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Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) is a set of undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity.
Hypersensitivity or hypersensitive may also refer to:
Hypersensitivity, or Sensory Processing Sensitivity, a psychological condition relating to sensitivity to processing information.
Hypersensitization, a cellular increase in the expression of a specific receptor
Dentin hypersensitivity, a cause of dental pain
Hyperesthesia, abnormal increase in sensitivity to stimuli of the sense
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity
Hypersensitive, a music album
Hypersensitive response, infection defense in plants
Hypersensitive site, a region in chromatin
Sensory overload, experiencing overstimulation
Sensory processing disorder (SPD), a medical condition relating to abnormal multisensory integration
See also
Supersensitivity (disambiguation) | wiki |
Christmas crackers are festive table decorations that make a snapping sound when pulled open, and often contain a small gift, paper hat and a joke. They are part of Christmas celebrations in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Commonwealth countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa.
A cracker consists of a segmented cardboard tube wrapped in a brightly decorated twist of paper with a prize in the centre, making it resemble an oversized sweet-wrapper. The cracker is pulled apart by two people, each holding an outer chamber, causing the cracker to split unevenly and leaving one person holding the central chamber and prize. The split is accompanied by a mild bang or snapping sound produced by the effect of friction on a shock-sensitive, chemically impregnated card strip (similar to that used in a cap gun). One chemical used for the friction strip is silver fulminate.
Tradition
Crackers are traditionally pulled during Christmas dinner or at Christmas parties. One version of the cracker ritual holds that the person who ends up with the larger end of cracker earns the right to keep the contents of the cardboard tube. Sometimes, each participant retains ownership of their own cracker and keeps its contents regardless of the outcome. Christmas crackers traditionally contain a colourful crown-shaped hat made of tissue paper, a small toy, a plastic model, or a trinket, and a small strip of paper with a motto, a joke, a riddle, or a piece of trivia. The paper hats, with the appearance of crowns, are usually worn at Christmas dinner. The tradition of wearing festive hats is believed to date back to Roman times and the Saturnalia celebrations, which also involved decorative headgear.
Christmas crackers are also associated with Knut's parties, held in Sweden at the end of the Christmas season.
Author and historian John Julius Norwich (Viscount Norwich) was known for sending his family and friends a Christmas Cracker each year which was a kind of expanded Christmas card of anecdotes, trivia and witticisms collected from history and literature. Initially he printed them privately to give to friends but also sold via some London bookstores. His 49th and final cracker was published posthumously in the year of his death.
History
The Oxford English Dictionary records the pulling of crackers from 1847.
Tom Smith
Tradition tells of how Tom Smith (1823–1869) of London invented crackers in 1847. He created the crackers as a development of his bon-bon sweets, which he sold in a twist of paper (the origins of the traditional sweet-wrapper). As sales of bon-bons slumped, Smith began to come up with new promotional ideas. His first tactic was to insert love messages into the wrappers of the sweets (similar to fortune cookies).
Smith was inspired to add a "crackle" element after hearing the crackle of a log he had just put on a fire. The size of the paper wrapper had to be increased to incorporate the banger mechanism, and the sweet itself was eventually dropped, to be replaced by a trinket: fans, jewellery and other substantial items. The new product was initially marketed as the Cosaque (French for Cossack), but the onomatopoeic "cracker" soon became the commonly used name, as rival varieties came on the market.
The other elements of the modern cracker—the gifts, paper hats and varied designs—were all introduced by Tom Smith's son, Walter Smith, to differentiate his product from the rival cracker manufacturers which had suddenly sprung up.
Tom Smith & Company merged with Caley Crackers in 1953.
A memorial water fountain to Tom Smith and his family stands in Finsbury Square, London.
Art
A Christmas cracker is the subject of The Party Favor, an oil painting by American artist Norman Rockwell.
The painting appeared as cover art for The Saturday Evening Post on 26 April 1919.
Records
The longest Christmas cracker pulling chain consisted of 1081 people and was achieved by The Harrodian School in London on 10 December 2015.
On 17 August 2020, while filming a Christmas episode of the television series QI, British comedian Alan Davies set a Guinness World Record for the most crackers pulled by an individual in 30 seconds. He achieved 35 successful cracks, outscoring fellow panelist Justin Moorhouse by five in a head-to-head competition. Davies' record stood until Joel Corry achieved 41 successful cracks at Capital's Jingle Bell Ball on 12 December 2021.
Flight restrictions
Passengers on commercial flights in and to the United States are explicitly prohibited from carrying Christmas crackers on board or in checked baggage. In the United Kingdom, rules vary by airline and airport.
References
External links
Cracker
Party favors
Christmas in the United Kingdom
Christmas in Canada
English inventions | wiki |
Five Daughters may refer to:
Five Daughters, a British television drama mini-series
Five Daughters Bakery, a family-owned bakery with six locations in the USA (Tennessee, Georgia and Florida)
Mother Fist and Her Five Daughters, the third studio album by the British singer-songwriter Marc Almond
Our Five Daughters, a daytime soap opera that ran on NBC from January 2 to September 28, 1962
Widower with Five Daughters, a 1957 West German comedy film | wiki |
A class president, also known as a class representative, is usually the leader of a student body class, and presides over its class cabinet or organization within a student council. In a grade school, class presidents are generally elected by the class, a constituency composed of all students in a grade level.
The practice of electing a class president is common in many countries around the world.
While a class president is similar to a student government president in certain ways, the main difference between the two positions is that a class president usually only represents a specific grade within the school while the student government president represents the school's entire student body (for which reason they are sometimes called "student body president" or "school president"). Studies have shown that co-ed schools are more likely to have male students as class presidents than female students.
Duties and term
The primary duties of the class president usually include working with students to resolve problems, and informing school leaders and the student council of ideas emanating from the class. The president also has the responsibility of leading class cabinet meetings and organizing student activities and events. The term of office for a class president is one year in most schools. The student holding the office usually has the option of running again for the coming year. Also, the class president in some schools is in charge of building funds for the class to use for activities, such as prom. Students in this position are also often looked to as token student voice representatives.
Senior-class president
In some schools, there is a senior-class president. The senior-class president is elected by popular vote and serves as the leader of the senior class in a high school or college. They are sometimes responsible for planning some of the events surrounding graduation. After graduation, the senior-class president is often put in charge of planning class reunions in the years to come. In addition, being a class president is a position wherein one needs to be responsible inside the room. A class president will also develop leadership skills considering the daily task being given to them by the teachers and other persons. Standing in this position will emboss them as a yearning individual as well as a more prominent and knowledgeable person over time. They can conduct the rules inside the class they are in and serve as the top eye of their fellow classmates to initiate an excellent environment throughout the year.
Popular culture references
The stereotype of the class president has been typecast in books, movies and television. Typical storylines sometimes contain a nerd or underdog claiming the title from a more popular student. The stereotype has also been used as a political allegory since the early 20th century, describing everyone from the president of the United States to roles for African-American women in the U.S. Congress.
Fictional characters in the role of class president have included:
Pedro Sánchez, played by Efren Ramirez, runs successfully for Class President in the 2004 movie Napoleon Dynamite.
Zach Siler, played by Freddie Prinze Jr., is the popular jock and Class President in the 1999 film She's All That.
Wilford "Wil C" Cardon is the Class President in the independent film produced by DJ Iggy, titled, The Rise of Number 45.
Jessie Spano, played by Elizabeth Berkley, is the Class President at Bayside High School in the television series Saved by the Bell.
Ryoko Asakura in The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya.
Tracy Flick, played by Reese Witherspoon, runs for Class President in the 1999 film Election.
Steve Holt, played by Justin Grant Wade, is Class President of the high school that George Michael Bluth and Maeby Funke attend in the television series Arrested Development.
Mizuki Kirimiya from the Visual Novel Yume Miru Kusuri.
Courtney from Total Drama Island ran for class president prior to applying for the show.
In the popular manga and anime My Hero Academia there are two classes in the Hero department. Each has their own class president (called representatives). The representative of Class 1A is Tenya Iida and the representative of Class 1B is Itsuka Kendo. The vice representatives of 1A and 1B are Momo Yaoyorozu and Nirengeki Shoda respectively.
List of well-known class presidents
Jane Addams
Molly Dewson
Troy H. Middleton
Richard Nixon
Ronald Reagan
George H. W. Bush
Bill Clinton
Joe Biden
Adam J. Niciewski
Oprah Winfrey
See also
School Captain
Head girl and head boy
References
External links
Blogspot.com, profile on Inconvenient Bluth
www.schoolelectioncentral.com
Students' unions | wiki |
Our Town is a play by Thornton Wilder.
Our Town may also refer to:
Film and television
Our Town (1940 film), adaptation of the play starring William Holden and Martha Scott
Our Town (2003 film), adaptation of the play starring Paul Newman
Our Town (television), 1955 TV adaptation on Producers' Showcase
Our Town (opera), adaptation by composer Ned Rorem
Our Town (2007 film), South Korean film
"Our Town" (The X-Files), episode from season two
"Our Town" (The Vampire Diaries), an episode of the television series
Music
"Our Town", an orchestral suite by Aaron Copland taken from the 1940 film
"Our Town" (Cold Creek County song)
"Our Town" (James Taylor song), from the 2006 Disney/Pixar animated film Cars
"Our Town", a song by Marshall Crenshaw
"Our Town", a song by Iris DeMent
Our Town - The Greatest Hits, an album by Deacon Blue
Places
Our Town, Alabama
Ourtown, Wisconsin
See also
OT: Our Town, a 2002 documentary film | wiki |
Although the European portion of France is part of the Schengen Area, its overseas departments, collectivities and other territories apply their own visa policies, which have some additional exemptions or restrictions compared to the visa policy of the Schengen Area.
Visa exemptions
Unlimited period
Nationals of the following countries can enter and reside for an unlimited period without a visa in Overseas France. They may use their national identity card instead of their passport as a travel document to enter any French territory. They may also work freely in the parts of Overseas France that are part of the European Union (overseas departments and regions, and Saint Martin), but those who are not nationals of France need a permit to work in other parts such as French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and Wallis and Futuna.
Short stays
For stays of up to 90 days in a 180-day period, visa-free entry is granted to nationals of the following countries and territories (except as otherwise noted):
This exemption also applies to:
Holders of a long-stay visa or residence permit issued by France or another Schengen Area country
Nationals of the following countries holding a multiple-entry visa issued by France with validity between 6 months and 5 years:
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Additional exemptions for specific territories
For specific territories, nationals of the following countries are also granted visa-free stays of up to 90 days in a 180-day period (except as otherwise noted).
For French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique:
For Saint Martin:
For Saint Pierre and Miquelon:
For Mayotte:
For Réunion:
For New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, and French Polynesia:
Summary of short-stay visa exemptions
Obtaining a visa
Foreign nationals who need a visa for a part of Overseas France can obtain one by lodging an application at a French embassy or consulate in their country of residence (or, in the case of foreign nationals already in a part of France, the local prefecture) for a fee of up to €99 (depending on the destination, length of stay, age and nationality).
Schengen short-stay visas are not valid for Overseas France (except for nationals of certain countries as listed above), and vice versa. A visa with the designation "départements français d'Amérique" (DFA) allows visiting all parts of Overseas France in the Americas (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, and Saint Pierre and Miquelon). A visa with the designation "valable pour France sauf CTOM" allows visiting all parts of Overseas France in the Americas as well as Réunion.
Visitor statistics
See also
Visa policy of the Schengen Area
Visa policy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean
Notes
References
Overseas France
Overseas France
Foreign relations of France | wiki |
Summary of all-time NHL regular season results by franchise through the 2018-19 season.
Notes
Overtime Loss will be added to the loss column, point for OTL will be included in point total
Active Teams in Bold
Footnotes
References
National Hockey League statistical records | wiki |
The National Museum of History (NMH; ) is located in the Nanhai Academy in Zhongzheng District, Taipei, Taiwan. After the Republic of China government moved to Taiwan, the National Museum of History was the first museum to be established in Taiwan.
History
A "National Museum of Historical Artifacts and Fine Arts" was established in a Japanese style building near the Taipei Botanical Garden in 1955. It was renamed "National Museum of History" in 1956 and the building was renovated in a five-floor traditional Chinese Ming and Qing palace style, with four floors for exhibition and staff offices, and one floor for storage. Despite its limited space, the NMH is renowned for its international exhibitions, and proactive and innovative museum development and educational programs. Various conversions of the building have been carried out over the years to adapt it as a modern space fit for the newest exhibition facilities and requirements.
The NMH's collection originally comprised the artifacts of the Henan Museum that were relocated to Taiwan in 1949, and of relics recovered from the Japanese after the Sino-Japanese War. It was named the National Museum of History in 1949 and the Chinese calligraphy title inscription was completed by famous scholar Yu Youren. The collection included bronzes unearthed in Xinzheng, Hui and Anyang (in Henan Province), Pre-Qin pottery unearthed in Luoyang, Han green-glazed pottery, dancer and musician figurines of the Six Dynasties, Tang tri-colored pottery, and more. The arrival of allocated artifacts and donations from private collectors gradually enriched the Museum's collection and enlarged its archives.
In July 2018 the museum was closed for renovations and is planned to reopen at the end of 2021.
Collection
The museum collections continued to grow with annual acquisitions obtained with government procurement budget allocations and donations from private collectors. The annual acquisitions provided the museum with artifacts and relics from mainland China, Taiwan, and other countries. The collections dated back to the Neolithic period, the ancient Chinese dynasties of Shang, Zhou, Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing, to the contemporary era.
Branch
The National Museum of History has its branch in Terminal 1 building of the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport in Taoyuan City.
Transportation
The museum is accessible within walking distance South of Xiaonanmen Station or Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall metro station of the Taipei Metro.
Directors
Pao Tsun-peng (March 1956 – May 1969)
Wang Yu-ching (May 1969 – July 1973)
Ho Hao-tien (July 1973 – October 1985)
Lee Ting-yuan (October 1985 – February 1986)
Chen Kuei-miao (February 1986 – February 1990)
Chen Kang-shun
Huang Kuang-nan
Huang Yung-chuan
Tseng Te-chin
Huang Yung-chuan
Chang Yui-tan (2010 – January 2017)
Chen Teng-chin
Chen Chi-ming
Liao Hsin-tien (incumbent)
Source
See also
List of museums in Taiwan
Henan Museum
References
1955 establishments in Taiwan
Executive Yuan
History museums in Taiwan
Museums established in 1955
Museums in Taipei
History | wiki |
The 1796 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between November 4 and December 7, 1796, as part of the 1796 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose seven representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.
During this election, New Jersey cast seven electoral votes for incumbent Vice President John Adams.
See also
United States presidential elections in New Jersey
References
New Jersey
1796
1796 New Jersey elections | wiki |
Kirov Bridge (Belarusian: Кіраўскі мост) is a bridge in Vitsebsk, Belarus, on the Dzvina river.
References
Bridges in Belarus
Crossings of the Daugava River
Bridges built in the Soviet Union
Buildings and structures in Vitebsk | wiki |
Gender quota may refer to:
Father's quota, for paternity leave in Norway
See also
Sexism | wiki |
William Beeston was an actor.
William Beeston may also refer to:
William Beeston (colonial administrator)
William Beeston (MP for Newport, Isle of Wight) and for Yarmouth (Isle of Wight) (UK Parliament constituency) | wiki |
Starvation Flats is an area in the San Bernardino Mountains near Big Bear Lake, California. It was originally a settlement of the Native American Serrano people for thousands of years.
History
Starvation Flats was an open mountain plain that with occasional grizzly bears. In 1845, Don Benito Wilson and 22 other men rode into the area in search of rustlers, but found only bears. In the years following, homesteaders came into the region to stake their claims. However, due to the poor soil and continuously bad crops, they found continuous trouble living there.
Eventually, they enlisted William F. Holcomb, who was widely known as "the best sharpshooter west of the Mississippi", to exterminate the grizzly bears. He was successful in his extermination, and so creating safety for the new homesteaders. He eventually went on to discover gold and found Holcomb Valley.
See also
California Gold Rush
Holcomb Valley
External links
References
San Bernardino Mountains
Valleys of California
Valleys of San Bernardino County, California | wiki |
Park Sang-min () is a Korean name consisting of the family name Park and the given name Sang-min, and may also refer to:
Park Sang-min (singer) (born 1964), South Korean singer
Park Sang-min (actor) (born 1970), South Korean actor | wiki |
Peraluminous rocks are igneous rocks that have a molecular proportion of aluminium oxide higher than the combination of sodium oxide, potassium oxide and calcium oxide. This contrasts with peralkaline in which the alkalis are higher, metaluminous where aluminium oxide concentration is lower than the combination, but above the alkalis, and subaluminous in which aluminia concentration is lower than the combination. Examples of peraluminous minerals include biotite, muscovite, cordierite, andalusite and garnet.
Peraluminous corresponds to the aluminum saturation index values greater than 1.
Peraluminous magmas can form S-type granitoids and have been linked to collisional orogenies and to the formation of tin, tungsten and silver deposits such as those in the Bolivian tin belt.
References
Igneous rocks | wiki |
Cayley surface may refer to:
Cayley's nodal cubic surface
Cayley's ruled cubic surface | wiki |
Impound race may refer to one of the following:
Impound race (NASCAR) - rules for NASCAR versions of impound races.
Impound race - terminology definition in Glossary of motorsport terms.
Parc fermé - terminology definition in Glossary of motorsport term.
Parc fermé French term for FIA race rules. | wiki |
Meta-moderation is a second level of comment moderation. A user is invited to rate a moderator's decision. He is shown a post that was moderated up or down and marks whether the moderator acted fairly. This is used to improve the quality of moderation.
Slashdot and Kuro5hin are two websites with meta-moderation. The GameFAQs message boards used to have it.
See also
Moderation system
References
Slashdot Metamoderation FAQ
Meatball: MedaModeration
Slash(dot) and Burn: Distributed Moderation in a Large Online Conversation Space Cliff Lampe, Paul Resnick
Groupware
Internet forum terminology
Reputation management
Content moderation | wiki |
Fight Night est une franchise de EA Sports (marque de Electronic Arts) comprenant des jeux video de boxe anglaise.
Notes et références
Série de jeux vidéo lancée en 2004 | wiki |
Flanby (often misspelled "Flamby") is a French caramel custard (Crème caramel) marketed by Lactalis Nestlé Produits Frais, a joint venture between Nestlé and Lactalis agribusiness, sold in plastic pots.
Former French President François Hollande is pejoratively nicknamed Flanby.
See also
List of custard desserts
References
Custard desserts | wiki |
The Maîtrise en sciences (MSc) is a French degree in higher education accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles and for owners of a Bachelor's degree or a first year of a Master's degree. Created in 2002, this degree certifies that the training is consistent with various quality criteria (selectivity, English language education, number of hours, length of program, research, etc..).
Presentation
According to the rules of organization of training programs accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles, ""The MSc ... of the School ..." is a program accredited by the Conférence des grandes écoles that certifies, according to criteria, of the quality of a comprehensive training package to international standards and taught in English."
Be considered candidates who hold a student of the following qualifications:
First year of Master's degree or equivalent,
Foreign degree, including Bachelor's degree.
Training must be attested by a diploma respecting the regulations applicable to the school which has received accreditation.
According to the rules, only the schools members of the Conférence des Grandes Écoles may issue the diploma.
References
Management education
Academic degrees of France | wiki |
Midtbyen is the Danish and Norwegian word for a city or town centre. The name is often used to refer to specific areas in a city.
Midtbyen may refer to:
Midtbyen, Aarhus, the city centre of the city of Aarhus in Denmark
Midtbyen, Bodø, a borough in the city of Bodø in Nordland county, Norway
Midtbyen, Kongsvinger, a borough in the city of Kongsvinger in Hedmark county, Norway
Midtbyen, Trondheim, a borough in the city of Trondheim in Trøndelag county, Norway | wiki |
The Service Integration Maturity Model (SIMM) is a standardized model for organizations to guide their transformation to a service based business model. By having a standard maturity model, it becomes possible for the organizations or industry to benchmark their SIMM levels, to have a roadmap for transformation to assist their planning and for vendors to offer services and software against these benchmarks.
SIMM may also serve as a framework for the transformation process that can be customized to suit the specific needs of organizations and assessments. This process is a simple sequence of steps: configure the assessment framework, determine the initial level of maturity, and determine the target level of maturity and a transformation path from initial to target level.
The Service Integration Maturity Model (SIMM) helps an organization create a roadmap for the incremental transformation of that organisation towards more mature levels of service integration in order to achieve increasing business benefits associated with higher levels of maturity. SIMM is used to determine which organisational characteristics are desirable in order to attain a new level of maturity. This will determine whether problems occurring at the current level can be solved by evolving to a higher level of service integration maturity.
The Open Group has adopted SIMM as the foundation for the Open Group Service Integration Maturity Model (OSIMM), the industry's first collaborative maturity model for SOA adoption.
References
OSIMM
IBM Article
IT Services Guide
IT service management | wiki |
Unwanted, The Unwanted or The Unwanteds may refer to:
Unwanted (album), a 2022 album by the band Pale Waves
, 2017 Kosovan film by Edon Rizvanolli
"Unwanted", a 2002 song by Avril Lavigne on the Let Go album
, British film by Walter Summers
(), Argentine film by Mario Soffici
The Unwanted, 2014 American film by Bret Wood
The Unwanteds, a fantasy book series by Lisa McMann
The Unwanteds (book), the first book in the above series
See also
Wanted (disambiguation) | wiki |
Spar or Spar may refer to:
Common meanings
Spar (sailing), part of a sailing vessel
Spar (aeronautics), part of an aircraft
Spar, engage in sparring, mock combat
In business
SPAR (retailer), a multinational retailer
Spar Aerospace, a former Canadian aerospace company
Spar grocery stores, owned by Pisiffik, Greenland
NASDAQ symbol for Spartan Motors, US
Vessels
USCGC Spar (WLB-403), a former United States Coast Guard seagoing buoy tender
USCGC Spar (WLB-206), a United States Coast Guard seagoing buoy tender
SPAR or SPARS
SPARS, the United States Coast Guard Women's Reserve
Society of Professional Audio Recording Services
Special Program of Assisted Reproduction
Other uses
Spar (mineralogy), a crystal with readily discernible faces
Spar (platform), a type of floating oil platform
Spar (tree), part of a cable logging setup
Spar Island (Rhode Island), a sandbar
"Spar" (short story), by Kij Johnson
Debora Spar
See also
SPARS code, a code on some compact disc recordings | wiki |
Cruise (önvezető autó) – GM és Honda hátterű robottaxi, mely 2022 júniusában San Franciscoban indította el kereskedelmi tesztüzemét
Tom Cruise – amerikai színész | wiki |
Olive Smith may refer to:
Olive Smith, (1906–1993), Irish conductor
Olive Smith (masseuse), (1880–1916), masseuse, Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service
Olive Smith (cricketer),(1993–2014), Australian cricketer
See also
Olive Smith-Dorrien, (1881–1951) creator of hospital bag fund World War I | wiki |
EasyJet is a British low-cost airline group
Easy Jet may also refer to:
Easy Jet (horse) (1967–1992) an American Quarter Horse who won the 1969 All American Futurity.
EasyJet UK, a British low-cost airline
EasyJet Switzerland (aka 'EasyJet'), a Swiss low-cost airline
EasyJet Europe (aka 'EasyJet'), an Austrian low-cost airline
See also
EZjet (EZJ), defunct airline of Guyana | wiki |
Jane Hunt est un nom pouvant désigner:
Jane Hunt (1812-1889), quaker américaine
Jane Hunt, femme politique conservatrice britannique
Voir aussi
Hunt, Jane | wiki |
Nuclear weapon designs are physical, chemical, and engineering arrangements that cause the physics package of a nuclear weapon to detonate. There are three existing basic design types:
pure fission weapons, the simplest and least technically demanding, were the first nuclear weapons built and have so far been the only type ever used in warfare (by the United States on Japan during World War II).
boosted fission weapons increase yield beyond that of the implosion design by using small quantities of fusion fuel to enhance the fission chain reaction. Boosting can more than double the weapon's fission energy yield.
staged thermonuclear weapons are essentially arrangements of two or more "stages", most usually two. The first stage is normally a boosted fission weapon as above (except for the earliest thermonuclear weapons, which used a pure fission weapon instead). Its detonation causes it to shine intensely with x-radiation, which illuminates and implodes the second stage filled with a large quantity of fusion fuel. This sets in motion a sequence of events which results in a thermonuclear, or fusion, burn. This process affords potential yields up to hundreds of times those of fission weapons.
A fourth type, pure fusion weapons, are a theoretical possibility. Such weapons would produce far fewer radioactive byproducts than current designs, although they would release huge numbers of neutrons.
Pure fission weapons historically have been the first type to be built by new nuclear powers. Large industrial states with well-developed nuclear arsenals have two-stage thermonuclear weapons, which are the most compact, scalable, and cost effective option once the necessary technical base and industrial infrastructure are built.
Most known innovations in nuclear weapon design originated in the United States, although some were later developed independently by other states.
In early news accounts, pure fission weapons were called atomic bombs or A-bombs and weapons involving fusion were called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Practitioners of nuclear policy, however, favor the terms nuclear and thermonuclear, respectively.
Nuclear reactions
Nuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939.
In some ways, fission and fusion are opposite and complementary reactions, but the particulars are unique for each. To understand how nuclear weapons are designed, it is useful to know the important similarities and differences between fission and fusion. The following explanation uses rounded numbers and approximations.
Fission
When a free neutron hits the nucleus of a fissile atom like uranium-235 (235U), the uranium nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei called fission fragments, plus more neutrons (for 235U three as often as two; an average of 2.5 per fission). The fission chain reaction in a supercritical mass of fuel can be self-sustaining because it produces enough surplus neutrons to offset losses of neutrons escaping the supercritical assembly. Most of these have the speed (kinetic energy) required to cause new fissions in neighboring uranium nuclei.
The U-235 nucleus can split in many ways, provided the atomic numbers add up to 92 and the atomic masses add to 236 (uranium plus the extra neutron). The following equation shows one possible split, namely into strontium-95 (95Sr), xenon-139 (139Xe), and two neutrons (n), plus energy:
The immediate energy release per atom is about 180 million electron volts (MeV); i.e., 74 TJ/kg. Only 7% of this is gamma radiation and kinetic energy of fission neutrons. The remaining 93% is kinetic energy (or energy of motion) of the charged fission fragments, flying away from each other mutually repelled by the positive charge of their protons (38 for strontium, 54 for xenon). This initial kinetic energy is 67 TJ/kg, imparting an initial speed of about 12,000 kilometers per second. The charged fragments' high electric charge causes many inelastic coulomb collisions with nearby nuclei, and these fragments remain trapped inside the bomb's fissile pit and tamper until their motion is converted into heat. Given the speed of the fragments and the mean free path between nuclei in the compressed fuel assembly (for the implosion design), this takes about a millionth of a second (a microsecond), by which time the core and tamper of the bomb have expanded to plasma several meters in diameter with a temperature of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.
This is hot enough to emit black-body radiation in the X-ray spectrum. These X-rays are absorbed by the surrounding air, producing the fireball and blast of a nuclear explosion.
Most fission products have too many neutrons to be stable so they are radioactive by beta decay, converting neutrons into protons by throwing off beta particles (electrons) and gamma rays. Their half lives range from milliseconds to about 200,000 years. Many decay into isotopes that are themselves radioactive, so from 1 to 6 (average 3) decays may be required to reach stability. In reactors, the radioactive products are the nuclear waste in spent fuel. In bombs, they become radioactive fallout, both local and global.
Meanwhile, inside the exploding bomb, the free neutrons released by fission carry away about 3% of the initial fission energy. Neutron kinetic energy adds to the blast energy of a bomb, but not as effectively as the energy from charged fragments, since neutrons do not give up their kinetic energy as quickly in collisions with charged nuclei or electrons. The dominant contribution of fission neutrons to the bomb's power is the initiation of subsequent fissions. Over half of the neutrons escape the bomb core, but the rest strike 235U nuclei causing them to fission in an exponentially growing chain reaction (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.). Starting from one atom, the number of fissions can theoretically double a hundred times in a microsecond, which could consume all uranium or plutonium up to hundreds of tons by the hundredth link in the chain. Typically in a modern weapon, the weapon's pit contains of plutonium and at detonation produces approximately yield, representing the fissioning of approximately of plutonium.
Materials which can sustain a chain reaction are called fissile. The two fissile materials used in nuclear weapons are: 235U, also known as highly enriched uranium (HEU), oralloy (Oy) meaning Oak Ridge Alloy, or 25 (the last digits of the atomic number, which is 92 for uranium, and the atomic weight, here 235, respectively); and 239Pu, also known as plutonium, or 49 (from 94 and 239).
Uranium's most common isotope, 238U, is fissionable but not fissile, meaning that it cannot sustain a chain reaction because its daughter fission neutrons are not (on average) energetic enough to cause follow-on 238U fissions. However, the neutrons released by fusion of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium will fission 238U. This 238U fission reaction in the outer jacket of the secondary assembly of a two-stage thermonuclear bomb produces by far the greatest fraction of the bomb's energy yield, as well as most of its radioactive debris.
For national powers engaged in a nuclear arms race, this fact of 238U's ability to fast-fission from thermonuclear neutron bombardment is of central importance. The plenitude and cheapness of both bulk dry fusion fuel (lithium deuteride) and 238U (a byproduct of uranium enrichment) permit the economical production of very large nuclear arsenals, in comparison to pure fission weapons requiring the expensive 235U or 239Pu fuels.
Fusion
Fusion produces neutrons which dissipate energy from the reaction. In weapons, the most important fusion reaction is called the D-T reaction. Using the heat and pressure of fission, hydrogen-2, or deuterium (2D), fuses with hydrogen-3, or tritium (3T), to form helium-4 (4He) plus one neutron (n) and energy:
The total energy output, 17.6 MeV, is one tenth of that with fission, but the ingredients are only one-fiftieth as massive, so the energy output per unit mass is approximately five times as great. In this fusion reaction, 14 of the 17.6 MeV (80% of the energy released in the reaction) shows up as the kinetic energy of the neutron, which, having no electric charge and being almost as massive as the hydrogen nuclei that created it, can escape the scene without leaving its energy behind to help sustain the reaction – or to generate x-rays for blast and fire.
The only practical way to capture most of the fusion energy is to trap the neutrons inside a massive bottle of heavy material such as lead, uranium, or plutonium. If the 14 MeV neutron is captured by uranium (of either isotope; 14 MeV is high enough to fission both 235U and 238U) or plutonium, the result is fission and the release of 180 MeV of fission energy, multiplying the energy output tenfold.
For weapon use, fission is necessary to start fusion, helps to sustain fusion, and captures and multiplies the energy carried by the fusion neutrons. In the case of a neutron bomb (see below), the last-mentioned factor does not apply, since the objective is to facilitate the escape of neutrons, rather than to use them to increase the weapon's raw power.
Tritium production
An essential nuclear reaction is the one that creates tritium, or hydrogen-3. Tritium is employed in two ways. First, pure tritium gas is produced for placement inside the cores of boosted fission devices in order to increase their energy yields. This is especially so for the fission primaries of thermonuclear weapons. The second way is indirect, and takes advantage of the fact that the neutrons emitted by a supercritical fission "spark plug" in the secondary assembly of a two-stage thermonuclear bomb will produce tritium in situ when these neutrons collide with the lithium nuclei in the bomb's lithium deuteride fuel supply.
Elemental gaseous tritium for fission primaries is also made by bombarding lithium-6 (6Li) with neutrons (n), only in a nuclear reactor. This neutron bombardment will cause the lithium-6 nucleus to split, producing an alpha particle, or helium-4 (4He), plus a triton (3T) and energy:
The neutrons are supplied by the nuclear reactor in a way similar to production of plutonium 239Pu from 238U feedstock: target rods of the 6Li feedstock are arranged around a uranium-fueled core, and are removed for processing once it has been calculated that most of the lithium nuclei have been transmuted to tritium.
Of the four basic types of nuclear weapon, the first, pure fission, uses the first of the three nuclear reactions above. The second, fusion-boosted fission, uses the first two. The third, two-stage thermonuclear, uses all three.
Pure fission weapons
The first task of a nuclear weapon design is to rapidly assemble a supercritical mass of fissile (weapon grade) uranium or plutonium. A supercritical mass is one in which the percentage of fission-produced neutrons captured by other neighboring fissile nuclei is large enough that each fission event, on average, causes more than one follow-on fission event. Neutrons released by the first fission events induce subsequent fission events at an exponentially accelerating rate. Each follow-on fissioning continues a sequence of these reactions that works its way throughout the supercritical mass of fuel nuclei. This process is conceived and described colloquially as the nuclear chain reaction.
To start the chain reaction in a supercritical assembly, at least one free neutron must be injected and collide with a fissile fuel nucleus. The neutron joins with the nucleus (technically a fusion event) and destabilizes the nucleus, which explodes into two middleweight nuclear fragments (from the severing of the strong nuclear force holding the mutually-repulsive protons together), plus two or three free neutrons. These race away and collide with neighboring fuel nuclei. This process repeats over and over until the fuel assembly goes subcritical (from thermal expansion), after which the chain reaction shuts down because the daughter neutrons can no longer find new fuel nuclei to hit before escaping the less-dense fuel mass. Each following fission event in the chain approximately doubles the neutron population (net, after losses due to some neutrons escaping the fuel mass, and others that collide with any non-fuel impurity nuclei present).
For the gun assembly method (see below) of supercritical mass formation, the fuel itself can be relied upon to initiate the chain reaction. This is because even the best weapon-grade uranium contains a significant number of 238U nuclei. These are susceptible to spontaneous fission events, which occur randomly (it is a quantum mechanical phenomenon). Because the fissile material in a gun-assembled critical mass is not compressed, the design need only ensure the two subcritical masses remain close enough to each other long enough that a 238U spontaneous fission will occur while the weapon is in the vicinity of the target. This is not difficult to arrange as it takes but a second or two in a typical-size fuel mass for this to occur. (Still, many such bombs meant for delivery by air (gravity bomb, artillery shell or rocket) use injected neutrons to gain finer control over the exact detonation altitude, important for the destructive effectiveness of airbursts.)
This condition of spontaneous fission highlights the necessity to assemble the supercritical mass of fuel very rapidly. The time required to accomplish this is called the weapon's critical insertion time. If spontaneous fission were to occur when the supercritical mass was only partially assembled, the chain reaction would begin prematurely. Neutron losses through the void between the two subcritical masses (gun assembly) or the voids between not-fully-compressed fuel nuclei (implosion assembly) would sap the bomb of the number of fission events needed to attain the full design yield. Additionally, heat resulting from the fissions that do occur would work against the continued assembly of the supercritical mass, from thermal expansion of the fuel. This failure is called predetonation. The resulting explosion would be called a "fizzle" by bomb engineers and weapon users. Plutonium's high rate of spontaneous fission makes uranium fuel a necessity for gun-assembled bombs, with their much greater insertion time and much greater mass of fuel required (because of the lack of fuel compression).
There is another source of free neutrons that can spoil a fission explosion. All uranium and plutonium nuclei have a decay mode that results in energetic alpha particles. If the fuel mass contains impurity elements of low atomic number (Z), these charged alphas can penetrate the coulomb barrier of these impurity nuclei and undergo a reaction that yields a free neutron. The rate of alpha emission of fissile nuclei is one to two million times that of spontaneous fission, so weapon engineers are careful to use fuel of high purity.
Fission weapons used in the vicinity of other nuclear explosions must be protected from the intrusion of free neutrons from outside. Such shielding material will almost always be penetrated, however, if the outside neutron flux is intense enough. When a weapon misfires or fizzles because of the effects of other nuclear detonations, it is called nuclear fratricide.
For the implosion-assembled design, once the critical mass is assembled to maximum density, a burst of neutrons must be supplied to start the chain reaction. Early weapons used a modulated neutron generator codenamed "Urchin" inside the pit containing polonium-210 and beryllium separated by a thin barrier. Implosion of the pit crushes the neutron generator, mixing the two metals, thereby allowing alpha particles from the polonium to interact with beryllium to produce free neutrons. In modern weapons, the neutron generator is a high-voltage vacuum tube containing a particle accelerator which bombards a deuterium/tritium-metal hydride target with deuterium and tritium ions. The resulting small-scale fusion produces neutrons at a protected location outside the physics package, from which they penetrate the pit. This method allows better timing of the first fission events in the chain reaction, which optimally should occur at the point of maximum compression/supercriticality. Timing of the neutron injection is a more important parameter than the number of neutrons injected: the first generations of the chain reaction are vastly more effective due to the exponential function by which neutron multiplication evolves.
The critical mass of an uncompressed sphere of bare metal is for uranium-235 and for delta-phase plutonium-239. In practical applications, the amount of material required for criticality is modified by shape, purity, density, and the proximity to neutron-reflecting material, all of which affect the escape or capture of neutrons.
To avoid a premature chain reaction during handling, the fissile material in the weapon must be kept subcritical. It may consist of one or more components containing less than one uncompressed critical mass each. A thin hollow shell can have more than the bare-sphere critical mass, as can a cylinder, which can be arbitrarily long without ever reaching criticality. Another method of reducing criticality risk is to incorporate material with a large cross-section for neutron capture, such as boron (specifically 10B comprising 20% of natural boron). Naturally this neutron absorber must be removed before the weapon is detonated. This is easy for a gun-assembled bomb: the projectile mass simply shoves the absorber out of the void between the two subcritical masses by the force of its motion.
The use of plutonium affects weapon design due to its high rate of alpha emission. This results in Pu metal spontaneously producing significant heat; a 5 kilogram mass-produces 9.68 watts of thermal power. Such a piece would feel warm to the touch, which is no problem if that heat is dissipated promptly and not allowed to build up the temperature. But this is a problem inside a nuclear bomb. For this reason bombs using Pu fuel use aluminum parts to wick away the excess heat, and this complicates bomb design because Al plays no active role in the explosion processes.
A tamper is an optional layer of dense material surrounding the fissile material. Due to its inertia it delays the thermal expansion of the fissioning fuel mass, keeping it supercritical for longer. Often the same layer serves both as tamper and as neutron reflector.
Gun-type assembly
Little Boy, the Hiroshima bomb, used of uranium with an average enrichment of around 80%, or of U-235, just about the bare-metal critical mass. (See Little Boy article for a detailed drawing.) When assembled inside its tamper/reflector of tungsten carbide, the was more than twice critical mass. Before the detonation, the uranium-235 was formed into two sub-critical pieces, one of which was later fired down a gun barrel to join the other, starting the nuclear explosion. Analysis shows that less than 2% of the uranium mass underwent fission; the remainder, representing most of the entire wartime output of the giant Y-12 factories at Oak Ridge, scattered uselessly.
The inefficiency was caused by the speed with which the uncompressed fissioning uranium expanded and became sub-critical by virtue of decreased density. Despite its inefficiency, this design, because of its shape, was adapted for use in small-diameter, cylindrical artillery shells (a gun-type warhead fired from the barrel of a much larger gun). Such warheads were deployed by the United States until 1992, accounting for a significant fraction of the U-235 in the arsenal, and were some of the first weapons dismantled to comply with treaties limiting warhead numbers. The rationale for this decision was undoubtedly a combination of the lower yield and grave safety issues associated with the gun-type design.
Implosion-type
For both the Trinity device and the Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, nearly identical plutonium fission through implosion designs were used. The Fat Man device specifically used , about in volume, of Pu-239, which is only 41% of bare-sphere critical mass. (See Fat Man article for a detailed drawing.) Surrounded by a U-238 reflector/tamper, the Fat Man's pit was brought close to critical mass by the neutron-reflecting properties of the U-238. During detonation, criticality was achieved by implosion. The plutonium pit was squeezed to increase its density by simultaneous detonation, as with the "Trinity" test detonation three weeks earlier, of the conventional explosives placed uniformly around the pit. The explosives were detonated by multiple exploding-bridgewire detonators. It is estimated that only about 20% of the plutonium underwent fission; the rest, about , was scattered.
An implosion shock wave might be of such short duration that only part of the pit is compressed at any instant as the wave passes through it. To prevent this, a pusher shell may be needed. The pusher is located between the explosive lens and the tamper. It works by reflecting some of the shock wave backwards, thereby having the effect of lengthening its duration. It is made out of a low density metal – such as aluminium, beryllium, or an alloy of the two metals (aluminium is easier and safer to shape, and is two orders of magnitude cheaper; beryllium has high-neutron-reflective capability). Fat Man used an aluminium pusher.
The series of RaLa Experiment tests of implosion-type fission weapon design concepts, carried out from July 1944 through February 1945 at the Los Alamos Laboratory and a remote site east of it in Bayo Canyon, proved the practicality of the implosion design for a fission device, with the February 1945 tests positively determining its usability for the final Trinity/Fat Man plutonium implosion design.
The key to Fat Man's greater efficiency was the inward momentum of the massive U-238 tamper. (The natural uranium tamper did not undergo fission from thermal neutrons, but did contribute perhaps 20% of the total yield from fission by fast neutrons). Once the chain reaction started in the plutonium, the momentum of the implosion had to be reversed before expansion could stop the fission. By holding everything together for a few hundred nanoseconds more, the efficiency was increased.
Plutonium pit
The core of an implosion weapon – the fissile material and any reflector or tamper bonded to it – is known as the pit. Some weapons tested during the 1950s used pits made with U-235 alone, or in composite with plutonium, but all-plutonium pits are the smallest in diameter and have been the standard since the early 1960s.
Casting and then machining plutonium is difficult not only because of its toxicity, but also because plutonium has many different metallic phases. As plutonium cools, changes in phase result in distortion and cracking. This distortion is normally overcome by alloying it with 30–35 mMol (0.9–1.0% by weight) gallium, forming a plutonium-gallium alloy, which causes it to take up its delta phase over a wide temperature range. When cooling from molten it then has only a single phase change, from epsilon to delta, instead of the four changes it would otherwise pass through. Other trivalent metals would also work, but gallium has a small neutron absorption cross section and helps protect the plutonium against corrosion. A drawback is that gallium compounds are corrosive and so if the plutonium is recovered from dismantled weapons for conversion to plutonium dioxide for power reactors, there is the difficulty of removing the gallium.
Because plutonium is chemically reactive it is common to plate the completed pit with a thin layer of inert metal, which also reduces the toxic hazard. The gadget used galvanic silver plating; afterwards, nickel deposited from nickel tetracarbonyl vapors was used, gold was preferred for many years. Recent designs improve safety by plating pits with vanadium to make the pits more fire-resistant.
Levitated-pit implosion
The first improvement on the Fat Man design was to put an air space between the tamper and the pit to create a hammer-on-nail impact. The pit, supported on a hollow cone inside the tamper cavity, was said to be levitated. The three tests of Operation Sandstone, in 1948, used Fat Man designs with levitated pits. The largest yield was 49 kilotons, more than twice the yield of the unlevitated Fat Man.
It was immediately clear that implosion was the best design for a fission weapon. Its only drawback seemed to be its diameter. Fat Man was wide vs for Little Boy.
The Pu-239 pit of Fat Man was only in diameter, the size of a softball. The bulk of Fat Man's girth was the implosion mechanism, namely concentric layers of U-238, aluminium, and high explosives. The key to reducing that girth was the two-point implosion design.
Two-point linear implosion
In the two-point linear implosion, the nuclear fuel is cast into a solid shape and placed within the center of a cylinder of high explosive. Detonators are placed at either end of the explosive cylinder, and a plate-like insert, or shaper, is placed in the explosive just inside the detonators. When the detonators are fired, the initial detonation is trapped between the shaper and the end of the cylinder, causing it to travel out to the edges of the shaper where it is diffracted around the edges into the main mass of explosive. This causes the detonation to form into a ring that proceeds inwards from the shaper.
Due to the lack of a tamper or lenses to shape the progression, the detonation does not reach the pit in a spherical shape. To produce the desired spherical implosion, the fissile material itself is shaped to produce the same effect. Due to the physics of the shock wave propagation within the explosive mass, this requires the pit to be a prolate spheroid, that is, roughly egg shaped. The shock wave first reaches the pit at its tips, driving them inward and causing the mass to become spherical. The shock may also change plutonium from delta to alpha phase, increasing its density by 23%, but without the inward momentum of a true implosion.
The lack of compression makes such designs inefficient, but the simplicity and small diameter make it suitable for use in artillery shells and atomic demolition munitions – ADMs – also known as backpack or suitcase nukes; an example is the W48 artillery shell, the smallest nuclear weapon ever built or deployed. All such low-yield battlefield weapons, whether gun-type U-235 designs or linear implosion Pu-239 designs, pay a high price in fissile material in order to achieve diameters between six and ten inches (15 and 25 cm).
List of US linear implosion weapons
Artillery
W48 (1963–1992)
W74 (cancelled)
W75 (cancelled)
W79 Mod 1 (1981–1992)
W82 Mod 1 (cancelled)
Hollow-pit implosion
A more efficient implosion system uses a hollow pit.
A hollow plutonium pit was the original plan for the 1945 Fat Man bomb, but there was not enough time to develop and test the implosion system for it. A simpler solid-pit design was considered more reliable, given the time constraints, but it required a heavy U-238 tamper, a thick aluminium pusher, and three tons of high explosives.
After the war, interest in the hollow pit design was revived. Its obvious advantage is that a hollow shell of plutonium, shock-deformed and driven inward toward its empty center, would carry momentum into its violent assembly as a solid sphere. It would be self-tamping, requiring a smaller U-238 tamper, no aluminium pusher and less high explosive.
Fusion-boosted fission
The next step in miniaturization was to speed up the fissioning of the pit to reduce the minimum inertial confinement time. This would allow the efficient fission of the fuel with less mass in the form of tamper or the fuel itself. The key to achieving faster fission would be to introduce more neutrons, and among the many ways to do this, adding a fusion reaction was relatively easy in the case of a hollow pit.
The easiest fusion reaction to achieve is found in a 50–50 mixture of tritium and deuterium. For fusion power experiments this mixture must be held at high temperatures for relatively lengthy times in order to have an efficient reaction. For explosive use, however, the goal is not to produce efficient fusion, but simply provide extra neutrons early in the process. Since a nuclear explosion is supercritical, any extra neutrons will be multiplied by the chain reaction, so even tiny quantities introduced early can have a large effect on the outcome. For this reason, even the relatively low compression pressures and times (in fusion terms) found in the center of a hollow pit warhead are enough to create the desired effect.
In the boosted design, the fusion fuel in gas form is pumped into the pit during arming. This will fuse into helium and release free neutrons soon after fission begins. The neutrons will start a large number of new chain reactions while the pit is still critical or nearly critical. Once the hollow pit is perfected, there is little reason not to boost; deuterium and tritium are easily produced in the small quantities needed, and the technical aspects are trivial.
The concept of fusion-boosted fission was first tested on May 25, 1951, in the Item shot of Operation Greenhouse, Eniwetok, yield 45.5 kilotons.
Boosting reduces diameter in three ways, all the result of faster fission:
Since the compressed pit does not need to be held together as long, the massive U-238 tamper can be replaced by a light-weight beryllium shell (to reflect escaping neutrons back into the pit). The diameter is reduced.
The mass of the pit can be reduced by half, without reducing yield. Diameter is reduced again.
Since the mass of the metal being imploded (tamper plus pit) is reduced, a smaller charge of high explosive is needed, reducing diameter even further.
The first device whose dimensions suggest employment of all these features (two-point, hollow-pit, fusion-boosted implosion) was the Swan device. It had a cylindrical shape with a diameter of and a length of .
It was first tested standalone and then as the primary of a two-stage thermonuclear device during Operation Redwing. It was weaponized as the Robin primary and became the first off-the-shelf, multi-use primary, and the prototype for all that followed.
After the success of Swan, seemed to become the standard diameter of boosted single-stage devices tested during the 1950s. Length was usually twice the diameter, but one such device, which became the W54 warhead, was closer to a sphere, only long.
One of the applications of the W54 was the Davy Crockett XM-388 recoilless rifle projectile. It had a dimension of just , and is shown here in comparison to its Fat Man predecessor ().
Another benefit of boosting, in addition to making weapons smaller, lighter, and with less fissile material for a given yield, is that it renders weapons immune to predetonation. It was discovered in the mid-1950s that plutonium pits would be particularly susceptible to partial predetonation if exposed to the intense radiation of a nearby nuclear explosion (electronics might also be damaged, but this was a separate problem). RI was a particular problem before effective early warning radar systems because a first strike attack might make retaliatory weapons useless. Boosting reduces the amount of plutonium needed in a weapon to below the quantity which would be vulnerable to this effect.
Two-stage thermonuclear
Pure fission or fusion-boosted fission weapons can be made to yield hundreds of kilotons, at great expense in fissile material and tritium, but by far the most efficient way to increase nuclear weapon yield beyond ten or so kilotons is to add a second independent stage, called a secondary.
In the 1940s, bomb designers at Los Alamos thought the secondary would be a canister of deuterium in liquefied or hydride form. The fusion reaction would be D-D, harder to achieve than D-T, but more affordable. A fission bomb at one end would shock-compress and heat the near end, and fusion would propagate through the canister to the far end. Mathematical simulations showed it would not work, even with large amounts of expensive tritium added.
The entire fusion fuel canister would need to be enveloped by fission energy, to both compress and heat it, as with the booster charge in a boosted primary. The design breakthrough came in January 1951, when Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam invented radiation implosion – for nearly three decades known publicly only as the Teller-Ulam H-bomb secret.
The concept of radiation implosion was first tested on May 9, 1951, in the George shot of Operation Greenhouse, Eniwetok, yield 225 kilotons. The first full test was on November 1, 1952, the Mike shot of Operation Ivy, Eniwetok, yield 10.4 megatons.
In radiation implosion, the burst of X-ray energy coming from an exploding primary is captured and contained within an opaque-walled radiation channel which surrounds the nuclear energy components of the secondary. The radiation quickly turns the plastic foam that had been filling the channel into a plasma which is mostly transparent to X-rays, and the radiation is absorbed in the outermost layers of the pusher/tamper surrounding the secondary, which ablates and applies a massive force (much like an inside out rocket engine) causing the fusion fuel capsule to implode much like the pit of the primary. As the secondary implodes a fissile "spark plug" at its center ignites and provides neutrons and heat which enable the lithium deuteride fusion fuel to produce tritium and ignite as well. The fission and fusion chain reactions exchange neutrons with each other and boost the efficiency of both reactions. The greater implosive force, enhanced efficiency of the fissile "spark plug" due to boosting via fusion neutrons, and the fusion explosion itself provide significantly greater explosive yield from the secondary despite often not being much larger than the primary.
For example, for the Redwing Mohawk test on July 3, 1956, a secondary called the Flute was attached to the Swan primary. The Flute was in diameter and long, about the size of the Swan. But it weighed ten times as much and yielded 24 times as much energy (355 kilotons, vs 15 kilotons).
Equally important, the active ingredients in the Flute probably cost no more than those in the Swan. Most of the fission came from cheap U-238, and the tritium was manufactured in place during the explosion. Only the spark plug at the axis of the secondary needed to be fissile.
A spherical secondary can achieve higher implosion densities than a cylindrical secondary, because spherical implosion pushes in from all directions toward the same spot. However, in warheads yielding more than one megaton, the diameter of a spherical secondary would be too large for most applications. A cylindrical secondary is necessary in such cases. The small, cone-shaped re-entry vehicles in multiple-warhead ballistic missiles after 1970 tended to have warheads with spherical secondaries, and yields of a few hundred kilotons.
As with boosting, the advantages of the two-stage thermonuclear design are so great that there is little incentive not to use it, once a nation has mastered the technology.
In engineering terms, radiation implosion allows for the exploitation of several known features of nuclear bomb materials which heretofore had eluded practical application. For example:
The optimal way to store deuterium in a reasonably dense state is to chemically bond it with lithium, as lithium deuteride. But the lithium-6 isotope is also the raw material for tritium production, and an exploding bomb is a nuclear reactor. Radiation implosion will hold everything together long enough to permit the complete conversion of lithium-6 into tritium, while the bomb explodes. So the bonding agent for deuterium permits use of the D-T fusion reaction without any pre-manufactured tritium being stored in the secondary. The tritium production constraint disappears.
For the secondary to be imploded by the hot, radiation-induced plasma surrounding it, it must remain cool for the first microsecond, i.e., it must be encased in a massive radiation (heat) shield. The shield's massiveness allows it to double as a tamper, adding momentum and duration to the implosion. No material is better suited for both of these jobs than ordinary, cheap uranium-238, which also happens to undergo fission when struck by the neutrons produced by D-T fusion. This casing, called the pusher, thus has three jobs: to keep the secondary cool; to hold it, inertially, in a highly compressed state; and, finally, to serve as the chief energy source for the entire bomb. The consumable pusher makes the bomb more a uranium fission bomb than a hydrogen fusion bomb. Insiders never used the term "hydrogen bomb".
Finally, the heat for fusion ignition comes not from the primary but from a second fission bomb called the spark plug, embedded in the heart of the secondary. The implosion of the secondary implodes this spark plug, detonating it and igniting fusion in the material around it, but the spark plug then continues to fission in the neutron-rich environment until it is fully consumed, adding significantly to the yield.
In the ensuing fifty years, nobody has come up with a more efficient way to build a nuclear bomb. It is the design of choice for the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, China, and France, the five thermonuclear powers. On 3 September 2017 North Korea carried out what it reported as its first "two-stage thermo-nuclear weapon" test. According to Dr. Theodore Taylor, after reviewing leaked photographs of disassembled weapons components taken before 1986, Israel possessed boosted weapons and would require supercomputers of that era to advance further toward full two-stage weapons in the megaton range without nuclear test detonations. The other nuclear-armed nations, India and Pakistan, probably have single-stage weapons, possibly boosted.
Interstage
In a two-stage thermonuclear weapon the energy from the primary impacts the secondary. An essential energy transfer modulator called the interstage, between the primary and the secondary, protects the secondary's fusion fuel from heating too quickly, which could cause it to explode in a conventional (and small) heat explosion before the fusion and fission reactions get a chance to start.
There is very little information in the open literature about the mechanism of the interstage. Its first mention in a U.S. government document formally released to the public appears to be a caption in a graphic promoting the Reliable Replacement Warhead Program in 2007. If built, this new design would replace "toxic, brittle material" and "expensive 'special' material" in the interstage. This statement suggests the interstage may contain beryllium to moderate the flux of neutrons from the primary, and perhaps something to absorb and re-radiate the x-rays in a particular manner. There is also some speculation that this interstage material, which may be code-named Fogbank, might be an aerogel, possibly doped with beryllium and/or other substances.
The interstage and the secondary are encased together inside a stainless steel membrane to form the canned subassembly (CSA), an arrangement which has never been depicted in any open-source drawing. The most detailed illustration of an interstage shows a British thermonuclear weapon with a cluster of items between its primary and a cylindrical secondary. They are labeled "end-cap and neutron focus lens", "reflector/neutron gun carriage", and "reflector wrap". The origin of the drawing, posted on the internet by Greenpeace, is uncertain, and there is no accompanying explanation.
Specific designs
While every nuclear weapon design falls into one of the above categories, specific designs have occasionally become the subject of news accounts and public discussion, often with incorrect descriptions about how they work and what they do. Examples:
Alarm Clock/Sloika
The first effort to exploit the symbiotic relationship between fission and fusion was a 1940s design that mixed fission and fusion fuel in alternating thin layers. As a single-stage device, it would have been a cumbersome application of boosted fission. It first became practical when incorporated into the secondary of a two-stage thermonuclear weapon.
The U.S. name, Alarm Clock, came from Teller: he called it that because it might "wake up the world" to the possibility of the potential of the Super. The Russian name for the same design was more descriptive: Sloika (), a layered pastry cake. A single-stage Soviet Sloika was tested on August 12, 1953. No single-stage U.S. version was tested, but the Union shot of Operation Castle, April 26, 1954, was a two-stage thermonuclear device code-named Alarm Clock. Its yield, at Bikini, was 6.9 megatons.
Because the Soviet Sloika test used dry lithium-6 deuteride eight months before the first U.S. test to use it (Castle Bravo, March 1, 1954), it was sometimes claimed that the USSR won the H-bomb race, even though the United States tested and developed the first hydrogen bomb: the Ivy Mike H-bomb test. The 1952 U.S. Ivy Mike test used cryogenically cooled liquid deuterium as the fusion fuel in the secondary, and employed the D-D fusion reaction. However, the first Soviet test to use a radiation-imploded secondary, the essential feature of a true H-bomb, was on November 23, 1955, three years after Ivy Mike. In fact, real work on the implosion scheme in the Soviet Union only commenced in the very early part of 1953, several months after the successful testing of Sloika.
Clean bombs
On March 1, 1954, the largest-ever U.S. nuclear test explosion, the 15-megaton Bravo shot of Operation Castle at Bikini Atoll, delivered a promptly lethal dose of fission-product fallout to more than of Pacific Ocean surface. Radiation injuries to Marshall Islanders and Japanese fishermen made that fact public and revealed the role of fission in hydrogen bombs.
In response to the public alarm over fallout, an effort was made to design a clean multi-megaton weapon, relying almost entirely on fusion. The energy produced by the fissioning of unenriched natural uranium, when used as the tamper material in the secondary and subsequent stages in the Teller-Ulam design, can far exceed the energy released by fusion, as was the case in the Castle Bravo test. Replacing the fissionable material in the tamper with another material is essential to producing a "clean" bomb. In such a device, the tamper no longer contributes energy, so for any given weight, a clean bomb will have less yield. The earliest known incidence of a three-stage device being tested, with the third stage, called the tertiary, being ignited by the secondary, was May 27, 1956, in the Bassoon device. This device was tested in the Zuni shot of Operation Redwing. This shot used non-fissionable tampers; an inert substitute material such as tungsten or lead was used. Its yield was 3.5 megatons, 85% fusion and only 15% fission.
The public records for devices that produced the highest proportion of their yield via fusion reactions are the peaceful nuclear explosions of the 1970s. Others include the 50 megaton Tsar Bomba at 97% fusion, the 9.3 megaton Hardtack Poplar test at 95%, and the 4.5 megaton Redwing Navajo test at 95% fusion.
The most ambitious peaceful application of nuclear explosions was pursued by the USSR with the aim of creating a 112 km long canal between the Pechora river basin and the Kama river basin, about half of which was to be constructed through a series of underground nuclear explosions. It was reported that about 250 nuclear devices might be used to get the final goal. The Taiga test was to demonstrate the feasibility of the project. Three of these "clean" devices of 15 kiloton yield each were placed in separate boreholes spaced about 165 m apart at depths of 127 m. They were simultaneously detonated on March 23, 1971, catapulting radioactive plume into the air that was carried eastward by wind. The resulting trench was around 700 m long and 340 m wide, with an unimpressive depth of just 10–15m. Despite their "clean" nature, the area still exhibits a noticeably higher (albeit mostly harmless) concentration of fission products, the intense neutron bombardment of the soil, the device itself and the support structures also activated their stable elements to create a significant amount of man-made radioactive elements like 60Co. The overall danger posed by the concentration of radioactive elements present at the site created by these three devices is still negligible, but a larger scale project as was envisioned would have had significant consequences both from the fallout of radioactive plume and the radioactive elements created by the neutron bombardment.
On July 19, 1956, AEC Chairman Lewis Strauss said that the Redwing Zuni shot clean bomb test "produced much of importance ... from a humanitarian aspect." However, less than two days after this announcement, the dirty version of Bassoon, called Bassoon Prime, with a uranium-238 tamper in place, was tested on a barge off the coast of Bikini Atoll as the Redwing Tewa shot. The Bassoon Prime produced a 5-megaton yield, of which 87% came from fission. Data obtained from this test, and others, culminated in the eventual deployment of the highest yielding US nuclear weapon known, and the highest yield-to-weight weapon ever made, a three-stage thermonuclear weapon with a maximum "dirty" yield of 25 megatons, designated as the B41 nuclear bomb, which was to be carried by U.S. Air Force bombers until it was decommissioned; this weapon was never fully tested.
Third generation
First and second generation nuclear weapons release energy as omnidirectional blasts. Third generation nuclear weapons are experimental special effect warheads and devices that can release energy in a directed manner, some of which were tested during the Cold War but were never deployed. These include:
Project Prometheus, also known as "Nuclear Shotgun", which would have used a nuclear explosion to accelerate kinetic penetrators against ICBMs.
Project Excalibur, a nuclear-pumped X-ray laser to destroy ballistic missiles.
Nuclear shaped charges that focus their energy in particular directions.
Project Orion explored the use of nuclear explosives for rocket propulsion.
Fourth generation
Newer 4th-generation nuclear weapons designs including pure fusion weapons and antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion-like devices, are being studied by the five largest nuclear weapon states.
Cobalt bombs
A doomsday bomb, made popular by Nevil Shute's 1957 novel, and subsequent 1959 movie, On the Beach, the cobalt bomb is a hydrogen bomb with a jacket of cobalt. The neutron-activated cobalt would have maximized the environmental damage from radioactive fallout. These bombs were popularized in the 1964 film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb; the material added to the bombs is referred to in the film as 'cobalt-thorium G'.
Such "salted" weapons were investigated by U.S. Department of Defense. Fission products are as deadly as neutron-activated cobalt. The standard high-fission thermonuclear weapon is automatically a weapon of radiological warfare, as dirty as a cobalt bomb.
Initially, gamma radiation from the fission products of an equivalent size fission-fusion-fission bomb are much more intense than Co-60: 15,000 times more intense at 1 hour; 35 times more intense at 1 week; 5 times more intense at 1 month; and about equal at 6 months. Thereafter fission drops off rapidly so that Co-60 fallout is 8 times more intense than fission at 1 year and 150 times more intense at 5 years. The very long-lived isotopes produced by fission would overtake the 60Co again after about 75 years.
The triple "taiga" nuclear salvo test, as part of the preliminary March 1971 Pechora–Kama Canal project, produced a small amount of fission products and therefore a comparatively large amount of case material activated products are responsible for most of the residual activity at the site today, namely Co-60. As of 2011, fusion generated neutron activation was responsible for about half of the gamma dose at the test site. That dose is too small to cause deleterious effects, and normal green vegetation exists all around the lake that was formed.
Arbitrarily large multi-staged devices
The idea of a device which has an arbitrarily large number of Teller-Ulam stages, with each driving a larger radiation-driven implosion than the preceding stage, is frequently suggested, but technically disputed. There are "well-known sketches and some reasonable-looking calculations in the open literature about two-stage weapons, but no similarly accurate descriptions of true three stage concepts."
According to George Lemmer's 1967 Air Force and Strategic Deterrence 1951–1960 paper, in 1957, LANL stated that a 1,000-megaton warhead could be built. Apparently there were three of these US designs analyzed in the gigaton (1,000-megaton) range; LLNL's GNOMON and SUNDIAL – objects that cast shadows – and LANL's "TAV". SUNDIAL attempting to have a 10 Gt yield, while the Gnomon and TAV designs attempted to produce a yield of 1 Gt. A freedom of information request was filed (FOIA 13-00049-K) for information on the three above US designs. The request was denied under statutory exemptions relating to classified material; the denial was appealed, but the request was finally denied again in April 2016.
Following the concern caused by the estimated gigaton scale of the 1994 Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacts on the planet Jupiter, in a 1995 meeting at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), Edward Teller proposed to a collective of U.S. and Russian ex-Cold War weapons designers that they collaborate on designing a 1000-megaton nuclear explosive device for diverting extinction-class asteroids (10+ km in diameter), which would be employed in the event that one of these asteroids were on an impact trajectory with Earth.
There have also been some calculations made in 1979 by Lowell Wood, Teller's protégé, that Teller's initially-unworkable "classical Super" design, analogous to igniting a candlestick of deuterium fuel, could potentially achieve ignition reliably were it touched off by a sufficiently large Teller-Ulam device, rather than the gun-type fission weapon used in the original design.
Neutron bombs
A neutron bomb, technically referred to as an enhanced radiation weapon (ERW), is a type of tactical nuclear weapon designed specifically to release a large portion of its energy as energetic neutron radiation. This contrasts with standard thermonuclear weapons, which are designed to capture this intense neutron radiation to increase its overall explosive yield. In terms of yield, ERWs typically produce about one-tenth that of a fission-type atomic weapon. Even with their significantly lower explosive power, ERWs are still capable of much greater destruction than any conventional bomb. Meanwhile, relative to other nuclear weapons, damage is more focused on biological material than on material infrastructure (though extreme blast and heat effects are not eliminated).
ERWs are more accurately described as suppressed yield weapons. When the yield of a nuclear weapon is less than one kiloton, its lethal radius from blast, , is less than that from its neutron radiation. However, the blast is more than potent enough to destroy most structures, which are less resistant to blast effects than even unprotected human beings. Blast pressures of upwards of 20 PSI are survivable, whereas most buildings will collapse with a pressure of only 5 PSI.
Commonly misconceived as a weapon designed to kill populations and leave infrastructure intact, these bombs (as mentioned above) are still very capable of leveling buildings over a large radius. The intent of their design was to kill tank crews – tanks giving excellent protection against blast and heat, surviving (relatively) very close to a detonation. Given the Soviets' vast tank forces during the Cold War, this was the perfect weapon to counter them. The neutron radiation could instantly incapacitate a tank crew out to roughly the same distance that the heat and blast would incapacitate an unprotected human (depending on design). The tank chassis would also be rendered highly radioactive, temporarily preventing its re-use by a fresh crew.
Neutron weapons were also intended for use in other applications, however. For example, they are effective in anti-nuclear defenses – the neutron flux being capable of neutralising an incoming warhead at a greater range than heat or blast. Nuclear warheads are very resistant to physical damage, but are very difficult to harden against extreme neutron flux.
ERWs were two-stage thermonuclears with all non-essential uranium removed to minimize fission yield. Fusion provided the neutrons. Developed in the 1950s, they were first deployed in the 1970s, by U.S. forces in Europe. The last ones were retired in the 1990s.
A neutron bomb is only feasible if the yield is sufficiently high that efficient fusion stage ignition is possible, and if the yield is low enough that the case thickness will not absorb too many neutrons. This means that neutron bombs have a yield range of 1–10 kilotons, with fission proportion varying from 50% at 1-kiloton to 25% at 10-kilotons (all of which comes from the primary stage). The neutron output per kiloton is then 10–15 times greater than for a pure fission implosion weapon or for a strategic warhead like a W87 or W88.
Weapon design laboratories
All the nuclear weapon design innovations discussed in this article originated from the following three labs in the manner described. Other nuclear weapon design labs in other countries duplicated those design innovations independently, reverse-engineered them from fallout analysis, or acquired them by espionage.
Lawrence Berkeley
The first systematic exploration of nuclear weapon design concepts took place in mid-1942 at the University of California, Berkeley. Important early discoveries had been made at the adjacent Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, such as the 1940 cyclotron-made production and isolation of plutonium. A Berkeley professor, J. Robert Oppenheimer, had just been hired to run the nation's secret bomb design effort. His first act was to convene the 1942 summer conference.
By the time he moved his operation to the new secret town of Los Alamos, New Mexico, in the spring of 1943, the accumulated wisdom on nuclear weapon design consisted of five lectures by Berkeley professor Robert Serber, transcribed and distributed as the Los Alamos Primer. The Primer addressed fission energy, neutron production and capture, nuclear chain reactions, critical mass, tampers, predetonation, and three methods of assembling a bomb: gun assembly, implosion, and "autocatalytic methods", the one approach that turned out to be a dead end.
Los Alamos
At Los Alamos, it was found in April 1944 by Emilio Segrè that the proposed Thin Man Gun assembly type bomb would not work for plutonium because of predetonation problems caused by Pu-240 impurities. So Fat Man, the implosion-type bomb, was given high priority as the only option for plutonium. The Berkeley discussions had generated theoretical estimates of critical mass, but nothing precise. The main wartime job at Los Alamos was the experimental determination of critical mass, which had to wait until sufficient amounts of fissile material arrived from the production plants: uranium from Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and plutonium from the Hanford Site in Washington.
In 1945, using the results of critical mass experiments, Los Alamos technicians fabricated and assembled components for four bombs: the Trinity Gadget, Little Boy, Fat Man, and an unused spare Fat Man. After the war, those who could, including Oppenheimer, returned to university teaching positions. Those who remained worked on levitated and hollow pits and conducted weapon effects tests such as Crossroads Able and Baker at Bikini Atoll in 1946.
All of the essential ideas for incorporating fusion into nuclear weapons originated at Los Alamos between 1946 and 1952. After the Teller-Ulam radiation implosion breakthrough of 1951, the technical implications and possibilities were fully explored, but ideas not directly relevant to making the largest possible bombs for long-range Air Force bombers were shelved.
Because of Oppenheimer's initial position in the H-bomb debate, in opposition to large thermonuclear weapons, and the assumption that he still had influence over Los Alamos despite his departure, political allies of Edward Teller decided he needed his own laboratory in order to pursue H-bombs. By the time it was opened in 1952, in Livermore, California, Los Alamos had finished the job Livermore was designed to do.
Lawrence Livermore
With its original mission no longer available, the Livermore lab tried radical new designs that failed. Its first three nuclear tests were fizzles: in 1953, two single-stage fission devices with uranium hydride pits, and in 1954, a two-stage thermonuclear device in which the secondary heated up prematurely, too fast for radiation implosion to work properly.
Shifting gears, Livermore settled for taking ideas Los Alamos had shelved and developing them for the Army and Navy. This led Livermore to specialize in small-diameter tactical weapons, particularly ones using two-point implosion systems, such as the Swan. Small-diameter tactical weapons became primaries for small-diameter secondaries. Around 1960, when the superpower arms race became a ballistic missile race, Livermore warheads were more useful than the large, heavy Los Alamos warheads. Los Alamos warheads were used on the first intermediate-range ballistic missiles, IRBMs, but smaller Livermore warheads were used on the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles, SLBMs, as well as on the first multiple warhead systems on such missiles.
In 1957 and 1958, both labs built and tested as many designs as possible, in anticipation that a planned 1958 test ban might become permanent. By the time testing resumed in 1961 the two labs had become duplicates of each other, and design jobs were assigned more on workload considerations than lab specialty. Some designs were horse-traded. For example, the W38 warhead for the Titan I missile started out as a Livermore project, was given to Los Alamos when it became the Atlas missile warhead, and in 1959 was given back to Livermore, in trade for the W54 Davy Crockett warhead, which went from Livermore to Los Alamos.
Warhead designs after 1960 took on the character of model changes, with every new missile getting a new warhead for marketing reasons. The chief substantive change involved packing more fissile uranium-235 into the secondary, as it became available with continued uranium enrichment and the dismantlement of the large high-yield bombs.
Starting with the Nova facility at Livermore in the mid-1980s, nuclear design activity pertaining to radiation-driven implosion was informed by research with indirect drive laser fusion. This work was part of the effort to investigate Inertial Confinement Fusion. Similar work continues at the more powerful National Ignition Facility. The Stockpile Stewardship and Management Program also benefited from research performed at NIF.
Explosive testing
Nuclear weapons are in large part designed by trial and error. The trial often involves test explosion of a prototype.
In a nuclear explosion, a large number of discrete events, with various probabilities, aggregate into short-lived, chaotic energy flows inside the device casing. Complex mathematical models are required to approximate the processes, and in the 1950s there were no computers powerful enough to run them properly. Even today's computers and simulation software are not adequate.
It was easy enough to design reliable weapons for the stockpile. If the prototype worked, it could be weaponized and mass-produced.
It was much more difficult to understand how it worked or why it failed. Designers gathered as much data as possible during the explosion, before the device destroyed itself, and used the data to calibrate their models, often by inserting fudge factors into equations to make the simulations match experimental results. They also analyzed the weapon debris in fallout to see how much of a potential nuclear reaction had taken place.
Light pipes
An important tool for test analysis was the diagnostic light pipe. A probe inside a test device could transmit information by heating a plate of metal to incandescence, an event that could be recorded by instruments located at the far end of a long, very straight pipe.
The picture below shows the Shrimp device, detonated on March 1, 1954, at Bikini, as the Castle Bravo test. Its 15-megaton explosion was the largest ever by the United States. The silhouette of a man is shown for scale. The device is supported from below, at the ends. The pipes going into the shot cab ceiling, which appear to be supports, are actually diagnostic light pipes. The eight pipes at the right end (1) sent information about the detonation of the primary. Two in the middle (2) marked the time when X-rays from the primary reached the radiation channel around the secondary. The last two pipes (3) noted the time radiation reached the far end of the radiation channel, the difference between (2) and (3) being the radiation transit time for the channel.
From the shot cab, the pipes turned horizontally and traveled along a causeway built on the Bikini reef to a remote-controlled data collection bunker on Namu Island.
While x-rays would normally travel at the speed of light through a low-density material like the plastic foam channel filler between (2) and (3), the intensity of radiation from the exploding primary creates a relatively opaque radiation front in the channel filler, which acts like a slow-moving logjam to retard the passage of radiant energy. While the secondary is being compressed via radiation-induced ablation, neutrons from the primary catch up with the x-rays, penetrate into the secondary, and start breeding tritium via the third reaction noted in the first section above. This Li-6 + n reaction is exothermic, producing 5 MeV per event. The spark plug has not yet been compressed, and, thus, remains subcritical, so no significant fission or fusion takes place as a result. If enough neutrons arrive before implosion of the secondary is complete, though, the crucial temperature differential between the outer and inner parts of the secondary can be degraded, potentially causing the secondary to fail to ignite. The first Livermore-designed thermonuclear weapon, the Morgenstern device, failed in this manner when it was tested as Castle Koon on April 7, 1954. The primary ignited, but the secondary, preheated by the primary's neutron wave, suffered what was termed as an inefficient detonation; thus, a weapon with a predicted one-megaton yield produced only 110 kilotons, of which merely 10 kt were attributed to fusion.
These timing effects, and any problems they cause, are measured by light-pipe data. The mathematical simulations which they calibrate are called radiation flow hydrodynamics codes, or channel codes. They are used to predict the effect of future design modifications.
It is not clear from the public record how successful the Shrimp light pipes were. The unmanned data bunker was far enough back to remain outside the mile-wide crater, but the 15-megaton blast, two and a half times as powerful as expected, breached the bunker by blowing its 20-ton door off the hinges and across the inside of the bunker. (The nearest people were farther away, in a bunker that survived intact.)
Fallout analysis
The most interesting data from Castle Bravo came from radio-chemical analysis of weapon debris in fallout. Because of a shortage of enriched lithium-6, 60% of the lithium in the Shrimp secondary was ordinary lithium-7, which doesn't breed tritium as easily as lithium-6 does. But it does breed lithium-6 as the product of an (n, 2n) reaction (one neutron in, two neutrons out), a known fact, but with unknown probability. The probability turned out to be high.
Fallout analysis revealed to designers that, with the (n, 2n) reaction, the Shrimp secondary effectively had two and half times as much lithium-6 as expected. The tritium, the fusion yield, the neutrons, and the fission yield were all increased accordingly.
As noted above, Bravo's fallout analysis also told the outside world, for the first time, that thermonuclear bombs are more fission devices than fusion devices. A Japanese fishing boat, Daigo Fukuryū Maru, sailed home with enough fallout on her decks to allow scientists in Japan and elsewhere to determine, and announce, that most of the fallout had come from the fission of U-238 by fusion-produced 14 MeV neutrons.
Underground testing
The global alarm over radioactive fallout, which began with the Castle Bravo event, eventually drove nuclear testing literally underground. The last U.S. above-ground test took place at Johnston Island on November 4, 1962. During the next three decades, until September 23, 1992, the United States conducted an average of 2.4 underground nuclear explosions per month, all but a few at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) northwest of Las Vegas.
The Yucca Flat section of the NTS is covered with subsidence craters resulting from the collapse of terrain over radioactive caverns created by nuclear explosions (see photo).
After the 1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), which limited underground explosions to 150 kilotons or less, warheads like the half-megaton W88 had to be tested at less than full yield. Since the primary must be detonated at full yield in order to generate data about the implosion of the secondary, the reduction in yield had to come from the secondary. Replacing much of the lithium-6 deuteride fusion fuel with lithium-7 hydride limited the tritium available for fusion, and thus the overall yield, without changing the dynamics of the implosion. The functioning of the device could be evaluated using light pipes, other sensing devices, and analysis of trapped weapon debris. The full yield of the stockpiled weapon could be calculated by extrapolation.
Production facilities
When two-stage weapons became standard in the early 1950s, weapon design determined the layout of the new, widely dispersed U.S. production facilities, and vice versa.
Because primaries tend to be bulky, especially in diameter, plutonium is the fissile material of choice for pits, with beryllium reflectors. It has a smaller critical mass than uranium. The Rocky Flats plant near Boulder, Colorado, was built in 1952 for pit production and consequently became the plutonium and beryllium fabrication facility.
The Y-12 plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where mass spectrometers called calutrons had enriched uranium for the Manhattan Project, was redesigned to make secondaries. Fissile U-235 makes the best spark plugs because its critical mass is larger, especially in the cylindrical shape of early thermonuclear secondaries. Early experiments used the two fissile materials in combination, as composite Pu-Oy pits and spark plugs, but for mass production, it was easier to let the factories specialize: plutonium pits in primaries, uranium spark plugs and pushers in secondaries.
Y-12 made lithium-6 deuteride fusion fuel and U-238 parts, the other two ingredients of secondaries.
The Hanford Site near Richland WA operated Plutonium production nuclear reactors and separations facilities during World War 2 and the Cold War. Nine Plutonium production reactors were built and operated there. The first being the B-Reactor which began operations in September 1944 and the last being the N-Reactor which ceased operations in January 1987.
The Savannah River Site in Aiken, South Carolina, also built in 1952, operated nuclear reactors which converted U-238 into Pu-239 for pits, and converted lithium-6 (produced at Y-12) into tritium for booster gas. Since its reactors were moderated with heavy water, deuterium oxide, it also made deuterium for booster gas and for Y-12 to use in making lithium-6 deuteride.
Warhead design safety
Because even low-yield nuclear warheads have astounding destructive power, weapon designers have always recognised the need to incorporate mechanisms and associated procedures intended to prevent accidental detonation.
Gun-type
It is inherently dangerous to have a weapon containing a quantity and shape of fissile material which can form a critical mass through a relatively simple accident. Because of this danger, the propellant in Little Boy (four bags of cordite) was inserted into the bomb in flight, shortly after takeoff on August 6, 1945. This was the first time a gun-type nuclear weapon had ever been fully assembled.
If the weapon falls into water, the moderating effect of the water can also cause a criticality accident, even without the weapon being physically damaged. Similarly, a fire caused by an aircraft crashing could easily ignite the propellant, with catastrophic results. Gun-type weapons have always been inherently unsafe.
In-flight pit insertion
Neither of these effects is likely with implosion weapons since there is normally insufficient fissile material to form a critical mass without the correct detonation of the lenses. However, the earliest implosion weapons had pits so close to criticality that accidental detonation with some nuclear yield was a concern.
On August 9, 1945, Fat Man was loaded onto its airplane fully assembled, but later, when levitated pits made a space between the pit and the tamper, it was feasible to use in-flight pit insertion. The bomber would take off with no fissile material in the bomb. Some older implosion-type weapons, such as the US Mark 4 and Mark 5, used this system.
In-flight pit insertion will not work with a hollow pit in contact with its tamper.
Steel ball safety method
As shown in the diagram above, one method used to decrease the likelihood of accidental detonation employed metal balls. The balls were emptied into the pit: this prevented detonation by increasing the density of the hollow pit, thereby preventing symmetrical implosion in the event of an accident. This design was used in the Green Grass weapon, also known as the Interim Megaton Weapon, which was used in the Violet Club and Yellow Sun Mk.1 bombs.
Chain safety method
Alternatively, the pit can be "safed" by having its normally hollow core filled with an inert material such as a fine metal chain, possibly made of cadmium to absorb neutrons. While the chain is in the center of the pit, the pit cannot be compressed into an appropriate shape to fission; when the weapon is to be armed, the chain is removed. Similarly, although a serious fire could detonate the explosives, destroying the pit and spreading plutonium to contaminate the surroundings as has happened in several weapons accidents, it could not cause a nuclear explosion.
One-point safety
While the firing of one detonator out of many will not cause a hollow pit to go critical, especially a low-mass hollow pit that requires boosting, the introduction of two-point implosion systems made that possibility a real concern.
In a two-point system, if one detonator fires, one entire hemisphere of the pit will implode as designed. The high-explosive charge surrounding the other hemisphere will explode progressively, from the equator toward the opposite pole. Ideally, this will pinch the equator and squeeze the second hemisphere away from the first, like toothpaste in a tube. By the time the explosion envelops it, its implosion will be separated both in time and space from the implosion of the first hemisphere. The resulting dumbbell shape, with each end reaching maximum density at a different time, may not become critical.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to tell on the drawing board how this will play out. Nor is it possible using a dummy pit of U-238 and high-speed x-ray cameras, although such tests are helpful. For final determination, a test needs to be made with real fissile material. Consequently, starting in 1957, a year after Swan, both labs began one-point safety tests.
Out of 25 one-point safety tests conducted in 1957 and 1958, seven had zero or slight nuclear yield (success), three had high yields of 300 t to 500 t (severe failure), and the rest had unacceptable yields between those extremes.
Of particular concern was Livermore's W47, which generated unacceptably high yields in one-point testing. To prevent an accidental detonation, Livermore decided to use mechanical safing on the W47. The wire safety scheme described below was the result.
When testing resumed in 1961, and continued for three decades, there was sufficient time to make all warhead designs inherently one-point safe, without need for mechanical safing.
Wire safety method
In the last test before the 1958 moratorium the W47 warhead for the Polaris SLBM was found to not be one-point safe, producing an unacceptably high nuclear yield of of TNT equivalent (Hardtack II Titania). With the test moratorium in force, there was no way to refine the design and make it inherently one-point safe. A solution was devised consisting of a boron-coated wire inserted into the weapon's hollow pit at manufacture. The warhead was armed by withdrawing the wire onto a spool driven by an electric motor. Once withdrawn, the wire could not be re-inserted. The wire had a tendency to become brittle during storage, and break or get stuck during arming, preventing complete removal and rendering the warhead a dud. It was estimated that 50–75% of warheads would fail. This required a complete rebuild of all W47 primaries. The oil used for lubricating the wire also promoted corrosion of the pit.
Strong link/weak link
Under the strong link/weak link system, "weak links" are constructed between critical nuclear weapon components (the "hard links"). In the event of an accident the weak links are designed to fail first in a manner that precludes energy transfer between them. Then, if a hard link fails in a manner that transfers or releases energy, energy can't be transferred into other weapon systems, potentially starting a nuclear detonation. Hard links are usually critical weapon components that have been hardened to survive extreme environments, while weak links can be both components deliberately inserted into the system to act as a weak link and critical nuclear components that can fail predictably.
An example of a weak link would be an electrical connector that contains electrical wires made from a low melting point alloy. During a fire, those wires would melt breaking any electrical connection.
Permissive Action Link
A permissive action link is an access control device designed to prevent unauthorised use of nuclear weapons. Early PALs were simple electromechanical switches and have evolved into complex arming systems that include integrated yield control options, lockout devices and anti-tamper devices.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Cohen, Sam, The Truth About the Neutron Bomb: The Inventor of the Bomb Speaks Out, William Morrow & Co., 1983
Coster-Mullen, John, "Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man", Self-Published, 2011
Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J., editors, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition) (PDF), U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.
Grace, S. Charles, Nuclear Weapons: Principles, Effects and Survivability (Land Warfare: Brassey's New Battlefield Weapons Systems and Technology, vol 10)
Hansen, Chuck, "Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945 " (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007. (2nd Ed.)
The Effects of Nuclear War , Office of Technology Assessment (May 1979).
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon and Schuster, New York, (1986 )
Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon and Schuster, New York, (1995 )
Smyth, Henry DeWolf, Atomic Energy for Military Purposes , Princeton University Press, 1945. (see: Smyth Report)
External links
Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: Section 4.0 Engineering and Design of Nuclear Weapons
The Federation of American Scientists provides solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects
Globalsecurity.org provides a well-written primer in nuclear weapons design concepts (site navigation on righthand side).
More information on the design of two-stage fusion bombs
Militarily Critical Technologies List (MCTL), Part II (1998) (PDF) from the US Department of Defense at the Federation of American Scientists website.
"Restricted Data Declassification Decisions from 1946 until Present", Department of Energy report series published from 1994 until January 2001 which lists all known declassification actions and their dates. Hosted by Federation of American Scientists.
The Holocaust Bomb: A Question of Time is an update of the 1979 court case USA v. The Progressive, with links to supporting documents on nuclear weapon design.
Annotated bibliography on nuclear weapons design from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.
Design
Weapon design | wiki |
This page provides the summaries of the CONCACAF Fourth Round, often referred to as "The Hexagonal" or "The Hex", matches for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification. The three group winners and three runners-up from the Third Round contest this round.
Format
In this round, the group winners and runners-up from the Third Round formed a single double-round-robin, home-and-away group. The top three teams qualified for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The fourth place team competed in a home-and-away play-off against the fifth-place team from CONMEBOL.
Standings
Results
The allocation of teams in the draw took place in Johannesburg, South Africa on 22 November 2008.
Goalscorers
88 goals were scored in 30 games, for an average of goals per game.
7 goals
Carlos Pavón
5 goals
Carlo Costly
Jozy Altidore
4 goals
Álvaro Saborío
3 goals
Celso Borges
Cuauhtémoc Blanco
Kerry Baptiste
Michael Bradley
Landon Donovan
2 goals
Walter Centeno
Andy Furtado
Bryan Ruiz
Cristian Castillo
Julio Martínez
Osael Romero
Eliseo Quintanilla
Julio César de León
Guillermo Franco
Carlos Edwards
Conor Casey
1 goal
Pablo Herrera
Rudis Corrales
Amado Guevara
David Suazo
Melvin Valladares
Omar Bravo
Nery Castillo
Israel Castro
Giovani dos Santos
Enrique Esqueda
Andrés Guardado
Francisco Palencia
Pável Pardo
Óscar Rojas
Miguel Sabah
Carlos Salcido
Carlos Vela
Cornell Glen
Khaleem Hyland
Collin Samuel
Hayden Tinto
Dwight Yorke
Carlos Bocanegra
Jonathan Bornstein
Ricardo Clark
Charlie Davies
Clint Dempsey
Frankie Hejduk
1 own goal
Marvin González (against Mexico)
Julius James (against Costa Rica)
Attendances
Notes
References
External links
FIFA.com
4
2008–09 in Mexican football
qualification 3
2008–09 in Honduran football
qualification 3
2008–09 in Salvadoran football
2009–10 in Salvadoran football
2009 in Trinidad and Tobago football
2009 in American soccer
qualification 3
2008–09 in Costa Rican football
Qual | wiki |
The Bilan d'aptitude délivré par les grandes écoles (BADGE, in English Assessment of competency issued by grandes écoles) is a French degree created in 2001 by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles and primarily intended for owners of a two-year degree after the Baccalauréat.
Presentation
According to the rules of organization of training programs accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles , ""The BADGE ... of the School... " is a registered collective ownership of the Conférence des Grandes Écoles, attributed to a specific training organized by a school member of the CGE. It is intended primarily for owners of a two-year degree after the Baccalauréat'".
Be considered applicants who hold one of the following qualifications:
Two-year degree after the Baccalauréat;
Baccalauréat'' and a significant professional experience relevant to the subject of the application of at least five years.
The BADGE program necessarily includes a number of common elements: at least 200 hours of instruction, including theoretical, practical work, team projects and possibly distance learning and a final validation test.
The program takes place over a period of 7 weeks to 24 months maximum, subject to alternating training / business where the period exceeds 6 months and is 15 to 25 ECTS-credits.
References
External links
BADGE on Conférence des grandes écoles website
Management education
Higher education in France
Academic degrees of France | wiki |
The following is a list of Saturn Award winners for Best Retro Television Series on DVD.
Best Retro Television Series on DVD | wiki |
Rawhead Rex may refer to:
"Rawhead Rex", a short story in Volume Three of Clive Barker's Books of Blood
Rawhead Rex (film), a 1986 horror film adapted from the story | wiki |
This is a list of notable occult writers.
A-B
C-D
E-F
G-H
I-J
K-L
M-N
O-P
R-S
T-W
Y-Z
Lists of writers
Religion-related lists | wiki |
William Stead was a professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1930s and 1940s. He played at club level for Castleford (Heritage № 168).
Playing career
County League appearances
William Stead played in Castleford's victory in the Yorkshire County League during the 1938–39.
References
External links
Search for "Stead" at rugbyleagueproject.org
William Stead Memory Box Search at archive.castigersheritage.com
Castleford Tigers players
English rugby league players
Place of birth missing
Place of death missing
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing | wiki |
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol is a Spanish professional association football club based in Madrid. The club was formed in 1902 as Madrid Football Club, and played its first competitive match on 13 May 1902, when it entered the semi-final of the Campeonato de Copa de S.M. Alfonso XIII. Real Madrid currently plays in the Spanish top-tier La Liga, having become one of the founding members of that league in 1929, and is one of three clubs, the others being Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao, to have never been relegated from the league. They have also been involved in European football ever since they became the first Spanish club to enter the European Cup in 1955, except for the 1977–78 and 1996–97 seasons.
This list encompasses the major honours won by Real Madrid and records set by the club, their managers and their players. The player records section includes details of the club's leading goalscorers and those who have made most appearances in first team competitions. It also records notable achievements by Real Madrid players on the international stage, and the highest transfer fees paid and received by the club.
The club currently holds the record for the most European Cup / UEFA Champions League triumphs, with 14, and the most La Liga titles, with 35. Additionally, Real has won the Copa del Rey 19 times, the Supercopa de España 12 times, the Copa de la Liga once, the Copa Eva Duarte once, the UEFA Cup twice, the European/UEFA Super Cup five times, the Intercontinental Cup three times and the FIFA Club World Cup five times. Powered by its fourteen European Cups, Real Madrid have a distinction of being the most successful club in terms of international titles, having amassed 29 pieces of silverware, more than any other team in the world. On the domestic front, its 68 titles rank second to Barcelona. The club's record appearance maker is Raúl, who made 741 appearances from 1994 to 2010; the club's record goalscorer is Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo, who scored 450 goals in all competitions from 2009 to 2018.
Players
Appearances
Competitive, professional matches only. Bold indicates player is still active at club level.
As of 19 March 2023.
Others
Player with most major trophies at Real Madrid: 25 – Marcelo
Youngest first-team player: – Martin Ødegaard v Getafe, 2014–15 La Liga, 23 May 2015
Oldest post-Second World War player: – Ferenc Puskás v Real Betis, 1965–66 Copa del Generalísimo, 8 May 1966
Most appearances in La Liga: 550 – Raúl
Most appearances in Copa del Rey: 84 – Santillana
Most appearances in Copa de la Liga: 13 – Isidoro San José
Most appearances in Supercopa de España: 15 – Sergio Ramos
Most appearances in International competitions: 1621 – Iker Casillas
Most appearances in UEFA club competitions: 1572 – Iker Casillas
Most appearances in European competitions: 1553 – Iker Casillas
Most appearances in UEFA Champions League: 152 – Iker Casillas
Most appearances in European Cup Winners' Cup: 16 – Gregorio Benito
Most appearances in UEFA Cup: 44 – Míchel
Most appearances in UEFA Super Cup: 5
Dani Carvajal
Karim Benzema
Luka Modrić
Most appearances in Intercontinental Cup: 3
Pachín
Fernando Hierro
Raúl
Roberto Carlos
Most appearances in FIFA Club World Cup: 9
Toni Kroos
Karim Benzema
Most appearances as a foreign player in all competitions: 634 – Karim Benzema
Most appearances as a foreign player in La Liga: 431 – Karim Benzema
Most appearances as a substitute in all competitions: 207 – Guti
Most appearances as a substitute in La Liga: 159 – Guti
Most consecutive league appearances: 171 – Alfredo Di Stéfano – from 27 September 1953 at 22 February 1959 is
1Includes all European club tournaments, Intercontinental Cup and FIFA Club World Cup.
2Includes all European club tournaments and Intercontinental Cup.
3Includes European Cup / UEFA Champions League, European Cup Winners' Cup, UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup.
Goalscorers
Competitive, professional matches only. Appearances, including substitutes, are shown in parentheses.
As of 19 March 2023.
By competition
Most goals scored in all competitions: 450 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most goals scored in La Liga: 311 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most goals scored in Copa del Rey: 49
Ferenc Puskás, 1958–1966
Santillana, 1971–1988
Most goals scored in Copa de la Liga: 8 – Santillana, 1971–1988
Most goals scored in Supercopa de España: 7 – Raúl, 1994–2010
Most goals scored in International competitions1: 113 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most goals scored in European competitions2: 107 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most goals scored in European Cup: 49 – Alfredo Di Stéfano, 1953–1964
Most goals scored in UEFA Champions League: 105 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most goals scored in European Cup Winners' Cup: 11 – Santillana, 1971–1988
Most goals scored in UEFA Cup: 15 – Santillana, 1971–1988
Most goals scored in UEFA Super Cup: 2
Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Sergio Ramos, 2005–2021
Karim Benzema, 2009–present
Most goals scored in Intercontinental Cup: 2 – Ferenc Puskás, 1958–1966
Most goals scored in FIFA Club World Cup: 6
Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Gareth Bale, 2013–2022
1Includes all European club tournaments, Intercontinental Cup and FIFA Club World Cup.
2Includes European Cup / UEFA Champions League, European Cup Winners' Cup, UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup.
In a single season
Most goals scored in a season in all competitions: 61 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2014–15
Most goals scored in a single La Liga season: 48 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2014–15
Most goals scored in a single Copa del Rey season: 15 – Ferenc Puskás, 1960–61
Most goals scored in a single Copa de la Liga season: 4 – Santillana, 1983
Most goals scored in a single European Cup season: 12 – Ferenc Puskás, 1959–60
Most goals scored in a single UEFA Champions League season: 17 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2013–14
Most goals scored in a single UEFA Champions League group stage: 11 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2015–16
Most goals scored in a single UEFA Champions League knockout stage: 10
Cristiano Ronaldo, 2016–17
Karim Benzema, 2021–22
Most goals scored in a single European Cup Winners' Cup season: 8 – Santillana, 1982–83
In a single match
Most goals scored in a league match: 5
Manuel Alday v Espanyol, 28 February 1943
Antonio Alsúa v Castellón, 2 February 1947
Miguel Muñoz v Lleida, 30 January 1951
Pepillo II v Elche, 7 February 1960
Ferenc Puskás v Elche, 22 January 1961
Fernando Morientes v Las Palmas, 9 February 2002
Cristiano Ronaldo v Granada, 5 April 2015
Cristiano Ronaldo v Espanyol, 12 September 2015
Most goals scored in a Copa del Rey match: 6
Benguría v Extremeño, 6 March 1927
Ferenc Puskás v Real Betis, 18 June 1961
Most goals scored in a Copa de la Liga match: 4
Santillana v Real Zaragoza, 22 June 1983
Most goals scored in a Supercopa de España match: 3
Raúl v Zaragoza, 2001 Supercopa de España, 22 August 2001
Most goals scored in a European Cup match: 4
Ferenc Puskás, v Eintracht Frankfurt, final 1959–60, and v Feyenoord, preliminary round 1965–66
Alfredo Di Stéfano, v Sevilla, quarter-final 1957–58, and v Wiener Sport-Club, quarter-final 1958–59
Hugo Sánchez v Swarovski Tirol, second round 1990–91
Most goals scored in a UEFA Champions League match: 4
Cristiano Ronaldo v Malmö FF, group stage 2015–16
Most goals scored in a UEFA Super Cup match: 2
Cristiano Ronaldo v Sevilla, 2014 UEFA Super Cup, 12 August 2014
Most goals scored in an Intercontinental Cup match: 2
Ferenc Puskás v Peñarol, 1960 Intercontinental Cup, 4 September 1960
Most goals scored in a FIFA Club World Cup match: 3
Cristiano Ronaldo v Kashima Antlers, 2016 FIFA Club World Cup final, 18 December 2016
Gareth Bale v Kashima Antlers, 2018 FIFA Club World Cup semi-final, 19 December 2018
Others
Youngest goalscorer: – Alberto Rivera v Celta Vigo, 1994–95 La Liga, 10 June 1995
Oldest post-Second World War goalscorer: – Ferenc Puskás v Real Gijón, 1965–66 Copa del Generalísimo, 17 April 1966
Most goals scored in European Cup Finals: 7
Alfredo Di Stéfano, one in 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959 and three in 1960
Ferenc Puskás, four in 1960 and three in 1962
Most goals scored in UEFA Champions League Finals: 3
Cristiano Ronaldo, one in 2014, and two in 2017
Gareth Bale, one in 2014, and two in 2018
Most goals scored in Copa del Rey Finals: 4
Manuel Prast, one in 1905, 1907, and two in 1906
Jaime Lazcano, one in 1929, 1930, 1933 and 1934
Ferenc Puskás, one in 1960, 1961 and two in 1962
Fastest goal: 13 seconds – Iván Zamorano v Sevilla, 1994–95 La Liga, 3 September 1994
Fastest hat-trick: 7 minutes — Amancio v Sparta Prague, 1967–68 European Cup, 6 March 1968
Fastest four goals: 20 minutes – Cristiano Ronaldo v Malmö FF, 2015–16 UEFA Champions League, 8 December 2015
Fastest five goals: 39 minutes – Pepillo II v Elche, 1959–60 La Liga, 7 February 1960
Most hat-tricks in all competitions: 44 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most hat-tricks in La Liga: 34 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2009–2018
Most hat-tricks in a single season: 8 – Cristiano Ronaldo, 2014–15 (all in La Liga – once with four goals and once with five goals)
Historical goals
Internationals
First international for Spain: Juan Monjardín, v (17 December 1922)
Most international caps (total): 196 – Cristiano Ronaldo,
Most international caps as a Real Madrid player: 176 – Sergio Ramos,
Most international goals (total): 118 – Cristiano Ronaldo,
Most international goals as a Real Madrid player: 63 – Cristiano Ronaldo,
FIFA World Cup winners
Below is the list of players who have won the FIFA World Cup as Real Madrid players.
Günter Netzer (West Germany 1974)
Jorge Valdano (Mexico 1986)
Christian Karembeu (France 1998)
Roberto Carlos (South Korea/Japan 2002)
Iker Casillas (South Africa 2010)
Raúl Albiol (South Africa 2010)
Xabi Alonso (South Africa 2010)
Sergio Ramos (South Africa 2010)
Alvaro Arbeloa (South Africa 2010)
Sami Khedira (Brazil 2014)
Raphaël Varane (Russia 2018)
FIFA Confederations Cup winners
Below is the list of players who have won the FIFA Confederations Cup as Real Madrid players.
Michael Laudrup (Saudi Arabia 1995)
Roberto Carlos (Saudi Arabia 1997)
Zé Roberto (Saudi Arabia 1997)
Marcelo (Brazil 2013)
UEFA European Football Championship winners
Below is the list of players who have won the UEFA European Football Championship as Real Madrid players.
Ignacio Zoco (Spain 1964)
Amancio (Spain 1964)
Uli Stielike (Italy 1980)
Christian Karembeu (Belgium & Netherlands 2000)
Nicolas Anelka (Belgium & Netherlands 2000)
Iker Casillas (Austria & Switzerland 2008) and (Poland & Ukraine 2012)
Sergio Ramos (Austria & Switzerland 2008) and (Poland & Ukraine 2012)
Raúl Albiol (Poland & Ukraine 2012)
Álvaro Arbeloa (Poland & Ukraine 2012)
Xabi Alonso (Poland & Ukraine 2012)
Pepe (France 2016)
Cristiano Ronaldo (France 2016)
UEFA Nations League winners
Below is the list of players who have won the UEFA Nations League as Real Madrid players.
Karim Benzema (Italy 2021)
Award winners
Ballon d'Or (1956–)
The following players have won the Ballon d'Or while playing for Real Madrid:
Alfredo Di Stéfano – 1957, 1959
Raymond Kopa – 1958
Luís Figo – 2000
Ronaldo – 2002
Fabio Cannavaro – 2006
Cristiano Ronaldo – 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017
Luka Modrić – 2018
Karim Benzema – 2022
FIFA World Player of the Year (1991–2009)
The following players have won the FIFA World Player of the Year award while playing for Real Madrid:
Luís Figo – 2001
Ronaldo – 2002
Zinedine Zidane – 2003
Fabio Cannavaro – 2006
FIFA Ballon d'Or (2010–2015)
The following players have won the FIFA Ballon d'Or while playing for Real Madrid:
Cristiano Ronaldo – 2013, 2014
The Best FIFA Men's Player (2016–)
The following players have won The Best FIFA Men's Player while playing for Real Madrid:
Cristiano Ronaldo – 2016, 2017
Luka Modrić – 2018
European Golden Shoe
The following players have won the European Golden Shoe while playing for Real Madrid:
Hugo Sánchez – 1989–90 (38 goals)
Cristiano Ronaldo – 2010–11 (40 goals), 2013–14 (31 goals), 2014–15 (48 goals)
UEFA Club Footballer of the Year (1998–2010)
The following players have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award while playing for Real Madrid:
Fernando Redondo – 2000
Zinedine Zidane – 2002
UEFA Best Player in Europe Award (2011–)
The following players have won the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award while playing for Real Madrid:
Cristiano Ronaldo – 2014, 2016, 2017
Luka Modrić – 2018
Karim Benzema – 2022
UEFA Champions League Player of the Season (2022–)
Karim Benzema – 2022
UEFA Champions League Young Player of the Season (2022–)
Vinícius Júnior – 2022
Transfers
Highest transfer fees paid
Real Madrid's record signings are Gareth Bale and Eden Hazard. Bale signed for the club from Tottenham Hotspur for a total of £86 million in September 2013, according to media reports. Hazard signed from Chelsea for a fee of £103 million in June 2019. Furthermore, the variables fulfilled over the years pushed the total fee to €135 million.
Highest transfer fees received
Cristiano Ronaldo's transfer to Juventus in 2018 remains the club's record sale. Ronaldo was also their record transfer at the time of his move to Madrid in 2009.
Managers
Appearances
Competitive, professional matches only. Bold indicates manager is still active at club level. As of 19 March 2023.
Most wins
Competitive, professional matches only. Bold indicates manager is still active at club level. As of 15 March 2023.
Others
First full-time manager: Arthur Johnson.
Most years as manager: 15 years – Miguel Muñoz (1959, 1960–1974)
Most titles won as manager: 14 – Miguel Muñoz
Most goals scored under manager: 1,225 – Miguel Muñoz
Youngest manager: – Lippo Hertzka v Arenas de Getxo, 1929–30 La Liga, 23 March 1930
Oldest manager: – Arsenio Iglesias v Real Zaragoza, 1995–96 La Liga, 25 May 1996
Managers' individual awards while managing Real Madrid:
FIFA World Coach of the Year / The Best FIFA Football Coach winners:
José Mourinho – 2010
Zinedine Zidane – 2017
UEFA Club Coach of the Year winners:
Vicente del Bosque – 2001–02
Alf Ramsey Award winners:
Vicente del Bosque – 2001–02
José Mourinho – 2010
IFFHS World's Best Club Coach winners:
Vicente del Bosque – 2002
José Mourinho – 2012
Carlo Ancelotti – 2014, 2022
Zinedine Zidane – 2017, 2018
Team records
Matches
First competitive match: 1–3 v Barcelona, 1902 Copa de la Coronación (semi-finals), 13 May 1902
First Copa del Rey match: 4–1 v Espanyol, 1903 Copa del Rey (semi-finals), 6 April 1903
First La Liga match: 5–0 v CE Europa, 1929 La Liga, 10 February 1929
First match at Santiago Bernabéu: 3–1 v Belenenses, 14 December 1947
First competitive match at Santiago Bernabéu: 3–1 v Espanyol, 1947–48 La Liga, 18 December 1947
First Copa Eva Duarte (and only) match: 3–1 v Valencia, 1947 Copa Eva Duarte, 8 June 1948
First Small Club World Cup match: 3–2 v La Salle, 1952 Small Club World Cup (group stage), 13 July 1952
First Latin Cup match: 2–0 v Belenenses, 1955 Latin Cup (semi-finals), 22 May 1955
First European Cup match: 2–0 v Servette, 1955–56 European Cup (round 1 – first leg), 8 September 1955
First Intercontinental Cup match: 0–0 v Peñarol, 1960 Intercontinental Cup (first leg), 3 July 1960
First European Cup Winners' Cup match: 0–0 v Hibernian, 1970–71 European Cup Winners' Cup (round 1 – first leg), 17 September 1970
First UEFA Cup match: 2–1 v Basel, 1971–72 UEFA Cup (round 1 – first leg), 15 September 1971
First Supercopa de España match: 1–0 v Real Sociedad, 1982 Supercopa de España (first leg), 13 October 1982
First Copa de la Liga match: 1–0 v Real Sociedad, 1983 Copa de la Liga (quarter-finals), 12 June 1983
First UEFA Champions League match: 0–1 v Ajax, 1995–96 UEFA Champions League (group stage), 13 September 1995
First UEFA Super Cup match: 0–1 v Chelsea, 1998 UEFA Super Cup, 28 August 1998
First FIFA Club World Cup match: 3–1 v Al-Nassr, 2000 FIFA Club World Championship (group stage), 5 January 2000
In a season
Most matches played in a season: 66 matches (2001–02)
Fewest matches played in a season: 0 matches (1911–12)
Record wins
Record league win: 11–2 against Elche (in 1959–60 La Liga)
Record cup win: 11–1 against Barcelona (in 1943 Copa del Generalísimo)
Record European win: 9–0 against B 1913 (in 1961–62 European Cup)
Record home win: 11–2 against Elche (in 1959–60 La Liga)
Record away win:
7–1 against Real Zaragoza (in 1987–88 La Liga)
8–2 against Deportivo La Coruña (in 2014–15 La Liga)
Record defeats
Record league defeat: 1–8 against Español (in 1929–30 La Liga)
Record cup defeat: 0–6 against Valencia (in 1998–99 Copa del Rey)
Record European defeat:
0–5 against 1. FC Kaiserslautern (in 1981–82 UEFA Cup)
0–5 against Milan (in 1988–89 European Cup)
Record home defeat: 0–6 against Athletic Bilbao (in 1930–31 La Liga)
Record away defeat: 1–8 against Español (in 1929–30 La Liga)
Streaks
Longest unbeaten run (all major competitions): 40 matches (from 2015–16 UEFA Champions League quarter-finals first leg to matchday 16 2016–17 La Liga season)
Longest unbeaten run (league): 28 matches (from matchday 27 2015–16 season to matchday 16 2016–17 season)
Longest unbeaten home run (league): 121 matches (from 1956–57 season to 1964–65 season)
Longest unbeaten away run (league): 18 matches (from matchday 32 1995–96 season to matchday 23 1996–97 season, from matchday 18 2015–16 season to matchday 14 2016–17 season and from matchday 9 2020–21 season to matchday 5 2021–22)
Longest unbeaten run from the first match of season (league): 28 matches (in 1988–89 season)
Longest winning streak (all major competitions): 22 matches (in 2014–15 season)
Longest winning streak (league): 16 matches (from matchday 27 2015–16 season to matchday 4 2016–17 season)
Longest winning home streak (league): 24 matches (from matchday 14 1988–89 season to matchday 21 1989–90 season)
Longest winning away streak (league): 13 matches (from matchday 23 2016–17 season to matchday 8 2017–18 season)
Longest winning streak from the first match of season (league): 9 matches (in 1968–69 season)
Longest drawing streak (league): 4 matches (in 1947–48, 1968–69, 1969–70 and 2006–07)
Longest losing streak (league): 5 matches (in 2003–04 and 2008–09)
Longest streak without a win (league): 9 matches (in 1984–85 season)
Longest scoring run (all major competitions): 73 matches (from 2015–16 UEFA Champions League semi-finals first leg to matchday 4 2017–18 La Liga season)
Longest scoring run (league): 54 matches (from matchday 27 2015–16 season to matchday 4 2017–18 season)
Longest scoring home run (league): 82 matches (from matchday 10 1951–52 season to matchday 19 1956–57 season)
Longest scoring away run (league): 35 matches (from matchday 18 2015–16 season to matchday 10 2017–18 season)
Longest non-scoring run (league): 3 matches (in 1984–85, 1993–94, 2001–02 and 2018–19)
Longest streak without conceding a goal (league): 7 matches (in 1997–98 season)
Wins/draws/losses in a season
Most league wins in a season: 32 in 38 games (in 2011–12 season)
Most league home wins in a season: 18 in 19 games (in 1987–88 and 2009–10 seasons)
Most league away wins in a season: 16 in 19 games (in 2011–12 season)
Most league draws in a season: 15 in 34 games (in 1978–79 season)
Most league defeats in a season: 13 in 34 games (in 1973–74 season)
Fewest league wins in a season: 7 in 18 games (in 1929–30 season)
Fewest league draws in a season:
1 in 18 games (in 1929 season)
1 in 22 games (in 1934–35 and 1939–40 season)
Fewest league defeats in a season: 0 in 18 games (in 1931–32 season)
Goals
Most league goals scored in a season: 121 (in 2011–12 season)
Most goals scored in a season in all competitions: 174 (in 2011–12 season)
Best goal difference in a League season: +89 (in 2011–12 season)
Fewest league goals scored in a season: 24 (in 1930–31 season)
Most league goals conceded in a season: 71 (in 1950–51 season)
Fewest league goals conceded in a season: 15 (in 1931–32 season)
Points
Most points in a season:
Two points for a win: 66 in 44 matches (in 1986–87 season)
Three points for a win: 100 in 38 matches (in 2011–12 season)
Fewest points in a season:
Two points for a win: 17 in 18 matches (in 1929–30 season)
Three points for a win: 70 in 42 matches (in 1995–96 season)
Season-by-season performance
Honours
Official
Regional competitions
Campeonato Regional Centro / Trofeo Mancomunado:
Winners (22, record): 1902–03, 1904–05, 1905–06, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1912–13, 1915–16, 1916–17, 1917–18, 1919–20, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1923–24, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1928–29, 1929–30, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1935–36
Runners-up: (6) 1902–03, 1910–11, 1918–19, 1924–25, 1927–28, 1939–40
Copa Federación Centro:
Winners (3, record): 1922–23, 1927–28, 1943–44
Runners-up (1): 1940–41
Domestic competitions
La Liga:
Winners (35, record): 1931–32, 1932–33, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1971–72, 1974–75, 1975–76, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1994–95, 1996–97, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2011–12, 2016–17, 2019–20, 2021–22
Runners-up (24): 1929, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1941–42, 1944–45, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1965–66, 1980–81, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1998–99, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2020–21
Copa del Rey:
Winners (19): 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1917, 1934, 1936, 1946, 1947, 1961–62, 1969–70, 1973–74, 1974–75, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1988–89, 1992–93, 2010–11, 2013–14
Runners-up (20, record): 1903, 1916, 1918, 1924, 1928–29, 1930, 1933, 1940, 1943, 1958, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1967–68, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1989–90, 1991–92, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2012–13
Copa de la Liga:
Winners (1): 1985
Runners-up (1): 1983
Supercopa de España:
Winners (12): 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2008, 2012, 2017, 2019–20, 2021–22
Runners-up (6): 1982, 1995, 2007, 2011, 2014, 2022–23
Copa Eva Duarte:
Winners (1): 1947
European competitions
European Cup / UEFA Champions League:
Winners (14, record): 1955–56, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1965–66, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2001–02, 2013–14, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2021–22
Runners-up (3): 1961–62, 1963–64, 1980–81
European / UEFA Cup Winners' Cup:
Runners-up (2, joint record): 1970–71, 1982–83
UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League:
Winners (2): 1984–85, 1985–86
European / UEFA Super Cup:
Winners (5, joint record): 2002, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2022
Runners-up (3): 1998, 2000, 2018
Latin Cup:
Winners (2, joint record): 1955, 1957
Worldwide competitions
FIFA Club World Cup:
Winners (5, record): 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2022
Intercontinental Cup:
Winners (3, joint record): 1960, 1998, 2002
Runners-up (2): 1966, 2000
Copa Iberoamericana:
Winners (1, record): 1994
Unofficial
Santiago Bernabéu Trophy: 28
1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018
Trofeo Ciudad de Alicante: 10
1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2010
Trofeo Teresa Herrera: 9
1949, 1953, 1966, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1994, 2013
Trofeo Ramón de Carranza: 6
1958, 1959, 1960, 1966, 1970, 1982
Trofeo Ciutat de Palma: 4
1975, 1980, 1983, 1990
Trofeo Ciudad de La Línea: 4
1981, 1982, 1986, 1994.
Trofeo Bahía de Cartagena: 4
1994, 1998, 1999, 2001
Trofeo Colombino: 3
1970, 1984, 1989
Trofeo Ciudad de Barcelona: 3
1983, 1985, 1988
Trofeo Euskadi Asegarce: 3
1994, 1995, 1996
Trofeo Festa d'Elx: 3
1984, 1985, 1999
Small Club World Cup:
Winners (2, joint record): 1952, 1956
International Champions Cup: 3
2013, 2015 Australia, 2015 China
Trofeo Ciudad de Vigo: 2
1981, 1982
Trofeo Naranja: 2
1990, 2003
World Football Challenge: 2
2011, 2012
Trofeo Benito Villamarín: 1
1960
Mohammed V Trophy: 1
1966
Trofeo Año Santo Compostelano: 1
1970
Trofeo Costa del Sol: 1
1976
Trofeo Ciudad de Caracas: 1
1980
Trofeo Centenario A.C. Milan: 1
2000
Trofeo Jesús Gil: 1
2005
Taci Oil Cup: 1
2010
Franz-Beckenbauer-Cup: 1
2010
npower Challenge Cup: 1
2011
Audi Football Summit: 1
2016
MLS All-Star Game: 1
2017
In 2017, Real Madrid received the Nine Values Cup, an award of the international children's social programme Football for Friendship.
Achievements
Doubles
European double
La Liga and European Cup / UEFA Champions League: 4
1956–57, 1957–58, 2016–17, 2021–22
League and UEFA Cup double
La Liga and UEFA Cup: 1
1985–86
European cup double
Copa del Rey and UEFA Champions League: 1
2013–14
European league cup double
Copa de la Liga and UEFA Cup: 1
1984–85
Domestic double
La Liga and Copa del Rey: 4
1961–62, 1974–75, 1979–80, 1988–89
Three-peats
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
1955–56, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1959–60 (five-peat)
2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18
FIFA Club World Cup
2016, 2017, 2018
La Liga
1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65 (five-peat)
1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69
1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80
1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1989–90 (five-peat)
Copa del Rey
1905, 1906, 1907, 1908 (four-peat)
Supercopa de España
1988, 1989, 1990
Four titles in a season
2016–17
UEFA Super Cup, FIFA Club World Cup, La Liga, UEFA Champions League
2017–18
UEFA Super Cup, Supercopa de España, FIFA Club World Cup, UEFA Champions League
Awards
FIFA Club of the Century: 2000
FIFA Order of Merit: 2004
IFFHS Best European Club of the 20th Century
Globe Soccer Best Club of the 21st Century
Globe Soccer Best Club of the Year: 2014, 2016, 2017 (record)
IFFHS The World's Club Team of the Year: 2000, 2002, 2014, 2017
Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year (nominated): 2001, 2003, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019.
World Soccer Men's World Team of the Year: 2017
Rankings
European Cup / UEFA Champions League all-time club rankings (since 1955): 1st place
UEFA coefficient most top-ranked club by 5-year period (since 1975–1979): 15 times (record)
All-time La Liga table (since 1929): 1st place
Guinness World Records
Most matches won in the UEFA Champions League era by a football team
Most title wins of the top division in Spanish football
Most consecutive UEFA Champions League football seasons scored in by a player (jointly held)
Most wins of the football European Cup / Champions League title (team)
Most consecutive matches won in the top division of Spanish football (jointly held)
Other achievements
Most appearances in the European Cup / UEFA Champions League: 53 seasons
First club to own the European Champion Clubs' Cup's official trophy.
Most participations in the European Cup / UEFA Champions League since 1955: 64
World's most valuable sports team: 2013, 2014, 2015
First club to win consecutive UEFA Cups (1985 and 1986).
Only team in UEFA club football history to defend both the European Cup and UEFA Champions League successfully.
Only team to win consecutive FIFA Club World Cup titles as well as three titles in a row (2016, 2017, 2018).
First and only club to win three consecutive (or more) European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles twice (1956–1960 and 2016–2018).
First and only club to win consecutive UEFA Champions League titles as well as three consecutive titles (2016, 2017, 2018).
Most club world championships titles.
World's most valuable football club: 2013–2016, 2020
Highest-earning football club in the world: 2006–2016, 2019
Most European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles: 14
Most UEFA club competition titles: 23
First club to defend the European Double successfully.
Only club to win five consecutive European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles (1956–1960).
Most European Cup / UEFA Champions League final appearances: 17
Most European Cup / UEFA Champions League semi-final appearances: 31
Most consecutive seasons in the European Cup: 15 (1955–56 to 1969–70)
Most consecutive appearances in the UEFA Champions League group stage: 26 (1997–98 to 2022–23)
Most consecutive seasons in the UEFA Champions League knockout phase: 26 (1997–98 to 2022–23)
Most consecutive UEFA Champions League semi-final appearances: 8 (2010–11 to 2017–18)
Most consecutive European Cup final appearances: 5 (1956 to 1960)
Most consecutive final appearances in the UEFA Champions League era: 3 (joint record)
Most successful UEFA team to defend the European Cup / UEFA Champions League trophy: 6/13
First club to win all UEFA Champions League group stage matches twice (2011–12 and 2014–15).
First club to score in 34 consecutive UEFA Champions League matches (jointly held).
Most consecutive knockout tie wins in UEFA Champions League history: 12
Footnotes
A. The "Europe" column includes goals and appearances in the European Cup / UEFA Champions League, European / UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and UEFA Cup / Europa League.
B. The "Other" column includes goals and appearances in the Supercopa de España, Copa de la Liga, European / UEFA Super Cup, Intercontinental Cup, and FIFA Club World Championship / Club World Cup.
References
Statistics
Spanish football club statistics
Statistics | wiki |
A strong inflection is a system of verb conjugation or noun/adjective declension which can be contrasted with an alternative system in the same language, which is then known as a weak inflection. The term strong was coined with reference to the Germanic verb, but has since been used of other phenomena in these and other languages, which may or may not be analogous. Note that there is nothing objectively "strong" about a strong form; the term is only meaningful in opposition to "weak" as a means of distinguishing paradigms within a single language. Nor is there any distinguishing feature common to all strong forms, except that they are always counterpoints to "weak" ones.
The Germanic strong verb, occurring in Germanic languages including German and English, is characterised by a vowel shift called ablaut. Examples in English include give/gave, come/came, fall/fell. There is nothing comparable in the German strong adjective inflections. For a full discussion of this distinction see weak inflection.
Verb types
Germanic languages
sv:Starka verb | wiki |
Neonemobius eurynotus é uma espécie de insecto da família Gryllidae.
É endémica dos Estados Unidos da América.
Referências
Rentz, 1996. Neonemobius eurynotus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Dados de 10 de Agosto de 2007.
Grilos
Insetos descritos em 1918 | wiki |
Suspicion is a feeling of mistrust.
Suspicion(s), The Suspicion, or Suspicious may also refer to:
Film and television
Film
Suspicion (1918 film), an American silent film directed by John M. Stahl
Suspicion (1941 film), an American film noir directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Suspicion (1982 film), a Japanese film directed by Yoshitaro Nomura
Suspicions (film), a 2010 Canadian thriller film directed by Patrick Demers
Television
Series
Suspicion (American TV series), a 1957–1958 mystery drama series
Suspicion (2003 TV series), a British drama thriller series
Suspicion (2022 TV series), a British thriller series
Episodes
"Suspicion" (Code Lyoko: Evolution), 2013
"Suspicion" (NCIS), 2007
"Suspicion" (Stargate Atlantis), 2004
"Suspicions" (Dynasty), 1986
"Suspicions" (Star Trek: The Next Generation), 1993
Literature
Suspicion (manga), a 1982 manga by Osamu Tezuka
Suspicion (novel) (Der Verdacht), a 1951 novel by Friedrich Dürrenmatt
Suspicion (Ce qui était perdu), a 1930 novel by François Mauriac
Isaac Asimov's Robot City: Suspicion, a 1987 novel by Mike McQuay
The Suspicion (novel), a 1998 Animorphs novel by K. A. Applegate
Music
Suspicions (album), by Houston Person, 1980
"Suspicion" (Les Paul song), 1948
"Suspicion" (Terry Stafford song), originally recorded by Elvis Presley, 1962; released by Stafford, 1964
"Suspicion" (R.E.M. song), 1999
"Suspicions" (song), by Eddie Rabbitt, 1979; covered by Tim McGraw, 2007
"Suspicion", a song by LP from Lost on You, 2016
"Suspicion", a song by Richard Marx from My Own Best Enemy, 2004
"Suspicious", a song by Ivy from All Hours, 2011
See also
Suspect (disambiguation)
Under Suspicion (disambiguation) | wiki |
Derek Christopher Shepherd, ook gekend als "McDreamy", is een fictieve chirurg uit het programma Grey's Anatomy, gespeeld door acteur Patrick Dempsey.
Hij deed zijn intrede in aflevering 1 van seizoen 1, "A Hard Day's Night", welke werd uitgezonden op 27 maart 2005 in de (USA). Derek was 12 jaar lang getrouwd met Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), tot hun scheiding in 2006. Voor zijn dood in 2015 was Derek getrouwd met dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Het stel heeft samen 3 kinderen, van wie 1 geadopteerd. Derek was vroeger het Hoofd Chirurgie aan het Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, maar na het schietincident in 2007 heeft hij dit stopgezet. Voor zijn vertolking van de rol van Derek Shepherd, werd Patrick Dempsey genomineerd voor de Golden Globe in de categorie Beste uitvoering door een Acteur in een dramaserie in 2006 en 2007. In 2006 werd hij ook nog genomineerd voor de SAG Award in de categorie Buitengewone Uitvoering door een Acteur in een Dramaserie.
Personage uit televisieserie | wiki |
John Millington may refer to:
John Millington (professor) (1779–1868), professor of mechanics at the Royal Institution, 1817–1829
John Millington (rugby league) (born 1949), English rugby league footballer who played in the 1970s and 1980s
John Millington Synge
See also
John Billington (disambiguation)
Millington | wiki |
Numerous pipeline transport projects have been developed or are under development including:
List of natural gas pipelines
List of oil pipelines | wiki |
Why am I not where you are is a ballet commissioned by New York City Ballet and made by principal dancer Benjamin Millepied to a likewise commissioned score by French composer Thierry Escaich, The Lost Dancer.
It was the choreographer's second ballet for City Ballet; the premiere took place on Thursday, April 29, 2010, at the David H. Koch Theater, Lincoln Center. The costumes were designed by Marc Happel and the set by Santiago Calatrava as part of the company's Architecture of Dance Festival.
Original cast
Kathryn Morgan
Sara Mearns
Sean Suozzi
Amar Ramasar
Reviews
NY Times by Alastair Macaulay, May 1, 2010
NY Times by Anthony Tommasini, June 11, 2010
NY Times by Alastair Macaulay, July 2, 2010
NY Times by Gia Kourlas, September 28, 2010
New York City Ballet repertory
Ballets by Benjamin Millepied
2010 ballet premieres
Ballets designed by Santiago Calatrava
Ballets designed by Marc Happel
Ballets by Thierry Escaich | wiki |
The Roman triumph (Latin triumphus) was a celebration for a victorious military commander in ancient Rome. For later imitations, in life or in art, see Trionfo. Numerous later uses of the term, up to the present, are derived directly or indirectly from the Roman one.
Triumph may refer to:
Geography
Triumph, Idaho
Triumph, Illinois
Triumph, Louisiana
Triumph Township, Custer County, Nebraska
Triumph Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania
Triumph, Guyana
Business
Triumph (TWN), a defunct German motorcycle manufacturer
Triumph Cycle Co. Ltd., a British bicycle brand
Triumph Engineering Co Ltd, a defunct British motorcycle manufacturer
Triumph Group, an aerospace manufacturing and repair company
Triumph Hotels, an American collection of hotels
Triumph International, a worldwide underwear manufacturer
Triumph Motor Company, a British car manufacturer
Triumph Motorcycles Ltd, a current British motorcycle manufacturer
Norton Villiers Triumph, a defunct British motorcycle manufacturer
Books
Triumph (magazine), a defunct Catholic publication
Triumph (Nigeria), a Nigerian English language newspaper
Triumph (comics), a former Justice League member
Triumph (novel), 1993 alternate history novel by Ben Bova set at the end of World War II
Film and TV
Triumph Studios, a computer game development company based in the Netherlands
Triumph Films, a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment
Triumph (1917 film), a 1917 film starring Lon Chaney, Sr.
Triumph (1924 film), a 1924 film directed by Cecil B. DeMille
Triumph (2021 film), a 2021 film directed by Brett Leonard
Triumph (upcoming film), an upcoming film directed by Kristina Grozeva and Petar Valchanov
Triumph of the Will, 1935 Nazi propaganda film
Triumph the Insult Comic Dog, a character from the television show Late Night with Conan O'Brien
Triumph (Rome), a 2005 episode of the television series Rome
Music
Triumph (band), a Canadian hard rock band
Albums
Triumph (Triumph album), their 1976 eponymous first album
Triumph, alternative (UK) title of Triumph's second (first international) album Rock and Roll Machine
Triumph (The Jacksons album), 1980
Triumph (Philip Bailey album), 1986
Triumph (Circle (Finnish band) album), 2008
Songs
"Triumph" (song), a 1997 rap single by the Wu-Tang Clan
Transport
Triumph automobiles: Triumph TR3, Triumph TR4, Triumph TR6, and Triumph TR7
Carnival Triumph, a cruise ship
, a ferry owned by Seatruck Ferries
Triumph (sternwheeler), a sternwheel steamboat that ran on the Nooksack River in the 1890s
HMS Triumph
USS Triumph (disambiguation)
USNS Triumph (T-AGOS-4)
Other
a scuppernong (large muscadine Vitis rotundifolia) cultivar
Triomphe, a trick-taking 15th century card game
BC Triumph Lyubertsy, a Russian basketball team
See also
Triumf (disambiguation)
Trionfo, a form of festivity in Renaissance Italy | wiki |
At My Window may mean:
At My Window (album), an album by Townes Van Zandt
"At My Window", a song by the Beach Boys from their album Sunflower | wiki |
Fallen Angel steht für:
Fallen Angel (Band), später Fallen Angels, eine ehemalige schwedische Thrash-Metal-Band
Fallen Angel (Lied), Lied des norwegischen Sängers TIX
Fallen Angel (Roman), Roman von Marty Holland
Fallen Angel, Originaltitel von Mord in der Hochzeitsnacht, Film von Otto Preminger aus dem Jahr 1945
„The Fallen Angel“ Christopher Daniels (* 1971), ein US-amerikanischer Wrestler
The Fallen Angel, ehemaliger Pub der homosexuellen Szene in Islington (London), wichtiger Treffpunkte der Aktivistengruppe Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners
Siehe auch:
Fallen Angels | wiki |
Artistic control or creative control is a term commonly used in media production, such as movies, television, and music production. A person with artistic control has the authority to decide how the final product will appear. In movies, this commonly refers to the authority to decide on the final cut. When a director does not have artistic control, the studio that is producing the project commonly has the final say on production.
When dealing with numeric values, artistic (or creative) control usually refers to the commanding portion of an executive deal or contract, so a share such as 51% and 49%, respectively, for shareholders or stocks would denote the shareholder with 51% as having control. 50 and 50 percent share an equal commanding portion, and so must come to terms on both sides.
It is very rare for a successful musical artist to have full artistic control. Some current artists with full artistic control include Radiohead, Björk and Kanye West.
In professional wrestling, it refers to the booker or a clause in a wrestler's contract.
See also
Final cut privilege
Film production
Music production
Professional wrestling | wiki |
Le sucre vanillé est un ingrédient couramment utilisé en pâtisserie.
Il est composé de sucre et de gousses de vanille ou de sucre mélangé à de l'extrait de vanille, voire de vanilline, dans ce dernier cas l'appellation « sucre vanilliné » est plus correcte.
Édulcorant | wiki |
Wirecast is a live video streaming production tool by Telestream. It allows users to create live or on-demand broadcasts for the web.
Wirecast is a software video switcher, controlling real-time switching between multiple live video cameras, while dynamically mixing in other source media, such as QuickTime movies, music, audio and slides to create professional broadcast productions for live or on-demand distribution on the web.
Specifications
Can broadcast to multiple services at once
Support for multiple cameras
Chroma key (blue/green screen)
Scene transitions
Built-in lower-third titling
Desktop Presenter - makes Macintosh or Windows Desktop available as a source
H.264
3D Graphics
QuickTime Streaming Server Support
Keynote Integration
Multiple Layers
Multiple Broadcast Support, when ready to go live, it provides direct integration with a number of streaming service providers.
A direct integration with Limelight Networks, adds support for Flash streaming
Adds a built-in streaming service access from Ustream.
Encoding support for Nvidia NVENC and Intel Quick Sync Video
Support for Network Device Interface
Rendezvous Videoconferencing feature allows users to bring in live video feeds from multiple sources, including remote locations.
References
External links
Streaming media systems
Classic Mac OS software
Windows multimedia software
MacOS multimedia software
Livestreaming software | wiki |
Holy Holy (band), een Australisch rockduo
Holy Holy (David Bowie), een single van de Britse zanger David Bowie
Zie ook
Holy holy life, een single van de Nederlandse band Golden Earring
Holy, holy, holy, Engels christelijk lied | wiki |
The Las Vegas Story may refer to:
The Las Vegas Story (film), a 1952 film starring Jane Russell and Victor Mature
The Las Vegas Story (album), an album by The Gun Club | wiki |
Robin Hood and the Ranger, , är en av flera medeltida ballader om legenden Robin Hood.
Balladen räknas som nr. 131 i The English and Scottish Popular Ballads.
Externa länkar
Länk till texten
Ballader om Robin Hood
Sånger i Roud Folk Song Index | wiki |
Peter Blake (1920-2006), architecte américain ;
Peter Blake (1932-), artiste britannique ;
Peter Blake (1948-2001), navigateur néo-zélandais ;
Peter Blake (1951-2018), acteur britannique. | wiki |
This is a list of episodes for Traders, a Canadian television drama series, which was broadcast on Global Television Network from 1996 to 2000. The show was set in a Bay Street investment bank, Gardner Ross. Bruce Gray and Sonja Smits starred as the firm's senior partners, Adam Cunningham and Sally Ross. The cast also included Patrick McKenna, David Cubitt, Rick Roberts, Chris Leavins, Gabriel Hogan, David Hewlett, Peter Stebbings and Alex Carter.
References
1996 Canadian television seasons
1997 Canadian television seasons | wiki |
limonade (drank), een drank
Limonade (Haïti), een gemeente in Haïti
Limonade (lied), een lied van Snelle uit 2021 | wiki |
Seaton Meadows is an biological Site of Special Scientific Interest east of Seaton in Rutland. It is owned and managed by Plantlife.
This site is traditionally managed as hay pasture, and it is an example of unimproved alluvial flood meadows, a rare habitat due to agricultural developments. The grasses are diverse, including meadow foxtail, red fescue, sweet vernal grass and Yorkshire fog.
There is access from the B672 road.
References
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Rutland | wiki |
This is a list of episodes for Traders, a Canadian television drama series, which was broadcast on Global Television Network from 1996 to 2000. The show was set in a Bay Street investment bank, Gardner Ross. Bruce Gray and Sonja Smits starred as the firm's senior partners, Adam Cunningham and Sally Ross. The cast also included Patrick McKenna, David Cubitt, Rick Roberts, Chris Leavins, Gabriel Hogan, David Hewlett, Peter Stebbings and Alex Carter.
References
1998 Canadian television seasons
1999 Canadian television seasons | wiki |
This is a list of episodes for Traders a Canadian television drama series, which was broadcast on Global Television Network from 1996 to 2000. The show was set in a Bay Street investment bank, Gardner Ross. Bruce Gray and Sonja Smits starred as the firm's senior partners, Adam Cunningham and Sally Ross. The cast also included Patrick McKenna, David Cubitt, Rick Roberts, Chris Leavins, Gabriel Hogan, David Hewlett, Peter Stebbings and Alex Carter.
References
1999 Canadian television seasons
2000 Canadian television seasons | wiki |
Desperate Women may refer to:
Desperate Women, 1978 television film, directed by Earl Bellamy, written by Jack B. Sowards
Desperate Women, collection of stories by Michael Hemmingson
See also
Desperate Housewives, American television series | wiki |
Le Sceptique est le titre de plusieurs œuvres :
Cinéma
Le Sceptique, un film muet américain réalisé par Alan Crosland, sorti en 1918.
Musique
Le Sceptique, une chanson posthume de Georges Brassens chantée par Jean Bertola. | wiki |
Richard Keith may refer to:
Richard Keith (actor) (born 1950), American actor known for appearing on I Love Lucy
Dick Keith (1933–1967), Northern Irish footballer
Richard H. Keith (1842–1905), American known for coal, lumber, railroads and towns
Richard Keith (writer/actor/director) (born 1982), American writer, actor and director known for creating The CW series Significant Mother
See also
Keith Richard (basketball)
Keith Richards (born 1943), English musician and songwriter | wiki |
Bucking is a movement performed by an animal in which it lowers its head and raises its hindquarters into the air while kicking out with the hind legs. It is most commonly seen in herbivores such as equines, cattle, deer, goats, and sheep. Most research on this behavior has been directed towards horses and cattle.
Bucking can vary in intensity from the animals’ slight elevation of both hind legs, to lowering their head between their front legs, arching their back, and kicking out several times. Originally, it was predominantly an anti-predator and play behavior, but with domestication, it is now also a behavioral issue in riding horses, and a desired behavior in bucking bulls. If powerful, it may unseat a rider enough to fall off. Bucking, in some cases, may have consequences for serious injury to animal and rider.
Reasons for bucking
Bucking, though a potentially dangerous disobedience when under saddle, is a natural aspect of horse behavior. Bucking is used by animals for several reasons. In the wild, it can be used as a defense mechanism against predators such as mountain lions that attack by leaping on the animal’s back. By performing this behaviour, the animal throws a predator from its back. It can also be used as a mechanism of play and territorial herd defense.
For a human to safely ride a horse, the horse has to be desensitized to the presence of something on its back and also learn not to kick out with both hind legs while under saddle. Nonetheless, because the instinct is always there, bucking can still occur for a number of reasons:
Happiness, such as when a horse bucks during a gallop because of enjoyment, or during play.
General excitement, such as horses that buck in a crowded schooling ring or at the beginning of a ride in a crowd of horses, such as an endurance ride.
The rider's aids while riding or training cause confusion, frustration, or fear in the horse, and the horse responds by bucking.
The horse is "fresh", having been kept up in a stall for a long period of time, and is releasing pent-up energy.
Pain or discomfort which may be due to an ill-fitting saddle or another piece of equipment, tooth problems, or other medical issues.
Provocation, usually due to an insect bite (usually on the hindquarters) which the horse is trying to rid itself of, or in some cases a response to use of a whip on the flank or hindquarters.
Untrained horses may instinctually buck the first few times they have a saddle on the back if not given proper ground training, and occasionally, even with proper preparation. This is an instinctive defense mechanism.
Having found that bucking the rider off results in not having to work, the horse does it to avoid being ridden.
Disobedience to the riding aids, when a horse does not wish to do what is asked by the rider. Sometimes this is due to poor riding on the part of the person, but sometimes a horse attempts to evade a legitimate request by bucking.
Rodeo broncs and bucking bulls are used specifically as bucking stock, usually bred to be prone to bucking and encouraged to buck whenever a rider is on their back with the help of a "bucking strap" around their flank.
Fear of loud and noisy machines, like cars, trucks, trains, and planes. In response to tragic injuries that have resulted, the American courts have uniformly held that "the needs of a modern, industrial society often conflict with and generally must prevail over the delicate sensibilities of horses."
Ordinary riders need to learn to ride out and correct a simple buck or two, because it is a relatively common form of disobedience. Further, at times, movement akin to bucking is actually required of a horse: Horses that are jumping over an obstacle actually are using almost the same action as bucking when launching themselves into the air, it is simply carried out with advanced planning over a higher and wider distance. The classical dressage movement known as the Capriole is also very similar to the low buck done by a horse when it kicks out with both hind legs.
Solutions to bucking
Bucking in horses, especially if triggered by fear, pain or excitement, is generally a minor disobedience, unless it is strong enough to unseat the rider, at which point it is a dangerous act. If bucking is a premeditated act of the horse and becomes an undesired habit (such as when a horse learns to buck off a rider so as to no longer have to work), then the horse must be re-schooled by a professional trainer.
It is important to address the problem of the bucking immediately. Even with good cause, it is a potentially dangerous disobedience that cannot be encouraged or allowed to continue. However, a rider does need to be sure that it is not triggered by pain or poor riding. The horse's turn-out schedule should also be assessed, as extra turn-out will give a horse to release extra energy before a rider gets on. In certain cases (such as a show, when horses are unable to be turned-out for extended periods), longeing the horses for a brief period can help calm excess energy, allowing the rider to mount, and ride safely.
If poor riding is the cause, special attention and improvement to the rider’s balance and aids will help eliminate confusion and thus prevent the behavior. If ill-fitting equipment is the problem, a refit of the tack causing the discomfort is necessary to not only stop the bucking, but also to prevent further injuries that may arise due to poor fit.
Usually a horse gives some warning that it is about to buck by dropping its head, slowing down or stopping, and excessively rounding up its back. With such an advance warning, riders can intervene in early stages by encouraging forward motion or circling. With less warning, a rider may still prevent bucking by using one direct rein to pull the horse's head sideways and up, turning the horse in a small circle. This is sometimes called a “one-rein stop.” If a rider pulls the horse's head up with both reins, the horse's neck is stronger and the rider is likely to be flipped over the horse's head. By turning the horse sideways, the rider has more leverage and a horse cannot easily buck while turning around. This also can be used to stop a horse that has begun bucking. When the horse stops bucking, it must be asked to move forward—forward motion makes it difficult for the horse to buck and discourages the behavior. The use of positive punishment, such as to deliberately put the horse into a hollowed-out frame for a moment by deliberately raising the head and hollowing out the horse's back, may discourage or reduce the power and severity of the buck. Raising the head or the application of upward and sideways pressure on the horses head to create discomfort immediately following a buck has been shown to discourage bucking in the future. Certain training aids, such as a gag bit, certain types of martingale or, particularly on ponies, an overcheck, may also discourage bucking.
Bucking is sometimes seen during the early stages of horse training, often caused by the uncomfortable new feeling of a piece of saddlery, which will usually reside after habituation. If the behavior stems from the frustration that arises with inconsistent or absent reinforcement or punishment, then special attention from the handler, such as a consistent reinforcement schedule could be implemented.
If poor riding is the case, special attention and improvement to the rider’s balance, and commands will help to eliminate the confusion, and thus prevent the behavior. If ill-fitting tack is the problem, then a refit of the tack causing the discomfort is necessary to not only stop the bucking, but also to prevent further injuries that may arise due to the inappropriate fit.
Consequences of chronic bucking
Horses that are chronic and consistent buckers cannot be ridden safely and if they cannot be retrained become unsuitable for any type of ordinary riding. There are few options available to such an animal, and thus may become unwanted by many buyers. Thus, humane euthanasia or sale to slaughter may be that animal's fate.
In a few cases, a horse that cannot be retrained not to buck may be sold to a rodeo stock contractor. Ironically, such horses often fetch a high price in the bucking stock world because they often are easy to handle on the ground, yet very clever and skilled at unseating riders, thus allowing a cowboy to obtain a high score if the rider can stay on. At rodeo auctions such as the Miles City Bucking Horse Sale, a spoiled riding horse, particularly one that is powerfully built, will bring a top price and have a long career in rodeo.
See also
Bronc riding
Bull riding
Bucking horse
Bucking bull
References
Horse behavior
Bull sports
Bulls
Rodeo horses
Bucking bulls | wiki |
Nancy González may refer to:
Nancy González (model), Miss Venezuela 1965
Nancy González (politician), Argentine politician | wiki |
Transfer printing is a method of decorating pottery or other materials using an engraved copper or steel plate from which a monochrome print on paper is taken which is then transferred by pressing onto the ceramic piece. Pottery decorated using the technique is known as transferware or transfer ware.
It was developed in England from the 1750s on, and in the 19th century became enormously popular in England, though relatively little used in other major pottery-producing countries. The bulk of production was from the dominant Staffordshire pottery industry. America was a major market for English transfer-printed wares, whose imagery was adapted to the American market; several makers made this almost exclusively.
The technique was essential for adding complex decoration such as the Willow pattern to relatively cheap pottery. In particular, transfer printing brought the price of a matching dinner service low enough for large numbers of people to afford.
Apart from pottery, the technique was used on metal, and enamelled metal, and sometimes on wood and textiles. It remains used today, although mostly superseded by lithography. In the 19th century methods of transfer printing in colour were developed.
Process
The process starts with an engraved metal printing plate similar to those used for making engravings or etchings on paper. The plate is used to print the pattern on tissue paper, using mixes of special pigments that stand up to firing as the "ink". The transfer is then put pigment-side down onto the piece of pottery, so that the sticky ink transfers to the ceramic surface. Usually, several different transfer sections were needed for each piece if the design covered the whole object (see illustration). The paper is either floated off by soaking the piece in water, or left to burn off during the firing. This can be done over or under the ceramic glaze, but the underglaze ("underprinting") method gives much more durable decoration. The ceramic is then glazed (if this had not been done already) and fired in a kiln to fix the pattern. With overglaze printing only a low-temperature firing was needed. The process produces fine lines similar to engraved prints.
Before transfer printing ceramics were hand painted, a laborious and costly process. Transfer printing enabled the high quality of representation that had been developed in painting on porcelain to be done far more cheaply, in the process making large numbers of painters redundant. Initially, it was also mostly used on porcelain, but after a few years it was also used on the new high-quality earthenwares that English potters had been developing, such as creamware and pearlware.
By the end of the 18th century, a variant technique giving "bat-printed" wares was introduced. This used "pliable glue bats or slabs" of a rubbery texture instead of the paper. The plate printed glue onto the bat, which was then transferred to the piece, and powdered pigments were then added, which stuck to the glue. The technique was associated with the introduction of stippling rather than line engraving as the technique used on the copper plates. The process was much more complicated, and little used after about 1820.
Colour
Both these techniques printed a single colour, which was most often the cobalt blue that had been heavily used for painting pottery for centuries. Its success was because the colour was attractive, and cobalt kept its colour in firing even at very high porcelain temperatures. Initially cobalt blue, black and brown were probably the only colour options for underglaze transfer printing.
Transfer printing could be supplemented with colour added by hand, or gilding, and this technique was used from early on. The use of multiple transfers, each with a different colour, was introduced quite early when different areas were printed in each colour, for example, a plate with the centre in one colour, and the border in another. It was more difficult to build up a full polychrome image, but this was perfected by Messrs F&R Pratt of Fenton in the 1840s.
Design history
The pottery and printmaking worlds were already closely related, with large numbers of prints being copied by painters on pottery, especially porcelain, for which prints, including book illustrations, were the main source of images. Early scenes, mostly relatively small and on larger pieces occupying only the centre of the piece, included genteel or pastoral couples or small groups, landscapes, classical ruins, ships and portraits, especially of the military heroes of the Seven Years' War of 1756–63. All these came from the existing repertoire of china painting, with scenes from Aesop the most popular literary references.
Transfer-printed English wares are recorded in New York by 1776, and North America became an important market. By this time transfer-printing on the refined earthenwares such as creamware had become common. Large numbers of designs celebrated the new republic and in particular George Washington, with elaborate decorations around the central image as the century came to an end.
One particularly distinctive type of transferware, with an all-over floral pattern, is called chintz pottery, or chintzware.
History
Italy
Although England dominated the history of commercial transfer printing, the technique had first been used in Italy. A few maiolica pieces, probably from around Turin, mix printed and painted elements in their decoration. They date to the late 17th century, or possibly the early 18th; four surviving pieces are known. Between about 1749 and 1752, just at the time of the earliest English printeds, the Doccia porcelain factory near Florence also used transfer printing. They also experimented with stencils, and some pieces mix these techniques. About 50 pieces are known to survive.
England
In the 1750s three men made significant advances in the application of printed decoration to ceramic surfaces; it does not seem likely that they were aware of the Italian precedents. Most early uses were on expensive porcelain wares, in contrast to the 19th century, when it was much more used on earthenwares. Initially, all pieces were overglaze printed. A single Chelsea porcelain plate survives in the British Museum, which has a transfer-printed design and the "raised anchor" form of the Chelsea mark, indicating a date between 1750 and 1752. A Swiss enamel artist also records seeing printing being done at an unidentified factory near to (but different from) the Chelsea works, during a visit to London that ended in late 1752.
In 1751 John Brooks, an Irish engraver then based in Birmingham, petitioned for a patent for “printing, impressing, and reversing upon enamel and china from engraved, etched and mezzotinted plates and from cuttings on wood and metal...” He was primarily concerned with printed decoration on enamels; boxes, plaques, medallions, etc. His patent application failed and he moved from Birmingham to London where he continued to unsuccessfully apply for patents. He was involved in early printing on enamels at Battersea in London, and probably Bilston near Birmingham.
Printing on enamel probably began around 1753 (a letter of Horace Walpole dated 7 September 1755 mentions a printed Battersea box), and by around 1756 his process was being used on some Bow porcelain, although the results were not excellent, perhaps as the glaze was "too soft and fusible", giving a tendency to blur the image. The colours of the 1750s were a "purplish or brownish black" or a "beautiful warm brick-red". By around 1760 there was some underglaze printing in blue.
Five years after Brooks's first patent attempt, in 1756, John Sadler (in partnership with Guy Green) claimed in a patent affidavit that they had spent the past seven years perfecting a process for printing on tiles and that they could "print upwards of Twelve hundred Earthen Ware Tiles of different patterns " within a period of 6 hours. Sadler and Green printed in Liverpool, where their trade included overglaze printing on tin-glazed earthenware, porcelain, and creamware.
Transfer printing on porcelain at the Worcester porcelain factory in the 1750s is usually associated with Robert Hancock, an etcher and engraver, who signed some pieces and had also worked for Bow. Richard and Josiah Holdship, the managers of Worcester, were very supportive and involved with Hancock's work. By the mid-1750s the Worcester factory was producing both underglaze prints in blue and overglaze prints, predominately in black. Some printed pieces were in complicated shapes and included gilding, showing that the technique was at this point regarded as suitable for luxury products.
From 1842 the United Kingdom Patent Office introduced a system of registered marks, usually impressed or printed on the underside of pieces. Transfer-printed designs were easily registered by submitting the transfers printed on paper.
The technology of transfer printing spread to Asia as well. Kawana ware in Japan developed in the late Edo period and was a type of blue-and-white porcelain.
Burleigh, made in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, is the last pottery in the world to still use transfer printing on its ceramics.
Manufacturers
Major 19th- or 20th-century English manufacturers include Crown Ducal, Enoch Wood & Sons, Royal Staffordshire, Royal Crownford, Alfred Meakin (Tunstall), Spode, Johnson Brothers, and Mason's. The process was popular in other countries including Germany.
Notes
References
Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus,
Copeland, Robert, Blue and White Transfer-printed Pottery, 2000, Shire Publications Ltd,
Dawson, Aileen, The Art of Worcester Porcelain, 1751-1788: Masterpieces from the British Museum Collection, 2009, British Museum/UPNE, , 781584657521
Godden, Geoffrey, English China, 1985, Barrie & Jenkins,
Honey, W.B., Old English Porcelain, 1977 (3rd edn.), Faber and Faber,
Savage, George, Pottery Through the Ages, Penguin, 1959
Further reading
Joe Keller and Mark Gibbs, English Transferware: Popular 20th Century Patterns.
Gillian Neale, Miller's: Encyclopedia of British Transfer-Printed Pottery Patterns, 1790 - 1930. Mitchell Beazley 2005,
External links
Transferware Collectors Club
Ceramic art
Printing terminology
Types of pottery decoration
British pottery | wiki |
The Weakest Link () — многозначный термин:
«The Weakest Link» — британская телеигра, выходившая на телеканалах BBC One и BBC Two с 2000 по 2017 годы
«Слабое звено» — российская телеигра, аналог британской «The Weakest Link», выходившая на телеканалах ОРТ/Первый канал, Пятый канал и Мир с 2001 по настоящее время | wiki |
The Sunday Times is a British Sunday newspaper.
It may also refer to:
The Sunday Times Magazine, a magazine included with The Sunday Times
Sunday Times of Ceylon, a defunct Ceylonese newspaper
The Sunday Times (India)
The Sunday Times (Malta)
The Sunday Times (South Africa)
The Sunday Times (Singapore)
The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka)
The Sunday Times (Sydney)
The Sunday Times (Western Australia)
The Sunday Times, the Sunday edition of The New York Times
The Sunday Times, the Sunday edition of The New Times (Rwanda)
The Sunday Times, the Sunday edition of The Scranton Times-Tribune
The New Sunday Times, the Sunday edition of the New Straits Times
See also
Sunday Times-Star
Sunday Star-Times
Sunday Edition (disambiguation)
The Times (disambiguation) | wiki |
Wheat beer is a top-fermented beer which is brewed with a large proportion of wheat relative to the amount of malted barley. The two main varieties are German Weizenbier and Belgian witbier; other types include Lambic (made with wild yeast), Berliner Weisse (a cloudy, sour beer), and Gose (a sour, salty beer).
Varieties
Weißbier (German – "white beer") uses at least 50% wheat to barley malt to make a light coloured top-fermenting beer. Witbier (Dutch – "white beer") uses flavorings such as coriander and orange peel. Belgian white beers are often made with raw unmalted wheat.
German Weißbier and Belgian witbier are termed "white beers" because "wheat" has the same etymological root as "white" in most West Germanic languages (including English).
Other wheat beer styles, such as Berliner Weiße, Gose, and Lambic, are made with a significant proportion of wheat.
Weizenbier
Weizenbier or Hefeweizen, in the southern parts of Bavaria usually called Weißbier (literally "white beer", referring to the pale air-dried malt, as opposed to "brown beer" made from dark malt dried over a hot kiln), is a beer, traditionally from Bavaria, in which a significant proportion of malted barley is replaced with malted wheat. By law, Weißbiers brewed in Germany must use a "top-fermenting" yeast. Specialized strains of yeast are used which produce overtones of banana and clove as by-products of fermentation. Historically, Bavarian Weißbier was either brewed with a large share of wheat malt (which was a ducal privilege in Bavaria) or from air-dried pale barley malt only (which was a common drink amongst poor people). It is well known throughout Germany, though better known as Weizen ("Wheat") outside Bavaria. The terms Hefeweizen ("yeast wheat") or Hefeweißbier refer to wheat beer in its traditional, unfiltered form. The term Kristallweizen (crystal wheat), or Kristallweißbier (crystal white beer), refers to a wheat beer that is filtered to remove the yeast and wheat proteins which contribute to its cloudy appearance.
The Hefeweizen style is particularly noted for its low hop bitterness (about 15 IBUs) and relatively high carbonation (approaching four volumes), considered important to balance the beer's relatively malty sweetness. Another balancing flavor note unique to Hefeweizen beer is its phenolic character; its signature phenol is 4-vinyl guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, the result of fermentation by top-fermenting yeast appropriate for the style. Hefeweizens phenolic character has been described as "clove" and "medicinal" ("Band-aid") but also smoky. Other more typical but less assertive flavour notes produced by Weißbier yeast include "banana" (amyl acetate), "bubble gum", and sometimes "vanilla" (vanillin).
Weißbier is available in a number of other forms, including Dunkelweizen (dark wheat) and Weizenstarkbier (strong wheat beer), commonly referred to as Weizenbock'''. The dark wheat varieties are made with darker, more highly kilned malts (both wheat and barley). Weizenbocks typically have a much higher alcohol content than their lighter cousins.
The four largest brands in Germany are Erdinger, Paulaner, Franziskaner, and Maisel. Other renowned brands are Augustiner, Weihenstephaner, Schneider (a bronze-coloured specialty), and Andechser. Regional brands in Bavaria are Hopf, Unertl, Ayinger, Schweiger and Plank. Aventinus is an example of Weizen Doppelbock, stronger and darker version of Weizenbock, made by the G. Schneider & Sohn brewery in Kelheim.
British brewers producing cask-conditioned varieties include Oakleaf Eichenblatt Bitte, Hoskins White Dolphin, Fyfe Weiss Squad and Oakham White Dwarf.
Witbier
Witbier, white beer, bière blanche, or simply witte is a barley/wheat, top-fermented beer brewed mainly in Belgium and the Netherlands. It gets its name due to suspended yeast and wheat proteins, which cause the beer to look hazy, or white, when cold. Today, along with hops it usually contains a blend of spices, such as coriander, orange, and bitter orange.
As early as the 16th and 17th century, the white beers of Hoegaarden and Leuven were renowned. Along with barley malt and unmalted barley it contained some oats, though apart from hops no other spices were used. The barley was usually not kilned but left to dry on attics where the wind was allowed to blow past it, in order to obtain a light colour.
The style was revived by Pierre Celis at the Hoegaarden Brewery in Belgium and the Celis Brewery in the United States and is traditionally made with up to 50% raw wheat rather than wheat malt. It probably was Celis who started adding the various spices. The beers have a somewhat sour taste due to the presence of lactic acid or acetic acid, much more pronounced in the past than today. Also, the suspended yeast in the beer causes some continuing fermentation in the bottle.
Other varieties
A minor variety of wheat beer is represented by Berliner Weiße (Berlin White), which is low in alcohol (2.5% to 3% ABV) and intentionally tart. Sweetened syrups of lemon, raspberry, or woodruff herb are often added before drinking.
Leipziger Gose is similar to Berliner Weiße, but slightly stronger at around 4% ABV. Its ingredients include coriander and salt, which are unusual for German beers.
Belgian lambic is also made with wheat and barley, but differs from nearly all beers in the use of wild yeast for spontaneous fermentation.
A variation on the barley wine style involves adding a large quantity of wheat to the mash bill, resulting in what is referred to as wheat wine. This style originated in the United States in the 1980s.
Names and types
Wheat beers vary in name according to where they are brewed and small variations in the recipe. Among those used are:
Weißbier, short Weiße: Weiß is German for "white". These terms are used almost exclusively in the Southern German state of Bavaria and in Austria.
Weizenbier, short Weizen: Weizen is German for "wheat". These terms are used in the Western (Baden-Württemberg) and Northern German regions, as well as in Switzerland, for Weißbier.
Hefeweißbier or Hefeweizen: Hefe is the German word for yeast, is added to indicate that the beer is bottle-conditioned (unfiltered), thus might have sediment.
Kristallweißbier or Kristallweizen: Kristall, being German for crystal, is added if Weißbier is filtered clear of sediment.
Dunkles Weißbier or Dunkelweizen: A dark version of a wheat beer (dunkel is the German word for "dark")
Weizenbock is a wheat beer made in the bock style originating in Germany.
Witbier (literally, "white beer") or simply Wit: Dutch-language name for the Belgian style of wheat beer
Bière blanche (literally, "white beer"): The French language name for wheat beer
Serving
Bavarian-style wheat beer is usually served in , vase-shaped glasses. In Belgium, witbier is usually served in a 250-ml glass; each brewery (Hoegaarden, Dentergems, etc.) has its own shape of glass. Berliner Weiße is often served in a schooner.
Kristallweizen (especially in Austria) and American styles of wheat beer are sometimes served with a slice of lemon or orange in the glass. This is not traditional in Bavaria, and is generally frowned upon there. The modern American custom appears to have originated in Portland, Oregon, in the mid-1980s, where the Dublin Pub served Widmer Brothers Brewery's Weizenbier with a slice of lemon, to accentuate the citrus flavor of the Cascade hops.
In northern Bavaria, a grain of rice commonly is added to Kristallweizen, which causes a gentle bubbling effect and results in a longer-lasting foam. A common item on pub menus in Bavaria is cola-weizen, which is a mix of cola and Weizenbier. Another mixture popular during the summer is a radler variant with a 50–50 mix of Weißbier with lemonade called "Russ", which is the German term for Russian.
Sensory profile
Weißbiers feature fermentation by-products such as esters (which lend fruity flavors and aromas), especially isoamyl acetate, reminiscent of bananas, and the phenolic compound guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, which smells and tastes like cloves. Other phenolics sometimes found in Weißbiers evoke medicinal or smoky sensations. The bittering level of most Weißbiers is close to 15 international bitterness units, a very low level. Hop flavor and aroma are typically low.
The ester and phenolic aspects are produced by the special type of yeast, rather than the high fraction of wheat in the grain bill.
The carbonation level can range from 5.5 g/L (about 2.7 volumes; slightly higher than that of most other German beers) to 7 g/L, or more. This produces a generous stand of foam, especially with the high protein content of wheat malt.
See also
Beer glassware
Beer in Belgium
Beer in Germany
Rye beer
References
BibliographyGerman Wheat Beer'', Eric Warner, Brewers Publications (1992),
External links
Beer Judge Certification Program (BJCP) wheat beer style guidelines
Beer styles
Wheat-based drinks
Culture of Altbayern | wiki |
The women's team foil competition in fencing at the 2012 Olympic Games in London was held on 2 August at the ExCeL Exhibition Centre.
Competition format
Nine teams competed in the women's team foil event. The draw was made considering the FIE rankings.
Schedule
All times are British Summer Time (UTC+1)
Draw
Finals
Classification 5–8
Final classification
References
Results
Women's team foil
2012 in women's fencing
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
The Star Tournament was a professional golf tournament played in England and sponsored by The Star, a London evening newspaper. It was held from 1945 to 1947. The total prize money was £1,500.
The 1945 and 1946 events involved 36 holes of stroke play over two days. The leading 16 then played knockout matchplay over the next two days. In 1947 the 36-hole stroke play stage was played on a single day using both Wentworth courses with 32 golfers qualifying. There were then four rounds of knockout matchplay over the next two days, followed by a 36-hole final on the fourth day.
Winners
The 1945 and 1946 finals were over 18 holes. The 1947 final was over 36 holes.
References
Golf tournaments in England
Recurring sporting events established in 1945
Recurring sporting events disestablished in 1947
1945 establishments in England
1947 disestablishments in England | wiki |
Adam Powers, The Juggler (also known as The Juggler) is a 1981 computer animation created by Richard Taylor and Gary Demos and released by Information International Inc. (Triple I). It was one of the earliest CGI animated anthropomorphic characters ever. The character was motion captured from Ken Rosenthal, a real juggler.
Premise
The film opens with a juggler juggling a pack of shapes (circle, square, cones, etc.) and showing the computer animation film the shapes and objects around the scene. As the version included in the DVDs and Blu-rays bonus material is taken straight from one of the company's demo reels, a Mercedes-Benz logo is seen inside the green ball, which was not in the original short film. The film ends with the juggler vanishing the scene.
References
External links
Computer animation | wiki |
ROH Field of Honor é um evento em pay-per-view de luta livre profissional realizado pela promoção americana Ring of Honor (ROH) desde 2014. Suas duas edições aconteceram em agosto e no MCU Park, arena localizada no Brooklyn, Nova Iorque, Nova Iorque. Após a transmissão do evento, ele é posto a venda em DVD e através de vídeo sob demanda.
Eventos
Ver também
Atuais pay-per-views da ROH
Ligações externas
Field of Honor
Pay-per-views da ROH | wiki |
Bolo may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional entities
Bolo, a fictional tribe in bolo'bolo by P.M.
Bolo, a character in the Shantae series
Bolo universe, a science fiction universe created by Keith Laumer
Prince Bolo, a character in Haroun and the Sea of Stories
Video games
Bolo (1982 video game), an Apple II tank game
Bolo (1987 video game), a simulation of a tank battle
Bolo (Breakout clone), an enhanced clone of the Breakout computer game for the Atari ST
Military and weapons
Bolo Airfield, a World War II airfield on Okinawa
Bolo knife, a Filipino knife similar to the machete
Bolo Shell, a type of specialty shotgun shell
Douglas B-18 Bolo, a United States Army Air Corps bomber aircraft from the 1930s
Operation Bolo, a United States military operation during the Vietnam War
Bolo, a variant of the Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol
People
Bolo (footballer) (born 1974), Spanish footballer
Bolo (prince) (1613–1652), Manchu prince of the Qing Dynasty
Bolo Pasha (born Paul Bolo, 1867–1918), French adventurer and German agent of the First World War
Lashmer Whistler or Bolo (1898–1963), British general of the Second World War
Bolo Yeung (born 1946), Chinese actor and martial artist
Places
Bolo, Central African Republic
Bolo, Ethiopia, a village in Ethiopia
Bolo River, a river in Romania
Bolo, Tibet, a township in Tibet
Bolo Township, Washington County, Illinois, US
Ogu/Bolo, a Local Government Area of Nigeria
BOLO, Bos & Lommer, a neighbourhood of Amsterdam in the Netherlands
Other uses
BOLO or all-points bulletin, in law enforcement
Bolo (bread), commonly prepared by Tunisian, Libyan, and Italian Jews
Bolo (tether), a type of spinning space tether
Bolo bat, a child's toy
Bolo punch, a wide sweeping lower cut used in martial arts
Bolo snake or Fiji snake (Ogmodon vitianus), an extremely rare snake found only in Fiji
Bolo tie, a decorative string tie
Bolo, a derogatory term for Bolshevik
Bolo, a cake in Portuguese cuisine
Bolo language, a Bantu language of Angola
See also
Bola (disambiguation)
Bolas, a throwing rope with weights at both ends to entangle prey
Bollo (disambiguation)
O Bolo, a municipality in Galicia, Spain | wiki |
A whoopee cap is a style of headwear popular among youths in the mid 20th century in the United States. It was often made from a man's felt fedora hat with the brim trimmed with a scalloped cut and turned up. In the 1920s and 1930s, such caps usually indicated the wearer was a mechanic. The headwear can often be seen worn in the films of the Dead End Kids. It is also referred to as a Jughead hat (so named after comic book character Jughead Jones, for whom the hat became an iconic piece), palookaville cap, devils cap, clubhouse hat, dink cap, rat cap, or Kingpin.
See also
Fedora
Beanie
References
Hats | wiki |
Western Brittonic languages () comprise two dialects into which Common Brittonic split during the Early Middle Ages; its counterpart was the ancestor of the Southwestern Brittonic languages. The reason and date for the split is often given as the Battle of Deorham in 577, at which point the victorious Saxons of Wessex essentially cut Brittonic-speaking Britain in two, which in turn caused the Western and Southwestern branches to develop separately.
Western Brittonic languages were spoken in Wales and the , or "Old North", an area of northern England and southern Scotland. One Western language evolved into Old Welsh and thus to the modern Welsh language; the language of , Cumbric, became extinct after the expansion of the Middle Irish-speaking polity. Southwestern Brittonic became the ancestor to Cornish and Breton.
Alan James has suggested that Cumbric and Pictish were closer aligned to one another than they were to Welsh.
References
Brittonic languages
Extinct Celtic languages
Languages attested from the 6th century
Languages extinct in the 8th century | wiki |
Slave to the Music may refer to:
Slave to the Music (album), an album by Twenty 4 Seven
"Slave to the Music" (Twenty 4 Seven song)
"Slave to the Music" (James Morrison song) | wiki |
In geometry, an equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides have the same length. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, an equilateral triangle is also equiangular; that is, all three internal angles are also congruent to each other and are each 60°. It is also a regular polygon, so it is also referred to as a regular triangle.
Principal properties
Denoting the common length of the sides of the equilateral triangle as , we can determine using the Pythagorean theorem that:
The area is
The perimeter is
The radius of the circumscribed circle is
The radius of the inscribed circle is or
The geometric center of the triangle is the center of the circumscribed and inscribed circles
The altitude (height) from any side is
Denoting the radius of the circumscribed circle as R, we can determine using trigonometry that:
The area of the triangle is
Many of these quantities have simple relationships to the altitude ("h") of each vertex from the opposite side:
The area is
The height of the center from each side, or apothem, is
The radius of the circle circumscribing the three vertices is
The radius of the inscribed circle is
In an equilateral triangle, the altitudes, the angle bisectors, the perpendicular bisectors, and the medians to each side coincide.
Characterizations
A triangle that has the sides , , , semiperimeter , area , exradii , , (tangent to , , respectively), and where and are the radii of the circumcircle and incircle respectively, is equilateral if and only if any one of the statements in the following nine categories is true. Thus these are properties that are unique to equilateral triangles, and knowing that any one of them is true directly implies that we have an equilateral triangle.
Sides
Semiperimeter
(Blundon)
Angles
Area
(Weitzenböck)
Circumradius, inradius, and exradii
(Chapple-Euler)
Equal cevians
Three kinds of cevians coincide, and are equal, for (and only for) equilateral triangles:
The three altitudes have equal lengths.
The three medians have equal lengths.
The three angle bisectors have equal lengths.
Coincident triangle centers
Every triangle center of an equilateral triangle coincides with its centroid, which implies that the equilateral triangle is the only triangle with no Euler line connecting some of the centers. For some pairs of triangle centers, the fact that they coincide is enough to ensure that the triangle is equilateral. In particular:
A triangle is equilateral if any two of the circumcenter, incenter, centroid, or orthocenter coincide.
It is also equilateral if its circumcenter coincides with the Nagel point, or if its incenter coincides with its nine-point center.
Six triangles formed by partitioning by the medians
For any triangle, the three medians partition the triangle into six smaller triangles.
A triangle is equilateral if and only if any three of the smaller triangles have either the same perimeter or the same inradius.
A triangle is equilateral if and only if the circumcenters of any three of the smaller triangles have the same distance from the centroid.
Points in the plane
A triangle is equilateral if and only if, for every point in the plane, with distances , , and to the triangle's sides and distances , , and to its vertices,
Notable theorems
Morley's trisector theorem states that, in any triangle, the three points of intersection of the adjacent angle trisectors form an equilateral triangle.
Napoleon's theorem states that, if equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of any triangle, either all outward, or all inward, the centers of those equilateral triangles themselves form an equilateral triangle.
A version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral.
Viviani's theorem states that, for any interior point in an equilateral triangle with distances , , and from the sides and altitude , independent of the location of .
Pompeiu's theorem states that, if is an arbitrary point in the plane of an equilateral triangle but not on its circumcircle, then there exists a triangle with sides of lengths , , and . That is, , , and satisfy the triangle inequality that the sum of any two of them is greater than the third. If is on the circumcircle then the sum of the two smaller ones equals the longest and the triangle has degenerated into a line, this case is known as Van Schooten's theorem.
Geometric construction
An equilateral triangle is easily constructed using a straightedge and compass, because 3 is a Fermat prime. Draw a straight line, and place the point of the compass on one end of the line, and swing an arc from that point to the other point of the line segment. Repeat with the other side of the line. Finally, connect the point where the two arcs intersect with each end of the line segment
An alternative method is to draw a circle with radius , place the point of the compass on the circle and draw another circle with the same radius. The two circles will intersect in two points. An equilateral triangle can be constructed by taking the two centers of the circles and either of the points of intersection.
In both methods a by-product is the formation of vesica piscis.
The proof that the resulting figure is an equilateral triangle is the first proposition in Book I of Euclid's Elements.
Derivation of area formula
The area formula in terms of side length can be derived directly using the Pythagorean theorem or using trigonometry.
Using the Pythagorean theorem
The area of a triangle is half of one side times the height from that side:
The legs of either right triangle formed by an altitude of the equilateral triangle are half of the base , and the hypotenuse is the side of the equilateral triangle. The height of an equilateral triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem
so that
Substituting into the area formula gives the area formula for the equilateral triangle:
Using trigonometry
Using trigonometry, the area of a triangle with any two sides and , and an angle between them is
Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°, so
The sine of 60° is . Thus
since all sides of an equilateral triangle are equal.
Other properties
An equilateral triangle is the most symmetrical triangle, having 3 lines of reflection and rotational symmetry of order 3 about its center, whose symmetry group is the dihedral group of order 6, . The integer-sided equilateral triangle is the only triangle with integer sides, and three rational angles as measured in degrees. It is the only acute triangle that is similar to its orthic triangle (with vertices at the feet of the altitudes), and the only triangle whose Steiner inellipse is a circle (specifically, the incircle). The triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a given circle is equilateral, and the triangle of smallest area of all those circumscribed around a given circle is also equilateral. It is the only regular polygon aside from the square that can be inscribed inside any other regular polygon.
By Euler's inequality, the equilateral triangle has the smallest ratio of the circumradius to the inradius of any triangle, with
Given a point in the interior of an equilateral triangle, the ratio of the sum of its distances from the vertices to the sum of its distances from the sides is greater than or equal to 2, equality holding when is the centroid. In no other triangle is there a point for which this ratio is as small as 2. This is the Erdős–Mordell inequality; a stronger variant of it is Barrow's inequality, which replaces the perpendicular distances to the sides with the distances from to the points where the angle bisectors of , , and cross the sides (, , and being the vertices). There are numerous other triangle inequalities that hold with equality if and only if the triangle is equilateral.
For any point in the plane, with distances , , and from the vertices , , and respectively,
For any point in the plane, with distances , , and from the vertices,
where is the circumscribed radius and is the distance between point and the centroid of the equilateral triangle.
For any point on the inscribed circle of an equilateral triangle, with distances , , and from the vertices,
For any point on the minor arc of the circumcircle, with distances , , and from , , and , respectively
Moreover, if point on side divides into segments and with having length and having length , then
which also equals if and
which is the optic equation.
For an equilateral triangle:
The ratio of its area to the area of the incircle, , is the largest of any triangle.
The ratio of its area to the square of its perimeter, is larger than that of any non-equilateral triangle.
If a segment splits an equilateral triangle into two regions with equal perimeters and with areas and , then
If a triangle is placed in the complex plane with complex vertices , , and , then for either non-real cube root of 1 the triangle is equilateral if and only if
Notably, the equilateral triangle tiles two dimensional space with six triangles meeting at a vertex, whose dual tessellation is the hexagonal tiling. 3.122, 3.4.6.4, (3.6)2, 32.4.3.4, and 34.6 are all semi-regular tessellations constructed with equilateral triangles.
In three dimensions, equilateral triangles form faces of regular and uniform polyhedra. Three of the five Platonic solids are composed of equilateral triangles: the tetrahedron, octahedron and icosahedron. In particular, the tetrahedron, which has four equilateral triangles for faces, can be considered the three-dimensional analogue of the triangle. All Platonic solids can inscribe tetrahedra, as well as be inscribed inside tetrahedra. Equilateral triangles also form uniform antiprisms as well as uniform star antiprisms in three-dimensional space. For antiprisms, two (non-mirrored) parallel copies of regular polygons are connected by alternating bands of equilateral triangles. Specifically for star antiprisms, there are prograde and retrograde (crossed) solutions that join mirrored and non-mirrored parallel star polygons. The Platonic octahedron is also a triangular antiprism, which is the first true member of the infinite family of antiprisms (the tetrahedron, as a digonal antiprism, is sometimes considered the first).
As a generalization, the equilateral triangle belongs to the infinite family of -simplexes, with .
In culture and society
Equilateral triangles have frequently appeared in man made constructions:
The shape occurs in modern architecture such as the cross-section of the Gateway Arch.
Its applications in flags and heraldry includes the flag of Nicaragua and the flag of the Philippines.
It is a shape of a variety of road signs, including the yield sign.
See also
Almost-equilateral Heronian triangle
Isosceles triangle
Ternary plot
Trilinear coordinates
References
External links
Types of triangles
Constructible polygons | wiki |
Decatur Street can refer to:
Decatur Street (Atlanta), Georgia, U.S.
Decatur Street (New Orleans), Louisiana, U.S.
Decatur Street (Brooklyn), New York, U.S.
See also
Decatur (disambiguation) | wiki |
Xtol is a photographic developer manufactured by Eastman Kodak company.
Xtol is one of the few developers that do not contain hydroquinone. It uses derivatives of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and phenidone as developing agents. Claimed advantages include low toxicity (important for environmental reasons as well as occupational safety), easy mixing, and an unusual combination of fine grain with high film speed.
Xtol was covered by a US patent until its expiry in 2016. It is sold by Kodak in a powdered form to make 5 litres of developer. A similar formula, compatible with Xtol in terms of developing times and the resulting contrast curves, is sold by Adox under the name XT-3 in powder packages for 1 or 5 litres of developing solution.
References
External links
https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/pro/chemistry/J-109_Feb_2018.pdf
Kodak Xtol Developer - An Unofficial Resource Page
Unofficial FAQ
Photographic chemicals | wiki |
Standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) is the molar flow rate of a gas expressed as a volumetric flow at a "standardized" temperature and pressure thus representing a fixed number of moles of gas regardless of composition and actual flow conditions. It is related to the mass flow rate of the gas by a multiplicative constant which depends only on the molecular weight of the gas. There are different standard conditions for temperature and pressure, so care is taken when choosing a particular standard value. Worldwide, the "standard" condition for pressure is variously defined as an absolute pressure of 101,325 pascals (Atmospheric pressure), 1.0 bar (i.e., 100,000 pascals), 14.73 psia, or 14.696 psia and the "standard" temperature is variously defined as 68 °F, 60 °F, 0 °C, 15 °C, 20 °C, or 25 °C. The relative humidity (e.g., 36% or 0%) is also included in some definitions of standard conditions.
In Europe, the standard temperature is most commonly defined as 0 °C, but not always. In the United States, the standard temperature is most commonly defined as 60 °F or 70 °F, but again, not always. A variation in standard temperature can result in a significant volumetric variation for the same mass flow rate. For example, a mass flow rate of 1,000 kg/h of air at 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure is 455 SCFM when defined at but 481 SCFM when defined at .
In countries using the SI metric system of units, the term "normal cubic metre" (Nm3) is very often used to denote gas volumes at some normalized or standard condition. Again, as noted above, there is no universally accepted set of normalized or standard conditions.
Actual cubic feet per minute
Actual cubic foot per minute (ACFM) is the volume of gas flowing anywhere in a system, taking into account its temperature and pressure. If the system were moving a gas at exactly the "standard" condition, then ACFM would equal SCFM. Unfortunately, this usually is not the case as the most important change between these two definitions is the pressure. To move a gas, a positive pressure or a vacuum must be created. When positive pressure is applied to a standard cubic foot of gas, it is compressed. When a vacuum is applied to a standard cubic foot of gas, it expands. The volume of gas after it is pressurized or rarefied is referred to as its "actual" volume.
SCF and ACF for an ideal gas are related in accordance with the combined gas law:
Defining standard conditions by the subscript 1 and actual conditions by the subscript 2, then:
where is in absolute pressure units and is in absolute temperature units (i.e., either kelvins or degrees Rankine).
This is only valid when at a pressure and temperature close to standard conditions. For non-ideal gasses (most gasses) a compressibility factor "Z" is introduced to allow for non-ideality. To introduce the compressibility factor to the equation divide ACF by "Z".
Cubic feet per minute
Cubic feet per minute (CFM) is an often confusing term because it has no single definition that applies to all instances. Gases are compressible, which means that a figure in cubic feet per minute cannot necessarily be compared with another figure when it comes the mass of the gas. To further confuse the issue, a centrifugal fan is a constant CFM device or a constant volume device. This means that, provided the fan speed remains constant, a centrifugal fan will pump a constant volume of air. This is not the same as pumping a constant mass of air. Again, the fan will pump the same volume, though not mass, at any other air density. This means that the air velocity in a system is the same even though mass flow rate through the fan is not.
See also
Gas laws
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure
Standard cubic foot (SCF)
Million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD)
References
External links
Xchanger Inc, webpage Calculator for SCFM, NM3/hr, lb/hr, kg/hr, ACFM & M3/hr gas flows.
onlineflow.de, webpage Online calculator for conversion of volume, mass and molar flows (SCFM, MMSCFD, Nm3/hr, kg/s, kmol/hr and more)
ACFM versus SCFM for ASME AG-1 HEPA Filters
SCFM (Standard CFM) vs. ACFM (Actual CFM) (Specifically for air flows only)
"Standard conditions for gases" from the IUPAC Gold Book.
"Standard pressure" from the IUPAC Gold Book.
"STP" from the IUPAC Gold Book.
"Standard state" from the IUPAC Gold Book.
Gas Density
Properties of the Atmosphere
ACFM vs. SCFM vs. ICFM
Units of flow | wiki |
Overrun may refer to:
Overrun brake
Overrun, the condition of a vehicle travelling without throttle, see freewheel
Overrunning clutch, see freewheel
Buffer overrun, see buffer overflow
Overrun is the section of a runway, sometimes called a blast pad, that is used as an emergency space to slowly stop planes after an aborted takeoff or a problem on landing
Cost overrun
Overrun is the amount of air injected into soft serve ice creams
Overrun (film), a 2021 American action crime comedy | wiki |
Violence and peace in Islam could refer to:
Islam and violence
Peace in Islamic philosophy
Religion of Peace
Jihad (warfare) | wiki |
Monument of Liberty may refer to:
Monument of Liberty, Rousse, Bulgaria
Monument of Liberty, Istanbul, Turkey
Monument of Liberty, Chişinău, Moldova
See also
Liberty Monument (disambiguation)
Statue of Liberty (disambiguation)
Freedom Monument (disambiguation)
Statue of Freedom | wiki |
A fortnight is a unit of time equal to 14 days (two weeks). The word derives from the Old English term , meaning "" (or "fourteen days", since the Anglo-Saxons counted by nights).
Astronomy and tides
In astronomy, a lunar fortnight is half a lunar synodic month, which is equivalent to the mean period between a full moon and a new moon (and vice versa). This is equal to 14.77 days.
It gives rise to a lunar fortnightly tidal constituent (see: Long-period tides).
Analogs in other languages
In many languages, there is no single word for a two-week period, and the equivalent terms "two weeks", "14 days", or "15 days" (counting inclusively) have to be used.
Celtic languages: in Welsh, the term pythefnos, meaning "15 nights", is used. This is in keeping with the Welsh term for a week, which is wythnos ("eight nights"). In Irish, the term is coicís.
Similarly, in Greek, the term δεκαπενθήμερο (dekapenthímero), meaning "15 days", is used.
The Hindu calendar uses the Sanskrit word पक्ष "pakṣa", meaning one half of a lunar month, which is between 14 and 15 solar days.
In Romance languages there are the terms quincena (or quince días) in Galician and Spanish, quinzena or quinze dies in Catalan and quinze dias or quinzena in Portuguese, quindicina in Italian, quinze jours or quinzaine in French, and chenzină in Romanian, all meaning "a grouping of 15"; there are also the terms bisettimanale in Italian, bisemanal in Spanish, bissemanal in Portuguese, bisetmanal in Catalan, bihebdomadaire in French, and bisǎptǎmânal in Romanian, that literally mean "biweekly".
Semitic languages have a special "doubling suffix". When added at the end of the word for "week" it changes the meaning to "two weeks". In Hebrew, the single-word שבועיים (shvu′ayim) means exactly "two weeks". Also in Arabic, by adding the common dual suffix to the word for "week", أسبوع, the form أسبوعين (usbu′ayn), meaning "two weeks", is formed.
Slavic languages: in Czech the terms čtrnáctidenní and dvoutýdenní have the same meaning as "fortnight". In Ukrainian, the term два тижні is used in relation to "biweekly, two weeks".
See also
FFF system
Half-month
Sennight
References
Units of time | wiki |
Mechanization is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. In an early engineering text a machine is defined as follows:
In some fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies machinery more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an ungeared horse or donkey mill. Devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means such as gears, pulleys or sheaves and belts, shafts, cams and cranks, usually are considered machines. After electrification, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. Extension of mechanization of the production process is termed as automation and it is controlled by a closed loop system in which feedback is provided by the sensors. In an automated machine the work of different mechanisms is performed automatically.
History
Ancient times
Water wheels date to the Roman period and were used to grind grain and lift irrigation water. Water-powered bellows were in use on blast furnaces in China in 31 AD. By the 13th century, water wheels powered sawmills and trip hammers, to pull cloth and pound flax and later cotton rags into pulp for making paper. Trip hammers are shown crushing ore in De re Metallica (1555).
Clocks were some of the most complex early mechanical devices. Clock makers were important developers of machine tools including gear and screw cutting machines, and were also involved in the mathematical development of gear designs. Clocks were some of the earliest mass-produced items, beginning around 1830.
Water-powered bellows for blast furnaces, used in China in ancient times, were in use in Europe by the 15th century. De re Metallica contains drawings related to bellows for blast furnaces including a fabrication drawing.
Improved gear designs decreased wear and increased efficiency. Mathematical gear designs were developed in the mid 17th century. French mathematician and engineer Desargues designed and constructed the first mill with epicycloidal teeth ca. 1650. In the 18th century involute gears, another mathematical derived design, came into use. Involute gears are better for meshing gears of different sizes than epicycloidal. Gear cutting machines came into use in the 18th century.
Industrial revolution
The Newcomen steam engine was first used, to pump water from a mine, in 1712. John Smeaton introduced metal gears and axles to water wheels in the mid to last half of the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution started mainly with textile machinery, such as the spinning jenny (1764) and water frame (1768).
Demand for metal parts used in textile machinery led to the invention of many machine tools in the late 1700s until the mid-1800s. After the early decades of the 19th century, iron increasingly replaced wood in gearing and shafts in textile machinery. In the 1840s self acting machine tools were developed. Machinery was developed to make nails ca. 1810. The Fourdrinier paper machine for continuous production of paper was patented in 1801, displacing the centuries-old hand method of making individual sheets of paper.
One of the first mechanical devices used in agriculture was the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull around 1700. The seed drill allowed more uniform spacing of seed and planting depth than hand methods, increasing yields and saving valuable seed. In 1817, the first bicycle was invented and used in Germany. Mechanized agriculture greatly increased in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with horse drawn reapers and horse powered threshing machines. By the late nineteenth century steam power was applied to threshing and steam tractors appeared. Internal combustion began being used for tractors in the early twentieth century. Threshing and harvesting was originally done with attachments for tractors, but in the 1930s independently powered combine harvesters were in use.
In the mid to late 19th century, hydraulic and pneumatic devices were able to power various mechanical actions, such as positioning tools or work pieces. Pile drivers and steam hammers are examples for heavy work. In food processing, pneumatic or hydraulic devices could start and stop filling of cans or bottles on a conveyor. Power steering for automobiles uses hydraulic mechanisms, as does practically all earth moving equipment and other construction equipment and many attachments to tractors. Pneumatic (usually compressed air) power is widely used to operate industrial valves.
Twentieth century
By the early 20th century machines developed the ability to perform more complex operations that had previously been done by skilled craftsmen. An example is the glass bottle making machine developed 1905. It replaced highly paid glass blowers and child labor helpers and led to the mass production of glass bottles.
After 1900 factories were electrified, and electric motors and controls were used to perform more complicated mechanical operations. This resulted in mechanized processes to manufacture almost all goods.
Categories
In manufacturing, mechanization replaced hand methods of making goods. Prime movers are devices that convert thermal, potential or kinetic energy into mechanical work. Prime movers include internal combustion engines, combustion turbines (jet engines), water wheels and turbines, windmills and wind turbines and steam engines and turbines. Powered transportation equipment such as locomotives, automobiles and trucks and airplanes, is a classification of machinery which includes sub classes by engine type, such as internal combustion, combustion turbine and steam. Inside factories, warehouses, lumber yards and other manufacturing and distribution operations, material handling equipment replaced manual carrying or hand trucks and carts.
In mining and excavation, power shovels replaced picks and shovels. Rock and ore crushing had been done for centuries by water-powered trip hammers, but trip hammers have been replaced by modern ore crushers and ball mills.
Bulk material handling systems and equipment are used for a variety of materials including coal, ores, grains, sand, gravel and wood products.
Construction equipment includes cranes, concrete mixers, concrete pumps, cherry pickers and an assortment of power tools.
Powered machinery
Powered machinery today usually means either by electric motor or internal combustion engine. Before the first decade of the 20th century powered usually meant by steam engine, water or wind.
Many of the early machines and machine tools were hand powered, but most changed over to water or steam power by the early 19th century.
Before electrification, mill and factory power was usually transmitted using a line shaft. Electrification allowed individual machines to each be powered by a separate motor in what is called unit drive. Unit drive allowed factories to be better arranged and allowed different machines to run at different speeds. Unit drive also allowed much higher speeds, which was especially important for machine tools.
A step beyond mechanization is automation. Early production machinery, such as the glass bottle blowing machine (ca. 1890s), required a lot of operator involvement. By the 1920s fully automatic machines, which required much less operator attention, were being used.
Military usage
The term is also used in the military to refer to the use of tracked armoured vehicles, particularly armoured personnel carriers, to move troops that would otherwise have marched or ridden trucks into combat. In military terminology, mechanized refers to ground units that can fight from vehicles, while motorized refers to units that go to battle in vehicles but then dismount and fight without them. Thus, a towed artillery unit is considered motorized while a self-propelled one is mechanized.
Mechanical vs human labour
When we compare the efficiency of a labourer, we see that he has an efficiency of about 1%-5.5% (depending on whether he uses arms, or a combination of arms and legs). Internal combustion engines mostly have an efficiency of about 20%, although large diesel engines, such as those used to power ships, may have efficiencies of nearly 50%. Industrial electric motors have efficiencies up to the low 90% range, before correcting for the conversion efficiency of fuel to electricity of about 35%.
When we compare the costs of using an internal combustion engine to a worker to perform work, we notice that an engine can perform more work at a comparative cost. 1 liter of fossil fuel burnt with an IC engine equals about 50 hands of workers operating for 24 hours or 275 arms and legs for 24 hours.
In addition, the combined work capability of a human is also much lower than that of a machine. An average human worker can provide work good for around 0,9 hp (2.3 MJ per hour) while a machine (depending on the type and size) can provide for far greater amounts of work. For example, it takes more than one and a half hour of hard labour to deliver only one kWh - which a small engine could deliver in less than one hour while burning less than one litre of petroleum fuel. This implies that a gang of 20 to 40 men will require a financial compensation for their work at least equal to the required expended food calories (which is at least 4 to 20 times higher). In most situations, the worker will also want compensation for the lost time, which is easily 96 times greater per day. Even if we assume the real wage cost for the human labour to be at US $1.00/day, an energy cost is generated of about $4.00/kWh. Despite this being a low wage for hard labour, even in some of the countries with the lowest wages, it represents an energy cost that is significantly more expensive than even exotic power sources such as solar photovoltaic panels (and thus even more expensive when compared to wind energy harvesters or luminescent solar concentrators).
Levels of mechanization
For simplification, one can study mechanization as a series of steps. Many students refer to this series as indicating basic-to-advanced forms of mechanical society.
hand/muscle power
hand-tools
powered hand-tools, e.g. electric-controlled
powered tools, single functioned, fixed cycle
powered tools, multi-functioned, program controlled
powered tools, remote-controlled
powered tools, activated by work-piece (e.g.: coin phone)
measurement
selected signaling control, e.g. hydro power control
performance recording
automated machine action altered through measurement
segregation/rejection according to measurement
selection of appropriate action cycle
correcting performance after operation
correcting performance during operation
See also
Assembly line
Bulk materials handling
Industrialisation
Newly industrialized country
References
Further reading
Secondary sector of the economy
Agricultural machinery
Armoured warfare
Machinery
Industrial history | wiki |
The Naughtiest Girl Keeps a Secret (1999) is the first of a continuation of Enid Blyton's The Naughtiest Girl series by Anne Digby. The series follows four books first written by Enid Blyton in the 1940s, continuing Elizabeth Allen's adventures at Whyteleafe School. Elizabeth is still in the first form.
The Naughtiest Girl Keeps a Secret is about Elizabeth's struggle to keep friend John's secret about planning to win a local gardening competition.
1999 British novels
British children's novels
English novels
Novels set in boarding schools
Hodder & Stoughton books
1999 children's books | wiki |
Symbolism or symbolist may refer to:
Arts
Symbolism (arts), a 19th-century movement rejecting Realism
Symbolist movement in Romania, symbolist literature and visual arts in Romania during the late 19th and early 20th centuries
Russian symbolism, the Russian branch of the symbolist movement in European art
Symbol, something that represents, stands for or suggests an idea, belief, action, or entity
Color symbolism, the use of colors within various cultures to express a variety of symbolic meanings
Religion
Religious symbol, an iconic representation of a religion or religious concept
Buddhist symbolism, the use of Buddhist art to represent certain aspects of dharma
Christian symbolism, the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity
Symbols of Islam, the use of symbols in Islamic literature, art and architecture
Jewish symbolism, a visible religious token of the relation between God and man
Science
Symbolic anthropology, the study of cultural symbols and how those symbols can be interpreted to better understand a particular society
Symbolic system, a system of interconnected symbolic meanings
Solar symbol, a symbol which represents the Sun in psychoanalysis, symbolism, semiotics, or other fields
See also
Symbolic representation (disambiguation)
Symbolic (disambiguation)
Symbology (disambiguation)
Symbol (disambiguation)
Realism (arts)
Naturalism (arts)
Representationalism | wiki |
Steward may refer to:
Positions or roles
Steward (office), a representative of a monarch
Steward (Methodism), a leader in a congregation and/or district
Steward, a person responsible for supplies of food to a college, club, or other institution
Communion steward, a position in the local church responsible for the distribution of the Eucharistic elements
Horse show steward
Steward, an official in horse, greyhound racing or car racing
Steward, another term for majordomo
Steward, an older term for a flight attendant
A member of the Steward's Department of a ship, responsible for preparation of food or caring for living quarters
Steward, United States Navy rate prior to 1975, now Culinary Specialist (US Navy)
Union steward, a labor union official, also known as a shop steward
Wine steward or sommelier
Steward, a person who assists with crowd control
Steward, a junior officer of a Masonic Lodge
People
Steward (surname)
Steward Ceus (born 1987), footballer
J. Steward Davis (1890-after 1928), American lawyer and political activist
Schools
Steward School, a private school in Richmond, Virginia, United States
Stewards Academy, a secondary school in Harlow, Essex, England
The Stewards Society, a collegiate secret society at Georgetown University
Geography
Steward, Illinois, United States, a village
Steward Creek, a stream in Minnesota
Other uses
15371 Steward, an asteroid
Steward Health Care System, a health care organization in New England
Steward Observatory, department of astronomy, University of Arizona
Stewards (paramilitary organization), a wing of the British Union of Fascists
See also
Osbern the Steward, 11th century steward of two Dukes of Normandy
Steward's Lodge, official residence of the taoiseach of Ireland
Stewards of Gondor, rulers from J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium of Middle-earth
High Steward (disambiguation)
Stewards' Cup (disambiguation)
Stewardship
Stewart (disambiguation)
Stuart (disambiguation) | wiki |
Bead stringing is the putting of beads on string.
It can range from simply sliding a single bead onto any thread-like medium (string, silk thread, leather thong, thin wire, multi-stranded beading wire, or a soft, flexible wire) to complex creations that have multiple strands or interwoven levels. The choice of stringing medium can be an important point in the overall design, since string-type mediums might be subject to unwanted stretching if the weight of the beads is considerable. Similarly, certain bead types with sharp edges, such as hollow metal beads or some varieties of stone or glass, might abrade the string and cause the strand to eventually break.
The simplest design is a single bead centered as a focal point on the string medium. The ends of the string can be simply knotted together or components of a clasp may be attached to each end.
Next in complexity would be stringing multiple beads onto a single strand. Here alone are numerous opportunities for adding elements to the design concept. All the beads might be identical. The beads might be varied (in shape, color, type or any combination thereof) and used either in a random assortment or in a deliberate repeating pattern. Items not strictly defined as beads, such as pendants or "drops", might be placed within the strand to serve as focal points or accent elements in the design.
Knotting is a next level of proficiency in creating strands. Here the stringing medium (traditionally silk thread or another similar, synthetic medium) has knots tied into it as a means of separating the individual beads from each other. The traditional strand of pearls is a well-known example of this technique. Pearls are threaded onto silk, and a knot is tied between each one to not only space them for greater individual prominence but to also keep them from rubbing directly against each other and risking the abrasion of the nacre that gives them their luster. This classic design can be varied by adding or using other varieties of beads or varying the number and placement of knots used.
Multiple strands can be created using either the simple stringing or the knotting technique. Here, depending on the overall design, more planning may be called for. If the bead pattern is random, the only concern is that one strand be sized shorter than the next, so they will all lie flat and not interfere with each other when worn or displayed. However, if a specific repeating pattern is planned, then careful planning will be required so that the placement of matching portions of the pattern between the strands is aligned properly. A beading board, generally a flat panel with measured curved indentations in several staggered lengths, is a useful tool for spacing the beads to work out the desired pattern. Once the design has been worked out, joining the strands together might require special multiple-strand clasp fixtures unless there is a single knotting point or specific design element that will accommodate it.
There is another way of using the smallest size of beads which is naive and in Pakistan it is called Motikaari (an Urdu word for "beadwork"). It is a medium for artistic expression e.g. calligraphy or portraiture by arranging patterns of smallest size of beads of different textures and hues in the length of adjoined strings.
Motikaari is a craft as well as an art. The craftsperson/artist who work on motikaari is called 'Motikaar'. The method of making a pattern involves three stages.
The first stage in this art form is to prepare a desired pattern on paper. Then it is pasted on a flat panel hardboard sheet. Preparation of hardboard sheet is the second important stage of the work. In the third stage, the beads of different colors are strung together according to the sketched pattern into the thread with the help of needle in the form of independent but parallel columns of strings. (This method discovered by Motikaar Malik Nisar Ahmed of Pakistan is the simplest and easiest so far. Malik Nisar Ahmed claimed to be the creator of this form of bead stringing as he made countless items of Motikaari compared to anybody else in the world. He is the member of Pakistan National Council of the Arts (PNCA).)
Finally, after the consummation of the artistic pattern, it is removed from the hardboard so that it can be displayed in the shape of hanging strings of beads.
Among the types of wire used for bead stringing, tiger tail wire is the most common.
References
Beadwork | wiki |
An analog sampled filter an electronic filter that is a hybrid between an analog and a digital filter. The input is an analog signal, and usually stored in capacitors. The time domain is discrete, however. Distinct analog samples are shifted through an array of holding capacitors as in a bucket brigade. Analog adders and amplifiers do the arithmetic in the signal domain, just as in an analog computer.
Note that these filters are subject to aliasing phenomena just like a digital filter, and anti-aliasing filters will usually be required. See .
Companies such as Linear Technology and Maxim produce integrated circuits that implement this functionality. Filters up to the 8th order may be implemented using a single chip. Some are fully configurable; some are pre-configured, usually as low-pass filters.
Due to the high filter order that can be achieved in an easy and stable manner, single chip analog sampled filters are often used for implementing anti-aliasing filters for digital filters. The analog sampled filter will in its turn need yet another anti-aliasing filter, but this can often be implemented as a simple 1st order low-pass analog filter consisting of one series resistor and one capacitor to ground.
Linear filters
Electronic circuits | wiki |
Nokia C5 can refer to
Nokia C5-00, a smartphone with a regular telephone keypad and a screen size of 2.2 inch (5.6 cm).
Nokia C5-03, a touchscreen smartphone with WLAN and a screen size of 3.2 inch (8.1 cm), announced in October 2010.
Nokia C5 Endi, an Android smartphone and a screen size of 6.5 inch (16.5 cm), announced in May 2020. | wiki |
The triangular boxfish (Tetrosomus concatenatus) is one of four fish species in the genus Tetrosomus in the boxfish family. It reaches a maximum length of .
Distribution
This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific oceans. It ranges from East Africa to southern Japan and New Caledonia.
References
Smith, M.M., 1986. Ostraciidae. p. 890-893. In M.M. Smith and P.C. Heemstra (eds.) Smiths' sea fishes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Ostraciidae
Fish described in 1785
Fish of the Pacific Ocean
Fish of the Indian Ocean | wiki |
LWW may refer to:
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, a fantasy novel by C.S. Lewis
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, an academic and professional medical publisher
Lincoln-Way West High School, a high school in New Lenox, Illinois | wiki |
East Columbus may refer to:
East Columbus, Ohio
East Columbus, Georgia
East Columbus, Indiana | wiki |
Ivory tower refers to a world or atmosphere where intellectuals engage in pursuits that are disconnected from the practical concerns of everyday life.
Ivory Tower or The Ivory Tower may also refer to:
Ivory Tower (Antarctica), a peak in Antarctica
The Ivory Tower, an unfinished novel by Henry James
Films and entertainment
The Ivory Tower (1993 film), a 1993 German film directed by Matthias Drawe
Ivory Tower (1998 film), a 1998 American drama
Ivory Tower (2010 film), a 2010 Canadian independent film co-written by Gonzales and Céline Sciamma
Ivory Tower (2014 film), a 2014 American documentary film
"The Ivory Tower" (Boardwalk Empire)
Ivory Tower (Harvard Undergraduate Television), a long-running college soap opera
Ivory Tower (company), a French video game developer
Music
"Ivory Tower" (1956 song), a popular song written by Jack Fulton and Lois Steele
"Ivory Tower", the B-side to the title song "The NeverEnding Story" from the film
"Ivory Tower" (Van Morrison song), 1986
"Ivory Tower" (Anna Abreu song), 2007
The Ivory Tower (album), an album by Takota
"Ivory Tower", a song from the 2003 album Ghost of a Rose by Blackmore's Night
"Ivory Tower", a song from the 2017 album A Fever Dream by Everything Everything | wiki |
La 1-méthylhypoxanthine est une base nucléique purique dérivée de l'hypoxanthine par méthylation. Elle est présente naturellement dans certains ARN de transfert sous forme de 1-méthylinosine.
Notes et références
Base nucléique
Purine | wiki |
Brandon McDonald may refer to:
Brandon McDonald (gridiron football) (born 1985), American football cornerback
Brandon McDonald (soccer) (born 1986), American soccer player | wiki |
.223 usually refers to the .223 Remington cartridge.
It may also refer to:
.223 MINISAS, a cartridge for close-quarter battle use
.223 Winchester Super Short Magnum, a cartridge based on the Winchester Short Magnum case
.223 Wylde chamber, a hybrid rifle chamber designed to allow .22 caliber barrels to safely fire either .223 Remington or 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition
See also
223 (number) | wiki |
The 2016 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association's (NBA) 2015–16 season and conclusion of the 2016 playoffs. The Eastern Conference champion Cleveland Cavaliers defeated the defending NBA champion and Western Conference champion Golden State Warriors four games to three in a rematch of the previous year's Finals. It was the 14th rematch of the previous NBA Finals in history, and the second straight rematch in back-to-back years, as the Miami Heat and San Antonio Spurs played each other in 2013 and 2014. The series was played from June 2 to 19.
The Golden State Warriors gained home-court advantage based on their record-breaking league-best record (73–9). At one point, the Warriors led 3–1 but the Cavaliers won the next three games to win their first championship in franchise history and end the Cleveland sports curse. They are also the first team in Finals history to overcome a 3–1 deficit and the fourth team in NBA history to win the series after losing the first two games. This also marked the first time since 1978 that Game 7 was won by the road team.
LeBron James was named the Finals MVP (MVP), receiving all 11 Finals MVP votes, and was also the first player in NBA history to lead all players in a playoff series in points, rebounds, assists, steals and blocks.
Background
Cleveland Cavaliers
This was Cleveland's second consecutive trip to the NBA Finals, and third overall, seeking to win their first ever NBA championship. This would also be the sixth consecutive NBA Finals appearance for LeBron James, the most for any player not part of the 1960s Boston Celtics, and the fifth for James Jones (who technically qualified for the 2011 NBA Finals along with James, but did not play).
Despite holding the best record in the Eastern Conference at 30–11 midway through the season on January 22, 2016, the Cavaliers fired head coach David Blatt. Associate head coach Tyronn Lue was then promoted to replace Blatt. General Manager David Griffin cited "a lack of fit with our personnel and our vision" as the reason for Blatt's firing.
Cleveland finished the regular season with a 57–25 record, capturing the Central Division title and the top playoff seed in the Eastern Conference. They then advanced to the Finals after sweeping both the Detroit Pistons in the first round and the Atlanta Hawks in the second round, and defeating the Toronto Raptors in the Eastern Conference Finals in six games. The Cavaliers were the first team in history to go to two consecutive
NBA Finals with rookie head coaches.
Golden State Warriors
This was the defending NBA Champion Golden State Warriors' second consecutive trip to the NBA Finals and eighth overall. The Warriors broke the record set by the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls by finishing the regular season with a 73–9 record. In addition, the Warriors broke numerous other NBA records, including most road wins (34), best start to a season (24–0) and longest regular-season home win streak (54 dating back to the 2014–15 season). They also became the first team to make over 1,000 three-pointers in the regular-season with 1,077, eclipsing the previous record of 933 set by the 2014–15 Houston Rockets.
The Warriors were led by Stephen Curry, who was named the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) for the second straight season. The Splash Brothers twosome of Curry and Klay Thompson were the highest scoring duo in the league, combining to average 52.2 points per game. Head coach Steve Kerr missed the first 43 regular season games because of a back injury. Assistant coach Luke Walton served as interim head coach during Kerr's absence and he led the Warriors to a 39–4 start.
In the playoffs, the Warriors defeated the Houston Rockets in the first round and the Portland Trail Blazers in the conference semifinals in five games each. Curry missed six games in the first two rounds due to injuries. He missed two games after tweaking his right ankle in Game 1 against the Rockets. In his first game back in Game 4, he sprained his right knee and was sidelined for two weeks, missing four games. In Game 7 of the Western Conference Finals, the Warriors defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder, 96–88, becoming only the 10th team in NBA history to overcome a 3–1 series deficit, and advancing to a second straight NBA Finals for the first time since 1947 and 1948.
Road to the Finals
Regular season series
The Warriors won the regular season series 2–0.
Series summary
Game summaries
''All times are in Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−4)
Game 1
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 104–89 in Game 1 to take a 1–0 series lead. The Cavaliers led 68–67 before the Warriors broke the game open with a 29–9 run spanning the third and fourth quarters to take a 96–76 lead. Cleveland cut the deficit to within eleven points at 98–87 after an 11–2 run, but Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson nailed back-to-back three-pointers to essentially seal the victory for Golden State. While Curry and Thompson had a rough night combining for 20 points, the Warriors got a lift from its bench, outscoring the Cavaliers' bench 45–10. Shaun Livingston scored his playoff-career high 20 points to lead Golden State, while Kyrie Irving led all scorers with 26 points. LeBron James fell one assist shy of a triple-double (23 points, 12 rebounds, 9 assists).
Game 2
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 110–77 in Game 2 to take a 2–0 series lead. Cleveland took a 28–22 lead about two minutes into the second quarter, but Golden State answered with a 20–2 run while outscoring the Cavs 30–16 the rest of the period. During the run, the Cavaliers' Kevin Love suffered a head injury while attempting to grab a defensive rebound. Love stayed throughout the remainder of the period but did not play the second half. The Warriors continued to dominate Cleveland from there, outscoring the Cavaliers 58–33 in the final two quarters. Draymond Green led all scorers with 28 points, including 5 of 8 from three-point range. Curry and Klay Thompson added 18 and 17 points, respectively, while drilling four threes each.
With their victory, the Warriors posted the highest winning margin in the first two Finals games with a 48-point differential. James led the Cavs with 19 points, 8 rebounds, 9 assists and 4 steals, surpassing John Stockton for fourth on the all-time playoff steals list. However, he also committed 7 turnovers in the loss.
Game 3
The Cavaliers avenged their lopsided defeat to Golden State by routing the Warriors 120–90 in Game 3 to cut the series deficit to 2–1. The Cavaliers scored the game's first nine points en route to outscoring the Warriors 33–16 after one quarter. Golden State rallied to trim Cleveland's lead as low as seven points on a couple of occasions before the Cavs settled for a 51–43 halftime lead. In the second half, Cleveland continued to extend their lead and outscored Golden State 69–47. Love did not play due to a concussion. James led all scorers with 32 points. Irving added 30 points for the Cavs. Curry led the Warriors with 19 points, while drilling four threes. Harrison Barnes also contributed 18 points in 33 minutes of play.
Game 4
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 108–97 in Game 4 to take a 3–1 series lead. After averaging just 16 points in the first three games of the series, Curry scored 38 and was 7 of 13 on three-pointers. The Warriors made 17 three-pointers, then an NBA record for a single Finals game. They made only 16 two-point field goals, the first time in Finals history a team made more shots from three-point range. Klay Thompson added 25 points and four three-pointers for Golden State. It was the Warriors' 88th win of the season, which broke the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls record of 87 for most wins in an NBA season (regular-season and postseason combined).
Green and James had to be separated in the closing minutes of the game, when Green fell to the ground and James stepped over him.
Feeling disrespected, Green swung his arm and appeared to make contact with James' groin.
Game 5
The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 112–97 in Game 5 to narrow the Warriors' series lead to 3–2. James and Irving each scored 41 points to become the first teammates in Finals history to score 40 or more in the same game. James also added 16 rebounds, 7 assists, 3 steals and 3 blocks, whilst Irving had 6 assists of his own. After Game 4, Green was assessed a Flagrant Foul 1 for his contact with James that was ruled "unnecessary" and "retaliatory", and James was given a technical foul for taunting. Having accumulated his fourth flagrant foul point in the playoffs, Green was suspended for Game 5, becoming the first player to be suspended from playing in a Finals game since Jerry Stackhouse in 2006. Green watched the game from a luxury box in the nearby Oakland Alameda Coliseum, where the Oakland Athletics were also playing a game at the same time, hosting the Texas Rangers.
Warriors center Andrew Bogut suffered a season-ending injury to his left knee in the second half when he jumped to block a layup attempt by Cavs guard J. R. Smith and came down awkwardly on Smith.
Game 6
The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 115–101 in Game 6 to even the series 3–3. The Cavaliers scored the game's first eight points en route to outscoring the Warriors 31–11 after one quarter. Golden State rallied to trim Cleveland's lead as low as eight points on a couple of occasions before the Cavs settled for a 59–43 halftime lead, with Tristan Thompson having his best performance of the series, registering a double-double in the first half alone. In the second half, Cleveland continued to extend their lead and tied the series. LeBron James led the Cavs with a historic performance of 41 points, 11 assists, 8 rebounds, 4 steals and 3 blocks whilst only committing 1 turnover. Kyrie Irving added 23 points, while Tristan Thompson had 16 rebounds for the Cavaliers. Stephen Curry led the Warriors with 30 points, drilling six threes, and Klay Thompson added 25 points. Back from suspension, Green was held to just eight points on 3–7 shooting.
James scored 18 straight points for Cleveland from the end of the third quarter to the 7:00 mark of the fourth. Late in the game with the Cavaliers up by 13, he blocked a Curry shot from behind, and afterward had some words for him. With 4:22 left, Curry received his sixth foul and fouled out of the game. He then threw his mouthpiece into the stands in frustration, resulting in a technical foul and his ejection from the game. Curry was the first MVP to foul out of an NBA Finals game since Shaquille O'Neal in 2000. The Cavaliers became the third team to fall behind 3–1 and force Game 7 (and the first in 50 years). James was the first player to have consecutive 40-point games in the Finals since, coincidentally, Shaquille O'Neal in the 2000 Finals. Following the game, Curry and Warriors head coach Steve Kerr were fined $25,000 each for their actions and public officiating criticism.
Game 7
This season's Finals marked the first time in NBA history in which both teams entered Game 7 with the same total points scored through six games (610 points each). The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 93–89 in Game 7 to win the series 4–3. Game 7 was close, with 20 lead changes and 11 ties. This was the only game in the series to have a final margin of fewer than 10 points. At halftime, the Warriors were ahead 49–42. In the second half, the Cavaliers outscored the Warriors 51–40 as the Warriors failed to score a basket during the last 4:39 of the game. In the closing minutes of the 4th quarter, LeBron James delivered what became known as "The Block" on a layup attempt by Andre Iguodala with the score tied at 89 and 1:50 remaining in the game. Kyrie Irving made a go-ahead 3-point field goal over Stephen Curry to give Cleveland a 92–89 lead with 0:53 remaining in the game. Before Kyrie Irving's 3-point field goal, both teams were tied at 699 points scored apiece in this series. Immediately after Irving's 3-pointer, Golden State brought the ball up-court, opting not to call a timeout, and although Golden State got a preferred switch and matchup of Curry on Kevin Love, Love made arguably "the biggest defensive stop of the entire NBA season", and forced Curry into a contested 3-pointer, which he missed. After LeBron James hurt his right wrist on a dunk attempt in which he was fouled by Draymond Green, he virtually clinched the title for the Cavaliers by making one of two free throws, putting them 4 points ahead with only 10.6 seconds left in the game. The Cavaliers fouled Draymond Green with 6.5 seconds remaining. Stephen Curry received the ensuing inbounds pass, pump faked and shot a three-pointer over Cavaliers guard Iman Shumpert. The attempt missed, and was rebounded by Marreese Speights of the Warriors who then missed a three-point attempt as time expired. Draymond Green put up his best performance of the Finals, leading all scorers with 32 points, including 6 of 8 from three-point range to go along with 15 rebounds and 9 assists. Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson added 17 and 14 points, respectively. LeBron James led all Cavaliers with 27 points and became only the third player ever in NBA history to record a triple double in an NBA Finals Game 7 by adding 11 assists and 11 rebounds. Kyrie Irving added 26 points for Cleveland.
The Cavaliers became the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3–1 series deficit to win the NBA Finals. They became the first NBA Champion to clinch all their playoff series on the road since the 1999 San Antonio Spurs, as well as the first road team to win a Finals Game 7 since the 1978 Washington Bullets. The Cavaliers won their first championship in franchise history, ending a 52-year pro sports championship drought for the city of Cleveland (whose previous victory was when the 1964 Cleveland Browns defeated the Baltimore Colts in the NFL Championship game), as well as 26-year drought for the State of Ohio (whose previous championship was when the 1990 Cincinnati Reds defeated the Oakland Athletics in the World Series). LeBron James was named the unanimous Finals MVP, becoming only the fifth player in NBA history to earn the award three times or more. He also was the overall leader in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks during the series, a feat that had never been accomplished in an NBA playoff series. Tyronn Lue became the 14th coach to win an NBA championship as a head coach and player.
This also marked the first time an NBA Finals went to a Game 7 under the 2-2-1-1-1 format since it was reinstated in 2014.
On July 13, Game 7 of the 2016 NBA Finals received the 2016 ESPY award for Best Game.
Rosters
Cleveland Cavaliers
Golden State Warriors
Player statistics
Cleveland Cavaliers
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 0 || 7.6 || .263 || .167 || .833 || 0.5 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 2.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 4 || 0 || 8.3 || .000 || .000 || 1.000 || 0.8 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.5 || 0.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 39.0 || .468 || .405 || .939 || 3.9 || 3.9 || 2.1 || 0.7 || 27.1
|-! style="background:#FDE910;"
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 41.7 || .494 || .371 || .721 || 11.3 || 8.9 || 2.6 || 2.3 || 29.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 2 || 24.0 || .516 || .167 || .636 || 5.3 || 0.4 || 1.3 || 0.1 || 5.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 0 || 3.0 || .500 || .000 || .800 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.2 || 1.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 5 || 0 || 4.0 || .000 || .000 || .250 || 0.4 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 5 || 26.3 || .362 || .263 || .706 || 6.8 || 1.3 || 0.7 || 0.3 || 8.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 1 || 0 || 3.0 || 1.000 || .000 || .000 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 4.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 5 || 0 || 5.0 || .333 || .000 || .750 || 1.6 || 0.0 || 0.6 || 0.2 || 1.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 0 || 18.3 || .304 || .267 || 1.000 || 1.6 || 0.1 || 0.1 || 0.3 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 37.3 || .400 || .356 || .667 || 2.7 || 1.6 || 1.4 || 0.3 || 10.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 32.3 || .636 || .000 || .533 || 10.1 || 0.7 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 10.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 0 || 4.8 || .333 || .200 || .000 || 0.5 || 0.2 || 0.5 || 0.0 || 1.5
Golden State Warriors
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 0 || 13.1 || .643 || .500 || .727 || 1.0 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 0.2 || 8.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 31.7 || .352 || .310 || .600 || 4.4 || 1.4 || 0.7 || 0.4 || 9.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 5 || 5 || 12.0 || .471 || .000 || .000 || 3.0 || 0.6 || 0.4 || 2.0 || 3.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 4 || 0 || 4.8 || .625 || .600 || .000 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 3.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 35.1 || .403 || .400 || .929 || 4.9 || 3.7 || 0.9 || 0.7 || 22.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 1 || 8.6 || .300 || .000 || .500 || 1.9 || 0.4 || 0.1 || 0.1 || 2.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 6 || 40.0 || .486 || .406 || .783 || 10.3 || 6.3 || 1.7 || 1.0 || 16.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 2 || 34.1 || .466 || .304 || .333 || 6.3 || 4.1 || 0.9 || 0.7 || 9.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 0 || 21.1 || .511 || .000 || .857 || 3.4 || 2.9 || 0.3 || 0.3 || 8.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 3 || 0 || 6.1 || 1.000 || .000 || .000 || 1.3 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 1.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 1 || 0 || 5.5 || .000 || .000 || .500 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 0.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 0 || 4.7 || .222 || .400 || 1.000 || 1.3 || 0.3 || 0.1 || 0.3 || 2.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 7 || 7 || 35.3 || .427 || .350 || .786 || 3.0 || 1.9 || 1.0 || 0.6 || 19.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| || 6 || 0 || 6.9 || .000 || .000 || .500 || 1.3 || 1.0 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 1.2
Broadcast
In the United States, the NBA Finals aired on ABC with Mike Breen as play-by-play commentator, and Jeff Van Gundy and Mark Jackson serving as color commentators. TNT's Craig Sager made an appearance for Game 6 as a sideline reporter, his first appearance at the NBA Finals, and his last game before he died later that year in December. ESPN Radio aired it as well and had Kevin Calabro and Hubie Brown as commentators. ESPN Deportes provided exclusive Spanish-language coverage of The Finals, with a commentary team of Álvaro Martín and Carlos Morales.
Aftermath
The Cavaliers and Warriors also met in the following two NBA Finals, the first time in any of North America's four major professional sports leagues that the same two teams met for the championship four years in a row. The Warriors, who added Kevin Durant in the 2016 offseason, defeated the Cavaliers in five games in and a four-game sweep in . Durant was named the Finals' MVP in both series.
The Warriors made it to a fifth consecutive Finals in , which they would lose to the Toronto Raptors in six games. Three years later, they made it to their sixth Finals in eight seasons and defeated the Boston Celtics in six games.
James left the Cavaliers in the 2018 offseason to join the Los Angeles Lakers. He would lead the Lakers to a title in and win Finals MVP that year. The Cavaliers did not return to the playoffs until the 2021-22 NBA season, when they qualified for the play-in tournament.
See also
Death Lineup
Cavaliers–Warriors rivalry
References
External links
Official website
2016 NBA Finals at Basketball-Reference.com
Finals
National Basketball Association Finals
NBA
NBA
2016 in sports in California
2016 in sports in Ohio
2010s in Oakland, California
2010s in Cleveland
NBA Finals
Basketball competitions in Oakland, California
Basketball competitions in Cleveland
ABS-CBN television specials | wiki |
Nan-e Shekari () is the name of a type of sweet that is prepared in the city of Kermanshah and is known as one of the souvenirs of this city. This sweet is so called because of the use of sugar to decorate it. The best type of Nan-e Shekari is baked with Kermanshahi oil.
Recipes
Eggs, flour, sugar powder, Kermanshahi oil or butter, brewed saffron, vanilla and cardamom are used to prepare the dough for this sweet. Sugar is also used to decorate sweets, which is why it is called "Nan-e Shekari" which means sugar bread. Confectionery workshops in Kermanshah bake Nan-e Shekari in the oven.
References
Iranian cuisine
Fried foods
Iranian breads | wiki |
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