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is a train station located in Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan.
Lines
Nishi-Nippon Railroad
Tenjin Ōmuta Line
Amagi Line
Platforms
Adjacent stations
References
Railway stations in Fukuoka Prefecture
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1924 | wiki |
A belly dancer is one who performs belly dance.
The phrase may also refer to:
"Belly Dancer" (Bananza), a single by R&B singer Akon
"Belly Dancer" (Kardinal Offishall song), a hip hop song
The Belly Dancer, a 2001 Turkish drama film
"Belly Dancer", a song by Joe Satriani from the album Strange Beautiful Music | wiki |
Crisis loans were a feature of the social security system in the United Kingdom. They were part of the Social Fund and were abolished by the Welfare Reform Act 2012.
Social Fund (UK) | wiki |
This is a list of all lighthouses in the U.S. state of New Jersey as identified by the United States Coast Guard.
References
New Jersey
New Jersey transportation-related lists
Lighthouses | wiki |
Hold On Tight may refer to:
Albums
Hold On Tight (Solomon Burke and De Dijk album), by Solomon Burke and De Dijk, 2010
Hold On Tight, by Kevin Chase, 2011
Hold On Tight (Hey Monday album), by Hey Monday, 2008
Hold On Tight, by Sweet Comfort Band, 1980
Songs
"Hold On Tight" (Archie Roach song), 1997
"Hold On Tight" (Electric Light Orchestra song), 1981
"Hold On Tight" (R3hab and Conor Maynard song), 2018
"Hold On Tight" (Samantha Fox song), 1986
"Hold On Tight", by Britney Spears from Britney Jean
"Hold On Tight", by Marilyn
See also
Hold Tight (disambiguation)
Hold Me Tight (disambiguation) | wiki |
Seabirds are birds adapted to a marine life.
Seabird(s) or Sea bird(s) may also refer to:
In music and literature:
Seabird (band), an American rock band
"The Seabirds", a song by The Triffids from the album Born Sandy Devotional
"Seabirds" (song), an unreleased Pink Floyd song written for the soundtrack to More
Seabird (novel), a 1948 book by Holling Clancy Holling
"Seabird", a song by the Alessi Brothers from the 1976 album Alessi
Places:
Sea Bird Island (British Columbia)
Seabird, Western Australia
In ships and aircraft:
Sea Bird (ship), an 18th-century merchant ship
Seabird Half Rater, a classic sailing boat design
USS Sea Bird (1863), a schooner in the American Civil War
CSS Sea Bird, a steamer in the Confederate States Navy
Lakes Sea Bird, a two-seat floatplane built in 1912
Fleetwings Sea Bird, an American amphibious aircraft of the 1930s
Seabird Airlines, a Turkish airline
Other:
Sea-Bird, a Thoroughbred racehorse also known as Sea Bird, Sea-Bird II and Sea Bird II | wiki |
Never Grow Old è un greatest hits della cantante soul statunitense Aretha Franklin, pubblicato nel 1984 dalla Creative Sounds.
Tracce | wiki |
Celebrity Big Brother 2016 may refer to:
Celebrity Big Brother 17
Celebrity Big Brother 18 | wiki |
Man bites dog is an aphoristic journalism expression.
Man Bites Dog may also refer to:
Man Bites Dog (film), a 1992 Belgian mockumentary
Man Bites Dog (TV series), a 1999 Flemish TV series
"Man Bites Dog", a satirical column in The Irish Times (1971–1981) by Donal Foley
Man Bites Dog (company), a British-headquartered public relations consultancy
"Man Bites Dog", a song by Irving Berlin
See also
Dog Bites Man, a 2006 American comedy TV series | wiki |
The term switchboard, when used by itself, may refer to:
Telephone switchboard
Electrical controls:
Electric switchboard in industrial applications like electricity generation
Distribution board in residential and commercial applications
Printed circuit board
Mixing console
Switchboard, another term a helpline.
Switchboard of Miami, a nonprofit organization offering hotline, informational and referral services in Miami, Florida
Switchboard (UK), formerly known as the London Lesbian and Gay Switchboard, a helpline for the LGBT+ persons in the UK | wiki |
Punjab (; ) is a state in northern India. Forming part of the larger Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, the state is bordered by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh to the north and northeast, Haryana to the south and southeast, and Rajasthan to the southwest; by the Indian union territories of Chandigarh to the east and Jammu and Kashmir to the north. It shares an international border with Punjab, a province of Pakistan to the west. The state covers an area of 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 square miles), which is 1.53% of India's total geographical area, making it the 19th-largest Indian state by area out of 28 Indian states (20th largest, if UTs are considered). With over 27 million inhabitants, Punjab is the 16th-largest Indian state by population, comprising 23 districts. Punjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script, is the most widely spoken and the official language of the state. The main ethnic groups are the Punjabis, with Sikhs and Hindus as the dominant religious groups. The state capital is Chandigarh, a union territory and also the capital of the neighbouring state of Haryana. Three tributaries of the Indus, viz., Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi, flow through Punjab.
The history of Punjab has witnessed the migration and settlement of different tribes of people with different cultures and ideas, forming a melting pot of Punjabi civilisation. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in antiquity before recorded history until their decline around 1900 BCE. Punjab was enriched during the height of the Vedic period, but declined in predominance with the rise of the Mahajanapadas. The region formed the frontier of initial empires during antiquity including the Alexander's and Maurya empires. It was subsequently conquered by the Kushan Empire, Gupta Empire, and then Harsha's Empire. Punjab continued to be settled by nomadic people; including the Huna, Turkic and the Mongols. Circa 1000 CE, the Punjab came under the rule of Muslims and was part of the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, and Durrani Empire. Sikhism was founded in the 15th to 17th centuries by the Sikh Gurus in the Punjab and resulted in the formation of the Sikh Confederacy after the fall of the Mughal Empire and ensuing conflict with the Durrani Empire. This confederacy was united into the Sikh Empire in 1801 by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
The greater Punjab region was annexed by the British East India Company from the Sikh Empire in 1849. Following widespread religious violence in 1947, the Punjab Province of British India was divided along religious lines into West Punjab and East Punjab. West Punjab became part of a Muslim-majority Pakistan, while East Punjab became part of a Hindu-majority India. After the Punjabi Suba movement, Indian Punjab was reorganised on the basis of language on 1 November 1966. Haryanvi and Hindi-speaking southern and eastern areas were carved out as Haryana, while Pahari-speaking northern hilly regions were attached to Himachal Pradesh. The remaining, mostly Punjabi-speaking areas became the current state of Punjab. A separatist insurgency occurred in Punjab during the 1980s. At present, the economy of Punjab is the 15th-largest state economy in India with in gross domestic product and a per capita GDP of , ranking 17th amongst Indian states. Since independence, Punjab is predominantly an agrarian society. It is the ninth-highest ranking among Indian states in human development index. Punjab has bustling tourism, music, culinary, and film industries.
Etymology
History
Ancient period
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the Indus Valley Civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C. Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas. The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata. The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. The Gandharas, Kambojas, Trigartas, Andhra, Pauravas, Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab), Yaudheyas, and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra. According to DrFauja Singh and Dr.L.M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab." The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC, while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), centred primarily in the worship of Indra.
The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as King Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities. He (alongside Abisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family. When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in Udabhandapura, he was greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila, Omphis. Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused. This led Alexander to seek a face-off with Porus. Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown. The battle is thought to have resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.
Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who died soon after the battle. Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king". Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled the area northeast of Porus' kingdom.
After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE, Antipater became the new regent. According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus. The battle is historically significant because it resulted in the syncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries. The region was then divided between the Maurya Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 302 B.C.E. Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made Sagala (present-day Sialkot) the capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Menander is noted for having become a patron and convert to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. Greek influence in the region ended around 12 B.C.E. when the Punjab fell under the Sassanids.
Medieval period
Following the muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent at the beginning of the 8th century, Arab armies of the Umayyad Caliphate penetrated into South Asia introducing Islam into Punjab. In the ninth century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty emerged in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab and eastern Afghanistan. The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik. Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate ruled the Punjab for the next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, the Mamluks, Khalajis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis. A significant event in the late 15th century Punjab was the formation of Sikhism by Guru Nanak. The history of the Sikh faith is closely associated with the history of Punjab and the socio-political situation in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent in the 17th century.
The hymns composed by Guru Nanak were later collected in the Guru Granth Sahib, the central religious scripture of the Sikhs. The religion developed and evolved in times of religious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam. Mughal rulers of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—Guru Arjan (1563–1605) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)—after they refused to convert to Islam. The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect the freedom of conscience and religion, with members expressing the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī ('saint-soldier'). The lifetime of Guru Nanak coincided with the conquest of northern India by Babur and establishment of the Mughal Empire. Jahangir ordered the execution of Guru Arjun Dev, whilst in Mughal custody, for supporting his son Khusrau Mirza's rival claim to the throne. Guru Arjan Dev's death led to the sixth Guru Guru Hargobind to declare sovereignty in the creation of the Akal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar. Jahangir then jailed Guru Hargobind at Gwalior, but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The succeeding son of Jahangir, Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobind's declaration and after a series of assaults on Amritsar, forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Sivalik Hills. The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community to Anandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to install Ram Rai as new guru.
Modern period
The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at Lahore. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region. Contested by Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Sikhs, who expanded and established the Sikh empire in 1799 as the Mughals and Afghans weakened. The Cis-Sutlej states were a group of states in modern Punjab and Haryana states lying between the Sutlej River on the north, the Himalayas on the east, the Yamuna River and Delhi District on the south, and Sirsa District on the west. These states were ruled by the Sikh Misls. The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous Sikh misls. At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; Multan, also in Punjab; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time), it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire. The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over at its zenith.
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was established in Lahore as a direct representative of the Crown.
Colonial era
The Punjab was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. Although nominally part of the Bengal Presidency it was administratively independent. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, apart from Revolt led by Ahmed Khan Kharal and Murree rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful. In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Punjab came under the direct rule of Britain. Colonial rule had a profound impact on all areas of Punjabi life. Economically it transformed the Punjab into the richest farming area of India, socially it sustained the power of large landowners and politically it encouraged cross-communal co-operation amongst land owning groups. The Punjab also became the major centre of recruitment into the Indian Army. By patronising influential local allies and focusing administrative, economic and constitutional policies on the rural population, the British ensured the loyalty of its large rural population. Administratively, colonial rule instated a system of bureaucracy and measure of the law. The 'paternal' system of the ruling elite was replaced by 'machine rule' with a system of laws, codes, and procedures. For purposes of control, the British established new forms of communication and transportation, including post systems, railways, roads, and telegraphs. The creation of Canal Colonies in western Punjab between 1860 and 1947 brought 14 million acres of land under cultivation, and revolutionised agricultural practices in the region. To the agrarian and commercial class was added a professional middle class that had risen the social ladder through the use of the English education, which opened up new professions in law, government, and medicine. Despite these developments, colonial rule was marked by exploitation of resources. For the purpose of exports, the majority of external trade was controlled by British export banks. The Imperial government exercised control over the finances of Punjab and took the majority of the income for itself.
In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the indian independence movement. Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed. The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement. Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League. Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society. In March 1940, the All-India Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding the creation of a separate state from Muslim majority areas in British India. This triggered bitter protests by the Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab, who could not accept living in a Muslim Islamic state.
After the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947. During this period, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Punjabi Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India. The Sikhs later demanded a Punjabi-speaking Punjab state with an autonomous Sikh government.
Post-colonial era
During the colonial era, the various districts and princely states that made up Punjab Province were religiously eclectic, each containing significant populations of Punjabi Muslims, Punjabi Hindus, Punjabi Sikhs, Punjabi Christians, along with other ethnic and religious minorities. However, a major consequence of independence and the partition of Punjab Province in 1947 was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across province and region owing to the new international border that cut through the subdivision.
The demographic shift was captured when comparing decadal census data taken in 1941 and 1951 respectively, and was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.
Following independence, several small Punjabi princely states, including Patiala, acceded to the Union of India and were united into the PEPSU. In 1956 this was integrated with the state of East Punjab to create a new, enlarged Indian state called simply "Punjab". Punjab Day is celebrated across the state on 1 November every year marking the formation of a Punjabi language speaking state under the Punjab Reorganisation Act (1966).
In 1966, following Hindu and Sikh Punjabi demands, the Indian government divided Punjab into the state of Punjab and the Hindi majority-speaking states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.
From 1981 to 1995 the state suffered a 14-year-long insurgency. Problems began due to disputes between Punjabi Sikhs and the central government of the Republic of India. Tensions escalated throughout the early 1980s and eventually culminated with Operation Blue Star in 1984; an Indian Army operation aimed at the dissident Sikh community of Punjab. Shortly thereafter, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards. The decade that followed was noted for widespread inter-communal violence and accusations of genocide on the part of the Sikh community by the Indian government.
Geography
Punjab is in northwestern India and has a total area of . Punjab is bordered by Pakistan's Punjab province on the west, Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Himachal Pradesh on the northeast and Haryana and Rajasthan on the south. Most of Punjab lies in a fertile, alluvial plain with perennial rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system. A belt of undulating hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas. Its average elevation is above sea level, with a range from in the southwest to more than around the northeast border. The southwest of the state is semi-arid, eventually merging into the Thar Desert. Of the five Punjab rivers, three—Sutlej, Beas and Ravi—flow through the Indian state. The Sutlej and Ravi define parts of the international border with Pakistan.
The soil characteristics are influenced to a limited extent by the topography, vegetation and parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of the regional climatic differences. Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil types: southwestern, central, and eastern. Punjab falls under seismic zones II, III, and IV. Zone II is considered a low-damage risk zone; zone III is considered a moderate-damage risk zone; and zone IV is considered a high-damage risk zone.
Climate
The geography and subtropical latitudinal location of Punjab lead to large variations in temperature from month to month. Even though only limited regions experience temperatures below , ground frost is commonly found in the majority of Punjab during the winter season. The temperature rises gradually with high humidity and overcast skies. However, the rise in temperature is steep when the sky is clear and humidity is low.
The maximum temperatures usually occur in mid-May and June. The temperature remains above in the entire region during this period. Ludhiana recorded the highest maximum temperature at with Patiala and Amritsar recording . The maximum temperature during the summer in Ludhiana remains above for a duration of one and a half months. These areas experience the lowest temperatures in January. The sun rays are oblique during these months and the cold winds control the temperature at daytime.
Punjab experiences its minimum temperature from December to February. The lowest temperature was recorded at Amritsar () and Ludhiana stood second with . The minimum temperature of the region remains below for almost two months during the winter season. The highest minimum temperature of these regions in June is more than the daytime maximum temperatures experienced in January and February. Ludhiana experiences minimum temperatures above for more than two months. The annual average temperature in the entire state is approximately . Further, the mean monthly temperature range varies between in July to approximately in November.
Seasons
Punjab experiences three main seasons. They are:
Summer (mid-April to the end of June)
Monsoon (early July to the end of September)
Winter (early December to the end of February).
Apart from these three, the state experiences transitional seasons like:
Pre-summer season (March to mid-April): This is the period of transition between winter and summer.
Post-monsoon season (September to end of November): This is the period of transition between monsoon and winter seasons.
Summer
Punjab starts experiencing mildly hot temperatures in February. The actual summer season commences in mid-April and the heat continues till the end of August. High temperatures between May and August hover between 40 and 47 °C. The area experiences atmospheric pressure variations during the summer months. The atmospheric pressure of the region remains around 987 millibar during February and it reaches 970 millibar in June.
Monsoon
Punjab's rainy season begins in the first week of July as monsoon currents generated in the Bay of Bengal bring rain to the region. The monsoon lasts up to mid-September.
Winter
Temperature variation is minimal in January. The mean night and day temperatures fall to and , respectively.
Post-Monsoon transitional season
The monsoon begins to reduce by the second week of September. This brings a gradual change in climate and temperature. The time between October and November is the transitional period between monsoon and winter seasons. Weather during this period is generally temperate and dry.
Post-Winter transitional season
The effects of winter diminish by the first week of March. The hot summer season commences in mid-April. This period is marked by occasional showers with hail storms and squalls that cause extensive damage to crops. The winds remain dry and warm during the last week of March, commencing the harvest period.
Rainfall
Monsoon Rainfall
Monsoon season provides most of the rainfall for the region. Punjab receives rainfall from the monsoon current of the Bay of Bengal. This monsoon current enters the state from the southeast in the first week of July.
Winter Rainfall
The winter season remains very cool with temperatures falling below freezing at some places. Winter also brings in some western disturbances. Rainfall in the winter provides relief to the farmers as some of the winter crops in the region of Shivalik Hills are entirely dependent on this rainfall. As per meteorological statistics, the sub-Shivalik area receives more than of rainfall in the winter months.
Flora and fauna
The fauna of the area is rich, with 396 types of birds, 214 kinds of Lepidoptera, 55 varieties of fish, 20 types of reptiles, and 19 kinds of mammals. The state of Punjab has large wetland areas, bird sanctuaries that house numerous species of birds, and many zoological parks. Wetlands include the national wetland Hari-Ke-Pattan, the wetland of Kanjli, and the wetlands of Kapurthala Sutlej. Wildlife sanctuaries include the Harike in the district of Tarn Taran Sahib, the Zoological Park in Rupnagar, Chhatbir Bansar Garden in Sangrur, Aam Khas Bagh in Sirhind, Amritsar's famous Ram Bagh Palace, Shalimar Garden in Kapurthala, and the famous Baradari Garden in the city of Patiala.
Animals
A few of the rivers in Punjab have crocodiles. The extraction of silk from silkworms is another industry that flourishes in the state. Production of bee honey is done in some parts of Punjab. The southern plains are desert land; hence, camels can be seen. Buffaloes graze around the banks of rivers. The northeastern part is home to animals like horses. Wildlife sanctuaries have many more species of wild animals like the otter, wild boar, wildcat, fruit bat, hog deer, flying fox, squirrel, and mongoose. Naturally formed forests can be seen in the Shivalik ranges in the districts of Ropar, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur. Patiala is home to the Bir forest while the wetlands area in Punjab is home to the Mand forest. The local subspecies of blackbuck, A. c. rajputanae, is facing the risk of extirpation from the state.
Botanical gardens exist throughout Punjab. There is a zoological park and a tiger safari park, as well as three parks dedicated to deer.
The state bird is the northern goshawk (baz) (Accipiter gentilis), the state animal is the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the state aquatic animal is Indus river dolphin (Platanista minor), and the state tree is the shisham (Dalbergia sissoo).
Government and politics
Punjab is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy. Each of the states of India possesses a parliamentary system of government, with a ceremonial state Governor, appointed by the President of India on the advice of the central government. The head of government is an indirectly elected Chief Minister who is vested with most of the executive powers. The term length of the government is five years. The state legislature, the Vidhan Sabha, is the unicameral Punjab Legislative Assembly, with 117 members elected from single-seat constituencies. The current government was elected in the 2022 Assembly elections as Aam Aadmi Party won 92 out of 117 Assembly seats and Bhagwant Mann is the current Chief Minister. The state of Punjab is divided into five administrative divisions and twenty-three districts.
The capital of Punjab is Chandigarh, which also serves as the capital of Haryana and is thus administered separately as a Union Territory of India. The judicial branch of the state government is provided by the Punjab and Haryana High Court in Chandigarh.
The three major political parties in the state are the Aam Aadmi Party, a centrist to left wing party, the Shiromani Akali Dal, a Sikh right-wing Punjabiyat party and the Indian National Congress, a centrist catch all party. President's rule has been imposed in Punjab eight times so far, since 1950, for different reasons. In terms of the absolute number of days, Punjab was under the President's rule for 3,510 days, which is approximately 10 years. Much of this was in the 80s during the height of militancy in Punjab. Punjab was under the President's rule for five continuous years from 1987 to 1992.
Punjab state law and order is maintained by Punjab Police. Punjab police is headed by its DGP, Dinkar Gupta, and has 70,000 employees. It manages state affairs through 22 district heads known as SSP.
Administrative set-up
Punjab has 23 districts, which are geographically classified into Majha, Malwa, Doaba and Puadh regions, as under: -
Majha (4)
Amritsar
Gurdaspur
Pathankot
Tarn Taran
Doaba (4)
Hoshiarpur
Jalandhar
Kapurthala
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar
Malwa (12)
Barnala
Bathinda
Ferozepur
Fazilka
Faridkot
Ludhiana
Moga
Malerkotla
Mansa
Sri Muktsar Sahib
Patiala
Sangrur
Puadh (3)
SAS Nagar (Mohali)
Rupnagar
Fatehgarh Sahib
These districts are officially divided among 5 administrative divisions: Faridkot, Ferozepur, Jalandhar, Patiala and Ropar(created on 31 December 2010, which was a part of Patiala Division earlier).
Each district is under the administrative control of a District Collector. The districts are subdivided into 93 tehsils, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records comes under the administrative control of a Tehsildar. Each Tehsil consists of blocks which are total 150 in number. These blocks consist of revenue villages. There are total number of revenue villages in the state is 12,278. There are 23 Zila Parishads, 136 Municipal Committees and 22 Improvement Trusts looking after 143 towns and 14 cities of Punjab.
The capital city of the state is Chandigarh and largest city of the state is Ludhiana. Out of total population of Punjab, 37.48% people live in urban regions. The absolute urban population living in urban areas is 10,399,146 of which 5,545,989 are males and while remaining 4,853,157 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 37.48%. The major cities are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, Mohali, Patiala and Bathinda.
Economy
Punjab's GDP is . Punjab is one of the most fertile regions in India. The region is ideal for wheat-growing. Rice, sugar cane, fruits and vegetables are also grown. Indian Punjab is called the "Granary of India" or "India's bread-basket". It produces 10.26% of India's cotton, 19.5% of India's wheat, and 11% of India's rice. The Firozpur and Fazilka Districts are the largest producers of wheat and rice in the state. In worldwide terms, Indian Punjab produces 2% of the world's cotton, 2% of its wheat and 1% of its rice.
Punjab ranked first in GDP per capita amongst Indian states in 1981 and fourth in 2001, but has experienced slower growth than the rest of India, having the second-slowest GDP per capita growth rate of all Indian states and UTs between 2000 and 2010, behind only Manipur.
Agriculture
Punjab's economy has been primarily agriculture-based since the Green Revolution due to the presence of abundant water sources and fertile soils; most of the state lies in a fertile alluvial plain with many rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system. The largest cultivated crop is wheat. Other important crops are rice, cotton, sugarcane, pearl millet, maize, barley and fruit. Rice and wheat are doublecropped in Punjab with rice stalks being burned off over millions of acres prior to the planting of wheat. This widespread practice is polluting and wasteful. Despite covering only 1.53% of its geographical area, Punjab makes up for about 15-20% of India's wheat production, around 12% of its rice production, and around 5% of its milk production, being known as India's breadbasket. About 80%-95% of Punjab's agricultural land is owned by its Jat Sikh community despite it only forming 21% of the state's population. About 10% of Punjab's population is made up of migrants from poorer states to the southeast such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar who work as farm labourers.
Other major industries include financial services, the manufacturing of scientific instruments, agricultural goods, electrical goods, machine tools, textiles, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, fertilisers, bicycles, garments, and the processing of pine oil and sugar. Minerals and energy resources also contribute to Punjab's economy to a much lesser extent. Punjab has the largest number of steel rolling mill plants in India, which are in "Steel Town"—Mandi Gobindgarh in the Fatehgarh Sahib district. Punjab also has a large diaspora that is mostly settled in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada, numbers about 3 million, and sends back billions of USD in remittances to the state, playing a major role in its economy.
In Punjab the consumption of fertiliser per hectare is 223.46 kg as compared to 90 kg nationally. The state has been awarded the National Productivity Award for agriculture extension services for ten years, from 1991 to 1992 to 1998–99 and from 2001 to 2003–04. In recent years a drop in productivity has been observed, mainly due to falling fertility of the soil. This is believed to be due to excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides over the years. Another worry is the rapidly falling water table on which almost 90% of the agriculture depends; alarming drops have been witnessed in recent years. By some estimates, groundwater is falling by a meter or more per year.
According to the India State Hunger Index, Punjab has the lowest level of hunger in India.
Transport
Air
Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport in Amritsar, is the Primary Hub Airport and Gateway to Punjab, as the airport serves direct connectivity to key cities around the world, including London, Singapore, Moscow, Dubai, Birmingham among others.
Punjab has six civil airports including two international airports: Amritsar International Airport and Chandigarh International Airport at Mohali; and four domestic airports: Bathinda Airport, Pathankot Airport, Adampur Airport (Jalandhar) and Sahnewal Airport (Ludhiana). Apart from these 6 airports, there are 2 airfields at Beas (Amritsar) and Patiala which do not serve any commercial flight operations, as of now.
Railways
The Indian Railways' Northern Railway line runs through the state connecting most of the major towns and cities. The Shatabdi Express, India's fastest series of train connects Amritsar to New Delhi covering total distance of 449 km. Amritsar Junction Railway Station is the busiest junction of the state. Bathinda Junction holds the record of maximum railway lines from a railway junction in Asia. Punjab's major railway stations are Amritsar Junction (ASR), Ludhiana Junction (LDH), Jalandhar Cantonment (JRC), Firozpur Cantonment (FZR), Jalandhar City Junction (JUC), Pathankot Junction (PTK) and Patiala railway station (PTA). The railway stations of Amritsar is included in the Indian Railways list of 50 world-class railway stations.
Hyperloop
Punjab Government have signed a MoU ( Memorendum of Understanding) with Virgin Hyperloop One to explore the feasibility of running a Hyperloop between Amritsar and Chandigarh which could decrease the travel time between 2 cities from five hours by road to less than 30 minutes. It will have stops in Ludhiana and Jalandhar.
Roads
All the cities and towns of Punjab are connected by four-lane national highways. The Grand Trunk Road, also known as "NH1", connects Kolkata to Peshawar, passing through Amritsar and Jalandhar.
National highways passing through the state are ranked the best in the country with widespread road networks that serve isolated towns as well as the border region. Amritsar and Ludhiana are among several Indian cities that have the highest accident rates in India.
The following expressways will pass through Punjab:
Delhi-Amritsar-Katra Expressway from Delhi to Katra (National Expressway 5)
Amritsar-Jamnagar Expressway from Amritsar to Jamnagar
Pathankot-Ajmer Expressway from Pathankot to Ajmer
The following national highways connect major towns, cities and villages:
National Highway 1
National Highway 10
National Highway 15
National Highway 1A
National Highway 54
National Highway 20
National Highway 21
National Highway 22
National Highway 64
National Highway 70
National Highway 71
National Highway 95
Urban Rapid Transit System
There are also a bus rapid transit system Amritsar BRTS in the holy city of Amritsar, popularly known as 'Amritsar MetroBus'
Demographics
Punjab is home to 2.3% of India's population; with a density of 551 persons per km2. According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census, Punjab has a population of 27,743,338, making it the 16th most populated state in India. Of which male and female are 14,639,465 and 13,103,873 respectively. 32% of Punjab's population consists of Dalits. In the state, the rate of population growth is 13.9% (2011), lower than national average. Out of total population, 37.5% people live in urban regions. The total figure of population living in urban areas is 10,399,146 of which 5,545,989 are males and while remaining 4,853,157 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 37.5%.
Punjabi is the sole official language of Punjab and as of the 2011 census, is spoken as a first language by million people, or roughly 90% of the state's population. Hindi is natively spoken by million, or 7.9% of the population, Bagri has speakers (or 0.8%), while the remaining (or 1.5%) spoke other languages.
The 2011 Census of India found Scheduled Castes to account for 31.9% of the state's population. The Other Backward Classes have 31.3% population in Punjab. The exact population of Forward castes is not known as their data from Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011 is not made public as of 2019.
There has been a constant decline in the sex ratio of the state. The sex ratio in Punjab was 895 females per 1000 males, which was below the national average of 940. The literacy rate rose to 75.8% as per 2011 population census. Of that, male literacy stands at 80.4% while female literacy is at 70.7%. In actual numbers, total literates in Punjab stands at 18,707,137 of which males were 10,436,056 and females were 8,271,081.
Religion
Punjab has the largest population of Sikhs in India and is the only state where Sikhs form a majority, numbering around 16 million forming 57.7% of the state population. Hinduism is the second largest religion in the Indian state of Punjab numbering around 10.68 million and forming 38.5% of the state's population and a majority in Doaba region. Islam is followed by 535,489 accounting 1.9% of the population and are mainly concentrated in Malerkotla and Qadian. Other smaller segments of religions existing in Punjab are Christianity practised by 1.3%, Jainism practised by 0.2%, Buddhism practised by 0.1% and others 0.3%. Sikhs form a majority in 17 districts out of the total 23 districts while Hindus form the majority in 5 districts namely, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Fazilka and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts.
The Sikh shrine, Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib), is in the city of Amritsar, which houses the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, the topmost Sikh religious body. The Sri Akal Takht Sahib, which is within the Golden Temple complex, is the highest temporal seat of Sikhs. Of the five Takhts (Temporal Seats of religious authority) of Sikhism, three are in Punjab. These are Sri Akal Takht Sahib, Damdama Sahib and Anandpur Sahib. At least one Sikh Gurdwara can be found in almost every village in the state, as well as in the towns and cities (in various architectural styles and sizes).
Hindu Mandirs can be found all over Punjab with the Shri Durgiana Mandir in Amritsar, and the Shri Devi Talab Mandir in Jalandhar visited by many pilgrims every year. Due to the open nature of their religion, a segment of Punjabis who are Punjabi Hindus continue heterogeneous religious practices in spiritual kinship with Sikhism. This not only includes veneration of the Sikh Gurus in private practice but also visit to Sikh Gurdwaras in addition to Hindu Mandirs.
Education
Primary and Secondary education is mainly affiliated to Punjab School Education Board. Punjab is served by several institutions of higher education, including 23 universities that provide undergraduate and postgraduate courses in all the major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, veterinary science, and business. Reading and writing Punjabi language is compulsory till matriculation for every student failing which the schools attract fine or cancellation of licence.
Punjab Agricultural University is a leading institution globally for the study of agriculture and played a significant role in Punjab's Green Revolution in the 1960s–70s. Alumni of the Panjab University, Chandigarh include Manmohan Singh, the former Prime Minister of India, and Dr. Har Gobind Khorana, a biochemistry nobel laureate. One of the oldest institutions of medical education is the Christian Medical College, Ludhiana, which has existed since 1894. There is an existing gap in education between men and women, particularly in rural areas of Punjab. Of a total of 1 million 300 thousand students enrolled in grades five to eight, only 44% are women.
Punjab has 23 universities, of which ten are private, 9 are state, one is central and three are deemed universities. Punjab has 104,000 (104,000) engineering seats.
Punjab is also increasingly becoming known for education of yoga and naturopathy, with its student slowly adopting these as their career. The Board of Naturopathy and Yoga Science (BNYS) is located in the state. Regional College Dinanagar is the first college to be opened in Dinanagar Town.
Media
Daily Ajit, Jagbani and Punjabi Tribune are the largest-selling Punjabi newspapers while The Tribune is most selling English newspaper. A vast number of weekly, biweekly and monthly magazines are under publication in Punjabi. Other main newspapers are Daily Punjab Times, Rozana Spokesman, Nawan Zamana, etc.
Doordarshan is the broadcaster of the Government of India and its channel DD Punjabi is dedicated to Punjabi. Prominent private Punjabi channels include news channels like BBC Punjabi, ABP Sanjha, Global Punjab TV, News18 Punjab-Haryana-Himachal, Zee Punjab Haryana Himachal, PTC News and entertainment channels like Zee Punjabi, GET Punjabi, ETC Punjabi, Chardikla Time TV, PTC Punjabi, Colours Punjabi, JUS Punjabi, MH1 and 9x Tashan.
Punjab has witnessed a growth in FM radio channels, mainly in the cities of Jalandhar, Patiala and Amritsar, which has become hugely popular. There are government radio channels like All India Radio, Jalandhar, All India Radio, Bathinda and FM Gold Ludhiana. Private radio channels include Radio Mirchi, BIG FM 92.7, 94.3 My FM, Radio Mantra and many more.
Culture
The culture of Punjab has many elements including music such as bhangra, an extensive religious and non-religious dance tradition, a long history of poetry in the Punjabi language, a significant Punjabi film industry that dates back to before Partition, a vast range of cuisine, which has become widely popular abroad, and a number of seasonal and harvest festivals such as Lohri, Basant, Vaisakhi and Teeyan, all of which are celebrated in addition to the religious festivals of India.
A kissa is a Punjabi language oral story-telling tradition that has a mixture of origins ranging from the Arabian peninsula to Iran and Afghanistan.
Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. Marriage ceremonies are known for their rich rituals, songs, dances, food and dresses, which have evolved over many centuries.
Bhangra
Bhangra (; pronounced ) and Giddha are forms of dance and music that originated in the Punjab region.
Bhangra dance began as a folk dance conducted by Punjabi farmers to celebrate the coming of the harvest season. The specific moves of Bhangra reflect the manner in which villagers farmed their land. This hybrid dance became Bhangra. The folk dance has been popularised in the western world by Punjabis in England, Canada and the USA where competitions are held. It is seen in the West as an expression of South Asian culture as a whole. Today, Bhangra dance survives in different forms and styles all over the globe – including pop music, film soundtracks, collegiate competitions and cultural shows.
Punjabi folklore
The folk heritage of the Punjab reflects its thousands of years of history. While Majhi is considered to be the standard dialect of Punjabi language, there are a number of Punjabi dialects through which the people communicate. These include Malwai, Doabi and Puadhi. The songs, ballads, epics and romances are generally written and sung in these dialects.
There are a number of folk tales that are popular in Punjab. These are the folk tales of Mirza Sahiban, Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal, Sassi Punnun, Jagga Jatt, Dulla Bhatti, Puran Bhagat, Jeona Maud etc.
The mystic folk songs and religious songs include the Shalooks of Sikh gurus, Baba Farid and others.
The most famous of the romantic love songs are Mayhiah, Dhola and Boliyan. Punjabi romantic dances include Dhamaal, Bhangra, Giddha, Dhola, and Sammi and some other local folk dances.
Literature
Most early Punjabi literary works are in verse form, with prose not becoming more common until later periods. Throughout its history, Punjabi literature has sought to inform and inspire, educate and entertain. The Punjabi language is written in several different scripts, of which the Shahmukhi, the Gurmukhī scripts are the most commonly used.
Music
Punjabi Folk Music is the traditional music on the traditional musical instruments of Punjab region.
Bhangra music of Punjab is famous throughout the world.
Punjabi music has a diverse style of music, ranging from folk and Sufi to classical, notably the Punjab gharana and Patiala gharana.
Film industry
Punjab is home to the Punjabi film industry, often colloquially referred to as 'Pollywood'. It is known for being the fastest growing film industry in India. It is based mainly around Mohali city. According to MP Manish Tewari, the government is planning to build a film city in Mohali.
The first Punjabi film was made in 1936. Since the 2000s Punjabi cinema has seen a revival with more releases every year with bigger budgets, homegrown stars, and Bollywood actors of Punjabi descent taking part.
Crafts
The city of Amritsar is home to the craft of brass and copper metalwork done by the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, which is enlisted on the UNESCO's List of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Years of neglect had caused this craft to die out, and the listing prompted the Government of Punjab to undertake a craft revival effort under Project Virasat.
Cuisine
One of the main features of Punjabi cuisine is its diverse range of dishes. Home cooked and restaurant cuisine sometimes vary in taste. Restaurant style uses large amounts of ghee. Some food items are eaten on a daily basis while some delicacies are cooked only on special occasions.
There are many regional dishes that are famous in some regions only. Many dishes are exclusive to Punjab, including Sarson Da Saag, Tandoori chicken, Shami kebab, makki di roti, etc.
Festivals and traditions
Punjabis celebrate a number of festivals, which have taken a semi-secular meaning and are regarded as cultural festivals by people of all religions. Some of the festivals are Bandi Chhor Divas (Diwali), Mela Maghi, Hola Mohalla, Rakhri, Vaisakhi, Lohri, Gurpurb, Guru Ravidass Jayanti, Teeyan and Basant Kite Festival.
Sports
Kabbadi (Circle Style), a team contact sport originated in rural Punjab is recognised as the state game. Field hockey is also a popular sport in the state. Kila Raipur Sports Festival, popularly known as the Rural Olympics, is held annually in Kila Raipur (near Ludhiana). Competition is held for major Punjabi rural sports, include cart-race, rope pulling. Punjab government organises World Kabaddi League,
Punjab Games and annual Kabaddi World Cup for Circle Style Kabbadi in which teams from countries like Argentina, Canada, Denmark, England, India, Iran, Kenya, Pakistan, Scotland, Sierra Leone, Spain and United States participated. A major C.B.S.E event C.B.S.E Cluster Athlectics also held in Punjab at Sant Baba Bhag Singh University.
The Punjab state basketball team won the National Basketball Championship on many occasions, most recently in 2019 and 2020.
Tourism
Tourism in Indian Punjab centres around the historic palaces, battle sites, and the great Sikh architecture of the state and the surrounding region. Examples include various sites of the Indus Valley civilization, the ancient fort of Bathinda, the architectural monuments of Kapurthala, Patiala, and Chandigarh, the modern capital designed by Le Corbusier.
The Golden Temple in Amritsar is one of the major tourist destinations of Punjab and indeed India, attracting more visitors than the Taj Mahal. Lonely Planet Bluelist 2008 has voted the Harmandir Sahib as one of the world's best spiritual sites. Moreover, there is a rapidly expanding array of international hotels in the holy city at Heritage Walk Amritsar that can be booked for overnight stays. Devi Talab Mandir is a Hindu temple located in Jalandhar. This temple is devoted to Goddess Durga and is believed to be at least 200 years old. Another main tourist destination is religious and historic city of Sri Anandpur Sahib where large number of tourists come to see the Virasat-e-Khalsa (Khalsa Heritage Memorial Complex) and also take part in Hola Mohalla festival. Kila Raipur Sports Festival is also popular tourist attraction in Kila Raipur near Ludhiana. Shahpur kandi fort, Ranjit Sagar lake and Sikh Temple in Sri Muktsar Sahib are also popular attractions in Punjab. Punjab also has the world's first museum based on the Indian Partition of 1947, in Amritsar, called the Partition Museum.
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Radhika Chopra. Militant and Migrant: The Politics and Social History of Punjab (2011)
Harnik Deol. Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia) (2000)
Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, Encyclopedia of Jalandhar, Sikh University Press, Brussels, Belgium (2005)
Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, SIKH HISTORY in 10 volumes, Sikh University Press, Brussels, Belgium (2010–11)
J. S. Grewal. The Sikhs of the Punjab (The New Cambridge History of India) (1998)
J. S. Grewal. Social and Cultural History of the Punjab: Prehistoric, Ancient and Early Medieval (2004)
Nazer Singh. Delhi and Punjab: Essays in history and historiography (1995)
Tai Yong Tan. The Garrison State: Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab, 1849–1947 (Sage Series in Modern Indian History) (2005)
J. C. Aggarwal and S. P. Agrawal, eds. Modern History of Punjab: Relevant Select Documents (1992)
R. M. Chopra, The Legacy of The Punjab, 1997, Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta.
External links
Government
Official Tourism Site of Punjab, India
General information
States and union territories of India
States and territories established in 1956
1956 establishments in India
Punjabi-speaking countries and territories | wiki |
Zorba is an open source query processor written in C++, implementing
several W3C XQuery and XML specifications and
the JSONiq language for processing JSON data.
Zorba is distributed under Apache License, Version 2.0.
The project is mainly supported by the FLWOR Foundation, Oracle, and 28msec.
Specifications
Zorba provides the implementation of the following W3C specifications:
XQuery 1.0
XQuery 3.0
XQuery Update Facility 1.0
XQuery and XPath Full Text 1.0
XML Syntax for XQuery 1.0
XML Schema
XSL Transformations (XSLT)
XSL Formatting Objects
Zorba also provides implementations of:
JSONiq
Scripting Extension
Data Definition Facility
Scripting
Scripting Extension is an open specification that provides semantic for side-effects in XQuery or JSONiq programs.
It also provides a user-friendly syntax for imperative programming within such programs.
The following code snippet is an example of the Scripting syntax. It computes a sequence containing all the Fibonacci numbers that are less than 100.
(: this is a variable declaration statement :)
variable $a as xs:integer := 0;
variable $b as xs:integer := 1;
variable $c as xs:integer := $a + $b;
variable $fibseq as xs:integer* := ($a, $b);
while ($c lt 100) {
(: this is a variable assignment statement :)
$fibseq := ($fibseq, $c);
$a := $b;
$b := $c;
$c := $a + $b;
}
$fibseq
The following is an example of CRUD operations using Scripting, XQuery, and XQuery Update.
variable $stores := doc("stores.xml")/stores;
(: Create :)
insert node <store><store-number>4</store-number><state>NY</state></store> into $stores;
(: Update :)
replace value of node $stores/store[state="NY"]/store-number with "5";
(: Delete :)
delete node $stores/store[state != "NY"];
(: Read :)
$stores
Data Definition Facility
Data Definition Facility provides a semantic for persistent artifacts such as collections and indexes in XQuery or JSONiq programs.
For instance, the following code snippets declares a collection named entries and an index on that collection named entry.
module namespace g = "http://www.zorba-xquery.com/guestbook";
import module namespace db = "http://www.zorba-xquery.com/modules/store/static/collections/dml";
declare namespace an = "http://www.zorba-xquery.com/annotations";
(: Declares a collection named entries :)
declare collection g:entries as element(entry);
(: Declares a variable that points to the g:entries collection :)
declare variable $g:entries := xs:QName('g:entries');
(: Declares an index named entry on top of the entries collection :)
declare %an:automatic %value-equality index g:entry
on nodes db:collection(xs:QName('g:entries'))
by xs:string(@id) as xs:string;
Storage
Zorba provides a pluggable store so it can be used on different kind of environments: disk, database, browser.
By default, Zorba is built with a main memory store.
28msec implements a store on top of MongoDB.
The XQuery in the Browser project has built a browser plugin for Zorba and leverages the DOM as its store.
APIs
Zorba is usable through different host languages: C++, C, XQJ / Java, PHP, Python, C#, Ruby, and even XQuery/JSONiq.
Zorba is also available as a command-line tool.
XQDT is an XQuery plugin for the Eclipse (IDE). It fully supports Zorba API and syntax.
Modules
Zorba provides more than 70 XQuery modules for building applications. Some of these modules are:
File system, Email, HTTP client, OAuth client
XQuery and JSONiq Data Model Processing: typing, atomic items, and nodes.
Full-text: tokenizer, stemmer, thesaurus lookup.
Data Cleaning: phonetic similarities, set similarities, conversions.
Data Conversion: Base64, CSV, HTML, JSON, XML
Data Formatting: XSL-FO
Introspection and Reflection
Cryptography
Image processing
External links
Zorba website
Zorba live demo
Zorba modules
XQuery processors
XML | wiki |
The Last Ice Area is broadly the large interior polar region of the Arctic Circle covering an area between the northern edge of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and is the most northerly coastal zone of the world. Being in a permafrost landscape, it is the oldest and thickest ice sheet in the Arctic and is expected to persist longest as a sea ice. Towards the northern side, it consists of the Tuvaijuittuq Marine Protected Area, which is the largest protected area in Canada and among the largest protected areas in the world. It is one of the major centres of environmental concerns that is bound to have global impact. The Arctic Council's 2017 report Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost. Summary for Policy-makers predicted that current rate of climate change will cause the complete disappearance of the ice within a century.
Geography and conservation
The Last Ice Area covers the central area of the Arctic Circle, thereby representing the most northerly coastal zone of the world. It is so named because of its old and thick ice sheet which is expected to last the longest as a sea ice in the Arctic. The northern side falling under the Government of Canada is declared the Tuvaijuittuq Marine Protected Area, the largest protected area in Canada. Due to its environmental concerns and ecological impact it can have, a number of areas are proposed for protection, including Tallurutiup Imanga National Conservation Area, Pikialasorsuaq, and Nunavut protected areas.
Ecology
The Last Ice Area is a natural habitat to endemic animals including bowhead whales, polar bear, Peary caribou, and muskoxen. Walrus, narwhal, and beluga whales are also living here.
Environmental concerns
Arctic sea ice has been monitored by satellites since 1979, and has been recorded to be melting away every decade. The ice sheets are becoming thinner and younger, indicating increasing fragility. The major threats are emissions from greenhouse gases and fossil fuels that are primary causes of global warming. Indicators of severe climate changes such as shifting of algal blooms and ecosystem disturnaces have been recorded. The A computational study in 2021 showed that the Last Ice area may retain its year-round sea ice if the global warming does not exceed a threshold (2°C of the preindustrial average global temperature). However, the United Nations had warned in its Emissions Gap Report 2021 that under the current trend of emission from fossil fuels and greenhouse gases, global warming will increase by 2.7°C by 2100. This has set an alarming environmental issue that life on the ice will eventually perish, from planktons to polar bears.
References
Regions of the Arctic
Northern Canada | wiki |
Witch Hunt is a 1999 Australian crime drama, directed by Scott Hartford-Davis and written by NCIS: Los Angeles creator, Shane Brennan. It premiered on Australia's Network Ten on 2 May 1999.
Plot
A young girl goes missing and her father (Daddo) accuses his mother-in-law, Barbara (Bisset) of abducting her. He speculates about Barbara's deep involvement in the occult with the accusation that she is a witch. Barbara responds by accusing her son-in-law of abusing her granddaughter.
Cast
Jacqueline Bisset as Barbara Thomas
Cameron Daddo as David Overton
Jerome Ehlers as Detective Jack Maitland
References
External links
1999 television films
1999 films
Australian television films
Films shot in Australia
Films about witchcraft | wiki |
To slalom is to zigzag between obstacles. It may refer to:
Sports
Alpine skiing and/or snowboarding
Slalom skiing, an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline
Giant slalom, an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline
Super-G or Super Giant Slalom, a racing discipline of alpine skiing
Other
Autoslalom or autocross, for automobiles
Canoe slalom, for kayak or canoe, formerly known as whitewater slalom
Dual slalom, for mountain bikes
Freestyle slalom skating, roller skating that involves performing tricks around a line of cones
Slalom skateboarding, a form of downhill skateboard racing
Slalom waterskiing, a surface water sport
Other
Slalom (video game), 1987 Nintendo skiing game
Slalom (1965 film), an Italian film
Slalom (2020 film), a Franco-Belgian film
Slalom Consulting, a business and technology consulting firm
Slalom (album), an album by Jane Ira Bloom | wiki |
Movietime peut désigner:
Entertainment Television, chaîne spécialisée américaine lancée sous le nom de Movietime entre 1987 et 1991.
MovieTime, chaîne spécialisée canadienne, anciennement connue sous le nom de LoneStar jusqu'en 2008. | wiki |
Usul may refer to:
Ideas
Usul al-fiqh, a principle of Islamic jurisprudence
Usul al-Din, the Shi'a Roots of Religion
Usul (music), a rhythmic pattern used in Ottoman classical music.
Characters
Usul, the secret tribal name of Paul Atreides in Frank Herbert's Dune novels
a species in Neopets | wiki |
Belva can refer to:
People
Belva Davis (born 1932), American journalist
Belva Gaertner (1884–1965), a woman acquitted of murder, the inspiration for the character of Velma Kelly in Chicago
Belva Ann Lockwood (1830–1917), American lawyer, politician and early feminist, first female presidential candidate
Belva Plain (1915–2010), American author
Other uses
Belva, West Virginia, United States, an unincorporated community and census-designated place
Belva, North Carolina, United States, an unincorporated community in Madison County - see List of unincorporated communities in North Carolina
La belva, a 1970 Italian Western film | wiki |
The Stoat is a 1940 mystery detective novel by the Irish-born writer Lynn Brock. It was the seventh and last novel in his series featuring the character of the Golden Age detective Colonel Wyckham Gore. It was also his last published work before his death three years later. It marked a return for Gore, who hadn't appeared in a novel since 1930.
Synopsis
Gore's assistance is sought by his old army colleague Colonel Margesson, who has having difficulties with his wife and children. When not only Margesson but his two children are killed, the case proves baffling until a visit to Ireland reveals the explanation.
References
Bibliography
Keating, Henry Reymond Fitzwalter. Whodunit?: A Guide to Crime, Suspense, and Spy Fiction. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1982.
Reilly, John M. Twentieth Century Crime & Mystery Writers. Springer, 2015.
1940 British novels
British mystery novels
British thriller novels
Novels by Lynn Brock
Novels set in England
Novels set in Ireland
British detective novels
Collins Crime Club books | wiki |
Penetration rate may refer to:
Market penetration, in marketing, a parameter to show the rate of circulation of a product in its market
Rate of penetration, or drill rate, the speed at which a drill bit breaks the rock under it to deepen the borehole
Mobile phone penetration rate is often used to mean the number of active mobile phone users per 100 people within a specific population | wiki |
A tire iron (also tire lever or tire spoon) is a specialized metal tool used in working with tires. Tire irons have not been in common use for automobile tires since the shift to the use of tubeless tires in the late 1950s.
Bicycle tire irons are still in use for those tires which have a separate inner tube, and can have a hooked C-shape cut into one end of the iron so that it may be hooked on a bicycle spoke to hold it in place.
Description and use
Tire irons, which usually come in pairs or threes, are used to pry the edge of a tire away from the rim of the wheel it has been mounted on. After one iron has pried a portion of the tire from its wheel, it is held in position while a second iron is applied further along the tire to pry more of the tire away from the wheel. This allows enough of the tire to be separated so that the first iron can be removed, and used again on the far side of the other iron. Alternating in this way, a person can work all the way around the tire to fully remove it from the wheel, in order to reach the tube that sits inside.
In the first half of the 20th century, they became a colloquial term of strength, as in "I couldn't get rid of him with a pair of tire irons," and frequently appeared in cartoons in similar situations. The usage is now considered passé.
Bicycle tire irons
Tire irons for bicycles are usually referred to as "tire levers", as they are often made of plastic, not metal.
Tire levers for bicycle tires have one end that is tapered and slightly curved. The other end is usually hooked so that it can be hooked around a spoke to keep the tire bead free of the rim at one point, allowing a second lever to be manipulated forward, progressively loosening a larger segment of the tire bead from the rim.
A common feature of tire levers is the lack of sharp edges. The slightest pinch of an inner tube by a lever can weaken or puncture the tube. It is good practice to examine a set of tire levers for any sharp edges and to file them smooth and round.
Classically, tire levers were made of metal. However plastic ones are now manufactured which are even less sharp and less likely to puncture the tube. There are also some single-lever varieties, which can be inserted under the bead at one point then quickly pushed around the rim to pop the bead off.
Tire levers are not necessary or desirable in all cases. In some cases, the tire can be reinserted on the rim, and sometimes removed from the rim, without the use of tire levers. This reduces the chance of puncture caused by pinching the tube between the rim and the tire bead. Sometimes they are used to fit the tire back on, but this can be done without the levers.
See also
Lug wrench
Bead breaker
Crowbar
References
Bicycle tools
Tires
Mechanical hand tools | wiki |
Trial graphics are images that have been designed by expert graphic artists for use in legal trials and procedures. Graphs and other images can be created to use as evidential support in a court of law by utilizing current graphic design technology.
Effective jury presentations are a key point to creating a strong legal case. High quality legal graphics are a relatively new tool that can be utilized by lawyers looking to add clear forms of analytic data or other designed images for jury review.
References
Graphic design
Legal communication | wiki |
Hypoplasminogenemia, also known as plasminogen deficiency type 1, is a genetic disorder characterized by a lack of the protein plasminogen, which is responsible for the ability of the body to break down fibrin clots. Plasminogen deficiency leads to an accumulation of fibrin, causing the development of growths (lesions) that can impair normal tissue and organ function and may lead to blindness when these lesions affect the eyes.
It is caused by mutations in the PLG gene.
Treatment
Plasminogen, human-tvmh (Ryplazim) was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2021. It is the first therapy for hypoplasminogenemia approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
References
External links
Congenital plasminogen deficiency MeSH, National Library of Medicine
Genetic diseases and disorders | wiki |
Cremation is a method of final disposition of a dead body through burning.
Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India and Nepal, cremation on an open-air pyre is an ancient tradition. Starting in the 19th century, cremation was introduced or reintroduced into other parts of the world. In modern times, cremation is commonly carried out with a closed furnace (cremator), at a crematorium.
Cremation leaves behind an average of 2.4 kg (5.3 lbs) of remains known as "ashes" or "cremains". This is not all ash but includes unburnt fragments of bone mineral, which are commonly ground into powder. They do not constitute a health risk and may be buried, interred in a memorial site, retained by relatives or scattered in various ways.
History
Ancient
Cremation dates from at least 17,000 years ago in the archaeological record, with the Mungo Lady, the remains of a partly cremated body found at Lake Mungo, Australia.
Alternative death rituals which emphasize one method of disposal – burial, cremation, or exposure – have gone through periods of preference throughout history.
In the Middle East and Europe, both burial and cremation are evident in the archaeological record in the Neolithic era. Cultural groups had their own preferences and prohibitions. The ancient Egyptians developed an intricate transmigration-of-soul theology, which prohibited cremation. This was also widely adopted by Semitic peoples. The Babylonians, according to Herodotus, embalmed their dead. Phoenicians practiced both cremation and burial. From the Cycladic civilization in 3000 BCE until the Sub-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE, Greeks practiced burial. Cremation appeared around the 12th century BCE, probably influenced by Anatolia. Until the Christian era, when inhumation again became the only burial practice, both combustion and inhumation had been practiced, depending on the era and location. In Rome's earliest history, both inhumation and cremation were in common use among all classes. Around the mid-Republic inhumation was almost exclusively replaced by cremation, with some notable exceptions, and remained the most common funerary practice until the middle of the Empire, when it was almost entirely replaced by inhumation.
In Europe, there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BCE) in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube. The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture (from c. 1300 BCE). In the Iron Age, inhumation again becomes more common, but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere. Homer's account of Patroclus' burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus, similar to Urnfield burials, and qualifying as the earliest description of cremation rites. This may be an anachronism, as during Mycenaean times burial was generally preferred, and Homer may have been reflecting the more common use of cremation at the time the Iliad was written, centuries later.
Criticism of burial rites is a common aspersion by competing religions and cultures, including the association of cremation with fire sacrifice or human sacrifice.
Hinduism and Jainism are notable for not only allowing but prescribing cremation. Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture (from c. 1900 BCE), considered the last phase of Indus Valley Civilisation and beginning of the Vedic civilization. The Rigveda contains a reference to the emerging practice, in RV 10.15.14, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked.
Cremation remained common but not universal, in both ancient Greece and ancient Rome. According to Cicero, burial was considered the more archaic rite in Rome.
The rise of Christianity saw an end to cremation in Europe, though it may have already been in decline.
In early Roman Britain, cremation was usual but diminished by the 4th century. It then reappeared in the 5th and 6th centuries during the migration era, when sacrificed animals were sometimes included on the pyre, and the dead were dressed in costume and with ornaments for the burning. That custom was also very widespread among the Germanic peoples of the northern continental lands from which the Anglo-Saxon migrants are supposed to have been derived, during the same period. These ashes were usually thereafter deposited in a vessel of clay or bronze in an "urn cemetery". The custom again died out with the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons or Early English during the 7th century, when Christian burial became general.
Middle Ages
In parts of Europe, cremation was forbidden by law, and even punishable by death if combined with Heathen rites. Cremation was sometimes used by Catholic authorities as part of punishment for accused heretics, which included burning at the stake. For example, the body of John Wycliff was exhumed years after his death and burned to ashes, with the ashes thrown in a river, explicitly as a posthumous punishment for his denial of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation.
The first to advocate for the use of cremation was the physician Sir Thomas Browne in 1658. Honoretta Brooks Pratt became the first recorded cremated European individual in modern times when she died on 26 September 1769 and was illegally cremated at the burial ground on Hanover Square in London.
Reintroduction
In Europe, a movement to reintroduce cremation as a viable method for body disposal began in the 1870s. This was made possible by the invention of new furnace technology and contact with eastern cultures that practiced it. At the time, many proponents believed in the miasma theory, and that cremation would reduce the "bad air" that caused diseases. These movements were associated with secularism and gained a following in cultural and intellectual circles. In Italy, the movement was associated with anti-clericalism and Freemasonry, whereas these were not major themes of the movement in Britain.
In 1869, the idea was presented to the Medical International Congress of Florence by Professors Coletti and Castiglioni "in the name of public health and civilization". In 1873, Professor Paolo Gorini of Lodi and Professor Ludovico Brunetti of Padua published reports of practical work they had conducted. A model of Brunetti's cremating apparatus, together with the resulting ashes, was exhibited at the Vienna Exposition in 1873 and attracted great attention Meanwhile, Sir Charles William Siemens had developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s. His furnace operated at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air for combustion. In regenerative preheating, the exhaust gases from the furnace are pumped into a chamber containing bricks, where heat is transferred from the gases to the bricks. The flow of the furnace is then reversed so that fuel and air pass through the chamber and are heated by the bricks. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, and this process made cremation an efficient and practical proposal. Charles's nephew, Carl Friedrich von Siemens perfected the use of this furnace for the incineration of organic material at his factory in Dresden. The radical politician, Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, took the corpse of his dead wife there to be cremated in 1874. The efficient and cheap process brought about the quick and complete incineration of the body and was a fundamental technical breakthrough that finally made industrial cremation a practical possibility.
The first crematorium in the Western World opened in Milan in 1876. Milan's "Crematorium Temple" was built in the Monumental Cemetery. The building still stands but ceased to be operational in 1992.
Sir Henry Thompson, 1st Baronet, a surgeon and Physician to the Queen Victoria, had seen Gorini's cremator at the Vienna Exhibition and had returned home to become the first and chief promoter of cremation in England. His main reason for supporting cremation was that "it was becoming a necessary sanitary precaution against the propagation of disease among a population daily growing larger in relation to the area it occupied". In addition, he believed, cremation would prevent premature burial, reduce the expense of funerals, spare mourners the necessity of standing exposed to the weather during interment, and urns would be safe from vandalism. He joined with other proponents to form the Cremation Society of Great Britain in 1874." They founded the United Kingdom's first crematorium in Woking, with Gorini travelling to England to assist the installation of a cremator. They first tested it on 17 March 1879 with the body of a horse. After protests and an intervention by the Home Secretary, Sir Richard Cross, their plans were put on hold. In 1884, the Welsh Neo-Druidic priest William Price was arrested and put on trial for attempting to cremate his son's body. Price successfully argued in court that while the law did not state that cremation was legal, it also did not state that it was illegal. The case set a precedent that allowed the Cremation Society to proceed.
In 1885, the first official cremation in the United Kingdom took place in Woking. The deceased was Jeanette Pickersgill, a well-known figure in literary and scientific circles. By the end of the year, the Cremation Society of Great Britain had overseen 2 more cremations, a total of 3 out of 597,357 deaths in the UK that year. In 1888, 28 cremations took place at the venue. In 1891, Woking Crematorium added a chapel, pioneering the concept of a crematorium being a venue for funerals as well as cremation.
Other early crematoria in Europe were built in 1878 in the town of Gotha in Germany and later in Heidelberg in 1891. The first modern crematory in the U.S. was built in 1876 by Francis Julius LeMoyne after hearing about its use in Europe. Like many early proponents, he was motivated by a belief it would be beneficial for public health. Before LeMoyne's crematory closed in 1901, it had performed 42 cremations. Other countries that opened their first crematorium included Sweden (1887 in Stockholm), Switzerland (1889 in Zurich) and France (1889 in Père Lachaise, Paris).
Western spread
Some of the various Protestant churches came to accept cremation, with the rationale being, "God can resurrect a bowl of ashes just as conveniently as he can resurrect a bowl of dust." In Anglican and Nordic Protestant countries, cremation gained acceptance (though did not yet become the norm) first by the higher classes and cultural circles, and then by the rest of the population. In 1905, Westminster Abbey interred ashes for the first time; by 1911 the Abbey was expressing a preference for interring ashes. The 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia was critical of the development, referring to them as a "sinister movement" and associating them with Freemasonry, although it said that "there is nothing directly opposed to any dogma of the Church in the practice of cremation."
In the U.S. only about one crematory per year was built in the late 19th century. As embalming became more widely accepted and used, crematories lost their sanitary edge. Not to be left behind, crematories had an idea of making cremation beautiful. They started building crematories with stained-glass windows and marble floors with frescoed walls.
Australia also started to establish modern cremation movements and societies. Australians had their first purpose-built modern crematorium and chapel in the West Terrace Cemetery in the South Australian capital of Adelaide in 1901. This small building, resembling the buildings at Woking, remained largely unchanged from its 19th-century style and was in full operation until the late 1950s. The oldest operating crematorium in Australia is at Rookwood Cemetery, in Sydney. It opened in 1925.
In the Netherlands, the foundation of the Association for Optional Cremation in 1874 ushered in a long debate about the merits and demerits of cremation. Laws against cremation were challenged and invalidated in 1915 (two years after the construction of the first crematorium in the Netherlands), though cremation did not become legally recognised until 1955.
World War II
During World War II (1939–45) Nazi Germany used specially built furnaces in at least six extermination camps throughout occupied Poland including at Auschwitz-Birkenau, Chełmno, Belzec, Majdanek, Sobibor and Treblinka, where the bodies of those murdered by gassing were disposed of using incineration. The efficiency of industrialised killing of Operation Reinhard during the most deadly phase of the Holocaust produced too many corpses, therefore the crematoria manufactured to SS specifications were put into use in all of them to handle the disposals around the clock, day and night. The Vrba–Wetzler report offers the following description.
The Holocaust furnaces were supplied by a number of manufacturers, with the best known and most common being Topf and Sons as well as Kori Company of Berlin, whose ovens were elongated to accommodate two bodies, slid inside from the back side. The ashes were taken out from the front side.
Modern era
In the 20th century, cremation gained varying degrees of acceptance in most Christian denominations. William Temple, the most senior bishop in the Church of England, was cremated after his death in office in 1944. The Roman Catholic Church accepted the practice more slowly. In 1963, at the Second Vatican Council Pope Paul VI lifted the ban on cremation, and in 1966 allowed Catholic priests to officiate at cremation ceremonies. This is done on the condition that the ashes must be buried or interred, not scattered. Many countries where burial is traditional saw cremation rise to become a significant, if not the most common way of disposing of a dead body. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was an unprecedented phase of crematorium construction in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
Starting in the 1960s, cremation has become more common than burial in several countries where the latter is traditional. This has included the United Kingdom (1968), Czechoslovakia (1980), Canada (early 2000s), the United States (2016) and Finland (2017). Factors cited include cheaper costs (especially a factor after the 2008 recession), growth in secular attitudes and declining opposition in some Christian denominations.
Modern process
The cremation occurs in a cremator, which is located at a crematorium or crematory. In many countries, the crematorium is a venue for funerals as well as cremation.
A cremator is an industrial furnace that is able to generate temperatures of to ensure the disintegration of the corpse. Modern cremator fuels include oil, natural gas, propane, and, in Hong Kong, coal gas. Modern cremators automatically monitor their interior to tell when the cremation process is complete and have a spyhole so that an operator can see inside. The time required for cremation varies from body to body, with the average being 90 minutes for an adult body.
The chamber where the body is placed is called a cremation chamber or retort and is lined with heat-resistant refractory bricks. Refractory bricks are designed in several layers. The outermost layer is usually simply an insulation material, e.g., mineral wool. Inside is typically a layer of insulation brick, mostly calcium silicate in nature. Heavy duty cremators are usually designed with two layers of fire bricks inside the insulation layer. The layer of fire bricks in contact with the combustion process protects the outer layer and must be replaced from time to time.
The body is generally required to be inside a coffin or a combustible container. This allows the body to be quickly and safely slid into the cremator. It also reduces health risks to the operators. The coffin or container is inserted (charged) into the cremator as quickly as possible to avoid heat loss. Some crematoria allow relatives to view the charging. This is sometimes done for religious reasons, such as in traditional Hindu and Jain funerals, and is also customary in Japan.
Body container
In the United States federal law does not dictate any container requirements for cremation. Certain states require an opaque or non-transparent container for all cremations. This can be a simple corrugated cardboard box or a wooden casket (coffin). Another option is a cardboard box that fits inside a wooden shell, which is designed to look like a traditional casket. After the funeral service, the box is removed from the shell before cremation, permitting the shell to be re-used.
In the United Kingdom, the body is not removed from the coffin and is not placed into a container as described above. The body is cremated with the coffin which is why all British coffins that are to be used for cremation must be combustible. The Code of Cremation Practice forbids the opening of the coffin once it has arrived at the crematorium, and rules stipulate that it must be cremated within 72 hours of the funeral service. Therefore, in the United Kingdom, bodies are cremated in the same coffin that they are placed in at the undertaker's, although the regulations allow the use of an approved "cover" during the funeral service. It is recommended that jewellery be removed before the coffin is sealed, for this reason. When cremation is finished, the remains are passed through a magnetic field to remove any metal, which will be interred elsewhere in the crematorium grounds or, increasingly, recycled. The ashes are entered into a cremulator to further grind the remains down into a finer texture before being given to relatives or loved ones or scattered in the crematorium grounds where facilities exist.
In Germany, the process is mostly similar to that of the United Kingdom. The body is cremated in the coffin. A piece of fire clay with a number on it is used for identifying the remains of the dead body after burning. The remains are then placed in a container called an ash capsule, which generally is put into a cinerary urn.
In Australia, reusable or cardboard coffins are rare, with only a few manufacturers now supplying them. For low cost, a plain, particle-board coffin (known in the trade as a "chippie", "shipper" or "pyro") can be used. Handles (if fitted) are plastic and approved for use in a cremator.
Cremations can be "delivery only", with no preceding chapel service at the crematorium (although a church service may have been held) or preceded by a service in one of the crematorium chapels. Delivery-only allows crematoria to schedule cremations to make best use of the cremators, perhaps by holding the body overnight in a refrigerator, allowing a lower fee to be charged.
Burning and ash collection
The box containing the body is placed in the retort and incinerated at a temperature of . During the cremation process, the greater portion of the body (especially the organs and other soft tissues) is vaporized and oxidized by the intense heat; gases released are discharged through the exhaust system.
Jewelry, such as necklaces, wrist-watches and rings, are ordinarily removed before cremation, and returned to the family. Several implanted devices are required to be removed. Pacemakers and other medical devices can cause surprisingly large, dangerous explosions.
Contrary to popular belief, the cremated remains are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverised by a machine called a Cremulator—essentially a high-capacity, high-speed blender—to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains", although pulverisation may also be performed by hand. This leaves the bone with a fine sand like texture and color, able to be scattered without need for mixing with any foreign matter, though the size of the grain varies depending on the Cremulator used. The mean weight of an adult's remains is ; the mean weight for adult males is about higher than that for adult females. There are various types of Cremulators, including rotating devices, grinders, and older models using heavy metal balls.
The grinding process typically takes about 20 seconds.
In East Asian countries such as China, Japan or Taiwan, the bones are not pulverised, unless requested beforehand. When not pulverised, the bones are collected by the family and stored as one might do with ashes.
The appearance of cremated remains after grinding is one of the reasons they are called ashes, although a non-technical term sometimes used is "cremains", a portmanteau of "cremated" and "remains". (The Cremation Association of North America prefers that the word "cremains" not be used for referring to "human cremated remains". The reason given is that "cremains" is thought to have less connection with the deceased, whereas a loved one's "cremated remains" has a more identifiable human connection.)
After final grinding, the ashes are placed in a container, which can be anything from a simple cardboard box to a decorative urn. The default container used by most crematoria, when nothing more expensive has been selected, is usually a hinged, snap-locking plastic box.
Ash weight and composition
Cremated remains are mostly dry calcium phosphates with some minor minerals, such as salts of sodium and potassium. Sulfur and most carbon are driven off as oxidized gases during the process, although about 1–4% of carbon remains as carbonate.
The ash remaining represents very roughly 3.5% of the body's original mass (2.5% in children). Because the weight of dry bone fragments is so closely connected to skeletal mass, their weight varies greatly from person to person. Because many changes in body composition (such as fat and muscle loss or gain) do not affect the weight of cremated remains, the weight of the remains can be more closely predicted from the person's height and sex (which predicts skeletal weight), than it can be predicted from the person's simple weight.
Ashes of adults can be said to weigh from , with women's ashes generally weighing below and men's ashes generally weighing above .
Bones are not all that remain after cremation. There may be melted metal lumps from missed jewellery; casket furniture; dental fillings; and surgical implants, such as hip replacements. Breast implants do not have to be removed before cremation. Some medical devices such as pacemakers may need to be removed before cremation to avoid the risk of explosion. Large items such as titanium hip replacements (which tarnish but do not melt) or casket hinges are usually removed before processing, as they may damage the processor. (If they are missed at first, they must ultimately be removed before processing is complete, as items such as titanium joint replacements are far too durable to be ground.) Implants may be returned to the family, but are more commonly sold as ferrous/non-ferrous scrap metal. After the remains are processed, smaller bits of metal such as tooth fillings, and rings (commonly known as gleanings) are sieved out and may be later interred in common, consecrated ground in a remote area of the cemetery. They may also be sold as precious metal scrap.
Retention or disposal of remains
Cremated remains are returned to the next of kin in different manners according to custom and country. In the United States, the cremated remains are almost always contained in a thick watertight polyethylene plastic bag contained within a hard snap-top rectangular plastic container, which is labeled with a printed paper label. The basic sealed plastic container bag may be contained within a further cardboard box or velvet sack, or they may be contained within an urn if the family had already purchased one. An official certificate of cremation prepared under the authority of the crematorium accompanies the remains, and if required by law, the permit for disposition of human remains, which must remain with the cremated remains.
Cremated remains can be kept in an urn, stored in a special memorial building (columbarium), buried in the ground at many locations or sprinkled on a special field, mountain, or in the sea. In addition, there are several services in which the cremated remains will be scattered in a variety of ways and locations. Some examples are via a helium balloon, through fireworks, shot from shotgun shells, by boat or scattered from an aeroplane. One service sends a lipstick-tube sized sample of the cremated remains into low earth orbit, where they remain for years (but not permanently) before reentering the atmosphere. Some companies offer a service to turn part of the cremated remains into synthetic diamonds which can then be made into jewelry. This "cremation jewelry" is also known as funeral jewelry, remembrance jewelry or memorial jewelry. A portion of the cremated remains may be retained in a specially designed locket known as cremation jewelry, or even blown into special glass keepsakes and glass orbs.
Cremated remains may also be incorporated, with urn and cement, into part of an artificial reef, or they can also be mixed into paint and made into a portrait of the deceased. Some individuals use a very small amount of the remains in tattoo ink, for remembrance portraits. Cremated remains can be scattered in national parks in the United States with a special permit. They can also be scattered on private property with the permission of the owner. The cremated remains may also be entombed. Most cemeteries will grant permission for burial of cremated remains in occupied cemetery plots that have already been purchased or are in use by the families disposing of the cremated remains without any additional charge or oversight.
Ashes are alkaline. In some areas such as Snowdon, Wales, environmental authorities have warned that the frequent scattering of ashes can change the nature of the soil, and may affect the ecology.
The final disposition depends on the personal preferences of the deceased as well as their cultural and religious beliefs. Some religions will permit the cremated remains to be sprinkled or retained at home. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, prefer to either bury or entomb the remains. Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, grandson, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river Ganges, preferably at one of the holy cities Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, Varanasi, or Haridwar in India. The Sikhs immerse the remains in the Sutlej, usually at Kiratpur Sahib. In southern India, the ashes are immersed in the river Kaveri at Paschima vahini in Srirangapattana at a stretch where the river flows from east to west, depicting the life of a human being from sunrise to sunset. In Japan and Taiwan, the remaining bone fragments are given to the family and are used in a burial ritual before final interment.
Reasons
Aside from religious reasons (discussed below), some people find they prefer cremation over traditional burial for personal reasons. The thought of a long and slow decomposition process is unappealing to some; many people find that they prefer cremation because it disposes of the body instantly.
Other people view cremation as a way of simplifying their funeral process. These people view a traditional ground burial as an unneeded complication of their funeral process, and thus choose cremation to make their services as simple as possible. Cremation is a more simple disposition method to plan than a burial funeral. This is because with a burial funeral one would have to plan for more transportation services for the body as well as embalming and other body preservation methods. With a burial funeral one will also have to purchase a casket, headstone, grave plot, opening and closing of the grave fee, and mortician fees. Cremation funerals only require planning the transportation of the body to a crematorium, cremation of the body, and a cremation urn.
The cost factor tends to make cremation attractive. Generally speaking, cremation is cheaper than a traditional burial service, especially if direct cremation (also known as bare cremation) is chosen, in which the body is cremated as soon as legally possible without any sort of services. For some, even cremation is still relatively expensive, especially as a lot of fuel is required to perform it. Methods to reduce fuel consumption/fuel cost include the use of different fuels (i.e. natural gas or propane, compared to wood) and by using an incinerator (retort) (closed cabin) rather than an open fire.
For surviving kin, cremation is preferred because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together.
Environmental impact
Despite being an obvious source of carbon emissions, cremation does have environmental advantages over burial, depending on local practice. Studies by Elisabeth Keijzer for the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Research found that cremation has less of an environmental impact than a traditional burial (the study did not address natural burials), while the newer method of alkaline hydrolysis (sometimes called green cremation or resomation) had less impact than both. The study was based on Dutch practice; American crematoria are more likely to emit mercury, but are less likely to burn hardwood coffins. Keijzer's studies also found that a cremation or burial accounts for only about a quarter of a funeral's environmental impact; the carbon emissions of people travelling to the funeral are far greater.
Each cremation requires about of fuel and releases about of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Thus, the roughly 1 million bodies that are cremated annually in the United States produce about of carbon dioxide, which is more CO2 pollution than 22,000 average American homes generate in a year. The environmental impact may be reduced by using cremators for longer periods, and relaxing the requirement for a cremation to take place on the same day that the coffin is received, which reduces the use of fossil fuel and hence carbon emissions. Cremation is therefore becoming more friendly toward the environment. Some funeral and crematorium owners offer a carbon neutral funeral service incorporating efficient-burning coffins made from lightweight recycled composite board.
Burial is a known source of certain environmental contaminants, with the major ones being formaldehyde and the coffin itself. Cremation can also release contaminants, such as mercury from dental fillings. In some countries such as the United Kingdom, the law now requires that cremators be fitted with abatement equipment (filters) that remove serious pollutants such as mercury.
Another environmental concern is that traditional burial takes up a great deal of space. In a traditional burial, the body is buried in a casket made from a variety of materials. In the United States, the casket is often placed inside a concrete vault or liner before burial in the ground. While individually this may not take much room, combined with other burials, it can over time cause serious space concerns. Many cemeteries, particularly in Japan and Europe as well as those in larger cities, have run out of permanent space. In Tokyo, for example, traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive, and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for "double-decker" burials. Some cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt. In Singapore, cremation is preferred by most Singaporeans because burials in Singapore is limited to 15 years.
Religious views
Christianity
In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged and viewed as a desecration of God's image, and as interference with the resurrection of the dead taught in Scripture. It is now acceptable to some denominations, since a literal interpretation of Scripture is less common, or because the scriptures do not expressly prohibit the practice.
Catholicism
Christians preferred to bury the dead rather than to cremate the remains, as was common in Roman culture. The early church carried on Judaism's respect for the human body as being created in God's image, and followed their practices of speedy interment, in hopes of the future resurrection of all dead. The Roman catacombs and Medieval veneration of relics of Roman Catholic saints witness to this preference. For them, the body was not a mere receptacle for a spirit that was the real person, but an integral part of the human person. They looked on the body as sanctified by the sacraments and itself the temple of the Holy Spirit, and thus requiring to be disposed of in a way that honours and reveres it, and they saw many early practices involved with disposal of dead bodies as pagan in origin or an insult to the body.
The idea that cremation might interfere with God's ability to resurrect the body was refuted by the 2nd-century Octavius of Minucius Felix, in which he said: "Every body, whether it is dried up into dust, or is dissolved into moisture, or is compressed into ashes, or is attenuated into smoke, is withdrawn from us, but it is reserved for God in the custody of the elements. Nor, as you believe, do we fear any loss from sepulture, but we adopt the ancient and better custom of burying in the earth." A similar practice of boiling to remove flesh from bones was also punished with excommunication in a 1300 decree of Pope Boniface VIII. And while there was a clear and prevailing preference for burial, there was no general Church law forbidding cremation until 1866. In Medieval Europe, cremation was practiced mainly in situations where there were multitudes of corpses simultaneously present, such as after a battle, after a pestilence or famine, and where there was an imminent fear of diseases spreading from the corpses, since individual burials with digging graves would take too long and body decomposition would begin before all the corpses had been interred.
Beginning in the Middle Ages, and even more so in the 18th century and later, non-Christian rationalists and classicists began to advocate cremation again as a statement denying the resurrection and/or the afterlife, although the pro-cremation movement often took care to address these concerns. Sentiment within the Catholic Church against cremation became hardened in the face of the association of cremation with "professed enemies of God." When Masonic groups advocated cremation as a means of rejecting Christian belief in the resurrection, the Holy See forbade Catholics to practise cremation in 1886. The 1917 Code of Canon Law incorporated this ban. In 1963, recognizing that, in general, cremation was being sought for practical purposes and not as a denial of bodily resurrection, the choice of cremation was permitted in some circumstances. The current 1983 Code of Canon Law, states: "The Church earnestly recommends the pious custom of Christian burial be retained; but it does not entirely forbid cremation, except if this is chosen for reasons which are contrary to Christian teaching."
There are no universal rules governing Catholic funeral rites in connection with cremation, but episcopal conferences have laid down rules for various countries. Of these, perhaps the most elaborate are those established, with the necessary confirmation of the Holy See, by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and published as Appendix II of the United States edition of the Order of Christian Funerals.
Although the Holy See has in some cases authorized bishops to grant permission for funeral rites to be carried out in the presence of cremated remains, it is preferred that the rites be carried out in the presence of a still intact body. Practices that show insufficient respect for the ashes of the dead such as turning them into jewelry or scattering them are forbidden for Catholics, but burial on land or sea or enclosing in a niche or columbarium is now acceptable.
Anglicanism and Lutheranism
In 1917, Volume 6 of the American Lutheran Survey stated that "The Lutheran clergy as a rule refuse" and that "Episcopal pastors often take a stand against it." Indeed, in the 1870s, the Anglican Bishop of London stated that the practice of cremation would "undermine the faith of mankind in the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, hasten rejection of a Scriptural worldview and so bring about a most disastrous social revolution." In The Lutheran Pastor, George Henry Gerberding stated:
Some Protestant churches welcomed the use of cremation at a much earlier date than the Catholic Church; pro-cremation sentiment was not unanimous among Protestants, as some have retained a literal interpretation of Scripture. The first crematoria in the Protestant countries were built in the 1870s, and in 1908, the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey—one of the most famous Anglican churches—required that remains be cremated for burial in the abbey's precincts. Today, "scattering", or "strewing," is an acceptable practice in some Protestant denominations, and some churches have their own "garden of remembrance" on their grounds in which remains can be scattered. Some denominations, like Lutheran churches in Scandinavia, favour the urns being buried in family graves. A family grave can thus contain urns of many generations and also the urns of spouses and loved ones.
Methodism
An early Methodist tract titled Immortality and Resurrection noted that "burial is the result of a belief in the resurrection of the body, while cremation anticipates its annihilation." The Methodist Review noted that "Three thoughts alone would lead us to suppose that the early Christians would have special care for their dead, namely, the essential Jewish origin of the Church; the mode of burial of their founder; and the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, so powerfully urged by the apostles, and so mighty in its influence on the primitive Christians. From these considerations, the Roman custom of cremation would be most repulsive to the Christian mind."
Eastern Orthodox and other opposition
Some branches of Christianity entirely oppose cremation, including non-mainstream Protestant groups and the Orthodox churches. Most notably, the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches historically forbid cremation, but not dogmatically. Exceptions are made for circumstances where it cannot be avoided (when civil authority demands it, in aftermath of war or during epidemics) or if it may be sought for good cause. But when a cremation is specifically and willfully chosen for no good cause by the one who is deceased, he or she is not permitted a funeral in the church and may also be permanently excluded from burial in a Christian cemetery and liturgical prayers for the departed. In Orthodoxy, cremation is perceived as a rejection of the temple of God and of the dogma of the general resurrection.
Most independent Bible churches, free churches, Holiness churches and those of Anabaptist faiths will not practice cremation. As one example, the Church of God (Restoration) forbids the practice of cremation, believing as the Early Church did, that it continues to be a pagan practice.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has, in past decades, discouraged cremation without expressly forbidding it. In the 1950s, for example, Apostle Bruce R. McConkie wrote that "only under the most extraordinary and unusual circumstances" would cremation be consistent with LDS teachings.
More recent LDS publications have provided instructions for how to dress the deceased when they have received their temple endowments (and thus wear temple garments) prior to cremation for those wishing to do so, or in countries where the law requires cremation. Except where required by law, the family of the deceased may decide whether the body should be cremated, though the Church "does not normally encourage cremation."
Hinduism
Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism practice cremation. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Buddha, was cremated.
A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried. The rite of passage is performed in harmony with the Hindu religious view that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe. The soul (Atman, Brahman) is the essence and immortal that is released at the Antyeshti ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism. They consist of five elements – air, water, fire, earth and space. The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins. The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows:
The final rite in the case of untimely death of a child is usually not cremation but a burial. This is rooted in Rig Veda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to "neither harm our girls nor our boys", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.
Ashes of the cremated bodies are usually spread in a river, which are considered holy in the Hindu practice. Ganga is considered to be the holiest river and Varanasi, which is on the banks of river Ganga the holiest place to be cremated at.
Balinese
Balinese Hindu dead are generally buried inside the container for a period of time, which may exceed one month or more, so that the cremation ceremony (Ngaben) can occur on an auspicious day in the Balinese-Javanese Calendar system ("Saka"). Additionally, if the departed was a court servant, member of the court or minor noble, the cremation can be postponed up to several years to coincide with the cremation of their Prince. Balinese funerals are very expensive and the body may be interred until the family can afford it or until there is a group funeral planned by the village or family when costs will be less. The purpose of burying the corpse is for the decay process to consume the fluids of the corpse, which allows for an easier, more rapid and more complete cremation.
Islam
Islam strictly forbids cremation. Its teaching is that cremation is not in line with the respect and dignity due to the deceased. Islam has specific rites for the treatment of the body after death.
Judaism
Judaism has traditionally disapproved of cremation in the past, as a rejection of the respect due to humans who are created in the image of God. Judaism has also disapproved of preservation of the dead by means of embalming and mummifying, as this involves mutilation and abuse of the corpse. Mummification was a practice of the ancient Egyptians, among whom the Israelites are said in the Torah to have lived as slaves.
Through history and up to the philosophical movements of the current era Modern Orthodox, Orthodox, Haredi, and Hasidic movements in Judaism have maintained the historical practice and strict Biblical line against cremation and disapprove of it, as Halakha (Jewish law) forbids it. This halakhic concern is grounded in the literal interpretation of Scripture, viewing the body as created in the image of God and upholding a bodily resurrection as core beliefs of traditional Judaism. This interpretation was occasionally opposed by some Jewish groups such as the Sadducees, who denied resurrection. The Tanakh emphasizes burial as the normal practice, for instance Devarim (Deuteronomy) 21:23 (specifically commanding the burial of executed criminals), with both a positive command derived from this verse to command one to bury a dead body and a negative command forbidding neglecting to bury a dead body. Some from the generally liberal Conservative Jewish also oppose cremation, some very strongly, seeing it as a rejection of God's design.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, as the Jewish cemeteries in many European towns had become crowded and were running out of space, in a few cases cremation for the first time became an approved means of corpse disposal among emerging liberal and Reform Jewish movements in line with their across the board rejection of literal scripture interpretation and traditional Torah ritual laws. Current liberal movements like Reform Judaism still support cremation, although burial remains the preferred option.
In Israel religious ritual events including free burial and funeral services for all who die in Israel and all citizens including the majority Jewish population including for the secular or non-observant are almost universally facilitated through the Rabbinate of Israel. This is an Orthodox organization following historical and traditional Jewish law. In Israel there were no formal crematories until 2004 when B&L Cremation Systems Inc. became the first crematory manufacturer to sell a retort to Israel. In August 2007, an orthodox youth group in Israel was accused of burning down the country's sole crematorium, which they see as an affront to God. The crematorium was rebuilt by its owner and the retort replaced.
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith forbids cremation, "He feels that, in view of what 'Abdu'l-Bahá has said against cremation, the believers should be strongly urged, as an act of faith, to make provisions against their remains being cremated. Bahá'u'lláh has laid down as a law, in the Aqdas, the manner of Baháʼí burial, and it is so beautiful, befitting and dignified, that no believer should deprive himself of it."
Wicca
Both burial and cremation are practiced by Wiccans and there is no set directive on how the body should be disposed of after death. Wiccans believe that the body is merely a shell for the spirit so cremation is not viewed as irreverent or disrespectful. One tradition practiced by Wiccans is to mix the ashes from cremation with soil which is then used to plant a tree.
Zoroastrianism
Traditionally, Zoroastrianism disavows cremation or burial to preclude pollution of fire or earth. The traditional method of corpse disposal is through ritual exposure in a "Tower of Silence", but both burial and cremation are increasingly popular alternatives. Some contemporary adhererents of the faith have opted for cremation. Parsi-Zoroastrian singer Freddie Mercury of the group Queen was cremated after his death.
Chinese
Neo-Confucianism under Zhu Xi strongly discourages cremation of one's parents' corpses as unfilial. Han Chinese traditionally practiced burial and viewed cremation as taboo and as a barbarian practice.
Traditionally, only Buddhist monks in China practiced cremation because ordinary Han Chinese detested cremation, refusing to do it. But now, the atheist Communist party enforces a strict cremation policy on Han Chinese. Exceptions are made for Hui who do not cremate their dead due to Islamic beliefs.
The minority Jurchen and their Manchu descendants originally practiced cremation as part of their culture. They adopted the practice of burial from the Han, but many Manchus continued to cremate their dead.
Pets
In Japan, more than 465 companion animal temples are in operation. These venues hold funerals and rituals for dead pets. In Australia, pet owners can purchase services to have their companion animal cremated and placed in a pet cemetery or taken home.
The cost of pet cremation depends on location, where the cremation is done, and time of cremation. The American Humane Society's cost for the cremation of a pet weighing under 22.5 kg (50 lb) costs $110, while a pet weighing over 23 kg (51 lb) is $145. The cremated remains are available for the owner to pick up in seven to ten business days. Urns for the companion animal range from $50 to $150.
Though pet cremation has accelerated in recent years, Americans are still burying their pets by a 2:1 ratio.
Recent controversies
Tri-State Crematory incident
In early 2002, 334 corpses that were supposed to have been cremated in the previous few years at the Tri-State Crematory were found intact and decaying on the crematorium's grounds in the U.S. state of Georgia, having been dumped there by the crematorium's proprietor. Many of the corpses were decayed beyond identification. Some families received "ashes" that were made of wood and concrete dust.
Operator Ray Brent Marsh had 787 criminal charges filed against him. On 19 November 2004, Marsh pleaded guilty to all charges. Marsh was sentenced to two 12-year prison sentences, one each from Georgia and Tennessee, to be served concurrently; he was also sentenced to probation for 75 years following his incarceration.
Civil suits were filed against the Marsh family and a number of funeral homes who shipped bodies to Tri-State; these suits were ultimately settled. The property of the Marsh family has been sold, but collection of the full $80-million judgment remains doubtful.
Rates
The cremation rate varies considerably across countries with Japan reporting a 99% cremation rate while Poland reported a rate of 6.7% in 2008. The cremation rate in the United Kingdom has been increasing steadily with the national average rate rising from 34.70% in 1960 to 75.44% in 2015. According to the National Funeral Directors Association the cremation rate in the United States in 2016 was 50.2 percent and this was expected to increase to 63.8 percent by 2025 and 78.8 percent in 2035.
See also
Antyesti
Burial at sea
Burial in space
Cremation in Japan
Death
Promession
Resomation
Sati
Self-immolation
Tissue digestion
References
External links
The International Cremation Federation (ICF)
Death customs
Fire
Incineration | wiki |
Hospital for Incurables may refer to:
Ospedale degli Incurabili, the Neapolitan Hospital for Incurables
Royal Edinburgh Hospital for Incurables
Royal Hospital, Donnybrook
Royal Hospital for Incurables
Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability
Hospital for Incurables (New York City) on Roosevelt Island | wiki |
Patient capital is another name for long term capital. With patient capital, the investor is willing to make a financial investment in a business with no expectation of turning a quick profit. Instead, the investor is willing to forgo an immediate return in anticipation of more substantial returns down the road. Prominent examples of patient capital includes pensions, sovereign wealth funds, and university endowments. Governments with access to patient capital may have greater maneuverability in formulating domestic economic policies.
Although patient capital can be considered a traditional investment instrument, it has gained new life with the rise in environmentally and socially responsible enterprises. In these cases, it may take the form of equity, debt, loan guarantees or other financial instruments, and is characterized by:
Willingness to forgo maximum financial returns for social impact, and an unwillingness to sacrifice the interests of the end customer for the sake of shareholders
Greater tolerance for risk than traditional investment capital
Longer time horizons for return of capital
Intensive support of management as they grow their enterprise
The source of capital may be philanthropy, investment capital, or some combination of the two. Patient capital is not a grant, it is an investment intended to return its principal plus (often below market-rate) interest. It does not seek to maximize financial returns to investors; it seeks to maximize social impact and to catalyze the creation of markets to combat poverty. On the spectrum of capital available to both non-profits and for-profits, patient capital sits between traditional venture capital and traditional philanthropy, between development aid and foreign direct investment.
Thomas Friedman of the New York Times describes patient capital as having "all the discipline of venture capital – demanding a return, and therefore rigor in how it is deployed – but expecting a return that is more in the 5 to 10 percent range, rather than the 35 percent that venture capitalists look for." Jacqueline Novogratz of Acumen adds: patient capital "takes the best of the markets as well as philanthropy and aid. Patient capital is money invested in entrepreneurs building companies and organizations that solve tough problems like healthcare, water, housing, alternative energy."
The success of the platform company business model is in large part due to patient capital, as investors are prepared to accept long periods without profit in the hopes that the platform company obtains a dominant market position.
Notes
External links
More 'Patient Capital' for Social Ventures; Business Week
Entrepreneurship: Resources for 'Patient' Capital; Business Week
The Patient Capitalist; The Economist
Capital (economics) | wiki |
Ireland was represented by the female trio Sheeba in the Eurovision Song Contest 1981 with the song "Horoscopes", written by Joe Kelly and Jim Burkett.
Before Eurovision
The National Song Contest 1981
Competing entries
Sheeba had previously appeared at the National finals in 1978, while member Maxi had performed for Ireland at the 1973 Eurovision finals. They were one of two female trios in the Contest - the other being The Duskey Sisters. Male/female groups were represented by opening act Tara and closing act Karen Black and The Nevada - the latter being a famous recording act in Ireland at the time under the line up of Roy Taylor, Karen Black and The Nevada. Their song "My Pet Parrot" was largely a novelty song (featuring a man dressed as a Parrot playing trombone (whom Black later claimed was drunk during the performance) and became heavily played on Irish radio. Tony Kenny was also a famous artist in Ireland at the time and had released many hit singles, as well as performing a number of times in the National finals. Nicola Kerr was known at the time for being a member of the current line-up of UK pop group (and former Eurovision entrants) The New Seekers. The remaining two contestants were also solo females, Helen Jordan and Sylvia McFadden (who received 'nul points' with her own composition).
Sheeba would later take part in the 1982 National Song Contest, where they came 7th. Two other artists competing this year entered also: Tony Kenny, who came 6th and The Duskey Sisters (as The Duskeys) who won.
Final
The final was held on 1 March 1981 at the RTE TV Studios in Dublin, hosted by Mike Murphy. The winner was chosen by 10 regional juries. Killarney was due to announce their votes after Dublin, but due to connection problems, they had to announce their votes last.
The show's result was a surprise as "My Pet Parrot" had been touted as the favourite to win before the Contest. The contest closed with all the Contestants performing Barry Manilow's "I Write The Songs" on stage as the credits rolled.
At Eurovision
The song is an up-tempo number, with the girls singing about the fascination some people have with horoscopes and star signs. They explain that this is "crazy, crazy", because "it's we, not the stars above, who write our horoscopes". They tell their listeners that they have to work hard to achieve their goals in life instead of waiting and doing nothing ("success comes from what we do, not from what we're told"). The three singers wore revealing green dresses during the performance.
The Eurovision final in 1981 was held at the RDS in Dublin, Ireland. It was presented by Doireann Ní Bhriain. Sheeba were the 12th act to perform.
Sheeba finished fifth in the Eurovision Song Contest final on April 4. They received two maximums of 12 points during the voting. The overall winner was United Kingdom.
The song "Horoscopes" became a No. 3 hit in the Irish charts.
Voting
References
1981
Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 1981
Eurovision
Eurovision
1981 songs | wiki |
Lake Barracoota is a naturally forming permanent freshwater lake located in the East Gippsland region in the Australian state of Victoria. The lake is located entirely within the Croajingolong National Park and when full, the surface area of the lake is .
The eastern shoreline of the lake lie against a granite spur of the Howe Range but all other shorelines are backed by dune sand or swamp deposits. Beaches at the eastern and western shores and spits along the southern shore are formed from sand blown into the lake from coastal dunes and which is being moved by wave and wave currents. Sand is spilling into the lake from active parabolic dunes at two points along the southern shore. Other lake shorelines are fringed by Baumea rubiginosa, Eleocharis sphacelata and Trigloching procera, with Phragmites australis at points of fresh water inflow. Behind the reeds and sedges are extensive thickets.
See also
Croajingolong National Park
Mallacoota
References
External links
Lakes of Victoria (Australia)
East Gippsland catchment
Rivers of Gippsland (region) | wiki |
Peer may refer to:
Sociology
Peer, an equal in age, education or social class; see Peer group
Peer, a member of the peerage; related to the term "peer of the realm"
Computing
Peer, one of several functional units in the same layer of a network; See Peer group (computer networking)
Peer (networking), a computer system connected to others on a network
Peer, a computer network in a voluntary interconnection of administratively separate Internet networks in peering
Organizations
Partnership for European Environmental Research, a network of seven European environmental research centres
Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility, an organization of anonymous public employees promoting environmental responsibility
People
Given name
Peer Åström (born 1972), Swedish composer, lyricist, musician and record producer
Peer Guldbrandsen (1912–1996), Danish screenwriter, actor, film director and producer
Peer Hultberg (1935–2007), Danish author and psychoanalyst
Peer Joechel (born 1967), German bobsledder
Peer Lisdorf (born 1967), Danish footballer and coach
Peer Lorenzen (born 1944), Danish jurist and judge and section president of the European Court of Human Rights
Peer Mascini (1941–2019), Dutch actor
Peer Moberg (born 1971), Norwegian sport sailor
Peer Nielsen (born 1942), Danish sprint canoer
Peer Qvam (1911–1977), Norwegian architect
Peer Raben (1940–2007), German composer born Wilhelm Rabenbauer
Peer Smed (1878–1943), Danish-American silversmith and metalworker
Peer Stromme (1856–1921), American pastor, teacher, journalist and author
Surname
Elizabeth Peer (1936–1984), American pioneering woman journalist
Ralph Peer (1892–1960), American talent scout, recording engineer, record producer and music publisher
Other uses
Peer, the title character of Peer Gynt, a play by Henrik Ibsen, or Peer Günt Finnish rock band
Peer, Belgium, a municipality
Twelve Peers, in legend, the twelve foremost knights of Charlemagne's court
See also
Pe'er, a list of people with the given name or surname
Peers (disambiguation), a surname and place name
Pir (Sufism) (also spelled Peer)
Pier (disambiguation)
Pir (disambiguation)
Masculine given names
Surnames from given names
Danish masculine given names | wiki |
Dockx is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Bart Dockx (born 1981), Belgian professional road bicycle racer
Daniel Martin Dockx (born 1974), Spanish Olympic dressage rider
Félix Dockx, Belgian cyclist
Gert Dockx (born 1988), Belgian professional road bicycle racer
Jean Dockx (1941–2002), Belgian international footballer
See also
Dock | wiki |
igHome is a customizable start page introduced in 2012 as an alternative to iGoogle, the personal web portal launched by Google in May 2005. Just like iGoogle, igHome offers users the possibility to build a start page containing a central search box and a number of gadgets. igHome mimics the user interface of iGoogle. Registered igHome users can create multiple tabs and import RSS feeds.
See also
Start page
iGoogle
Protopage
References
External links
igHome Official website
Web applications
Web portals | wiki |
The Talk may refer to:
The Talk (talk show), an American daytime talk show on CBS that debuted in 2010
"The Talk" (Mortified), an episode of Mortified
The talk (racism in the United States), a conversation Black American parents have with their children about the dangers they'll face due to racism
The talk (sex education), the discusion by parents, with their children, about sexual relationships, functions, and results
See also
Talk (disambiguation)
Talk show (disambiguation)
The Talk Show (disambiguation) | wiki |
A pocket part (formally titled as a supplement, abbr. supp.) is a special document located inside the back cover of certain hardcover legal reference books. Legal researchers consult it to ensure that the most current law is examined. The pocket part was first introduced in 1916 by the West Publishing Company to update McKinney's Consolidated Laws of New York.
A legal reference book designed to be used with a pocket part subscription comes in the form of a sturdy hardcover book with a large pocket built into the back cover. At regular intervals (usually annually), the publisher sends out a new pocket part, which is a saddle-stapled pamphlet printed on cheap newsprint. The part comes with a thick card stapled or glued to one cover, and that card is inserted into the pocket to hold the pocket part inside the book which it updates. A pocket part is cumulative, meaning that it includes all updates to the book between the original date of publication of the book and the date of publication of the pocket part. The task of regularly replacing pocket parts is one of the major chores of operating a law library.
At the time of publication, the book is organized into numbered sections which are usually several paragraphs in length. A reader of the book would first identify and consult the section in which they are interested, and then consult the pocket part to ensure that the section has not been amended, deleted, or superseded in the years since the hardcover book was printed. If the relevant section is omitted from the pocket part, then the reader may safely assume that the version of the section in the book itself is still current (at least as far as the author, editor and/or publisher are aware).
Since the law is always changing, a pocket part may eventually grow into a separate softcover booklet to be shelved next to its hardcover counterpart. Eventually, when a pocket part becomes nearly as big as its parent book (because most of the parent book's sections have changed since it was originally released), the publisher sends out a new hardcover volume with all the intervening changes incorporated, and directs subscribers to discard the old volume and pocket part. Then the process starts again.
This tedious method of updating and using legal books made sense in the days when each page of a hardcover book was typeset by hand from raw copy. It was easier to typeset a small 30-page pamphlet every year, rather than an entire 300-page book.
Today, many legal reference books are now maintained in real time on legal databases as "living" electronic documents with all amendments continuously merged in. Modern imagesetters, platesetters, desktop publishing software, and offset printing have almost completely automated the process of typesetting such books.
Therefore, many newer legal books are now simply republished every year (or every other year) in the form of easily recyclable paperback books; the Oregon Revised Statutes are an example of this newer practice.
See also
Looseleaf service – another common method of updating hard copy legal reference works
References
Legal research | wiki |
AsiaSat 6 / Thaicom 7 is a geostationary communications satellite which is operated by the Asia Satellite Telecommunications Company (AsiaSat) and was launched into orbit on 7 September 2014. The satellite project was developed in cooperation between satellite operators AsiaSat and Thaicom. AsiaSat owns half of the satellite's 28 transponders which are marketed as AsiaSat 6. The other half of the satellite is owned by Thaicom and is marketed as Thaicom 7. AsiaSat's part of the satellite is operated under license of the China (PRC), whereas Thaicom's part is operated under license of Thailand.
Satellite description
Space Systems/Loral (SS/L), announced in November 2011 that it has been chosen by AsiaSat, to build the AsiaSat 6 and AsiaSat 8 communications satellites. AsiaSat 6 / Thaicom 7 was built by Space Systems/Loral, and is based on the LS-1300LL satellite bus. The satellite carries 28 C-band transponders and is positioned at a longitude of 120° East, providing coverage over southern Asia, Australia and New Zealand.
Launch
SpaceX was contracted to launch AsiaSat 6 / Thaicom 7 using a Falcon 9 v1.1 launch vehicle. The launch took place from Space Launch Complex 40 (SLC-40) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) on 7 September 2014, at.
Falcon 9 Upper stage
The Falcon 9 upper stage used to launch AsiaSat 6 / Thaicom 7 was derelict in a decaying elliptical low Earth orbit from September to December 2014. Initially, on 9 September 2014, it orbited with a perigee of and an apogee of . One month on, in October 2014, the orbit had decayed to an altitude of at its closest approach to Earth, and by November 2014 had decayed to a perigee. The derelict second stage reentered the atmosphere on 28 December 2014.
Thaicom 7
Satellite fleet operator Thaicom of Thailand has agreed in December 2011 to pay competitor AsiaSat US$171 million over 15 years for the use of one-half of an AsiaSat satellite and placed in a Thai orbital position in an arrangement that permits Thailand to preserve its rights to the orbital position under the agreement, the AsiaSat 6 satellite is at 120° East longitude. Before its launch, AsiaSat and Thaicom placed AsiaSat 2 as an interim satellite at 120° East to retain Thailand's regulatory rights to the orbital position.
See also
2014 in spaceflight
List of Falcon 9 launches
References
AsiaSat satellites
SpaceX commercial payloads
Thaicom satellites
Spacecraft launched in 2014
Satellites using the SSL 1300 bus | wiki |
Essays are short pieces of writing from an author's personal point of view.
Essays may also refer to:
Essays (Montaigne), a book by Michel de Montaigne
Essays (Francis Bacon), a book by Francis Bacon
Essays (Emerson), several collections of essays by Ralph Waldo Emmerson, including:
Essays: First Series, 1841
Essays: Second Series, 1844
See also
Essay (disambiguation) | wiki |
Woodhaven (autrefois Woodville) est un quartier de classe moyenne situé au centre de l'arrondissement du Queens à New York.
Notes et références
Quartier du Queens | wiki |
Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction is the resulting diffraction pattern of light interacting with sound waves in transparent crystals or glasses.
See also
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1076617
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v52/i3/p223_1
DOI.org
References
Diffraction | wiki |
Jiao quan (; or xiaoyougui; also called fried ring) is a dish from Beijing cuisine. It has a golden color, shaped like a bracelet. It feels crispy and crunchy when eaten. The unique taste of it is very popular in Beijing cuisine. People usually eat jiaoquan with shaobing and douzhi.
Jiao quan is a special Beijing local food. The shape of it is like a doughnut, but it has a crispier texture.
References
External links
Beijing cuisine
Chinese breads | wiki |
Presumption of paternity in paternity law and common law is the legal determination that a man is "presumed to be" a child's biological father without additional supportive evidence, usually as a result of marriage.
Generally associated with marriage,
a presumption of paternity can also be made by court order, contact over time with a child, or simple cohabitation with the mother.
If there is no presumption of paternity, a process such as recognition may be used to establish paternity.
See also
Presumption of legitimacy
Recognition (family law)
References
Family law
Paternity | wiki |
Don Pachi may refer to:
DonPachi is the name of a popular, early bullet hell video game
Don Pachi is also the name of a major character in the anime Bobobo-bo Bo-bobo | wiki |
Christian College, Chengannur (CCC) is a government aided college for higher education located at Angadickal Chengannur, Alappuzha district, Kerala, India. It was established in 1964 by Rt. Rev. Dr. Mathews Mar Athanasius. The college is owned and operated by Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church and affiliated with Kerala University. The NAAC Accredited B++ Grade College has 9 departments offering various graduate and post graduate courses. Notable alumni of the college include Saji Cherian and ex-MLA KK Ramachandran Nair.
Departments
Science
Physics
Chemistry
Zoology
Mathematics
Botany
Arts
English
Economics
History
Commerce
Accreditation
The college is recognized by the University Grants Commission (UGC).
References
External links
http://www.christiancollege.ac.in
Universities and colleges in Alappuzha district
Educational institutions established in 1964
1964 establishments in Kerala
Arts and Science colleges in Kerala
Colleges affiliated to the University of Kerala | wiki |
In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow horizontally. The rhizome also retains the ability to allow new shoots to grow upwards.
A rhizome is the main stem of the plant that runs underground horizontally. A stolon is similar to a rhizome, but a stolon sprouts from an existing stem, has long internodes, and generates new shoots at the end, such as in the strawberry plant. In general, rhizomes have short internodes, send out roots from the bottom of the nodes, and generate new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes.
A stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ. In general, a tuber is high in starch, e.g. the potato, which is a modified stolon. The term "tuber" is often used imprecisely and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes.
If a rhizome is separated each piece may be able to give rise to a new plant. The plant uses the rhizome to store starches, proteins, and other nutrients. These nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter. This is a process known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants. This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses. Examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops, asparagus, ginger, irises, lily of the valley, cannas, and sympodial orchids.
Stored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections, making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks. However, rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures. The ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields. The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have been found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes, specifically in rhubarb. Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels, allowing easy manipulations of ethylene concentrations. Knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists to produce plants grown from rhizomes, and more easily cultivate and grow better plants.
Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface, including some Iris species, and ferns, whose spreading stems are rhizomes. Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers, bamboo, snake plant, the Venus flytrap, Chinese lantern, western poison-oak, hops, and Alstroemeria, and the weeds Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, and purple nut sedge. Rhizomes generally form a single layer, but in giant horsetails, can be multi-tiered.
Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zhe'ergen, are commonly consumed raw. Some rhizomes that are used directly in cooking include ginger, turmeric, galangal, fingerroot, and lotus.
See also
Aspen
Corm
Mycorrhiza
Tuber
Bulb
References
External links
The Rhizome Collective for sustainable living
Plant anatomy
Plant physiology
Plant reproduction | wiki |
Justice League mainly refers to the Justice League of America, a fictional team of DC Comics superheroes.
Justice League may also refer to:
Media and entertainment
Justice League (film), a 2017 live-action film based on the team
Justice League (soundtrack), the soundtrack from the film, by Danny Elfman
Zack Snyder's Justice League, the director's cut of the original film
Zack Snyder's Justice League (soundtrack), the soundtrack from the film, by Junkie XL
Justice League (Smallville), the version of the superhero team in the television series Smallville
Justice League (TV series), a 2001–2004 animated television series
Justice League, a 2001 animated television film that served as the television pilot for the series (split into the three-parter series premiere Secret Origins for reruns)
Justice League Unlimited, a 2004–2006 animated continuation of the series
Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, a 2010 direct-to-video animated film
Justice League: War, a 2014 direct-to-video animated film based on the New 52 Justice League: Origin arc
Justice League of America (film), a 1997 live-action television pilot and film
Music
J.U.S.T.I.C.E. League, an American group of hip hop producers
See also
Justus League, a hip hop collective
League of the Just, an early Christian communist organization | wiki |
US Open 2015 (tennis) - een tennistoernooi
US Open 2015 (tennis, mannen)
US Open 2015 (tennis, vrouwen)
US Open 2015 (tennis, mannendubbel)
US Open 2015 (tennis, vrouwendubbel)
US Open 2015 (tennis, gemengddubbel)
US Open 2015 (golf) - een golftoernooi | wiki |
Brodo (Italiaans: kooknat, bouillon) is kooknat van vlees, groente of vis, dat eventueel met zout of specerijen gebruikt kan worden voor verschillende gerechten zoals soepen (minestre), sausen en risotto.
Italiaanse keuken
Soep met vlees | wiki |
Luke Easter may refer to:
Luke Easter (baseball) (1915–1979), American baseball player
Luke Easter (musician), vocalist for the band Tourniquet | wiki |
This is a list of countries by annual electricity production. China is the world's largest electricity producing country, followed by the United States and India.
Total production
If possible, country links link to articles about the electricity sector.
Production by source
Source: World Development Indicators: Electricity production, sources, and access (2011)
Note: The percentage are subjected to round-off errors.
See also
List of countries by electricity consumption
List of countries by energy consumption per capita
List of countries by energy intensity
List of countries by renewable electricity production
List of countries by total primary energy consumption and production
References
Energy-related lists by country
production | wiki |
Lex Calpurnia de repetundis – wydana w 149 p.n.e. ustawa, której wnioskodawcą był trybun ludowy Lucjusz Kalpurniusz Pizon. Wprowadziła pierwsze stałe trybunały karne, w skład których zapewne wchodzili tylko senatorowie. Poszkodowani musieli korzystać z pomocy patronów, którzy pochodzili z senatu rzymskiego.
Bibliografia
Calpurnia de repetundis | wiki |
Strictly Speaking, by journalist and TV anchorman Edwin Newman (), sub-titled "Will America be the death of English ?", was published in 1974. In the book Newman "skillfully skinned contemporary written and spoken English", pointing out how the language of Shakespeare had degenerated at the hands of business, journalists and politicians, becoming choked with "banalities, cliches, pomposities, redundancies and catchphrases".
References
English language | wiki |
Finocchiona () is a salami variety, typical of Tuscany, Florence area. It is characterized by the use of fennel.
Origins
Finocchiona originated in the Renaissance, and possibly even before, in the Late Middle Ages. The use of fennel was an alternative to pepper (a key ingredient of the standard salami), which was very expensive at the time, while fennel grew wild and abundant in the Tuscan countryside. Also, fennel is rich in menthol, and because of its anesthetic qualities, finocchiona was regularly offered by the winemakers of the Chianti area to their customers before tasting their lower quality wines to mask their taste. Its name derives from , the Italian name for fennel.
Preparation
Finocchiona's ingredients are chopped pork meat (generally cheek, shoulder, or belly), fennel seeds, red wine, salt, and pepper. It is fermented and then dried for not less than five months.
A variant, sbriciolona, is prepared with a coarser grind, and undergoes a shorter drying (not more than a month). This product has to be cut into larger slices than the typical finocchiona and is consumed using a fork and a knife because it tends to crumble.
See also
Italian cuisine
References
Lunch meat
Italian products with protected designation of origin
Italian sausages
Fermented sausages | wiki |
Woodbine may refer to:
Species of Lonicera (honeysuckle), particularly:
Lonicera periclymenum, European honeysuckle
Lonicera xylosteum, fly honeysuckle
Species of Parthenocissus, particularly:
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Virginia creeper
Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Japanese creeper
Parthenocissus vitacea, thicket creeper, false Virginia creeper
Unrelated species:
Clematis virginiana, devil's darning needles
Gelsemium sempervirens, yellow jessamine | wiki |
Judy's Little No-No (also released as Let's Do It) is a 1969 crime film about a go-go dancer who is targeted by gangsters after coming into possession of a priceless jewel. The film was directed and written by Sherman Price and stars Elisa Ingram, John Davis Lodge, and Joe E. Ross.
External links
1969 films
1969 crime drama films
American crime drama films
1960s English-language films
1960s American films | wiki |
La red peas soup è una densa zuppa, quasi uno stufato, tipica della cucina giamaicana, a base di fagioli Kidney rossi, che localmente vengono chiamati red peas, carne di manzo, cipolla, igname e patate dolci, insaporita con ingredienti che possono variare a seconda delle zone, tra cui: coda di maiale, zampe di gallina o di tacchino, peperoncino scotch bonnet, pimento, pepe nero, scalogno, aglio, timo, latte di cocco.
Note | wiki |
Pleitas is een gemeente in de Spaanse provincie Zaragoza in de regio Aragón met een oppervlakte van 2,13 km². Pleitas telt inwoners ().
Demografische ontwikkeling
Bron: INE, 1857-2011: volkstellingen
Gemeente in Zaragoza | wiki |
In database theory, relational algebra is a theory that uses algebraic structures for modeling data, and defining queries on it with a well founded semantics. The theory was introduced by Edgar F. Codd.
The main application of relational algebra is to provide a theoretical foundation for relational databases, particularly query languages for such databases, chief among which is SQL. Relational databases store tabular data represented as relations. Queries over relational databases often likewise return tabular data represented as relations.
The main purpose of the relational algebra is to define operators that transform one or more input relations to an output relation. Given that these operators accept relations as input and produce relations as output, they can be combined and used to express potentially complex queries that transform potentially many input relations (whose data are stored in the database) into a single output relation (the query results).
Unary operators accept as input a single relation; examples include operators to filter certain attributes (columns) or tuples (rows) from an input relation.
Binary operators accept as input two relations; such operators combine the two input relations into a single output relation by, for example, taking all tuples found in either relation, removing tuples from the first relation found in the second relation, extending the tuples of the first relation with tuples in the second relation matching certain conditions, and so forth.
Other more advanced operators can also be included, where the inclusion or exclusion of certain operators gives rise to a family of algebras.
Introduction
Relational algebra received little attention outside of pure mathematics until the publication of E.F. Codd's relational model of data in 1970. Codd proposed such an algebra as a basis for database query languages. (See section Implementations.)
Five primitive operators of Codd's algebra are the selection, the projection, the Cartesian product (also called the cross product or cross join), the set union, and the set difference.
Set operators
The relational algebra uses set union, set difference, and Cartesian product from set theory, but adds additional constraints to these operators.
For set union and set difference, the two relations involved must be union-compatible—that is, the two relations must have the same set of attributes. Because set intersection is defined in terms of set union and set difference, the two relations involved in set intersection must also be union-compatible.
For the Cartesian product to be defined, the two relations involved must have disjoint headers—that is, they must not have a common attribute name.
In addition, the Cartesian product is defined differently from the one in set theory in the sense that tuples are considered to be "shallow" for the purposes of the operation. That is, the Cartesian product of a set of n-tuples with a set of m-tuples yields a set of "flattened" -tuples (whereas basic set theory would have prescribed a set of 2-tuples, each containing an n-tuple and an m-tuple). More formally, R × S is defined as follows:
The cardinality of the Cartesian product is the product of the cardinalities of its factors, that is, |R × S| = |R| × |S|.
Projection ()
A projection is a unary operation written as where is a set of attribute names. The result of such projection is defined as the set that is obtained when all tuples in R are restricted to the set .
Note: when implemented in SQL standard the "default projection" returns a multiset instead of a set, and the projection to eliminate duplicate data is obtained by the addition of the DISTINCT keyword.
Selection (σ)
A generalized selection is a unary operation written as where is a propositional formula that consists of atoms as allowed in the normal selection and the logical operators (and), (or) and (negation). This selection selects all those tuples in R for which holds.
To obtain a listing of all friends or business associates in an address book, the selection might be written as . The result would be a relation containing every attribute of every unique record where is true or where is true.
Rename (ρ)
A rename is a unary operation written as where the result is identical to R except that the b attribute in all tuples is renamed to an a attribute. This is simply used to rename the attribute of a relation or the relation itself.
To rename the "isFriend" attribute to "isBusinessContact" in a relation, might be used.
There is also the notation, where R is renamed to x and the attributes are renamed to .
Joins and join-like operators
Natural join (⋈)
Natural join (⋈) is a binary operator that is written as (R ⋈ S) where R and S are relations. The result of the natural join is the set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on their common attribute names. For an example consider the tables Employee and Dept and their natural join:
Note that neither the employee named Mary nor the Production department appear in the result.
This can also be used to define composition of relations. For example, the composition of Employee and Dept is their join as shown above, projected on all but the common attribute DeptName. In category theory, the join is precisely the fiber product.
The natural join is arguably one of the most important operators since it is the relational counterpart of the logical AND operator. Note that if the same variable appears in each of two predicates that are connected by AND, then that variable stands for the same thing and both appearances must always be substituted by the same value (this is a consequence of the idempotence of the logical AND). In particular, natural join allows the combination of relations that are associated by a foreign key. For example, in the above example a foreign key probably holds from Employee.DeptName to Dept.DeptName and then the natural join of Employee and Dept combines all employees with their departments. This works because the foreign key holds between attributes with the same name. If this is not the case such as in the foreign key from Dept.Manager to Employee.Name then these columns must be renamed before taking the natural join. Such a join is sometimes also referred to as an equijoin (see θ-join).
More formally the semantics of the natural join are defined as follows:
where Fun(t) is a predicate that is true for a relation t (in the mathematical sense) iff t is a function (that is, t does not map any attribute to multiple values). It is usually required that R and S must have at least one common attribute, but if this constraint is omitted, and R and S have no common attributes, then the natural join becomes exactly the Cartesian product.
The natural join can be simulated with Codd's primitives as follows. Assume that c1,...,cm are the attribute names common to R and S, r1,...,rn are the
attribute names unique to R and s1,...,sk are the
attribute names unique to S. Furthermore, assume that the attribute names x1,...,xm are neither in R nor in S. In a first step the common attribute names in S can be renamed:
Then we take the Cartesian product and select the tuples that are to be joined:
Finally we take a projection to get rid of the renamed attributes:
θ-join and equijoin
Consider tables Car and Boat which list models of cars and boats and their respective prices. Suppose a customer wants to buy a car and a boat, but she does not want to spend more money for the boat than for the car. The θ-join (⋈θ) on the predicate CarPrice ≥ BoatPrice produces the flattened pairs of rows which satisfy the predicate. When using a condition where the attributes are equal, for example Price, then the condition may be specified as Price=Price
or alternatively (Price) itself.
In order to combine tuples from two relations where the combination condition is not simply the equality of shared attributes it is convenient to have a more general form of join operator, which is the θ-join (or theta-join). The θ-join is a binary operator that is written as or where a and b are attribute names, θ is a binary relational operator in the set {<, ≤, =, ≠, >, ≥}, υ is a value constant, and R and S are relations. The result of this operation consists of all combinations of tuples in R and S that satisfy θ. The result of the θ-join is defined only if the headers of S and R are disjoint, that is, do not contain a common attribute.
The simulation of this operation in the fundamental operations is therefore as follows:
R ⋈θ S = σθ(R × S)
In case the operator θ is the equality operator (=) then this join is also called an equijoin.
Note, however, that a computer language that supports the natural join and selection operators does not need θ-join as well, as this can be achieved by selection from the result of a natural join (which degenerates to Cartesian product when there are no shared attributes).
In SQL implementations, joining on a predicate is usually called an inner join, and the on keyword allows one to specify the predicate used to filter the rows. It is important to note: forming the flattened Cartesian product then filtering the rows is conceptually correct, but an implementation would use more sophisticated data structures to speed up the join query.
Semijoin (⋉ and ⋊)
The left semijoin is a joining similar to the natural join and written as where and are relations. The result is the set of all tuples in for which there is a tuple in that is equal on their common attribute names. The difference from a natural join is that other columns of do not appear. For example, consider the tables Employee and Dept and their semijoin:
More formally the semantics of the semijoin can be defined as
follows:
where is as in the definition of natural join.
The semijoin can be simulated using the natural join as follows. If are the attribute names of , then
Since we can simulate the natural join with the basic operators it follows that this also holds for the semijoin.
In Codd's 1970 paper, semijoin is called restriction.
Antijoin (▷)
The antijoin, written as R ▷ S where R and S are relations, is similar to the semijoin, but the result of an antijoin is only those tuples in R for which there is no tuple in S that is equal on their common attribute names.
For an example consider the tables Employee and Dept and their
antijoin:
The antijoin is formally defined as follows:
R ▷ S = { t : t ∈ R ∧ ¬∃s ∈ S(Fun (t ∪ s)) }
or
R ▷ S = { t : t ∈ R, there is no tuple s of S that satisfies Fun (t ∪ s) }
where is as in the definition of natural join.
The antijoin can also be defined as the complement of the semijoin, as follows:
Given this, the antijoin is sometimes called the anti-semijoin, and the antijoin operator is sometimes written as semijoin symbol with a bar above it, instead of ▷.
Division (÷)
The division is a binary operation that is written as R ÷ S. Division is not implemented directly in SQL. The result consists of the restrictions of tuples in R to the attribute names unique to R, i.e., in the header of R but not in the header of S, for which it holds that all their combinations with tuples in S are present in R. For an example see the tables Completed, DBProject and their division:
If DBProject contains all the tasks of the Database project, then the result of the division above contains exactly the students who have completed both of the tasks in the Database project.
More formally the semantics of the division is defined as follows:where {a1,...,an} is the set of attribute names unique to R and t[a1,...,an] is the restriction of t to this set. It is usually required that the attribute names in the header of S are a subset of those of R because otherwise the result of the operation will always be empty.
The simulation of the division with the basic operations is as follows. We assume that a1,...,an are the attribute names unique to R and b1,...,bm are the attribute names of S. In the first step we project R on its unique attribute names and construct all combinations with tuples in S:
T := πa1,...,an(R) × S
In the prior example, T would represent a table such that every Student (because Student is the unique key / attribute of the Completed table) is combined with every given Task. So Eugene, for instance, would have two rows, Eugene → Database1 and Eugene → Database2 in T.
EG: First, let's pretend that "Completed" has a third attribute called "grade". It's unwanted baggage here, so we must project it off always. In fact in this step we can drop "Task" from R as well; the multiply puts it back on.
T := πStudent(R) × S // This gives us every possible desired combination, including those that don't actually exist in R, and excluding others (eg Fred | compiler1, which is not a desired combination)
In the next step we subtract R from T
relation:
U := T − R
In U we have the possible
combinations that "could have" been in R, but weren't.
EG: Again with projections — T and R need to have identical attribute names/headers.
U := T − πStudent,Task(R) // This gives us a "what's missing" list.
So if we now take the projection on the attribute names unique to R
then we have the restrictions of the tuples in R for which not
all combinations with tuples in S were present in R:
V := πa1,...,an(U)
EG: Project U down to just the attribute(s) in question (Student)
V := πStudent(U)
So what remains to be done is take the projection of R on its
unique attribute names and subtract those in V:
W := πa1,...,an(R) − V
EG: W := πStudent(R) − V.
Common extensions
In practice the classical relational algebra described above is extended with various operations such as outer joins, aggregate functions and even transitive closure.
Outer joins
Whereas the result of a join (or inner join) consists of tuples formed by combining matching tuples in the two operands, an outer join contains those tuples and additionally some tuples formed by extending an unmatched tuple in one of the operands by "fill" values for each of the attributes of the other operand. Outer joins are not considered part of the classical relational algebra discussed so far.
The operators defined in this section assume the existence of a null value, ω, which we do not define, to be used for the fill values; in practice this corresponds to the NULL in SQL. In order to make subsequent selection operations on the resulting table meaningful, a semantic meaning needs to be assigned to nulls; in Codd's approach the propositional logic used by the selection is extended to a three-valued logic, although we elide those details in this article.
Three outer join operators are defined: left outer join, right outer join, and full outer join. (The word "outer" is sometimes omitted.)
Left outer join (⟕)
The left outer join is written as R ⟕ S where R and S are relations. The result of the left outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition (loosely speaking) to tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S.
For an example consider the tables Employee and Dept and their left outer join:
In the resulting relation, tuples in S which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in R take a null value, ω.
Since there are no tuples in Dept with a DeptName of Finance or Executive, ωs occur in the resulting relation where tuples in Employee have a DeptName of Finance or Executive.
Let r1, r2, ..., rn be the attributes of the relation R and let {(ω, ..., ω)} be the singleton
relation on the attributes that are unique to the relation S (those that are not attributes of R). Then the left outer join can be described in terms of the natural join (and hence using basic operators) as follows:
Right outer join (⟖)
The right outer join behaves almost identically to the left outer join, but the roles of the tables are switched.
The right outer join of relations R and S is written as R ⟖ S. The result of the right outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition to tuples in S that have no matching tuples in R.
For example, consider the tables Employee and Dept and their
right outer join:
In the resulting relation, tuples in R which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in S take a null value, ω.
Since there are no tuples in Employee with a DeptName of Production, ωs occur in the Name and EmpId attributes of the resulting relation where tuples in Dept had DeptName of Production.
Let s1, s2, ..., sn be the attributes of the relation S and let {(ω, ..., ω)} be the singleton
relation on the attributes that are unique to the relation R (those that are not attributes of S). Then, as with the left outer join, the right outer join can be simulated using the natural join as follows:
Full outer join (⟗)
The outer join or full outer join in effect combines the results of the left and right outer joins.
The full outer join is written as R ⟗ S where R and S are relations. The result of the full outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition to tuples in S that have no matching tuples in R and tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S in their common attribute names.
For an example consider the tables Employee and Dept and their
full outer join:
In the resulting relation, tuples in R which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in S take a null value, ω. Tuples in S which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in R also take a null value, ω.
The full outer join can be simulated using the left and right outer joins (and hence the natural join and set union) as follows:
R ⟗ S = (R ⟕ S) ∪ (R ⟖ S)
Operations for domain computations
There is nothing in relational algebra introduced so far that would allow computations on the data domains (other than evaluation of propositional expressions involving equality). For example, it is not possible using only the algebra introduced so far to write an expression that would multiply the numbers from two columns, e.g. a unit price with a quantity to obtain a total price. Practical query languages have such facilities, e.g. the SQL SELECT allows arithmetic operations to define new columns in the result SELECT unit_price * quantity AS total_price FROM t, and a similar facility is provided more explicitly by Tutorial D's EXTEND keyword. In database theory, this is called extended projection.
Aggregation
Furthermore, computing various functions on a column, like the summing up of its elements, is also not possible using the relational algebra introduced so far. There are five aggregate functions that are included with most relational database systems. These operations are Sum, Count, Average, Maximum and Minimum. In relational algebra the aggregation operation over a schema (A1, A2, ... An) is written as follows:
where each Aj', 1 ≤ j ≤ k, is one of the original attributes Ai, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
The attributes preceding the g are grouping attributes, which function like a "group by" clause in SQL. Then there are an arbitrary number of aggregation functions applied to individual attributes. The operation is applied to an arbitrary relation r. The grouping attributes are optional, and if they are not supplied, the aggregation functions are applied across the entire relation to which the operation is applied.
Let's assume that we have a table named with three columns, namely and . We wish to find the maximum balance of each branch. This is accomplished by GMax()(). To find the highest balance of all accounts regardless of branch, we could simply write GMax()().
Grouping is often written as ɣMax()() instead.
Transitive closure
Although relational algebra seems powerful enough for most practical purposes, there are some simple and natural operators on relations that cannot be expressed by relational algebra. One of them is the transitive closure of a binary relation. Given a domain D, let binary relation R be a subset of D×D. The transitive closure R+ of R is the smallest subset of D×D that contains R and satisfies the following condition:
It can be proved using the fact that there is no relational algebra expression E(R) taking R as a variable argument that produces R+.
SQL however officially supports such fixpoint queries since 1999, and it had vendor-specific extensions in this direction well before that.
Use of algebraic properties for query optimization
Relational database management systems often include a query optimizer which attempts to determine the most efficient way to execute a given query. Query optimizers enumerate possible query plans, estimate their cost, and pick the plan with the lowest estimated cost. If queries are represented by operators from relational algebra, the query optimizer can enumerate possible query plans by rewriting the initial query using the algebraic properties of these operators.
Queries can be represented as a tree, where
the internal nodes are operators,
leaves are relations,
subtrees are subexpressions.
The primary goal of the query optimizer is to transform expression trees into equivalent expression trees, where the average size of the relations yielded by subexpressions in the tree is smaller than it was before the optimization. The secondary goal is to try to form common subexpressions within a single query, or if there is more than one query being evaluated at the same time, in all of those queries. The rationale behind the second goal is that it is enough to compute common subexpressions once, and the results can be used in all queries that contain that subexpression.
Here are a set of rules that can be used in such transformations.
Selection
Rules about selection operators play the most important role in query optimization. Selection is an operator that very effectively decreases the number of rows in its operand, so if the selections in an expression tree are moved towards the leaves, the internal relations (yielded by subexpressions) will likely shrink.
Basic selection properties
Selection is idempotent (multiple applications of the same selection have no additional effect beyond the first one), and commutative (the order selections are applied in has no effect on the eventual result).
Breaking up selections with complex conditions
A selection whose condition is a conjunction of simpler conditions is equivalent to a sequence of selections with those same individual conditions, and selection whose condition is a disjunction is equivalent to a union of selections. These identities can be used to merge selections so that fewer selections need to be evaluated, or to split them so that the component selections may be moved or optimized separately.
Selection and cross product
Cross product is the costliest operator to evaluate. If the input relations have N and M rows, the result will contain rows. Therefore, it is important to decrease the size of both operands before applying the cross product operator.
This can be effectively done if the cross product is followed by a selection operator, e.g. . Considering the definition of join, this is the most likely case. If the cross product is not followed by a selection operator, we can try to push down a selection from higher levels of the expression tree using the other selection rules.
In the above case the condition A is broken up in to conditions B, C and D using the split rules about complex selection conditions, so that and B contains attributes only from R, C contains attributes only from P, and D contains the part of A that contains attributes from both R and P. Note, that B, C or D are possibly empty. Then the following holds:
Selection and set operators
Selection is distributive over the set difference, intersection, and union operators. The following three rules are used to push selection below set operations in the expression tree. For the set difference and the intersection operators, it is possible to apply the selection operator to just one of the operands following the transformation. This can be beneficial where one of the operands is small, and the overhead of evaluating the selection operator outweighs the benefits of using a smaller relation as an operand.
Selection and projection
Selection commutes with projection if and only if the fields referenced in the selection condition are a subset of the fields in the projection. Performing selection before projection may be useful if the operand is a cross product or join. In other cases, if the selection condition is relatively expensive to compute, moving selection outside the projection may reduce the number of tuples which must be tested (since projection may produce fewer tuples due to the elimination of duplicates resulting from omitted fields).
Projection
Basic projection properties
Projection is idempotent, so that a series of (valid) projections is equivalent to the outermost projection.
Projection and set operators
Projection is distributive over set union.
Projection does not distribute over intersection and set difference. Counterexamples are given by:
and
where b is assumed to be distinct from .
Rename
Basic rename properties
Successive renames of a variable can be collapsed into a single rename. Rename operations which have no variables in common can be arbitrarily reordered with respect to one another, which can be exploited to make successive renames adjacent so that they can be collapsed.
Rename and set operators
Rename is distributive over set difference, union, and intersection.
Product and union
Cartesian product is distributive over union.
Implementations
The first query language to be based on Codd's algebra was Alpha, developed by Dr. Codd himself. Subsequently, ISBL was created, and this pioneering work has been acclaimed by many authorities as having shown the way to make Codd's idea into a useful language. Business System 12 was a short-lived industry-strength relational DBMS that followed the ISBL example.
In 1998 Chris Date and Hugh Darwen proposed a language called Tutorial D intended for use in teaching relational database theory, and its query language also draws on ISBL's ideas. Rel is an implementation of Tutorial D.
Even the query language of SQL is loosely based on a relational algebra, though the operands in SQL (tables) are not exactly relations and several useful theorems about the relational algebra do not hold in the SQL counterpart (arguably to the detriment of optimisers and/or users). The SQL table model is a bag (multiset), rather than a set. For example, the expression is a theorem for relational algebra on sets, but not for relational algebra on bags; for a treatment of relational algebra on bags see chapter 5 of the "Complete" textbook by Garcia-Molina, Ullman and Widom.
See also
Cartesian product
D4 (programming language) (an implementation of D)
Database
Logic of relatives
Object-role modeling
Projection (mathematics)
Projection (relational algebra)
Projection (set theory)
Relation
Relation (database)
Relation algebra
Relation composition
Relation construction
Relational calculus
Relational database
Relational model
Theory of relations
Triadic relation
Tuple relational calculus
SQL
Datalog
Codd's theorem
Notes
References
Further reading
Practically any academic textbook on databases has a detailed treatment of the classic relational algebra.
(For relationship with cylindric algebras).
External links
RAT. Software Relational Algebra Translator to SQL
Lecture Videos: Relational Algebra Processing - An introduction to how database systems process relational algebra
Lecture Notes: Relational Algebra – A quick tutorial to adapt SQL queries into relational algebra
Relational – A graphic implementation of the relational algebra
Query Optimization (Page deleted; Closest alternatives: Standford Query Optimization 2, Microsoft research Query Optimization in relational systems, Stanford paper: Query Optimization)This paper is an introduction into the use of the relational algebra in optimizing queries, and includes numerous citations for more in-depth study.
Relational Algebra System for Oracle and Microsoft SQL Server
Pireal – An experimental educational tool for working with Relational Algebra
DES – An educational tool for working with Relational Algebra and other formal languages
RelaX - Relational Algebra Calculator (open-source software available as an online service without registration)
RA: A Relational Algebra Interpreter
Translating SQL to Relational Algebra
Relational model | wiki |
Crime Limited was a BBC television series that was a spin-off from the BBC's Crimewatch. The first series aired on BBC One over ten episodes in 1992 and was presented by Nick Ross and Sue Cook. A second series ran in 1993 and a third series ran in 1994.
History
First aired on 28 April 1992, Crime Limited was the second spin-off from Crimewatch, described by producers as "a new ten-part series that takes the cameras behind the scenes of crime."
Presented by Nick Ross and Sue Cook, the series includes features and reports that Ross described as "[being unable to] form part of our appeal for information". Ross commented that, "Crime Limited gives us the chance to go into these stories. Some are exciting, some are reassuring and some are frankly funny. Some, we hope, will help to limit crime." Cook left Crime Limited after the first series, leaving Ross as the sole presenter for two further series, which aired in 1993 and 1994. The producers were Linda Cleeve and John Fothergill and it was edited by Nikki Cheetham. Its most infamous episode featured a prosecution-biased dramatization of the Florence Jackson murder case of 1992, whose outcome was later exposed as a miscarriage of justice.
Transmissions
See also
Crimewatch
References
External links
1990s British crime television series
1992 British television series debuts
1994 British television series endings
BBC crime television shows
Limited
English-language television shows
Investigative documentary television series | wiki |
A bobbin or spool is a spindle or cylinder, with or without flanges, on which yarn, thread, wire, tape or film is wound. Bobbins are typically found in industrial textile machinery, as well as in sewing machines, fishing reels, tape measures, film rolls, cassette tapes, within electronic and electrical equipment, and for various other applications.
Industrial textiles
Bobbins are used in spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, and lacemaking. In these practices, bobbins were invented to "manage the piles of thread and yarn that would be mechanically woven into cloth," where the mechanical began using human power, but eventual became machine-driven. In these applications, bobbins provide storage, temporary and permanent, for yarn or thread. Historically, bobbins were made out of natural materials such as wood, or bone. While not in principle an invention of the Victorian era—bobbins in the production of textiles were in earlier use—the machinery introduced in that era "were some of [its] greatest inventions" in that they "helped to revolutionize textile manufacturing". In the machines used in such manufacturing,The automated weaving machines would have hundreds of spindles operating simultaneously, with each spindle holding a bobbin that either released or collected the thread. Most mills had wooden bobbins made specifically for their machinery, which accounts for the many varied shapes and sizes of these spools. In more modern times, natural bobbin materials such as wood are no longer used in textile manufacturing, instead having been replaced by metal and plastic. The traditional bobbins made, for instance, of hardwoods such as ash and birch are unsuitable for the machinery of modern manufacturing, given the higher speeds involved, and the synthetic materials that are used in weaving; as well, bobbins were relatively customised parts made for the specific machines of each mill (and so of varying designs, each uniquely shaped of wood, with metal parts in places of high wear), thus requiring "a great deal of handwork" such that the cost of continuing to make them was unfavorable to modern textile business.
Since the retirement of the machinery involved, such bobbins and related parts have become items used in craft productions, given the numbers of distinct types, and the fact that "[e]ach... has its own 'battle scars' that give it unique character".
Sewing and lacemaking
Sewing
The lockstitch sewing machine, invented and developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, forms a stitch with two threads: one passed through a needle and another from a bobbin. Each thread stays on the same side of the material being sewn, interlacing with the other thread at each needle hole thanks to the machine's movement. Tension of the bobbin thread is maintained with a bobbin case, a metal enclosure with a leaf spring which keeps the thread taut. The bobbin case has to be free-floating (not attached to an axle) in order to allow the top thread to pass around the bobbin completely and hook the bobbin thread.
Bobbins vary in shape and size, depending on the style of bobbin driver in the machine for which they are intended to be used. Long, narrow bobbins are used in early transverse shuttle and vibrating shuttle machines. These earlier movements were rendered obsolete by the invention of the rotary hook and the shuttle hook, which run faster and quieter with less air resistance. These shorter, wider bobbins are familiar to modern sewers, as the rotary/shuttle hook remains in use on modern machines essentially unchanged.
Lacemaking
Bobbin lace requires the winding of yarn onto a temporary storage spindle made of wood (or, in earlier times, bone) often turned on a lathe. Exotic woods are extremely popular with contemporary lacemakers. Many lace designs require dozens of bobbins at any one time.
Both traditional and contemporary bobbins may be decorated with designs, inscriptions, or pewter or wire inlays. Often, bobbins are 'spangled' to provide additional weight to keep the thread in tension. A hole is drilled near the base to enable glass beads and other ornaments to be attached by a loop of wire. These spangles provide a means of self-expression in the decoration of a tool of the craft. Antique and unique bobbins, sometimes spangled, are highly sought-after by antiques collectors.
Electrical
In electrical applications, transformers, inductors, solenoids, and relay coils use bobbins as permanent containers for the wire to retain shape and rigidity, and to ease assembly of the windings into or onto the magnetic core. (Such coils of wire carrying current create the induced currents and magnetic fields required in these devices.)
Bobbins in these applications may be made of thermoplastic or thermosetting materials (for example, phenolics). This plastic often has to have a TÜV, UL, or other regulatory agency flammability rating for safety reasons.
Miscellaneous applications
Bobbins are also used for fly tying and tidy storage without tangles.
See also
Stott Park Bobbin Mill
Axle
References
External links
Demonstration of the function of the bobbin using actors operating a human sewing machine
Bone up on Bobbins: The Craft of Lace Bobbin Making, by Stuart King (self-published).
Sewing equipment | wiki |
Cucumber – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Wirginia Zachodnia, w hrabstwie McDowell.
CDP w stanie Wirginia Zachodnia | wiki |
A molote is a filled, corn-based pastry usually served as an appetizer or snack in Mexican cuisine. It consists of a dough made from corn masa, sometimes blended with mashed potatoes, that is filled with various ingredients, then fried in lard or oil. In some areas molotes are rolled into cigar shapes or ovals, in others they are formed into half moons similar to empanadas.
See also
(corn-based) Empanadas.
References
Gironella De'angeli, Alicia (2006). Larousse de la cocina mexicana.
Mexican cuisine | wiki |
Sky Television, Sky ou anciennement BSkyB désigne un opérateur de télévision par satellite britannique, diffusant des chaînes payantes axées principalement sur le sport et le cinéma. Il est créé en 1990, par la fusion des sociétés Sky Television et British Satellite Broadcasting, soit deux années avant son homologue français, le bouquet Canalsatellite. En 1998, BSkyB commercialise le bouquet numérique Sky Digital. BSkyB est également le créateur et producteur de certaines chaînes figurant dans son son bouquet. En 2005, BSkyB compte abonnés. À partir de l'année 2018, le groupe Comcast prend le contrôle de Sky.
Histoire
1982 - 1988 : Sky Channel
Satellite Television est l’une des premières chaînes de télévision à être diffusée exclusivement par satellite, créée par Brian Hayes, ancien de la chaîne privée anglaise Thames Television. Lors de son démarrage, la chaîne ne dispose pas d’autorisation d’émettre sur le territoire britannique et elle propose essentiellement des programmes produits par la société néerlandaise John de Mol Productions.
En 1982, la société de Rupert Murdoch, News Corporation acquiert 80 % de la société Satellite Television et la rebaptise Sky Channel en 1984.
1989 : Sky Television
Le , le bouquet est lancé comprenant quatre chaînes spécfiques, diffusées sur le satellite Astra positioné à 19,2° Est : Sky Channel, Sky News, Sky Movies et Eurosport, en complément des autres chaînes en clair alors disponibles sur le même satellite. Le 30 juillet 1989, la chaîne Sky Channel est renommée Sky One.
Provisoirement, ces 4 chaines sont diffusées en clair, le public intéressé devant simplement s'équiper pour la réception satellite individuelle.
Sky television est le tout premier client du tout nouvel opérateur satellite luxembourgeois SES, avec le satellite ASTRA 1A.
British Sky Broadcasting
En 1990, la chaine Sky Movies devient la première chaine payante par abonnement de Sky et donc son signal est crypté. Son cryptage, conçu par le groupe français Thomson, est de type VideoCrypt et son abonnement nécessite un décodeur compatible et une carte à microprocesseur.
Mais en 1990 Sky Television est lourdement endettée, tout comme son concurrent direct British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB), dont la situation financière est pire encore et frôle la banqueroute, en novembre de la même année.
Les deux concurrents se livrent une bataille acharnée pour séduire les clients avec des programmes exclusifs et proposent des aides ou promotions pour acquérir le matériel de réception satellite.
L'acquisition des droits de diffusion des programmes ainsi que les coûts de retransmission par satellite sont élevés et les recettes publicitaires ne suffisent pas à renflouer les caisses.
Les deux groupes fusionnent le 2 novembre pour devenir British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB).
À partir d'avril 1991, le bouquet se compose des cinq chaines Sky One, Sky News, Sky Movies, The movie channel et The sports channel, lesquelles sont diffusées à l'identique à la fois sur Astra et sur Marco Polo, afin que tous les abonnés migrent sur Astra. Eurosport vient s'ajouter untérieurement sur Astra 1B dès que la capacité de diffusion le permet. Plusieurs nouvelles chaines s'ajoutent à l'offre, au fil des années, parmi lesquelles Sky Sports, Discovery, Nickelodeon...
Après l'abandon du satellite Marco Polo, le groupe se désendette en revendant les satellites Marcopolo II en au norvégien Telenor et Marcopolo I en au suédois NSAB. British Satellite Broadcasting disposerait alors de meilleurs contrats publicitaires, ce qui permet au groupe et aux chaines de Sky en particulier, d’optimiser le chiffre d’affaires.
Lancement de Sky Digital
En 1998, Sky lance son offre numérique Sky Digital sur la nouvelle position orbitale Astra 2 à 28,2°Est, spécifiquement dédiée et centrée sur les pays britanniques, notamment pour des contraintes de droits de diffusion.
Depuis sa fusion avec Pathé en , le groupe français Vivendi détient déjà 17 % du capital de BSkyB et en , il annonce porter sa participation à 24,5 %. Le gouvernement britannique choisit de saisir la Commission britannique de la concurrence au sujet de ce rachat, invoquant une atteinte à l'intérêt public et à la concurrence. Toutefois le , la Commission britannique de la concurrence autorise la prise de participation de Vivendi. En , la Commission européenne impose pourtant la cession de la participation de Vivendi dans BSkyB, comme préalable à la fusion entre Vivendi et Seagram. Dès lors, Vivendi annonce qu'il céde les 22,7 % qui lui reste du capital de BSkyB.
En 2013, BSkyB gagne son procès contre Microsoft pour utilisation abusive de sa marque déposée Sky.
En , BSkyB l'annonce l'acquisition de Sky Deutschland et de Sky Italia, respectivement détenue à 57 % et à 100 % par , pour 9 milliards de dollars.
En , BSkyB vend sa participation dans , sa filiale de paris, au fonds d'investissement CVC Capital Partners, pour 600 millions de livres, ne gardant qu'une participation de 20 %.
En , BSkyB annonce détenir 95 % de Sky Deutschland.
2017 - 2018 : tentative d'achat par 21st Century Fox, puis Disney et vente à Comcast
Selon une analyse du New York Times, le rachat du groupe Sky par Disney aurait des conséquences surtout si le rachat entamé par Rupert Murdoch de l'intégralité du groupe Sky est validé par les régulateurs. Cette montée à 100 % du groupe Sky formerait un groupe ayant plus de revenu et de contenu que les concurrents européens réunis RTL, Mediaset, ITV, ProSiebenSat.1 et Vivendi.
Le , 21st Century Fox prévoit 10 années d'investissements dans Sky News pour rassurer l'OFCOM britannique dans le cadre de son rachat de la totalité de Sky et de son rachat par Disney.
En , Comcast annonce lancer une offre d'acquisition sur 31 milliards de dollars sur Sky, en compétition avec l'offre de 21st Century Fox et celle de Disney sur la Fox. Le , Sky annonce un accord de confidentialité avec 21st Century Fox et Walt Disney Company dans le cadre des procédures britanniques d’acquisition. Le , Disney propose d'acheter Sky News dans le cadre du rachat de Sky par la 21st Century Fox de Rupert Murdoch même en cas d'échec du rachat de la 21st Century Fox par Disney. Le , la commission britannique sur les fusions et acquisitions impose à Disney d'acheter l'intégralité de Sky si l'achat de 21st Century Fox est validé par les autorités américaines. Le , Comcast fait une offre de 30 milliards d'USD pour acheter Sky alors que Disney n'a pas finalisé l'acquisition d'une majorité de la 21st Century Fox détenant 39 % de Sky, forçant le duo Disney-Fox à faire une contre-offre. Le , Disney pourrait prendre JPMorgan pour le conseiller dans l'achat de Sky. Le , le régulateur britannique ouvre la voie à une guerre d'enchères pour l'achat de Sky par Comcast ou Disney. , Disney garantit des investissements dans Sky News pour 15 ans en cas de rachat de Sky pour satisfaire l'ofcom.
Le , Comcast annonce l'augmentation de son offre d'acquisition sur Sky à 34 milliards de dollars, après que la Fox a relevé son offre. Le , l'agence britannique des acquisitions demande à Disney de faire une contre-offre avec une valeur plancher de 14 £, en dessous des 14,75 £ proposé par Comcast, sous un délai de 28 jours, soit plus de 32,5 milliards d'USD. Le , l'agence britannique des fusions et acquisitions confirme, après des demandes réexamens, sa décision du d'une enchère minimale de 14 £ par action pour l'achat de Sky. Le , Comcast remporte l'enchère sur Sky avec une offre à 17,28£ par action totalisant 39 milliards d'USD contre Disney-Fox avec 15,67 £ par action, toutefois cette perte pour Disney d'un acteur européen majeur de la télévision payante est salué en bourse le lendemain par une augmentation de 2 % tandis que Comcast chute de 6%. Les analystes dont Todd Juenger de Bernstein saluent le retrait de Disney dans cette course aux enchères avec Comcast pour 21st Century Fox puis Sky car l'intérêt d'un opérateur de télévision payante, directe et satellitaire même majeur à l'échelle européenne s'accorde mal avec la stratégie de Disney accès sur la vidéo à la demande en service par contournement. Le , Disney et 21st Century Fox acceptent de vendre la participation de 39 % dans Sky à Comcast, pour 15 milliards d'USD.
Le , Sky prévient Disney et Discovery des effets du Brexit nécessitant de nouvelles licences de diffusion pour le Royaume-Uni. Le , Sky désormais sorti du FTSE 100, informe avoir des discussions tendues avec Disney pour négocier les contrats de diffusion qui expirent en 2020 dont ceux de la Fox.
Droits sur le football
L’achat des droits de diffusion des événements sportifs clés, en particulier ceux des championnats de football, a assuré le succès de BSkyB. La société a payé 300 millions de livres sterling pour les droits de retransmission du championnat d'Angleterre de football en 1992 en enchérissant sur BBC et ITV et obtient ainsi le monopole de la retransmission des matchs en direct. Murdoch décrit le sport comme le « bélier » de la télévision payante, lui garantissant une base de clientèle assurée.
Cependant, à la suite d'un long combat judiciaire engagé par la Commission européenne qui considère l’exclusivité des droits de diffusion comme une barrière à la concurrence, le monopole de BSkyB prend fin avec la saison 2007/2008. En , la chaine irlandaise Setanta Sports obtient deux des six ensembles que la ligue britannique de football offre aux diffuseurs, Sky récupère le reste pour la somme de 1,3 milliard de livres sterling.
Technologie
Diffusion satellitaire
BSkyB ne possède pas de satellite en propre depuis la vente des satellites Marco Polo comme on l’a vu plus haut. Elle utilise les services de SES S.A et Eutelsat (Eurobird 1).
Le réseau satellitaire Astra commence en 1989 avec le lancement d’Astra . Avec le lancement de plusieurs autres satellites à partir de 1991, BSkyB est capable d’étendre son offre de service (Les satellites Astra étant co-positionnés, leurs signaux peuvent être reçu avec une seule antenne parabolique fixe mono-tête.).
Le lancement, en 1997, du premier satellite de la série Astra 2 avec une position orbitale de 28'2°, ainsi que le lancement d’Eurobird 1 à 28'5°, a permis à BSkyB d’introduire un nouveau service tout-numérique, qui peut offrir quelques centaines de chaines de télévision et de radio.
Aujourd'hui, c'est le seul véritable moyen de capter les programmes de la télévision britannique publique et privée loin des côtes du Pas-de-Calais.
Vidéo à la demande
Le Sky annonce le lancement d’un service de vidéo à la demande qui sera accessible aux deux millions d’utilisateurs de qui disposent d’un disque dur avec assez d’espace disponible.
Concurrence
Organisation
Filiales
est la compagnie qui commercialise le bouquet Sky TV
est compagnie holding
diffuse des contenus sportifs sur Internet
offre des services interactifs sur télévision
Sky Italia
Sky Deutschland
Sky Switzerland
Co-détenus
(50 %)
(50 %)
(25 %)
(33,3 %)
(33,3 %)
(38,8 %)
(50 %)
Notes et références
Voir aussi
Articles connexes
SES S.A
Eutelsat
Télévision par satellite
Équipe cycliste Sky
Lien externe
Entreprise fondée en 1990
Entreprise des médias ayant son siège au Royaume-Uni
Réseau de télévision britannique
Bouquet de télévision par satellite
Entreprise du FTSE 100
Filiale de Comcast
Chaîne de télévision à plusieurs déclinaisons | wiki |
This is a list of Harlequin Romance novels released in 2001.
Releases
References
Romance novels
Lists of novels
2001 novels | wiki |
Atarba picticornis är en tvåvingeart som beskrevs av Osten Sacken 1869. Atarba picticornis ingår i släktet Atarba och familjen småharkrankar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.
Källor
Småharkrankar
picticornis | wiki |
L'appellation « poney de selle » peut faire référence à :
le poney de selle allemand ;
le poney de selle belge ;
le poney de selle britannique ;
le poney français de selle ;
le NRPS, dont le poney de selle néerlandais ;
le poney de selle polonais ;
le poney de selle suédois.
Voir aussi
Cheval de selle | wiki |
This is a list of Harlequin Romance novels released in 2003.
Releases
References
Romance novels
Lists of novels
2003 novels | wiki |
McKinsey & Company
Matrice McKinsey
James Oscar McKinsey | wiki |
Eventration is the protrusion of contents of the abdomen through a defect or weakness in the abdominal wall. This can refer to:
Diaphragmatic eventration
Herniation
Evisceration (disambiguation) | wiki |
Squinting is the action of looking at something with partially closed eyes.
Squinting is most often practiced by people who suffer from refractive errors of the eye who either do not have or are not using their glasses. Squinting helps momentarily improve their eyesight by slightly changing the shape of the eye to make it rounder, which helps light properly reach the fovea. Squinting also decreases the amount of light entering the eye, making it easier to focus on what the observer is looking at by removing rays of light which enter the eye at an angle and would need to otherwise be focused by the observer's faulty lens and cornea.
Pinhole glasses, which severely restrict the amount of light entering the cornea, have the same effect as squinting.
It is a common belief that squinting worsens eyesight. However, according to Robert MacLaren, a professor of ophthalmology at the University of Oxford, this is nothing more than an old wives' tale: the only damage that can be caused by squinting for long periods is a temporary headache due to prolonged contraction of the facial muscles.
Squinting is also a common involuntary reflex, especially among people with light colored eyes, during adaptation to a sudden change in lighting such as when one goes from a dark room to outdoors on a sunny day to avoid pain or discomfort of the eyes. The pupillary light reflex caused by adjustment to light takes around five minutes in people with healthy eyes, so squinting and pain after that could be a sign of photophobia.
References
Eye
Facial expressions | wiki |
Postpartum depression (PPD), also called postnatal depression, is a type of mood disorder associated with childbirth, which can affect both sexes. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. Onset is typically between one week and one month following childbirth. PPD can also negatively affect the newborn child.
While the exact cause of PPD is unclear, the cause is believed to be a combination of physical, emotional, genetic, and social factors. These may include factors such as hormonal changes and sleep deprivation. Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, a family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, or a drug use disorder. Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms. While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks.
Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective in preventing PPD. This may include community support such as food, household chores, mother care, and companionship. Treatment for PPD may include counseling or medications. Types of counseling that have been found to be effective include interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy. Tentative evidence supports the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Postpartum depression affects roughly 15% of women after childbirth. Moreover, this mood disorder is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers. Postpartum psychosis, a more severe form of postpartum mood disorder, occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women following childbirth. Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age, which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of PPD can occur any time in the first year postpartum. Typically, a diagnosis of postpartum depression is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks.
Emotional
Persistent sadness, anxiousness or "empty" mood
Severe mood swings
Frustration, irritability, restlessness, anger
Feelings of hopelessness or helplessness
Guilt, shame, worthlessness
Low self-esteem
Numbness, emptiness
Exhaustion
Inability to be comforted
Trouble bonding with the baby
Feeling inadequate in taking care of the baby
Thoughts of self-harm or suicide
Behavioral
Lack of interest or pleasure in usual activities
Low libido
Changes in appetite
Fatigue, decreased energy and motivation
Poor self-care
Social withdrawal
Insomnia or excessive sleep
Worry about harming self, baby, or partner
Neurobiology
fMRI studies indicate differences in brain activity between mothers with postpartum depression and those without. Mothers diagnosed with PPD tend to have less activity in the left frontal lobe and increased activity in the right frontal lobe when compared with healthy controls. They also exhibit decreased connectivity between vital brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. Brain activation differences between depressed and nondepressed mothers is more pronounced when stimulated by non-infant emotional cues. Depressed mothers show greater neural activity in the right amygdala toward non-infant emotional cues as well as reduced connectivity between the amygdala and right insular cortex. Recent findings have also identified blunted activity in anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula in mothers with PPD when viewing images of their own infants.
More robust studies on neural activation regarding PPD have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters, hormones, and steroids.
Onset and duration
Postpartum depression onset usually begins between two weeks to a month after delivery. A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes there began prior to delivery. Therefore, in the DSM-5 postpartum depression is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as anytime either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. PPD may last several months or even a year. Postpartum depression can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage. For fathers, several studies show that men experience the highest levels of postpartum depression between 3–6 months postpartum.
Parent-infant relationship
Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and longterm child development. Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare. These childcare inconsistencies may include feeding routines, sleep routines, and health maintenance.
In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, the postpartum depression appears as postpartum psychosis. In these, or among women with a history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions, infanticide may occur. In the United States, postpartum depression is one of the leading causes of annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births.
According to research published in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, children can experience the effects of postpartum depression. If a mother experiences postpartum depression that goes untreated, it can have adverse effects on her children. When a child is in infancy, these problems can include unusual amounts of crying (colic) and not having normal sleeping patterns. These problems can have a cyclical effect, meaning that they can further agitate the mother's postpartum depression and can even lead to the mother further developing postpartum depression. These cyclical effects can affect the way the mother maintains her relationship with her child. These can include the stopping of breastfeeding, as well as negative emotions such as withdrawal, disengagement, and even hostility. If a mother develops a hostile relationship, it can lead to extreme outcomes such as infanticide.
As the child grows older, postpartum depression can lead to the child experiencing irregularities in cognitive processes, behaviors, and emotions. In addition to these abnormalities, children who grew up around postpartum depression also are susceptible to developing violent tendencies.
Postpartum depression in fathers
Paternal postpartum depression has not been studied as intently as its maternal counterpart. However, postpartum depression affects 8 to 10% of fathers. In men, postpartum depression is typically defined as "an episode of major depressive disorder (MDD) occurring soon after the birth of a child". There are no set criteria for men to have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males. Causes of paternal postpartum depression include hormonal changes during pregnancy, which can be indicative of father-child relationships. For instance, male depressive symptoms have been associated with low testosterone levels in men. Low prolactin, estrogen, and vasopressin levels have been associated with struggles with father-infant attachment, which can lead to depression in first-time fathers. Symptoms of postpartum depression in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts. Postpartum depression in men is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery, and is correlated with maternal depression, meaning that if the mother is experiencing postpartum depression, then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well. Postpartum depression in men leads to an increase risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience PPD can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, distress, and reduce infant interaction. Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children. Children as young as 3.5 years old experience problems with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, indicating that paternal postpartum depression can have long-term consequences. Furthermore, if children as young as two are not frequently read to, this negative parent-child interaction can have a harmful impact on their expressive vocabulary.
Causes
The cause of PPD is unknown. Hormonal and physical changes, personal and family history of depression, and the stress of caring for a new baby all may contribute to the development of postpartum depression.
Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Understanding the neuroendocrinology characteristic of PPD has proven to be particularly challenging given the erratic changes to the brain and biological systems during pregnancy and postpartum. A review of exploratory studies in PPD have observed that women with PPD have more dramatic changes in HPA axis activity, however directionality of specific hormone increases or decreases remain mixed. Hormones which have been studied include estrogen, progesterone, thyroid hormone, testosterone, corticotropin releasing hormone, endorphins, and cortisol. Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it. Aberrant steroid hormone–dependent regulation of neuronal calcium influx via extracellular matrix proteins and membrane receptors involved in responding to the cell's microenvironment might be important in conferring biological risk. The use of synthetic oxytocin, a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety.
Fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, can also have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males.
Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for the infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without experiencing PPD can nonetheless experience it with their latest child. Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the postpartum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD. Many mothers are unable to get the rest they need to fully recover from giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to physical discomfort and exhaustion, which can contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression.
Risk factors
While the causes of PPD are not understood, a number of factors have been suggested to increase the risk. These risks can be broken down into two categories, biological and psychosocial:
Biological
Administration of labor-inducing medication synthetic oxytocin
Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities
Genetic history of PPD
Hormone irregularities
Inflammatory illnesses (irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia)
Cigarette smoking
The risk factors for postpartum depression can be broken down into two categories as listed above, biological and psychosocial. Certain biological risk factors include the administration of oxytocin to induce labor. Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, or Addison's disease, as well as issues hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysregulation (which controls hormonal responses), inflammatory processes like asthma or celiac disease, and genetic vulnerabilities such as a family history of depression or PPD. Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities including irritable bowl syndrome and fibromyalgia typically put individuals at risk for further health complications. However, it has been found that these diseases do not increase risk for postpartum depression, these factors are known to correlate with PPD. This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Cigarette smoking has been known to have additive effects. Some studies have found a link between PPD and low levels of DHA (an omega-3 fatty acid) in the mother. A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be a link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies.
Psychosocial
Prenatal depression or anxiety
A personal or family history of depression
Moderate to severe premenstrual symptoms
Stressful life events experienced during pregnancy
Postpartum blues
Birth-related psychological trauma
Birth-related physical trauma
History of sexual abuse
Childhood trauma
Previous stillbirth or miscarriage
Formula-feeding rather than breast-feeding
Low self-esteem
Childcare or life stress
Low social support
Poor marital relationship or single marital status
Low socioeconomic status
A lack of strong emotional support from spouse, partner, family, or friends
Infant temperament problems/colic
Unplanned/unwanted pregnancy
Breastfeeding difficulties
Maternal age, family food insecurity and violence against women
The psychosocial risk factors for postpartum depression include severe life events, some forms of chronic strain, relationship quality, and support from partner and mother. There is a need for more research in regard to the link between psychosocial risk factors and postpartum depression. Some psychosocial risk factors can be linked to the social determinants of health. Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial.
Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases. Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing risk of PPD. Women with fewer resources may also include single mothers of low income. Single mothers of low income may have more limited access to resources while transitioning into motherhood. These women already have fewer spending options, and having a child may spread those options even further. Low-income women are frequently trapped in a cycle of poverty, unable to advance, affecting their ability to access and receive quality healthcare to diagnose and treat postpartum depression.
Studies have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asian mothers had the lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian and Hispanic women fell in between.
Migration away from a cultural community of support can be a factor in PPD. Traditional cultures around the world prioritize organized support during postpartum care to ensure the mother's mental and physical health, wellbeing, and recovery.
One of the strongest predictors of paternal PPD is having a partner who has PPD, with fathers developing PPD 50% of the time when their female partner has PPD.
Sexual orientation has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample group. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than did the heterosexual women in the sample. Postpartum depression is more common among lesbian women than heterosexual women, which can be attributed to lesbian women's higher depression prevalence. Lesbian women have a higher risk of depression because they are more likely to have been treated for depression and to have attempted or contemplated suicide than heterosexual women. These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society.
There is a call to integrate both a consideration of biological and psychosocial risk factors for PPD when treating and researching the illness.
Violence
A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases the incidence of postpartum depression. About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives. Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas. The research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators. Further, violence against women was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women". Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support. Violence against women is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence.
Diagnosis
Criteria
Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery. Nevertheless, the majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery.
The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth related major depression or minor depression. The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within a two-week period:
Feelings of sadness, emptiness, or hopelessness, nearly every day, for most of the day or the observation of a depressed mood made by others
Loss of interest or pleasure in activities
Weight loss or decreased appetite
Changes in sleep patterns
Feelings of restlessness
Loss of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
Loss of concentration or increased indecisiveness
Recurrent thoughts of death, with or without plans of suicide
Differential diagnosis
Postpartum blues
Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues," is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery. Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of a more serious type of depression. Women who experience "baby blues" may have a higher risk of experiencing a more serious episode of depression later on.
Psychosis
Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in a 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts (mania), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations and delusions begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery; the symptoms vary and can change quickly. It is different from postpartum depression and from maternity blues. It may be a form of bipolar disorder. It is important not to confuse psychosis with other symptoms that may occur after delivery, such as delirium. Delirium typically includes a loss of awareness or inability to pay attention.
About half of women who experience postpartum psychosis have no risk factors; but a prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history put some at a higher risk.
Postpartum psychosis often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medications, mood stabilizers, and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy.
The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to a year. Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery.
Birth-Related/Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Although birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder is not recognized in the DSM-5, there is extensive research being conducted to bring awareness to the posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms one could experience following childbirth. Some research examines the differences and comorbidity when looking into birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder, or postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder, and postpartum depression. In the recent research, similarities and differences in symptoms have been identified when it comes to postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder and postpartum depression. Although both diagnoses have overlap in their diagnostic criteria, some of the criteria specific to postpartum depression include intense hopelessness and sadness, excessive worry or anxiety, intrusive thoughts of harm to oneself or harm to the baby, feelings of guilt or thoughts of worthlessness, and a change in appetite which could result in under-eating or overeating. On the other hand, diagnostic criteria specific to postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder includes being easily startled, recurring nightmares and flashbacks, avoiding the baby or anything that reminds one of birth, aggression, irritability, and panic attacks. Although these are the symptoms that often help differentiate between postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder and postpartum depression, it is important to note that some of these symptoms can cross over to the other diagnosis (e.g., someone meeting the diagnostic criteria of postpartum depression may also present with panic attacks, or someone meeting the diagnostic criteria for postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder may experience depressive episodes, etc.). Another crucial element in diagnosing postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder following childbirth is when there is a real or perceived trauma before, during, or following childbirth, which is not always required when it comes to diagnosing someone with postpartum depression. This real or perceived traumatic event that could happen before, during, or following labor and delivery could be toward the baby, mother, or both. These traumatic events could include, but are not limited to unplanned c-section, death, the baby going into the NICU, the use of the vacuum extractor, or forceps during delivery, lack of support and/or reassurance during the delivery (from friends, family, and/or the medical staff), or any other severe physical complication or injury related to childbirth such as preeclampsia, or an unexpected hysterectomy.
Conclusions have been made related to the idea of childbirth stressors and the contribution those can play in an increased risk of developing comorbid birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder and postpartum depression rather than only a postpartum depression diagnosis. Findings like the one mentioned above are crucial in accurate diagnosis to provide the mothers with the most appropriate and effective treatment options, and to advance the validity and reliability of preventative assessments and strategies. Other studies have been able to identify obstetric and perinatal risk factors associated specifically with birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder including educational level, gestational age at delivery, number of prenatal care visits, pregnancy intervals, mode of delivery, any complications with pregnancy, and labor duration. Based on current meta-analytic research, it has been concluded that the prevalence of postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder was 3.1% in community settings and 15.7% in at-risk populations; however, those findings do state various limitations, including underreporting biases, across the examined studies which lead many researchers to believe the prevalence may be higher.
As of right now, there are no widely recognized assessments that measure for postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder in clinical and medical settings. However, researchers and physicians will often use more reliable posttraumatic stress disorder questionnaires and assessments, which are unfortunately not always specific enough to the posttraumatic symptoms and experiences that are felt before, during, or after childbirth. One assessment for postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder, the City Birth Trauma Scale (CBTS), has been used in some research settings; however, it is not widely used in clinical and medical settings. The CBTS is a 29-item self-report questionnaire developed to measure birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder, according to the DSM-5 criteria of: symptoms of re-experiencing the event, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and hyperarousal, as well as the duration of one's symptoms and the amount of distress and impairment the symptoms have caused in the individual's life. The creators of the CTSB also added in two items from the DSM-IV that they felt were relevant to the population being assessed with this measure – that the mothers responded to the traumatic events during childbirth with intense fear, helplessness, or horror and that there were symptoms of emotional numbing. Although the emotional numbing component was excluded in the DSM-5 criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder, research has shown that when studying mothers who have been exposed to trauma, emotional numbing is more predictive of parenting stress than other posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Although this assessment shows strong reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92), and participants from the pilot study found the measure to be easy to understand, this assessment is still not used in clinical or medical settings as often as it is used in research settings. The researchers that have utilized the CTSB have been able to identify various limitations with the pilot study, including the lack of diversity in the sample demographic characteristics (93% White postpartum women) as well as the self-report nature of the assessment which could lead to underreporting of symptoms. Another assessment that has also been used in research more often than in clinical or medical settings is the Perinatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire (PPQ), which has since been modified into the Perinatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire-II (PPQ-II), with the modified version being a 14-item scale which does not address all the necessary diagnostic criteria. Further research and development are needed to create a more accurate assessments and screening tools that can differentiate among posttraumatic stress disorders, postpartum/childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder, and postpartum depression so that the most adequate treatment interventions and options can be implemented as quickly as possible.
Screening
Screening for postpartum depression is critical as up to 50% of cases go undiagnosed in the US, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive screening measures. In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women. Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month and 4-month visits. However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up. For example, in Canada, Alberta is the only province with universal PPD screening. This screening is carried out by Public Health nurses with the baby's immunization schedule. In Sweden, Child Health Services offer a free program for new parents that includes screening mothers for PPD at 2 months postpartum. However, there are concerns about adherence to screening guidelines regarding maternal mental health.
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a standardized self-reported questionnaire, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression. If the new mother scores 13 or more, she likely has PPD and further assessment should follow.
Healthcare providers may take a blood sample to test if another disorder is contributing to depression during the screening.
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, is used within the first week of their newborn being admitted. If mothers receive a score less than 12 they are told to be reassessed because of the depression testing protocol. It is also advised that mother's in the NICU to get screened every four to six weeks as their infant remains in the neonatal intensive care unit. Mothers who score between twelve and nineteen on the EPDS are offered two types of support. The mothers are offered LV treatment provided by a nurse in the NICU and they can be referred to the mental health professional services. If a mother receives a three on item number ten of the EPDS they are immediately referred to the social work team as they may be suicidal.
It is critical to acknowledge the diversity of patient populations diagnosed with postpartum depression and how this may impact the reliability of the screening tools used. There are cultural differences in how patients express symptoms of postpartum depression; those in non-western countries exhibit more physical symptoms, whereas those in western countries have more feelings of sadness. Depending on one's cultural background, symptoms of postpartum depression may manifest differently, and non-Westerners being screened in Western countries may be misdiagnosed because their screening tools do not account for cultural diversity. Aside from culture, it is also important to consider one's social context, as women with low socioeconomic status may have additional stressors that affect their postpartum depression screening scores.
Prevention
A 2013 Cochrane review found evidence that psychosocial or psychological intervention after childbirth helped reduce the risk of postnatal depression. These interventions included home visits, telephone-based peer support, and interpersonal psychotherapy. Support is an important aspect of prevention, as depressed mothers commonly state that their feelings of depression were brought on by "lack of support" and "feeling isolated."
Across different cultures, traditional rituals for postpartum care may be preventative for PPD, but are more effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.
In couples, emotional closeness and global support by the partner protect against both perinatal depression and anxiety. In 2014, Alasoom and Koura found that compared to 42.9 percent of women who did not get spousal support, only 14.7 percent of women who got spousal assistance had PPD. Further factors such as communication between the couple and relationship satisfaction have a protective effect against anxiety alone.
In those who are at risk counselling is recommended. In 2018, 24% of areas in the UK have no access to perinatal mental health specialist services.
Preventative treatment with antidepressants may be considered for those who have had PPD previously. However, as of 2017, the evidence supporting such use is weak.
Treatments
Treatment for mild to moderate PPD includes psychological interventions or antidepressants. Women with moderate to severe PPD would likely experience a greater benefit with a combination of psychological and medical interventions. Light aerobic exercise has been found to be useful for mild and moderate cases.
Therapy
Both individual social and psychological interventions appear equally effective in the treatment of PPD. Social interventions include individual counseling and peer support, while psychological interventions include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT). Interpersonal therapy (IPT) has shown to be effective in focusing specifically on the mother and infant bond. Support groups and group therapy options focused on psychoeducation around postpartum depression have been shown to enhance the understanding of postpartum symptoms and often assist in finding further treatment options. Other forms of therapy, such as group therapy, home visits, counseling, and ensuring greater sleep for the mother may also have a benefit. While specialists trained in providing counseling interventions often serve this population in need, results from a recent systematic review and meta-analysis found that nonspecialist providers, including lay counselors, nurses, midwives, and teachers without formal training in counseling interventions, often provide effective services related to perinatal depression and anxiety.
Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) has shown promising results with lower negative parenting behavior scores and lower rates of anxiety, stress, and depression. iCBT may be beneficial for mothers who have limitations in accessing in person CBT. However, the long term benefits have not been determined.
Medication
A 2010 review found few studies of medications for treating PPD noting small sample sizes and generally weak evidence. Some evidence suggests that mothers with PPD will respond similarly to people with major depressive disorder. There is low-certainty evidence which suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective treatment for PPD. The first-line anti-depressant medication of choice is sertraline, an SSRI, as very little of it passes into the breast milk and, as a result, to the child. However, a recent study has found that adding sertraline to psychotherapy does not appear to confer any additional benefit. Therefore, it is not completely clear which antidepressants, if any, are most effective for treatment of PPD, and for whom antidepressants would be a better option than non-pharmacotherapy.
Some studies show that hormone therapy may be effective in women with PPD, supported by the idea that the drop in estrogen and progesterone levels post-delivery contribute to depressive symptoms. However, there is some controversy with this form of treatment because estrogen should not be given to people who are at higher risk of blood clots, which include women up to 12 weeks after delivery. Additionally, none of the existing studies included women who were breastfeeding. However, there is some evidence that the use of estradiol patches might help with PPD symptoms.
Oxytocin has been shown to be an effective anxiolytic and in some cases antidepressant treatment in men and women. Exogenous oxytocin has only been explored as a PPD treatment with rodents, but results are encouraging for potential application in humans.
In 2019, the FDA approved brexanolone, a synthetic analog of the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, for use intravenously in postpartum depression. Allopregnanolone levels drop after giving birth, which may lead to women becoming depressed and anxious. Some trials have demonstrated an effect on PPD within 48 hours from the start of infusion. Other new allopregnanolone analogs under evaluation for use in the treatment of PPD include zuranolone and ganaxolone.
Brexanolone has risks that can occur during administration, including excessive sedation and sudden loss of consciousness, and therefore has been approved under the Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program. The mother is to enrolled prior to receiving the medication. It is only available to those at certified health care facilities with a health care provider who can continually monitor the patient. The infusion itself is a 60-hour, or 2.5 day, process. People's oxygen levels are to be monitored with a pulse oximeter. Side effects of the medication include dry mouth, sleepiness, somnolence, flushing and loss of consciousness. It is also important to monitor for early signs of suicidal thoughts or behaviors.
Breastfeeding
Caution should be exercised when administering antidepressant medications during breastfeeding. Most antidepressants are excreted in breast milk in low quantities which can have adverse effect on babies. Regarding allopregnanolone, very limited data did not indicate a risk for the infant.
Other
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown efficacy in women with severe PPD that have either failed multiple trials of medication-based treatment or cannot tolerate the available antidepressants. Tentative evidence supports the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS).
As of 2013 it is unclear if acupuncture, massage, bright lights, or taking omega-3 fatty acids are useful.
Resources
International
Postpartum Support International is the most recognized international resource for those with PPD as well as healthcare providers. It brings together those experiencing PPD, volunteers, and professionals to share information, referrals, and support networks. Services offered by PSI include the website (with support, education, and local resource info), coordinators for support and local resources, online weekly video support groups in English and Spanish, free weekly phone conference with chats with experts, educational videos, closed Facebook groups for support, and professional training of healthcare workers.
United States
Educational interventions
Educational interventions can help women struggling with postpartum depression (PPD) to cultivate coping strategies and develop resiliency. The phenomenon of "scientific motherhood" represents the origin of women's education on perinatal care with publications like Ms. circulating some of the first press articles on PPD that helped to normalize the symptoms that women experienced. Feminist writings on PPD from the early seventies shed light on the darker realities of motherhood and amplified the lived experiences of mothers with PPD.
Instructional videos have been popular among women who turn to the internet for PPD treatment, especially when the videos are interactive and get patients involved in their treatment plan. Since the early 2000s, video tutorials on PPD have been integrated into many web-based training programs for individuals with PPD and are often considered a type of evidence-based management strategy for individuals. This can take the form of objective-based learning, detailed exploration of case studies, resource guides for additional support and information, etc.
Government-funded programs
The National Child and Maternal Health Education Program functions as a larger education and outreach program supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the National Institute of Health. The NICHD has worked alongside organizations like the World Health Organization to conduct research on the psychosocial development of children with part of their efforts going towards the support of mothers' health and safety. Training and education services are offered through the NICHD to equip women and their health care providers with evidence-based knowledge on PPD.
Other initiatives include the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) whose disaster relief program provides medical assistance at both the national and local level. The disaster relief fund not only helps to raise awareness of the benefits of having healthcare professionals screen for PPD, but also helps childhood professionals (home visitors and early care providers) develop the skills to diagnose and prevent PPD. The Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation (IECMH) center is a related technical assistance program that utilizes evidence-based treatments services in order to address issues of PPD. The IECMH facilitates parenting and home visit programs, early care site interventions with parents and children and a variety of other consultation-based services. The IECMH's initiatives seek to educate home visitors on screening protocols for PPD as well as ways to refer depressed mothers to professional help.
Links to government-funded programs
[https://www.nichd.nih.gov/ncmhep
[https://www.nichd.nih.gov/
[https://www.samhsa.gov/
[https://www.samhsa.gov/iecmhc
Psychotherapy
Therapeutic methods of intervention can begin as early as a few days post-birth when most mothers are discharged from hospitals. Research surveys have revealed a paucity of professional, emotional support for women struggling in the weeks following delivery despite there being a heightened risk for PPD for new mothers during this transitional period.
Community-based support
A lack of social support has been identified as a barrier to seeking help for postpartum depression. Peer-support programs have been identified as an effective intervention for women experiencing symptoms of postpartum depression. In-person, online, and telephone support groups are available to both women and men throughout the United States. Peer-support models are appealing to many women because they are offered in a group and outside of the mental-health setting. The website Postpartum Progress provides a comprehensive list of support groups separated by state and includes the contact information for each group. The National Alliance on Mental Illness lists a virtual support group titled "The Shades of Blue project," which is available to all women via the submission of a name and email address. Additionally, NAMI recommends the website "National Association of Professional and Peer Lactation Supports of Color" for mothers in need of a lactation supporter. Lactation assistance is available either online or in-person, if there is support nearby.
Personal narratives & memoirs
Postpartum Progress is a blog focused on being a community of mothers talking openly about postpartum depression and other mental health conditions associated. Story-telling and online communities reduce the stigma around PPD and promote peer-based care. Postpartum Progress is specifically relevant to people of color and queer folks due to an emphasis on cultural competency.
Hotlines & telephone interviews
Hotlines, chat lines, and telephone interviews offer immediate, emergency support for those experiencing PPD. Telephone-based peer support can be effective in the prevention and treatment of postpartum depression among women at high-risk. Established examples of telephone hotlines include: National Alliance on Mental Illness: 800-950-NAMI (6264), National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 800-273-TALK (8255), Postpartum Support International: 800-944-4PPD (4773), and SAMHSA's National Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357). Postpartum Health Alliance has an immediate, 24/7 support line in San Diego/San Diego Access and Crisis Line at (888) 724–7240, in which you can talk with mothers who have recovered from PPD and trained providers.
However, hotlines can lack cultural competency which is crucial in quality healthcare, specifically for people of color. Calling the police or 911, specifically for mental health crises, is dangerous for many people of color. Culturally and structurally competent emergency hotlines are a huge need in PPD care.
National Alliance on Mental Illness: 800-950-NAMI (6264)
National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 800-273-TALK (8255)
Postpartum Support International: 800-944-4PPD (4773)
SAMHSA's National Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357)
Self-care & well-being activities
Women demonstrated an interest in self-care and well-being in an online PPD prevention program. Self-care activities, specifically music therapy, are accessible to most communities and valued among women as a way to connect with their children and manage symptoms of depression. Well-being activities associated with being outdoors, including walking and running, were noted amongst women as a way to help manage mood.
Accessibility to care
Those with PPD come across many help-seeking barriers, including lack of knowledge, stigma about symptoms, as well as health service barriers. There are also attitudinal barriers to seeking treatment, including stigma. Interpersonal relationships with friends and family, as well as institutional and financial obstacles serve as help-seeking barriers. The history of mistrust within the United States healthcare system or negative health experiences can influence one's willingness and adherence to seek postpartum depression treatment. Cultural responses must be adequate in PPD healthcare and resources. Representation and cultural competency are crucial in equitable healthcare for PPD. Different ethic groups may believe that healthcare providers will not respect their cultural values or religious practices, which influences their willingness to use mental health services or be prescribed antidepressant medications. Additionally, resources for PPD are limited and often don't incorporate what mothers would prefer. The use of technology can be a beneficial way to deliver mothers with resources because it is accessible and convenient.
Epidemiology
North America
United States
Within the United States, the prevalence of postpartum depression was lower than the global approximation at 11.5% but varied between states from as low as 8% to as high as 20.1%. The highest prevalence in the US is found among women who are American Indian/Alaska Natives or Asian/Pacific Islanders, possess less than 12 years of education, are unmarried, smoke during pregnancy, experience over two stressful life events, or who's full term infant is low-birthweight or was admitted to a Newborn Intensive Care Unit. While US prevalence decreased from 2004 to 2012, it did not decrease among American Indian/Alaska Native women or those with full term, low-birthweight infants.
Even with the variety of studies, it is difficult to find the exact rate as approximately 60% of US women are not diagnosed and of those diagnosed approximately 50% are not treated for PPD. Cesarean section rates did not affect the rates of PPD. While there is discussion of postpartum depression in fathers, there is no formal diagnosis for postpartum depression in fathers.
Canada
Canada has one of the largest refugee resettlement in the world with an equal percentage of women to men. This means that Canada has a disproportionate percentage of women that develop post-partum depression since there is an increased risk among the refugee population. In a blind study, where women had to reach out and participate, around 27% of the sample population had symptoms consistent with post-partum depression without even knowing. Also found that on average 8.46 women had minor and major PPDS was found to be 8.46 and 8.69% respectively. The main factors that were found to contribute in this study were the stress during pregnancy, the availability of support after, and a prior diagnosis of depression were all found to be factors. Canada has the specific population demographics that also involve a large amount of immigrant and indigenous women which creates a specific cultural demographic localized to Canada. In this study researchers found that these two populations were at significantly higher risk compared to "Canadian born non-indigenous mothers". This study found that risk factors such as low education, low income cut off, taking antidepressants, and low social support are all factors that contribute to the higher percentage of these population in developing PPDS. Specifically, indigenous mothers had the most risk factors then immigrant mothers with non-indigenous Canadian women being closer to the overall population.
South America
A main issue surrounding PPD is the lack of study and the lack of reported prevalence that is based on studies developed in Western economically developed countries. In countries such as Brazil, Guyana, Costa Rica, Italy, Chile, and South Africa there is actually a prevalence of report, around 60%. In an itemized research analysis put a mean prevalence at 10-15% percent but explicitly stated that cultural factors such as perception of mental health and stigma could possibly be preventing accurate reporting. The analysis for South America shows that PPD occurs at a high rate looking comparatively at Brazil (42%) Chile (4.6-48%) Guyana and Colombia (57%) and Venezuela (22%). In most of these countries PPD is not considered a serious condition for women and therefore there is an absence of support programs for prevention and treatment in health systems. Specifically, in Brazil PPD is identified through the family environment whereas in Chile PPD manifests itself through suicidal ideation and emotional instability. In both cases most women feel regret and refuse to take care of the child showing that this illness is serious for both the mother and child.
Asia
From a selected group of studies found from a literature search, researchers discovered many demographic factors of Asian populations that showed significant association with PPD. Some of these include age of mother at the time of childbirth as well as older age at marriage. Being a migrant and giving birth to a child overseas has also been identified as a risk factor for PPD. Specifically for Japanese women who were born and raised in Japan but who gave birth to their child in Hawaii, USA, about 50% of them experienced emotional dysfunction during their pregnancy. In fact, all women who gave birth for the first time who were included in the study experienced PPD. In immigrant Asian Indian women, the researchers found a minor depressive symptomatology rate of 28% and an additional major depressive symptomatology rate of 24% likely due to different health care attitudes in different cultures and distance form family leading to homesickness.
In the context of Asian countries, premarital pregnancy is an important risk factor for PPD. This is because it is considered highly unacceptable in most Asian culture as there is a highly conservative attitude toward sex among Asian people than people in the west. In addition, conflicts between mother and daughter-in-law are notoriously common in Asian societies as traditionally for them, marriage means the daughter-in-law joining and adjusting to the groom's family completely. These conflicts may be responsible for emergence of PPD. Regarding gender of the child, many studies have suggested dissatisfaction in infant's gender (birth of a baby girl) is a risk factor for PPD. This is because in some Asian cultures, married couples are expected by the family to have at least one son to maintain the continuity of the bloodline which might lead a woman to experience PPD if she cannot give birth to a baby boy.
Europe
There is a general assumption that Western cultures are homogenous and that there are no significant differences in psychiatric disorders across Europe and the USA. However, in reality factors associated with maternal depression, including work and environmental demands, access to universal maternity leave, health care, and financial security, are regulated and influenced by local policies that differ across countries. For example, European social policies differ from country-to-country contrary to the US, all countries provide some form of paid universal maternity leave and free health care. Studies also found differences in symptomatic manifestations of PPD between European and American women. Women from Europe reported higher scores of anhedonia, self-blaming, and anxiety, while women from the USA disclosed more severe insomnia, depressive feelings, and thoughts of self-harming. Additionally, there are differences in prescribing patterns and attitudes towards certain medications between the US and Europe which are indicative of how different countries approach treatment, and their different stigmas.
Africa
Africa, like all other parts of the world struggles with a burden of postpartum depression. Current studies estimate the prevalence to be 15-25% but this is likely higher due to a lack of data and recorded cases. The magnitude of postpartum depression in South Africa is between 31.7% and 39.6%, in Morocco between 6.9% and 14%, in Nigeria between 10.7% and 22.9%, in Uganda 43%, in Tanzania 12%, in Zimbabwe 33%, in Sudan 9.2%, in Kenya between 13% and 18.7% and, 19.9% for participants in Ethiopia according to studies carried out in these countries among postpartum mothers between the ages of 17–49. This demonstrates the gravity of this problem in Africa, and the need for postpartum depression to be taken seriously as a public health concern in the continent. Additionally, each of these studies were conducted using Western developed assessment tools. Cultural factors can affect diagnosis and can be a barrier to assessing the burden of disease. Some recommendations to combat postpartum depression in Africa include considering postpartum depression as a public health problem that is neglected among postpartum mothers. Investing in research to assess the actual prevalence of postpartum depression, and encourage early screening, diagnosis and treatment of postpartum depression as an essential aspect of maternal care throughout Africa.
Issues in Reporting Prevalence
Most studies regarding PPD are done using self-report screenings which are less reliable than clinical interviews. This use of self-report may have results that underreport symptoms and thus postpartum depression rates.
History
Prior to the 19th century
Western medical science's understanding and construction of postpartum depression has evolved over the centuries. Ideas surrounding women's moods and states have been around for a long time, typically recorded by men. In 460 B.C., Hippocrates wrote about puerperal fever, agitation, delirium, and mania experienced by women after child birth. Hippocrates' ideas still linger in how postpartum depression is seen today.
A woman who lived in the 14th century, Margery Kempe, was a Christian mystic. She was a pilgrim known as "Madwoman" after having a tough labor and delivery. There was a long physical recovery period during which she started descending into "madness" and became suicidal. Based on her descriptions of visions of demons and conversations she wrote about that she had with religious figures like God and the Virgin Mary, historians have identified what Margery Kempe was experiencing as "postnatal psychosis" and not postpartum depression. This distinction became important to emphasize the difference between postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. A 16th century physician, Castello Branco, documented a case of postpartum depression without the formal title as a relatively healthy woman with melancholy after childbirth, remained insane for a month, and recovered with treatment. Although this treatment was not described, experimental treatments began to be implemented for postpartum depression for the centuries that followed. Connections between female reproductive function and mental illness would continue to center around reproductive organs from this time all the way through to modern age, with a slowly evolving discussion around "female madness".
19th century and after
With the 19th century came a new attitude about the relationship between female mental illness and pregnancy, childbirth, or menstruation. The famous short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper", was published by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in this period. In the story, an unnamed woman journals her life when she is treated by her physician husband, John, for hysterical and depressive tendencies after the birth of their baby. Gilman wrote the story to protest societal oppression of women as the result of her own experience as a patient.
Also during the 19th century, gynecologists embraced the idea that female reproductive organs, and the natural processes they were involved in, were at fault for "female insanity." Approximately 10% of asylum admissions during this time period are connected to "puerperal insanity," the named intersection between pregnancy or childbirth and female mental illness. It wasn't until the onset of the twentieth century that the attitude of the scientific community shifted once again: the consensus amongst gynecologists and other medical experts was to turn away from the idea of diseased reproductive organs and instead towards more "scientific theories" that encompassed a broadening medical perspective on mental illness.
Society and culture
Legal recognition
Recently, postpartum depression has become more widely recognized in society. In the US, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act included a section focusing on research into postpartum conditions including postpartum depression. Some argue that more resources in the form of policies, programs, and health objectives need to be directed to the care of those with PPD.
Role of stigma
When stigma occurs, a person is labelled by their illness and viewed as part of a stereotyped group. There are three main elements of stigmas, 1) problems of knowledge (ignorance or misinformation), 2) problems of attitudes (prejudice), 3) problems of behavior (discrimination). Specifically regarding PPD, it is often left untreated as women frequently report feeling ashamed about seeking help and are concerned about being labeled as a "bad mother" if they acknowledge that they are experiencing depression. Although there has been previous research interest in depression-related stigma, few studies have addressed PPD stigma. One study studied PPD stigma through examining how an education intervention would impact it. They hypothesized that an education intervention would significantly influence PPD stigma scores. Although they found some consistencies with previous mental health stigma studies, for example, that males had higher levels of personal PPD stigma than females, most of the PPD results were inconsistent with other mental health studies. For example, they hypothesized that education intervention would lower PPD stigma scores, but in reality there was no significant impact and also familiarity with PPD was not associated with one's stigma towards people with PPD. This study was a strong starting point for further PPD research, but clearly indicates more needs to be done in order to learn what the most effective anti-stigma strategies are specifically for PPD.
Postpartum depression is still linked to significant stigma. This can also be difficult when trying to determine the true prevalence of postpartum depression. Participants in studies about PPD carry their beliefs, perceptions, cultural context and stigma of mental health in their cultures with them which can affect data. The stigma of mental health - with or without support from family members and health professionals - often deters women from seeking help for their PPD. When medical help is achieved, some women find the diagnosis helpful and encourage a higher profile for PPD amongst the health professional community.
Cultural beliefs
Postpartum depression can be influenced by sociocultural factors. There are many examples of particular cultures and societies that hold specific beliefs about PPD. Malay culture holds a belief in Hantu Meroyan; a spirit that resides in the placenta and amniotic fluid.
When this spirit is unsatisfied and venting resentment, it causes the mother to experience frequent crying, loss of appetite, and trouble sleeping, known collectively as "sakit meroyan". The mother can be cured with the help of a shaman, who performs a séance to force the spirits to leave.
Some cultures believe that the symptoms of postpartum depression or similar illnesses can be avoided through protective rituals in the period after birth. These may include offering structures of organized support, hygiene care, diet, rest, infant care, and breastfeeding instruction. The rituals appear to be most effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.
Some Chinese women participate in a ritual that is known as "doing the month" (confinement) in which they spend the first 30 days after giving birth resting in bed, while the mother or mother-in-law takes care of domestic duties and childcare. In addition, the new mother is not allowed to bathe or shower, wash her hair, clean her teeth, leave the house, or be blown by the wind.
Media
Certain cases of postpartum mental health concerns received attention in the media and brought about dialogue on ways to address and understand more on postpartum mental health. Andrea Yates, a former nurse, became pregnant for the first time in 1993. After giving birth to five children in the coming years, she had severe depression and had many depressive episodes. This led to her believing that her children needed to be saved, and that by killing them, she could rescue their eternal souls. She drowned her children one by one over the course of an hour, by holding their heads under water in their family bathtub. When called into trial, she felt that she had saved her children rather than harming them and that this action would contribute to defeating Satan.
This was one of the first public and notable cases of postpartum psychosis, which helped create dialogue on women's mental health after childbirth. The court found that Yates was experiencing mental illness concerns, and the trial started the conversation of mental illness in cases of murder and whether or not it would lessen the sentence or not. It also started a dialogue on women going against "maternal instinct" after childbirth and what maternal instinct was truly defined by.
Yates' case brought wide media attention to the problem of filicide, or the murder of children by their parents. Throughout history, both men and women have perpetrated this act, but study of maternal filicide is more extensive.
See also
Postpartum blues
Antenatal depression
Gender disappointment
Psychiatric disorders of childbirth
Sex after pregnancy
Breastfeeding and mental health
References
193. “Maternal Depression and Child Development.” Paediatrics & Child Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Oct. 2004
External links
Postnatal Depression, information from the mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists
NHS Choices Health A-Z: Postnatal depression
Postpartum Depression and the Baby Blues - HelpGuide.org
Depression (mood)
Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Motherhood
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
Крістіан Лара () — повне ім'я.
Відомі носії:
Крістіан Лара (режисер) (1939) — французький режисер з Гваделупи
Крістіан Лара (футболіст) (1980) — еквадорський футболіст | wiki |
Death to 2021 is a 2021 mockumentary produced by Netflix. A sequel to Death to 2020, the special features a series of fictional characters discussing US news in 2021, including the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine misinformation and Big Tech.
Cast
Credits adapted from Radio Times.
Hugh Grant as Tennyson Foss, a right-wing historian
Joe Keery as Duke Goolies, a social media influencer
William Jackson Harper as Zero Fournine, a social media company CEO
Lucy Liu as Snook Austin, a journalist
Tracey Ullman as Madison Madison, a far-right conspiracy theorist news anchor
Samson Kayo as Pyrex Flask, a scientist researching SARS-CoV-2
Stockard Channing as Penn Parker, a journalist
Cristin Milioti as Kathy Flowers, a mother who supports Donald Trump and believes conspiracy theories
Diane Morgan as Gemma Nerrick, a member of the public
Production
Death to 2021 was a sequel to Death to 2020, both productions of Broke and Bones—a company founded by Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones, best-known for their work on science fiction anthology series Black Mirror. It followed several years of Weekly Wipe specials, hosted by Brooker, that humorously recapped news events from the year. Death to 2020 received negative critical reception.
For the 2021 special, Brooker had a reduced role—a Netflix spokesperson told British Comedy Guide that he was working on other productions for the streaming service. A number of cast from 2020 returned, but others—for example, Lucy Liu, Stockard Channing and William Jackson Harper—debuted in 2021. Ullman plays a different character to the 2020 special—an American news anchor, rather than the Queen.
Reception
Entertainment.ies Eoghan Cannon rated the film 2.5 out of 5, saying that it would be "unwatchable" without the strong cast, and is not sufficiently memorable for viewers to remember it the next morning. However, Cannon praised the coverage of light-hearted stories. Ed Power of The Daily Telegraph gave it 1 star, lambasting it as lacking originality and nuance. He negatively portrayed the absence of Brooker, calling it a negative image of Black Mirror, but praised Morgan's joking comparison of Squid Game to The Great British Bake Off.
Screen Rant criticized that the special had a "refusal to talk about cultural events outside of Netflix's domain", with segments about their original productions Bridgerton and Squid Game but omitting other television and film of the year. According to The National, a joke about Glasgow being part of London was well-received by Scottish viewers. Bruce Dessau of Beyond the Joke wrote that Death to 2021 was targeted at an American audience, to a further extent than the previous year's special. Dessau praised Morgan, Grant and Kayo, and said that pushback to a joke about Prince Philip's death came from people "that [have] clearly not seen a Brooker programme before".
References
External links
2021 films
Films set in 2021
English-language Netflix original films
2020s mockumentary films
Films about the COVID-19 pandemic
2020s English-language films
COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in popular culture | wiki |
The Declaration of Indulgence was Charles II of England's attempt to extend religious liberty to Protestant nonconformists and Roman Catholics in his realms, by suspending the execution of the Penal Laws that punished recusants from the Church of England. Charles issued the Declaration on 15 March 1672.
It was highly controversial and Sir Orlando Bridgeman, son of a bishop, resigned as Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, because he refused to apply the Great Seal to it, regarding it as too generous to Catholics.
In 1673 the Cavalier Parliament compelled Charles to withdraw the declaration and implement, in its place, the first of the Test Acts (1673), which required anyone entering public service in England to deny the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and to take Anglican communion. When Charles II's openly Catholic successor James II attempted to issue a similar Declaration of Indulgence, an order for general religious tolerance, it became one of the grievances that led to the Glorious Revolution which ousted him from the throne.
See also
Declaration of Indulgence (1687)
Religion in the United Kingdom
References
English laws
1672 in England
1672 in law
1672 works
Christianity and law in the 17th century
Charles II of England
1672 in Christianity
History of Catholicism in England
it:Dichiarazione di Indulgenza
sv:Declaration of Indulgence | wiki |
Lorne Alistair Tennant, better known as Ali Tennant, is a British singer, songwriter and vocal producer/mentor from London signed to BMG Chrysalis.
Performer
Tennant released one album Crucial under the name Ali in 1998 on Polydor, and a single "Bitter Honey".
Songwriter
Beginning his songwriting career in 1998, he has had credits on 17 top ten albums, 7 of which hit number 1, as well as 4 singles, one of which debuted at number 1. Later years have seen Tennant vocal coach and produce for a number of high-profile clients such as The X Factor, The Voice UK, Jessie J (Alive), David Guetta (Nothing but the Beat), JLS (JLS, Outta This World, Jukebox, Evolution), the Saturdays (On Your Radar), Olly Murs (Olly Murs) and more.
Songwriting credits
Vocal coaching
The X Factor (2010)
The Voice UK (2012–present)
References
English male singers
Living people
English songwriters
British vocal coaches
Musicians from London
20th-century Black British male singers
Year of birth missing (living people)
British male songwriters | wiki |
Carriera
Venne selezionato dagli Atlanta Hawks al secondo giro del Draft NBA 1972 (21ª scelta assoluta).
Palmarès
Golden State Warriors: 1975
Note
Collegamenti esterni
Scheda su thedraftreview.com | wiki |
Shoftim, Shof'tim, or Shofetim (שופטים), Hebrew for “judges,” may mean:
The plural of Shofet, judge
Sefer Shoftim (ספר שופטים), the Hebrew name for the Book of Judges
Shofetim (parsha) (פרשה שופטים), the 48th weekly parshah or portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fifth in the book of Deuteronomy
The 14th book of the Mishneh Torah, the code of Jewish law by Maimonides | wiki |
A reaffirmation agreement in United States bankruptcy law refers to an agreement made between a creditor and the debtor that waives discharge of a debt that would otherwise be discharged in the pending bankruptcy proceeding. A properly executed, timely filed reaffirmation agreement modifies the discharge such that it is rendered inoperable against the subject debt. Most statutory authority for reaffirmation agreements is codified at (c).
Overview
A debtor may wish to pay a debt, even though that debt would be discharged in bankruptcy. For example, a debtor may wish to keep a vehicle. As a promise to pay that debt, a debtor must enter into a reaffirmation agreement with the creditor. Reaffirmations are voluntary and not required by law. It is recommended that the debtor carefully consider whether or not the agreed upon payments can be made before entering into a reaffirmation agreement. If a debtor is not delinquent on payments and chooses not to sign a reaffirmation agreement, many lenders will recognize the option to retain and pay the debt by continuing the regular monthly payments. However, this option is not recognized by all lenders, so it is important to know the lender's stance on reaffirming debt versus the retain and pay option.
Any agreement to reaffirm must be made before the discharge is entered. If you are in the process of reaffirming a debt and feel it will not be filed before the discharge deadline, notify the clerk's office in writing to delay entry of the discharge until the reaffirmation is filed.
Reaffirmations are strictly voluntary. If you wish to reaffirm (agree to pay back) any particular debt, you must enter into a written agreement with the creditor, which legally obligates you to pay all or a portion of a dischargeable (wiped out by the bankruptcy) debt. The form for this is Form 240A Reaffirmation Agreement. The creditor and debtor must fully complete the form indicating the nature of the debt, the value of the collateral, and the reason for reaffirmation. Both parties to the reaffirmation must sign on the appropriate signature lines. Since you are not represented by an attorney, the reaffirmation will be automatically set for hearing and you will receive written notice of the hearing date and time. You must appear at the hearing where the judge will determine if it is in your best interests to reaffirm, based on your circumstances and the nature of the reaffirmation. For example, the court may not allow you to reaffirm a debt of $3,000 for a vehicle that may be worth $1,000.
If a debtor reaffirms a debt and fails to pay it, the debt remains owed as though there were no bankruptcy and the creditor can take action to collect the debt. This reaffirmed debt is not discharged or wiped out by the bankruptcy filing.
The Court does not need to approve a reaffirmation agreement which applies to consumer debt secured by real estate. This applies to any mortgages on your home or other debts secured by your home. In addition, the Court does not approve any reaffirmation agreements between debtors and credit unions. They are filed and become part of the record without a hearing.
You have the right to cancel (rescind) any reaffirmation at any time prior to the entry of your discharge or within 60 days after the reaffirmation agreement is filed with the court, whichever occurs later. To rescind a reaffirmation agreement, you must mail a written notice to the creditor stating that you are withdrawing your decision to reaffirm and revoking the agreement. Send the original letter to the creditor and a copy to the clerk's office to be made part of your file.
Completion of Reaffirmation Agreement Form
All reaffirmations must be filed with Official Form B27, the reaffirmation cover sheet. The Reaffirmation Agreement (Official Form B240A) has been amended effective December 1, 2009. In order to allow filers sufficient time to implement the form change, the Court will allow a six-month transition period during which time either the old (1/07), or new (12/09), versions of the Reaffirmation Agreement may be filed. Note: Effective April 1, 2010, the newly amended Reaffirmation Agreement form will become mandatory.
All pro se reaffirmation agreements that do not involve credit unions or real estate will be automatically set for hearing, regardless of whether a presumption of undue hardship has arisen. If the reaffirmation agreement involves real estate and/or a credit union, no further action will be taken.
The January 2007 Reaffirmation Agreement is divided into various parts:
Parts A-E - consisting of the Debtor's Disclosures, Reaffirmation Agreement, Attorney Certification, Debtor's Statement in Support of Reaffirmation, and Motion for Court Approval make up the document required to reaffirm a debt. Instructions appear within the reaffirmation agreement form.
Part A - Debtor's Disclosures: Summary of Reaffirmation Agreement. Complete this section giving details of the agreement: Amount to be reaffirmed, percentage rate, payment to be made. Part B - The Reaffirmation Agreement Requires signature(s) of both the representative of the creditor and the debtor(s).
Part C - Certification by Debtor's Attorney - Not Applicable for a Pro Se Debtor Part D - The Debtor's Statement in Support of the Reaffirmation. Debtor's signature required! This section indicates to the Court that the debtor can make the payments without undue hardship. If there is a presumption of undue hardship, the debtor can explain how the hardship will be overcome.
Part E is the Debtor's Motion for Court Approval and must be signed by Debtors who are not represented by an attorney.
Defective Reaffirmation Agreements
A reaffirmation agreement will be considered defective and will be stricken if:
• It is not filed on Official Form 240 A(1/07), or if
• The debtor and/or creditor fails to sign any of the required parts of the agreement.
A reaffirmation agreement will be considered defective if Part E is not completed. Failure to submit a completed Part E within the deficiency period (15 days) will result in the agreement being stricken.
References
United States bankruptcy law | wiki |
Hey Paula may refer to:
"Hey Paula" (song), a 1962 single by Paul & Paula
Hey Paula (TV series), a Bravo network reality series in 2007 starring Paula Abdul | wiki |
A Farm Stall or padstal (Afrikaans) is an integral component of South African culture. From the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape these pitstops are a must on every road trip. They took their beginning in little stalls built next to roads, some with a history of more than 40 years.
Each farm stall has its own unique story, they are independent, trade with local goods and are an absolute highlight for food lovers. Their stock varies from own and adjacent homemade farm products like jams, butter, bread, cheese, dried fruit & nuts, free-range eggs, pies, coffee or wines up to wrought-iron works, wooden furniture and other handicrafts. Local farmworkers can earn an extra income by producing the jams, preserves and also clothing which is available to buy. Sought-after also the wood for a popular braaivleis.
Most farm stalls go along with a coffee shop where typical South African food like roosterkoek (a kind of roll unique to South Africa, cooked on grill and slightly charred), lemon meringue pie, koeksister, bobotie and beverages like ginger beer is offered. Farm stalls are open seven days a week.
External links
References
Tourism in Africa
Restaurants in South Africa
Restaurants by type
Types of coffeehouses and cafés
Food and drink in South Africa | wiki |
American Body Shop is an American sitcom that aired on Comedy Central from July 8 until September 19, 2007 that revolves around a dysfunctional body shop in suburban Phoenix, Arizona and the accident-prone crew that works there.
The show came to Comedy Central after its creator, Sam Greene, shot the pilot on his own, put it on a DVD and mailed it to "the networks".
After only one season, the show was canceled.
Cast
Frank Merino as Luis
Jill Bartlett as Denise
Nick Offerman as Rob
John DiResta as Johnny
Peter Hulne as Sam
Tim Nichols as Tim
Episodes
References
"Strapped to the Chassis for Maximal Yuks", The New York Times, July 6, 2007
External links
Comedy Central original programming
2000s American single-camera sitcoms
2000s American workplace comedy television series
2007 American television series debuts
2007 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Improvisational television series
Television shows set in Phoenix, Arizona | wiki |
God's House may refer to:
God's House (film), a documentary film currently in production
God's House, Cambridge, a former college of the University of Cambridge
God's House Hospital, a group of almshouses in Southampton, England
God's House Tower, a fortified entrance gate to Southampton | wiki |
Make It or Break It is an American television drama series which premiered on June 22, 2009 on ABC Family. Set in the world of elite gymnastics, the series follows a group of teen Olympic hopefuls as they train and prepare for their day in the spotlight. The show was picked up for an additional 10 episodes on July 27, 2009, which started airing on January 4, 2010, bringing the number of episodes in the first season to 20.
On January 12, 2010, ABC Family announced that the show was picked up for a second season, which premiered on June 28, 2010 at 10 p.m. ET. Starting on July 13, 2010, new episodes followed Pretty Little Liars. The second mid-season finale aired on August 31, 2010 and the second half of Season 2 premiered on March 28, 2011 and ended on May 23, 2011. It was announced via Twitter from Executive Producer Holly Sorensen that the series is cancelled. The series finale aired on May 14, 2012.
A total of 48 episodes of Make It or Break It have been produced and aired over three seasons, between June 22, 2009 and May 14, 2012.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2009–10)
Season 2 (2010–11)
Season 3 (2012)
The series was renewed for a third season on September 16, 2011. It premiered on March 26, 2012.
References
Lists of American teen drama television series episodes | wiki |
Cropper may refer to:
Cropper (surname)
A piece of agricultural machinery used to mow grass or crop wheat
Camp Cropper, a detention site near Baghdad, Iraq
Cropper, Kentucky, an unincorporated community, United States
Cropper, Derbyshire, a hamlet in the parish of Osleston and Thurvaston
An icon in Adobe Photoshop used to crop images on the program
Cropper, a breed of fancy pigeon, including:
Holle Cropper
Norwich Cropper
Ghent Cropper
Old German Cropper
Voorburg shield cropper
James Cropper plc, English papermaking company
See also
Share cropper | wiki |
The following is the complete So They Say discography.
Albums
Studio
EPs
Studio
Singles
Other appearances
Albums
Music videos
References
External links
Official So They Say Website
Discographies of American artists
Rock music group discographies | wiki |
A private mortgage is a type of mortgage loan whereby funds can be sourced from another person or business rather than borrowing from a bank or other finance provider. The private lender could be family, friends or others with personal relationships to the borrower.
Private mortgages were once commonly put in place by solicitors in rural locations throughout the United Kingdom, where the solicitor put borrowers and lenders together and protected the arrangement by using the borrower’s property as security.
With increases to competition and regulation introduced during the 1980s under UK Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, private mortgages became less commonplace - their prominence has however returned in recent years due to the decline in traditional means of finance.
References
Mortgage | wiki |
Cinema Museum may refer to:
Museums
Cinema Museum (Girona), Italy
Cinema Museum of Thessaloniki, Greece
Adana Cinema Museum, Turkey
Melgaço Museum of Cinema, Portugal
Other uses
Cinema Museum (London), a charitable organization | wiki |
Dial may refer to:
Mechanical device
Rotary dial, a device for the input of number(s) in telephones and similar devices
Dialling, usually means to make a telephone call by turning the rotary dial or pressing the buttons
Dial (measurement), a display device in radio, measuring instruments, etc.
Mode dial, part of dSLR and SLR-like digital cameras
DIAL
DIAL, an acronym for differential absorption LIDAR
DIAL, an acronym for Discovery and Launch, a network protocol
DIAL, an acronym for Digital Impact Alliance
Dunedin International Airport Limited, New Zealand
Delhi International Airport (P) Limited, Delhi, India
Other
Dial (surname), people named Dial
Dial Corporation, a consumer products company that is a wholly owned subsidiary of Henkel AG & Co. KGaA.
Dial (soap), a brand of antibacterial soap and related products
Dial, West Virginia, a community in the United States
Dial (band), a Dutch progressive rock band
Dial Press, a publishing house founded in 1923 by Lincoln MacVeagh
The Dial, an American magazine published intermittently from 1840 to 1929
Dial H for Hero, a comic book feature published by DC Comics
-dial, the suffix for dialdehydes (a molecule with two aldehyde groups)
'dial.' can be an abbreviation for 'dialect'
See also
Dial House (disambiguation), various
Dial Records (disambiguation), various
A sundial or clock face
Diol, a chemical containing two hydroxyl groups | wiki |
A discharge in United States bankruptcy law, when referring to a debtor's discharge, is a statutory injunction against the commencement or continuation of an action (or the employment of process, or an act) to collect, recover or offset a debt as a personal liability of the debtor. The discharge is one of the primary benefits afforded by relief under the Bankruptcy Code and is essential to the "fresh start" of debtors following bankruptcy that is a central principle under federal bankruptcy law. Discharge is also believed to play an important role in credit markets by encouraging lenders, who may be more sophisticated and have better information than debtors, to monitor debtors and limit risk-taking.
A discharge of debts is granted to debtors but can be denied or revoked by the court based on certain misconduct of debtors, including fraudulent actions or failure of a debtor to disclose all assets during a bankruptcy case. Some debts, such as alimony and child support, cannot be discharged in bankruptcy, while others, such as student loans, are difficult to discharge and are therefore rarely discharged.
The benefit of the discharge injunction is narrower than (but similar to) the benefit afforded by the automatic stay in bankruptcy.
U.S. law also provides for specialized discharges in bankruptcy (see below).
Bankruptcy discharge for the debtor
In the United States, there are generally seven kinds of debtor discharges in bankruptcy, found in the following statutes:
(relating to liquidation bankruptcies for individuals);
(relating to municipal bankruptcies);
(relating to discharges resulting from confirmation of a Chapter 11 plan of reorganization);
(relating to certain family farmer or fisherman cases);
(relating to certain family farmer or fisherman cases);
(relating to certain cases involving adjustment of debts of an individual with regular income);
(relating to certain cases involving adjustment of debts of an individual with regular income).
The effect of the debtor's discharge is provided for at . In addition, certain limitations on the debtor's discharge are described at .
For more information on the debtor's discharge, see Bankruptcy in the United States.
Other discharges in bankruptcy
In the United States, with respect to taxes incurred by the bankruptcy estate (as opposed to the debtor) during case administration, a specialized discharge for the trustee, the debtor, any successor to the debtor, and (for cases commenced on or after October 17, 2005) the bankruptcy estate is provided in .
At the conclusion of a case the trustee (if any) may be discharged as trustee under .
References
United States bankruptcy law
Insolvency | wiki |
A keypad is a block or pad of buttons set with an arrangement of digits, symbols, or alphabetical letters. Pads mostly containing numbers and used with computers are numeric keypads. Keypads are found on devices which require mainly numeric input such as calculators, television remotes, push-button telephones, vending machines, ATMs, point of sale terminals, combination locks, safes, and digital door locks. Many devices follow the E.161 standard for their arrangement.
Uses and functions
A computer keyboard usually has a small numeric keypad on the side, in addition to the other number keys on the top, but with a calculator-style arrangement of buttons that allow more efficient entry of numerical data. This number pad (commonly abbreviated to numpad) is usually positioned on the right side of the keyboard because most people are right-handed.
Many laptop computers have special function keys that turn part of the alphabetical keyboard into a numerical keypad as there is insufficient space to allow a separate keypad to be built into the laptop's chassis. Separate external plug-in keypads can be purchased.
Keypads for the entry of PINs and for product selection appear on many devices including ATMs, vending machines, point of sale payment devices, time clocks, combination locks and digital door locks.
In 1984, the first projected capacitance keypad was used to sense through the shop window of a travel agency.
Key layout
The first key-activated mechanical calculators and many cash registers used "parallel" keys with one column of 0 to 9 for each position the machine could use. A smaller, 10-key input first started on the Standard Adding Machine in 1901. The calculator had the digit keys arranged in one row, with zero on the left, and 9 on the right. The modern four-row arrangement debuted with the Sundstrand Adding Machine in 1911.
There is no standard for the layout of the four arithmetic operations, the decimal point, equal sign or other more advanced mathematical functions on the keypad of a calculator.
The invention of the push-button telephone keypad is attributed to John E. Karlin, an industrial psychologist at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, NJ. On a telephone keypad, the numbers 1 through 9 are arranged from left to right, top to bottom with 0 in a row below 789 and in the center. Telephone keypads also have the special buttons labelled * (star) and # (octothorpe, number sign, "pound", "hex" or "hash") on either side of the zero key. The keys on a telephone may also bear letters which have had several auxiliary uses, such as remembering area codes or whole telephone numbers.
Origin of the order difference
Although calculator keypads pre-date telephone keypads by nearly thirty years, the top-to-bottom order for telephones was the result of research studies conducted by a Bell Labs Human Factors group led by John Karlin. They tested a variety of layouts including a Facit like the two-row arrangement, buttons in a circle, buttons in an arc, and rows of three buttons. The definitive study was published in 1960: "Human Factor Engineering Studies of the Design and Use of Pushbutton Telephone Sets" by R. L. Deininger. This study concluded that the adopted layout was best, and that the calculator layout was about 3% slower than the adopted telephone keypad.
Despite the conclusions obtained in the study, there are several popular theories and folk histories explaining the inverse order of telephone and calculator keypads.
One popular theory suggests that the reason is similar to that given for the QWERTY layout, the unfamiliar ordering slowed users to accommodate the slow switches of the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Another explanation proposed is that at the time of the introduction of the telephone keypad, telephone numbers in the U.S. where commonly given out using alphabetical characters for the first two digits. Thus 555-1234 would be given out as KL5-1234. These alpha sequences were mapped to words. "27" was given out as "CRestview", "26" as "ATwood", etc. By placing the "1" key in the upper left, the alphabet was arranged in the normal left-to-right descending order for English characters. Additionally, on a rotary telephone, the "1" hole was at the top, albeit at the top right.
See also
Arrow keys
Digital door lock
Keyboard (computing)
Keyboard technology
Mobile phone
Push-button telephone
Silicone rubber keypad
Telephone keypad
References
External links
Interfacing Matrix Keypad to 8051 Controller
Computer keyboard types | wiki |
Shining pondweed is a common name for several plants and may refer to:
Potamogeton illinoensis, native to North America
Potamogeton lucens, native to Eurasia and north Africa | wiki |
Daisy Daze is the second EP released by Spencer Tracy.
Track listing
All tracks written by Lee Jones unless otherwise noted.
"Daisy Daze"
"Stupid"
"Up in Arms"
"Opportunity"
"Baby Won't You Come"
Personnel
Spencer Tracy
Lee Jones - Guitars, Vocals & Piano
John Rabjones - Guitars & Vocals
Kim Jones - Bass Guitar
Shaun Sibbes - Drums & Vocals
References
2001 EPs
Spencer Tracy (band) EPs | wiki |
Laura Spencer may refer to:
Laura Spencer (actress) (born 1986), American actress
Laura Spencer (General Hospital), a fictional character in the television series General Hospital
Laura Horton (formerly Spencer), a fictional character in the television series Days of Our Lives
Laura Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough (1915–1990), British noblewoman and socialite
See also
Laura Spencer Portor Pope (1872–1957), American journalist and author
Lara Spencer (born 1969), American television journalist | wiki |
Alena Tseliapushkina (née le à Korchevjina) est une cavalière bélarusse de concours complet.
Aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2008 à Pékin, elle est de l'épreuve individuelle. Aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2012 à Londres, elle est éliminée de l'épreuve individuelle.
Notes et références
Liens externes
Cavalier biélorusse de concours complet
Cavalier aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2008
Cavalier aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2012
Naissance en janvier 1969 | wiki |
A cathetometer is an instrument for measuring vertical distances in cases where a scale cannot be placed very close to the points whose distance apart is desired.
The instrument consists essentially of an accurately graduated scale and a horizontal telescope capable of being moved up and down a rigid vertical column. The position of the telescope can be read by means of an attached Vernier scale. In measuring the vertical distance between two points, the instrument must first be leveled. Next, the cross hair in the eyepiece of the horizontal telescope is brought into coincidence with the image of one point and the position of the telescope noted; the cross hair is then brought into coincidence with the image of the other point and the new position of the telescope noted. The difference between these readings is the vertical distance required.
Among the uses of a cathetometer is reading the levels of a liquid in a capillary tube, such as in measurements of surface tension. A cathetometer also can be used for following the changes in liquid level in a dilatometer due to, for example, a chemical reaction therein.
See also
Travelling microscope
References
Length, distance, or range measuring devices
Optical instruments | wiki |
Metasesarma is een geslacht van kreeftachtigen uit de klasse van de Malacostraca (hogere kreeftachtigen).
Soorten
Metasesarma aubryi (A. Milne-Edwards, 1869)
Metasesarma obesum (Dana, 1851)
Sesarmidae | wiki |
Dance with You may refer to:
"Dance with You" (Marcus & Martinus song), 2017
"Dance with You" (Solange Knowles song), 2002
"Dance with You (Nachna Tere Naal)", by the Rishi Rich Project, 2003
"Dance with You Tonight", 2017 song by Robert Plant from the album Carry Fire
"Dance with You", a song from the musical The Prom
"Dance with You, a 2020 song by Skusta Clee
See also
"Dance Without You", 2011 song by Skylar Grey | wiki |
A fissure is a narrow crack or opening in the Earth's surface
Fissure or fissures may also refer to:
Anatomy and healthcare
Fissure (anatomy), a groove, natural division, deep furrow, elongated cleft, or tear in various parts of the body
Fissure (botany), a split or crack; a line or opening of dehiscence.
Fissure (dentistry), a break in the tooth enamel
Sulcus (morphology), furrow or groove in the surface of a limb or an organ
Sulcus (neuroanatomy), a large depression or groove in the cerebral cortex
Geology
Fissure vein, a vein of ore aggregated in a fissure
Fissure vent, a linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity
Ice fissure, deep fracture or crevasse in glaciology
Art and entertainment
Fissures (album), a 1997 album by Robert Rich and Alio Die
Fissures (film), a 2009 film
People
Fissure (gamer), online alias of professional esports player Baek Chan-hyung
See also | wiki |
Escheat is a common law doctrine that transfers the real property of a person who has died without heirs to the crown or state. It serves to ensure that property is not left in "limbo" without recognized ownership. It originally applied to a number of situations where a legal interest in land was destroyed by operation of law, so that the ownership of the land reverted to the immediately superior feudal lord.
Etymology
The term "escheat" derives ultimately from the Latin ex-cadere, to "fall-out", via mediaeval French escheoir. The sense is of a feudal estate in land falling-out of the possession by a tenant into the possession of the lord.
Origins in feudalism
In feudal England, escheat referred to the situation where the tenant of a fee (or "fief") died without an heir or committed a felony. In the case of such demise of a tenant-in-chief, the fee reverted to the King's demesne permanently, when it became once again a mere tenantless plot of land, but could be re-created as a fee by enfeoffment to another of the king's followers. Where the deceased had been subinfeudated by a tenant-in-chief, the fee reverted temporarily to the crown for one year and one day by right of primer seisin after which it escheated to the over-lord who had granted it to the deceased by enfeoffment. From the time of Henry III, the monarchy took particular interest in escheat as a source of revenue.
Background
At the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, all the land of England was claimed as the personal possession of William the Conqueror under allodial title. The monarch thus became the sole "owner" of all the land in the kingdom, a position which persists to the present day. He then granted it out to his favoured followers, who thereby became tenants-in-chief, under various contracts of feudal land tenure. Such tenures, even the highest one of "feudal barony", never conferred ownership of land but merely ownership of rights over it, that is to say ownership of an estate in land. Such persons are therefore correctly termed "land-holders" or "tenants" (from Latin teneo to hold), not owners. If held freely, that is to say by freehold, such holdings were heritable by the holder's legal heir. On the payment of a premium termed feudal relief to the treasury, such heir was entitled to demand re-enfeoffment by the king with the fee concerned.
Where no legal heir existed, the logic of the situation was that the fief had ceased to exist as a legal entity, since being tenantless no one was living who had been enfeoffed with the land, and the land was thus technically owned by either the crown or the immediate overlord (where the fee had been subinfeudated by the tenant-in-chief to a mesne lord, and perhaps the process of subinfeudation had been continued by a lower series of mesne-lords) as ultimus haeres. Logically therefore it was in the occupation of the crown alone, that is to say in the royal demesne. This was the basic operation of an escheat ('excadere'), a failure of heirs.
Escheat could also take place if a tenant was outlawed or convicted of a felony, when the King could exercise the ancient right of wasting the criminal's land for a year and a day, after which the land would revert to the overlord. (However, one guilty of treason (rather than mere felony) forfeited all lands to the King. John and his heirs frequently insisted on seizing as terrae Normannorum (i.e. "lands of the Normans") the English lands of those lords with holdings in Normandy who preferred to be Normans rather than Englishmen, when the victories of Philip II of France forced them to make a proclamation of allegiance to France.) Since disavowal of a feudal bond was a felony, lords could escheat land from those who refused to perform their feudal services. On the other hand, there were also tenants who were merely sluggish in performing their duties, while not being outright rebellious against the lord. Remedies in the courts against this sort of thing, even in Bracton's day, were available, but were considered laborious and were frequently ineffectual in compelling the desired performance. The commonest mechanism was distraint, also known as distress (districtio), whereby the lord would seize chattels or goods belonging to the tenant, to hold until performance was achieved. This practice had been addressed in the 1267 Statute of Marlborough. Even so, it remained the most common extrajudicial method applied by overlords at the time of Quia Emptores.
Thus, under English common law, there were two main ways an escheat could happen:
A person's lands escheated to the immediate overlord if he was convicted of a felony (but not treason, in that event the land was forfeited to the Crown). If the person was executed for felony, his heirs were attainted, i.e. were ineligible to inherit. In most common-law jurisdictions, this type of escheat has been abolished outright, for example in the United States under Article 3 § 3 of the United States Constitution, which states that attainders for treason do not give rise to posthumous forfeiture, or "corruption of blood".
If a person had no heir to receive his lands under his Will, or under the laws of intestacy, then any land he owned at death would escheat. This rule has been replaced in most common-law jurisdictions by bona vacantia or a similar concept.
Procedure
From the 12th century onward, the Crown appointed escheators to manage escheats and report to the Exchequer, with one escheator per county established by the middle of the 14th century. Upon the death of a tenant-in-chief, the escheator would be instructed by a writ of diem clausit extremum ("he has closed his last day", i.e. he is dead) issued by the king's chancery, to empanel a jury to hold an "inquisition post mortem" to ascertain who the legal heir was, if any, and what was the extent of the land held. Thus it would be revealed whether the king had any rights to the land. It was also important for the king to know who the heir was, and to assess his personal qualities, since he would thenceforth form a constituent part of the royal army, if he held under military tenure. If there was any doubt, the escheator would seize the land and refer the case to the king's court where it would be settled, ensuring that not one day's revenue would be lost. This would be a source of concern with land-holders when there were delays from the court.
Current operation
Most common-law jurisdictions have abolished the concept of feudal land tenure of property, and so the concept of escheat has lost something of its meaning. In England and Wales, the possibility of escheat of a deceased person's property to the feudal overlord was abolished by the Administration of Estates Act 1925; however, the concept of Bona vacantia means that the crown (or Duchy of Cornwall or Duchy of Lancaster) can still receive such property if no-one else can be found who is eligible to inherit it.
The term is often now applied to the transfer of the title to a person's property to the state when the person dies intestate without any other person capable of taking the property as heir. For example, a common-law jurisdiction's intestacy statute might provide that when someone dies without a will, and is not survived by a spouse, descendants, parents, grandparents, descendants of parents, children or grandchildren of grandparents, or great-grandchildren of grandparents, then the person's estate will escheat to the state.
Similarly, under Napoleonic law, if someone dies intestate without natural heirs then, after all creditors are paid, any remaining real and personal goods are inherited by the State.
In some jurisdictions, escheat can also occur when an entity, typically a bank, credit union or other financial institution, holds money or property which appears to be unclaimed, for instance due to a lack of activity on the account by way of deposits, withdrawals or any other transactions for a lengthy time in a cash account. In many jurisdictions, if the owner cannot be located, such property can be revocably escheated to the state.
In commerce, it is the process of reassigning legal title in unclaimed or abandoned payroll checks, insurance payouts, or stocks and shares whose owners cannot be traced, to a state authority (in the United States). A company is required to file unclaimed property reports with its state annually and, in some jurisdictions, to make a good-faith effort to find the owners of their dormant accounts. The escheating criteria are set by individual state regulations.
England and Wales
Bankruptcies and liquidations
Escheat can still occur in England and Wales, if a person is made bankrupt or a corporation is liquidated. Usually this means that all the property held by that person is 'vested in' (transferred to) the Official Receiver or Trustee in Bankruptcy. However, it is open to the Receiver or Trustee to refuse to accept that property by disclaiming it. It is relatively common for a trustee in bankruptcy to disclaim freehold property which may give rise to a liability, for example the common parts of a block of flats owned by the bankrupt would ordinarily pass to the trustee to be realised in order to pay his debts, but the property may give the landlord an obligation to spend money for the benefit of lessees of the flats. The bankruptcy of the original owner means that the freehold is no longer the bankrupt's legal property, and the disclaimer destroys the freehold estate, so that the land ceases to be owned by anyone and effectively escheats to become land held by the Crown in demesne. This situation affects a few hundred properties each year.
Although such escheated property is owned by the Crown, it is not part of the Crown Estate, unless the Crown (through the Crown Estate Commissioners) 'completes' the escheat, by taking steps to exert rights as owner. However, usually, in the example given above, the tenants of the flats, or their mortgagees would exercise their rights given by the Insolvency Act 1986 to have the freehold property transferred to them. This is the main difference between escheat and bona vacantia, as in the latter, a grant takes place automatically, with no need to 'complete' the transaction.
Registration of Crown land
One consequence of the Land Registration Act 1925 was that only estates in land (freehold or leasehold) could be registered. Land held directly by the Crown, known as property in the "royal demesne", is not held under any vestigial feudal tenure (the crown has no historical overlord other than, for brief periods, the papacy) and there is therefore no estate to register. This had the consequence that freeholds which escheated to the Crown ceased to be registrable. This created a slow drain of property out of registration, amounting to some hundreds of freehold titles in each year.
The problem was noted by the Law Commission in their report "Land Registration for the Twenty-First Century". The Land Registration Act 2002 was passed in response to that report. It provides that land held in demesne by the Crown may be registered.
United States
Transfer agents and escheatment
Escheatment is the process of returning lost or unclaimed property to the government of a State, for safekeeping until the owner(s) is identified. Geographic jurisdiction of the State is determined by the last known address of the original owner. Each of the United States has laws regulating escheatment, with holding periods typically ranging around five years. The legal principle behind escheatment is that all property has a legally recognized owner. Therefore, if the original owner cannot be found within a specified time, the government is presumed to be the owner.
Escheats are performed on a revocable basis. Thus, if property has escheated to a State but the original owner subsequently is found, escheatment is revoked and ownership of the property reverts to that original owner.
Lost shareholders
According to SEC Rule 17 CFR 240.17f-1: Transfer Agents are obligated by the SEC to report to Commission (specifically to its designee; the SEC's Securities Information System) anytime a certificate is known to be lost or missing for at least 2 days. Transfer Agents must search for the holder's SSN or EIN utilizing an information database system, or if not available, exercise their best effort to match the holder's name and address through these systems. All Transfer Agents must report all lost or missing certificates/shareholders on their own annual filings.
See also
Bona vacantia
Breakage
Doctrine of lapse
History of the English fiscal system
Intestacy
Quia Emptores
Sources
S.T. Gibson, "The Escheatries, 1327–1341", English Historical Review, 36(1921).
John Bean, The Decline of English Feudalism, 1215–1540, 1968.
References
Common law
Feudalism in England
Property law
Real property law
Time in government | wiki |
Arabistan or Arabestan may refer to:
Khuzestan, a province of Iran that was also known as Arabistan
Arabian Peninsula
The name of Saudi Arabia in Persian language
An autonomous province in the Levant (from Aleppo to the borders of Egypt) ruled by Fakhr-al-Din II, during Ottoman era.
Suudi Arabistan, a Turkish name for Saudi Arabia
See also
Arab (disambiguation)
Arabia (disambiguation)
Arabian (disambiguation) | wiki |
Netflix, Inc. is an American media company based in Los Gatos, California. Founded in 1997 by Reed Hastings and Marc Randolph in Scotts Valley, California, it operates the over-the-top subscription video on-demand service Netflix brand, which includes original films and television series commissioned or acquired by the company, and third-party content licensed from other distributors. Netflix is a member of the Motion Picture Association—having become the first streaming company to become a member.
Netflix initially both sold and rented DVDs by mail, but the sales were eliminated within a year to focus on the DVD rental business. In 2007, Netflix introduced streaming media and video on demand. The company expanded to Canada in 2010, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean. In 2011, the service began to acquire and produce original content, beginning with the political drama House of Cards. By 2022, original productions accounted for half of Netflix's library in the United States, and the company had ventured into other categories, such as video game publishing via the Netflix service.
The company is ranked 115th on the Fortune 500 and 219th on the Forbes Global 2000. It is the second largest entertainment/media company by market capitalization . In 2021, Netflix was ranked as the eighth-most trusted brand globally by Morning Consult. During the 2010s, Netflix was the top-performing stock in the S&P 500 stock market index, with a total return of 3,693%. , Netflix had over 230 million subscribers worldwide, including 74.3 million in the United States and Canada; 76.7 million in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, 41.7 million in Latin America and 38 million in the Asia-Pacific region. The Netflix service is available worldwide aside from Mainland China, Syria, North Korea, and Russia.
Netflix is headquartered in Los Gatos, California, in Santa Clara County, with the two CEOs, Greg Peters and Ted Sarandos, split between Los Gatos and Los Angeles, respectively. It also operates international offices in Asia, Europe and Latin America including in Canada, France, Brazil, the Netherlands, India, Italy, Japan, Poland, South Korea and the United Kingdom. The company has production hubs in Los Angeles, Albuquerque, London, Madrid, Vancouver and Toronto.
History
Launch as a mail-based rental business (1997–2006)
Netflix was founded by Marc Randolph and Reed Hastings on August 29, 1997, in Scotts Valley, California. Hastings, a computer scientist and mathematician, was a cofounder of Pure Atria, which was acquired by Rational Software Corporation that year for $750 million, the then biggest acquisition in Silicon Valley history. Randolph had worked as a marketing director for Pure Atria after Pure Atria acquired a company where Randolph worked. He was previously a co-founder of MicroWarehouse, a computer mail-order company as well as vice president of marketing for Borland International. Hastings and Randolph came up with the idea for Netflix while carpooling between their homes in Santa Cruz, California, and Pure Atria's headquarters in Sunnyvale. Patty McCord, later head of human resources at Netflix, was also in the carpool group. Randolph admired Amazon.com and wanted to find a large category of portable items to sell over the Internet using a similar model. Hastings and Randolph considered and rejected selling and renting VHS tapes as too expensive to stock and too delicate to ship. When they heard about DVDs, first introduced in the United States in early 1997, they tested the concept of selling or renting DVDs by mail by mailing a compact disc to Hastings's house in Santa Cruz. When the disc arrived intact, they decided to enter the $16 billion home-video sales and rental industry. Hastings is often quoted saying that he decided to start Netflix after being fined $40 at a Blockbuster store for being late to return a copy of Apollo 13, a claim since repudiated by Randolph. Hastings invested $2.5 million into Netflix from the sale of Pure Atria. Netflix launched as the first DVD rental and sales website with 30 employees and 925 titles available—nearly all DVDs published. Randolph and Hastings met with Jeff Bezos, where Amazon offered to acquire Netflix for between $14 and $16 million. Fearing competition from Amazon, Randolph at first thought the offer was fair, but Hastings, who owned 70% of the company, turned it down on the plane ride home.
Initially, Netflix offered a per-rental model for each DVD but introduced a monthly subscription concept in September 1999. The per-rental model was dropped by early 2000, allowing the company to focus on the business model of flat-fee unlimited rentals without due dates, late fees, shipping and handling fees, or per-title rental fees. In September 2000, during the dot-com bubble, while Netflix was suffering losses, Hastings and Randolph offered to sell the company to Blockbuster LLC for $50 million. John Antioco, CEO of Blockbuster, thought the offer was a joke and declined, saying, "The dot-com hysteria is completely overblown." While Netflix experienced fast growth in early 2001, the continued effects of the dot-com bubble collapse and the September 11 attacks caused the company to hold off plans for its initial public offering (IPO) and to lay off one-third of its 120 employees.
DVD players were a popular gift for holiday sales in late 2001, and demand for DVD subscription services were "growing like crazy", according to chief talent officer Patty McCord. The company went public on May 29, 2002, selling 5.5 million shares of common stock at US$15.00 per share. In 2003, Netflix was issued a patent by the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office to cover its subscription rental service and several extensions. Netflix posted its first profit in 2003, earning $6.5 million on revenues of $272 million; by 2004, profit had increased to $49 million on over $500 million in revenues. In 2005, 35,000 different films were available, and Netflix shipped 1 million DVDs out every day.
In 2004, Blockbuster introduced a DVD rental service, which not only allowed users to check out titles through online sites but allowed for them to return them at brick-and-mortar stores. By 2006, Blockbuster's service reached two million users, and while trailing Netflix's subscriber count, was drawing business away from Netflix. Netflix lowered fees in 2007. While it was an urban legend that Netflix ultimately "killed" Blockbuster in the DVD rental market, Blockbuster's debt load and internal disagreements hurt the company.
On April 4, 2006, Netflix filed a patent infringement lawsuit in which it demanded a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, alleging that Blockbuster LLC's online DVD rental subscription program violated two patents held by Netflix. The first cause of action alleged Blockbuster's infringement of copying the "dynamic queue" of DVDs available for each customer, Netflix's method of using the ranked preferences in the queue to send DVDs to subscribers, and Netflix's method permitting the queue to be updated and reordered. The second cause of action alleged infringement of the subscription rental service as well as Netflix's methods of communication and delivery. The companies settled their dispute on June 25, 2007; terms were not disclosed.
On October 1, 2006, Netflix announced the Netflix Prize, $1,000,000 to the first developer of a video-recommendation algorithm that could beat its existing algorithm Cinematch, at predicting customer ratings by more than 10%. On September 21, 2009, it awarded the $1,000,000 prize to team "BellKor’s Pragmatic Chaos." Cinematch, launched in 2000, is a recommendation system that recommended movies to its users, many of which they might not ever had heard of before.
Through its division Red Envelope Entertainment, Netflix licensed and distributed independent films such as Born into Brothels and Sherrybaby. In late 2006, Red Envelope Entertainment also expanded into producing original content with filmmakers such as John Waters. Netflix closed Red Envelope Entertainment in 2008.
Transition to streaming services (2007–2012)
In January 2007, the company launched a streaming media service, introducing video on demand via the Internet. However, at that time it only had 1,000 films available for streaming, compared to 70,000 available on DVD. The company had for some time considered offering movies online, but it was only in the mid-2000s that data speeds and bandwidth costs had improved sufficiently to allow customers to download movies from the net. The original idea was a "Netflix box" that could download movies overnight, and be ready to watch the next day. By 2005, Netflix had acquired movie rights and designed the box and service. But after witnessing how popular streaming services such as YouTube were despite the lack of high-definition content, the concept of using a hardware device was scrapped and replaced with a streaming concept.
In February 2007, Netflix delivered its billionth DVD, a copy of Babel to a customer in Texas. In April 2007, Netflix recruited ReplayTV founder Anthony Wood, to build a "Netflix Player" that would allow streaming content to be played directly on a television rather than a desktop or laptop. Hastings eventually shut down the project to help encourage other hardware manufacturers to include built-in Netflix support, which would be spun off as the digital media player product Roku.
In January 2008, all rental-disc subscribers became entitled to unlimited streaming at no additional cost. This change came in a response to the introduction of Hulu and to Apple's new video-rental services. In August 2008, the Netflix database was corrupted and the company was not able to ship DVDs to customers for 3 days, leading the company to move all its data to the Amazon Web Services cloud. In November 2008, Netflix began offering subscribers rentals on Blu-ray and discontinued its sale of used DVDs. In 2009, Netflix streams overtook DVD shipments.
On January 6, 2010, Netflix agreed with Warner Bros. to delay new release rentals 28 days prior to retail, in an attempt to help studios sell physical copies, and similar deals involving Universal Pictures and 20th Century Fox were reached on April 9. In July 2010, Netflix signed a deal to stream movies of Relativity Media. In August 2010, Netflix reached a five-year deal worth nearly $1 billion to stream films from Paramount, Lionsgate and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The deal increased Netflix's annual spending fees, adding roughly $200 million per year. It spent $117 million in the first six months of 2010 on streaming, up from $31 million in 2009. On September 22, 2010, Netflix launched in Canada, its first international market. In November 2010, Netflix began offering a standalone streaming service separate from DVD rentals.
In 2010, Netflix acquired the rights to Breaking Bad, produced by Sony Pictures Television, after the show's third season, at a point where original broadcaster AMC had expressed the possibility of cancelling the show. Sony pushed Netflix to release Breaking Bad in time for the fourth season, which as a result, greatly expanded the show's audience on AMC due to new viewers binging on the Netflix past episodes, and doubling the viewership by the time of the fifth season. Breaking Bad is considered the first such show to have this "Netflix effect."
In January 2011, Netflix announced agreements with several manufacturers to include branded Netflix buttons on the remote controls of devices compatible with the service, such as Blu-ray players. By May 2011, Netflix had become the largest source of Internet streaming traffic in North America, accounting for 30% of traffic during peak hours.
On July 12, 2011, Netflix announced that it would separate its existing subscription plans into two separate plans: one covering the streaming and the other DVD rental services. The cost for streaming would be $7.99 per month, while DVD rental would start at the same price. In September 2011, Netflix announced a content deal with DreamWorks Animation. In September 2011, Netflix expanded to 43 countries in Latin America. On September 18, 2011, Netflix announced its intentions to rebrand and restructure its DVD home media rental service as an independent subsidiary called Qwikster, separating DVD rental and streaming services. On October 10, 2011, Netflix announced that it would retain its DVD service under the name Netflix and that its streaming and DVD-rental plans would remain branded together.
On January 4, 2012, Netflix started its expansion to Europe, launching in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In February 2012, Netflix reached a multi-year agreement with The Weinstein Company. In March 2012, Netflix acquired the domain name DVD.com. By 2016, Netflix rebranded its DVD-by-mail service under the name DVD.com, A Netflix Company. In April 2012, Netflix filed with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to form a political action committee (PAC) called FLIXPAC. Netflix spokesperson Joris Evers tweeted that the intent was to "engage on issues like net neutrality, bandwidth caps, UBB and VPPA". In June 2012, Netflix signed a deal with Open Road Films.
On August 23, 2012, Netflix and The Weinstein Company signed a multi-year output deal for RADiUS-TWC films. In September 2012, Epix signed a five-year streaming deal with Netflix. For the initial two years of this agreement, first-run and back-catalog content from Epix was exclusive to Netflix. Epix films came to Netflix 90 days after premiering on Epix. These included films from Paramount, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Lionsgate.
On October 18, 2012, Netflix launched in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. On December 4, 2012, Netflix and Disney announced an exclusive multi-year agreement for first-run United States subscription television rights to Walt Disney Studios' animated and live-action films, with classics such as Dumbo, Alice in Wonderland and Pocahontas available immediately and others available on Netflix beginning in 2016. Direct-to-video releases were made available in 2013.
On January 14, 2013, Netflix signed an agreement with Time Warner's Turner Broadcasting System and Warner Bros. Television to distribute Cartoon Network, Warner Bros. Animation, and Adult Swim content, as well as TNT's Dallas, beginning in March 2013. The rights to these programs were given to Netflix shortly after deals with Viacom to stream Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. programs expired.
For cost reasons, Netflix stated that it would limit its expansion in 2013, adding only one new market—the Netherlands—in September of that year. This expanded its availability to 40 territories.
Development of original programming (2013–2017)
Netflix began efforts to develop original content in 2011; in March, Netflix made a straight-to-series order for the Kevin Spacey-led political drama House of Cards from MRC. Beating out other U.S. cable networks, it marked the first first-run television series to be specifically commissioned by the service. In November 2011, Netflix then ordered Orange is the New Black, a comedy-drama adapted from Piper Kerman's memoir of the same name, and a new season of the cancelled Fox sitcom Arrested Development. Netflix also acquired U.S. rights to the Norwegian drama Lilyhammer; following its television premiere on Norway's NRK1 on January 25, 2012, the entirety of its first season was released by Netflix on February 8—a notable departure from the broadcast television model of premiering episodes on a weekly basis.
House of Cards was released by Netflix on February 1, 2013, marketed as the first "Netflix Original" production. Later that month, Netflix announced an agreement with DreamWorks Animation to commission children's television series based on its properties, beginning with Turbo: F.A.S.T., a spin-off of its film Turbo. Orange is the New Black would premiere in July 2013; Netflix stated that Orange is the New Black had been its most-watched original series so far, with all of them having "an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV."
On March 13, 2013, Netflix added a Facebook sharing feature, letting United States subscribers access "Watched by your friends" and "Friends' Favorites" by agreeing. This was not legal until the Video Privacy Protection Act was modified in early 2013. On August 1, 2013, Netflix reintroduced the "Profiles" feature that permits accounts to accommodate up to five user profiles.
In November 2013, Marvel Television and ABC Studios announced Netflix had ordered a slate of four television series based on the Marvel Comics characters Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Iron Fist and Luke Cage. Each of the four series received an initial order of 13 episodes, and Netflix also ordered a Defenders miniseries that would tie them together. Daredevil and Jessica Jones premiered in 2015. The Luke Cage series premiered on September 30, 2016, followed by Iron Fist on March 17, 2017, and The Defenders on August 18, 2017. Marvel owner Disney later entered into other content agreements with Netflix, including acquiring its animated Star Wars series Star Wars: The Clone Wars, and a new sixth season.
In February 2014, Netflix began to enter into agreements with U.S. internet service providers, beginning with Comcast (whose customers had repeatedly complained of frequent buffering when streaming Netflix), in order to provide the service a direct connection to their networks. In April 2014, Netflix signed Arrested Development creator Mitchell Hurwitz and his production firm The Hurwitz Company to a multi-year deal to create original projects for the service. In May 2014, Netflix acquired streaming rights to films produced by Sony Pictures Animation. It also quietly began to introduce an updated logo, with a flatter appearance and updated typography.
In September 2014, Netflix expanded into six new European markets, including Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. On September 10, 2014, Netflix participated in Internet Slowdown Day by deliberately slowing down its speed in support of net neutrality regulations in the United States. In October 2014, Netflix announced a four-film deal with Adam Sandler and his Happy Madison Productions.
In April 2015, following the launch of Daredevil, Netflix director of content operations Tracy Wright announced that Netflix had added support for audio description (a narration track with aural descriptions of key visual elements for the blind or visually impaired), and had begun to work with its partners to add descriptions to its other original series over time. The following year, as part of a settlement with the American Council of the Blind, Netflix agreed to provide descriptions for its original series within 30 days of their premiere, and add screen reader support and the ability to browse content by availability of descriptions.
In March 2015, Netflix expanded to Australia and New Zealand. In September 2015, Netflix launched in Japan, its first country in Asia. In October 2015, Netflix launched in Italy, Portugal, and Spain.
In January 2016, at the 2016 Consumer Electronics Show, Netflix announced a major international expansion of its service into 130 additional countries. It then had become available worldwide except China, Syria, North Korea, Kosovo and Crimea. In May 2016, Netflix created a tool called Fast.com to determine the speed of an Internet connection. It received praise for being "simple" and "easy to use", and does not include online advertising, unlike competitors. On November 30, 2016, Netflix launched an offline playback feature, allowing users of the Netflix mobile apps on Android or iOS to cache content on their devices in standard or high quality for viewing offline, without an Internet connection.
In 2016, Netflix released an estimated 126 original series or films, more than any other network or cable channel. In April 2016, Hastings stated that the company planned to expand its in-house, Los Angeles-based Netflix Studios to grow its output; Hastings ruled out any potential acquisitions of existing studios, stating that "It’s been 15 years we’ve been public and 20 years existing, and we've done no [mergers and acquisitions]. So I think that probably speaks for itself."
In February 2017, Netflix signed a music publishing deal with BMG Rights Management, whereby BMG will oversee rights outside of the United States for music associated with Netflix original content. Netflix continues to handle these tasks in-house in the United States. On April 25, 2017, Netflix signed a licensing deal with IQiyi, a Chinese video streaming platform owned by Baidu, to allow selected Netflix original content to be distributed in China on the platform.
On August 7, 2017, Netflix acquired Millarworld, the creator-owned publishing company of comic book writer Mark Millar. The purchase marked the first corporate acquisition to have been made by Netflix.On August 14, 2017, Netflix entered into an exclusive development deal with Shonda Rhimes and her production company Shondaland.
In September 2017, Netflix announced it would offer its low-broadband mobile technology to airlines to provide better in-flight Wi-Fi so that passengers can watch movies on Netflix while on planes.
In September 2017, Minister of Heritage Mélanie Joly announced that Netflix had agreed to make a (US$400 million) investment over the next five years in producing content in Canada. The company denied that the deal was intended to result in a tax break. Netflix realized this goal by December 2018.
In October 2017, Netflix iterated a goal of having half of its library consist of original content by 2019, announcing a plan to invest $8 billion on original content in 2018. There will be a particular focus on films and anime through this investment, with a plan to produce 80 original films and 30 anime series. In October 2017, Netflix introduced the "Skip Intro" feature which allows customers to skip the intros to shows on its platform through a variety of techniques including manual reviewing, audio tagging, and machine learning.
In November 2017, Netflix signed an exclusive multi-year deal with Orange Is the New Black creator Jenji Kohan. In November 2017, Netflix withdrew from co-hosting a party at the 75th Golden Globe Awards with The Weinstein Company due to the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases.
Expansion into international productions (2017–2020)
In November 2017, Netflix announced that it would be making its first original Colombian series, to be executive produced by Ciro Guerra. In December 2017, Netflix signed Stranger Things director-producer Shawn Levy and his production company 21 Laps Entertainment to what sources say is a four-year deal. In 2017, Netflix invested in distributing exclusive stand-up comedy specials from Dave Chappelle, Louis C.K., Chris Rock, Jim Gaffigan, Bill Burr and Jerry Seinfeld.
In February 2018, Netflix acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox from Paramount Pictures for $50 million and launched on its service on February 4, 2018, shortly after airing its first trailer during Super Bowl LII. Analysts believed that Netflix's purchase of the film helped to make the film instantly profitable for Paramount compared to a more traditional theatrical release, while Netflix benefited from the surprise reveal. Other films acquired by Netflix include international distribution for Paramount's Annihilation and Universal's News of the World and worldwide distribution of Universal's Extinction, Warner Bros.' Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle, Paramount's The Lovebirds and 20th Century Studios' The Woman in the Window. In March, the service ordered Formula 1: Drive to Survive, a racing docuseries following teams in the Formula One world championship.
In March 2018, Sky UK announced an agreement with Netflix to integrate Netflix's subscription VOD offering into its pay-TV service. Customers with its high-end Sky Q set-top box and service will be able to see Netflix titles alongside their regular Sky channels. In October 2022, Netflix revealed that its annual revenue from the UK subscribers in 2021 was £1.4bn.
In April 2018, Netflix pulled out of the Cannes Film Festival, in response to new rules requiring competition films to have been released in French theaters. The Cannes premiere of Okja in 2017 was controversial, and led to discussions over the appropriateness of films with simultaneous digital releases being screened at an event showcasing theatrical film; audience members also booed the Netflix production logo at the screening. Netflix's attempts to negotiate to allow a limited release in France were curtailed by organizers, as well as French cultural exception law—where theatrically screened films are legally forbidden from being made available via video-on-demand services until at least 36 months after their release. Besides traditional Hollywood markets as well as from partners like the BBC, Sarandos said the company also looking to expand investments in non-traditional foreign markets due to the growth of viewers outside of North America. At the time, this included programs such as Dark from Germany, Ingobernable from Mexico and 3% from Brazil.
On May 22, 2018, former president Barack Obama and his wife Michelle Obama signed a deal to produce docu-series, documentaries and features for Netflix under the Obamas' newly formed production company, Higher Ground Productions.
In June 2018, Netflix announced a partnership with Telltale Games to port its adventure games to the service in a streaming video format, allowing simple controls through a television remote. The first game, Minecraft: Story Mode, was released in November 2018. In July 2018, Netflix earned the most Emmy nominations of any network for the first time with 112 nods. On August 27, 2018, the company signed a five-year exclusive overall deal with international best–selling author Harlan Coben. On the same day, the company inked an overall deal with Gravity Falls creator Alex Hirsch. In October 2018, Netflix paid under $30 million to acquire Albuquerque Studios (ABQ Studios), a $91 million film and TV production facility with eight sound stages in Albuquerque, New Mexico, for its first U.S. production hub, pledging to spend over $1 billion over the next decade to create one of the largest film studios in North America. In November 2018, Paramount Pictures signed a multi-picture film deal with Netflix, making Paramount the first major film studio to sign a deal with Netflix. A sequel to AwesomenessTV's To All the Boys I've Loved Before was released on Netflix under the title To All the Boys: P.S. I Still Love You as part of the agreement. In December 2018, the company announced a partnership with ESPN Films on a television documentary chronicling Michael Jordan and the 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season titled The Last Dance. It was released internationally on Netflix and became available for streaming in the United States three months after a broadcast airing on ESPN.
In January 2019, Sex Education made its debut as a Netflix original series with much critical acclaim. On January 22, 2019, Netflix sought and was approved for membership into the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), as the first streaming service to become a member of the association. In February 2019, The Haunting creator Mike Flanagan joined frequent collaborator Trevor Macy as a partner in Intrepid Pictures and the duo signed an exclusive overall deal with Netflix to produce television content. On May 9, 2019, Netflix contracted with Dark Horse Entertainment to make television series and films based on comics from Dark Horse Comics. In July 2019, Netflix announced that it would be opening a hub at Shepperton Studios as part of a deal with Pinewood Group. In early August 2019, Netflix negotiated an exclusive multi-year film and television deal with Game of Thrones creators and showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The first Netflix production created by Benioff and Weiss was planned as an adaptation of Liu Cixin's science fiction novel The Three-Body Problem, part of the Remembrance of Earth's Past trilogy. On September 30, 2019, in addition to renewing Stranger Things for a fourth season, Netflix signed The Duffer Brothers to an overall deal covering future film and television projects for the service.
On November 13, 2019, Netflix and Nickelodeon entered into a multi-year agreement to produce several original animated feature films and television series based on Nickelodeon's library of characters. This agreement expanded on their existing relationship, in which new specials based on the past Nickelodeon series Invader Zim and Rocko's Modern Life (Invader Zim: Enter the Florpus and Rocko's Modern Life: Static Cling respectively) were released by Netflix. Other new projects planned under the team-up include a music project featuring Squidward Tentacles from the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, and films based on The Loud House and Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. The agreement with Disney ended in 2019 due to the launch of Disney+, with its Marvel productions moving exclusively to the service in 2022.
In November 2019, Netflix announced it had signed a long-term lease to save the Paris Theatre, the last single-screen movie theater in Manhattan. The company oversaw several renovations at the theater, including new seats and a concession stand.
In January 2020, Netflix announced a new four-film deal with Adam Sandler worth up to $275 million. On February 25, 2020, Netflix formed partnerships with six Japanese creators to produce an original Japanese anime project. This partnership includes manga creator group CLAMP, mangaka Shin Kibayashi, mangaka Yasuo Ohtagaki, novelist and film director Otsuichi, novelist Tow Ubutaka, and manga creator Mari Yamazaki. On March 4, 2020, ViacomCBS announced that it will be producing two spin-off films based on SpongeBob SquarePants for Netflix. On April 7, 2020, Peter Chernin's Chernin Entertainment made a multi-year first-look deal with Netflix to make films. On May 29, 2020, Netflix announced the acquisition of Grauman's Egyptian Theatre from the American Cinematheque to use as a special events venue. In July 2020, Netflix appointed Sarandos as co-CEO. In July 2020, Netflix invested in Black Mirror creators Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones’ new production outfit Broke And Bones.
In September 2020, Netflix signed a multi-million dollar deal with the Duke and Duchess of Sussex. Harry and Meghan agreed to a multi-year deal promising to create TV shows, films, and children's content as part of their commitment to stepping away from the duties of the royal family. In September 2020, Hastings released a book about Netflix culture titled No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention, which was coauthored by Erin Meyer. In December 2020, Netflix signed a first-look deal with Millie Bobby Brown to develop and star in several projects including a potential action franchise.
Expansion into gaming, Squid Game (2021–present)
In March 2021, Netflix earned the most Academy Award nominations of any studio, with 36. Netflix won seven Academy Awards, which was the most by any studio. Later that year, Netflix also won more Emmys than any other network or studio with 44 wins, tying the record for most Emmys won in a single year set by CBS in 1974. On April 8, 2021, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced an agreement for Netflix to hold the U.S. pay television window rights to its releases beginning in 2022, replacing Starz and expanding upon an existing agreement with Sony Pictures Animation. The agreement also includes a first-look deal for any future direct-to-streaming films being produced by Sony Pictures, with Netflix required to commit to a minimum number of them. On April 27, 2021, Netflix announced that it was opening its first Canadian headquarters in Toronto. The company also announced that it would open an office in Sweden as well as Rome and Istanbul to increase its original content in those regions.
In early June, Netflix hosted a first-ever week-long virtual event called “Geeked Week,” where it shared exclusive news, new trailers, cast appearances and more about upcoming genre titles like The Witcher, The Cuphead Show!, and The Sandman.
On June 7, 2021, Jennifer Lopez's Nuyorican Productions signed a multi-year first-look deal with Netflix spanning feature films, TV series, and unscripted content, with an emphasis on projects that support diverse female actors, writers, and filmmakers. On June 10, 2021, Netflix announced it was launching an online store for curated products tied to the Netflix brand and shows such as Stranger Things and The Witcher. On June 21, 2021, Steven Spielberg's Amblin Partners signed a deal with Netflix to release multiple new feature films for the streaming service. On June 30, 2021, Powerhouse Animation Studios (the studio behind Netflix's Castlevania) announced signing a first-look deal with the streamer to produce more animated series.
In July 2021, Netflix hired Mike Verdu, a former executive from Electronic Arts and Facebook, as vice president of game development, along with plans to add video games by 2022. Netflix announced plans to release mobile games which would be included in subscribers' plans to the service. Trial offerings were first launched for Netflix users in Poland in August 2021, offering premium mobile games based on Stranger Things including Stranger Things 3: The Game, for free to subscribers through the Netflix mobile app.
On July 14, 2021, Netflix signed a first-look deal with Joey King, star of The Kissing Booth franchise, in which King will produce and develop films for Netflix via her All The King's Horses production company. On July 21, 2021, Zack Snyder, director of Netflix's Army of the Dead, announced he had signed his production company The Stone Quarry to a first-look deal with; his upcoming projects include a sequel to Army of the Dead, the sci-fi adventure film Rebel Moon. In 2019, he agreed to produce an anime-style web series inspired by Norse mythology.
As of August 2021, Netflix Originals made up 40% of Netflix's overall library in the United States. The company announced that "TUDUM: A Netflix Global Fan Event", a three-hour virtual behind the scenes featuring first-look reveals for 100 of the streamer's series, films and specials, would have its inaugural show in late September 2021. According to Netflix, the show garnered 25.7 million views across Netflix’s 29 Netflix YouTube channels, Twitter, Twitch, Facebook, TikTok and Tudum.com.
Also in September, the company announced The Queen’s Ball: A Bridgerton Experience, launching in 2022 in Los Angeles, Chicago, Montreal, and Washington, D.C..
Squid Game, a South Korean survival drama created and produced by Hwang Dong-hyuk, rapidly became the service's most-watched show within a week of its launch in many markets on September 17, 2021, including Korea, the U.S. and the United Kingdom. Within its first 28 days on the service, Squid Game drew more than 111 million viewers, surpassing Bridgerton and becoming Netflix's most-watched show.
On September 20, 2021, Netflix signed a long-term lease deal with Aviva Investors to operate and expand the Longcross Studios in Surrey, UK. On September 21, 2021, Netflix announced that it would acquire the Roald Dahl Story Company, which manages the rights to Roald Dahl's stories and characters, for an undisclosed price and would operate it as an independent company. The company acquired Night School Studio, an independent video game developer, on September 28, 2021. Netflix officially launched mobile games on November 2, 2021, for Android users around the world. Through the app, subscribers had free access to five games, including two previously made Stranger Things titles. Netflix intends to add more games to this service over time. On November 9, the collection launched for iOS. Some games in the collection require an active internet connection to play, while others will be available offline. Netflix Kids' accounts will not have games available.
On October 13, 2021, Netflix announced the launch of the Netflix Book Club, where readers will hear about new books, films, and series adaptations and have exclusive access to each book's adaptation process. Netflix will partner with Starbucks to bring the book club to life via a social series called But Have You Read the Book?. Uzo Aduba will serve as the inaugural host of the series and announce monthly book selections set to be adapted by the streamer. Aduba will also speak with the cast, creators, and authors about the book adaptation process over a cup of coffee at Starbucks. Through October 2021, Netflix commonly reported viewership for its programming based on the number of viewers or households that watched a show in a given period (such as the first 28 days from its premiere) for at least two minutes. On the announcement of its quarterly earnings in October 2021, the company stated that it would switch its viewership metrics to measuring the number of hours that a show was watched, including rewatches, which the company said was closer to the measurements used in linear broadcast television, and thus "our members and the industry can better measure success in the streaming world." On November 16, 2021, Netflix announced the launch of "Top10 on Netflix.com", a new website with weekly global and country lists of the most popular titles on their service based on their new viewership metrics.
On November 22, 2021, Netflix announced that it would acquire Scanline VFX, the visual effects and animation company behind Cowboy Bebop and Stranger Things. On the same day, Roberto Patino signed a deal with Netflix and established his own production banner, Analog Inc., in partnership with the company. Patino's first project under the deal is a series adaptation of Image Comics' Nocterra. On December 6, 2021, Netflix and Stage 32 announced that they have teamed up the workshops at the Creating Content for the Global Marketplace program. On December 7, 2021, Netflix partnered with IllumiNative, a woman-led non-profit organization, for the Indigenous Producers Training Program.
On December 9, 2021, Netflix announced the launch of "Tudum," an official companion website that offers news, exclusive interviews and behind-the-scenes videos for its original television shows and films. On December 13, 2021, Netflix signed a multi-year overall deal with Kalinda Vazquez. On December 16, 2021, Netflix signed a multi-year creative partnership with Spike Lee and his production company 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks to develop film and television projects. In December 2021, former Netflix engineer Sung Mo Jun was sentenced to 2 years in prison for an insider trading scheme where he leaked subscriber numbers in advance of official releases.
In compliance with the EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive and its implementation in France, Netflix reached commitments with French broadcasting authorities and film guilds, as required by law, to invest a specific amount of its annual revenue into original French films and series. These films must be theatrically released and would not be allowed to be carried on Netflix until 15 months after their release.
In January 2022, Netflix ordered additional sports docuseries from Drive to Survive producers Box to Box Films, including a series that would follow PGA Tour golfers, and another that would follow professional tennis players on the ATP and WTA Tour circuits.
The company announced plans to acquire Next Games in March 2022 for as part of Netflix's expansions into gaming. Next Games had developed the mobile title Stranger Things: Puzzle Tales as well as two The Walking Dead mobile games. Later in the month, Netflix also acquired the Texas-based mobile game developer, Boss Fight Entertainment, for an undisclosed sum.
On March 15, 2022, Netflix announced a partnership with Dr. Seuss Enterprises to produce five new series and specials based on Seuss properties following the success of Green Eggs and Ham. On March 29, 2022, Netflix announced that it would open an office in Poland to serve as a hub for its original productions across Central and Eastern Europe. On March 30, 2022, Netflix extended its lease agreement with Martini Film Studios, just outside Vancouver, Canada, for another five years. On March 31, 2022, Netflix ordered a docuseries that would follow teams in the 2022 Tour de France, which would also be co-produced by Box to Box Films.
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Netflix suspended its operations and future projects in Russia. It also announced that it would not comply with a proposed directive by Roskomnadzor requiring all internet streaming services with more than 100,000 subscribers to integrate the major free-to-air channels (which are primarily state-owned). A month later, ex-Russian subscribers filed a class action lawsuit against Netflix.
At the end of Q1 2022, Netflix announced a decline in subscribers with almost 200,000 fewer viewers than at the end of the previous year. Netflix stated that 100 million households globally were sharing passwords to their account with others, and that Canada and the United States accounted for 30 million of them. Following these announcements, Netflix's stock price fell by 35 percent. By June 2022, Netflix had laid off 450 full-time and contract employees as part of the company's plan to trim costs amid lower than expected subscriber growth. The layoffs represented approximately 2 percent of the workforce and spread across the company globally.
On April 13, 2022, Netflix released the series Our Great National Parks, which was hosted and narrated by former US President Barack Obama. It also partnered with Group Effort Initiative, a company founded by Ryan Reynolds and Blake Lively, to provide opportunities behind the camera for those in underrepresented communities. On the same day, Netflix partnered with Lebanon-based Arab Fund For Arts And Culture for supporting the Arab female filmmakers. It will provide a one-time grant of $250,000 to female producers and directors in the Arab world through the company's Fund for Creative Equity. Also on the same day, Netflix announced an Exploding Kittens mobile card game tied to a new animated TV series, which will launch in May. Netflix formed a creative partnership with J. Miles Dale. The company also formed a partnership with Japan's Studio Colorido, signing a multi-film deal to boost their anime content in Asia. The streaming giant is said to co-produce three feature films with the studio, the first of which will premiere in September 2022.
On April 28, 2022, the company launched its inaugural Netflix Is a Joke comedy festival, featuring more than 250 shows over 12 nights at 30-plus locations across Los Angeles, including the first-ever stand-up show at Dodger Stadium.
The first volume of Stranger Things 4 logged Netflix's biggest premiere weekend ever for an original series with 286.79 million hours viewed. This was preceded by a new Stranger Things interactive experience hosted in New York City that was developed by the show's creators. After the release of the second volume of Stranger Things 4 on July 1, 2022, it became Netflix's second title to receive more than one billion hours viewed.
On July 19, 2022, Netflix announced plans to acquire Australian animation studio Animal Logic.
On September 5, 2022, Netflix opened an office in Warsaw, Poland responsible for the service's operations in 28 markets in Central and Eastern Europe.
On October 4, 2022, Netflix have signed a creative partnership with Andrea Berloff and John Gatins.
On October 11, 2022, Netflix signed up to the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board for external measurement of viewership in the UK.
On October 12, 2022, Netflix signed to build a production complex at Fort Monmouth in Eatontown, New Jersey.
On October 18, 2022, Netflix began exploring a cloud gaming offering and opened a new gaming studio in Southern California.
On January 10, 2023, Netflix announced plans to open an engineering hub in its Warsaw office. The hub is to provide Netflix's creative partners with software solutions in the production of movies and series.
On February 1, 2023, Netflix announced spatial audio is now available on more than 700 of its top watched titles, including Stranger Things, The Watcher, Wednesday, and Knives Out: Glass Onion.
On March 4, 2023, the Chris Rock: Selective Outrage standup special was Netflix's first live global streaming event.
Availability and access
Global availability
Netflix is available in every country and territory except for China, North Korea, Crimea, Syria and Russia.
In January 2016, Netflix announced it would begin VPN blocking since it can be used to watch videos from a country where they are unavailable. The result of the VPN block is that people can only watch videos available worldwide and other videos are hidden from search results. Variety is present on Netflix. Hebrew and right-to-left interface orientation, which is a common localization strategy in many markets, are what define the Israeli user interface's localization, and in some regions, Netflix offers a more affordable mobile-only subscription.
Subscriptions
Customers can subscribe to one of three plans; the difference in plans relate to video resolution, the number of simultaneous streams, and the number of devices to which content can be downloaded.
At the end of Q1 2022, Netflix estimated that 100 million households globally were sharing passwords to their account with others. In March 2022, Netflix began to charge a fee for additional users in Chile, Peru, and Costa Rica to attempt to control account sharing. On July 18, 2022, Netflix announced that it would test the account sharing feature in more countries, including Argentina, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. On October 17, Netflix launched Profile Transfer to help end account sharing.
On July 13, 2022, Netflix announced a partnership with Microsoft to launch an advertising-supported subscription plan. Netflix's planned advertising tier would not allow subscribers to download content like the existing ad-free platform. On July 20, 2022, it was announced that the advertising-supported tier would be coming to Netflix in 2023 but it would not feature the full library of content. Netflix US launched with 5.1% of the library unavailable including 60 Netflix Originals. In September, Netflix announced that the launch would be moved up to November 1, 2022, but in October, the launch date was changed to November 3, 2022. The ad-supported plan is called "Basic with Ads" and it costs $6.99 per month in the United States. In Canada, the plan was launched two days later, on November 1.
On February 24, 2023, Netflix cut subscription prices in more than 30 countries around the world to attract more subscribers from those countries. Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, Croatia, Venezuela, Kenya, and Iran are on the list of countries where the cost for a subscription will be reduced.
Device support
Netflix can be accessed via an internet browser on PCs, while Netflix apps are available on various platforms, including Blu-ray Disc players, tablet computers, mobile phones, smart TVs, digital media players, and video game consoles (including Xbox Series X/S and newer, and PlayStation 5 and newer).
In addition, a growing number of multichannel television providers, including cable television and IPTV services, have added Netflix apps accessible within their own set-top boxes, sometimes with the ability for its content (along with those of other online video services) to be presented within a unified search interface alongside linear television programming as an "all-in-one" solution.
Content
Original programming
A "Netflix Original" is content that is produced, co-produced, or distributed by Netflix exclusively on their services. Netflix funds their original shows differently than other TV networks when they sign a project, providing the money upfront and immediately ordering two seasons of most series, and keeping more future revenue opportunities from (such as possible syndication, merchandising, etc.) on commercially-successful series.
Over the years, Netflix output ballooned to a level unmatched by any television network or streaming service. According to Variety Insight, Netflix produced a total of 240 new original shows and movies in 2018, then climbed to 371 in 2019, a figure "greater than the number of original series that the entire U.S. TV industry released in 2005." The Netflix budget allocated to production increased annually, reaching $13.6 billion in 2021 and projected to hit $18.9 billion by 2025, a figure that once again overshadowed any of its competitors. As of August 2022, original productions made up 50% of Netflix's overall library in the United States.
Film and television deals
Netflix has exclusive pay TV deals with several studios. The deals give Netflix exclusive streaming rights while adhering to the structures of traditional pay TV terms.
Distributors that have licensed content to Netflix include Warner Bros., Universal Pictures, Sony Pictures Entertainment and previously The Walt Disney Studios (including 20th Century Fox). Netflix also holds current and back-catalog rights to television programs distributed by Walt Disney Television, DreamWorks Classics, Kino International, Warner Bros. Television and CBS Media Ventures, along with titles from other companies such as Allspark (formerly Hasbro Studios), Saban Brands, and Funimation. Formerly, the streaming service also held rights to select television programs distributed by NBCUniversal Television Distribution, Sony Pictures Television and 20th Century Fox Television.
Netflix negotiated to distribute animated films from Universal that HBO declined to acquire, such as The Lorax, ParaNorman, and Minions.
Netflix holds exclusive streaming rights to the film library of Studio Ghibli (with the exception of Grave of the Fireflies) worldwide except in the U.S., Canada, China and Japan as part of an agreement signed with Ghibli's international sales holder Wild Bunch in 2020.
Gaming
In July 2021, Netflix hired Mike Verdu, a former executive from Electronic Arts and Facebook, as vice president of game development, along with plans to add video games by 2022. Netflix announced plans to release mobile games which would be included in subscribers' plans to the service. Trial offerings were first launched for Netflix users in Poland in August 2021, offering premium mobile games based on Stranger Things including Stranger Things 3: The Game, for free to subscribers through the Netflix mobile app.
Netflix officially launched mobile games on November 2, 2021, for Android users around the world. Through the app, subscribers had free access to five games, including two previously made Stranger Things titles. Netflix intends to add more games to this service over time. On November 9, the collection launched for iOS. Verdu said in October 2022 that besides continuing to expand their portfolio of games, they were also interested in cloud gaming options.
To support the games effort, Netflix began acquiring and forming a number of studios. The company acquired Night School Studio, an independent video game developer, in September 2021. Netflix announced plans to acquire Next Games in March 2022 for as part of Netflix's expansions into gaming. Next Games had developed the mobile title Stranger Things: Puzzle Tales as well as two The Walking Dead mobile games. Later in the month, Netflix also acquired the Texas-based mobile game developer, Boss Fight Entertainment, for an undisclosed sum. Netflix opened a mobile game studio in Helsinki, Finland in September 2022, and a new studio, their fifth total, in southern California in October 2022, alongside the acquisition of Spry Fox in Seattle.
As of October 2022, the service had 35 games available, and Netflix had more than 55 games in development. By August 2022, Netflix's gaming platform had an average 1.7 million users a day, less than 1% of the streaming service's subscribers at the time.
Technology
Content delivery
Netflix settlement freely peers with Internet service providers (ISPs) directly and at common Internet exchange points. In June 2012, a custom content delivery network, Open Connect, was announced. For larger ISPs with over 100,000 subscribers, Netflix offers free Netflix Open Connect server appliances that cache their content within the ISPs' data centers or networks to further reduce Internet transit costs. By August 2016, Netflix closed its last physical data center, but continued to develop its Open Connect technology. A 2016 study at the University of London detected 233 individual Open Connect locations on over six continents, with the largest amount of traffic in the USA, followed by Mexico.
As of July 2017, Netflix series and movies accounted for more than a third of all prime-time download Internet traffic in North America.
API
On October 1, 2008, Netflix offered access to its service via a public application programming interface (API). It allowed access to data for all Netflix titles, and allows users to manage their movie queues. The API was free and allowed commercial use. In June 2012, Netflix began to restrict the availability of its public API. Netflix instead focused on a small number of known partners using private interfaces, since most traffic came from those private interfaces. In June 2014, Netflix announced it would be retiring the public API; it became effective November 14, 2014. Netflix then partnered with the developers of eight services deemed the most valuable, including Instant Watcher, Fanhattan, Yidio and Nextguide.
Corporate affairs
Historical financials and membership growth
Corporate culture
Netflix grants all employees extremely broad discretion with respect to business decisions, expenses, and vacation—but in return expects consistently high performance, as enforced by what is known as the "keeper test." All supervisors are expected to constantly ask themselves if they would fight to keep an employee. If the answer is no, then it is time to let that employee go. A slide from an internal presentation on Netflix's corporate culture summed up the test as: "Adequate performance gets a generous severance package." Such packages reportedly range from four months' salary in the United States to as much as six months in the Netherlands.
The company offers unlimited vacation time for salaried workers and allows employees to take any amount of their paychecks in stock options.
About the culture that results from applying such a demanding test, Hastings has said that "You gotta earn your job every year at Netflix," and, "There's no question it's a tough place...There's no question it's not for everyone." Hastings has drawn an analogy to athletics: professional athletes lack long-term job security because an injury could end their career in any particular game, but they learn to put aside their fear of that constant risk and focus on working with great colleagues in the current moment.
Environmental impact
In March 2021, Netflix announced that it would work to reach net zero greenhouse gas emissions by the end of 2022, while investing in programs to preserve or restore ecosystems. The company stated that it would cut emissions from its operations and electricity use by 45 percent by 2030. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and lack of content production, Netflix had a 14 percent drop in emissions in 2020. In 2021, Netflix bought 1.5 million carbon credits from 17 projects around the world. Besides, Netflix documentaries about climate change are believed to be 'helpful' to increase awareness as they reach an international audience, more importantly, they help catalyze global commitment to and action on environmental change.
Awards
On July 18, 2013, Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original streaming programs at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. Three of its series, Arrested Development, Hemlock Grove and House of Cards, earned a combined 14 nominations (nine for House of Cards, three for Arrested Development and two for Hemlock Grove). The House of Cards episode "Chapter 1" received four nominations for both the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, becoming the first episode of a streaming television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination. With its win for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series, "Chapter 1" became the first episode from a streaming service to be awarded an Emmy. David Fincher's win for Directing for a Drama Series for House of Cards made the episode the first from a streaming service to win a Primetime Emmy.
On November 6, 2013, Netflix earned its first Grammy nomination when You've Got Time by Regina Spektor — the main title theme song for Orange Is the New Black — was nominated for Best Song Written for Visual Media.
On December 12, 2013, the network earned six nominations for Golden Globe Awards, including four for House of Cards. Among those nominations was Wright for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her portrayal of Claire Underwood, which she won. With the accolade, Wright became the first actress to win a Golden Globe for a streaming television series. It also marked Netflix's first major acting award. House of Cards and Orange is the New Black also won Peabody Awards in 2013.
On January 16, 2014, Netflix became the first streaming service to earn an Academy Award nomination when The Square was nominated for Best Documentary Feature.
On July 10, 2014, Netflix received 31 Emmy nominations. Among other nominations, House of Cards received nominations for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series. Kevin Spacey and Robin Wright were nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. Orange is the New Black was nominated in the comedy categories, earning nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series. Taylor Schilling, Kate Mulgrew, and Uzo Aduba were respectively nominated for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series (the latter was for Aduba's recurring role in season one, as she was promoted to series regular for the show's second season).
Netflix got the largest share of 2016 Emmy award nominations, with 16 major nominations. However, streaming shows only got 24 nominations out of a total of 139, falling significantly behind cable. The 16 Netflix nominees were: House of Cards with Kevin Spacey, A Very Murray Christmas with Bill Murray, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, Master of None, and Bloodline.
Stranger Things received 19 nominations at the 2017 Primetime Emmy Awards, while The Crown received 13 nominations.
In December 2017, Netflix was awarded PETA's Company of the Year for promoting animal rights movies and documentaries like Forks Over Knives and What the Health.
At the 90th Academy Awards, held on March 4, 2018, the film Icarus, distributed by Netflix, won its first Oscar for Best Documentary Feature. During his remarks backstage, director and writer Bryan Fogel remarked that Netflix had "single-handedly changed the documentary world." Icarus had its premiere at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival and was bought by Netflix for $5 million, one of the biggest deals ever for a non-fiction film. Netflix became the network whose programs received more nomination at the 2018 Primetime and Creative Arts Emmy Awards with 112 nominations, therefore breaking HBO's 17-years record as a network whose programs received more nomination at the Emmys, which received 108 nominations.
On January 22, 2019, films distributed by Netflix scored 15 nominations for the 91st Academy Awards, including Academy Award for Best Picture for Alfonso Cuarón's Roma, which was nominated for 10 awards. The 15 nominations equal the total nominations films distributed by Netflix had received in previous years.
In 2020, Netflix received 20 TV nominations and films distributed by Netflix also got 22 film nominations at the 78th Golden Globe Awards. It secured three out of the five nominations for best drama TV series for The Crown, Ozark and Ratched and four of the five nominations for best actress in a TV series: Olivia Colman, Emma Corrin, Laura Linney and Sarah Paulson.
In 2020, Netflix earned 24 Academy Award nominations, marking the first time a streaming service led all studios.
Films and programs distributed by Netflix received 30 nominations at the 2021 Screen Actors Guild Awards, more than any other distribution company, where their distributed films and programs won seven awards including best motion picture for The Trial of the Chicago 7 and best TV drama for The Crown. Netflix also received the most nominations of any studio at the 93rd Academy Awards – 35 total nominations with 7 award wins.
In February 2022, The Power of the Dog gritty western distributed by Netflix and directed by Jane Campion, received 12 nominations, including Best Picture, for the 94th annual Academy Awards. Films distributed by the streamer received a total of 72 nominations. Campion became the third female to receive the Best Director award, winning her second Oscar for The Power of the Dog. At the 50th International Emmy Awards in November 2022, Netflix original Sex Education won Best Comedy Series.
Criticism
Netflix has been subject to criticism from various groups and individuals as its popularity and market reach increased in the 2010s.
Customers have complained about price increases in Netflix offerings dating back to the company's decision to separate its DVD rental and streaming services, which was quickly reversed. As Netflix increased its streaming output, it has faced calls to limit accessibility to graphic content and include viewer advisories for issues such as sensationalism and promotion of pseudoscience. Netflix's content has also been criticized by disability rights advocates for lack of captioning quality.
Some media organizations and competitors have criticized Netflix for selectively releasing ratings and viewer numbers of its original programming. The company has made claims boasting about viewership records without providing data to substantiate its successes or using problematic estimation methods. In March 2020, some government agencies called for Netflix and other streamers to limit services due to increased broadband and energy consumption as use of the platform increased. In response, the company announced it would reduce bit rates across all streams in Europe, thus decreasing Netflix traffic on European networks by around 25 percent. These same steps were later taken in India.
In May 2022, Netflix's shareholder Imperium Irrevocable Trust filed a lawsuit against the company for violating the U.S. securities laws.
See also
List of streaming media services
References
Further reading
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mt:Netflix | wiki |
Walk-off may refer to:
an event in a sporting event where the game-winning score immediately ends the game, such as a walk-off home run in baseball, a touchdown or field goal that's scored when there's no time left on the clock or during the overtime period, or a golden goal scored in sudden death in any sport. In timed sports this may also be known as a buzzer beater. (See also: Kicks after the siren in Australian rules football)
a political or economic protest (i.e., walkout)
Cummeragunja walk-off by Aboriginal people in New South Wales, 1939
Wave Hill walk-off by Gurindji stockmen in the Northern Territory of Australia, 1966
2018 Google walkouts
See also
Walk off the Earth | wiki |
Damn Yankees may refer to:
Damn Yankees, a musical comedy with a book by George Abbott and Douglass Wallop and music and lyrics by Richard Adler and Jerry Ross
Damn Yankees (film), a 1958 musical film based on the musical comedy of the same name
Damn Yankees (band), an American hard rock supergroup
Damn Yankees (album), their 1990 debut album
See also
Damnyankee
Carpetbagger
New York Yankees (disambiguation) | wiki |
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