a slurry, which is self-levelling. This base is usually further coated with other systems to build a resilient floor.
Castor oil is not a drying oil, meaning that it has a low reactivity with air compared with oils such as linseed oil and tung oil. Dehydration of castor oil yields linoleic acids, which do have drying properties. In this process, the OH group on the ricinoleic acid along with a hydrogen from the next carbon atom are removed yielding a double bond which then has oxidative cross-linking properties yielding the drying oil.
Precursor to industrial chemicals
Castor oil can react with other materials to produce other chemical compounds that have numerous applications. Transesterification followed by steam cracking gives undecylenic acid, a precursor to specialized polymer nylon 11, and heptanal, a component in fragrances. Breakdown of castor oil in strong base gives 2-octanol, both a fragrance component and a specialized solvent, and the dicarboxylic acid sebacic acid. Hydrogenation of castor oil saturates the alkenes, giving a waxy lubricant. Castor oil may be epoxidized by reacting the OH groups with epichlorohydrin to make the triglycidyl ether of castor oil which is useful in epoxy technology. This is available commercially as Heloxy 505.
The production of lithium grease consumes a significant amount of castor oil. Hydrogenation and saponification of castor oil yields 12-hydroxystearic acid, which is then reacted with lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate to give high-performance lubricant grease.
Since it has a relatively high dielectric constant (4.7), highly refined and dried castor oil is sometimes used as a dielectric fluid within high-performance, high-voltage capacitors.
Lubrication
Vegetable oils such as castor oil are typically unattractive alternatives to petroleum-derived lubricants because of their poor oxidative stability. Castor oil has better low-temperature viscosity properties and high-temperature lubrication than most vegetable oils, making it useful as a lubricant in jet, diesel, and racing engines. The viscosity of castor oil at 10 °C is 2,420 centipoise, but it tends to form gums in a short time, so its usefulness is limited to engines that are regularly rebuilt, such as racing engines. Lubricant company Castrol took its name from castor oil.
Castor oil has been suggested as a lubricant for bicycle pumps because it does not degrade natural rubber seals.
Early aviation and aeromodelling
Castor oil was the preferred lubricant for rotary engines, such as the Gnome engine after that engine's widespread adoption for aviation in Europe in 1909. It was used almost universally in rotary-engined Allied aircraft in World War I. Germany had to make do with inferior ersatz oil for its rotary engines, which resulted in poor reliability.
The methanol-fueled, two-cycle, glow-plug engines used for aeromodelling, since their adoption by model airplane hobbyists in the 1940s, have used varying percentages of castor oil as lubricants. It is highly resistant to degradation when the engine has its fuel-air mixture leaned for maximum engine speed. Gummy residues can still be a problem for aeromodelling powerplants lubricated with castor oil, however, usually requiring eventual replacement of ball bearings when the residue accumulates within the engine's bearing races. One British manufacturer of sleeve-valved four-cycle model engines has stated the "varnish" created by using castor oil in small percentages can improve the pneumatic seal of the sleeve valve, improving such an engine's performance over time.
Turkey red oil
Turkey red oil, also called sulphonated (or sulfated) castor oil, is made by adding sulfuric acid to vegetable oils, most notably castor oil. It was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary soap. It is used in formulating lubricants, softeners, and dyeing assistants.
Biodiesel
Castor oil, like currently less expensive vegetable oils, can be used as feedstock in the production of biodiesel. The resulting fuel is superior for cold winters, because of its exceptionally low cloud point and pour point.
Initiatives to grow more castor for energy production, in preference to other oil crops, are motivated by social considerations. Tropical subsistence farmers would gain a cash crop.
Punishment
Some parents punished children with a dose of castor oil. Physicians recommended against the practice because they did not want medicines associated with punishment.
A heavy dose of castor oil could be used as a humiliating punishment for adults. Colonial officials used it in the British Raj (India) to deal with recalcitrant servants. Belgian military officials prescribed heavy doses of castor oil in Belgian Congo as a punishment for being too sick to work.
The most famous use as punishment came in Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini. It was a favorite tool used by the Blackshirts to intimidate and humiliate their opponents. Political dissidents were force-fed large quantities of castor oil by Fascist squads. This technique was said to have been originated by Gabriele D'Annunzio or Italo Balbo. Victims of this treatment did sometimes die, as the dehydrating effects of the oil-induced diarrhea often complicated their recovery from the nightstick beatings they also received along with the castor oil; however, even those victims who survived had to bear the humiliation of the laxative effects resulting from excessive consumption of the oil.
Safety
The castor seed contains ricin, a toxic lectin. Heating during the oil extraction process denatures and deactivates the lectin. Harvesting castor beans, though, may not be without risk. The International Castor Oil Association FAQ document states that castor beans contain an allergenic compound called CB1A. This chemical is described as being virtually nontoxic, but has the capacity to affect people with hypersensitivity. The allergen may be neutralized by treatment with a variety of alkaline agents. The allergen is not present in the castor oil itself.
In popular culture
In the 1922 film, Nanook of the North, Nanook gives one of his sons a spoonful of castor oil, and he enjoys it.
In the 1934 Silly Symphony short "The Wise Little Hen", Donald Duck and Peter Pig pretend to have bellyaches to get out of helping the titular hen plant and harvest corn. When she grows wise to their ruse, she invites the two over for dinner and, rather than corn, gives them a bottle of castor oil for their "bellyaches".
In the 1939 film The Great Man Votes, an early scene establishes the loving relationship between the single father played by John Barrymore and his two young children. “Socrates and his hemlock!” Pop declares as he downs the cup of coffee laced with a spoonful of castor oil prepared by his daughter (12-year-old Virginia Weidler), following doctor's orders.
In the 1943 Tom and Jerry cartoon short "Baby Puss", Tom Cat, dressed as a baby, is given castor oil by a child as a punishment.
In the 1949 MGM Tex Avery cartoon The House of Tomorrow, the house is shown to have individual medicine cabinets for each member of the family, with “Junior’s” containing a large bottle of castor oil and a spoon.
In the novel It Can't Happen Here, castor oil is used by American fascist paramilitaries in a reference to the Mussolini regime.
In the 1986 film Stand by Me, protagonist Gordie tells his friends a story in which castor oil is used to violently disrupt a pie-eating contest.
See also
Castor wax
List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
References
Further reading
– overview of chemical properties and manufacturing of castor oil
External links
Castor oil plant
Ayurvedic medicaments
Laxatives
Non-petroleum based lubricants
Liquid dielectrics
Cosmetics chemicals
Traditional medicine
Triglycerides | wiki |
Area code 308 is the telephone area code in the North American Numbering Plan for western Nebraska. It was created on July 1, 1954, by splitting the numbering plan area (NPA) 402 along a roughly S-shaped boundary line from the western half of the Nebraska–South Dakota border to the approximate center of the Nebraska–Kansas border. A roughly 50-mile segment of the line running northeast to southwest in the eastern third of the state follows the Platte River.
With Nebraska's population concentrated on the state's eastern edge in the cities of Omaha and Lincoln, numbering plan area 308 is one of the most sparsely populated in the nation. According to projections, 308 will remain in its current configuration until at least 2050, as its supply of telephone numbers is in no immediate danger of exhaustion.
Major towns
Alliance
Chadron
Gering
Grand Island
Kearney
McCook
North Platte
Ogallala
Scottsbluff
Sidney
See also
List of NANP area codes
References
External links
List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload.com, 308 Area Code
308 Area Code Information
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1954
308
308 | wiki |
David O'Hare and Joe Salisbury were the defending champions but chose to defend their title with different partners. O'Hare partnered Luke Bambridge but lost in the final to Dominik Köpfer and Denis Kudla. Salisbury partnered Brydan Klein but lost in the semifinals to Bambridge and O'Hare.
Köpfer and Kudla won the title after defeating Bambridge and O'Hare 7–6(8–6), 7–6(7–3) in the final.
Seeds
Draw
References
Main Draw
Columbus Challenger - Doubles
Columbus Challenger | wiki |
Sanchai and Sonchat Ratiwatana were the defending champions but chose not to defend their title.
Chen Ti and Ben McLachlan won the title after defeating Jarryd Chaplin and Luke Saville 2–6, 7–6(7–1), [10–1] in the final.
Seeds
Draw
References
Main Draw
Gwangju Open - Doubles
Gwangju Open | wiki |
Stratton Library may refer to:
Stratton Library, at Sheldon Jackson College
Stratton Library, in the Cobb County Public Library System | wiki |
A triathlon is an endurance athletic event consisting of three stages, without a break: swimming, cycling and running, in that order.
Triathlon or Triathlete may also refer to:
Other three-part sports events
Cross triathlon, swimming, mountain-biking, and trail-running
Winter triathlon, running, mountain biking, and cross-country skiing
Athletics at the 1904 Summer Olympics – Men's triathlon, long jump, shot put, and 100-yard dash
Gymnastics at the 1904 Summer Olympics – Men's triathlon, horizontal bar, parallel bars, and horse
Eventing, the equestrian triathlon
Other
Triathlon, alias of Delroy Garrett, a fictional superhero character in Marvel Comics
10346 Triathlon, a main-belt asteroid
The Triathron, a sports game for the Famicom made by K. Amusemnet
Triathlete, a magazine published by Outside (company) | wiki |
Hurting may refer to:
Pain
The Hurting, 1983 debut album by Tears for Fears
The Hurting (TV series), a British television clip show
"Hurting" (song), 2010 single by Karl Wolf, featuring Sway | wiki |
Un sequencer muzical (sau simplu sequencer) sau o aplicație software prin care se poate înregistra, edita, sau reproduce muzica, prin manipularea notelor și reprezentarea informației în cîteva forme, in mod tipic MIDI sau CV/Gate, și posibil audio și Automatizare datelor pentru DAW și plug-inuri.
Vezi și
Muzică electronică
Drum machine
Sampler
Legături externe
A list of software DAWs, Sequencers, Hosts, etc.
Audio Sequencers on Shareware Music Machine
MIDI Sequencers on Shareware Music Machine
Early sequencer controllers from the Vintage Synth Explorer
The sequencer comparison chart
1974 newspaper article about digital sequencer
history of electronic musical instruments and sequencers
Tehnologie de producere a sunetului
MIDI
Instrumente muzicale electronice | wiki |
The Friday fast is a Christian practice of variously (depending on the denomination) abstaining from meat, dairy products and alcohol, on Fridays, or holding a fast on Fridays, that is found most frequently in the Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist traditions. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, written in the first century A.D., directed Christians to fast on both Wednesdays (the fourth day of the week) and Fridays (the sixth day of the week). The Wednesday fast is done in remembrance of the story of the betrayal of Christ by Judas on Spy Wednesday, while the Friday fast is done in commemoration of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ on Good Friday. As such, all Fridays of the year have been historically kept in many parts of Christendom as a day of strict fasting and abstinence from alcohol, meat and lacticinia (milk and milk products). Abstinence from meat on Fridays is done as a sacrifice by many Christians because they believe that on Good Friday, Jesus sacrificed his flesh for humanity. In Orthodox Christianity, in addition to fasting from food until sundown, the faithful are enjoined to abstain from sexual relations on Fridays as well.
In Christianity
In Orthodoxy
Orthodox Christians are required to fast on Fridays (and Wednesdays), which means not consuming food until the afternoon or evening. The supper that is eaten after the fast is broken in the evening is usually vegan. Additionally, Orthodox Christians abstain from sexual relations on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year, as with the entirety of Lent, the Nativity Fast and the 15 days before the Feast of the Dormition of Mary.
In Catholicism
In Catholicism, specific regulations are passed by individual episcopates. In the United States in 1966, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops passed Norms II and IV that bound all persons from age fourteen to abstain from meat on Fridays of Lent and through the year. Previously, the requirement to abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year applied for those age seven or older. Canons 1252 and 1253 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law express this same rule, and added that Bishops may permit substitution of other penitential practices for Fridays outside of Lent, but that some form of penance shall be observed on all Fridays of the year in commemoration of the day of the week of the Lord's Crucifixion. Abstinence on all Fridays outside of Lent is still the preferred practice among many Catholics, who choose to maintain this tradition rather than substituting an alternative penance. Most episcopal conferences have not allowed the substitution of an alternative penance for Fridays of Lent. No episcopal conference has lifted the obligation for either fasting or abstinence for Ash Wednesday and Good Friday.
Fast and abstinence is regulated by Canons 1250–1253 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law. They specify that all Fridays throughout the year and the time of Lent are penitential times throughout the entire Church. All adults (those who have attained the 'age of majority', which is 18 years in canon law) are bound by ecclesiastical law to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday until the beginning of their sixtieth year. All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays unless the Friday is a solemnity, and again on Ash Wednesday; but in practice, this requirement has been greatly reduced by the Episcopal Conferences because under Canon 1253, it is these Conferences that have the authority to set down the local norms for fasting and abstinence in their territories. The precept to both fast and abstain on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday is usually not dispensed from.)
Catholics may eat only one full meal on a fast day. Additionally, they are permitted to eat up to two small meals or snacks, known as collations. Church requirements on fasting only relate to solid food, not to drink, so Church law does not restrict the amount of water or other beverages – even alcoholic drinks – which may be consumed. Church law on fasting has changed over the centuries since fasting is a discipline which may be altered by legitimate Church authorities.
In Methodism
"The General Rules of the Methodist Church," written by the founder of Methodism, John Wesley, wrote that "It is expected of all who desire to continue in these societies that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation, by attending upon all the ordinances of God, such are: the public worship of God; the ministry of the Word, either read or expounded; the Supper of the Lord; family and private prayer; searching the Scriptures; and fasting or abstinence." Methodism's principal liturgical book The Sunday Service of the Methodists (put together by Wesley), as well as The Directions Given to Band Societies (25 December 1744), mandate fasting and abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year (except Christmas Day, if it falls on a Friday),<ref name="Wesley1825">{{cite book |author1=John Wesley |title=The Sunday Service of the Methodists |date=1825 |publisher=J. Kershaw |page=145 |language=English |quote=Days of Fasting or Abstinence All the Fridays in the Year, except Christmas-Day}}</ref> a practice that was reemphasized by Phoebe Palmer and became standard in the Methodist churches of the holiness movement. The Methodist Churches traditionally encourage their adherents to fast on Fridays throughout the year.
Wesley required fasting on both Wednesdays (in remembrance of the Betrayal of Christ) and Fridays (in remembrance of His crucifixion and death) for those seeking ordination.
In LutheranismA Handbook for the Discipline of Lent'' delineates the following Lutheran fasting guidelines:
Fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday with only one simple meal during the day, usually without meat.
Refrain from eating meat (bloody foods) on all Fridays in Lent, substituting fish for example.
Eliminate a food or food group for the entire season. Especially consider saving rich and fatty foods for Easter.
Consider not eating before receiving Communion in Lent.
Abstain from or limit a favorite activity (television, movies, etc.) for the entire season, and spend more time in prayer, Bible study, and reading devotional material.
It is the practice of many Lutherans to abstain from alcohol and meat on the Fridays of Lent; a Black Fast has been historically kept by Lutherans on Good Friday.
In Anglicanism
Anglican formularies, particularly the Book of Common Prayer, have generally required abstinence from meat on Fridays; the wording in the 1928 Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America describes "All the Fridays in the Year, except Christmas Day and the Epiphany, or any Friday which may intervene between these Feasts" as days "on which the church requires such a measure of abstinence as is more especially suited to extraordinary acts and exercises of devotion".
See also
Eucharistic fast
Lenten sacrifice
Christian vegetarianism
Meat-free day
Sunday Sabbatarianism
References
External links
The Wesley Fast by Methodist Prayer
Friday Fast in Hinduism
Asceticism
Anglican theology and doctrine
Catholic spirituality
Catholic liturgy
Methodism | wiki |
Reminiscence is the act of recollecting past experiences or events.
Reminiscence(s) may also refer to:
Reminiscences (2010 film), a Peruvian film
Reminiscence (2017 film), a Japanese film
Reminiscence (2021 film), a science fiction drama film
Reminiscence (album), by Bonnie Pink (2005)
Reminiscence (EP), by Everglow (2020) | wiki |
Sinployea harveyensis foi uma espécie de gastrópodes da família Charopidae.
Foi endémica das Ilhas Cook.
Referências
Seddon, M.B. & Solem, A. 1996. Sinployea harveyensis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Dados de 7 de Agosto de 2007.
Sinployea
Espécies descritas em 1872 | wiki |
Karen Morton may refer to:
Karen Morton (model), Playboy's Miss July 1978
Karen Morton (sport shooter), British sport shooter | wiki |
A loincloth is a one-piece garment, either wrapped around itself or kept in place by a belt. It covers the genitals and sometimes the buttocks. Loincloths which are held up by belts or strings are specifically known as breechcloth or breechclout. Often, the flaps hang down in front and back.
History and types
Loincloths are worn in societies where no other clothing is needed or wanted. Loincloths are commonly used as an undergarment or swimsuit by wrestlers and by farmers in paddy fields in both Sri Lanka and India, where it is called Kovanam in Tamil, in Sinhala and kaupinam or langot.
The loincloth, or breechcloth, is a basic form of dress, often worn as the only garment. Men have worn a loincloth as a fundamental piece of clothing which covers their genitals, not the buttocks, in most societies which disapproved of genital nakedness throughout human history. The loincloth is in essence a piece of material, bark-bast, leather, or cloth, passed between the legs and covering the genitals. Despite its functional simplicity, the loincloth comes in many different forms.
The styles in which breechcloths and loincloths can be arranged are myriad. Both the Bornean sirat and the Indian dhoti have fabric pass between the legs to support a man's genitals.
A similar style of loincloth was also characteristic of ancient Mesoamerica. The male inhabitants of the area of modern Mexico wore a wound loincloth of woven fabric. One end of the loincloth was held up, the remainder passed between the thighs, wound about the waist, and secured in back by tucking.
In Pre-Columbian South America, ancient Inca men wore a strip of cloth between their legs held up by strings or tape as a belt. The cloth was secured to the tapes at the back and the front portion hung in front as an apron, always well ornamented. The same garment, mostly in plain cotton but whose aprons are now, like T-shirts, sometimes decorated with logos, is known in Japan as .
Some of the culturally diverse Amazonian indigenous still wear an ancestral type of loincloth.
Japanese men wore until recently a loincloth known as a . The is a piece of fabric (cotton or silk) passed between the thighs and secured to cover the genitals.
Loincloths by culture
India
Unsewn Kaupinam and its later-era sewn variation langot are traditional clothes in India, worn as underwear in dangal held in akharas especially wrestling, to prevent hernias and hydrocele. Kacchera is mandatory for Sikhs to wear.
Japan
Japanese men and women traditionally wore a loincloth known as a fundoshi. The fundoshi is a 35 cm (14 in.) wide piece of fabric (cotton or silk) passed between the thighs and secured to cover the genitals. There are many ways of tying the fundoshi.
Native American
In most Native American tribes, men used to wear some form of breechcloth, often with leggings. The style differed from tribe to tribe. In many tribes, the flaps hung down in front and back; in others, the breechcloth looped outside the belt and was tucked into the inside, for a more fitted look. Sometimes, the breechcloth was much shorter and a decorated apron panel was attached in front and behind.
A Native American woman or teenage girl might also wear a fitted breechcloth underneath her skirt, but not as outerwear. However, in many tribes young girls did wear breechcloths like the boys until they became old enough for skirts and dresses. Among the Mohave people of the American Southwest, a breechcloth given to a young female symbolically recognizes her status as hwame.
Philippines
In the Philippines, loincloths of any sort are generally called bahág. It is often a single, long, rectangular cloth that is not tied with a belt or string, and were made from either barkcloth or hand-woven textiles. The design of the weave is often unique to a specific tribe, while colors may denote the wearer’s social rank, such as plain white for commoners.
Throughout the pre-colonial period, the bahág was the normative dress for commoners and the servile class (the alipin caste). It survives today among some indigenous tribes of the Philippines, most notably the various Cordilleran peoples in the mountains of inland northern Luzon.
The bahág was also favoured by the pre-colonial noble (tumao) and warrior (timawa) classes of the Visayan people, as it showed off their elaborate, full-body tattoos (batok) that advertised combat prowess and other significant achievements.
One method of wrapping the bahág involves first pulling the long rectangular cloth (usually around ) in between the legs to cover the genitals, with a longer back flap. This back flap is then twisted across the right leg, then crossed at the waist in an anti-clockwise direction. It then goes under the front flap, then across the left leg. It is twisted back across the back loop, above the buttocks. The result is the two rectangular ends hanging in front of and behind the waist, with a loop around the legs resembling a belt.
The native Tagalog word for "rainbow", bahagharì, literally means "loincloth of the king".
Europe
Some European men around wore leather breechcloths, as can be seen from the clothing of Ötzi. Ancient Romans wore a type of loincloth known as a subligaculum.
The use of breechcloths took on common use by the Metis and Acadians and are mentioned as early as the 1650s. In the 1740s and 50s they were issued to the Canadien as part of their war uniform and in 1755 they even tried to issue them to soldiers from France.
"During their travels across Canada, the French [canadiens] dress as the Indians; they do not wear breeches" “Many nations imitate the French customs; yet I observed, on the contrary, that the French in Canada, in many respects, follow the customs of the Indians, with whom they converse everyday. They make use of the tobacco pipes, shoes, garters, and girdles of the Indians.” -Peter Kalm, 1749. "Those who go to war receive a capot, two cotton shirts, one breechclout, one pair of leggings, on blanket, one pair of souliers de boeuf, a wood-handled knife, a worm and a musket when they do not bring any. The breechclout is a piece of broadcloth draped between the thighs in the Native manner and with the two ends held by a belt. One wears it without breeches to walk more easily in the woods." – d’Aleyrac, 1755–60. “During the week the men went about in their homes dressed much like the Indians, namely, in stockings and shoes like theirs, with garters, and a girdle about the waist; otherwise the clothing was like that of other Frenchmen.” (Kalm, p. 558). "The French familiarized themselves with us, Studied our Tongue, and Manners, wore our Dress, Married our Daughters, and our Sons their Maids" (Pontiac, Ottawa leader, 2.2.50-57)
See also
Similar Indian clothes
Kacchera
Langot
Related Indian clothes
Clothing in India
Dhoti
Lungi
Similar foreign clothes
Breechcloth
Fundoshi
Loincloth
Mawashi
Perizoma
Subligaculum
Thong
Perizoma (loincloth)
Fundoshi
Kaupinam
Related foreign clothes
Tallit katan
Temple garment: religious undergarments worn by many Mormons
Notes
References
External links
The Loincloth of Borneo
Breechcloth on Wordnik, retrieved on 22.12.2009
Breechcloth by Rick Obermeyer (Dec. 1990), retrieved on 22.12.2009
Indian clothing
Maya clothing
Polynesian clothing
Skirts
Swimsuits
Undergarments | wiki |
Reveille in Washington, 1860–1865 is a book by Margaret Leech. It won the 1942 Pulitzer Prize for History.
References
Pulitzer Prize for History-winning works
History books about the American Civil War | wiki |
This is a list of Twelve Steps alternate wordings of the Twelve Steps set of guiding principles for recovery from addictive, compulsive, or other behavioral problems that was originally developed by Alcoholics Anonymous. The twelve-step method has been adapted widely by fellowships of people recovering from various addictions, compulsive behaviors, and mental health problems. Albert Lachance has even adapted it to dealing with "consumer addictions" such as shopping therapy.
In some cases, where other twelve-step groups have adapted the AA steps as guiding principles, they have been altered to emphasize principles important to those particular fellowships, to remove gender-biased or specific religious language.
Gamblers Anonymous has made significant changes to Steps 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 12 by reducing references to God, including a financial inventory, and eliminating "Spiritual Awakening".
Most of the alternate wordings are in Step 1 and Step 12:
See also
Twelve-step program
List of twelve-step groups
References
Twelve Step alternate wordings | wiki |
A knight or cavalier is a playing card with a picture of a man riding a horse on it. It is a standard face or court card in Italian and Spanish packs where it is usually referred to as the 'knight' in English, the caballo in Spanish or the cavallo in Italian. It ranks between the knave and the king within its suit; therefore, it replaces the queen, nonexistent in these packs.
The card also features in tarot and tarock packs. In French-suited tarot packs it is usually called the 'cavalier' in English, the chevalier in French or the Cavall or Reiter in German. and ranks between the jack and the queen.
Knights do not appear in German or Swiss playing cards; their place being occupied by an upper knave card called the Ober. One exception is the Württemberg pattern where the Obers are seen riding on horses. This depiction was inspired by Cego tarot decks during the 19th century.
History
In the original Mamluk Egyptian deck, there were three court cards called the malik (king), the nā'ib malik (viceroy or deputy king), and the thānī nā'ib (second or under-deputy). The latter two were transformed into the knight and the knave when playing cards entered southern Europe. The knave is often depicted as a foot soldier or squire to the knight. Many early tarot decks had added female ranks into the face cards including the Cary-Yale deck which added queens, mounted ladies, and maids as counterparts to the males. While mounted ladies and maids faded away or survive in minor regional patterns like the Tarocco Siciliano, knights were dropped in favour of queens in non-tarot French decks. In the Spanish suited Aluette pattern found in Brittany and the Vendée, knights have an androgynous appearance.
Example cards
References
Sources
Playing cards
Minor Arcana
Fictional knights | wiki |
A paracervical block is an anesthetic procedure used in obstetrics and gynecology, in which a local anesthetic is injected into between two and six sites at a depth of 3–7 mm alongside the vaginal portion of the cervix in the vaginal fornices. In the United States, the paracervical block is underutilized during insertion if intrauterine devices (IUDs). There is speculation that this is related to the disproportionate under-researching of women's health.
It is used for various obstetric and gynecologic procedures, such as hysteroscopy and vacuum aspiration.
It is as efficient as intracervical block, according to a study on women undergoing vacuum aspiration with lidocaine as anesthetic agent. Addition of ketorolac may offer added benefit of improved pain control.
References
Further reading
paracervical block
Obstetrical procedures
Female genital procedures
Regional anesthesia | wiki |
Murderball may refer to:
Murderball (sport), the original name for wheelchair rugby (known in the U.S. as quad rugby)
Murderball (film), a 2005 documentary about wheelchair rugby co-directed by Henry Rubin and Dana Adam Shapiro
Murderball, a character in the film The Violent Kind
See also
Killerball (sport)
Killerball (1989 videogame) | wiki |
La U.S. Route 431 o Ruta Federal 431, y oficialmente también como la Ruta Estatal de Alabama 1 (abreviada US 431) es una autopista federal ubicada en el estado de Alabama. La autopista inicia en el Norte desde la hacia el Sur en la . La autopista tiene una longitud de 568 km (352.958 mi).
Mantenimiento
Al igual que las carreteras estatales, las carreteras interestatales, y el resto de rutas federales, la U.S. Route 431 es administrada y mantenida por el Departamento de Transporte de Alabama por sus siglas en inglés ALDOT.
Cruces
La U.S. Route 431 es atravesada principalmente por la .
Véase también
Referencias
Enlaces externos
Página oficial del ALDOT
Lista de ciudades servidas por autopistas federales}
Lista de Autopistas por estado en AARoads.com
Carreteras federales de Alabama
Carreteras estatales de Alabama | wiki |
Brandenburgian, Brandenburgish or Brandenburgisch is a dialect spoken in Germany in the northern and western parts of Brandenburg (Uckermark, Prignitz and Mittelmark regions) as well as in northern Saxony-Anhalt (Altmark). The language area can be further divided between into North-Markish (Stendal, Wittenberge, Prenzlau) and Middle-Markish (Brandenburg an der Havel).
Brandenburgish was the East Low German dialect of the Brandenburg margraviate, but it has been much influenced by the East Central German dialects and by Standard High German. With the development of the Berlin metropolitan area the original Low German Brandenburgisch together with Berlinerisch has formed the local High German dialects, which today are considered an East Central German subgroup. The spread of High German into the Brandenburgish language area is an ongoing process.
References
Low German
German dialects
Brandenburg | wiki |
The following is a list of episodes from the series Spirit Riding Free.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2017)
Season 2 (2017)
Season 3 (2017)
Season 4 (2018)
Season 5 (2018)
Season 6 (2018)
Season 7 (2018)
Season 8 (2019)
Pony Tales: Season 1 (2019)
Pony Tales: Season 2 (2019)
Special (2019)
Riding Academy: Season 1 (2020)
Riding Academy: Season 2 (2020)
Interactive Special (2020)
Notes
References
External links
Spirit Riding Free | wiki |
An afterburner is an addition to a jet engine to increase thrust.
Afterburner may also refer to:
Media and entertainment
After Burner, a 1987 flight combat video game
Afterburner (Transformers), several fictional characters
Afterburner (ZZ Top album), 1985
Afterburner (Dance Gavin Dance album), 2020
Afterburner (modification kit), an aftermarket frontlighting kit for Game Boy Advance
Afterburner with Bill Whittle, an Internet streaming television show
Afterburner (Fun Spot), a former roller coaster at Fun Spot Amusement Park & Zoo in Angola, Indiana
Other uses
Afterburner (wireless networking) or 125 High Speed Mode, an enhancement to the IEEE 802.11g wireless networking standard
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption, a post-workout body effect also known as the afterburner effect
Apple Afterburner card, an accelerator card for the 3rd generation Mac Pro | wiki |
A sled is a type of sliding vehicle.
SLED or sled may also refer to:
People
Sled Allen (1886–1959), baseballer
Sled Reynolds, animal trainer
Places
Sled Lake, Saskatchewan
Sled Island
Computing
The SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop operating system
Superluminescent diode
Single Large Expensive Disk, term used contrasting with a Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
Other uses
Crosscut sled, a table saw accessory used to hold and slide the workpiece into the saw blade
State and Local Government and Education
South Carolina Law Enforcement Division
See also
Sledd (disambiguation)
Sleigh (disambiguation)
Sledge (disambiguation) | wiki |
Hase Spezialräder, also known as Hase Bikes, is a German tricycle, tandem and recumbent factory founded in 1994 in Bochum by Marec Hase.
Extraschicht, a yearly cultural event of the Ruhr region takes places, simultaneously with other locations, in the old Waltrop's mine building, now head office of the company.
Hase Bikes holds the Guinness Book of Records record for the longest tandem in the world, with 93 riders and more than 150m long.
References
External links
Hase Bikes Corporate Site
Velovision British Magazine Article
From the manufacturer's website : Document of various international articles about Hase Bikes (12,3 MB)
North American sales and support
Companies based in North Rhine-Westphalia
Cycle manufacturers of Germany
Recklinghausen (district) | wiki |
Lake Massapoag is a , natural, springfed lake located in Sharon, Massachusetts. The name Massapoag is Algonquin, meaning "large water".
Lake Massapoag is the headwaters of the Massapoag Brook, which flows into the Neponset River.
History
In the 18th century, workers deepened the outlet of the lake to draw the water down in order to extract bog iron for the smelting industry.
Lake Massapoag was the site of a large 19th-century ice business, with an enormous wooden icehouse at the eastern end of the lake.
Because of the lake and the fact that Sharon is at a slightly higher elevation than the surrounding towns, and because it is located on the main rail line going south from Boston, the shores of the lake developed into a minor summer resort with several large hotels, summer camps and cottage colonies. Temple Adath Sharon was built as a summer synagogue, and the houses around it, now occupied year-round, were once summer cottages.
Recreation
The site of the former ice house is now a large town beach. The beach was created by trucking in quantities of sand after the ice house burned down.
The lake is also popular for sailing and sailboarding. The Wheaton College Sailing Team, Sharon High School Sailing Team, and Dover Sherborn High School Sailing Team train on Lake Massapoag.
References
External links
MassWildlife map and information
Sharon, Massachusetts
Massapoag
Massapoag | wiki |
Stanley is a hamlet in Ontario County, New York, United States, located along New York State Route 245 in the Town of Seneca. It has a post office with a zip code of 14561. The Town of Seneca justice court is located in Stanley. Stanley was formerly known as Stanleys Corners; the nearby hamlet of Hall was also formerly known as Halls Corners. Stanley is known by many as the cabbage capital of the Northeastern United States.
References
Hamlets in New York (state)
Hamlets in Ontario County, New York | wiki |
Neuroendocrinology is the branch of biology (specifically of physiology) which studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system; i.e. how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.
The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroamines. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes. The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure.
Neuroendocrine system
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is commonly known as the relay center of the brain because of its role in integrating inputs from all areas of the brain and producing a specific response. In the neuroendocrine system, the hypothalamus receives electrical signals from different parts of the brain and translates those electrical signals into chemical signals in the form of hormones or releasing factors. These chemicals are then transported to the pituitary gland and from there to the systemic circulation.
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is divided into three lobes: the anterior pituitary, the intermediate pituitary lobe, and the posterior pituitary. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary's hormone secretion by sending releasing factors, called tropic hormones, down the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system. For example, thyrotropin-releasing hormone released by the hypothalamus in to the portal system stimulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary.
The posterior pituitary is directly innervated by the hypothalamus; the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesized by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus and stored at the nerve endings in the posterior pituitary. They are secreted directly into systemic circulation by the hypothalamic neurons.
Major neuroendocrine axes
Oxytocin and vasopressin (also called anti-diuretic hormone), the two neurohypophysial hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of magnocellular neurosecretory cells into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of the oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus, respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by afferent synaptic inputs from other brain regions.
By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, and growth hormone) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are substances released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the median eminence. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the anterior pituitary, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.
For example, the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two neuroendocrine systems: the growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and the somatostatin neurons, which stimulate and inhibit GH secretion, respectively. The GHRH neurons are located in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, whereas the somatostatin cells involved in growth hormone regulation are in the periventricular nucleus. These two neuronal systems project axons to the median eminence, where they release their peptides into portal blood vessels for transport to the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone is secreted in pulses, which arise from alternating episodes of GHRH release and somatostatin release, which may reflect neuronal interactions between the GHRH and somatostatin cells, and negative feedback from growth hormone.
Functions
The neuroendocrine systems control reproduction in all its aspects, from bonding to sexual behaviour. They control spermatogenesis and the ovarian cycle, parturition, lactation, and maternal behaviour. They control the body's response to stress and infection. They regulate the body's metabolism, influencing eating and drinking behaviour, and influence how energy intake is utilised, that is, how fat is metabolised. They influence and regulate mood, body fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, and blood pressure.
The neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini factories for producing secretory products; their nerve terminals are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons are good "model systems" for studying general questions, like "how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?" and "how is information encoded in electrical activity?"[It appears that this is a primary source observation.]
History
Pioneers
Ernst and Berta Scharrer, of the University of Munich the Albert Einstein College of Medicine are credited as co-founders the field of neuroendocrinology with their initial observations and proposals in 1945 concerning neuropeptides.
Geoffrey Harris is considered by many to be the "father" of neuroendocrinology. Harris, the Dr. Lee's Professor of Anatomy at Oxford University, is credited with showing that the anterior pituitary gland of mammals is regulated by hormones secreted by hypothalamic neurons into the hypothalamohypophysial portal circulation. By contrast, the hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are secreted into the systemic circulation directly from the nerve endings of hypothalamic neurons. This seminal work was done in collaboration with Dora Jacobsohn of Lund University.
The first of these factors to be identified are thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). TRH is a small peptide that stimulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone; GnRH (also called luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone) stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.
Roger Guillemin, a medical student of Faculté de Médecine of Lyon, and Andrew W. Schally of Tulane University isolated these factors from the hypothalamus of sheep and pigs, and then identified their structures. Guillemin and Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain".
In 1952, Andor Szentivanyi, of the University of South Florida, and Geza Filipp wrote the world's first research paper showing how neural control of immunity takes place through the hypothalamus.
Modern scope
Today, neuroendocrinology embraces a wide range of topics that arose directly or indirectly from the core concept of neuroendocrine neurons. Neuroendocrine neurons control the gonads, whose steroids, in turn, influence the brain, as do corticosteroids secreted from the adrenal gland under the influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system, regulating, for instance, digestion. The cells in the adrenal medulla that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of exocytosis. And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.
Neuroendocrine systems have been important to our understanding of many basic principles in neuroscience and physiology, for instance, our understanding of stimulus-secretion coupling. The origins and significance of patterning in neuroendocrine secretion are still dominant themes in neuroendocrinology today.
Neuroendocrinology is also used as an integral part of understanding and treating neurobiological brain disorders. One example is the augmentation of the treatment of mood symptoms with thyroid hormone. Another is the finding of a transthyretin (thyroxine transport) problem in the cerebrospinal fluid of some patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Experimental techniques
Since the original experiments by Geoffrey Harris investigating the communication of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland, much has been learned about the mechanistic details of this interaction. Various experimental techniques have been employed. Early experiments relied heavily on the electrophysiology techniques used by Hodgkin and Huxley. Recent approaches have incorporated various mathematical models to understand previously identified mechanisms and predict systemic response and adaptation under various circumstances.
Electrophysiology
Electrophysiology experiments were used in the early days of neuroendocrinology to identify the physiological happenings in the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary especially. In 1950, Geoffrey Harris and Barry Cross outlined the oxytocin pathway by studying oxytocin release in response to electrical stimulation. In 1974, Walters and Hatton investigated the effect of water dehydration by electrically stimulating the supraoptic nucleus—the hypothalamic center responsible for the release of vasopressin. Glenn Hatton dedicated his career to studying the physiology of the Neurohypophyseal system, which involved studying the electrical properties of hypothalamic neurons. Doing so enabled investigation into the behavior of these neurons and the resulting physiological effects. Studying the electrical activity of neuroendocrine cells enabled the eventual distinction between central nervous neurons, neuroendocrine neurons, and endocrine cells.
Mathematical Models
Hodgkin-Huxley Model
The Hodgkin-Huxley model translates data about the current of a system at a specific voltage into time-dependent data describing the membrane potential. Experiments using this model typically rely on the same format and assumptions, but vary the differential equations to answer their particular questions. Much has been learned about vasopressin, GnRH, somatotrophs, corticotrophs, and lactotrophic hormones by employing this method.
Integrate-and-Fire Model
The integrate-and-fire model aims for mathematic simplicity in describing biological systems by focusing on, and only on the threshold activity of a neuron. By doing so, the model successfully reduces the complexity of a complicated system; however it ignores the actual mechanisms of action and replaces them with functions that define how the output of a system depends on its input. This model has been used to describe the release of hormones to the posterior pituitary gland, specifically oxytocin and vasopressin.
Functional or Mean Fields Model
The functional or mean fields model relies on the premise "simpler is better". It strives to reduce the complexity of modelling multi-faceted systems by using a single variable to describe an entire population of cells. The alternative would be to use a different set of variables for each population. When attempting to model a system where multiple populations of cells interact, using several sets quickly becomes overcomplicated. This model has been used to describe several systems, especially involving the reproductive cycle (menstrual cycles, luteinizing hormone, prolactin surges). Functional models also exist to represent cortisol secretion, and growth hormone secretion.
See also
Behavioral endocrinology
Molecular neuroscience
Neurochemistry
Neuroendocrine cell
Neuroendocrine tumor
Neuropharmacology
Neuroscience
Gut–brain axis
References | wiki |
Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common infection caused by a group of enteroviruses. It typically begins with a fever and feeling generally unwell. This is followed a day or two later by flat discolored spots or bumps that may blister, on the hands, feet and mouth and occasionally buttocks and groin. Signs and symptoms normally appear 3–6 days after exposure to the virus. The rash generally resolves on its own in about a week. Fingernail and toenail loss may occur a few weeks later, but they will regrow with time.
The viruses that cause HFMD are spread through close personal contact, through the air from coughing and the feces of an infected person. Contaminated objects can also spread the disease. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause, and enterovirus 71 is the second-most common cause. Other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible. Some people may carry and pass on the virus despite having no symptoms of disease. Other animals are not involved. Diagnosis can often be made based on symptoms. Occasionally, a throat or stool sample may be tested for the virus.
Most people with hand, foot, and mouth disease get better on their own in 7 to 10 days. Most cases require no specific treatment. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. For fever and for painful mouth sores, over-the-counter pain medications such as ibuprofen may be used, though aspirin should be avoided in children. The illness is usually not serious. Occasionally, intravenous fluids are given to children who are dehydrated. Very rarely, viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease. Because HFMD is normally mild, children can continue to go to child care and schools as long as they have no fever or uncontrolled drooling with mouth sores, and as long as they feel well enough to participate in classroom activities.
HFMD occurs in all areas of the world. It often occurs in small outbreaks in nursery schools or kindergartens. Large outbreaks have been occurring in Asia since 1997. It usually occurs during the spring, summer and fall months. Typically it occurs in children less than five years old but can occasionally occur in adults. HFMD should not be confused with foot-and-mouth disease (also known as hoof-and-mouth disease), which mostly affects livestock.
Signs and symptoms
Common constitutional signs and symptoms of the HFMD include fever, nausea, vomiting, feeling tired, generalized discomfort, loss of appetite, and irritability in infants and toddlers. Skin lesions frequently develop in the form of a rash of flat discolored spots and bumps which may be followed by vesicular sores with blisters on palms of the hands, soles of the feet, buttocks, and sometimes on the lips. The rash is rarely itchy for children, but can be extremely itchy for adults. Painful facial ulcers, blisters, or lesions may also develop in or around the nose or mouth. HFMD usually resolves on its own after 7–10 days. Most cases of the disease are relatively harmless, but complications including encephalitis, meningitis, and paralysis that mimics the neurological symptoms of polio can occur.
Cause
The viruses that cause the disease are of the Picornaviridae family. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause of HFMD. Enterovirus 71 (EV-71) is the second-most common cause. Many other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible.
Transmission
HFMD is highly contagious and is transmitted by nasopharyngeal secretions such as saliva or nasal mucus, by direct contact, or by fecal–oral transmission. It is possible to be infectious for days to weeks after the symptoms have resolved.
Child care settings are the most common places for HFMD to be contracted because of toilet training, diaper changes, and the fact that children often put their hands into their mouths. HFMD is contracted through nose and throat secretions such as saliva, sputum, nasal mucus and as well as fluid in blisters, and stool.
Diagnosis
A diagnosis usually can be made by the presenting signs and symptoms alone. If the diagnosis is unclear, a throat swab or stool specimen may be taken to identify the virus by culture. The common incubation period (the time between infection and onset of symptoms) ranges from three to six days. Early detection of HFMD is important in preventing an outbreak in the pediatric population.
Prevention
Preventive measures include avoiding direct contact with infected individuals (including keeping infected children home from school), proper cleaning of shared utensils, disinfecting contaminated surfaces, and proper hand hygiene. These measures have been shown to be effective in decreasing the transmission of the viruses responsible for HFMD.
Protective habits include hand washing and disinfecting surfaces in play areas. Breast-feeding has also shown to decrease rates of severe HFMD, though does not reduce the risk for the infection of the disease.
Vaccine
A vaccine known as the EV71 vaccine is available to prevent HFMD in China . No vaccine is currently available in the United States.
Treatment
Medications are usually not needed as hand, foot, and mouth disease is a viral disease that typically resolves on its own. Currently, there is no specific curative treatment for hand, foot and mouth disease. Disease management typically focuses on achieving symptomatic relief. Pain from the sores may be eased with the use of analgesic medications. Infection in older children, adolescents, and adults is typically mild and lasts approximately 1 week, but may occasionally run a longer course. Fever reducers can help decrease body temperature.
In 2018, National Health Commission of China assembled a panel of experts to revise their guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of hand, foot and mouth disease. Consumption of Traditional Chinese medicine, prescribed by certified physicians, are recommended to clear the symptoms.
A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.
Complications
Complications from the viral infections that cause HFMD are rare, but require immediate medical treatment if present. HFMD infections caused by Enterovirus 71 tend to be more severe and are more likely to have neurologic or cardiac complications including death than infections caused by Coxsackievirus A16. Viral or aseptic meningitis can occur with HFMD in rare cases and is characterized by fever, headache, stiff neck, or back pain. The condition is usually mild and clears without treatment; however, hospitalization for a short time may be needed. Other serious complications of HFMD include encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), or flaccid paralysis in rare circumstances.
Fingernail and toenail loss have been reported in children 4–8 weeks after having HFMD. The relationship between HFMD and the reported nail loss is unclear; however, it is temporary and nail growth resumes without treatment.
Minor complications due to symptoms can occur such as dehydration, due to mouth sores causing discomfort with intake of foods and fluid.
Epidemiology
Hand, foot and mouth disease most commonly occurs in children under the age of 10 and more often under the age of 5, but it can also affect adults with varying symptoms. It tends to occur in outbreaks during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons. This is believed to be due to heat and humidity improving spread. HFMD is more common in rural areas than urban areas; however, socioeconomic status and hygiene levels need to be considered. Poor hygiene is a risk factor for HFMD.
Outbreaks
In 1997, an outbreak occurred in Sarawak of Malaysia with 600 cases and over 30 children died.
In 1998, there was an outbreak in Taiwan, affecting mainly children. There were 405 severe complications, and 78 children died. The total number of cases in that epidemic is estimated to have been 1.5 million.
In 2008 an outbreak in China, beginning in March in Fuyang, Anhui, led to 25,000 infections, and 42 deaths, by May 13. Similar outbreaks were reported in Singapore (more than 2,600 cases as of April 20, 2008), Vietnam (2,300 cases, 11 deaths), Mongolia (1,600 cases), and Brunei (1053 cases from June–August 2008)
In 2009 17 children died in an outbreak during March and April 2009 in China's eastern Shandong Province, and 18 children died in the neighboring Henan Province. Out of 115,000 reported cases in China from January to April, 773 were severe and 50 were fatal.
In 2010 in China, an outbreak occurred in southern China's Guangxi Autonomous Region as well as Guangdong, Henan, Hebei and Shandong provinces. Until March, 70,756 children were infected and 40 died from the disease. By June, the peak season for the disease, 537 had died.
The World Health Organization reporting between January to October 2011 (1,340,259) states the number of cases in China had dropped by approx 300,000 from 2010 (1,654,866) cases, with new cases peaking in June. There were 437 deaths, down from 2010 (537 deaths).
In December 2011, the California Department of Public Health identified a strong form of the virus, coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6), where nail loss in children is common.
In 2012 in Alabama, United States there was an outbreak of an unusual type of the disease. It occurred in a season when it is not usually seen and affected teenagers and older adults. There were some hospitalizations due to the disease but no reported deaths.
In 2012 in Cambodia, 52 of 59 reviewed cases of children reportedly dead () due to a mysterious disease were diagnosed to be caused by a virulent form of HFMD. Although a significant degree of uncertainty exists with reference to the diagnosis, the WHO report states, "Based on the latest laboratory results, a significant proportion of the samples tested positive for enterovirus 71 (EV-71), which causes hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD). The EV-71 virus has been known to generally cause severe complications amongst some patients."
HFMD infected 1,520,274 people with up to 431 deaths reported at the end of July in 2012 in China.
In 2018, more than 50,000 cases have occurred through a nationwide outbreak in Malaysia with two deaths also reported.
India 2022
An outbreak of an illness referred to as tomato fever or tomato flu was identified in the Kollam district on May 6, 2022. The illness is endemic to Kerala, India and gets its name because of the red and round blisters it causes, which look like tomatoes. The disease may be a new variant of the viral HFMD or an effect of chikungunya or dengue fever. Flu may be a misnomer.
The condition mainly affects children under the age of five. An article in The Lancet states that the appearance of the blisters is similar to that seen in monkey pox, and the illness is not thought to be related to SARS-CoV-2. Symptoms, treatment and prevention are similar to HFMD.
History
HFMD cases were first described clinically in Canada and New Zealand in 1957. The disease was termed "Hand Foot and Mouth Disease", by Thomas Henry Flewett, after a similar outbreak in 1960.
Research
Novel antiviral agents to prevent and treat infection with the viruses responsible for HFMD are currently under development. Preliminary studies have shown inhibitors of the EV-71 viral capsid to have potent antiviral activity.
References
External links
Enterovirus-associated diseases
Oral mucosal pathology
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
Virus-related cutaneous conditions | wiki |
Preparatory school or prep school may refer to:
Schools
Preparatory school (United Kingdom), an independent school preparing children aged 8–13 for entry into fee-charging independent schools, usually public schools
College-preparatory school, in the United States, a high or secondary school, either private or public, preparing students aged 14–18 for higher education at an elite college or university
Classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles, two-years’ intensive higher-education schooling when French students prepare to enter top-level schools (engineering, commerce, research, politics, etc.) via competitive examinations
Media
Prep School, a 2015 American coming of age drama film, starring Carly Schroeder.
See also
Preschool, an establishment offering early childhood education before primary school
Prepper (disambiguation) | wiki |
"Homebreaker" is a song written by Skeeter Davis and Marie Wilson. In 1959, Skeeter Davis recorded and released the song as a single for RCA Victor.
"Homebreaker" was recorded and released as a single in July 1959 at the RCA Victor Studio in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. and peaked at number fifteen on the Billboard Magazine Hot C&W Sides chart later that year. The single was Davis' third major hit single on the country chart. The song was not originally issued onto an official album.
Chart performance
References
1959 songs
Skeeter Davis songs
Songs written by Skeeter Davis
Song recordings produced by Chet Atkins
1959 singles
RCA Victor singles | wiki |
"Velvet Chains" is a song written by Kevin Welch and Ron Hellard, and recorded by American country music artist Gary Morris. It was released in November 1982 as the first single from the album Why Lady Why. The song reached #9 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
Chart performance
References
1983 singles
Gary Morris songs
Song recordings produced by Paul Worley
Songs written by Kevin Welch
Warner Records singles
1982 songs
Songs written by Ron Hellard | wiki |
Coixcas describes a pre-conquest community, and its inhabitants, located between the modern Mexican towns of Tixtla and Apango. The Coixcas people resisted and repulsed attempts by the Aztecs to conquer their community. The area was later captured by the Spanish conquistadores.
Ruins
According to the people of modern Apango, there are few ruins of the ancient settlement, except a small temple three kilometers (2 miles) from the present Atliaca, midway between Apango and Tixtla.
Mestizaje
As part of the Casta process of the Spanish conquest, the people of Coixcas were merged into the community in Apango.
References
History of Mexico | wiki |
Diabulimia (a portmanteau of diabetes and bulimia), also known as ED-DMT1 (eating disorder-diabetes mellitus type 1) in the US or T1ED (type 1 eating disorder) in the UK, is an eating disorder in which people with type 1 diabetes deliberately give themselves less insulin than they need or stop taking it altogether for the purpose of weight loss. Diabulimia is not recognized as a formal psychiatric diagnosis in the DSM-5. Because of this, some in the medical or psychiatric communities use the phrases "disturbed eating behavior" or "disordered eating behavior" (DEB in both cases) and disordered eating (DE) are quite common in medical and psychiatric literature addressing patients who have type 1 diabetes and manipulate insulin doses to control weight along with exhibiting bulimic behavior.
Diabulimia is caused by a range of factors relating to body image, the regular use of insulin, and emotional well-being. Insulin can cause weight gain, and a person who restricts insulin may lose weight. Insulin restriction can lead to the common symptoms of uncontrolled hyperglycaemia, which risks complications and a shorter life expectancy. Treatment involves cognitive behavioural therapy, and other support services offered by a multidisciplinary team who work both in diabetes medicine and on eating disorders.
Diabulimia is most common in young people, and most of the severe cases tend to occur in women. Research into effective management strategies is ongoing, with a growing medical consensus on the importance of early intervention with specialist teams. People with diabulimia often suffer both from clinicians and from friends and family, partly due to the lack of understanding of the condition.
Signs and symptoms
A person with diabulimia, especially if not treated early, can result in negative effects on the body earlier than one who is managing properly. Of diabetics who have a DEB, some intentionally misuse insulin to control weight. This may also involve irregular eating patterns.
Suspension of insulin combined with overeating can result in ketoacidosis. Multiple hospitalizations for ketoacidosis or hyperglycemia are cues to screen for an underlying emotional conflict.
Short term
The short-term symptoms of diabulimia are:
Frequent and excessive urination
Frequent and excessive thirst
Frequent and excessive hunger
High blood glucose levels (often over 600 mg/dL or 33 mmol/L)
Weakness
Fatigue
Large amounts of glucose in the urine (glycosuria)
Inability to concentrate
Electrolyte disturbance
Severe ketonuria, and, in DKA, severe ketonemia
Low sodium levels
Medium term
These are the medium-term symptoms of diabulimia. They are prevalent when diabulimia has not been treated and hence also include the short-term symptoms.
Muscle atrophy
GERD
Indigestion
Severe weight loss
Proteinuria
Moderate to severe dehydration
Edema with fluid replacement
High cholesterol
Long term
If a person with type 1 diabetes who has diabulimia has the disease for more than a short time—usually due to alternating phases during which insulin is injected properly and relapses during which they have diabulimia—then the following longer-term symptoms can be expected:
Delayed puberty (and dysmenorrhoea or amenorrhoea in women) in young people
Severe kidney damage: high blood sugar can overwork the kidneys, eventually leading to kidney failure and the need for a kidney transplant
Severe neuropathy (nerve damage to hands and feet)
Extreme fatigue
Edema (during blood sugars controlled phases)
Heart problems
Retinal damage and subsequent vision problems
High cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia)
Osteoporosis
Death
Causes
Diabulimia is caused by a range of factors relating to body image, the regular use of insulin, and emotional well-being. The long-term management of type 1 diabetes often involves dietary restrictions for control of blood sugar level, which can raise a negative attention to diet. There is often a focus on the fact that insulin can cause weight gain, and that not using insulin can cause weight loss. This increases the risk of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The vast majority of people with diabulimia are aware of the negative side effects that hyperglycaemia can cause. Skipping insulin can lead to weight loss without side effects at first, but the risk of side effects gets progressively worse - by this time, it is more difficult to change behaviour.
Often, people with type 1 diabetes who omit insulin injections will have already been diagnosed with an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or EDNOS. These individuals often think diabulimia is less common than it is and do not know how difficult it is to overcome. Unlike anorexia and bulimia, diabulimia sometimes requires the affected individual to stop caring for a medical condition. Unlike vomiting or starving, there is sometimes no clear action or willpower involved.
Prognosis
Diabulimia appears to lower life expectancy compared to other patients with type 1 diabetes, with the mean age of death around 45 (13 years lower than that for type 1 diabetes without an eating disorder). This reduced life expectancy is correlated with the severity of eating disorder behaviours.
Treatment
There are no specific guidelines for the treatment of diabetes and disordered eating. The standard approach for treatment of two complex conditions involves a multidisciplinary team of professionals. This team may include an endocrinologist, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, and a dietician. Therapies may involve cognitive behavioural therapy. Family involvement and family therapy is helpful for long-term maintenance of good behaviours with taking insulin. A positive mindset to recovery, and connection with others who have experienced diabulimia, increases the probability of successful recovery. Even with treatment, relapse is common (some estimate over 50% relapse within 6 years), requiring long-term reassessment for early intervention.
Epidemiology
Diabulimia is most common in women, and in people between 15 and 30 years old. Around 40% of men with type 1 diabetes may have skipped insulin injection at least once, and around 20% of women. Some studies have found that up to 60% of people with type 1 diabetes deliberately restrict insulin at some point.
Many articles and studies further conclude that diabetic females have, on average, higher body mass index (BMI) than their nondiabetic counterparts. Girls and young adult women with higher BMIs are also shown to be more likely to have disordered eating behavior (DEB). Many authoritative articles show that preteen and teenage girls with type 1 diabetes have significantly higher rates of eating disorders of all types than do girls without diabetes.
History
Diabulimia is not currently recognised in the DSM-5. Current diagnoses are based on the idea of insulin restriction being a feature of existing anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Diabulimia is gaining notability within scientific research. In 2019, NHS England began trialling specialist diabulimia clinics. Whilst access to eating disorder clinics is improving, access to specialist diabulimia services is not widely available.
Society and culture
A lack of recognition of diabulimia by clinicians leads to generally negative medical interactions. There is also a lack of public awareness. A lack of medical understanding creates social stigma. Because diabulimia tends not to involve significant eating restriction like anorexia nervosa, or purging as in bulimia nervosa, some do not recognise the significance of diabulimia. A BBC documentary in 2017 caused a significant increase in requests for specialist medical training for diabulimia, and improved public awareness.
See also
Diabetes mellitus
Bulimia nervosa
Eating disorder
References
Eating disorders
Diabetes | wiki |
Mohair (pronounced ) is a fabric or yarn made from the hair of the Angora goat. (This should not be confused with Angora wool, which is made from the fur of the Angora rabbit.) Both durable and resilient, mohair is notable for its high luster and sheen, and is often used in fiber blends to add these qualities to a textile. Mohair takes dye exceptionally well. It feels warm in winter as it has excellent insulating properties, while its moisture-wicking properties allow it to remain cool in summer. It is durable, naturally elastic, flame-resistant and crease-resistant. It is considered a luxury fiber, like cashmere, angora, and silk, and can be more expensive than most sheep's wool.
Mohair is composed mostly of keratin, a protein found in the hair, wool, horns and skin of all mammals, but mohair's special properties are unique to the Angora goat. While it has scales like wool, the scales are not fully developed, merely indicated. Thus, mohair does not feel the same way common or standard wool does.
Mohair fiber is approximately 25–45 microns in diameter.
It increases in diameter with the age of the goat, growing along with the animal. Finer, softer hair from younger animals is used (for example) in scarves and shawls; the thicker, coarser hair from older animals is more often used for carpets and in heavy fabrics intended for outerwear.
The term mohair is sometimes used to describe a type of material used for the folding roof on convertible cars. In this instance, mohair refers to a form of denim-like canvas.
Production
Shearing is done twice a year, in the spring and in the fall. One goat will produce of mohair a year. Shearing is done on a cleanly-swept floor and extra care is taken to keep the hair clean and free of debris. The hair is then processed to remove natural grease, dirt and vegetable matter. Mohair grows in uniform locks. The Angora goat is a single-coat breed, and unlike pygora or cashmere, there is no need to dehair a mohair fleece to separate the coarse hair from the down hair.
South Africa is the world's largest mohair producer as of 2013, supplying around 50% of the total world production. Due to animal cruelty in the South African farms, Zara, H&M, Gap, Topshop, Lacoste, and many more will no longer sell mohair clothing.
History
Mohair is one of the oldest textile fibers in use.
The Angora goat is thought to originate from the mountains of Tibet, reaching Turkey in the 16th century. Fabric made of mohair was known in England by the early 18th century.
The word "mohair" was adopted into English sometime before 1570 from the Arabic: mukhayyar, a type of haircloth, literally "choice", from khayyara, "he chose".
In about 1820, raw mohair was first exported from Turkey to England, which then became the leading manufacturer of mohair products. The Yorkshire mills spun yarn that was exported to Russia, Germany, Austria, etc., as well as woven directly in Yorkshire.
Until 1849, the Turkish province of Ankara was the sole producer of Angora goats. Charles V is believed to be the first to bring Angora goats to Europe. Due to the great demand for mohair fiber, throughout the 1800s there was a great deal of crossbreeding between Angora goats and common goats. The growing demand for mohair further resulted in attempts on a commercial scale to introduce the goat into South Africa (where it was crossed with the native goat) in 1838, the United States in 1849, Australia from 1856 to 1875, and later still New Zealand. In 1849, Angora goats made their way to America as a gift from Turkey.
During the 1960s, a blend of mohair and wool suiting fabric known as Tonik or Tonic was developed in England. This had a shiny, color-changing appearance and was popular among rude boys and the mod subculture. Similar suits were worn by mod revivalists, skinheads, and fans of ska punk and two tone music during the early to mid-1980s.
Today, South Africa is the largest mohair producer in the world, with the majority of South African mohair being produced in the Eastern Cape. The United States is the second-largest producer, with the majority of American mohair being produced in Texas. Turkey also produces good-quality mohair. Because the goats are sheared once a year (different from South Africa), Turkey produces the longest mohair of the world.
In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of mohair and other natural fibers.
Uses
Mohair is used in scarves, winter hats, suits, sweaters, coats, socks and home furnishing. Mohair fiber is also found in carpets, wall fabrics, craft yarns, and many other fabrics, and may be used as a substitute for fur. Because its texture resembles fine human hair, mohair is often used in making high-grade doll wigs or in rooting customized dolls.
Mohair is a very soft yarn when compared with other natural and synthetic fibers. Due to mohair's lacking prominent, protruding scales along the hair's surface, it is often blended with wool or alpaca. Blending the heavily scaled wool helps the smooth mohair fibers hold their shape and stick together when spun into yarn. Mohair is also valued for certain other unique characteristics: it is warmer than other fibers, even when used to make a light-weight garment, and is often blended with wool for this reason; and mohair fibers have a distinctive luster created by the way they reflect light. Combined with mohair's ability to absorb dyes exceptionally well, pure mohair yarns are usually recognizable for their vivid, saturated colours.
Fibers from young goats are softest and are used to manufacture yarn for clothing. Fibers from mature goats are used to produce such things as rugs and carpets. Mohair is also used in 'climbing skins' for randonnée skiing and ski touring. The mohair is used in a carpet allowing the skier an appropriate ascension method without sliding downhill.
Mohair industry worldwide
As of 2009, world output of mohair was estimated at around 5,000 tonnes a year, down from a high of 25,000 tonnes in the 1990s. South Africa accounts for 60% of total production. South African mohair is generally exported raw or semi-processed to textile makers in Europe, the UK and the Far East. Prices for adult mohair declined in 2010 while prices for kid mohair remained the same. An emerging market for mohair producers has been China.
U.S. subsidies for mohair production
During World War II, U.S. soldiers wore uniforms made of wool. Worried that domestic producers could not supply enough for future wars, Congress enacted loan and price support programs for wool and mohair in the National Wool Act of 1954 as part of the 1954 Farm Bill. Despite these subsidies, wool and mohair production declined. The strategic importance declined as well; the US military adopted uniforms made of synthetic fibers, such as dacron, and officially removed wool from the list of strategic materials in 1960. Nevertheless, the U.S. government continued to provide subsidies to mohair producers until 1995, when the subsidies were "eliminated effective with the marketing year ending December 31, 1995". In The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad, Fareed Zakaria points out that the subsidies were reinstated a few years later, due in large part to the lobbying on behalf of the special interests of the subsidy recipients. By 2000, Congress had appropriated US$20 million for goat and sheep producers. As of 2002, mohair producers were still able to receive special assistance loans from the U.S. government, after an amendment to eliminate the subsidy was defeated. The U.S. currently subsidizes mohair production under the Marketing Assistance Loan Program of the 2014 Farm Act.
In popular culture
In the Elton John song "Bennie and the Jets," Bennie is said to wear a suit made of mohair.
On Seinfeld, season 5 episode 4, “The Sniffing Account” Jerry, Kramer and Newman have reason to suspect that their accountant, Barry Profit, is taking their money and using it to buy illegal narcotics. Later, Jerry and Kramer realize that they were wearing the same mohair sweater during their encounters with Barry.
See also
International Year of Natural Fibres
References
Further reading
External links
Oklahoma State University, Breeds of Livestock - Angora goats
Wool
1960s fashion
1980s fashion | wiki |
Energon may refer to:
Transformers: Energon, an anime series named after a power source in the Transformers stories
Phospho-Energon, a medicinal concoction produced in Sweden | wiki |
Swap spreads are the difference between the swap rate (a fixed interest rate) and a corresponding government bond yield with the same maturity (Treasury securities in the case of the United States).
For example, if the current market rate for a five-year swap is 1.35 percent and the current yield on the five-year Treasury note is 1.33 percent, the five-year swap spread would be 0.02 percentage points, or 2 basis points.
Often, fixed income prices will be quoted in "SWAPS +", wherein the swap rate is added to a given number of basis points. The swap rate there is simply the yield on an equal-maturity Treasury plus the swap spread.
Swap spread became a popular indication of credit spread in Europe during the 1990s.
References
Financial markets
Swaps (finance)
Credit risk | wiki |
Downdraft tables or downdraught benches are workbenches with built-in ventilation to capture dust, smoke, and fumes and draw them away from the operator and the material being worked on. They typically consist of a perforated surface whose underside is connected to a ventilation or dust collection system, to draw material through the holes and away from the work.
References
Ventilation
Particulate control
Workbenches | wiki |
North Eastern Airways (NEA) was a British airline which operated from 1935 until the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Based initially in Newcastle upon Tyne, it operated routes from Scotland to London in competition with the railways, retaining its independence to the end.
History
Formation
The company was formed on 4 March 1935 by a group of investors headed by Ralph Beckett, 3rd Baron Grimthorpe. Lord Grimthorpe was a wealthy banker and racehorse owner who also had a keen interest in aviation. In 1931, with two De Havilland Aircraft Company employees A Hessel-Tiltman and Nevil Shute Norway along with Alan Cobham as directors, he became the chairman of Airspeed Ltd, which went on to create, among other notable aircraft, the Courier and Envoy transport aircraft.
With Lord Grimthorpe’s link with Airspeed, it was natural that the first aircraft that NEA acquired were three new Envoy 6-passenger airliners, becoming the first airline customer of the type.
The first service to be operated was the east coast route to Scotland, from London (Heston) to Leeds (Yeadon), Newcastle (Cramlington) and Edinburgh (Turnhouse). The fare between London and Edinburgh was £10. The inaugural flight started at Leeds and Bradford Municipal Aerodrome, otherwise known as Yeadon Airport, where on 8 April 1935 the first aircraft, Airspeed Envoy G-ADAZ, was named Tynedale by Mrs Anthony Eden (Beatrice Beckett). The aircraft was then flown, with Mrs Eden and other dignitaries on board, to Heston, where it skidded on landing, running into a fence. While this was an embarrassment for what had been the first ever scheduled flight operated from Yeadon, no one was harmed, and the aircraft suffered only superficial damage.
The Edinburgh leg could not initially be operated due to lack of radio and navigation aids, defeating the object of the exercise. Even when Edinburgh service did start, on 27 May, demand was so low that the whole route was closed on 27 June and the airline’s assets were taken over by another of Grimthorpe’s companies, Alp Aviation. The reason for the low demand was that existing railway services were fast, regular, comfortable, cheap, and much less dependent on the weather.
The route was restarted by NEA on 2 November 1936. This time the London terminus was Croydon Airport, and the Scottish one was Perth (Scone Aerodrome) which had opened earlier that year. The airport at Newcastle had also changed with the opening of Woolsington Aerodrome (now Newcastle International Airport). Since Edinburgh was now being bypassed, stops, presumably by request, were made at Macmerry Airfield, 15 miles east of Edinburgh. The change of Scottish airport was because of pressure from the London and North Eastern Railway (L.N.E.R.) which was concerned about the competition on the Edinburgh route, and barred its ticket offices and other travel agents from selling the airline’s tickets. This time the airline persisted, even extending the service to Aberdeen (Dyce Airport), and by 1937 offering an express service from Croydon to Aberdeen with just one stop (at Doncaster). The Aberdeen link was soon abandoned because of a lack of radio aids there.
Growth
1937 was a year of expansion with the addition of De Havilland Rapides to the fleet, and with Doncaster Airport as the hub of new routes to Leeds, to Liverpool (Hooton Park) via Manchester (Barton Aerodrome) and to Hull (Hedon Aerodrome). From Hull they ran a ferry service with the Airspeed Couriers across the Humber Estuary to Grimsby (Waltham Aerodrome), a route pioneered by North Sea Aerial and General Transport in 1932-3. The airline had also established the Doncaster Aero Club as a subsidiary.
1937 was also the year when North Eastern Airways joined the International Air Traffic Association (IATA), later to become the International Air Transport Association. This gave the airline a degree of prestige and assisted in L.N.E.R abandoning their ticket sale ban from 21 December that year. Indeed cooperation grew, and in the Summer 1938 timetable it is noted that airline tickets and rail tickets on almost all the airline’s routes were “interavailable” with L.N.E.R. and L.M.S.R. (London, Midland and Scottish Railway) allowing outward journey by air and return by first-class rail, or outward journey by rail and return by air for a supplement.
When an Airspeed Envoy was delivered to the King's Flight in 1937, Lord Grimthorpe had a plaque installed at the front of the cabin of his Envoys informing the passengers that the aircraft was the same type in which the King flew.
In 1938 NEA operated special services to Glasgow (Renfrew Airport) for the Empire Exhibition which opened on 3 May.
The airline applied for a mail-carrying contract and was initially refused, but later granted, and their first mail flight, from Perth to Newcastle, then onwards on the route via Yeadon and Doncaster to Croydon was flown on 3 October 1938. The first sector of the route was flown by Rapide G-AFEP, and the remainder by Envoy G-ADAZ.
Also in 1938, the airline applied to the Air Ministry for permission to fly a route to Switzerland using Douglas DC-3 aircraft, starting in January 1939. This would have been operated as Alp Air Line, presumably the operating name of Alp Aviation. The plan was rejected.
In 1939 the airline’s schedules to both Glasgow and Edinburgh (which had been reinstated in 1938) were replaced by the new Central Scotland Airport at Grangemouth which opened on 1 May. There was a new connection from Perth to Dundee, and a link was established with Scottish Airways for connection from Perth to Inverness, Wick and Orkney. A new summer daily route was advertised between Croydon and Knocke (Le Zoute airport) in Belgium. None of these arrangements would last for long.
Demise
All NEA’s activities stopped with the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, and their headquarters were moved to Liverpool Speke Airport. Most of the fleet had been disposed of during the earlier part of 1939, but the Rapides were retained, coming under the control of National Air Communications (NAC), and were all impressed into military service in early 1940.
One part of the company kept going, however; a subsidiary, Martin Hearn Ltd. Its eponymous founder had worked for Alan Cobham before setting up as an aircraft engineer at Liverpool’s Hooton Park in 1935. At some point North Eastern Airways must have acquired it. During the war it was very active assembling, maintaining and repairing military aircraft, possibly with remaining NEA staff working there, and it continued for several years after the war.
Meanwhile, the remains of NEA were bought by L.N.E.R in April 1944, and they possibly sold off Martin Hearn Ltd in 1947 when its name was changed to Aero-Engineering and Marine (Merseyside). Hern himself departed to run a hotel adjacent to the airfield. North Eastern Airways was one of the airlines taken over by BEA on 1 February 1947 in the nationalisation of all private scheduled operators, but this was a formality.
Routes
From timetables.
April 1935
London (Heston) — Leeds (Yeadon) — Newcastle upon Tyne (Cramlington) — Edinburgh (Turnhouse) weekdays only
(Edinburgh 'subject to permission')
Summer 1937
London (Croydon) — Doncaster — Leeds Bradford† — York† — Newcastle upon Tyne† — Perth/Dundee — Aberdeen daily
(† = request stop)
Grimsby — Hull — Doncaster — Manchester — Liverpool
(Doncaster — Liverpool operated by KLM Royal Dutch Airlines)
April 1939
London (Croydon) — Newcastle upon Tyne — Central Scotland Airport — Perth — Aberdeen daily
London (Croydon) — Knock-Le Zoute daily
Fleet
† These aircraft were previously sold to Spanish Republican procurement organisations including Union Founders’ Trust, Federation Populaire des Sports Aeronautiques, and Compagnie Air Taxi, Vienna. These export sales were blocked and the aircraft were sold on.
Two other aircraft, De Havilland DH.60G Gipsy Moth G-ABLE and DH.94 Moth Minor G-AFPK were registered to NEA for short periods before being transferred to Doncaster Aero Club.
The livery was overall silver with black lettering and trim.
Accidents and incidents
While operating for North Eastern Airways, Airspeed Courier G-ACSZ was involved in a fatal crash, and Envoy G-ADBZ crash-landed with no injuries and was returned to service. See Fleet list for details.
References
Bibliography
Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Airlines established in 1935 | wiki |
Sarah Ferguson (born 1959), later Sarah, Duchess of York, is the former wife of Prince Andrew, Duke of York.
Sarah Ferguson may also refer to:
Sarah Ferguson (politician) (1942–2022), Jersey politician
Sarah Ferguson (journalist) (born 1965), Australian journalist
Sarah Jane Ferguson (born 1935), American former baseball player
See also
Sarah (disambiguation)
Ferguson (disambiguation) | wiki |
De finale van de Coupe de France van het seizoen 2008/09 werd gespeeld op zaterdag 9 mei 2009 in het Stade de France in Saint-Denis. EA Guingamp versloeg Stade Rennais met 2–1. De Braziliaanse spits Eduardo scoorde beide doelpunten voor Guingamp. In de finale van 2014 zouden beide clubs elkaar opnieuw treffen.
Finale
Wedstrijd
2009
Stade Rennais
Coupe de France | wiki |
The Xbox 360 controller is the primary game controller for Microsoft's Xbox 360 home video game console that was introduced at E3 2005. The Xbox 360 controller comes in both wired and wireless versions. The Xbox controller is not compatible with the Xbox 360. The wired and wireless versions are also compatible with Microsoft PC operating systems, such as Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.
The wireless controllers run on either AA batteries or a rechargeable battery pack. The wired controllers may be connected to any of the USB ports on the console, or to an attached USB hub.
Design
The Xbox 360 controller has the same basic familiar button layout as the Controller S except that a few of the auxiliary buttons have been moved. The "back" and "start" buttons have been moved to a more central position on the face of the controller, and the "white" and "black" buttons have been removed and replaced with two new bumpers that are positioned over the analog triggers on the back of the controller. The controller has a 2.5 mm TRS connector on the front, allowing users to connect a headset for voice communication. It also features a proprietary serial connector (which is split into 2 parts on either side of the headset connector) for use with additional accessories, such as the chatpad.
On August 31, 2010, Microsoft's Larry Hryb (a.k.a. Major Nelson) revealed a new design of the Xbox 360 controller set to replace the Wireless controller bundled with the Play & Charge Kit. Among small changes such as the shape of the analog stick tops and grey-colored face buttons, the new controller features an adjustable directional pad which can be changed between a disc type D-pad or a plus shaped D-pad. The control pad was released in North America exclusively with Play & Charge Kits on November 9, 2010, and was released in Europe during February 2011.
The Xbox 360 controller provides a standard USB Human interface device software interface, but is designed for the Microsoft XInput interface library. Although many PC video games support the XInput library, some games might not work with this controller.
Layout
A standard Xbox 360 controller features eleven digital buttons, two analog triggers, two analog sticks and a digital D-pad. The right face of the controller features four digital action buttons: a green button, red button, blue button, and yellow button. The lower right houses the right analog stick, in lower left is a digital D-pad and on the left face is the left analog stick. Both analog sticks can also be clicked in to activate a digital button beneath. In the center of the controller face are digital "Start", "Back" and "Guide" buttons. The "Guide" button is labelled with the Xbox logo, and is used to turn on the console/controller and to access the guide menu. It is also surrounded by the "ring of light", which indicates the controller number, as well as flashing when connecting and to provide notifications. The left and right "shoulders" each feature a digital shoulder button, or "bumper", and an analog trigger.
Wireless controllers also feature an additional "connect" button located between the "bumpers" to facilitate syncing with the console.
Standard colors
Wired controllers are available in white (sold separately and bundled with the Core consoles) and black (Xbox 360 S color scheme) along with the limited edition TRON controllers. However, wireless controllers are available in numerous different colors including:
White controllers were bundled with the Arcade, Pro, and Limited Edition Final Fantasy XIII Elite consoles; also sold separately.
Black controllers were bundled with the Elite consoles to match the casing; also sold separately (UPC/EAN 0885370145717, 885370239393).
Dark Blue controllers were released in October 2007 (US only).
Light Blue controllers were released in October 2007 (Europe and Japan only).
Pink controllers were released in October 2007.
Black S and White S controllers are bundled with Xbox 360 S consoles. These differ from their original counterparts in that they are completely one color, rather than with grey accents. The guide button has a mirror like finish, and the analog sticks and D-pad are color matched. The bottom edge of this controller also features a glossy finish to match the Xbox 360 S 250 GB case design. "S" controllers also replace the Microsoft branding above the charging port with an Xbox 360 wordmark.
Limited and special edition colors
Halo 3
"Spartan Green" controllers were included with the Halo 3 Special Edition Xbox 360 Pro consoles released in September 2007. The controller features 'black accents' with the D-pad, analog sticks, triggers and parts of the casing all changed to black instead to the usual gray.
"Limited Edition" "Spartan" and "Brute" controllers were released in September 2007. Two versions were available, each of which feature Halo 3-themed artwork (with either a "Spartan" or "Brute" design) from artist Todd McFarlane. Each version of the controller also included a Master Chief figurine (a different figure was included with each version).
Red "Limited Edition" controllers were released in September 2008. The controller features 'black accents' with the D-pad, analog sticks, triggers and parts of the casing all changed to black instead to the usual gray. It comes bundled with a Play & Charge Kit with a red rechargeable battery pack. The red controller is also included with the Limited Edition Resident Evil 5 Xbox 360 Elite console released in March 2009.
Green "Limited Edition" controllers were released in mid October 2008 in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. The green controller has a D-pad with 16-way functionality, instead of the 8-way D-pad used on all previous controllers. This controller was released alongside Pro Evolution Soccer 2009.
Dragon Design "Limited Edition" White and Black controllers were released in October 2008 and are available only through Walmart and Sam's Club. The controller features a black dragon (and other symbols) on a white background, along with a white D-pad and black analog sticks. It comes bundled with a black wired headset.
Halo 3: ODST "Special Edition" controllers were released in September 2009 in a "Collector's Pack" including the Halo 3: ODST game. The pack was originally exclusive to GameStop and retailed for US$99.99 in North America.
Radioactive Design "Exclusive" controllers were released in October 2009 and were available exclusively at GameStop and EB Games Australia. The controller features a carbon black shell with a red radiation symbol emanating from the right analog stick. The left analog stick is black and the right analog stick and D-pad are red. This controller was announced at Major Nelson's website and is said to be limited edition although the packaging makes no reference to this. It comes bundled with a Play & Charge Kit with a black rechargeable battery pack.
Halo: Reach "Special Edition" controllers were released on September 14, 2010, coinciding with the release of Halo: Reach. The controller is based around the Black S design (black analog sticks, D-pad, etc.; glossy black front; shiny guide button) with the matte black shell replaced with a satin silver shell, which also features a custom design based on the game. It was available separately and with the Halo: Reach Special Edition console bundle, which came bundled with two of the controllers.
Fable III "Special Edition" controllers were released on October 5, 2010, 3 weeks before the release of Fable III itself. The controller is based around the Black S design (black analog sticks, D-pad etc.; glossy black front; shiny guide button) and features a custom gold-colored shell and artwork. It also comes bundled with an exclusive downloadable tattoo set for use within the game.
TRON controllers were created by PDP and released in December 2010 to coincide with the film TRON: Legacy. The controllers were offered in two limited edition variations—one with blue LED illumination (20,000 units made) and the other with orange LED illumination (250 units made). Both versions are wired and feature textured grips and a raised, 4-way D-pad.
Blue "Limited Edition" controllers were released with Limited Edition Blue Xbox 360 consoles and both the console and the controller had turquoise accents and was released on October 7, 2014, exclusively at Walmart for a limited time.
Transforming D-pad controllers
Transforming D-pad "special edition" controllers were released in the US on November 9, 2010, and in Europe during February 2011. The main feature of this controller is a D-pad that can be rotated to adapt to the user's gameplay, becoming either a "plus" (4-way) or a "disc" (8-way) D-pad. The controller also features new concave analog stick tops and grey tone face buttons (A, B, X and Y). The main shell of the controller is matte silver, with glossy black accents (triggers, bumpers and both front and rear panels) like the "Black S" design. This controller comes bundled with a matte black improved Play & Charge Kit with a matte black rechargeable battery pack, offering up to 35 hours of play. The codename for the controller during development was "Aberdeen".
Gears of War 3 "Limited Collector's Edition" controllers were released on September 20, 2011, to coincide with the launch of Gears of War 3. The controllers are metallic red with a black "Infected Omen" symbol and feature a transforming D-pad. Unlike the "Transforming D-pad" Special Edition controller, the Gears of War 3 LCE controller features the standard colored face buttons and analog stick tops found on other controllers. It was sold with the Gears of War 3 LCE console bundle, which came bundled with two of the controllers.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 "Limited Edition" controllers were released on November 8, 2011, in North America, Australasia and the EMEA (Europe, Middle East and Africa) region to coincide with the release of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3. It features custom Modern Warfare 3 artwork (predominantly matte grey), a transforming D-pad and the same concave analog stick tops found on the original transforming D-pad controller. All (non-face) buttons, as well as the analog sticks, are black. It was sold with the Modern Warfare 3 Limited Edition console bundle which came bundled with two of the controllers.
Star Wars C-3PO "Limited Edition" controllers were released in April 2012 to coincide with the release of Kinect Star Wars. The controller is mirrored gold and black, and features a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops and standard colored face buttons. The black panel at the front of the controller also features "wiring" artwork, resembling the parts of C-3PO that are not covered in gold plating in the original Star Wars films. It was bundled the Kinect Star Wars Limited Edition console bundle.
Chrome Series "Special Edition" controllers were released in May 2012. The chrome series controllers are available in six colors: Blue, Red, Silver, Gold, Black and Purple. These controllers feature a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops and standard colored face buttons.
Black S controllers with a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops and standard colored face buttons and bundled with a black improved Play & Charge Kit with a black rechargeable battery pack were released in October 2012.
Halo 4 "Limited Edition" controllers were released in November 2012. Two different controllers are available:
Halo 4 branded "Limited Edition" 'exclusive controllers inspired by the game' were sold with the Halo 4 Limited Edition console bundle; two were included. These feature a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops, standard colored face buttons and a glowing blue Xbox guide button instead of the traditional glowing green Xbox guide button.
UNSC Halo 4 "Limited Edition" controllers feature the United Nations Space Command (UNSC) emblem on a dark grey translucent case, and also feature a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops, standard colored face buttons and a glowing blue Xbox guide button.
Tomb Raider "Limited Edition" controllers were released in early March 2013 to complement the launch of Tomb Raider. They are red and feature a two layer color finish with laser etching to create a realistic and tactile worn appearance inspired by Lara's climbing axe from the game. These feature a transforming D-pad, concave analog stick tops and standard colored face buttons. The controllers also come bundled with a downloadable token for an Xbox 360-exclusive playable Tomb Raider character.
Non-retail colors
Launch Team Edition controllers were bundled with the "Xbox 360 Launch Team Edition", given exclusively to members of the Xbox launch team by Microsoft in November 2005. These white wireless controllers feature green accents at the front in place of the standard grey.
Yellow controllers were included with the 100 Limited Edition The Simpsons Movie Xbox 360 Pro consoles announced in May 2007, and given away as prizes in special events and promotions.
Orange coloured LIVE TURNS FIVE controllers were released in November 2007, and were given away to selected members of the media.
Guide button
The Xbox 360 controller has a guide button in the center of its face that provides a new functionality. This button is surrounded by a ring of lights divided into four quadrants that provide gamers with different types of information during game play. For instance, during a split screen multiplayer match, a particular quadrant will light up to indicate to a player which part of the screen they are playing on at that time. In this case, when the user pushes the button, they access the Xbox guide; a menu which provides access to features like messaging friends, downloading content, voice chat and customizing soundtracks, while staying in the game. The Guide button also allows users to turn off the controller or the console by holding the button for a few seconds (rather than simply pressing it).
Accessories
Rechargeable Battery Pack
The Rechargeable Battery Pack is a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack, which provides up to 24 hours of continuous gaming for the wireless controller. It is an alternative to disposable AA batteries, which differ slightly in voltage and have higher disposal costs (financial and environmental). It ships as part of, and can be charged by, the Play & Charge Kit and the Quick Charge Kit. To fully charge the battery pack takes approximately 2 hours with the Quick Charge Kit; the Play & Charge Kit takes longer (and depends on whether the controller is being used). An upgraded, 35-hour version is included with improved Play & Charge Kits and "transforming D-pad" controllers, while a 40-hour version is included with the improved Quick Charge Kit.
Wireless Gaming Receiver
The Wireless Gaming Receiver (sold as "Crossfire Wireless Gaming Receiver" in the UK) allows wireless Xbox 360 accessories, such as wireless gamepads, racing wheels and headsets, to be used on a Windows-based PC. The device acts in a similar manner to an Xbox 360, allowing up to 4 controllers and 4 headsets at a time to be connected to the receiver. The device has a 30-foot (10 meter) range and a six-foot (2 meter) USB cable. It is specifically designed to work with games bearing the "Games for Windows" logo, but will function with most games that permit a standard PC gamepad. The official Xbox website noted that the adapter will work with "all future wireless devices".
Messenger Kit
The Messenger Kit consists of a wired Xbox 360 headset and a small keyboard known as the "Chatpad". The Chatpad connects to the front of the controller and may be used for any standard text input on the console. It is not currently compatible with the wireless gaming receiver.
Non-gaming uses
The United States Navy has announced that it plans to use Xbox 360 controllers to control periscopes on new Virginia-class submarines, for both cost and familiarity reasons.
Reception
The Xbox 360 controller received positive reviews when it was released. Before then, as IGN stated, the original Xbox controller was "huge, ugly, cheap, and uncomfortable" and concluded to be an "abomination". Many of these problems were corrected with Microsoft's releases of the Xbox controller S and then the Xbox 360 controller. IGN credited the Xbox 360 controller for its being one of "the most ergonomically comfortable console controllers around". It was also praised for its improved button placement, its functioning logo as a button, and Microsoft's choice of bottom-mounting headset ports as opposed to top-mounting them so as to minimize snagged wire problems.
See also
Kinect
Sixaxis
DualShock
PlayStation Move
Wii Remote
References
Controller
Game controllers | wiki |
A red panda is a small mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China.
Red Panda can also refer to:
Red Panda (acrobat) (born 1970/1971), Chinese-American acrobat
Red Panda Records, a record label active in the 2000s
Red Panda Adventures, a Canadian radio drama
See also | wiki |
Prison break may refer to:
Prison break, alternative term for jailbreak or prison escape
Prison Break (film), 1938 American crime drama
Prison Break, 2005 American TV serial drama
Prison Break: The Final Break, 2009 American TV film, part of Prison Break TV franchise
Prison Break (Amphibia), July 2, 2019 episode of American animated TV series
See also
Jailbreak (disambiguation) | wiki |
Savvy may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Savvy (novel), a 2008 children's fantasy novel by Ingrid Law
Savvy Records, a defunct American record label
Savvy, of the American pop duo Savvy & Mandy
Savvy, an American pop group whose members appear in the sitcom The Wannabes
Products and companies
Savvy, Freelance marketplace
Savvy Vodka, a brand of vodka
Proton Savvy, a supermini car
Savvy, a computer language for programming the RB5X and other robots
People
Charles M. Cooke, Jr. (1886–1970), nicknamed "Savvy", United States Navy admiral
Charles Read (naval officer) (1840–1890), nicknamed "Savvy", United States Navy and Confederate States Navy officer
Souvik Gupta (born 1983), nicknamed "Savvy", Indian musician, singer and composer
See also
Business acumen, business savvy or media savvy
Common sense
Intelligence
Jack Sparrow, a fictional pirate character who notably uses the catchphrase "Savvy?"
Salvi (disambiguation)
Savi (disambiguation)
Savy (disambiguation) | wiki |
Norman MacKenzie or Mackenzie may refer to:
Norman MacKenzie (politician) (1894–1986), Canadian politician
Norman Mackenzie (conductor), conductor
Norman Mackenzie (1869–1936), Canadian lawyer and arts patron whose collection became the Norman Mackenzie Art Gallery
Norman MacKenzie (journalist) (1921–2013), British writer, journalist and educationalist | wiki |
Nathans may refer to:
Nathan's Famous, a restaurant chain
Daniel Nathans, an American microbiologist | wiki |
Jean Morrison may refer to:
Jean Morrison (musician)
Jean Morrison (professor) | wiki |
Dakkah () is a kind of external couch attached to the house, usually built of bricks or the same material as the house and then covered with fabric. Dakkahs were very common in the traditional buildings of the Arab World, people gathering on the dakkas to talk and sip tea.
The dakkah is found more often in rural settings, where the house faces a farm or an open space. It is used for informal visits, whereas the majlis is used for formal visits.
See also
Dikka
External links
Glossaire des Mots Espagnols et Portugais Derivés de l'Arabe, R. Dozy & W. A. Engelmann. p. 46
Arabic architecture
Couches | wiki |
Quality Cafe is the name of two different former locations in Downtown Los Angeles, California.
Quality Cafe (diner), a now-defunct diner at 1236 West 7th Street
Quality Cafe (jazz club), a historical restaurant and jazz club located at 1143 East 12th Street near Central Avenue | wiki |
Hyperamoeba is a former genus of amoeboid protists, described in 1923. It has been shown to be polyphyletic, and the species formerly contained in it have been divided among the genera Physarum, Stemonitis and Didymium.
References
Amoebozoa genera
Obsolete eukaryote taxa
Myxogastria | wiki |
Fahita may refer to:
Fahita (East Timor)
Abla Fahita, an Egyptian puppet character
See also
Fajita, in Tex-Mex cuisine, grilled meat usually served as a taco on a flour or corn tortilla | wiki |
Cityfight may refer to:
Cityfight: Modern Combat in the Urban Environment, a 1979 board game
Codex Battlezone: Cityfight, a Warhammer 40,000 supplement
See also
Urban warfare | wiki |
A belt is a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather, plastic, or heavy cloth, worn around the natural waist or near it (as far down as the hips). The ends of a belt are free; and a buckle forms the belt into a loop by securing one end to another part of the belt, at or near the other end. Often, the resulting loop is smaller than the hips. Belts come in many lengths because of the variety in waist sizes, and most belts can be adjusted at the buckle to suit the wearer's waist.
Description
Belts are used variously to secure or hold up clothing, such as trousers, shorts, and skirts; to carry objects, such as tools and weapons; and to define or accentuate the waist.
Some garments have a series of belt loops at the waist, through which a belt can be threaded. Additionally, many belts have a "keeper loop" affixed to one end, near the buckle. The keeper loop stops the free end of the belt from flapping around once the belt is buckled. Some belts also have an end tip (made of metal or leather) covering the free end of the belt to protect it from damage.
On dresses, robes, and gowns, belts do not hold up the garment but may draw in its waist and define or accentuate it. These garments, because they maintain their position on the body by hanging from the shoulders or by friction against the torso, do not need belts in order to stay up. The breadth of belts worn with such garments need not be limited by the size of belt loops: some wide belts called waist cinchers overlap with corsets in appearance and function.
Belts that do hold up clothing work by friction and often take advantage of the narrow circumference (and the compressibility) of the torso above the hips. (Suspenders, also used to hold up such clothing as trousers, rely not on friction, compression, and the waist–hip proportion, but on maintaining distance between the shoulders of the wearer and the waist of the garment: the garment is held up by suspension (hanging), without need for the friction and compression of a belt; and the same principle applies in bib overalls. A garter belt (also called a suspender belt) employs both methods: the belt maintains its position on the body by friction and/or compression at or near the waist and/or by being smaller than the hips, and it maintains stockings' position on the legs by suspension. A sock garter works in the same way as a suspender belt, but for one leg only, the upper band of the garter being worn around the thigh or the calf, rather than the waist. A plain garter, a band worn on one leg to hold up hosiery, works like a belt, using friction and compression.)
Belts often are used as fashion accessories, with many colours, styles, and finishes. In heavy metal subculture, bullet belts and studded belts are worn. Belt buckles, often made of metal, vary from simple, one-color finishes to elaborately decorated belt plates with embossed or bas-relief images or multicolored logos. Pouches to carry objects, such as coin purses, holsters, scabbards, and inrōs, can be attached to belts and used instead of a garment's pockets. Many belts are marketed for one sex or the other, despite their universal functionality.
History
Belts have been documented as male clothing since the Bronze Age. Both sexes have used them off and on, depending on the fashion trends. In the western world, belts have been more common for men, with the exception of the early Middle Ages, late 17th century Mantua, and skirt/blouse combinations between 1901 and 1910. Art Nouveau belt buckles are now collectors' items.
In the latter half of the 19th century and until the First World War, the belt was a decorative as well as utilitarian part of military uniform, particularly among officers. In the armed forces of Prussia, Tsarist Russia, and other Eastern European nations, it was common for officers to wear extremely tight pressing into their stomachs and gutting them up, wide belts around the waist, on the outside of the uniform, both to support a saber and for aesthetic reasons. These tightly cinched belts served to draw in the waist and give the wearer a trim physique, emphasizing wide shoulders and a pouting chest. Often the belt served only to emphasize the waist made small by a corset worn under the uniform, a practice which was common especially during the Crimean Wars and was often noted by soldiers from the Western Front. Political cartoonists of the day often portrayed the tight waist-cinching of soldiers to comedic effect, and some cartoons survive showing officers being corseted by their inferiors, a practice which surely was uncomfortable but was deemed to be necessary and imposing.
In modern times, men started wearing belts in the 1920s, as trouser waists fell to a lower line. Before the 1920s, belts served mostly a decorative purpose, and were associated with the military. Moreover, prior to that trousers did not even have belt loops. As sportswear, trousers with belt loops were already present in the 19th century. Today it is common for men to wear belts with their trousers. In the US military belts are worn snugly at dress events or at inspection so as convey impressions of fitness and discipline. From 1989 onward the US military standards regarding belt tightness during normal duty and non-duty activities have been somewhat more relaxed to prevent deleterious effects of prolonged excessive abdominal constriction.
In some countries, a father's belt could be associated with corporal punishment. As belts are constructed out of materials like leather that are both strong and light, a belt can be easily wielded to produce intense pain by using it as a whip to strike the buttocks of a misbehaving child. Moreover, belts were convenient disciplinary tools, as they are generally immediately available for use. The belt can symbolize fatherly authority and paternal responsibility for one's children's behavior and moral development, but corporal punishment is not recommended for use in modern society as it was in the past.
Since the 1980s and more commonly in the mid-1990s, the practice of sagging the pants, in which the waistbands (usually secured by a cinched belt) of trousers or (typically long) shorts are worn at or below the hips, thereby exposing the top part of any underwear not obscured by an upper-body garment, has been seen among young men and boys, especially among those who are black and consanguine with hip-hop culture and fashion. This practice is believed to have originated with prison gangs and the prohibition of belts in prison (due to their use as weapons and as devices for suicide) -- historically, including in the latter part of the 20th century, gang-affiliated young men and boys were expected to wear their belts fastened tightly.
Materials
Leather is the most popular belt material because it can withstand being bent, folded, and tightened without being damaged. Genuine leather belts will also adapt to the wearer with time. Belts are also made using a range of other materials, including braided leather, tooled leather, suede, leather-backed ribbon, canvas, webbing, rope and vinyl.
Fashion and formality
Belts have transformed from a strictly utilitarian item, to a fashion accessory in today's modern era. There are several unspoken rules for belts when it comes to belt shape and color, especially for men wearing suits, vs. a woman's choice of belt that is rooted in fashion trend, and not out always out of necessity.
Formal
Belts for formal dress pants/attire are usually 28–32 mm wide (a little under 1 inch). These belts offer specialty accents such as trapunto straps, beveled edges, fine stitch gauge, and a tapered tip. The leather, if it is made of leather, is commonly in a semi or high-shine finish (ex: spazzalato leather), with a tight grain, and a smooth leather backing. Dress belts typically have a buckle in a polished metal finish.
Casual
Casual belts commonly worn with denim are usually between 35 mm and 42 mm wide (a little under 1 inch). These are typically made out of a one-piece leather construction with a textured appearance, with a belt buckle in an antiqued finish, wider, thicker stitching, or bar-tacking, to ensure a strong construction.
Gallery
See also
Utility or tool belt: An example of a utility belt is a police duty belt. A notable fictional example is Batman's utility belt.
Studded belt: A studded belt is typically made of leather or similar materials, and is decorated with metal studs (see gallery above). Studded belts are often a part of punk/emo scene, rave, skater, goth and metal fashion.
Japanese video game designer Tetsuya Nomura has used extra belts in character designs for video game characters such as Lulu from Final Fantasy X and Sora in Kingdom Hearts II to create fantasy clothing.
Armband
Bandolier
Baldric
Belt buckle
Belting (beating)
Black belt (martial arts)
Championship belt
Cummerbund
Drawstring
Girdle
Haramaki (clothing)
Obi
Sam Browne belt
Sash
Stable belt
Strap
Waistband
References
Belts (clothing)
Medieval European costume
Leather goods | wiki |
This is a gallery of curves used in mathematics, by Wikipedia page. See also list of curves.
Algebraic curves
Rational curves
Degree 1
Degree 2
Degree 3
Degree 4
Degree 5
Degree 6
Families of variable degree
Curves of genus one
Curves with genus greater than one
Curve families with variable genus
Transcendental curves
Spirals
Piecewise constructions
Fractal curves
External links
Visual Dictionary of Special Plane Curves
Image galleries | wiki |
Nintendo Entertainment System / Famicom
Un jeu NES coûte en général 500 points Wii.
Super Nintendo
Un jeu Super Nintendo coûte généralement 800 points Wii.
Nintendo 64
Un jeu N64 coûte généralement 1000 points Wii.
Genesis
Un jeu Mega Drive coûte généralement 800 points Wii.
TurboGrafx-16/TurboGrafx-CD
Un jeu coûte généralement 600 points Wii.
Neo-Geo AES - Neo-Geo MVS
Un jeu coûte généralement 900 points Wii.
Console virtuelle en Amérique du Nord
Console virtuelle en Amérique du Nord | wiki |
Miss Teen USA 1987, the 5th Miss Teen USA pageant, was televised live from El Paso Civic Center, El Paso, Texas on July 21, 1987. At the conclusion of the final competition, Kristi Lynn Addis of Mississippi was crowned by outgoing queen Allison Brown of Oklahoma.
This was the only year that the pageant was held in El Paso. It would not return to Texas until Miss Teen USA 1997, the first of three years it was held on South Padre Island. The 1987 event was hosted by Michael Young, with colour commentary from Tracy Scoggins.
Results
Placements
Final competition scores
Winner
First runner-up
Second runner-up
Third runner-up
Fourth runner-up
Special awards
Background music
Opening Number: "I Wonder Who's Out Tonight" by The Burns Sisters (Cover version)
Historical significance
Mississippi wins competition for the first time. Also becoming in the 5th state who wins Miss Teen USA.
North Carolina earns the 1st runner-up position for the first time.
Louisiana earns the 2nd runner-up position for the first time.
Oklahoma earns the 3rd runner-up position for the first time.
North Dakota earns the 4th runner-up position for the first time.
States that placed in semifinals the previous year were Louisiana, New York and Oklahoma. All of them made their second consecutive placement.
Georgia, North Carolina and North Dakota last placed in 1985.
California last placed in 1983.
District of Columbia placed for the first time.
Massachusetts placed for the first time.
Mississippi placed for the first time.
Texas breaks an ongoing streak of placements since 1983.
Judges
Randy Gardner
Sharyn Skeeter
Michael Maron
Kelly Hu - Miss Teen USA 1985 from Hawaii
Michael John
Cptn. Terry Jones
John H. Brennan
Ramon Sheen
Adele Lawfor
Dean Devlin
Tai Babilonia
Delegates
The Miss Teen USA 1987 delegates were:
Alabama - Elizabeth Woodman
Alaska - Lauren Straubb
Arizona - Julie Hodges
Arkansas - Paige Yandell
California - Angi Aylor - Age: 15
Colorado - Nicki Anselmo
Connecticut - Allison Barbeau-Diorio
Delaware - Christi Griffen
District of Columbia - Ni'Cole Bobbitt - Age: 17
Florida - Kimberlee Edwards
Georgia - Hope Allen - Age: 16
Hawaii - Leslie-Ann Lum
Idaho - Luanne Relyea
Illinois - Danielle Reese
Indiana - Terri Salmon
Iowa - Jan Hoyer
Kansas - Stephanie Resnick
Kentucky - Tracey Marsee
Louisiana - Bobbie Brown - Age: 17
Maine - Donna Stevenson
Maryland - Renee Rebstock
Massachusetts - Kristen Mastroianni - Age: 16
Michigan - Elena Hall
Minnesota - Karin Hargroves
Mississippi - Kristi Addis - Age: 16
Missouri - Sherri Garner
Montana - Andrea Madsen
Nebraska - Susan Weikel
Nevada - Terri Broca
New Hampshire - Cara Daras
New Jersey - Tara Eldridge
New Mexico - Samantha Owen
New York - Michelle Kelenski - Age: 18
North Carolina - Peggy Blackwell - Age: 17
North Dakota - Dayna Decker - Age: 17
Ohio - Christy Hoyt
Oklahoma - RaeLynn Coffman - Age: 17
Oregon - Kasey Weisiger
Pennsylvania - Tracy Reed
Rhode Island - Raye-Anne Johnson
South Carolina - Carol Carver
South Dakota - Camille Varland
Tennessee - Shannon Castle
Texas - Richelle Kesling
Utah - Tiffany DeMille
Vermont - Christy Beltrami
Virginia - Kristi Pearce
Washington - Johna Sainsbury
West Virginia - Cheryl Cullop
Wisconsin - Barbara Nelson
Wyoming - Kim Roberts
Historical significance
Massachusetts, Mississippi and the District of Columbia placed for the first time. The District of Columbia would not place again until Miss Teen USA 2000.
This was North Carolina's highest placement in the competition, a record which would not be equalled until when Melissa Lingafelt placed first runner-up at Miss Teen USA 2006.
This was the first time in the history of the competition that Texas did not make the semi-finals; this broke a four-year streak of placements by the state.
Contestant notes
Kristen Mastroianni (Massachusetts) later won the Miss Massachusetts USA 1995 title and competed in the Miss USA 1995 pageant, where she made the semi-finals. She is one of only a few women who have made the semi-finals in both pageants.
Others who later competed at Miss USA were:
Paige Yandell (Arkansas) - Miss Arkansas USA 1989
Allison Barbeau-Diorio (Connecticut) - Miss Connecticut USA 1990
Renee Rebstock (Maryland) - Miss Maryland USA 1992
Jan Hoyer (Iowa) - Miss Iowa USA 1993 (semi-finalist at Miss USA 1993)
Christy Beltrami (Vermont) - Miss Vermont USA 1994
RayeAnne Johnson (Rhode Island) - Miss Rhode Island USA 1994
References
1987
1987 in Texas
1987 beauty pageants | wiki |
Platyamoeba is a genus of Amoebozoa.
References
Amoebozoa genera
Discosea | wiki |
The Princess and the Frog is a 2009 American animated film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios.
The Princess and the Frog may also refer to:
The Princess and the Frog (soundtrack)
At the End of the Rainbow, a 1965 live action children's film released by Fantasy Films, Inc.
See also
The Frog Prince (disambiguation)
The Frog Princess | wiki |
Lista över alla sumobrottare som har uppnått graderingen yokozuna, den högsta som går att nå i sumobrottningen.
Källor
Sumo reference - List of Yokozuna
Listor över idrottare
Sumo | wiki |
Sweetness (band), Nederlandse band aan het begin van de jaren tachtig
Sweetness (Yes) (1969), debuutsingle van de Britse band Yes | wiki |
This is a list of protected areas in Armenia that are categorized as follows: 4 national parks, 3 state reserves, 27 state sanctuaries and 5 botanical gardens.
National parks
State reserves
State wildlife sanctuaries
Botanical gardens
References
Armenia
Armenia
Protected areas | wiki |
Fences (del inglés, «vallas») puede hacer referencia a:
Fences (* 1983), cantante, compositor y guitarrista
Fences, obra de teatro de 1983 del dramaturgo estadounidense August Wilson
Fences, adaptación cinematográfica de 2016 de la obra teatral de Denzel Washington | wiki |
Home and Away: Hearts Divided is an exclusive-to-video and DVD special of Australia's most popular soap opera Home and Away. It was released on 29 October 2003 and is hosted by Home and Away star Rebecca Cartwright. It contains two episodes that aired on TV: "Turn Back the Night" and "Fallout", from the sixteenth season of Home and Away, plus the exclusive episode, Hearts Divided, which will not be aired on TV. It was released in the same format as Secrets and the City, with two aired TV episodes and the special and again follows another terrible situation that the Sutherland family have to face. Kane Phillips, the man who raped Dani Sutherland has returned to Summer Bay and comes between Dani and her sister Kirsty.
Episodes
Cast
Main cast
Tammin Sursok - Dani Sutherland
Rebecca Cartwright - Hayley Smith
Christie Hayes - Kirsty Sutherland
Kate Garven - Jade Sutherland
Beau Brady - Noah Lawson
Kip Gamblin - Scott Hunter
Michael Beckley - Rhys Sutherland
Ray Meagher - Alf Stewart
Kate Ritchie - Sally Fletcher
Mitch Firth - Seb Miller
Ben Unwin - Jesse McGregor
Joel McIlroy - Flynn Saunders
Danny Raco - Alex Poulos
Sebastian Elmaloglou - Max Sutherland
Guest cast
Paula Forrest - Shelley Sutherland
Sam Atwell - Kane Phillips
Sophie Luck - Tamara Simpson
Hollie Andrew - Mira Sadelic
Angelo D'Angelo - Ross McLuhan
Kim Hillas - Betty (woman on bus)
Alan Dukes - Bill
Kaja Trøa - Tracey (woman in car) (credited as Kaja Troa)
Luke Stephens - The Man
Rodney Power - Dr. Andrews (credited as Rod Power)
Brigit Wolf - Nurse
Robert Baxter - Bus Driver (credited as Rob Baxter)
Scott McLean - Policeman #1
Scott Parmeter - Policeman #2
DVD
Reception
As Secrets and the City, many fans were disappointed with the release of Hearts Divided, for the same reasons as the first release, two episode already having aired on TV and a special that was not much longer than the prior episodes. There was also the fact that the release was rated PG, while the television airings for the first two episode where G-rated, but it did not seem anymore adult themed, as G is only the television rating and the show would receive a PG or even an M rating anyway, although fans were hoping for an M rating, the release did take advantage of the more extreme PG rating. The DVD release was not very big on extras as it featured short behind-the-scenes footage, A Day in the Life of Bec and Beau which was featured on the previous release and Emmanuel Carella's music video "Don't Say a Word".
Book
Book based on the Home and Away episode Hearts Divided
There's turmoil in Summer Bay and Rhys Sutherland and his family are right in the middle of it. Kirsty and Dani were loyal, loving sisters. Fiercely, unconditionally proud of each other - until the dark influence of Kane Phillips pervaded their lives in ways that no one ever imagined. Now Dani is accused of trying to kill the man who ruined her life two years ago, while Kirsty is leaving Summer Bay to be by his side. But Kirsty's journey away from her family takes her into uncharted waters and unexpected dangers.
The book was written in by Leon F. Saunders and released in 2003.
See also
Home and Away
Home and Away: Secrets and the City
Home and Away: Romances
Home and Away: Weddings
References
External links
Home and Away: Hearts Divided at the Internet Movie Database
Home and Away at the Internet Movie Database
Home and Away official site
backtothebay.net
Home and Away spin-offs
Novels based on television series
pl:Home and Away | wiki |
Cinepoetry (or cinepoem) originally meant arts of motion pictures with poetic sense but came to mean cinematic poetry (or poem).
Examples in former meaning
Man Ray's films
Matt Robinson's films
Stark Electric Jesus (India)
Examples in latter meaning
Benjamin Fondane's poems
Fuyuhiko Kitagawa's or Iku Takenaka's poems
For Rent (Sakutaro Hagiwara)
See also
Closet screenplay
Video poetry
Video art
Lesescenario
Reference books
Cinepoetry: Imaginary Cinemas in French Poetry (Verbal Arts: Studies in Poetics) by Christophe Wall-romana
Cinepoems and others by Benjamin Fondane
Scenario's Charm(シナリオの魅力 Shinario No Miryoku) by Fuyuhiko Kitagawa
ASIN: B000JBAEZQ
References
Genres of poetry
Film genres | wiki |
Punctuality is the characteristic of being able to complete a required task or fulfill an obligation before or at a previously designated time. "Punctual" is often used synonymously with "on time".
An opposite personality trait is tardiness.
According to each culture, there is often an understanding about what is considered an acceptable degree of punctuality. Usually, a small amount of lateness is acceptable; this is commonly about five to ten minutes in most Western cultures, but this is not the case in such instances as doctor's appointments.
Some cultures have an unspoken understanding that actual deadlines are different from stated deadlines, for example with African time. For example, it may be understood in a particular culture that people will turn up an hour later than advertised. In this case, since everyone understands that a 9 pm party will actually start at around 10 pm, no-one is inconvenienced when everyone arrives at 10 pm.
In cultures that value punctuality, being late is seen as disrespectful of others' time and may be considered insulting. In such cases, punctuality may be enforced by social penalties, for example by excluding low-status latecomers from meetings entirely. Such considerations can lead on to considering the value of punctuality in econometrics and to considering the effects of non-punctuality on others in queueing theory.
See also
Etiquette
Time limit
Time management
References
Further reading
Marcelo Pisarro, Nerds All Star, Revista Ñ, Diario Clarín, 9 June 2008. "No perdamos la puntualidad"
External links
Time management
Queueing theory
Game theory
Etiquette | wiki |
Scobee may refer to:
Dick Scobee (1939–1986), American astronaut
Josh Scobee (born 1982), American football kicker
3350 Scobee, a main-belt asteroid
Scobee (crater), a lunar impact crater | wiki |
Mikasa – miasto w Japonii
Mikasa – góra w Japonii
Mikasa – japoński książę
„Mikasa” – japoński pancernik
Mikasa Sports – japońskie przedsiębiorstwo produkujące sprzęt sportowy
Mikasa Ackermann - postać z anime "Attack On Titan" | wiki |
Jean Simon may refer to:
Jean Simon (cyclist), Belgian racing cyclist
Jean Simon (bowls), Guernsey lawn bowler
Jean Henri Simon, Belgian engraver and soldier | wiki |
Sooglossus is a genus of sooglossid frogs found in the Seychelles.
Species
There are two species recognised in the genus Sooglossus:
Seychelles frog (Sooglossus sechellensis)
Thomasset's Seychelles frog (Sooglossus thomasseti)
References
Amphibian genera
Taxa named by George Albert Boulenger | wiki |
Sexual harassment is a form of intimidation or coercion of a sexual nature.
Sexual Harassment may also refer to:
Sexual Harassment (album), a 2012 album by Norwegian band Turbonegro
"Sexual Harassment" (The Office), an episode of The Office
"Sexual Harassment" (Beavis and Butt-head episode)
Sexual Harassment (musical act), known for their 1980's hit I Need a Freak.
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, a track on Frank Zappa's album Guitar
See also
My Sexual Harassment, yaoi anime | wiki |
Finding Fish is a 2001 autobiographical book by Antwone Fisher. Upon release, it became a New York Times Bestseller.
Plot
Antwone Fisher was born in prison to an incarcerated mother and a father who had been shot by a girlfriend. After being placed in foster care, Fisher was treated brutally and blamed for his own misfortunes. He was also sexually abused by a woman who often babysat him from around age 3 to 8. He then was sent to George Junior Republic. Eventually, he found his way into a stable job in the Navy.
Film
Later in adulthood, Fisher became a security guard at Sony Pictures Studios, where his story inspired producer Todd Black to make a film, Antwone Fisher, based on his story.
Further reading
2001 non-fiction books
African-American autobiographies
Autobiographies adapted into films | wiki |
Eric Brock may refer to:
Eric Brock (safety) (born 1985), American football safety
Eric Brock (American football coach), American football coach in the United States | wiki |
Nominal techniques in computer science are a range of techniques, based on nominal sets, for handling names and binding, e.g. in abstract syntax. Research into nominal sets gave rise to nominal terms, a metalanguage for embedding object languages with name binding constructs.
See also
De Bruijn index
Higher order abstract syntax
References
Theoretical computer science | wiki |
Managua earthquake may refer to:
1931 Nicaragua earthquake
1972 Nicaragua earthquake
2014 Nicaragua earthquake
See also
List of earthquakes in Nicaragua | wiki |
Astor Theatre can refer to:
Astor Theatre, New York City, Broadway, New York City
Astor Place Theatre, off-Broadway, New York City
Astor Theatre, Perth, in Western Australia
The Astor Theatre, in Victoria, Australia
Astor Theatre, Surat in Queensland, Australia
The Astor Theatre, in Liverpool, Nova Scotia, Canada | wiki |
The Promised Land () is a Canadian historical drama television miniseries by the National Film Board of Canada. It was first broadcast in 1957 on Radio-Canada, then dubbed into English and adapted for broadcast by CBC Television as a four-part series in 1962. The NFB now classifies it as a feature film.
Premise
The series was adapted from the Hervé Biron novel Nuages sur les brûlés concerning the 1930s settlement of Quebec's Abitibi district and the workers who toiled to develop the area during the Great Depression. Episodes included music and appearances by folk musician Félix Leclerc. It was broadcast on Radio-Canada as an eight-part series for the network's Panoramique anthology.
The $144,000 production was also released as a 114-minute feature film in 1959 as a condensed version of the television footage.
Scheduling
Les brûlés was first broadcast on Radio-Canada on Fridays at 9 p.m. starting 15 November 1957. The Promised Land adaptation was broadcast as half-hour episodes Sundays at 10:30 p.m. (Eastern) from 16 September to 7 October 1962 on CBC Television.
References
External links
The Promised Land at the National Film Board of Canada
CBC Television original programming
Ici Radio-Canada Télé original programming
National Film Board of Canada series
1957 Canadian television series debuts
1957 Canadian television series endings
1950s Canadian drama television series
Works about human migration
Television series about the history of Canada
Television shows based on Canadian novels
Films set in Abitibi-Témiscamingue
Films produced by Guy Glover
1950s Canadian television miniseries
Black-and-white Canadian television shows | wiki |
Chaplin: His Life and Art is a 1985 book (revised second edition 2001) by film critic David Robinson which examines the life and works of Sir Charlie Chaplin. The British Film Institute describe the book as Chaplin's "definitive biography ... impeccably researched, well written and full of detail." Along with Chaplin's 1964 book My Autobiography, it was used as source material for the 1992 film Chaplin.
First edition
McGraw-Hill, 1985,
References
1985 non-fiction books
Books about film
Biographies adapted into films
Charlie Chaplin
Books about actors | wiki |
In human biology, handedness is an individual's preferential use of one hand, known as the dominant hand, due to it being stronger, faster or more dextrous. The other hand, comparatively often the weaker, less dextrous or simply less subjectively preferred, is called the non-dominant hand. In a study from 1975 on 7688 children in US grades 1-6, Left handers comprised 9.6% of the sample, with 10.5% of male children and 8.7% of female children being left-handed. Handedness is often defined by one's writing hand, as it is fairly common for people to prefer to do a particular task with a particular hand. There are examples of true ambidexterity (equal preference of either hand), but it is rare—most people prefer using one hand for most purposes.
Most of the current research suggests that left-handedness has an epigenetic marker—a combination of genetics, biology and the environment.
Because the vast majority of the population is right-handed, many devices are designed for use by right-handed people, making their use by left-handed people more difficult. In many countries, left-handed people are or were required to write with their right hands. Left-handed people are also more prone to certain health problems. However, left-handed people have an advantage in sports that involves aiming at a target in an area of an opponent's control, as their opponents are more accustomed to the right-handed majority. As a result, they are over-represented in baseball, tennis, fencing, cricket, boxing, and mixed martial arts (MMA).
Types
Right-handedness is the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of people are right-handed.
Left-handedness is less common. Studies suggest that approximately 10% of people are left-handed.
Ambidexterity refers to having equal ability in both hands. Those who learn it still tend to favor their originally dominant hand. This is uncommon, with about a 1% prevalence.
Mixed-handedness or cross-dominance is the change of hand preference between different tasks. This is very uncommon in the population with less than 1% prevalence. This cannot be learned and is highly associated with the person's childhood brain development.
Measurement
Handedness may be measured behaviourally (performance measures) or through questionnaires (preference measures). The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory has been used since 1971 but contains many dated questions and is hard to score. The longer Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire is not widely accessible. More recently, the Flinders Handedness Survey (FLANDERS) has been developed.
Causes
There are several theories of how handedness develops.
Language dominance
One common handedness theory is the brain hemisphere division of labor. In most people, the left side of the brain controls speaking. The theory suggests it is more efficient for the brain to divide major tasks between the hemispheres—thus most people may use the non-speaking (right) hemisphere for perception and gross motor skills. As speech is a very complex motor control task, the specialised fine motor areas controlling speech are most efficiently used to also control fine motor movement in the dominant hand. As the right hand is controlled by the left hemisphere (and the left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere) most people are, therefore right-handed. The theory depends on left-handed people having a reversed organisation. However, the majority of left-handers have been found to have left-hemisphere language dominance—just like right-handers. Only around 30% of left-handers are not left-hemisphere dominant for language. Some of those have reversed brain organisation, where the verbal processing takes place in the right-hemisphere and visuospatial processing is dominant to the left hemisphere. Others have more ambiguous bilateral organisation, where both hemispheres do parts of typically lateralised functions. When tasks investigating lateralisation are averaged across a group of left-handers, the overall effect is that left-handers show the same pattern of data as right-handers, but with a reduced asymmetry. This finding is likely due to the small proportion of left-handers who have atypical brain organisation.
Genetic factors
Handedness displays a complex inheritance pattern. For example, if both parents of a child are left-handed, there is a 26% chance of that child being left-handed. A large study of twins from 25,732 families by Medland et al. (2006) indicates that the heritability of handedness is roughly 24%.
Two theoretical single-gene models have been proposed to explain the patterns of inheritance of handedness, by Marian Annett of the University of Leicester, and by Chris McManus of UCL.
However, growing evidence from linkage and genome-wide association studies suggests that genetic variance in handedness cannot be explained by a single genetic locus. From these studies, McManus et al. now conclude that handedness is polygenic and estimate that at least 40 loci contribute to the trait.
Brandler et al. performed a genome-wide association study for a measure of relative hand skill and found that genes involved in the determination of left-right asymmetry in the body play a key role in handedness. Brandler and Paracchini suggest the same mechanisms that determine left-right asymmetry in the body (e.g. nodal signaling and ciliogenesis) also play a role in the development of brain asymmetry
(handedness being a reflection of brain asymmetry for motor function).
In 2019, Wiberg et al. performed a genome-wide association study and found that handedness was significantly associated with four loci, three of them in genes encoding proteins involved in brain development.
Epigenetic factors
Twin studies indicate that genetic factors explain 25% of the variance in handedness, and environmental factors the remaining 75%. While the molecular basis of handedness epigenetics is largely unclear, Ocklenburg et al. (2017) found that asymmetric methylation of CpG sites plays a key role for gene expression asymmetries related to handedness.
Prenatal hormone exposure
Four studies have indicated that individuals who have had in-utero exposure to diethylstilbestrol (a synthetic estrogen based medication used between 1940 and 1971) were more likely to be left-handed over the clinical control group. Diethylstilbestrol animal studies "suggest that estrogen affects the developing brain, including the part that governs sexual behavior and right and left dominance".
Prenatal vestibular asymmetry
Previc, after reviewing a large number of studies, found evidence that the position of the fetus in the final trimester and a baby's subsequent birth position can affect handedness. About two-thirds of fetuses present with their left occiput (back of the head) at birth. This partly explains why prematurity results in a decrease in right-handedness. Previc argues that asymmetric prenatal positioning creates asymmetric stimulation of the vestibular system, which is involved in the development of handedness. In fact, every major disorder in which patients show reduced right-handedness is associated with either vestibular abnormalities or delay, and asymmetry of the vestibular cortex is strongly correlated with the direction of handedness.
Ultrasound
Another theory is that ultrasound may sometimes affect the brains of unborn children, causing higher rates of left-handedness in children whose mothers receive ultrasound during pregnancy. Research suggests there may be a weak association between ultrasound screening (sonography used to check the healthy development of the fetus and mother) and left-handedness.
Developmental timeline
Researchers studied fetuses in utero and determined that handedness in the womb was a very accurate predictor of handedness after birth. In a 2013 study, 39% of infants (6 to 14 months) and 97% of toddlers (18 to 24 months) demonstrated a hand preference.
Infants have been observed to fluctuate heavily when choosing a hand to lead in grasping and object manipulation tasks, especially in one- versus two-handed grasping. Between 36 and 48 months, there is a significant decline in variability between handedness in one-handed grasping; it can be seen earlier in two-handed manipulation. Children of 18–36 months showed more hand preference when performing bi-manipulation tasks than with simple grasping.
The decrease in handedness variability in children of 36–48 months may be attributable to preschool or kindergarten attendance due to increased single-hand activities such as writing and coloring. Scharoun and Bryden noted that right-handed preference increases with age up to the teenage years.
Recently, studies have shown that left-handers and right-handers differ in their growth trajectory, i.e., among kindergarten children left-handers have longer digit length whereas among adults left -handers have shorter digit lengths.
Correlation with other factors
Intelligence
In his book Right-Hand, Left-Hand, Chris McManus of University College London argues that the proportion of left-handers is increasing, and that an above-average quota of high achievers have been left-handed. He says that left-handers' brains are structured in a way that increases their range of abilities, and that the genes that determine left-handedness also govern development of the brain's language centers.
Writing in Scientific American, he states:
Studies in the U.K., U.S. and Australia have revealed that left-handed people differ from right-handers by only one IQ point, which is not noteworthy ... Left-handers' brains are structured differently from right-handers' in ways that can allow them to process language, spatial relations and emotions in more diverse and potentially creative ways. Also, a slightly larger number of left-handers than right-handers are especially gifted in music and math. A study of musicians in professional orchestras found a significantly greater proportion of talented left-handers, even among those who played instruments that seem designed for right-handers, such as violins. Similarly, studies of adolescents who took tests to assess mathematical giftedness found many more left-handers in the population.
Conversely, it was found that evidence for left-handers was overrepresented amongst those with higher cognitive skills, such as Mensa members and higher-performing takers of SAT and MCAT tests, due to methodological and sampling issues in studies. He also found that left-handers were overrepresented among those with lower cognitive skills and mental impairments, with those with intellectual disability (ID) being roughly twice as likely to be left-handed, as well as generally lower cognitive and non-cognitive abilities amongst left-handed children. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Ntolka and Papadatou-Pastou found that right-handers had higher IQ scores, but that difference was negligible (about 1.5 points).
The prevalence of difficulties in left-right discrimination was investigated in a cohort of 2,720 adult members of Mensa and Intertel by Storfer. According to the study, 7.2% of the men and 18.8% of the women evaluated their left-right directional sense as poor or below average; moreover participants who were relatively ambidextrous experienced problems more frequently than did those who were more strongly left- or right-handed. The study also revealed an effect of age, with younger participants reporting more problems.
Early childhood intelligence
Nelson, Campbell, and Michel studied infants and whether developing handedness during infancy correlated with language abilities in toddlers. In the article they assessed 38 infants and followed them through to 12 months and then again once they became toddlers from 18 to 24 months. They discovered that when a child developed a consistent use of their right or left hand during infancy (such as using the right hand to put the pacifier back in, or grasping random objects with the left hand), they were more likely to have superior language skills as a toddler. Children who became lateral later than infancy (i.e., when they were toddlers) showed normal development of language and had typical language scores. The researchers used Bayley scales of infant and toddler development to assess all the subjects.
Music
In two studies, Diana Deutsch found that left-handers, particularly those with mixed hand preference, performed significantly better than right-handers in musical memory tasks. There are also handedness differences in perception of musical patterns. Left-handers as a group differ from right-handers, and are more heterogeneous than right-handers, in perception of certain stereo illusions, such as the octave illusion, the scale illusion, and the glissando illusion.
Health
Studies have found a positive correlation between left-handedness and several specific physical and mental disorders and health problems. For example:
Lower-birth-weight and complications at birth are positively correlated with left-handedness.
A variety of neuropsychiatric and developmental disorders like autism spectrum disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and alcoholism have been associated with left- and mixed-handedness.
A 2012 study showed that nearly 40% of children with cerebral palsy were left-handed, while another study demonstrated that left-handedness was associated with a 62% increased risk of Parkinson's disease in women, but not in men. Another study suggests that the risk of developing multiple sclerosis increases for left-handed women, but the effect is unknown for men at this point.
Left-handed women may have a higher risk of breast cancer than right-handed women and the effect is greater in post-menopausal women.
At least one study maintains that left-handers are more likely to suffer from heart disease, and are more likely to have reduced longevity from cardiovascular causes.
Left-handers may be more likely to suffer bone fractures.
Converted Left-Hander or Knot in the Brain is a condition experienced by someone who is doing everything, or many things, with the subordinate right side of their body. This causes an array of symptoms to develop. These include: distress, reading and concentration difficulties, poor physical co-ordination and clumsiness, memory blackouts, knots in the brain and inferiority complex. On diagnosis by an expert and advice given, the patient starts to use the dominant left side of their body to do everything and starts to recover.
One systematic review concluded: "Left-handers showed no systematic tendency to suffer from disorders of the immune system".
As handedness is a highly heritable trait associated with various medical conditions, and because many of these conditions could have presented a Darwinian fitness challenge in ancestral populations, this indicates left-handedness may have previously been rarer than it currently is, due to natural selection. However, on average, left-handers have been found to have an advantage in fighting and competitive, interactive sports, which could have increased their reproductive success in ancestral populations.
Income
In a 2006 U.S. study, researchers from Lafayette College and Johns Hopkins University concluded that there was no statistically significant correlation between handedness and earnings for the general population, but among college-educated people, left-handers earned 10 to 15% more than their right-handed counterparts.
However, more recently, in a 2014 study published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Harvard economist Joshua Goodman finds that left-handed people earn 10 to 12 percent less over the course of their lives than right-handed people. Goodman attributes this disparity to higher rates of emotional and behavioral problems in left-handed people.
Left-handedness and sports
Interactive sports such as table tennis, badminton and cricket have an overrepresentation of left-handedness, while non-interactive sports such as swimming show no overrepresentation. Smaller physical distance between participants increases the overrepresentation. In fencing, about half the participants are left-handed. The term southpaw is sometimes used to refer to a left-handed individual, especially in baseball and boxing. Some studies suggest that right handed male athletes tend to be statistically taller and heavier than left handed ones.
Other, sports-specific factors may increase or decrease the advantage left-handers usually hold in one-on-one situations:
In cricket, the overall advantage of a bowler's left-handedness exceeds that resulting from experience alone: even disregarding the experience factor (i.e., even for a batsman whose experience against left-handed bowlers equals his experience against right-handed bowlers), a left-handed bowler challenges the average (i.e., right-handed) batsman more than a right-handed bowler does, because the angle of a bowler's delivery to an opposite-handed batsman is much more penetrating than that of a bowler to a same-handed batsman (see Wasim Akram).
In baseball, a right-handed pitcher's curve ball will break away from a right-handed batter and towards a left-handed batter. While studies of handedness show that only 10% of the general population is left-handed, the proportion of left-handed MLB players is closer to 39% of hitters and 28% of pitchers, according to 2012 data. Historical batting averages show that left-handed batters have a slight advantage over right-handed batters when facing right-handed pitchers. Because there are fewer left-handed pitchers than right-handed pitchers, left-handed batters have more opportunities to face right-handed pitchers than their right-handed counterparts have against left-handed pitchers. Fourteen of the top twenty career batting averages in Major League Baseball history have been posted by left-handed batters. Left-handed batters have a slightly shorter run from the batter's box to first base than right-handers. This gives left-handers a slight advantage in beating throws to first base on infield ground balls. Perhaps more importantly, the follow through of a left-handed swing provides momentum in the direction of first base, while the right handed batter must overcome the swing momentum towards third base before beginning his run.
Because a left-handed pitcher faces first base when he is in position to throw to the batter, whereas a right-handed pitcher has his back to first base, a left-handed pitcher has an advantage when attempting to pick off baserunners at first base.
Defensively in baseball, left-handedness is considered an advantage for first basemen because they are better suited to fielding balls hit in the gap between first and second base, and because they do not have to pivot their body around before throwing the ball to another infielder. For the same reason, the other infielder's positions are seen as being advantageous to right-handed throwers. Historically, there have been few left-handed catchers because of the perceived disadvantage a left-handed catcher would have in making the throw to third base, especially with a right-handed hitter at the plate. A left-handed catcher would have a potentially more dangerous time tagging out a baserunner trying to score. With the ball in the glove on the right hand, a left-handed catcher would have to turn his body to the left to tag a runner. In doing so, he can lose the opportunity to brace himself for an impending collision. On the other hand, the Encyclopedia of Baseball Catchers states:
In four wall handball, typical strategy is to play along the left wall forcing the opponent to use their left hand to counter the attack and playing into the strength of a left-handed competitor.
In handball, left-handed players have an advantage on the right side of the field when attacking, getting a better angle, and that defenders might be unused to them. Since few people are left-handed, there is a demand for such players.
In water polo, the centre forward position has an advantage in turning to shoot on net when rotating the reverse direction as expected by the centre of the opposition defence and gain an improved position to score. Left-handed drivers are usually on the right side of the field, because they can get better angles to pass the ball or shoot for goal.
Ice hockey typically uses a strategy in which a defence pairing includes one left-handed and one right-handed defender. A disproportionately large number of ice hockey players of all positions, 62 percent, shoot left, though this does not necessarily indicate left-handedness.
In American football, the handedness of a quarterback affects blocking patterns on the offensive line. Tight ends, when only one is used, typically line up on the same side as the throwing hand of the quarterback, while the offensive tackle on the opposite hand, which protects the quarterback's "blind side," is typically the most valued member of the offensive line. Receivers also have to adapt to the opposite spin. While uncommon, there have been several notable left-handed quarterbacks.
In bowling, the oil pattern used on the bowling lane breaks down faster the more times a ball is rolled down the lane. Bowlers must continually adjust their shots to compensate for the ball's change in rotation as the game or series is played and the oil is altered from its original pattern. A left-handed bowler competes on the opposite side of the lane from the right-handed bowler and therefore deals with less breakdown of the original oil placement. This means left-handed bowlers have to adjust their shot less frequently than right-handed bowlers in team events or qualifying rounds where there are possibly 4-10 people per set of two lanes. This can allow them to stay more consistent. However, this advantage is not present in bracket rounds and tournament finals where matches are 1v1 on a pair of lanes.
Sex
According to a meta-analysis of 144 studies, totaling 1,787,629 participants, the best estimate for the male to female odds ratio was 1.23, indicating that men are 23% more likely to be left-handed. For example, if the incidence of female left-handedness was 10%, then the incidence of male left-handedness would be approximately 12% (10% incidence of left-handedness among women multiplied by an odds ratio of 1:1.23 for women:men results in a 12.3% incidence of left-handedness among men).
Sexuality and gender identity
Some studies examining the relationship between handedness and sexual orientation have reported that a disproportionate minority of homosexual people exhibit left-handedness, though findings are mixed.
A 2001 study also found that males whose gender identity did not align with their sex assigned at birth, were more than twice as likely to be left-handed than a clinical control group (19.5% vs. 8.3%, respectively).
Paraphilias (atypical sexual interests) have also been linked to higher rates of left-handedness. A 2008 study analyzing the sexual fantasies of 200 males found "elevated paraphilic interests were correlated with elevated non-right handedness". Greater rates of left-handedness have also been documented among pedophiles.
A 2014 study attempting to analyze the biological markers of asexuality asserts that non-sexual men and women were 2.4 and 2.5 times, respectively, more likely to be left-handed than their heterosexual counterparts.
Mortality rates in combat
A study at Durham University—which examined mortality data for cricketers whose handedness was a matter of public record—found that left-handed men were almost twice as likely to die in war as their right-handed contemporaries. The study theorised that this was because weapons and other equipment was designed for the right-handed. “I can sympathise with all those left-handed cricketers who have gone to an early grave trying desperately to shoot straight with a right-handed Lee Enfield .303,” wrote a journalist reviewing the study in the cricket press. The findings echo those of previous American studies, which found that left-handed US sailors were 34% more likely to have a serious accident than their right-handed counterparts.
Episodic memory
A high level of handedness (whether strongly favoring right or left) is associated with poorer episodic memory, and with poorer communication between brain hemispheres, which may give poorer emotional processing, although bilateral stimulation may reduce such effects.
Corpus callosum
A high level of handedness is associated with a smaller corpus callosum whereas low handedness with a larger one.
In culture
Many tools and procedures are designed to facilitate use by right-handed people, often without realizing the difficulties incurred by the left-handed. John W. Santrock has written, "For centuries, left-handers have suffered unfair discrimination in a world designed for right-handers."
As a child, British king George VI (1895–1952) was naturally left-handed. He was forced to write with his right hand, as was common practice at the time. He was not expected to become king, so that was not a factor. McManus noted that, as the Industrial Revolution spread across Western Europe and the United States in the 19th century, workers needed to operate complex machines that were designed with right-handers in mind. This would have made left-handers more visible and at the same time appear less capable and more clumsy. During this era, children were taught to write with a dip pen. While a right-hander could smoothly drag the pen across paper from left to right, a dip pen could not easily be pushed across by the left hand without digging into the paper and making blots and stains.
Negative connotations and discrimination
Moreover, apart from inconvenience, left-handed people have historically been considered unlucky or even malicious for their difference by the right-handed majority. In many languages, including English, the word for the direction "right" also means "correct" or "proper". Throughout history, being left-handed was considered negative, or evil; even into the 20th century, left-handed children were beaten by schoolteachers for writing with their left hand.
The Latin adjective sinister means "left" as well as "unlucky", and this double meaning survives in European derivatives of Latin, including the English words "sinister" (meaning both 'evil' and 'on the bearer's left on a coat of arms') and "ambisinister" meaning 'awkward or clumsy with both or either hand'.
There are many negative connotations associated with the phrase "left-handed": clumsy, awkward, unlucky, insincere, sinister, malicious, and so on. A "left-handed compliment" is one that has two meanings, one of which is unflattering to the recipient. In French, gauche means both "left" and "awkward" or "clumsy", while droit(e) (cognate to English direct and related to "adroit") means both "right" and "straight", as well as "law" and the legal sense of "right". The name "Dexter" derives from the Latin for "right", as does the word "dexterity" meaning manual skill. As these are all very old words, they would tend to support theories indicating that the predominance of right-handedness is an extremely old phenomenon.
Black magic is sometimes referred to as the "left-hand path".
Until very recently in Taiwan (and still in Mainland China, Japan and both North and South Korea), left-handed people were forced to switch to being right-handed, or at least switch to writing with the right hand. Due to the importance of stroke order, developed for the comfortable use of right-handed people, it is considered more difficult to write legible Chinese characters with the left hand than it is to write Latin letters, though difficulty is subjective and depends on the writer. Because writing when moving one's hand away from its side towards the other side of the body can cause smudging if the outward side of the hand is allowed to drag across the writing, writing in the Latin alphabet might possibly be less feasible with the left hand than the right under certain circumstances. Conversely, right-to-left alphabets, such as the Arabic and Hebrew, are generally considered easier to write with the left hand in general. Depending on the position and inclination of the writing paper, and the writing method, the left-handed writer can write as neatly and efficiently or as messily and slowly as right-handed writers. Usually the left-handed child needs to be taught how to write correctly with the left hand, since discovering a comfortable left-handed writing method on one's own may not be straightforward.
In the Soviet Union, all left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system.
International Left-Handers Day
International Left-Handers Day is held annually every August 13. It was founded by the Left-Handers Club in 1992, with the club itself having been founded in 1990. International Left-Handers Day is, according to the club, "an annual event when left-handers everywhere can celebrate their sinistrality (left-handedness) and increase public awareness of the advantages and disadvantages of being left-handed." It celebrates their uniqueness and differences, who are from seven to ten percent of the world's population. Thousands of left-handed people in today's society have to adapt to use right-handed tools and objects. Again according to the club, "in the U.K. alone there were over 20 regional events to mark the day in 2001 – including left-v-right sports matches, a left-handed tea party, pubs using left-handed corkscrews where patrons drank and played pub games with the left hand only, and nationwide 'Lefty Zones' where left-handers' creativity, adaptability and sporting prowess were celebrated, whilst right-handers were encouraged to try out everyday left-handed objects to see just how awkward it can feel using the wrong equipment."
In other animals
Kangaroos and other macropod marsupials show a left-hand preference for everyday tasks in the wild. 'True' handedness is unexpected in marsupials however, because unlike placental mammals, they lack a corpus callosum. Left-handedness was particularly apparent in the red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) and the eastern gray kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Red-necked (Bennett's) wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) preferentially use their left hand for behaviours that involve fine manipulation, but the right for behaviours that require more physical strength. There was less evidence for handedness in arboreal species. Studies of dogs, horses, and domestic cats have shown that females of those species tend to be right-handed, while males tend to be left-handed.
See also
General
Cardinal direction
Clockwise, which also discusses counterclockwise/anticlockwise, the two terms for the opposite sense of rotation
Dexter and sinister
Footedness
Laterality
List of left-handed presidents of the United States
Left- and right-hand traffic
Ocular dominance (eyedness)
Proper right and proper left
Relative direction
Handedness
Edinburgh Handedness Inventory
Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis
Neuroanatomy of handedness
Situs inversus
Twins and handedness
References
External links
Lefties Have The Advantage In Adversarial Situations, ScienceDaily, April 14, 2006.
Science Creative Quarterly's overview of some of the genetic underpinnings of left-handedness
A left-handed senior citizen recalls the emotional torment he faced at a New York public school in the 1920s. (Audio slideshow)
Woznicki, Katrina (2005). "Breast Cancer Risk Doubles for Southpaw Women", MedPage Today, 26 September.
Hansard (1998). "Left-handed Children", Debate contribution by the Rt Hon. Mr. Peter Luff (MP for Mid-Worcestershire), House of Commons, 22 July.
Handedness and Earnings / Higher paychecks: a left-handed compliment?
Handedness & earnings, published in Journal of Human Resources 2007
Handedness Research Institute
Study Reveals Why Lefties Are Rare
Chirality
Discrimination
Mental processes
Asymmetry
ca:Dretà | wiki |
The stratopause (formerly mesopeak) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers: the stratosphere and the mesosphere. In the stratosphere, the temperature increases with altitude, and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs. This atmospheric feature is not exclusive to Earth, but also occurs on any other planet or moon with an atmosphere.
On Earth, the stratopause is above sea level. The atmospheric pressure is around of the pressure at sea level. The temperature in the stratopause is .
See also
Jet stream
Maximum parcel level
References
External links
Atmospheric boundaries | wiki |
Ajman peut désigner :
Ajman, un émirat des Émirats arabes unis ;
Ajman, la capitale de l'émirat du même nom. | wiki |
WWE 13 este un joc de wrestling apărut în noiembrie 2012. Este disponibil pe Xbox 360, Playstation 3 (PS3) și Nintendo Wii. Pe coperta sa se află wrestlerul CM Punk, iar în ediția specială apare Stone Cold Steve Austin
Jocuri video de acțiune | wiki |
The Heart of Shimmer Championship (stylized as Heart of SHIMMER Championship) is a women's professional wrestling championship in Shimmer Women Athletes. Championship reigns are determined by professional wrestling matches, in which competitors are involved in scripted rivalries. These narratives create feuds between the various competitors, which cast them as villains and heroines.
History
The Heart of Shimmer Championship is a secondary women's professional wrestling championship that is used in Shimmer Women Athletes for shimmer women's athletes and talent. The tournament for the title took place in the year 2016 where Nicole Savoy won to become the Inaugural championship holder of the title.
Inaugural championship tournament (2016)
First round tournament matches
Cheerleader Melissa defeated Leva Bates
Candice LeRae defeated Cherry Bomb
Nicole Savoy defeated LuFisto by submission
Kimber Lee defeated Jessicka Havok
Heidi Lovelace defeated Veda Scott
Nicole Matthews defeated Crazy Mary Dobson
Semi-final tournament matches
Candice LeRae defeated Cheerleader Melissa
Nicole Savoy defeated Kimber Lee by submission
Heidi Lovelace defeated Nicole Matthews
Tournament final three-way elimination match
Nicole Savoy defeated Candice LeRae and Heidi Lovelace by submission
Reigns
See also
Shimmer Championship
Shimmer Tag Team Championship
References
External links
Heart of Shimmer Championship
Women's professional wrestling championships
Shimmer Women Athletes | wiki |
Petershill Partners is an investment company specialising in alternative investments: investors in the business are able to participate, through minority investments, in the profits of large private equity and hedge funds. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.
History
The company was established by Goldman Sachs in 2007. Between its inception and its initial public offering (IPO) in September 2021, it raised and invested US$8.5 billion in funds. However, in the immediate aftermath of its IPO the company lost nearly 10% of its value.
References
Private equity firms of the United States
Financial services companies established in 2007 | wiki |
Bathwater may refer to:
"Bathwater" (song), a 2000 song by No Doubt
Bathwater, water used in bathing
"Bathwater", 2006 documentary by Kris Williams
See also
Don't throw the baby out with the bathwater | wiki |
Disuse supersensitivity, also pharmacological disuse supersensitivity or pharmacological denervation supersensitivity, is the increased sensitivity by a postsynaptic cell because of decreased input by incoming axons, e.g., due to the exposure to an antagonist drug.
Jaffe and Sharpless pointed out that withdrawal syndrome after the cessation of a chronically-used drug often shows an exaggerated response which is normally suppressed by the drug which produced a dependence. They suggested the model according to which a drug has both excitatory and depressive effects. Depressive effects generate hypersensitivity, but at the same time they mask it. When drug usage stops, hypersensitivity becomes unmasked.
References
Peripheral nervous system | wiki |
Supersensitivity may refer to:
Denervation supersensitivity
Supersensitivity psychosis
Disuse supersensitivity
Hyperesthesia, abnormal increase in sensitivity to stimuli of the sense
Supertaster
See also
Hypersensitivity | wiki |
Meldrum is a band.
Meldrum may also refer to:
Meldrum (surname)
Meldrum transmitting station, Scottish radio transmitter
Meldrum Academy
Meldrum, Bell County, Kentucky
Meldrum Bay, Ontario
See also
Oldmeldrum | wiki |
Glycerol (), also called glycerine in British English and glycerin in American English, is a simple triol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known as glycerides. Because it has antimicrobial and antiviral properties, it is widely used in wound and burn treatments approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Conversely, it is also used as a bacterial culture medium. Its presence in blood can be used as an effective marker to measure liver disease. It is also widely used as a sweetener in the food industry and as a humectant in pharmaceutical formulations. Because of its three hydroxyl groups, glycerol is miscible with water and is hygroscopic in nature.
Structure
Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols. Thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels the molecule with a sn- prefix before the stem name of the molecule.
Production
Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs in triglycerides, esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. The hydrolysis, saponification, or transesterification of these triglycerides produces glycerol as well as the fatty acid derivative:
Triglycerides can be saponified with sodium hydroxide to give glycerol and fatty sodium salt or soap.
Typical plant sources include soybeans or palm. Animal-derived tallow is another source. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and Europe; 350,000 tons of glycerol were produced per year in the U.S. alone from 2000 to 2004. The EU directive 2003/30/EC set a requirement that 5.75% of petroleum fuels were to be replaced with biofuel sources across all member states by 2010. It was projected in 2006 that by 2020, production would be six times more than demand, creating an excess of glycerol as a byproduct of biofuel production.
Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a large scale, but the crude product is of variable quality, with a low selling price of as low as US$0.02–0.05 per kilogram in 2011. It can be purified, but the process is expensive. Some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low.
Crude glycerol from the hydrolysis of triglycerides can be purified by treatment with activated carbon to remove organic impurities, alkali to remove unreacted glycerol esters, and ion exchange to remove salts. High purity glycerol (greater than 99.5%) is obtained by multi-step distillation; a vacuum chamber is necessary due to its high boiling point (290 °C).
Synthetic glycerol
Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propene. The epichlorohydrin process is the most important: it involves the chlorination of propylene to give allyl chloride, which is oxidized with hypochlorite to dichlorohydrin, which reacts with a strong base to give epichlorohydrin. Epichlorohydrin can be hydrolyzed to glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein and propylene oxide.
Because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical. Owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin.
Applications
Food industry
In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener, and may help preserve foods. It is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods (e.g., cookies), and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves. As a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon (sugar has 20) and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form a dental plaque and cause dental cavities. As a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing (frosting) to prevent it from setting too hard.
As used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the U.S. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein and fat. Glycerol has a caloric density similar to table sugar, but a lower glycemic index and different metabolic pathway within the body.
It is also recommended as an additive when using polyol sweeteners such as erythritol and xylitol which have a cooling effect, due to its heating effect in the mouth, if the cooling effect is not wanted.
Medical, pharmaceutical and personal care applications
Glycerin is mildly antimicrobial and antiviral and is an FDA-approved treatment for wounds. The Red Cross reports that an 85% solution of glycerin shows bactericidal and antiviral effects, and wounds treated with glycerin show reduced inflammation after roughly two hours. Due to this it is used widely in wound care products, including glycerin based hydrogel sheets for burns and other wound care. It is approved for all types of wound care except third-degree burns, and is used to package donor skin used in skin grafts.
Glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, often as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant.
Ichthyosis and xerosis have been relieved by the topical use of glycerin. It is found in allergen immunotherapies, cough syrups, elixirs and expectorants, toothpaste, mouthwashes, skin care products, shaving cream, hair care products, soaps, and water-based personal lubricants. In solid dosage forms like tablets, glycerol is used as a tablet holding agent. For human consumption, glycerol is classified by the FDA among the sugar alcohols as a caloric macronutrient. Glycerol is also used in blood banking to preserve red blood cells prior to freezing.
Glycerol is a component of glycerin soap. Essential oils are added for fragrance. This kind of soap is used by people with sensitive, easily irritated skin because it prevents skin dryness with its moisturizing properties. It draws moisture up through skin layers and slows or prevents excessive drying and evaporation.
Taken rectally, glycerol functions as a laxative by irritating the anal mucosa and inducing a hyperosmotic effect, expanding the colon by drawing water into it to induce peristalsis resulting in evacuation. It may be administered undiluted either as a suppository or as a small-volume (2–10 ml) enema. Alternatively, it may be administered in a dilute solution, such as 5%, as a high-volume enema.
Taken orally (often mixed with fruit juice to reduce its sweet taste), glycerol can cause a rapid, temporary decrease in the internal pressure of the eye. This can be useful for the initial emergency treatment of severely elevated eye pressure.
In 2017, researchers showed that the probiotic Limosilactobacillus reuteri bacteria can be supplemented with glycerol to enhance its production of antimicrobial substances in the human gut. This was confirmed to be as effective as the antibiotic vancomycin at inhibiting Clostridioides difficile infection without having a significant effect on the overall microbial composition of the gut.
Glycerol has also been incorporated as a component of bio-ink formulations in the field of bioprinting. The glycerol content acts to add viscosity to the bio-ink without adding large protein, saccharide, or glycoprotein molecules.
Botanical extracts
When utilized in "tincture" method extractions, specifically as a 10% solution, glycerol prevents tannins from precipitating in ethanol extracts of plants (tinctures). It is also used as an "alcohol-free" alternative to ethanol as a solvent in preparing herbal extractions. It is less extractive when utilized in a standard tincture methodology. Alcohol-based tinctures can also have the alcohol removed and replaced with glycerol for its preserving properties. Such products are not "alcohol-free" in a scientific or FDA regulatory sense, as glycerol contains three hydroxyl groups. Fluid extract manufacturers often extract herbs in hot water before adding glycerol to make glycerites.
When used as a primary "true" alcohol-free botanical extraction solvent in non-tincture based methodologies, glycerol has been shown to possess a high degree of extractive versatility for botanicals including removal of numerous constituents and complex compounds, with an extractive power that can rival that of alcohol and water–alcohol solutions. That glycerol possesses such high extractive power assumes it is utilized with dynamic (critical) methodologies as opposed to standard passive "tincturing" methodologies that are better suited to alcohol. Glycerol possesses the intrinsic property of not denaturing or rendering a botanical's constituents inert like alcohols (ethanol, methanol, and so on) do. Glycerol is a stable preserving agent for botanical extracts that, when utilized in proper concentrations in an extraction solvent base, does not allow inverting or mitigates reduction-oxidation of a finished extract's constituents, even over several years. Both glycerol and ethanol are viable preserving agents. Glycerol is bacteriostatic in its action, and ethanol is bactericidal in its action.
Electronic cigarette liquid
Glycerin, along with propylene glycol, is a common component of e-liquid, a solution used with electronic vaporizers (electronic cigarettes). This glycerol is heated with an atomizer (a heating coil often made of Kanthal wire), producing the aerosol that delivers nicotine to the user.
Antifreeze
Like ethylene glycol and propylene glycol, glycerol is a non-ionic kosmotrope that forms strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules, competing with water-water hydrogen bonds. This interaction disrupts the formation of ice. The minimum freezing point temperature is about corresponding to 70% glycerol in water.
Glycerol was historically used as an anti-freeze for automotive applications before being replaced by ethylene glycol, which has a lower freezing point. While the minimum freezing point of a glycerol-water mixture is higher than an ethylene glycol-water mixture, glycerol is not toxic and is being re-examined for use in automotive applications.
In the laboratory, glycerol is a common component of solvents for enzymatic reagents stored at temperatures below due to the depression of the freezing temperature. It is also used as a cryoprotectant where the glycerol is dissolved in water to reduce damage by ice crystals to laboratory organisms that are stored in frozen solutions, such as fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and mammalian embryos. Some organisms like the moor frog produce glycerol to survive freezing temperatures during hibernation.
Chemical intermediate
Glycerol is used to produce nitroglycerin, which is an essential ingredient of various explosives such as dynamite, gelignite, and propellants like cordite. Reliance on soap-making to supply co-product glycerol made it difficult to increase production to meet wartime demand. Hence, synthetic glycerol processes were national defense priorities in the days leading up to World War II. Nitroglycerin, also known as glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) is commonly used to relieve angina pectoris, taken in the form of sub-lingual tablets, patches, or as an aerosol spray.
Trifunctional polyether polyols are produced from glycerol and propylene oxide. An oxidation of glycerol affords mesoxalic acid. Dehydrating glycerol affords hydroxyacetone.
Vibration damping
Glycerol is used as fill for pressure gauges to damp vibration. External vibrations, from compressors, engines, pumps, etc., produce harmonic vibrations within Bourdon gauges that can cause the needle to move excessively, giving inaccurate readings. The excessive swinging of the needle can also damage internal gears or other components, causing premature wear. Glycerol, when poured into a gauge to replace the air space, reduces the harmonic vibrations that are transmitted to the needle, increasing the lifetime and reliability of the gauge.
Niche uses
Entertainment industry
Glycerol is used by set decorators when filming scenes involving water to prevent an area meant to look wet from drying out too quickly.
Glycerine is also used in the generation of theatrical smoke and fog as a component of the fluid used in fog machines as a replacement for glycol, which has been shown to be an irritant if exposure is prolonged.
Ultrasonic couplant
Glycerol can be sometimes used as replacement for water in ultrasonic testing, as it has favourably higher acoustic impedance (2.42 MRayl versus 1.483 MRayl for water) while being relatively safe, non-toxic, non-corrosive and relatively low cost.
Internal combustion fuel
Glycerol is also used to power diesel generators supplying electricity for the FIA Formula E series of electric race cars.
Research on uses
Research has been conducted to produce value-added products from glycerol obtained from biodiesel production. Examples (aside from combustion of waste glycerol):
Hydrogen gas production
Glycerine acetate is a potential fuel additive.
Glycerol is one of the most used additive for starch thermoplastic.
Conversion to propylene glycol
Conversion to acrolein
Conversion to ethanol
Conversion to epichlorohydrin, a raw material for epoxy resins
Metabolism
Glycerol is a precursor for synthesis of triacylglycerols and of phospholipids in the liver and adipose tissue. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream.
Glycerol is mainly metabolized in the liver. Glycerol injections can be used as a simple test for liver damage, as its rate of absorption by the liver is considered an accurate measure of liver health. Glycerol metabolism is reduced in both cirrhosis and fatty liver disease.
Blood glycerol levels are highly elevated during diabetes, and is believed to be the cause of reduced fertility in patients who suffer from diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Blood glycerol levels in diabetic patients average three times higher than healthy controls. Direct glycerol treatment of testes has been found to cause significant long-term reduction in sperm count. Further testing on this subject was abandoned due to the unexpected results, as this was not the goal of the experiment.
Circulating glycerol does not glycate proteins as do glucose or fructose, and does not lead to the formation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs). In some organisms, the glycerol component can enter the glycolysis pathway directly and, thus, provide energy for cellular metabolism (or, potentially, be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis).
Before glycerol can enter the pathway of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis (depending on physiological conditions), it must be converted to their intermediate glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the following steps:
The enzyme glycerol kinase is present mainly in the liver and kidneys, but also in other body tissues, including muscle and brain. In adipose tissue, glycerol 3-phosphate is obtained from dihydroxyacetone phosphate with the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Glycerol has very low toxicity when ingested; its LD50 oral dose for rats is 12600 mg/kg and 8700 mg/kg for mice. It does not appear to cause toxicity when inhaled, although changes in cell maturity occurred in small sections of lung in animals under the highest dose measured. A sub-chronic 90-day nose-only inhalation study in Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats exposed to 0.03, 0.16 and 0.66 mg/L glycerin (Per liter of air) for 6-hour continuous sessions revealed no treatment-related toxicity other than minimal metaplasia of the epithelium lining at the base of the epiglottis in rats exposed to 0.66 mg/L glycerin.
Historical cases of contamination with diethylene glycol
On 4 May 2007, the FDA advised all U.S. makers of medicines to test all batches of glycerol for diethylene glycol contamination. This followed an occurrence of hundreds of fatal poisonings in Panama resulting from a falsified import customs declaration by Panamanian import/export firm Aduanas Javier de Gracia Express, S. A. The cheaper diethylene glycol was relabeled as the more expensive glycerol. Between 1990 and 1998, incidents of DEG poisoning reportedly occurred in Argentina, Bangladesh, India, and Nigeria, and resulted in hundreds of deaths. In 1937, more than one hundred people died in the United States after ingesting DEG-contaminated elixir sulfanilamide, a drug used to treat infections.
Etymology
The origin of the gly- and glu- prefixes for glycols and sugars is from Ancient Greek glukus which means sweet.
Properties
Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid glycerin:
{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
!Temperature (°C)
!Density (kg/m3)
!Specific heat (kJ/kg·K)
!Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
!Conductivity (W/m·K)
!Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
!Prandtl number
!Bulk modulus (K−1)
|-
|0
|1276.03
|2.261
|
|0.282
|
|84700
|
|-
|10
|1270.11
|2.319
|
|0.284
|
|31000
|
|-
|20
|1264.02
|2.386
|
|0.286
|
|12500
|
|-
|30
|1258.09
|2.445
|
|0.286
|
|5380
|
|-
|40
|1252.01
|2.512
|
|0.286
|
|2450
|
|-
|50
|1244.96
|2.583
|
|0.287
|
|1630
|
|}
See also
Dioxalin
Epichlorohydrin
Nitroglycerin
Oleochemicals
Saponification/Soapmaking
Solketal
Transesterification
References
External links
Mass spectrum of glycerol
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Glycerin (mist)
Alcohol solvents
Biofuels
Commodity chemicals
Cosmetics chemicals
Demulcents
E-number additives
Food additives
Glassforming liquids and melts
Household chemicals
Laxatives
Sugar alcohols
Triols
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It stores NTFS Access-Control List (ACLs) in Extended Attributes (EAs), in
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