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In cryptography, ciphertext or cyphertext is the result of encryption performed on plaintext using an algorithm, called a cipher. Ciphertext is also known as encrypted or encoded information because it contains a form of the original plaintext that is unreadable by a human or computer without the proper cipher to decrypt it. This process prevents the loss of sensitive information via hacking. Decryption, the inverse of encryption, is the process of turning ciphertext into readable plaintext. Ciphertext is not to be confused with codetext because the latter is a result of a code, not a cipher.
Conceptual underpinnings
Let be the plaintext message that Alice wants to secretly transmit to Bob and let be the encryption cipher, where is a cryptographic key. Alice must first transform the plaintext into ciphertext, , in order to securely send the message to Bob, as follows:
In a symmetric-key system, Bob knows Alice's encryption key. Once the message is encrypted, Alice can safely transmit it to Bob (assuming no one else knows the key). In order to read Alice's message, Bob must decrypt the ciphertext using which is known as the decryption cipher,
Alternatively, in a non-symmetric key system, everyone, not just Alice and Bob, knows the encryption key; but the decryption key cannot be inferred from the encryption key. Only Bob knows the decryption key and decryption proceeds as
Types of ciphers
The history of cryptography began thousands of years ago. Cryptography uses a variety of different types of encryption. Earlier algorithms were performed by hand and are substantially different from modern algorithms, which are generally executed by a machine.
Historical ciphers
Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers. They include:
Substitution cipher: the units of plaintext are replaced with ciphertext (e.g., Caesar cipher and one-time pad)
Polyalphabetic substitution cipher: a substitution cipher using multiple substitution alphabets (e.g., Vigenère cipher and Enigma machine)
Polygraphic substitution cipher: the unit of substitution is a sequence of two or more letters rather than just one (e.g., Playfair cipher)
Transposition cipher: the ciphertext is a permutation of the plaintext (e.g., rail fence cipher)
Historical ciphers are not generally used as a standalone encryption technique because they are quite easy to crack. Many of the classical ciphers, with the exception of the one-time pad, can be cracked using brute force.
Modern ciphers
Modern ciphers are more secure than classical ciphers and are designed to withstand a wide range of attacks. An attacker should not be able to find the key used in a modern cipher, even if he knows any amount of plaintext and corresponding ciphertext. Modern encryption methods can be divided into the following categories:
Private-key cryptography (symmetric key algorithm): the same key is used for encryption and decryption
Public-key cryptography (asymmetric key algorithm): two different keys are used for encryption and decryption
In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an asymmetric key algorithm (e.g., RSA), there are two separate keys: a public key is published and enables any sender to perform encryption, while a private key is kept secret by the receiver and enables only him to perform correct decryption.
Symmetric key ciphers can be divided into block ciphers and stream ciphers. Block ciphers operate on fixed-length groups of bits, called blocks, with an unvarying transformation. Stream ciphers encrypt plaintext digits one at a time on a continuous stream of data and the transformation of successive digits varies during the encryption process.
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret information that is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves knowing how the system works and finding a secret key. Cryptanalysis is also referred to as codebreaking or cracking the code. Ciphertext is generally the easiest part of a cryptosystem to obtain and therefore is an important part of cryptanalysis. Depending on what information is available and what type of cipher is being analyzed, cryptanalysts can follow one or more attack models to crack a cipher.
Attack models
Ciphertext-only: the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or code texts
Known-plaintext: the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding plaintext
Chosen-plaintext attack: the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts of his own choosing
Batch chosen-plaintext attack: where the cryptanalyst chooses all plaintexts before any of them are encrypted. This is often the meaning of an unqualified use of "chosen-plaintext attack".
Adaptive chosen-plaintext attack: where the cryptanalyst makes a series of interactive queries, choosing subsequent plaintexts based on the information from the previous encryptions.
Chosen-ciphertext attack: the attacker can obtain the plaintexts corresponding to an arbitrary set of ciphertexts of his own choosing
Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack
Indifferent chosen-ciphertext attack
Related-key attack: like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys. The keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ in the one bit.
The ciphertext-only attack model is the weakest because it implies that the cryptanalyst has nothing but ciphertext. Modern ciphers rarely fail under this attack.
Famous ciphertexts
The Babington Plot ciphers
The Shugborough inscription
The Zimmermann Telegram
The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage
The cryptogram in "The Gold-Bug"
Beale ciphers
Kryptos
Zodiac Killer ciphers
See also
Books on cryptography
Cryptographic hash function
Frequency analysis
RED/BLACK concept
:Category:Undeciphered historical codes and ciphers
References
Further reading
Helen Fouché Gaines, “Cryptanalysis”, 1939, Dover.
David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing () (1967)
Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1968.
Cryptography | wiki |
Mountain west may refer to:
Mountain States region of the U.S.A.
Mountain West Hockey League, of the Western U.S.A.
Mountain West Athletic Conference, former U.S. women's collegiate athletics conference
Mountain West Conference, NCAA Division I American college football subdivision
Mountain West Conference Tournament (disambiguation)
See also
Mount West, Antarctica
West Mountain (disambiguation)
Westmont (disambiguation)
Westmount (disambiguation)
Mountain (disambiguation)
West (disambiguation) | wiki |
Public art in Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, includes:
See also
List of public art in Indianapolis
References
Crown Hill Cemetery
Crown Hill Cemetery | wiki |
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE, it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.
The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, and some sub-sects were Shaivism (Shiva), Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. Bhakti movement preached using the local languages so that the message reached the masses. The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.
The movement has traditionally been considered an influential social reformation in Hinduism in that it provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth or gender. Contemporary scholars question whether the Bhakti movement ever was a reform or rebellion of any kind. They suggest the Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking, and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions. Bhakti refers to deep devotion (to a deity).
Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.
Terminology
The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root , which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to". The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".
The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous to but different from Kama. The Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection. Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement. Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. Bhakti movement preached against the caste system using the local languages so that the message reached the masses. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.
Textual roots
Ancient Indian texts, dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, and the Bhagavad Gita mention Bhakti.
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses the word Bhakti as follows,
This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God". Scholars have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "God" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the medieval and modern era Bhakti traditions found in India. Max Muller states that the word Bhakti appears only in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later insertion and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much Sandilya Sutras. Grierson, as well as Carus, note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".
Doris Srinivasan states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for a personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self, Soul) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support the dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine soul (Isvara, theistic God), individual soul (self) and nature (Prakrti, matter). Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas in Upanishad and self-development ideas in Yoga with personification of Shiva-Rudra deity. Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in the henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE, introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge). In verses 6.31 through 6.47 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna (Incarnation of Vishnu), the source of everything, describes bhakti yoga and loving devotion, as one of the several paths to the highest spiritual attainments. According to Sri Krishna, Bhakti yoga is one of the sweetest path to know the "self" and to reach to the ultimate truth. Among activities of Bhakti yoga, hearing and chanting the glories of the deities are most important. According to conclusion of all the revealed scriptures, by constantly chanting the holy names of the Lord Krishna, Lord Shiva and Devi or Adi Para Shakti (in their any form) one can achieve all perfection, even in this Dark Age of Kali. Therefore, one should constantly chant the Hare Krishna Mahamantra, - Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare. A shiva devotee can chant " Om Namah Shivaya". A devotee of Mother Goddess or Devi can chant various Mantras or chant attached to Devi. One should accept a genuine spiritual master (Guru), and under him or her constantly practice the activities of Bhakti yoga to achieve the highest perfection of life. The Supreme Bramhan is most merciful.
Sutras
Shandilya and Narada are credited with two Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra.
History
The Bhakti movement originated in South India during the seventh to eighth century CE, spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth-century Assam, Bengal and northern India.
The movement started with the Shaiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alvars, who lived between 5th and 9th century CE. Their efforts ultimately helped spread bhakti poetry and ideas throughout India by the 12th–18th century CE.
Bhakti movement in Odisha known as Jnana Misrita bhakti or Dadhya Bhakti which started in the 12th century by various scholars including Jayadeva and it was in the form of mass movement in the 14th century. The Panchasakha Balarama Dasa, Achyutananda, Jasobanta Dasa, Ananta Dasa and Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet) preaching Bhakti by doing mass sankritana across the Odisha before Chaitanya's arrival. Jagannath is the center of the Odisha bhakti movement.
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another. They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Various poems were compiled as Alvar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.
Like the Alvars, the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns on Shiva by sixty-three Nayanar poet-saints, developed into an influential scripture in Shaivism. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread spiritual ideas built around Shiva. Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India.
Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium was in part a response to the arrival of Islam and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts. This view is contested by some scholars, with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born. According to Pande, the psychological impact of Muslim conquest may have initially contributed to community-style bhakti by Hindus. Yet other scholars state that Muslim invasions, their conquering of Hindu Bhakti temples in south India and seizure/melting of musical instruments such as cymbals from local people, was in part responsible for the later relocation or demise of singing Bhakti traditions in the 18th century.
According to Wendy Doniger, the nature of Bhakti movement may have been affected by the "surrender to God" daily practices of Islam when it arrived in India. In turn it influenced devotional practices in Islam such as Sufism, and other religions in India from the 15th century onwards, such as Sikhism, Christianity, and Jainism.
Klaus Witz, in contrast, traces the history and nature of the Bhakti movement to the Upanishadic and the Vedanta foundations of Hinduism. He writes, that in virtually every Bhakti movement poet, "the Upanishadic teachings form an all-pervasive substratum, if not a basis. We have here a state of affairs that has no parallel in the West. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with the highest level of bhakti and with the highest level of God-realization."
Poets, writers and musicians
The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music. This literature includes the writings of the Alvars and Nayanars, poems of Andal, Basava, Bhagat Pipa, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Kabir, Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism), Tulsidas, Nabha Dass, Gusainji, Ghananand, Ramananda (founder of Ramanandi Sampradaya), Ravidass, Sripadaraja, Vyasatirtha, Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa, Vijaya Dasa, Six Goswamis of Vrindavan, Raskhan, Ravidas, Jayadeva Goswami, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Mirabai, Ramprasad Sen, Sankardev, Vallabha Acharya, Narsinh Mehta, Gangasati and the teachings of saints like Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
The writings of Sankaradeva in Assam however, not only included an emphasis on the regional language, but also led to the development of an artificial literary language called Brajavali. Brajavali is to an extent, a combination of medieval Maithili and Assamese. The language was easily understood by the local populace, in line with the Bhakti movement's call for inclusion, but it also retained its literary style. A similar language, called Brajabuli was popularised by Vidyapati, which was adopted by several writers in Odisha in the medieval times, and in Bengal during its renaissance.
The earliest writers from the 7th to 10th century CE known to have influenced the poet-saints driven movements include, Sambandar, Tirunavukkarasar, Sundarar, Nammalvar, Adi Shankara, Manikkavacakar and Nathamuni. Several 11th and 12th century writers developed different philosophies within the Vedanta school of Hinduism, which were influential to the Bhakti tradition in medieval India. These include Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha and Nimbarka. These writers championed a spectrum of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism, qualified nondualism and absolute monism.
The Bhakti movement also witnessed several works getting translated into various Indian languages. Saundarya Lahari, written in Sanskrit by Adi Shankara, was translated into Tamil in the 12th century by Virai Kaviraja Pandithar, who titled the book Abhirami Paadal. Similarly, the first translation of the Ramayana into an Indo-Aryan language was by Madhava Kandali, who translated it into Assamese as the Saptakanda Ramayana.
Philosophy: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna. Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality. Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita. Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge. Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutra – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutra – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality". Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman. These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.
Social impact
The Bhakti movement led to devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle for moksha gave way to individualistic loving relationship with a personally defined god. Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone. Most scholars state that Bhakti movement provided women and members of the Shudra and untouchable communities an inclusive path to spiritual salvation. Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities.
Poet-saints grew in popularity, and literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse. These poet-saints championed a wide range of philosophical positions within their society, ranging from the theistic dualism of Dvaita to the absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta. Kabir, a poet-saint for example, wrote in Upanishadic style, the state of knowing truth:
The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-Sant Pipa stated,
The Bhakti movement also led to the prominence of the concept of female devotion, of poet-saints such as Andal coming to occupy the popular imagination of the common people along with her male counterparts. Andal went a step further by composing hymns in praise of God in vernacular Tamil rather than Sanskrit, in verses known as the Nachiyar Tirumoli, or the Woman's Sacred Verses:
The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe. It evoked shared religiosity, direct emotional and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit of spiritual ideas without the overhead of institutional superstructures. Practices emerged bringing new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion among the medieval Hindus, such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism. Many of these regional practices have survived into the modern era.
Seva, dāna, and community kitchens
The Bhakti movement introduced new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school or community construction), dāna (charity), and community kitchens with free shared food. Of community kitchen concepts, the vegetarian Guru ka Langar introduced by Nanak became a well-established institution over time, starting with northwest India, and expanding to everywhere Sikh communities are found. Other saints such as Dadu Dayal championed the similar social movement, a community that believed in Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social equality, and vegetarian kitchen, as well as mutual social service concepts. Bhakti temples and matha (Hindu monasteries) of India adopted social functions such as relief to victims after a natural disaster, helping the poor and marginal farmers, providing community labor, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for poor children and promoting folk culture.
Sikhism, Shakti, and Bhakti movement
Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions. In Sikhism, "nirguni Bhakti" is emphasised – devotion to a divine without Gunas (qualities or form), but it accepts both nirguni and saguni forms of the divine.
The Guru Granth Sahib, the scripture of the Sikhs, contains the hymns of the Sikh gurus, thirteen Hindu bhagats, and two Muslim bhagats. Some of the bhagats whose hymns were included in the Guru Granth Sahib, were bhakti poets who taught their ideas before the birth of Guru Nanak – the first of Sikh Guru. The thirteen Hindu bhagats whose hymns were entered into the text, were poet saints of the Bhakti movement, and included Namdev, Pipa, Ravidas, Beni, Bhikhan, Dhanna, Jayadeva, Parmanand, Sadhana, Sain, Surdas, Trilochan, while the two Muslim bhagats were Kabir and Sufi saint Farid. Most of the 5,894 hymns in the Sikh scripture came from the Sikh gurus, and rest from the Bhagats. The three highest contributions in the Sikh scripture of non-Sikh bhagats were from Bhagat Kabir (292 hymns), Bhagat Farid (134 hymns), and Bhagat Namdev (60 hymns).
While Sikhism was influenced by Bhakti movement, and incorporated hymns from the Bhakti poet-saints, it was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement. Sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some of the views of Bhakti saints Kabir and Ravidas.
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint. He taught, states Jon Mayled, that the most important form of worship is Bhakti. Nam-simran – the realisation of God – is an important Bhakti practice in Sikhism. Guru Arjan, in his Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God. The Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions for a Sikh to perform constant Bhakti. The Bhakti themes in Sikhism also incorporate Shakti (power) ideas.
Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab-region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice Aarti with lamps in a Gurdwara. Arti and devotional prayer ceremonies are also found in Ravidassia sect, previously part of Sikhism.
Buddhism, Jainism, and Bhakti movement
Bhakti has been a prevalent practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara (Jina) and human gurus are considered superior beings and venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers. John Cort suggests that the bhakti movement in later Hinduism and Jainism may share roots in vandal and puja concepts of the Jaina tradition.
Medieval-era bhakti traditions among non-theistic Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism have been reported by scholars, wherein the devotion and prayer ceremonies were dedicated to an enlightened guru, primarily Buddha and Jina Mahavira respectively, as well as others. Karel Werner notes that Bhatti (Bhakti in Pali) has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or bhakti / Bhatti does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".
Debates in contemporary scholarship
Contemporary scholars question whether the 19th- and early 20th-century theories about the Bhakti movement in India, its origin, nature, and history are accurate. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states:
Madeleine Biardeau states, as does Jeanine Miller, that Bhakti movement was neither reform nor a sudden innovation, but the continuation and expression of ideas to be found in Vedas, Bhakti Marga teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the Katha Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.
John Stratton Hawley describes recent scholarship which questions the old theory of Bhakti movement origin and "story of south-moves-north", then states that the movement had multiple origins, mentioning Brindavan in north India as another center. Hawley describes the controversy and disagreements between Indian scholars, quotes Hegde's concern that "Bhakti movement was a reform" theory has been supported by "cherry-picking particular songs from a large corpus of Bhakti literature" and that if the entirety of the literature by any single author such as Basava is considered along with its historical context, there is neither reform nor a need for reform.
Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit. Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of the rebellion of some form.
John Guy states that the evidence of Hindu temples and Chinese inscriptions from the 8th century CE about Tamil merchants, presents Bhakti motifs in Chinese trading towns, particularly the Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou). These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China.
Scholars increasingly are dropping, states Karen Pechilis, the old premises and the language of "radical otherness, monotheism and reform of orthodoxy" for Bhakti movement. Many scholars are now characterizing the emergence of Bhakti in medieval India as a revival, reworking, and recontextualization of the central themes of the Vedic traditions.
See also
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Buddhist devotion
Bhatti Puja in Theravada Buddhism
Devotional movements
Ekasarana Dharma
Nama sankeerthanam
Puja (Buddhism)
Puja (Hinduism)
Ravidassia religion
Shaiva Siddhanta
Sahajanand Swami
Yidam
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Kishwar, Madhu (1989). Women Bhakta Poets: Manushi. Manushi Publications. ASIN B001RPVZVU.
External links
Bhakti bibliography, Harvard University Archive (2001)
Definition of Bhakti, Swami Vivekananda, Wikisource
George Spencer (1970), "The Sacred Geography of the Tamil Shaivite Hymns", Numen, Vol. 17, Fasc. 3, pages 232–244
Glenn Yocum (1973), "Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 41, No. 1, pages 3–17
SM Pandey (1965), "Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement", History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54–73
Vijay Pinch (May 2003), "Bhakti and the British Empire", Past & Present, No. 179, pages 159–196
John Hawley (1984), "The Music in Faith and Morality", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 2, pages 243–262
John Hawley (1988), "Author and Authority in the Bhakti Poetry of North India", The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pages 269–290
Karen Pechilis (2015), "Female Gurus and Ascetics", Karen Pechilis (2015), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Edited by: Knut Jacobsen et al. (Requires subscription)
Anti-caste movements
Hindu movements | wiki |
Kitab al-Tabikh ou Kitab al-Ṭabīḫ ( , Le livre des plats) est le nom de deux livres de cuisine arabes médiévaux de Bagdad :
celui écrit au par Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq
écrit en 1226 par Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi (mort en 1239)
Cuisine arabe
Livre de cuisine médiéval | wiki |
A dark ride or ghost train is an indoor amusement ride on which passengers aboard guided vehicles travel through specially lit scenes that typically contain animation, sound, music and special effects. Appearing as early as the 19th century, such exhibits include tunnels of love, scary themes and interactive stories.
Terminology
In its most traditional form, the term dark ride refers to ride-through attractions with scenes that use black lights, whereby visible light is prevented from entering the space, and only show elements that fluoresce under ultraviolet radiation are seen by the riders. The size of each room containing a scene or scenes is thus concealed, and the set designer can use forced perspective, Pepper's ghost and other visual tricks to create the illusion of distance. Typically, these experiences also use a series of opaque doors between scenes to further control riders' views within a space-constrained building. Prominent examples include Disneyland's Snow White's Scary Adventures, Pinocchio's Daring Journey, Peter Pan's Flight, Mr. Toad's Wild Ride and Alice in Wonderland, which all rely on the use of blacklights in almost every scene.
History
The first dark rides appeared in the late 19th century and were called "scenic railways" and "pleasure railways". A popular type of dark ride commonly referred to as an old mill or tunnel of love used small boats to carry riders through water-filled canals. A Trip to the Moon began operation at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition. Marvin Rempfer and Leon Cassidy of the Pretzel Amusement Ride Company patented the first single-rail electric dark ride in 1928. Historically notable dark rides include Futurama at the 1939 New York World's Fair, and Pirates of the Caribbean and The Haunted Mansion at Disneyland.
Modern attractions in this genre vary widely in technical sophistication. Smaller-scale rides often feature the same sorts of simple animation and sounds used since the genre's early days, while more ambitious projects feature complex animatronics, special effects and ride vehicles utilizing cutting-edge technology.
To improve the effect and give a sense of journey, passages in dark rides frequently change direction. Sudden curves give a sense of disorientation and allow new scenes to surprise the rider. The rides may also feature sudden ascents or descents to further the excitement.
Empirical research
Although ever increasing investments are made in dark rides, empirical research in this area is relatively scarce. Based on a systematic literature review, a team of researchers from the University of Liechtenstein developed a model that illustrates the underlying effect mechanism that attendees of Dark Rides experience.
The model suggests that "Storytelling" in Dark Rides influences an attendee's "emotional attachment" to the ride through the mediator of "Immersion". It is assumed that a person's prior knowledge about the ride's story and a person's cultural background have moderating effects on the relationship between "storytelling" and "immersion".
Variations
Dark rides have a number of variations that are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
Ghost train
In the United Kingdom, the United States, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, China and Australia, dark rides with a scary theme are called ghost trains.
The first ride to use the name "Ghost Train" was that of Blackpool Pleasure Beach. The ride was imported in 1930 and originally called The Pretzel (due to the curving shape of its track layout); but as pretzels were little-known in Britain, it was soon renamed after The Ghost Train, a play which ran for a year in London, a film adaptation of which was showing in 1931. It was rebuilt in 1936 and has remained unchanged since. Blackpool Pleasure Beach is also home to Valhalla, the world's largest indoor dark ride, known for its many complex effects.
Prolific designers of dark rides in the UK include Keith Sparks and John Wardley between the 1970s and 1990s. Notable UK dark rides include Phantom Fantasia at Thorpe Park; The 5th Dimension, Terror Tomb, The Gruffalo River Ride Adventure and Professor Burp's Bubbleworks at Chessington World of Adventures; Around The World in 80 Days, The Haunted House, Toyland Tours and Hex – The Legend of the Towers at Alton Towers; and Valhalla at Blackpool Pleasure Beach. (Not a ghost train per se, Derren Brown's Ghost Train at Thorpe Park is a motion simulation and virtual reality attraction.)
In Australia, a dark ride is named The Ghost Train at Luna Park, Melbourne, and a similarly-named ride was destroyed by fire in 1979 at Luna Park Sydney.
The concept is also popular in the United States. One notable ghost train from the country is The Haunted Mansion, first opened in Disneyland in Anaheim, California, on August 9, 1969.
Interactive dark ride
Interactive dark rides feature a component that allows riders to be involved in the attraction's story. The first interactive dark ride ever built is El Paso at the Belgium theme park Bobbejaanland.
The vast majority of interactive dark rides are shooting dark rides, which require riders to aim and shoot at targets throughout the ride using handheld or vehicle-mounted light guns. Successfully shooting a target usually triggers special animation, such as flashing lights or moving the target. The more targets riders hit, the higher their scores at the end of the ride. The use of light guns varies between rides, from killing aliens on Men in Black: Alien Attack at Universal Studios Florida to calling turkeys on Gobbler Getaway at Holiday World & Splashin' Safari. The ride systems of conventional dark rides can be easily converted into shooting dark rides. Such conversions include Duel: The Haunted House Strikes Back! at Alton Towers and Buzz Lightyear's Space Ranger Spin at Disney's Magic Kingdom. The latter uses facilities that previously housed If You Had Wings, Delta Dreamflight, and Take Flight. A recent dark ride, Wonder Mountain's Guardian at Canada's Wonderland, has the world's longest interactive screen at over .
Among non-shooting interactive dark rides, Etnaland's award-winning Haunted School is described by Park World magazine as "one of the most idiosyncratic dark rides". It is themed to a school exam, with riders individually answering multiple-choice questions throughout it. Riders are graded on their responses, and each receives a school report at the end of the ride. While technically a coaster, the Gekion Live coaster at Joypolis had elements of a dark ride. It used to have a shooting element, only for it to be refurbished with a dance element (tapping buttons on the restraints) later.
Trackless dark ride
Trackless dark rides utilize automated guided vehicles that do not require guide rails, and thus are able to cross existing paths, reverse, and rotate. Some trackless dark rides, such as the Big Red Car Ride at Dreamworld, rely on a buried wire for navigation. Others, such as Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disneyland Park, Mystic Manor at Hong Kong Disneyland or Ratatouille: L’Aventure Totalement Toquée de Rémy at Disneyland Paris and Epcot, use Wi-Fi and RFID-based local positioning systems.
Enclosed roller coaster
While some roller coasters may be indoors, simply enclosing a roller coaster does not make it a dark ride. Dark coasters are roller coasters that feature heavily themed layouts, special effects (such as animated characters, fire, smoke, and sound/lighting effects), and a dark ride portion that abruptly transitions into a roller coaster-style layout with heavily banked turns, sharp turns, steep drops, and helices. Some of them include backward motion, and many have launch mechanisms rather than lifts. Examples include:
Flight of Fear at Kings Island and Kings Dominion
Blazing Fury at Dollywood
Revenge of the Mummy at many of the Universal Destinations & Experiences (themed to The Mummy film franchise, featuring a launch from the dark ride section into the coaster section)
Seven Dwarfs Mine Train at the Magic Kingdom and Shanghai Disneyland
Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster at Warner Bros. Movie World (a wild mouse roller coaster with a ghost-train section, vertical lift and backwards drop)
Space Mountain at Disney World, Disneyland Park, Magic Kingdom, Tokyo Disneyland, and Hong Kong Disneyland
Star Wars Hyperspace Mountain at Disneyland Park (Paris)
Verbolten at Busch Gardens Williamsburg (themed to an escape from the haunted Bavarian Black Forest, with a free-fall track section)
Guardians of the Galaxy: Cosmic Rewind at EPCOT
Test Track at Epcot, Journey to the Center of the Earth at Tokyo DisneySea, and Radiator Springs Racers at Disney California Adventure each use a slot car track rather than that of a roller coaster, but they provide a similar pairing of dark ride scenes with a high-speed thrill ride.
Saw – The Ride at Thorpe Park features an enclosed dark section with strobe lighting and special effects, before the car enters the outdoor section of the ride.
Other attractions incorporating dark ride elements
Particularly in Disney-built or -influenced parks, a number of attractions use traditional dark-ride features, such as animatronics and theatrical lighting, but are not "dark rides" in that patrons do not board vehicles. Examples include the walk-through dioramas in Disneyland's Sleeping Beauty Castle, and theater-based Disney attractions like Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln, The Hall of Presidents, The American Adventure and Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room. Walt Disney's Carousel of Progress (and its now-closed Disneyland replacement America Sings) had four auditoriums that rotated audiences around a stationary core with show scenes.
The Tomorrowland Transit Authority PeopleMover in the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World and the Disneyland Railroad both include brief dark-ride scenes, but for the most part transport guests outdoors. Expedition Everest at Disney's Animal Kingdom, Matterhorn Bobsleds at Disneyland, Big Thunder Mountain Railroad and Space Mountain at several Disney parks, and Big Grizzly Mountain Runaway Mine Cars at Hong Kong Disneyland likewise include some dark-ride elements, but function primarily as indoor/outdoor roller coasters.
List of dark rides
Name in italics means that it has been closed; date of closure follows "−".
See also
Black light theatre
Old Mill (ride)
References
External links
Small World Studios: Dark rides that move you
BlueBox Attractions: Dark Ride Designer
Laff In The Dark: Dark Ride and Funhouse information
CAVU Designwerks: Trackless, Interactive, and Traditional Dark Ride Designer
Sally Corporation: Dark Ride Designer
Simworx : Trackless Dark Ride Designer
Garmendale Engineering: Dark Ride Designer
Holovis: Dark Ride Designer
Halloween Productions, Inc. Dark Ride Designer
Alterface : Dark Ride Designer
The Dark Ride Project : A VR Dark Ride archive | wiki |
National service is conscription in Singapore; all male citizens and second-generation permanent residents are mandated by law to serve for around two years in either the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) or the Singapore Police Force (SPF). Due to training safety regulations, training deaths are rare, but do occur from time to time. Below is a list of reported deaths that resulted from training incidents:
Training deaths in Singapore
Notes
References
Lists of Singaporean people | wiki |
Florida Credit Union is a member-owned financial services institution headquartered in Gainesville, Florida, and serving the North Central Florida area. As of September 2018, Florida Credit Union had over $1.09 billion in assets and has more than 101,000 members. FCU is regulated under the authority of the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA). CEO and President Mark Starr has been working for the company since 1996.
History
Established in 1954 as a state-chartered credit union, FCU was originally called the Alachua County Teachers Credit Union and was owned and run by teachers in the Alachua County School System. The credit union is now open for membership to anyone who lives or works in one of 36 North Central Florida counties: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Brevard, Citrus, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Duval, Flagler, Gilchrist, Hamilton, Hernando, Hillsborough, Indian River, Jefferson, Lake, Leon, Levy, Madison, Marion, Nassau, Osceola, Orange, Pasco, Pinellas, Polk, Putnam, Seminole, St. Johns, Sumter, Suwannee, Taylor, Union, and Volusia.
Despite its expansion, the credit union still maintains a close relationship with the school systems. This includes a partnership with the Alachua County Public Schools Foundation and the Alachua County Tools for Schools Program. FCU also participates in Marion, Levy, Union, Gilchrist, Bradford, Volusia and Columbia County School Systems' "Back to School" and Teacher Appreciation events throughout the year.
References
Credit unions based in Florida
Organizations based in Gainesville, Florida
Banks established in 1954
1954 establishments in Florida | wiki |
Gonne may refer to:
A medieval hand cannon
Maud Gonne (1866–1953), English-born Irish revolutionary
Iseult Gonne (1894–1954), daughter of Maud Gonne and Lucien Millevoye
See also
Gone (disambiguation) | wiki |
La frigidité, un trouble de la sexualité.
Frigide Barjot une humoriste et chroniqueuse mondaine. | wiki |
Jilted is the past tense of jilt and may refer to:
"Jilted", the eighth song from The Puppini Sisters' 2007 album The Rise and Fall of Ruby Woo
Jilted (film), a 1987 film directed by Bill Bennett
"Jilted" (song), a popular song with music by Dick Manning and lyrics by Robert Colby | wiki |
List of hospitals in South Carolina (U.S. state), sorted by hospital name.
References
External links
Hospitals Licensed by the State of South Carolina
South Carolina
Hospitals | wiki |
In data transmission and telecommunication, overhead bits are non-data bits necessary for transmission (usually as part of headers, checksums, and such). For example, on the Internet many data exchanges occur via HTTP. HTTP headers allow additional information to passed between servers and clients in addition to "the data" (i.e., request or response) and thus may be considered to be overhead bits. Such bits are not counted as part of the goodput.
References
Data transmission | wiki |
Siyathemba – gmina w Republice Południowej Afryki, w Prowincji Przylądkowej Północnej, w dystrykcie Pixley ka Seme. Siedzibą administracyjną gminy jest Prieska.
Przypisy
Gminy w Prowincji Przylądkowej Północnej | wiki |
Steamtown may refer to:
Steamtown, Ohio, a community in the United States
Steamtown Heritage Rail Centre, museum in Peterborough, South Australia
Steamtown Peterborough Railway Preservation Society, former heritage railway in Peterborough, South Australia
Steamtown, USA, former Vermont museum
Steamtown National Historic Site, Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA
Carnforth MPD, former museum in England also known as Steamtown
The Marketplace at Steamtown, a mixed-use center in Scranton, Pennsylvania, United States (previously branded as the Mall at Steamtown)
See also
West Coast Railways, English railway operator in Lancashire on the site of the old Steamtown heritage depot | wiki |
Chelation is a type of bonding of ions and molecules to metal ions. It involves the formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between a polydentate (multiple bonded) ligand and a single central metal atom. These ligands are called chelants, chelators, chelating agents, or sequestering agents. They are usually organic compounds, but this is not a necessity, as in the case of zinc and its use as a maintenance therapy to prevent the absorption of copper in people with Wilson's disease.
Chelation is useful in applications such as providing nutritional supplements, in chelation therapy to remove toxic metals from the body, as contrast agents in MRI scanning, in manufacturing using homogeneous catalysts, in chemical water treatment to assist in the removal of metals, and in fertilizers.
Chelate effect
The chelate effect is the greater affinity of chelating ligands for a metal ion than that of similar nonchelating (monodentate) ligands for the same metal.
The thermodynamic principles underpinning the chelate effect are illustrated by the contrasting affinities of copper(II) for ethylenediamine (en) vs. methylamine.
In () the ethylenediamine forms a chelate complex with the copper ion. Chelation results in the formation of a five-membered CuC2N2 ring. In () the bidentate ligand is replaced by two monodentate methylamine ligands of approximately the same donor power, indicating that the Cu–N bonds are approximately the same in the two reactions.
The thermodynamic approach to describing the chelate effect considers the equilibrium constant for the reaction: the larger the equilibrium constant, the higher the concentration of the complex.
Electrical charges have been omitted for simplicity of notation. The square brackets indicate concentration, and the subscripts to the stability constants, β, indicate the stoichiometry of the complex. When the analytical concentration of methylamine is twice that of ethylenediamine and the concentration of copper is the same in both reactions, the concentration [Cu(en)] is much higher than the concentration [Cu(MeNH2)2] because β11 ≫ β12.
An equilibrium constant, K, is related to the standard Gibbs free energy, by
where R is the gas constant and T is the temperature in kelvins. is the standard enthalpy change of the reaction and is the standard entropy change.
Since the enthalpy should be approximately the same for the two reactions, the difference between the two stability constants is due to the effects of entropy. In equation () there are two particles on the left and one on the right, whereas in equation () there are three particles on the left and one on the right. This difference means that less entropy of disorder is lost when the chelate complex is formed with bidentate ligand than when the complex with monodentate ligands is formed. This is one of the factors contributing to the entropy difference. Other factors include solvation changes and ring formation. Some experimental data to illustrate the effect are shown in the following table.
{| class="wikitable"
! Equilibrium !! log β !! !! !!
|-
| Cu2+ + 2 MeNH2 Cu(MeNH2)22+
||6.55|| −37.4 || −57.3||19.9
|-
| Cu2+ + en Cu(en)2+
||10.62|| −60.67 || −56.48||−4.19
|}
These data confirm that the enthalpy changes are approximately equal for the two reactions and that the main reason for the greater stability of the chelate complex is the entropy term, which is much less unfavorable. In general it is difficult to account precisely for thermodynamic values in terms of changes in solution at the molecular level, but it is clear that the chelate effect is predominantly an effect of entropy.
Other explanations, including that of Schwarzenbach, are discussed in Greenwood and Earnshaw (loc.cit).
In nature
Numerous biomolecules exhibit the ability to dissolve certain metal cations. Thus, proteins, polysaccharides, and polynucleic acids are excellent polydentate ligands for many metal ions. Organic compounds such as the amino acids glutamic acid and histidine, organic diacids such as malate, and polypeptides such as phytochelatin are also typical chelators. In addition to these adventitious chelators, several biomolecules are specifically produced to bind certain metals (see next section).
In biochemistry and microbiology
Virtually all metalloenzymes feature metals that are chelated, usually to peptides or cofactors and prosthetic groups. Such chelating agents include the porphyrin rings in hemoglobin and chlorophyll. Many microbial species produce water-soluble pigments that serve as chelating agents, termed siderophores. For example, species of Pseudomonas are known to secrete pyochelin and pyoverdine that bind iron. Enterobactin, produced by E. coli, is the strongest chelating agent known. The marine mussels use metal chelation esp. Fe3+ chelation with the Dopa residues in mussel foot protein-1 to improve the strength of the threads that they use to secure themselves to surfaces.
In geology
In earth science, chemical weathering is attributed to organic chelating agents (e.g., peptides and sugars) that extract metal ions from minerals and rocks. Most metal complexes in the environment and in nature are bound in some form of chelate ring (e.g., with a humic acid or a protein). Thus, metal chelates are relevant to the mobilization of metals in the soil, the uptake and the accumulation of metals into plants and microorganisms. Selective chelation of heavy metals is relevant to bioremediation (e.g., removal of 137Cs from radioactive waste).
Medical applications
Nutritional supplements
In the 1960s, scientists developed the concept of chelating a metal ion prior to feeding the element to the animal. They believed that this would create a neutral compound, protecting the mineral from being complexed with insoluble salts within the stomach, which would render the metal unavailable for absorption. Amino acids, being effective metal binders, were chosen as the prospective ligands, and research was conducted on the metal–amino acid combinations. The research supported that the metal–amino acid chelates were able to enhance mineral absorption.
During this period, synthetic chelates such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) were being developed. These applied the same concept of chelation and did create chelated compounds; but these synthetics were too stable and not nutritionally viable. If the mineral was taken from the EDTA ligand, the ligand could not be used by the body and would be expelled. During the expulsion process the EDTA ligand randomly chelated and stripped another mineral from the body.
According to the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), a metal–amino acid chelate is defined as the product resulting from the reaction of metal ions from a soluble metal salt with amino acids, with a mole ratio in the range of 1–3 (preferably 2) moles of amino acids for one mole of metal. The average weight of the hydrolyzed amino acids must be approximately 150 and the resulting molecular weight of the chelate must not exceed 800 Da.
Since the early development of these compounds, much more research has been conducted, and has been applied to human nutrition products in a similar manner to the animal nutrition experiments that pioneered the technology. Ferrous bis-glycinate is an example of one of these compounds that has been developed for human nutrition.
Dental and oral application
Dentin adhesives were first designed and produced in the 1950s based on a co-monomer chelate with calcium on the surface of the tooth and generated very weak water-resistant chemical bonding (2–3 MPa).
Heavy-metal detoxification
Chelation therapy is an antidote for poisoning by mercury, arsenic, and lead. Chelating agents convert these metal ions into a chemically and biochemically inert form that can be excreted. Chelation using calcium disodium EDTA has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for serious cases of lead poisoning. It is not approved for treating "heavy metal toxicity".
Although beneficial in cases of serious lead poisoning, use of disodium EDTA (edetate disodium) instead of calcium disodium EDTA has resulted in fatalities due to hypocalcemia. Disodium EDTA is not approved by the FDA for any use, and all FDA-approved chelation therapy products require a prescription.
Pharmaceuticals
Chelate complexes of gadolinium are often used as contrast agents in MRI scans, although iron particle and manganese chelate complexes have also been explored. Bifunctional chelate complexes of zirconium, gallium, fluorine, copper, yttrium, bromine, or iodine are often used for conjugation to monoclonal antibodies for use in antibody-based PET imaging. These chelate complexes often employ the usage of hexadentate ligands such as desferrioxamine B (DFO), according to Meijs et al., and the gadolinium complexes often employ the usage of octadentate ligands such as DTPA, according to Desreux et al. Auranofin, a chelate complex of gold, is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and penicillamine, which forms chelate complexes of copper, is used in the treatment of Wilson's disease and cystinuria, as well as refractory rheumatoid arthritis.
Other medical applications
Chelation in the intestinal tract is a cause of numerous interactions between drugs and metal ions (also known as "minerals" in nutrition). As examples, antibiotic drugs of the tetracycline and quinolone families are chelators of Fe2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ ions.
EDTA, which binds to calcium, is used to alleviate the hypercalcemia that often results from band keratopathy. The calcium may then be removed from the cornea, allowing for some increase in clarity of vision for the patient.
Industrial and agricultural applications
Catalysis
Homogeneous catalysts are often chelated complexes. A representative example is the use of BINAP (a bidentate phosphine) in Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation and asymmetric isomerization. The latter has the practical use of manufacture of synthetic (–)-menthol.
Water softening
Citric acid is used to soften water in soaps and laundry detergents. A common synthetic chelator is EDTA. Phosphonates are also well-known chelating agents. Chelators are used in water treatment programs and specifically in steam engineering, e.g., boiler water treatment system: Chelant Water Treatment system. Although the treatment is often referred to as "softening," chelation has little effect on the water's mineral content, other than to make it soluble and lower the water's pH level.
Fertilizers
Metal chelate compounds are common components of fertilizers to provide micronutrients. These micronutrients (manganese, iron, zinc, copper) are required for the health of the plants. Most fertilizers contain phosphate salts that, in the absence of chelating agents, typically convert these metal ions into insoluble solids that are of no nutritional value to the plants. EDTA is the typical chelating agent that keeps these metal ions in a soluble form.
Dechelation
Dechelation (or de-chelation) is a reverse process of the chelation in which the chelating agent is recovered by acidifying solution with a mineral acid to form a precipitate.
Etymology
The word chelation is derived from Greek χηλή, chēlē, meaning "claw"; the ligands lie around the central atom like the claws of a lobster. The term chelate was first applied in 1920 by Sir Gilbert T. Morgan and H. D. K. Drew, who stated: "The adjective chelate, derived from the great claw or chele (Greek) of the lobster or other crustaceans, is suggested for the caliperlike groups which function as two associating units and fasten to the central atom so as to produce heterocyclic rings."
See also
References
External links
Coordination chemistry
Equilibrium chemistry | wiki |
Windows NT er en familie af styresystemer udviklet af Microsoft. NT står for "New Technology", og dette er grundet at Windows-kernen blev skrevet om fra bunden. Udviklingsgruppen blev ledt af Dave Cutler.
NT 3.1 / 3.5 / 3.51: Windows NT 3.51, 32-bit (1993-1995)
NT 4.0: Windows NT 4.0, 32-bit, 24. august 1996.
NT 5.0: Windows 2000, 32-bit / 64-bit. (2000-2001)
NT 5.1 / 5.2: Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, 32-bit / 64-bit. (2001-2005)
NT 6.0: Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, 32-bit / 64-bit. (2006-2008)
NT 6.1: Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, 32-bit / 64-bit. (2009)
NT | wiki |
The 1st annual Venice International Film Festival was held between 6 and 21 August 1932. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde was the first film to be screened at the festival. No official prizes were awarded, so an audience referendum took place to determine the winners.
Awards
Most Favorite Actor: Fredric March for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
Most Favorite Actress: Helen Hayes for The Sin of Madelon Claudet
Most Convincing Director: Nikolai Ekk for Putyovka v zhizn
Best Technical Perfection: Leontine Sagan for Mädchen in Uniform
Most Original Story (Fantasy): Rouben Mamoulian for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
Most Amusing Film: René Clair for À nous la liberté
Most Touching Film: Edgar Selwyn for The Sin of Madelon Claudet
References
External links
Venice Film Festival 1932 Awards on IMDb
V
Venice Film Festival
1932 film festivals
Film
August 1932 events | wiki |
List of esports events in 2021 (also known as professional gaming).
Calendar of events
Tournaments
Professional league seasons
References
Esports by year | wiki |
The Last Adventurer: The Life of Talbot Mundy is a biography and bibliography of Talbot Mundy by Peter Berresford Ellis. It was released in 1984 by Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc. in an edition of 1,075 copies.
References
1984 non-fiction books
American biographies
Works by Peter Berresford Ellis
Donald M. Grant, Publisher books | wiki |
Lena Smedsaas (20 March 1951 – 6 January 2014) was a Swedish journalist and writer.
Born in Solna Municipality, she began her career in journalism in 1973 and was best known for being a political commentator, presenter and editor for TV4Nyheterna on TV4.
Lena Smedsaas died from cancer on 6 January 2014, aged 62, in Täby. She was survived by her husband, writer and journalist Claes-Göran Kjellander and their two children.
References
1951 births
2014 deaths
People from Solna Municipality
Swedish journalists
Swedish women journalists
Swedish television hosts
News editors
Political commentators
20th-century Swedish women writers
Deaths from cancer in Sweden
Swedish women television presenters | wiki |
Unbroken (Demi Lovato-album)
Unbroken (Katharine McPhee-album)
Unbroken (Maria Olafs-dal) | wiki |
Foot-Ball (The Quarterback) – film del 1926 di Fred C. Newmeyer
The Quarterback – film del 1940 di H. Bruce Humberstone
The Quarterback – episodio della serie tv Surfside 6 | wiki |
The Killing Ground may refer to:
The Killing Ground (film), a 1979 documentary film written by Brit Hume
The Killing Ground (novel), a novel by Jack Higgins
Killing Ground (film), a 2016 horror thriller film directed and written by Damien Power
Killing Ground (novel), a novel by Steve Lyons based on the British television series Doctor Who
Killing Ground (album), an album by Saxon
"The Killing Ground", a song by Recoil on their album subHuman
"The Killing Ground", a song by King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard from their album Eyes Like the Sky | wiki |
A Hitch in Time may refer to:
A Hitch in Time, a 1955 Looney Tunes animated film short
A Hitch in Time, a 1978 British film made by the Children's Film Foundation | wiki |
Everetts may refer to:
Everetts, North Carolina, USA; a town in Martin County
Everetts Historic District
Everetts Creek, Kentucky, USA; former name of the city of Independence and the watercourse Cruises Creek
John Everetts (1873–1956), U.S. Navy sailor
Everetts barb, a species of fish
Everetts bulbul, a species of bird
See also
Everetts Corner, Delaware, USA
Everett (disambiguation) | wiki |
Everman can refer to:
Jason Everman, musician
Seth Everman, YouTuber and musician
Everman, Kentucky
Everman, Texas
Everman (band)
Berem, The Everman, a character in the Dragonlance series. | wiki |
Non-specific effect may refer to:
Placebo, as placebo treatment in controlled medical trials.
Non-specific effect of vaccines, as effects from vaccines other than those on the targeted disease. | wiki |
Sauce Chantilly steht für:
eine Ableitung der Mayonnaise mit Sahne
Sauce mousseline, eine Ableitung der Sauce Hollandaise mit Sahne | wiki |
Boiler insurance (Boiler cover) is a type of insurance that covers repairs and in some instances, the replacement of a home boiler. It can also cover other parts of the central heating system and even plumbing and electrics.
Types of boiler coverage
More than 22 million UK households rely on a boiler for their heating and hot water. But boilers are not usually covered by standard home insurance and can be very costly to repair or replace. An owner of a building may purchase boiler insurance. Coverage is negotiated between the insurance carrier and may include the boiler only, piping system, or the full heating system. Some insurance carriers also offer annual service packages.
The most costly coverage will include the full central heating system. Insurance is generally offered by gas and electric energy providers, although other companies also provide cover. Policies have various restrictions on time of work, and cost of repairs. Old equipment may not be insurable.
Boiler cover however is not boiler insurance. Boiler cover is much more limited and has very strict guidelines on the amounts paid out towards repairs and new boilers. Insurance is regulated, whereas boiler cover is not. Boiler cover is generally cheaper and will cover most issues that arise with most boilers.
References
Types of insurance
Boilers | wiki |
Missio may refer to:
Missio, public facing name of Pontifical Mission Societies, the Catholic Church's official charity for overseas mission
People
Egone Missio Fondo Egone Missio Archives
Stefano Missio (1972) Italian filmmaker
Music
Missio (duo), US electronic duo formed in 2014
Missió, late 1980s Hungarian heavy metal band, see Impulse (band)
See also
Missio Dei, Latin theological term for the "sending of God"
Honesta missio, honorable discharge from the military service in the Roman Empire
Redemptoris missio (Latin: The Mission of the Redeemer), subtitled On the permanent validity of the Church's missionary mandate, encyclical | wiki |
The International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.
In the IPA, a pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.
In the audio samples below, the consonants are pronounced with the vowel [a] for demonstration.
See also
IPA vowel chart with audio
IPA non-pulmonic consonant chart with audio
References
International Phonetic Alphabet | wiki |
Modave (; ) is a municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Liège, Belgium.
On January 1, 2006, Modave had a total population of 3,722. The total area is 40.37 km² which gives a population density of 92 inhabitants per km².
The municipality consists of the following districts: Modave, Outrelouxhe, Strée, and Vierset-Barse.
The Château des Comtes de Marchin or Modave Castle is situated near the village of Modave. Rennequin Sualem built here what became the model for the famous Machine de Marly, which he invented.
See also
List of protected heritage sites in Modave
References
External links
Municipalities of Liège Province | wiki |
ICBM refers to an intercontinental ballistic missile.
ICBM may also refer to:
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, Lower Saxony, Germany
International Consortium for Brain Mapping; terms such as ICBM152, ICBM452 refer to brain atlases
ICBM, a 2020 computer game by Slitherine
See also
ICBM address, derived from the name of the missile, an example of a geotag | wiki |
Immigration reform is change to the current immigration policy of a country. In its strict definition, reform means "to change into an improved form or condition, by amending or removing faults or abuses". In the political sense, "immigration reform" may include promoted, expanded, or open immigration, as well as reduced or eliminated immigration.
See also
Immigration reform in the United States
Immigration reform in the United Kingdom
Immigration detention in Australia
References
Immigration law | wiki |
"Mr. Teddy Bear" is the first episode of the second series of the 1960s cult British spy-fi television series The Avengers, starring Patrick Macnee and Honor Blackman. It was first broadcast by ABC on 29 September 1962. The episode was directed by Richmond Harding and written by Martin Woodhouse.
Plot
Steed and Cathy must track down an elusive assassin nicknamed Mr. Teddy Bear.
Cast
Patrick Macnee as John Steed
Honor Blackman as Cathy Gale
Douglas Muir as One Ten
Bernard Goldman as Mr. Teddy Bear's voice
Tim Brinton as TV Interviewer
Kenneth Keeling as Colonel Vernon Wayne-Gilley
John Horsley as Dr. Gilmore
John Ruddock as Dr. James Howell
Michael Robbins as Henry Farrow
Michael Collins as George, the Technician/Teddy Bruin
Sarah Maxwell as Blonde Cafe Girl
References
External links
Episode overview on The Avengers Forever! website
The Avengers (season 2) episodes
1962 British television episodes | wiki |
"Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" is the fifth episode of the twelfth season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, and the 250th episode overall. It aired October 22, 2015 on ABC in the United States. The episode was written by Mark Driscoll and directed by executive producer Debbie Allen. On its initial airing the episode was watched by 8.96 million viewers and received widespread critical acclaim upon from television critics and audiences.
The episode focuses on the dinner party Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Dr. Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) and Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) are hosting, during which Dr. Callie Torres' (Sara Ramirez) new girlfriend Dr. Penelope Blake (Samantha Sloyan) creates tension for the guests when it is revealed that she was one of Derek's doctors when he died. Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) tries to get used to Callie's new girlfriend, Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) distracts herself from her husband Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), and Dr. Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) and Dr. Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton) have a fight.
Plot
As guests are arriving for the dinner party, Meredith goes to the door to greet Callie and her girlfriend, Penny. Meredith immediately recognizes Penny as the doctor who told her about Derek’s death. At first Meredith just tries avoiding her at all costs, but once Penny confronts her, Meredith tells her that they aren't going to talk about their history. Instead, Penny is to make small talk with everyone but her.
Maggie fears that a possible UTI might be an STD contracted from having sex with Andrew. Even though Maggie is supposed to be cooking dinner, she takes off to the hospital to be tested. With Maggie now gone, a bored April volunteers to cook dinner and recruits the help of others to get the job done.
As Callie takes Penny around to introduce her to everyone, Callie gets paged into the hospital for an emergency consult. Penny insists on leaving with Callie, but Callie demands that she stay and hangout as she'll only be gone a short while. Callie asks Meredith to look after Penny and make sure she feels welcome.
Once dinner is on the table, everyone gathers around to begin eating. As conversation begins to ensue, Penny mentions Callie by her full name, Calliope. Arizona, who has had a little bit too much to drink, remarks that she used to call Callie that. Penny responds that her full name is actually Penelope, so she and Callie have that in common. When Penny reveals her real name, Bailey instantly recognizes her. Penny Blake is going to be the new transfer resident at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. This news pushes Meredith over the edge, so she finally tells everyone just exactly who Penny is. The news floors everyone. Meredith takes off upstairs, so Alex follows her.
Downstairs, Amelia, who is distraught by her friendly interaction with Penny, lashes out at her demanding to know every detail of the night Derek died. Just in time, Callie and Owen return from the hospital. Despite Owen and Callie’s pleas, Amelia continues to scream and holler at Penny, eventually kicking her out of the house.
Amelia runs upstairs to be with Meredith, telling her that they'll file an appeal to keep Penny out of the hospital. Meredith finally tells Amelia that she's had enough. She's upset that she has to be strong for her three kids while Amelia gets to break down. Amelia only lost her brother, while Meredith lost her husband and the father of her three kids. Becoming more and more outraged, Meredith screams, “Get out of my room!" and tells Owen to get Amelia out of the room "before I kill her!”
Owen and Amelia go to Amelia’s room where she confides in Owen about her imperfect life. She feels inferior to him because his life seems so perfect; he's always calm and logical. Owen consoles Amelia by telling her about the plane crash and how he felt relief when it was possible that Cristina might have been dead. He goes on to say that while he would have been sad, they and their relationship would have been frozen in time. It would have been easier. Owen tells Amelia that they aren't perfect, but that it's ok that they aren't.
On the front porch, Penny is trying to call a cab but is interrupted by Callie. Callie asks her why she never told her about Derek. Penny claims that she didn't know if Callie even knew who he was, to which Callie says, “He was my friend.” Torn by the breaking news, Callie is unsure of where this leaves them.
Inside, Jo and Stephanie try to mend their strained friendship. Initially, Jo apologizes for not believing her when she told Amelia about her childhood. Jo continues by saying how they have more in common than they first realized. Jo overcame a crappy childhood, and Stephanie overcame an illness. Once the comparison was made, Stephanie turns the table and finds fault in the comparison. Stephanie once again becomes angry with Jo, because she thinks that Jo has to “level” the playing field instead of just admitting that Stephanie is better than she is.
Back at the hospital, Maggie is waiting on a doctor to come test her for any possible STDs; however, the doctor who was assigned to her turns out to be Andrew. Maggie is so embarrassed by the situation that she asks for another doctor; however, she gets stuck with Andrew and they eventually work out their problems.
Meredith and Alex are left alone in Meredith’s room where Meredith tells Alex he can go. As her new person, he decides to stay and share a bottle of tequila. Meredith goes downstairs to make sure everyone has left and lock the door, but before she goes back upstairs, Penny runs into her. Penny apologizes once again, saying that she thinks about that night every single day. She thinks about what Meredith said to her and how she needed to be better. Penny offers to put in a request to be matched with a different program, but Meredith responds that she'll see her Monday and to not be late.
Production
The episode was written by Mark Driscoll and directed by executive producer Debbie Allen. The table read occurred on September 3, 2015, with filming starting a few days later on September 8, 2015. The cast of Grey's Anatomy had a special celebration for the 250th episode of the show with several actors sharing the celebration on Twitter on September 15, 2015. Jessica Capshaw revealed that the episode included her favorite scene so far in the season.
Reception
Broadcasting
"Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" was originally broadcast on October 22, 2015 in the United States on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. On its initial release the episode was watched by a total of 8.96 million viewers and scored a 2.4/8 in the key 18-49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings, which was an increase from the previous episode "Old Time Rock and Roll" watched by 8.25 million viewers and received a 2.3/8 ratings/share. It was the top TV show in the 8:00 p.m. slot, beating Bones, Heroes Reborn and The Vampire Diaries.
Critical reception
The episode received widespread critical acclaim and numerous critics went as far as calling it as one of the best episodes of the series in recent years, with Pompeo and Scorsone's performances receiving major praise.
Lauren Hoffman from Cosmopolitan commented on the momentous 250th episode of Grey's Anatomy stating the episode was one of the show's all-time best. She went on to say that the show has always been at its best when focused on complicated emotions, so to make that the focus of the 250th episode was fitting. She wrote, "It's probably strange to say this about a very unconventional episode of Grey's Anatomy, but that was kind of the best episode ever, right? But it's more difficult to describe why it all works as well as it does. It's partially due to the fact that this is the first time we've seen these doctors as a whole group encounter their grief over Derek together — sure, we got truncated scenes in the three-part Derek death-travaganza, but nothing as sustained as this. Watching all the doctors try to make sense of what Penny's saying is fascinating, both because every reaction is so individual and nuanced, and because it's a weird, meta moment reminder of how long all these performers worked with Patrick Dempsey, and how odd his departure must have felt."
Nad's Review lauding the episode rated the episode with an 'A' grade saying, "There was a lot riding on this one because it’s the 250th episode of Grey’s Anatomy, but I’m glad to report it didn’t disappoint at all. In fact, this has to be one of the best episodes this show has produced in recent years." The site gave Pompeo the credit for making the episode great adding, "There are so many reasons the episode worked, but the main reason is undoubtedly Pompeo’s top-notch performance. She added just the perfect amount of layers to an already complex character, and it was all absolutely nail-biting to watch."
TV Equals also praised the episode writing, "Overall, this was a pretty entertaining episode of Grey’s Anatomy. I’ve had my fill of Perfect Penny and I hope that after the next episode, we’ll get a bit of a reprieve from her. I love episodes with storylines that allow a large number of cast members to interact with each other, while still including intimate moments between smaller subsets. I loved the Alex/Meredith and Amelia/Owen scenes." Furthermore, the site praised Pompeo adding, "Pompeo was great in this episode. I love how she went from offering drinks to people that she never made to staring daggers at Penny. I even loved her meltdown with Amelia and her very callous, but understandable closing the door in Callie’s face."
Ariana Bacle also sang praises for the episode when she wrote in Entertainment Weekly that this episode felt like "Old Grey's" because of the drama, emotion, tears, suspense, and surprises. She notes Alex Karev's concern for Meredith saying, "His unwavering concern for Meredith was one of the best things about the hour. He didn’t give up, even when she kept insisting nothing was wrong; he didn’t leave her, even she insisted she was okay. And friendship is at the core of every great Grey’s episode. In some ways, Cristina’s departure was harder to take than Derek’s because it was implied that she’d always be there. Meredith and Derek were constantly on and off, and although Cristina and Meredith had their tiffs, they were always mostly unbreakable. Couples break up; friends like Meredith and Cristina don’t. Now that she’s gone, Karev is beginning to take on the role of Meredith’s person — and though Cristina is irreplaceable, he’s a pretty great stand-in. Meredith (and Cristina) would probably agree."
However, Ashley Bissette Sumerel from TV Fanatic less enamored wrote "While it's important to remember and talk about Derek, the appearance of Penny Blake and her story arc felt a bit forced." She also added "Season 12 has been very strong so far, but the lighthearted tone probably won't last much longer with the connection between Penny and all the other doctors, the conflict between Meredith and Amelia, and finally Owen's confession about Cristina." Moreover, she also criticised the fight between Jo and Stephanie saying "Jo and Stephanie's arc about their troubled friendship is plain insufferable and I hope there is something else for their storylines as the show furthers into the season."
References
External links
Grey's Anatomy (season 12) episodes
2015 American television episodes | wiki |
Dog and Duck is a British preschool children's television show that was broadcast on CITV between 2000 and 2003.
Description
Dog and Duck was produced by United Productions, later part of the UNM Group (United News & Media) for Meridian.
The show centres on the characters of Dog and Duck, two toys who came alive when their owners were not looking.
Other characters in the series included Piano, Telly and Elephant. The show featured a young Carrie Hope Fletcher as Jenny.
The series was produced by Tracey Mulcrone and directed by Bob Harvey, with animation from Animated Extras.
Josie Lawrence and James Fleet were the voices of Dog and Duck.
Dan Maddicott was the executive producer.
Jonathan Lloyd was a writer for the show.
Other voices included John McAndrew, Eve Karpf, David Holt and Gary Martin.
Since 2009, it has had occasional repeats on the CITV channel. There are 195 episodes of 15-minute duration.
Video release
A VHS featuring twelve episodes of Dog and Duck was released by Buena Vista Home Video in 2000, as Dog And Duck - The Best of Friends.
Footnotes
External links
2000 British television series debuts
2003 British television series endings
2000s British children's television series
ITV children's television shows
British preschool education television series
2000s preschool education television series
Sentient toys in fiction
Television series about ducks
Television shows about dogs
British television shows featuring puppetry
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows produced by Meridian Broadcasting
British television series with live action and animation
English-language television shows | wiki |
One Penny may refer to:
Currency
The penny is or has been a unit of currency in some countries. Coins inscribed "One Penny" have included:
In use
Penny (British decimal coin), worth one hundredth of a British pound
Penny (United States coin), worth one hundredth of a US dollar
Penny (Canadian coin), worth one hundredth of a Canadian dollar
Distribution ceased
Penny (British pre-decimal coin), worth one two-hundred-and-fortieth of a British pound (demonetised 1971)
Penny (Australian coin), worth one hundredth of an Australian pound (demonetised 1966)
In film
One Penny (2017 film)
See also
Penny (disambiguation) | wiki |
An unnamed lake is a body of water with no official nor generally agreed upon name. Such a lake is officially nameless though it may have one or more unofficial names used locally. This is common for many tiny lakes, farm ponds, and minor lakes in remote areas.
Designated
A lake designated as unnamed can be distinguished from a lake actually named Unnamed Lake by its capitalization. Some lakes named the latter are:
northwestern Montana, U.S.
northeastern West Virginia, U.S. , which has been re-designated by GNIS as Unnamed Lake on Tr-Sleepy Creek Dam.
References
Lakes
Place names | wiki |
A Freezer centre is a name typically applied to supermarkets which specialise in selling frozen food. Most freezer centres are smaller than an average supermarket and generally sell less fresh produce while still selling its products at a lower price on par with a standard no-frills supermarket such as Aldi or Lidl.
In the UK, the most common freezer centres are Iceland, Heron Foods and farmfoods. The concept of freezer centres is not very common outside of the UK with Iceland only having a handful of stores outside of the UK.
Food retailing | wiki |
The Spirits Act 1742 (commonly known as the Gin Act of 1743) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain repealing the Gin Act 1736 in favor of lower taxes and license fees.
Background
The Gin Act of 1736 attempted to curb gin consumption by instituting a 20 shilling per gallon excise tax as well as a £50 annual license (equivalent to £ today) for all gin sellers. The law proved immensely unpopular and provoked public rioting and widespread defiance. It is said that only two of the annual licenses were ever purchased and many people turned to producing homemade gins.
In light of the difficulty in enforcing the law (and the financial strain of the War of the Austrian Succession), the Gin Act of 1743 reduced the cost of an annual gin selling license from £50 to just 20 shillings. The excise tax on gin producers and penalties for violating the law were also significantly reduced. The question of taxing and regulating gin was later revisited by the Gin Act 1751.
References
Alcohol law in the United Kingdom
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1742 | wiki |
A quintet is a group or formation of five members, particularly musicians
Quintet or The Quintet may also refer to:
Quintet (company), a Japanese video game developer
Honda Quintet, a Honda Civic derived 5-door hatchback
Quintet (film), a 1979 film directed by Robert Altman
Quintet (grappling), a 5 on 5 tag team Japanese grappling promotion
Quintet (TV series), a Canadian music variety television series which aired on CBC Television in 1962
Quintet (Prokofiev), chamber music by Sergei Prokofiev
The Quintet, group that recorded the album Jazz at Massey Hall
The Quintet (album), a 1977 album by V.S.O.P.
See also
Quintette (disambiguation) | wiki |
Winning Colors may refer to:
Winning Colors (horse) (1985 - 2008), one of three fillies to win the Kentucky Derby
Winning Colors (novel), a science fiction novel published in 1995 by Elizabeth Moon | wiki |
It's Not My Fault! is a children's book about emotional literacy written by Jory John, illustrated by Jared Chapman, and published June 9, 2020 by Random House Books for Young Readers.
Reception
It's Not My Fault! received positive reviews from Booklist, Publishers Weekly, The Bulletin, and School Library Journal. Kirkus gave it a mediocre review, stating it was "an ineffective mixture of moralistic and didactic."
References
2020 children's books
Random House books
American picture books | wiki |
An illegal immigrant in India is a foreigner who has entered India either without valid documents or who initially had a valid document, but has overstayed beyond the permitted time, as per the general provisions of the Citizenship Act as amended in 2003. Such persons are not eligible for citizenship by registration or naturalisation. They are also liable to be imprisoned for 2–8 years and fined.
An exception was made in 2015 for minority communities of Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan who were compelled to seek shelter in India due to religious persecution or fear of religious persecution. They are not classified as illegal migrants and remain eligible for citizenship.
The Indian Census of 2001 gives information about migrants, but not exclusively illegal immigrants. As per the 2001 Census, Bangladeshis form the largest group of migrants in India, followed by Pakistanis.
Legal framework
Indian citizens and National Register of Citizens
Indian nationality law is governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 (Articles 5 to 11 (Part II) of the Constitution of India), which has been amended by the Citizenship (Amendment) Acts of 1986, 1992, 2003, 2005, 2015 and 2019.
The National Register of Citizens of India (NRC) is a register maintained by the Government of India containing names and certain relevant information for identification of Indian citizens of Assam state. The register was first prepared after the 1951 Census of India and since then, the exercise to update it for the first time commenced only recently due to an order of the Supreme Court of India in the year 2013.
The Government of India and various state governments are at varying stages of implementing the NRC at the national and state level.
Foreigners
Persons in India without either a valid Indian citizenship or a visa are considered by the central government as illegal and unlawful immigrants. Illegal immigrants are subject to The Foreigners Act, 1946 which defines a foreigner as a person who is not a citizen of India. According to Foreigners (Amendment) Order, 2015 persons belonging to minority communities in Bangladesh and Pakistan, namely, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and Christians who were compelled to seek shelter in India due to religious persecution or fear of religious persecution and entered into India on or before 31 December 2014 with or without valid documents including passport or other travel document are granted exemption from the application of provisions of the Foreigners Act, 1946.
Where the nationality of a person is not evident, the onus of proving whether a person is a foreigner or not shall lie upon such person. Furthermore, anyone who believes that a foreigner has entered India, or the owners and managers of the property where such a foreigner resides illegally in India must inform the nearest police station within 24 hours of their presence becoming known. The Foreigners Act empowers the Indian administration to detain a person until they are deported back to their country.
Illegal migrants
Preventing the entry of illegal migrants into India is important as they impose pressure on citizens and pose a security threat, especially in sensitive areas such as Jammu and West Bengal. For example, the Indian security establishments said that "Some Rohingyas sympathizing with many militant group's ideologies may be active in Jammu, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Mewat and can be a potential threat to internal security."
According to Indian law, illegal immigrants are not refugees. Since India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention, the United Nations principle of non-refoulement and impediment to expulsion does not apply in India. Illegal immigrants are denied impediment to expulsion if they do not fall within the host country's legal definition of a lawful refugee.
Illegal immigrants are people who migrate to a country in violation of the immigration laws of that country, or the continued residence of people without the legal right to live in that country. Illegal immigration tends to be financially upward, from poorer to richer countries.
In 2005, the Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, 1983 was rejected by the Supreme Court of India which held that the act "has created the biggest hurdle and is the main impediment or barrier in the identification and deportation of illegal migrants." On 9 August 2012, during a Supreme Court hearing about a public interest litigation petition for deportation of illegal migrants, it was told that the policy of the government of India does not support any kind of illegal migration either into its territory or illegal immigration of its citizens and the government is committed to deporting illegal Bangladeshi migrants, but only lawfully.
Legal refugees
The government of India has recognised immigrants from Tibet and Sri Lanka as refugees in the past, providing free education and some identification to the former.
The Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 amended the Citizenship Act, 1955 to allow migrants from minority communities like Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Christian, Parsi who fled religious persecution from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan to be eligible for Indian citizenship provided they came into the country on or before 31 December 2014, excluding people from the Muslim community (the majority community of those nations).
Demographics
Afghanistan immigrants
By 2009, India had over 13,000 illegal immigrants from Afghanistan.
According to a report by the Afghan embassy in Delhi, refugees from Afghanistan, estimated at around 30,000 families, have, over the past two and a half decades, fled from their home towns due to large-scale conflicts, seeking safety in India's capital city. Many outsiders call Delhi home, but the Afghan people claim a special relationship with India and its capital, due to the ancient and modern history between both nations. There are nearly 11,000 Afghan refugees registered with the UNHCR in India, mainly living in Delhi and bordering areas. The refugees in Delhi face considerable hardships and difficulties.
Bangladeshi immigrants
An estimation made in the year 2000 placed the total number of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants in India at 15 million, with around 300,000 entering every year. Some people say that for each illegal immigrant that is caught, four illegally enter the country. While many immigrants have settled in the border areas, some have moved on, even to faraway places such as Mumbai and Delhi. During the UPA government, Sriprakash Jaiswal, Union Minister of State for Home Affairs, made a statement in Parliament on 14 July 2004, saying that "12 million illegal Bangladeshi infiltrators were living in India", and West Bengal had the most with 5.7 million Bangladeshis. This led to protests from state government of Assam, ruled by Congress, and consequent retraction of this statement, saying that the numbers are unreliable. More recently, Kiren Rijiju, Minister of State for Home Affairs in the NDA government has put the figure at around 20 million. Critics point out that the Bengali politicians, particularly those from the ruling Trinamool Congress and the CPI (M), believe that a soft approach to the problem helps them to win Muslim votes.
According to the 2001 census, 3,084,826 people in India came from Bangladesh. No reliable numbers on illegal immigrants are currently available. Extrapolating the census data for the state of Assam alone gives a figure of 2 million. Figures as high as 20 million are also reported in the government and media. Samir Guha Roy of the Indian Statistical Institute called these estimates "motivated exaggerated". After examining the population growth and demographic statistics, Roy states that while a vast majority are illegal immigrants, significant amounts of internal migration is sometimes falsely thought to be immigrants. An analysis of the numbers by Roy revealed that on average around 91000 Bangladeshis illegally crossed over to India every year during the years 19811991.
The Bangladesh Liberation War and continued political and economic turmoil in Bangladesh in the following decades forced some Bangladeshis to seek refuge in India. During the war, at least 10 million Bangladeshis crossed into India illegally to seek refuge from widespread rape and genocide. Most of them migrated to the border states, particularly West Bengal and Assam. Due to persecution, illegal migrants have been defined in Assam Accord as those who infiltrated illegally after 24 December 1971.
Burmese immigrants
There are an estimated 50,000100,000 Burmese Chin illegal immigrants are stated to be residing in India, mostly in the Indian state of Mizoram and a small number in Delhi.
Pakistani immigrants
About 7,600 illegal immigrants from Pakistan resided in India in 2010. Many of the migrants are Hindus and Sikhs, who have overstayed, attempting to gain citizenship.
Rohingyas
In recent years, Rohingya people have been increasingly seeking refuge in India, facing longstanding state-persecution in Myanmar.
According to the Union Government, there were 10565 Rohingya families in India as of 2015; Samaddar et al. extrapolated to arrive at a figure of over a million immigrants. In August 2017, the Bharatiya Janata Party led Union Government asked state governments to initiate the process of deportation for all illegal immigrants including Rohingyas. The government did not buckle despite criticism. This was challenged before the Supreme Court of India by three Rohingya refugees, wherein the Government of India submitted an affidavit claiming that there were over 40,000 "illegal [Rohingya] immigrants", mostly spread across Assam, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir and that they were a threat to the security of state.
In March 2021, several media reports claimed that about 150 Rohingya refugees from Jammu were held in detention centers. an interim application was filed seeking their release though the government denied any detainment. A bench of Sharad Bobde, A. S. Bopanna and V. Ramasubramanian passed an interim order in favor of the government; government-arguments about India being not bound to follow international conventions, she has not explicitly ratified and Art. 14 and Art. 21 not conferring any immunity to non-citizens from deportation (as mandated by procedure) were accepted.
Concerns over Bangladeshi illegal immigrants
Higher judiciary's concerns
In 2005, a Supreme Court bench ruled Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act (IMDT) as unconstitutional while, with reference to the Sinha Report, maintained that the impact of the "aggression" represented by large-scale illegal migration from Bangladesh had made the life of the people of Assam and Tripura "wholly insecure and the panic generated thereby had created fear psychosis" in other north-eastern States. In August 2008, the Delhi High Court dismissed a petition by a Bangladeshi national against her deportation. The High Court ruled that the illegal Bangladeshi immigrants "pose a danger to India's internal security".
National security threats
Apart from immigrants, a large number of smugglers regularly cross the porous border along West Bengal into India. They mainly engage in smuggling goods and livestock from India into Bangladesh to avoid a high tariff imposed on some Indian goods by Bangladesh government. Bangladeshi women and girls are also trafficked to India. The Centre for Women and Children Studies estimated in 1998 that 27,000 Bangladeshis have been forced into prostitution in India. According to the CEDAW report, 1% of all foreign prostitutes in India and 2.7% of prostitutes in Kolkata are from Bangladesh.
Rohingya adds economic pressure on Indian populace; due to their militant activities, they pose a security threat, especially in sensitive areas such as Jammu and West Bengal. Some Indian security establishments stated that "Some Rohingyas sympathizing with many militant group's ideologies may be active in Jammu, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Mewat and can be a potential threat to internal security."
State-specific concerns
Assam
In Assam, the Assam Movement against illegal immigrants started as early as 1979 and ended in 1985, led by the All Assam Students Union. Over six years, 855 (later on 860 as submitted by AASU) people sacrificed their lives in the hope of an "Infiltration Free Assam". They demanded an end to the influx of immigrants and deportation of those who have already settled. It gradually took a violent turn and ethnic violence began between Assamese and Bengalis, mostly Muslims. It eventually led to the infamous Nellie massacre in 1983 due to a controversy over the 1983 election. In 1985, the Indian Government signed the Assam Accord with the leaders of the protest to stop the issue. As per the accord, India began building a fence along the Assam-Bangladesh border which is now almost complete. However, Assam also has a large number of legal Indian Muslims. It is difficult to distinguish between illegal Bangladeshis and local Bengali speakers. In some cases, genuine Indian citizens have been discriminated against. Allegations exist that nationalist parties such as the Bharatiya Janata Party as well as the Indian National Congress have discriminated against Bengali-speaking Muslims. On the other hand, reports of Bangladeshis being able to secure Indian ration and voter identity cards have come out.
After the 1991 census, the changing demographic patterns in border districts became more visible. It created anxiety and tension in India throughout the nineties. Both conservatives, as well as moderates, expressed concern on this issue. The first BJP government came into power in 1998 and subsequently ordered the construction of the Indo-Bangladesh barrier to stop migrants and illegal trade along the border. It was planned to enhance the already existing barrier in Assam and to encircle West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram as well.
Delhi
There is an organised influx of nearly 40,000 illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingya Muslim immigrants in Delhi who have been said to pose a national security risk and threaten the national integration. A lawyer named Ashwini Upadhyay filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the "Supreme Court of India" (SC) to identify and deport these. In a response to this PIL, Delhi Police told the SC in July 2019 that nearly 500 illegal Bangladeshi immigrants had been deported in the preceding 28 months.
Haryana
In September 2019, the Chief Minister of Haryana, Manohar Lal Khattar announced the implementation of NRC for Haryana by setting up a legal framework under the former judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Justice HS Bhalla for updating NRC which will help in "weeding out" these illegal immigrants.
Jammu and Kashmir
There are Rohingya illegal immigrants in Jammu, which has created a dissatisfaction among the general public that Rohingya Muslim settlements in Jammu will change the demographics of the Hindu majority and may lead to violence in the future by giving reference to the exodus of Kashmiri Hindus by Kashmiri Muslims earlier. The presence of Rohingya Muslims in Jammu is thus considered as a sensitive issue for Indian security.
Kerala
Although Kerala is at a large distance from Bangladesh (~2500 km), Bangladeshi illegal migrants have been moving to Kerala owing to the high wages for unskilled and semi-skilled labourers. Following the Kerala Police unearthing, the international footprint of this operation, both the Intelligence Bureau and National Investigation Agency (NIA) have started probing. Some illegal migrants are fully equipped with all valid Indian documents by the time they reach their destinations. The Kerala police are reportedly finding it difficult to check the influx of these Bangladeshi migrants. Kerala State Intelligence officials said they found that a large section of Migrant labourers in Kerala claiming to be from West Bengal or even Assam were actually from Bangladesh. Anti-national activities have been reported; the latest in which in August 2016, a native of West Bengal was arrested for insulting the national flag and he was later found to be an illegal immigrant from Bangladesh. There is said to be a major racket at the borders of West Bengal and Assam with Bangladesh which provides illegal migrants with identity cards.
Mizoram
Bangladeshi Buddhist Chakma immigrants from Bangladesh have settled in the southern part of Mizoram because they were displaced by the construction of the Kaptai Dam on the Karnaphuli River in 1962, the dam flooded 655 square kilometres and displaced over 100,000 people, most of them were Chakma people. As there was no rehabilitation and compensation, they fled from Bangladesh to India. The Chakma people also resisted inclusion into Bangladesh during the Bangladeshi Independence in 1971 through armed struggle led by Shanti Bahini because they were ethnically, culturally and religiously distinct, this violent confrontation between Shanti Bahini and Bangladeshi Army led to Chakma fleeing Bangladesh for India.
Tripura
Tripura demographics have been altered due to the influx of illegal Bangladeshi refugees and immigrants alike. The politics and socio-economic conditions have been greatly affected by it. The influx started from the 70s after the Liberation of Bangladesh 1971. The proportion of the local Tripuri population was reduced from 59.1% in 1951 to 31.1% in 2011. All major political parties in Tripura favour the replication of National Register of Citizens of India (NRC) in their state too, although with some riders.
Uttar Pradesh
In October 2019, UP's Director general of police who cited "very important" concerns for the state's internal security, instructed all district police chiefs, IG, DIG range and ADG zone to commence a statewide campaign to start Identifying illegal Bangladeshi and foreigners. UP DGP Headquarters has prepared for an NRC for UP requires identification of new settlements around the railway stations, bus stands, roadsides and slum clusters where Bangladeshi and other foreign nationals could be illegally residing. They will be fingerprinted, and their identity verification will be video recorded, and suspicious people will be verified in a time-bound manner. Police will also track down government employees and touts who prepared fake documents for these illegal migrants.
Illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingyas are found in several cities of Uttar Pradesh (UP) by changing their identity and name, making it difficult to get an idea of their background. A large number of illegal Bangladeshis resided under a fake identity in ashrams and rented houses in Mathura, Vrindavan, Govardhan and other places for several years without a passport or other valid documents. They illegally crossed the border into India, acquire the fake identity, open bank accounts and used to send money from relatives back in their country. In October 2019, cops held 150 illegal Bangladeshi intruders who admitted to having come from Bangladesh by the river. All of them had acquired an Aadhar card, bank passbook, ration card and voter ID cards from India. They pose significant security and terrorism, law and order risk, due to religious activities in the Mathura area. They prefer Mathura as it is easier to hide among the transient pilgrims, and also because Mathura is on the border of Delhi, Haryana and Rajasthan where they can easily escape.
West Bengal
The other Indian state affected by this problem, West Bengal, remained mostly calm during this period. However Indian newspapers reported that "the state government has reported that illegal Bangladeshi migrants have trickled into parts of rural Bengal, including Nandigram, over the years, and settled down as sharecroppers with the help of local Left leaders. Though a majority of these immigrants became tillers, they lacked documents to prove the ownership of land.
The Government of Bangladesh has denied India's claims on illegal immigration.
After the 2001 census, the anxiety somewhat reduced when the growth rates were found to have returned to near-normal levels, particularly in West Bengal, thus negating the fear that there was an unabated influx of migrants, although some concern remains.
The proportion of Muslims in West Bengal has grown from 19.85% in 1951 to 27.01% in 2011. That, of course, does not have any reflection on immigration, it is generally attributed to a higher growth rate amongst the Muslims. However, when one has a closer look at the CD Blocks along the India-Bangladesh border questions come up. The exceedingly high decadal population growth rate in certain CD Blocks, such as in Basirhat subdivision in North 24 Parganas district and CD Blocks along with the riverine international border in Murshidabad district does raise concerns.
The decadal growth rate of the population for West Bengal in 200111 was 13.93%. The decadal growth of population in Basirhat I CD Block in 20012011 was 16.16%. The decadal growth of population in Basirhat I CD Block in 19912001 was 20.94%. The decadal growth of population in Hasnabad CD Block in 20012011 was 14.50%. The decadal growth of the population in Hasnabad CD Block in 19912001 was 17.47%. The decadal growth rate of population in neighbouring Satkhira District in Bangladesh was 6.50% for the decade 20012011, down from 16.75% in the decade 19912001 and 17.90% in the decade 19811991.
The decadal growth rates, for the decade 20012011, were still higher in the border areas of Murshidabad district. In Raghunathganj II CD Block it was 37.82%, the highest amongst all the CD Blocks in the Murshidabad district, 34.09% in Samserganj CD Block, 30.82 in Suti II CD Block, 29.02% in Suti I CD Block, 23.62% in Lalgola CD Block, 22.24% In Bhagawangola II CD Block and 21.65% in Bhagawangola I CD Block. The decadal growth rate of population in Chapai Nawabganj District was 15.59% for the decade 20012011, down from 21.67% in the decade 19912001. The decadal growth rate of the population in the Rajshahi District was 13.48% for the decade 20012011, down from 21.19% in the decade 19912001. Both districts are across the Ganges, in Bangladesh.
In both, the above cases the comparisons are between Bengali-speaking Muslim-majority areas, and hence the argument of higher growth rate amongst Muslims does not hold good. There are also other similar examples.
Notes
References
External links
Bangladeshis in Assam flee anti-migrant drive, International Herald Tribune, 20 May 2005.
Bangladesh, Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation, Coalition Against Trafficking in Women
Immigration Services
Immigration
Foreign relations of India
History of the Republic of India
Internal security issues of India
National security of India
Social issues in India | wiki |
Much Wenlock è un paese di 2.605 abitanti della contea dello Shropshire, in Inghilterra, conosciuto per essere sede degli Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games ("Giochi annuali della società olimpica di Wenlock" in italiano).
Altri progetti
Collegamenti esterni
Parrocchie civili dello Shropshire | wiki |
Horned blenny is the common name of several fish. It may refer to:
Parablennius cornutus
Parablennius intermedius
Fish common names | wiki |
This is a list of public art in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Works are listed from oldest to newest.
The list contains only works of public art freely accessible outdoors, and not, for example, works inside museums that charge admission. Most of the works are sculptures.
Artworks
Bibliography
Outdoor Sculpture in Milwaukee: A Cultural and Historical Guidebook by Diane M. Buck and Virginia A. Palmer. Wisconsin Historical Society, 1995.
References
Milwaukee
Public art in Wisconsin
Public art in Milwaukee
Public art | wiki |
In linguistics and social sciences, markedness is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant default or minimum-effort form is known as unmarked; the other, secondary one is marked. In other words, markedness involves the characterization of a "normal" linguistic unit against one or more of its possible "irregular" forms.
In linguistics, markedness can apply to, among others, phonological, grammatical, and semantic oppositions, defining them in terms of marked and unmarked oppositions, such as honest (unmarked) vs. dishonest (marked). Marking may be purely semantic, or may be realized as extra morphology. The term derives from the marking of a grammatical role with a suffix or another element, and has been extended to situations where there is no morphological distinction.
In social sciences more broadly, markedness is, among other things, used to distinguish two meanings of the same term, where one is common usage (unmarked sense) and the other is specialized to a certain cultural context (marked sense).
In psychology, the social science concept of markedness is quantified as a measure of how much one variable is marked as a predictor or possible cause of another, and is also known as (deltaP) in simple two-choice cases. See confusion matrix for more details.
Marked and unmarked word pairs
In terms of lexical opposites, a marked form is a non-basic one, often one with inflectional or derivational endings. Thus, a morphologically negative word form is marked as opposed to a positive one: happy/unhappy, honest/dishonest, fair/unfair, clean/unclean, and so forth. Similarly, unaffixed masculine or singular forms are taken to be unmarked in contrast to affixed feminine or plural forms: lion/lioness, host/hostess, automobile/automobiles, child/children. An unmarked form is also a default form. For example, the unmarked lion can refer to a male or female, while lioness is marked because it can refer only to females.
The default nature allows unmarked lexical forms to be identified even when the opposites are not morphologically related. In the pairs old/young, big/little, happy/sad, clean/dirty, the first term of each pair is taken as unmarked because it occurs generally in questions. For example, English speakers typically ask how old someone is; use of the marked term (how young are you?) would presuppose youth.
Background in Prague School
While the idea of linguistic asymmetry predated the actual coining of the terms marked and unmarked, the modern concept of markedness originated in the Prague School structuralism of Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy as a means of characterizing binary oppositions.
Both sound and meaning were analyzed into systems of binary distinctive features. Edwin Battistella wrote: "Binarism suggests symmetry and equivalence in linguistic analysis; markedness adds the idea of hierarchy." Trubetzkoy and Jakobson analyzed phonological oppositions such as nasal versus non-nasal as defined as the presence versus the absence of nasality; the presence of the feature, nasality, was marked; its absence, non-nasality, was unmarked. For Jakobson and Trubetzkoy, binary phonological features formed part of a universal feature alphabet applicable to all languages. In his 1932 article "Structure of the Russian Verb", Jakobson extended the concept to grammatical meanings in which the marked element "announces the existence of [some meaning] A" while the unmarked element "does not announce the existence of A, i.e., does not state whether A is present or not". Forty years later, Jakobson described language by saying that "every single constituent of a linguistic system is built on an opposition of two logical contradictories: the presence of an attribute ('markedness') in contraposition to its absence ('unmarkedness')."
In his 1941 Child Language, Aphasia, and Universals of Language, Jakobson suggested that phonological markedness played a role in language acquisition and loss. Drawing on existing studies of acquisition and aphasia, Jakobson suggested a mirror-image relationship determined by a universal feature hierarchy of marked and unmarked oppositions. Today many still see Jakobson's theory of phonological acquisition as identifying useful tendencies.
Jakobsonian tradition
The work of Cornelius van Schooneveld, Edna Andrews, Rodney Sangster, Yishai Tobin and others on 'semantic invariance' (different general meanings reflected in the contextual specific meanings of features) has further developed the semantic analysis of grammatical items in terms of marked and unmarked features. Other semiotically-oriented work has investigated the isomorphism of form and meaning with less emphasis on invariance, including the efforts of Henning Andersen, Michael Shapiro, and Edwin Battistella. Shapiro and Andrews have especially made connections between the semiotic of C. S. Peirce and markedness, treating it "as species of interpretant" in Peirce's sign–object–interpretant triad.
Functional linguists such as Talmy Givón have suggested that markedness is related to
cognitive complexity—"in terms of attention, mental effort or processing time". Linguistic 'naturalists' view markedness relations in terms of the ways in which extralinguistic principles of perceptibility and psychological efficiency determine what is natural in language. Willi Mayerthaler, another linguist, for example, defines unmarked categories as those "in agreement with the typical attributes of the speaker".
Cultural markedness and informedness
Since a main component of markedness is the information content and information value of an element, some studies have taken markedness as an encoding of that which is unusual or informative, and this is reflected in formal probabilistic definitions of markedness and informedness as chance-correct unidirectional components of the Matthews correlation coefficient corresponding to Δp and Δp'. Conceptual familiarity with cultural norms provided by familiar categories creates a ground against which marked categories provide a figure, opening the way for markedness to be applied to cultural and social categorization.
As early as the 1930s Jakobson had already suggested applying markedness to all oppositions, explicitly mentioning such pairs as life/death, liberty/bondage, sin/virtue, and holiday/working day. Linda Waugh extended this to oppositions like male/female, white/black, sighted/blind, hearing/deaf, heterosexual/homosexual, right/left, fertility/barrenness, clothed/nude, and spoken language/written language. Battistella expanded this with the demonstration of how cultures align markedness values to create cohesive symbol systems, illustrating with examples based on Rodney Needham's work. Other work has applied markedness to stylistics, music, and myth.
Local markedness and markedness reversals
Markedness depends on context. What is more marked in some general contexts may be less marked in other local contexts. Thus, "ant" is less marked than "ants" on the morphological level, but on the semantic (and frequency) levels it may be more marked since ants are more often encountered many at once than one at a time. Often a more general markedness relation may be reversed in a particular context. Thus, voicelessness of consonants is typically unmarked. But between vowels or in the neighborhood of voiced consonants, voicing may be the expected or unmarked value.
Reversal is reflected in certain West Frisian words' plural and singular forms: In West Frisian, nouns with irregular singular-plural stem variations are undergoing regularization. Usually this means that the plural is reformed to be a regular form of the singular:
Old paradigm: "koal" (coal), "kwallen" (coals) → regularized forms: "Koal" (coal), "Koalen" (coals).
However, a number of words instead reform the singular by extending the form of the plural:
Old paradigm: "earm" (arm), "jermen" (arms) → regularized forms: "jerm" (arm), "jermen" (arms)
The common feature of the nouns that regularize the singular to match the plural is that they occur more often in pairs or groups than singly; they are said to be semantically (but not morphologically) locally unmarked in the plural.
Universals and frequency
Joseph Greenberg's 1966 book Language Universals was an influential application of markedness to typological linguistics and a break from the tradition of Jakobson and Trubetzkoy. Greenberg took frequency to be the primary determining factor of markedness in grammar and suggested that unmarked categories could be determined by "the frequency of association of things in the real world".
Greenberg also applied frequency cross-linguistically, suggesting that unmarked categories would be those that are unmarked in a wide number of languages. However, critics have argued that frequency is problematic because categories that are cross-linguistically infrequent may have a high distribution in a particular language.
More recently the insights related to frequency have been formalized as chance-corrected conditional probabilities, with Informedness (Δp') and Markedness (Δp) corresponding to the different directions of prediction in human association research (binary associations or distinctions) and more generally (including features with more than two distinctions).
Universals have also been connected to implicational laws. This entails that a category is taken as marked if every language that has the marked category also has the unmarked one but not vice versa.
Diagnostics
Markedness has been extended and reshaped over the past century and reflects a range of loosely connected theoretical approaches. From emerging in the analysis of binary oppositions, it has become a global semiotic principle, a means of encoding naturalness and language universals, and a terminology for studying defaults and preferences in language acquisition. What connects various approaches is a concern for the evaluation of linguistic structure, though the details of how markedness is determined and what its implications and diagnostics are varies widely. Other approaches to universal markedness relations focus on functional economic and iconic motivations, tying recurring symmetries to properties of communication channels and communication events. Croft (1990), for example, notes that asymmetries among linguistic elements may be explainable in terms economy of form, in terms of iconism between the structure of language and conceptualization of the world.
In generative grammar
Markedness entered generative linguistic theory through Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle's The Sound Pattern of English. For Chomsky and Halle, phonological features went beyond a universal phonetic vocabulary to encompass an 'evaluation metric', a means of selecting the most highly valued adequate grammar. In The Sound Pattern of English, the value of a grammar was the inverse of the number of features required in that grammar. However, Chomsky and Halle realized that their initial approach to phonological features made implausible rules and segment inventories as highly valued as natural ones. The unmarked value of a feature was cost-free with respect to the evaluation metric, while the marked feature values were counted by the metric. Segment inventories could also be evaluated according to the number of marked features. However, the use of phonological markedness as part of the evaluation metric was never able to fully account for the fact that some features are more likely than others or for the fact that phonological systems must have a certain minimal complexity and symmetry.
In generative syntax, markedness as feature-evaluation did not receive the same attention that it did in phonology. Chomsky came to view unmarked properties as an innate preference structure based first in constraints and later in parameters of universal grammar. In their 1977 article "Filters and Control", Chomsky and Howard Lasnik extended this to view markedness as part of a theory of 'core grammar':
A few years later, Chomsky describes it thus:
Some generative researchers have applied markedness to second-language acquisition theory, treating it as an inherent learning hierarchy which reflects the sequence in which constructions are acquired, the difficulty of acquiring certain constructions, and the transferability of rules across languages. More recently, optimality theory approaches emerging in the 1990s have incorporated markedness in the ranking of constraints.
See also
Inflection
Lemma (morphology)
Lexeme
Male as norm
Marker (linguistics)
Matthews correlation coefficient
Null morpheme
Other (philosophy)
Underlying representation
References
Further reading
Andersen, Henning 1989 "Markedness—The First 150 Years", In Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Andrews, Edna 1990 Markedness Theory: The Union of Asymmetry and Semiosis in Language, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Archangeli, Diana 1997 "Optimality Theory: An Introduction to Linguistics in the 1990s", In Optimality Theory: An Overview. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Battistella, Edwin 1990 Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language, Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Battistella, Edwin 1996 The Logic of Markedness, New York: Oxford University Press.
Chandler, Daniel 2002/2007 Semiotics: The Basics, London: Routledge.
Chandler, Daniel 2005 Entry on markedness. In John Protevi (ed.) (2005) Edinburgh Dictionary of Continental Philosophy, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.
Chomsky, Noam & Halle, Morris 1968 The Sound Pattern of English, New York: Harper and Row.
Greenberg, Joseph Language Universals, The Hague: Mouton, 1966.
Trask, R. L. 1999 Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics, London and New York: Routledge.
Sociolinguistics
Phonology
Semantics
Grammar
Linguistics terminology
Social sciences terminology | wiki |
Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929), Brits feministe
Percy Fawcett (1867-1925?), Brits archeoloog
Philippa Fawcett (1868–1948), Brits wiskundige
Farrah Fawcett (1945-2009), Amerikaans actrice
Fawcett Comics (1919-1980), Amerikaanse uitgeverij van comic books | wiki |
Mains electricity or utility power, power grid, domestic power, and wall power, or, in some parts of Canada, hydro, is a general-purpose alternating-current (AC) electric power supply. It is the form of electrical power that is delivered to homes and businesses through the electric grid in many parts of the world. People use this electricity to power everyday items—such as domestic appliances, televisions and lamps—by plugging them into a wall outlet.
The voltage and frequency of electric power differs between regions. In much of the world, a voltage (nominally) of 230 volts and frequency of 50 Hz is used. In North America, the most common combination is 120 V and a frequency of 60 Hz. Other combinations exist, for example, 230 V at 60 Hz. Travellers' portable appliances may be inoperative or damaged by foreign electrical supplies. Non-interchangeable plugs and sockets in different regions provide some protection from accidental use of appliances with incompatible voltage and frequency requirements.
Terminology
In the US, mains electric power is referred to by several names including "utility power", "household power", "household electricity", "house current", "powerline", "domestic power", "wall power", "line power", "AC power", "city power", "street power", and "120 (one twenty)".
In the UK, mains electric power is generally referred to as "the mains". More than half of power in Canada is hydroelectricity, and mains electricity is often referred to as "hydro" in some regions of the country. This is also reflected in names of current and historical electricity utilities such as Hydro-Québec, BC Hydro, Manitoba Hydro, and Hydro One (one of the entities resulting from the breakup of Ontario Hydro). Although there is an entity named Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro, that company is primarily a hydroelectricity generator, though it also directly serves customers in Labrador and some other parts of the province. The majority of customers on the island of Newfoundland deal with Newfoundland Power as their service provider, and thus electricity is more commonly called simply "power" in that province.
Power systems
Worldwide, many different mains power systems are found for the operation of household and light commercial electrical appliances and lighting. The different systems are primarily characterized by their
Voltage
Frequency
Plugs and sockets (receptacles or outlets)
Earthing system (grounding)
Protection against overcurrent damage (e.g., due to short circuit), electric shock, and fire hazards
Parameter tolerances.
All these parameters vary among regions. The voltages are generally in the range 100–240 V (always expressed as root-mean-square voltage). The two commonly used frequencies are 50 Hz and 60 Hz. Single-phase or three-phase power is most commonly used today, although two-phase systems were used early in the 20th century. Foreign enclaves, such as large industrial plants or overseas military bases, may have a different standard voltage or frequency from the surrounding areas. Some city areas may use standards different from that of the surrounding countryside (e.g. in Libya). Regions in an effective state of anarchy may have no central electrical authority, with electric power provided by incompatible private sources.
Many other combinations of voltage and utility frequency were formerly used, with frequencies between 25 Hz and 133 Hz and voltages from 100 V to 250 V. Direct current (DC) has been displaced by alternating current (AC) in public power systems, but DC was used especially in some city areas to the end of the 20th century. The modern combinations of 230 V/50 Hz and 120 V/60 Hz, listed in IEC 60038, did not apply in the first few decades of the 20th century and are still not universal. Industrial plants with three-phase power will have different, higher voltages installed for large equipment (and different sockets and plugs), but the common voltages listed here would still be found for lighting and portable equipment.
Common uses of electricity
Electricity is used for lighting, heating, cooling, electric motors and electronic equipment. The US Energy Information Administration (EIA) has published:
U.S. residential sector electricity consumption by major end uses in 2021
1 Includes televisions, set-top boxes, home theatre systems, DVD players, and video game consoles.
2 Includes desktop and laptop computers, monitors, and networking equipment.
3 Does not include water heating.
4 Includes small electric devices, heating elements, exterior lights, outdoor grills, pool and spa heaters, backup electricity generators, and motors not listed above. Does not include electric vehicle charging.
Electronic appliances such as computers or televisions sets typically use an AC to DC converter or AC adapter to power the device. This is often capable of operation with a wide range of voltage and with both common power frequencies. Other AC applications usually have much more restricted input ranges.
Building wiring
Portable appliances use single-phase electric power, with two or three wired contacts at each outlet. Two wires (neutral and live/active/hot) carry current to operate the device. A third wire, not always present, connects conductive parts of the appliance case to earth ground. This protects users from electric shock if live internal parts accidentally contact the case.
In northern and central Europe, residential electrical supply is commonly 400 V three-phase electric power, which gives 230 V between any single phase and neutral; house wiring may be a mix of three-phase and single-phase circuits, but three-phase residential use is rare in the UK. High-power appliances such as kitchen stoves, water heaters and household power heavy tools like log splitters may be supplied from the 400 V three-phase power supply.
Small portable electrical equipment is connected to the power supply through flexible cables terminated in a plug, which is inserted into a fixed receptacle (socket). Larger household electrical equipment and industrial equipment may be permanently wired to the fixed wiring of the building. For example, in North American homes a window-mounted self-contained air conditioner unit would be connected to a wall plug, whereas the central air conditioning for a whole home would be permanently wired. Larger plug and socket combinations are used for industrial equipment carrying larger currents, higher voltages, or three phase electric power.
Circuit breakers and fuses are used to detect short circuits between the line and neutral or ground wires or the drawing of more current than the wires are rated to handle (overload protection) to prevent overheating and possible fire. These protective devices are usually mounted in a central panel—most commonly a distribution board or consumer unit—in a building, but some wiring systems also provide a protection device at the socket or within the plug. Residual-current devices, also known as ground-fault circuit interrupters and appliance leakage current interrupters, are used to detect ground faults—flow of current in other than the neutral and line wires (like the ground wire or a person). When a ground fault is detected, the device quickly cuts off the circuit.
Voltage levels
Most of the world population (Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and much of South America) use a supply that is within 6% of 230 V. In the United Kingdom and Australia the nominal supply voltage is 230 V +10%/−6% to accommodate the fact that most transformers are in fact still set to 240 V. The 230 V standard has become widespread so that 230 V equipment can be used in most parts of the world with the aid of an adapter or a change to the equipment's plug to the standard for the specific country.
The United States and Canada use a supply voltage of 120 volts ± 6%. Japan, Taiwan, Saudi Arabia, North America, Central America and some parts of northern South America use a voltage between 100 V and 127 V. However, most of the households in Japan equips split-phase electric power like USA, which can supply 200V by using reversed phase at the same time. Brazil is unusual in having both 127 V and 220 V systems at 60 Hz and also permitting interchangeable plugs and sockets. Saudi Arabia and Mexico have mixed voltage systems; in residential and light commercial buildings both countries use 127 volts, with 220 volts in commercial and industrial applications. The Saudi government approved plans in August 2010 to transition the country to a totally 230/400 volts system, but Mexico has no plans to transition.
Measuring voltage
A distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of supply (nominal voltage at the point of interconnection between the electrical utility and the user) and the voltage rating of the equipment (utilization or load voltage). Typically the utilization voltage is 3% to 5% lower than the nominal system voltage; for example, a nominal 208 V supply system will be connected to motors with "200 V" on their nameplates. This allows for the voltage drop between equipment and supply. Voltages in this article are the nominal supply voltages and equipment used on these systems will carry slightly lower nameplate voltages. Power distribution system voltage is nearly sinusoidal in nature. Voltages are expressed as root mean square (RMS) voltage. Voltage tolerances are for steady-state operation. Momentary heavy loads, or switching operations in the power distribution network, may cause short-term deviations out of the tolerance band and storms and other unusual conditions may cause even larger transient variations. In general, power supplies derived from large networks with many sources are more stable than those supplied to an isolated community with perhaps only a single generator.
Choice of voltage
The choice of supply voltage is due more to historical reasons than optimization of the electric power distribution system—once a voltage is in use and equipment using this voltage is widespread, changing voltage is a drastic and expensive measure. A 230 V distribution system will use less conductor material than a 120 V system to deliver a given amount of power because the current, and consequently the resistive loss, is lower. While large heating appliances can use smaller conductors at 230 V for the same output rating, few household appliances use anything like the full capacity of the outlet to which they are connected. Minimum wire size for hand-held or portable equipment is usually restricted by the mechanical strength of the conductors.
Many areas, such as the US, which use (nominally) 120 V, make use of three-wire, split-phase 240 V systems to supply large appliances. In this system a 240 V supply has a centre-tapped neutral to give two 120 V supplies which can also supply 240 V to loads connected between the two line wires. Three-phase systems can be connected to give various combinations of voltage, suitable for use by different classes of equipment. Where both single-phase and three-phase loads are served by an electrical system, the system may be labelled with both voltages such as 120/208 or 230/400 V, to show the line-to-neutral voltage and the line-to-line voltage. Large loads are connected for the higher voltage. Other three-phase voltages, up to 830 volts, are occasionally used for special-purpose systems such as oil well pumps. Large industrial motors (say, more than 250 hp or 150 kW) may operate on medium voltage. On 60 Hz systems a standard for medium voltage equipment is 2,400/4,160 V whereas 3,300 V is the common standard for 50 Hz systems.
Standardization
Until 1987, mains voltage in large parts of Europe, including Germany, Austria and Switzerland, was while the UK used . Standard ISO IEC 60038:1983 defined the new standard European voltage to be .
From 1987 onwards, a step-wise shift towards was implemented. From 2009 on, the voltage is permitted to be . No change in voltage was required by either the Central European or the UK system, as both 220 V and 240 V fall within the lower 230 V tolerance bands (230 V ±6%). Some areas of the UK still have 250 volts for legacy reasons, but these also fall within the 10% tolerance band of 230 volts. In practice, this allowed countries to have supplied the same voltage (220 or 240 V), at least until existing supply transformers are replaced. Equipment (with the exception of filament bulbs) used in these countries is designed to accept any voltage within the specified range. In the United States and Canada, national standards specify that the nominal voltage at the source should be 120 V and allow a range of 114 V to 126 V (RMS) (−5% to +5%). Historically 110 V, 115 V and 117 V have been used at different times and places in North America. Mains power is sometimes spoken of as 110 V; however, 120 V is the nominal voltage.
In 2000, Australia converted to 230 V as the nominal standard with a tolerance of +10%/−6%, this superseding the old 240 V standard, AS2926-1987. As in the UK, 240 V is within the allowable limits and "240 volt" is a synonym for mains in Australian and British English. In Japan, the electrical power supply to households is at 100 and 200 V. Eastern and northern parts of Honshū (including Tokyo) and Hokkaidō have a frequency of 50 Hz, whereas western Honshū (including Nagoya, Osaka, and Hiroshima), Shikoku, Kyūshū and Okinawa operate at 60 Hz. The boundary between the two regions contains four back-to-back high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) substations which interconnect the power between the two grid systems; these are Shin Shinano, Sakuma Dam, Minami-Fukumitsu, and the Higashi-Shimizu Frequency Converter. To accommodate the difference, frequency-sensitive appliances marketed in Japan can often be switched between the two frequencies.
History
The world's first public electricity supply was a water wheel driven system constructed in the small English town of Godalming in 1881. It was an alternating current (AC) system using a Siemens alternator supplying power for both street lights and consumers at two voltages, 250 V for arc lamps, and 40 V for incandescent lamps.
The world's first large scale central plant—Thomas Edison's steam powered station at Holborn Viaduct in London—started operation in January 1882, providing direct current (DC) at 110 V. The Holborn Viaduct station was used as a proof of concept for the construction of the much larger Pearl Street Station in Manhattan, the world's first permanent commercial central power plant. The Pearl Street Station also provided DC at 110 V, considered to be a "safe" voltage for consumers, beginning 4 September 1882.
AC systems started appearing in the US in the mid-1880s, using higher distribution voltage stepped down via transformers to the same 110 V customer utilization voltage that Edison used. In 1883 Edison patented a three–wire distribution system to allow DC generation plants to serve a wider radius of customers to save on copper costs. By connecting two groups of 110 V lamps in series more load could be served by the same size conductors run with 220 V between them; a neutral conductor carried any imbalance of current between the two sub-circuits. AC circuits adopted the same form during the war of the currents, allowing lamps to be run at around 110 V and major appliances to be connected to 220 V. Nominal voltages gradually crept upward to 112 V and 115 V, or even 117 V. After World War II the standard voltage in the U.S. became 117 V, but many areas lagged behind even into the 1960s. In 1954, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published C84.1 “American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and Equipment – Voltage Ratings (60 Hertz)”. This standard established 120 volt nominal system and two ranges for service voltage and utilization voltage variations. Today, virtually all American homes and businesses have access to 120 and 240 V at 60 Hz. Both voltages are available on the three wires (two "hot" legs of opposite phase and one "neutral" leg).
In 1899, the Berliner Elektrizitäts-Werke (BEW), a Berlin electrical utility, decided to greatly increase its distribution capacity by switching to 220 V nominal distribution, taking advantage of the higher voltage capability of newly developed metal filament lamps. The company was able to offset the cost of converting the customer's equipment by the resulting saving in distribution conductors cost. This became the model for electrical distribution in Germany and the rest of Europe and the 220 V system became common. North American practice remained with voltages near 110 V for lamps.
In the first decade after the introduction of alternating current in the US (from the early 1880s to about 1893) a variety of different frequencies were used, with each electric provider setting their own, so that no single one prevailed. The most common frequency was 133⅓ Hz. The rotation speed of induction generators and motors, the efficiency of transformers, and flickering of carbon arc lamps all played a role in frequency setting. Around 1893 the Westinghouse Electric Company in the United States and AEG in Germany decided to standardize their generation equipment on 60 Hz and 50 Hz respectively, eventually leading to most of the world being supplied at one of these two frequencies. Today most 60 Hz systems deliver nominal 120/240 V, and most 50 Hz nominally 230 V. The significant exceptions are in Brazil, which has a synchronized 60 Hz grid with both 127 V and 220 V as standard voltages in different regions, and Japan, which has two frequencies: 50 Hz for East Japan and 60 Hz for West Japan.
Voltage regulation
To maintain the voltage at the customer's service within the acceptable range, electrical distribution utilities use regulating equipment at electrical substations or along the distribution line. At a substation, the step-down transformer will have an automatic on-load tap changer, allowing the ratio between transmission voltage and distribution voltage to be adjusted in steps. For long (several kilometres) rural distribution circuits, automatic voltage regulators may be mounted on poles of the distribution line. These are autotransformers, again, with on-load tap changers to adjust the ratio depending on the observed voltage changes. At each customer's service, the step-down transformer has up to five taps to allow some range of adjustment, usually ±5% of the nominal voltage. Since these taps are not automatically controlled, they are used only to adjust the long-term average voltage at the service and not to regulate the voltage seen by the utility customer.
Power quality
The stability of the voltage and frequency supplied to customers varies among countries and regions. "Power quality" is a term describing the degree of deviation from the nominal supply voltage and frequency. Short-term surges and drop-outs affect sensitive electronic equipment such as computers and flat panel displays. Longer-term power outages, brown-outs and black outs and low reliability of supply generally increase costs to customers, who may have to invest in uninterruptible power supply or stand-by generator sets to provide power when the utility supply is unavailable or unusable. Erratic power supply may be a severe economic handicap to businesses and public services which rely on electrical machinery, illumination, climate control and computers. Even the best quality power system may have breakdowns or require servicing. As such, companies, governments and other organizations sometimes have backup generators at sensitive facilities, to ensure that power will be available even in the event of a power outage or black out.
Power quality can also be affected by distortions of the current or voltage waveform in the form of harmonics of the fundamental (supply) frequency, or non-harmonic (inter)modulation distortion such as that caused by RFI or EMI interference. In contrast, harmonic distortion is usually caused by conditions of the load or generator. In multi-phase power, phase shift distortions caused by imbalanced loads can occur.
See also
Energy meter
Maximum demand indicator
References
Electric power | wiki |
The 2022 Canadian Championship was the fifteenth edition of Canada's national soccer cup tournament, awarding the Voyageurs Cup. It took place from May 10 to July 26, 2022. The winners of the tournament, Vancouver Whitecaps FC, were awarded the Voyageurs Cup and earned a berth in the 2023 CONCACAF Champions League.
Format
The competition followed a similar format to the 2021 edition with ten teams starting in the preliminary round and three teams receiving byes to the quarter-finals. CF Montréal and Toronto FC received byes for being the finalists of the 2021 tournament and Pacific FC received a bye for winning the 2021 Canadian Premier League season. Each tie of the four round tournament was played as a single-leg fixture.
Distribution
Qualified clubs
Qualification to the Canadian Championship for 2022 was automatic for Canadian teams within Major League Soccer and for all teams within the Canadian Premier League, Canada's tier-one national league. The champions from Canada's two regional pro-am leagues (League1 Ontario and PLSQ) also qualified.
Note
Statistics include previous incarnations of FC Edmonton, Montreal Impact, and Vancouver Whitecaps
Results from the 2020 Canadian Championship are included for Toronto FC and Forge FC even though the championship was played after the start of the 2022 edition
Schedule and draw
Teams were divided into four geographical pots for the draw. In the preliminary round, teams in pot 1 were drawn with teams in pot 1 while teams in pot 2 were drawn with a team in pot 2 or pot 3. For the quarter-finals, the winners from pot 1 faced off while the winners from pot 2 and 3 were drawn against teams from pot 4. The draw also determined hosting rights for all four rounds.
Bracket
The draw for the Canadian Championship was streamed live on OneSoccer on March 9, 2022.
Preliminary round
Summary
The preliminary round matches were played on May 10 and 11, 2022.
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Matches
Quarter-finals
Summary
The quarter-final matches were played on May 24 and 25, 2022.
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Matches
Semi-finals
Summary
The semi-final matches were played on June 22, 2022.
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Matches
Final
Awards
George Gross Memorial Trophy: Ryan Gauld
Best Young Canadian Player Award: Ryan Raposo
Top goalscorers
Discipline
Cautions
Note: Players receive a one-match ban for yellow card accumulation based on two cautions in Canadian Championship.
Sending offs
References
2022
2022 in Canadian soccer
2022 domestic association football cups
2022 North American domestic association football cups | wiki |
In computing, overclocking is the practice of increasing the clock rate of a computer to exceed that certified by the manufacturer. Commonly, operating voltage is also increased to maintain a component's operational stability at accelerated speeds. Semiconductor devices operated at higher frequencies and voltages increase power consumption and heat. An overclocked device may be unreliable or fail completely if the additional heat load is not removed or power delivery components cannot meet increased power demands. Many device warranties state that overclocking or over-specification voids any warranty, but some manufacturers allow overclocking as long as it is done (relatively) safely.
Overview
The purpose of overclocking is to increase the operating speed of a given component. Normally, on modern systems, the target of overclocking is increasing the performance of a major chip or subsystem, such as the main processor or graphics controller, but other components, such as system memory (RAM) or system buses (generally on the motherboard), are commonly involved. The trade-offs are an increase in power consumption (heat), fan noise (cooling), and shortened lifespan for the targeted components. Most components are designed with a margin of safety to deal with operating conditions outside of a manufacturer's control; examples are ambient temperature and fluctuations in operating voltage. Overclocking techniques in general aim to trade this safety margin by setting the device to run in the higher end of the margin, with the understanding that temperature and voltage must be more strictly monitored and controlled by the user. Examples are that operating temperature would need to be more strictly controlled with increased cooling, as the part will be less tolerant of increased temperatures at the higher speeds. Also base operating voltage may be increased to compensate for unexpected voltage drops and to strengthen signalling and timing signals, as low-voltage excursions are more likely to cause malfunctions at higher operating speeds.
While most modern devices are fairly tolerant of overclocking, all devices have finite limits. Generally for any given voltage most parts will have a maximum "stable" speed where they still operate correctly. Past this speed, the device starts giving incorrect results, which can cause malfunctions and sporadic behavior in any system depending on it. While in a PC context the usual result is a system crash, more subtle errors can go undetected, which over a long enough time can give unpleasant surprises such as data corruption (incorrectly calculated results, or worse writing to storage incorrectly) or the system failing only during certain specific tasks (general usage such as internet browsing and word processing appear fine, but any application wanting advanced graphics crashes the system).
At this point, an increase in operating voltage of a part may allow more headroom for further increases in clock speed, but the increased voltage can also significantly increase heat output, as well as shorten the lifespan further. At some point, there will be a limit imposed by the ability to supply the device with sufficient power, the user's ability to cool the part, and the device's own maximum voltage tolerance before it achieves destructive failure. Overzealous use of voltage or inadequate cooling can rapidly degrade a device's performance to the point of failure, or in extreme cases outright destroy it.
The speed gained by overclocking depends largely upon the applications and workloads being run on the system, and what components are being overclocked by the user; benchmarks for different purposes are published.
Underclocking
Conversely, the primary goal of underclocking is to reduce power consumption and the resultant heat generation of a device, with the trade-offs being lower clock speeds and reductions in performance. Reducing the cooling requirements needed to keep hardware at a given operational temperature has knock-on benefits such as lowering the number and speed of fans to allow quieter operation, and in mobile devices increase the length of battery life per charge. Some manufacturers underclock components of battery-powered equipment to improve battery life, or implement systems that detect when a device is operating under battery power and reduce clock frequency.
Underclocking and undervolting would be attempted on a desktop system to have it operate silently (such as for a home entertainment center) while potentially offering higher performance than currently offered by low-voltage processor offerings. This would use a "standard-voltage" part and attempt to run with lower voltages (while attempting to keep the desktop speeds) to meet an acceptable performance/noise target for the build. This was also attractive as using a "standard voltage" processor in a "low voltage" application avoided paying the traditional price premium for an officially certified low voltage version. However again like overclocking there is no guarantee of success, and the builder's time researching given system/processor combinations and especially the time and tedium of performing many iterations of stability testing need to be considered. The usefulness of underclocking (again like overclocking) is determined by what processor offerings, prices, and availability are at the specific time of the build. Underclocking is also sometimes used when troubleshooting.
Enthusiast culture
Overclocking has become more accessible with motherboard makers offering overclocking as a marketing feature on their mainstream product lines. However, the practice is embraced more by enthusiasts than professional users, as overclocking carries a risk of reduced reliability, accuracy and damage to data and equipment. Additionally, most manufacturer warranties and service agreements do not cover overclocked components nor any incidental damages caused by their use. While overclocking can still be an option for increasing personal computing capacity, and thus workflow productivity for professional users, the importance of stability testing components thoroughly before employing them into a production environment cannot be overstated.
Overclocking offers several draws for overclocking enthusiasts. Overclocking allows testing of components at speeds not currently offered by the manufacturer, or at speeds only officially offered on specialized, higher-priced versions of the product. A general trend in the computing industry is that new technologies tend to debut in the high-end market first, then later trickle down to the performance and mainstream market. If the high-end part only differs by an increased clock speed, an enthusiast can attempt to overclock a mainstream part to simulate the high-end offering. This can give insight on how over-the-horizon technologies will perform before they are officially available on the mainstream market, which can be especially helpful for other users considering if they should plan ahead to purchase or upgrade to the new feature when it is officially released.
Some hobbyists enjoy building, tuning, and "Hot-Rodding" their systems in competitive benchmarking competitions, competing with other like-minded users for high scores in standardized computer benchmark suites. Others will purchase a low-cost model of a component in a given product line, and attempt to overclock that part to match a more expensive model's stock performance. Another approach is overclocking older components to attempt to keep pace with increasing system requirements and extend the useful service life of the older part or at least delay a purchase of new hardware solely for performance reasons. Another rationale for overclocking older equipment is even if overclocking stresses equipment to the point of failure earlier, little is lost as it is already depreciated, and would have needed to be replaced in any case.
Components
Technically any component that uses a timer (or clock) to synchronize its internal operations can be overclocked. Most efforts for computer components however focus on specific components, such as, processors (a.k.a. CPU), video cards, motherboard chipsets, and RAM. Most modern processors derive their effective operating speeds by multiplying a base clock (processor bus speed) by an internal multiplier within the processor (the CPU multiplier) to attain their final speed.
Computer processors generally are overclocked by manipulating the CPU multiplier if that option is available, but the processor and other components can also be overclocked by increasing the base speed of the bus clock. Some systems allow additional tuning of other clocks (such as a system clock) that influence the bus clock speed that, again is multiplied by the processor to allow for finer adjustments of the final processor speed.
Most OEM systems do not expose to the user the adjustments needed to change processor clock speed or voltage in the BIOS of the OEM's motherboard, which precludes overclocking (for warranty and support reasons). The same processor installed on a different motherboard offering adjustments will allow the user to change them.
Any given component will ultimately stop operating reliably past a certain clock speed. Components will generally show some sort of malfunctioning behavior or other indication of compromised stability that alerts the user that a given speed is not stable, but there is always a possibility that a component will permanently fail without warning, even if voltages are kept within some pre-determined safe values. The maximum speed is determined by overclocking to the point of first instability, then accepting the last stable slower setting. Components are only guaranteed to operate correctly up to their rated values; beyond that different samples may have different overclocking potential. The end-point of a given overclock is determined by parameters such as available CPU multipliers, bus dividers, voltages; the user's ability to manage thermal loads, cooling techniques; and several other factors of the individual devices themselves such as semiconductor clock and thermal tolerances, interaction with other components and the rest of the system.
Considerations
There are several things to be considered when overclocking. First is to ensure that the component is supplied with adequate power at a voltage sufficient to operate at the new clock rate. Supplying the power with improper settings or applying excessive voltage can permanently damage a component.
In a professional production environment, overclocking is only likely to be used where the increase in speed justifies the cost of the expert support required, the possibly reduced reliability, the consequent effect on maintenance contracts and warranties, and the higher power consumption. If faster speed is required it is often cheaper when all costs are considered to buy faster hardware.
Cooling
All electronic circuits produce heat generated by the movement of electric current. As clock frequencies in digital circuits and voltage applied increase, the heat generated by components running at the higher performance levels also increases. The relationship between clock frequencies and thermal design power (TDP) are linear. However, there is a limit to the maximum frequency which is called a "wall". To overcome this issue, overclockers raise the chip voltage to increase the overclocking potential. Voltage increases power consumption and consequently heat generation significantly (proportionally to the square of the voltage in a linear circuit, for example); this requires more cooling to avoid damaging the hardware by overheating. In addition, some digital circuits slow down at high temperatures due to changes in MOSFET device characteristics. Conversely, the overclocker may decide to decrease the chip voltage while overclocking (a process known as undervolting), to reduce heat emissions while performance remains optimal.
Stock cooling systems are designed for the amount of power produced during non-overclocked use; overclocked circuits can require more cooling, such as by powerful fans, larger heat sinks, heat pipes and water cooling. Mass, shape, and material all influence the ability of a heatsink to dissipate heat. Efficient heatsinks are often made entirely of copper, which has high thermal conductivity, but is expensive. Aluminium is more widely used; it has good thermal characteristics, though not as good as copper, and is significantly cheaper. Cheaper materials such as steel do not have good thermal characteristics. Heat pipes can be used to improve conductivity. Many heatsinks combine two or more materials to achieve a balance between performance and cost.
Water cooling carries waste heat to a radiator. Thermoelectric cooling devices which actually refrigerate using the Peltier effect can help with high thermal design power (TDP) processors made by Intel and AMD in the early twenty-first century. Thermoelectric cooling devices create temperature differences between two plates by running an electric current through the plates. This method of cooling is highly effective, but itself generates significant heat elsewhere which must be carried away, often by a convection-based heatsink or a water cooling system.
Other cooling methods are forced convection and phase transition cooling which is used in refrigerators and can be adapted for computer use. Liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, and dry ice are used as coolants in extreme cases, such as record-setting attempts or one-off experiments rather than cooling an everyday system. In June 2006, IBM and Georgia Institute of Technology jointly announced a new record in silicon-based chip clock rate (the rate a transistor can be switched at, not the CPU clock rate) above 500 GHz, which was done by cooling the chip to using liquid helium. Set in November 2012, the CPU Frequency World Record is 8.794 GHz as of January 2022. These extreme methods are generally impractical in the long term, as they require refilling reservoirs of vaporizing coolant, and condensation can form on chilled components. Moreover, silicon-based junction gate field-effect transistors (JFET) will degrade below temperatures of roughly and eventually cease to function or "freeze out" at since the silicon ceases to be semiconducting, so using extremely cold coolants may cause devices to fail.
Submersion cooling, used by the Cray-2 supercomputer, involves sinking a part of computer system directly into a chilled liquid that is thermally conductive but has low electrical conductivity. The advantage of this technique is that no condensation can form on components. A good submersion liquid is Fluorinert made by 3M, which is expensive. Another option is mineral oil, but impurities such as those in water might cause it to conduct electricity.
Amateur overclocking enthusiasts have used a mixture of dry ice and a solvent with a low freezing point, such as acetone or isopropyl alcohol. This cooling bath, often used in laboratories, achieves a temperature of . However, this practice is discouraged due to its safety risks; the solvents are flammable and volatile, and dry ice can cause frostbite (through contact with exposed skin) and suffocation (due to the large volume of carbon dioxide generated when it sublimes).
Stability and functional correctness
As an overclocked component operates outside of the manufacturer's recommended operating conditions, it may function incorrectly, leading to system instability. Another risk is silent data corruption by undetected errors. Such failures might never be correctly diagnosed and may instead be incorrectly attributed to software bugs in applications, device drivers, or the operating system. Overclocked use may permanently damage components enough to cause them to misbehave (even under normal operating conditions) without becoming totally unusable.
A large-scale 2011 field study of hardware faults causing a system crash for consumer PCs and laptops showed a four to 20 times increase (depending on CPU manufacturer) in system crashes due to CPU failure for overclocked computers over an eight-month period.
In general, overclockers claim that testing can ensure that an overclocked system is stable and functioning correctly. Although software tools are available for testing hardware stability, it is generally impossible for any private individual to thoroughly test the functionality of a processor. Achieving good fault coverage requires immense engineering effort; even with all of the resources dedicated to validation by manufacturers, faulty components and even design faults are not always detected.
A particular "stress test" can verify only the functionality of the specific instruction sequence used in combination with the data and may not detect faults in those operations. For example, an arithmetic operation may produce the correct result but incorrect flags; if the flags are not checked, the error will go undetected.
To further complicate matters, in process technologies such as silicon on insulator (SOI), devices display hysteresis—a circuit's performance is affected by the events of the past, so without carefully targeted tests it is possible for a particular sequence of state changes to work at overclocked rates in one situation but not another even if the voltage and temperature are the same. Often, an overclocked system which passes stress tests experiences instabilities in other programs.
In overclocking circles, "stress tests" or "torture tests" are used to check for correct operation of a component. These workloads are selected as they put a very high load on the component of interest (e.g. a graphically intensive application for testing video cards, or different math-intensive applications for testing general CPUs). Popular stress tests include Prime95, Everest, Superpi, OCCT, AIDA64, Linpack (via the LinX and IntelBurnTest GUIs), SiSoftware Sandra, BOINC, Intel Thermal Analysis Tool and Memtest86. The hope is that any functional-correctness issues with the overclocked component will manifest themselves during these tests, and if no errors are detected during the test, then the component is deemed "stable". Since fault coverage is important in stability testing, the tests are often run for long periods of time, hours or even days. An overclocked computer is sometimes described using the number of hours and the stability program used, such as "prime 12 hours stable".
Factors allowing overclocking
Overclockability arises in part due to the economics of the manufacturing processes of CPUs and other components. In many cases components are manufactured by the same process, and tested after manufacture to determine their actual maximum ratings. Components are then marked with a rating chosen by the market needs of the semiconductor manufacturer. If manufacturing yield is high, more higher-rated components than required may be produced, and the manufacturer may mark and sell higher-performing components as lower-rated for marketing reasons. In some cases, the true maximum rating of the component may exceed even the highest rated component sold. Many devices sold with a lower rating may behave in all ways as higher-rated ones, while in the worst case operation at the higher rating may be more problematical.
Notably, higher clocks must always mean greater waste heat generation, as semiconductors set to high must dump to ground more often. In some cases, this means that the chief drawback of the overclocked part is far more heat dissipated than the maximums published by the manufacturer. Pentium architect Bob Colwell calls overclocking an "uncontrolled experiment in better-than-worst-case system operation".
Measuring effects of overclocking
Benchmarks are used to evaluate performance, and they can become a kind of "sport" in which users compete for the highest scores. As discussed above, stability and functional correctness may be compromised when overclocking, and meaningful benchmark results depend on the correct execution of the benchmark. Because of this, benchmark scores may be qualified with stability and correctness notes (e.g. an overclocker may report a score, noting that the benchmark only runs to completion 1 in 5 times, or that signs of incorrect execution such as display corruption are visible while running the benchmark). A widely used test of stability is Prime95, which has built-in error checking that fails if the computer is unstable.
Using only the benchmark scores, it may be difficult to judge the difference overclocking makes to the overall performance of a computer. For example, some benchmarks test only one aspect of the system, such as memory bandwidth, without taking into consideration how higher clock rates in this aspect will improve the system performance as a whole. Apart from demanding applications such as video encoding, high-demand databases and scientific computing, memory bandwidth is typically not a bottleneck, so a great increase in memory bandwidth may be unnoticeable to a user depending on the applications used. Other benchmarks, such as 3DMark, attempt to replicate game conditions.
Manufacturer and vendor overclocking
Overclocking is sometimes offered as a legitimate service or feature for consumers, in which a manufacturer or retailer tests the overclocking capability of processors, memory, video cards, and other hardware products. Several video card manufactures now offer factory-overclocked versions of their graphics accelerators, complete with a warranty, usually at a price intermediate between that of the standard product and a non-overclocked product of higher performance.
It is speculated that manufacturers implement overclocking prevention mechanisms such as CPU multiplier locking to prevent users from buying lower-priced items and overclocking them. These measures are sometimes marketed as a consumer protection benefit, but are often criticized by buyers.
Many motherboards are sold, and advertised, with extensive facilities for overclocking implemented in hardware and controlled by BIOS settings.
CPU multiplier locking
CPU multiplier locking is the process of permanently setting a CPU's clock multiplier. AMD CPUs are unlocked in early editions of a model and locked in later editions, but nearly all Intel CPUs are locked and recent models are very resistant to unlocking to prevent overclocking by users. AMD ships unlocked CPUs with their Opteron, FX, All Ryzen desktop chips (except 3D variants)and Black Series line-up, while Intel uses the monikers of "Extreme Edition" and "K-Series." Intel usually has one or two Extreme Edition CPUs on the market as well as X series and K series CPUs analogous to AMD's Black Edition. AMD has the majority of their desktop range in a Black Edition.
Users usually unlock CPUs to allow overclocking, but sometimes to allow for underclocking in order to maintain the front side bus speed (on older CPUs) compatibility with certain motherboards. Unlocking generally invalidates the manufacturer's warranty, and mistakes can cripple or destroy a CPU. Locking a chip's clock multiplier does not necessarily prevent users from overclocking, as the speed of the front-side bus or PCI multiplier (on newer CPUs) may still be changed to provide a performance increase. AMD Athlon and Athlon XP CPUs are generally unlocked by connecting bridges (jumper-like points) on the top of the CPU with conductive paint or pencil lead. Other CPU models may require different procedures.
Increasing front-side bus or northbridge/PCI clocks can overclock locked CPUs, but this throws many system frequencies out of sync, since the RAM and PCI frequencies are modified as well.
All other unlocked processors from LGA1151 and v2 (including 7th, 8th, and 9th generation) and BGA1440 allow for BCLK overclocking (as long as the OEM allows it), while all other locked processors from 7th, 8th, and 9th gen were not able to go past 102.7 Mhz. 10th gen however, could reach 103 Mhz on the BCLK.
Advantages
Higher performance in games, en-/decoding, video editing and system tasks at no additional direct monetary expense, but with increased electrical consumption and thermal output.
System optimization: Some systems have "bottlenecks", where small overclocking of one component can help realize the full potential of another component to a greater percentage than when just the limiting hardware itself is overclocked. For instance: many motherboards with AMD Athlon 64 processors limit the clock rate of four units of RAM to 333 MHz. However, the memory performance is computed by dividing the processor clock rate (which is a base number times a CPU multiplier, for instance 1.8 GHz is most likely 9×200 MHz) by a fixed integer such that, at a stock clock rate, the RAM would run at a clock rate near 333 MHz. Manipulating elements of how the processor clock rate is set (usually adjusting the multiplier), it is often possible to overclock the processor a small amount, around 5-10%, and gain a small increase in RAM clock rate and/or reduction in RAM latency timings.
It can be cheaper to purchase a lower performance component and overclock it to the clock rate of a more expensive component.
Disadvantages
General
Higher clock rates and voltages increase power consumption, also increasing electricity cost and heat production. The additional heat increases the ambient air temperature within the system case, which may affect other components. The hot air blown out of the case heats the room it's in.
Fan noise: High-performance fans running at maximum speed used for the required degree of cooling of an overclocked machine can be noisy, some producing 50 dB or more of noise. When maximum cooling is not required, in any equipment, fan speeds can be reduced below the maximum: fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB. Fan noise can be reduced by design improvements, e.g. with aerodynamically optimized blades for smoother airflow, reducing noise to around 20 dB at approximately 1 metre or larger fans rotating more slowly, which produce less noise than smaller, faster fans with the same airflow. Acoustical insulation inside the case e.g. acoustic foam can reduce noise. Additional cooling methods which do not use fans can be used, such as liquid and phase-change cooling.
An overclocked computer may become unreliable. For example: Microsoft Windows may appear to work with no problems, but when it is re-installed or upgraded, error messages may be received such as a "file copy error" during Windows Setup. Because installing Windows is very memory-intensive, decoding errors may occur when files are extracted from the Windows XP CD-ROM
The lifespan of semiconductor components may be reduced by increased voltages and heat.
Warranties may be voided by overclocking.
Risks of overclocking
Increasing the operation frequency of a component will usually increase its thermal output in a linear fashion, while an increase in voltage usually causes thermal power to increase quadratically. Excessive voltages or improper cooling may cause chip temperatures to rise to dangerous levels, causing the chip to be damaged or destroyed.
Exotic cooling methods used to facilitate overclocking such as water cooling are more likely to cause damage if they malfunction. Sub-ambient cooling methods such as phase-change cooling or liquid nitrogen will cause water condensation, which will cause electrical damage unless controlled; some methods include using kneaded erasers or shop towels to catch the condensation.
Limitations
Overclocking components can only be of noticeable benefit if the component is on the critical path for a process, if it is a bottleneck. If disk access or the speed of an Internet connection limit the speed of a process, a 20% increase in processor speed is unlikely to be noticed, however there are some scenarios where increasing the clock speed of a processor actually allows an SSD to be read and written to faster. Overclocking a CPU will not noticeably benefit a game when a graphics card's performance is the "bottleneck" of the game.
Graphics cards
Graphics cards can also be overclocked. There are utilities to achieve this, such as EVGA's Precision, RivaTuner, AMD Overdrive (on AMD cards only), MSI Afterburner, Zotac Firestorm, and the PEG Link Mode on Asus motherboards. Overclocking a GPU will often yield a marked increase in performance in synthetic benchmarks, usually reflected in game performance. It is sometimes possible to see that a graphics card is being pushed beyond its limits before any permanent damage is done by observing on-screen artifacts or unexpected system crashes. It is common to run into one of those problems when overclocking graphics cards; both symptoms at the same time usually means that the card is severely pushed beyond its heat, clock rate, and/or voltage limits, however if seen when not overclocked, they indicate a faulty card. After a reboot, video settings are reset to standard values stored in the graphics card firmware, and the maximum clock rate of that specific card is now deducted.
Some overclockers apply a potentiometer to the graphics card to manually adjust the voltage (which usually invalidates the warranty). This allows for finer adjustments, as overclocking software for graphics cards can only go so far. Excessive voltage increases may damage or destroy components on the graphics card or the entire graphics card itself (practically speaking).
Flashing
Alternatives
Flashing and unlocking can be used to improve the performance of a video card, without technically overclocking (but is much riskier than overclocking just through software).
Flashing refers to using the firmware of a different card with the same (or sometimes similar) core and compatible firmware, effectively making it a higher model card; it can be difficult, and may be irreversible. Sometimes standalone software to modify the firmware files can be found, e.g. NiBiTor (GeForce 6/7 series are well regarded in this aspect), without using firmware for a better model video card. For example, video cards with 3D accelerators (most, ) have two voltage and clock rate settings, one for 2D and one for 3D, but were designed to operate with three voltage stages, the third being somewhere between the aforementioned two, serving as a fallback when the card overheats or as a middle-stage when going from 2D to 3D operation mode. Therefore, it could be wise to set this middle-stage prior to "serious" overclocking, specifically because of this fallback ability; the card can drop down to this clock rate, reducing by a few (or sometimes a few dozen, depending on the setting) percent of its efficiency and cool down, without dropping out of 3D mode (and afterwards return to the desired high performance clock and voltage settings).
Some cards have abilities not directly connected with overclocking. For example, Nvidia's GeForce 6600GT (AGP flavor) has a temperature monitor used internally by the card, invisible to the user if standard firmware is used. Modifying the firmware can display a 'Temperature' tab.
Unlocking refers to enabling extra pipelines or pixel shaders. The 6800LE, the 6800GS and 6800 (AGP models only) were some of the first cards to benefit from unlocking. While these models have either 8 or 12 pipes enabled, they share the same 16x6 GPU core as a 6800GT or Ultra, but pipelines and shaders beyond those specified are disabled; the GPU may be fully functional, or may have been found to have faults which do not affect operation at the lower specification. GPUs found to be fully functional can be unlocked successfully, although it is not possible to be sure that there are undiscovered faults; in the worst case the card may become permanently unusable.
History
Overclocked processors first became commercially available in 1983, when AMD sold an overclocked version of the Intel 8088 CPU.
See also
Clock rate
CPU-Z
Double boot
Dynamic voltage scaling
POWER8 on-chip controller (OCC)
Serial presence detect (SPD)
Super PI
Underclocking
UNIVAC I Overdrive, 1952 unofficial modification
References
Notes
External links
OverClocked inside
How to Overclock a PC, WikiHow
Overclocking guide for the Apple iMac G4 main logic board
Overclocking and benchmark databases
OC Database of all PC hardware for the past decade (applications, modifications and more)
HWBOT: Worldwide Overclocking League – Overclocking competition and data
Comprehensive CPU OC Database
Segunda Convencion Nacional de OC: Overclocking Extremo by Imperio Gamer
Tool for overclock
Computer hardware tuning
Clock signal
Hobbies
IBM PC compatibles | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 30–35 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 25-30 light-years
List of star systems within 35-40 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 30-35 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 30-35 light-years | wiki |
Carpetbag steak or carpetbagger steak is a traditional working class dish from Mumbles, a historic oyster fishing village in Swansea, South Wales, UK. Over the years it has become a luxury dish, popular in the 1950s and 1960s in Australia and New Zealand.
It consists of an end cut of steak, such as scotch fillet or eye fillet. A pocket is cut in the meat via a small entry cut and then expanded internally, into which oysters are stuffed and the opening closed with toothpicks or thread. As the dish is grilled, the flavour of the fresh oysters permeates the steak and blends with the juice of the tender meat.
The combination of beef and oysters is traditional and formed part of the everyday diet of oyster fisherman in Swansea in the mid 1800s. The earliest specific reference in the United States was a newspaper in 1891, which may indicate a connection with carpetbaggers or to gluttony. The earliest specific Australian reference is a printed recipe from between 1899 and 1907. Another recipe from 1909 includes cayenne pepper as an ingredient, which may indicate an American origin. The more recent Australian versions typically use Worcestershire sauce, as does the local version of Oysters Kilpatrick.
It is sometimes served standing up like a miniature mountain. A strip of bacon may be wrapped around the serving and surrounded by peeled and browned baby potato halves. In one style, the steak is marinated in a sauce of thyme, pepper, tarragon, lemon, sugar and tamarind and served with a glass of dessert wine.
See also
List of steak dishes
Steak
Beef
References
Beef dishes
Australian cuisine
Oyster dishes | wiki |
Tu Hi Mera Dil (film), een Indiase film uit 1995
Tu Hi Mera Dil (lied), een lied van Nisha Madaran uit 2016 | wiki |
My Life in Food is a television show aired on the Food Network. Each episode chronicles how food affects a famous personality. Guests have included Al Roker and Jeff Henderson.
References
Food Network original programming | wiki |
"What Will Happen to the Gang Next Year?" is the twenty-second and final episode of the sixth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock, and the 125th overall episode of the series. It was directed by Michael Engler, and written by Matt Hubbard. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 17, 2012.
In the episode, Jack (Alec Baldwin) and Avery (Elizabeth Banks) seek to renew their vows; Criss (James Marsden) sets out to show Liz (Tina Fey) he can pay for their nursery renovation; Kenneth (Jack McBrayer) gives new page Hazel (Kristen Schaal) a place to stay; and Tracy (Tracy Morgan) tries to be less of an embarrassment to African Americans.
Plot
While watching an interview with Avery and fellow captive Scott Scotsman (Michael Mosley), Jack realizes they communicate with each other using a code of finger taps. He begins to believe that during their captivity, they must have been conducting an affair through coded taps. When confronted, Avery admits to her feelings for Scott. Both insist on moving forward with renewing their vows in spite of both this revelation and the tension surrounding Jack kissing Avery's mother. Liz officiates at the ceremony, which proceeds smoothly despite the presence of several aggrieved attendees. When no one speaks out against the marriage, Jack and Avery simultaneously question the crowd, admitting that they only got married because of their baby. They agree to divorce on the spot. Jack finishes the episode admitting to Liz that his love life is a mess.
Criss takes out his hot dog truck to raise the money needed to renovate the nursery, as he believes Liz will bail on him if he can't provide for them. It doesn't go well, but Liz sees his van on the news as the getaway vehicle for a bank robbery. Liz assumes he is guilty and offers to go to jail for him. Finding out that he sold the van that morning to raise the money, they recommit to have a child together.
Hazel needs a place to stay for financial reasons. Kenneth ends up giving her a place to stay, but then Jenna tells him that Hazel sabotaged his re-application to the page program. When he confronts Hazel, she says she has developed feelings for him and they kiss.
Tracy discovers that he is viewed as an embarrassment to African Americans and a comfort to racists because of his general buffoonery. Grizz and Dotcom set up a meeting with Dr. Cornel West to inspire him to do better. Later on, Tracy visits a civil rights museum. While there, he is inspired to emulate Tyler Perry by creating his own studio and solely employing African Americans in creative positions.
Reception
"What Will Happen to the Gang Next Year?" was watched by 2.84 million viewers and earned a 1.4 rating/4 share in the 18–49 demographic. This means that it was seen by 1.4 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 4 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This made it the lowest-rated episode in 30 Rock's history. and a decrease from the previous episode "The Return of Avery Jessup" (2.92 million)
References
External links
30 Rock (season 6) episodes | wiki |
Osteochondrosis is a family of orthopedic diseases of the joint that occur in children, adolescents and rapidly growing animals, particularly pigs, horses, dogs, and broiler chickens. They are characterized by interruption of the blood supply of a bone, in particular to the epiphysis, followed by localized bony necrosis, and later, regrowth of the bone. This disorder is defined as a focal disturbance of endochondral ossification and is regarded as having a multifactorial cause, so no one thing accounts for all aspects of this disease.
Osteochondrosis is a developmental disease. It usually occurs in an early stage of life. It has personified features as focal chondronecrosis and confinement of growth cartilage due to a failing of endochondral ossification. Fissures can develop from lesions over the top articular cartilage and form a cartilage flap and an osteochondral fragment. It is diagnosed as osteochondritis dissecans.
In animals
In dogs osteochondrosis is seen in elbow, shoulder, knee, and ankle joints. Elbow osteochondrosis is also known as "elbow dysplasia". There are three types of elbow dysplasia: fragmented medial coronoid process, ununited anconeal process and Osteochondritis dissecans of the medial humeral condyle.
Breeds that have the predisposition to these are Basset Hound, Labrador, Golden Retriever, and Rottweiler. Other breeds can also be diagnosed with this condition but it is not common.
One of the leading factors to some elbow osteochondrosis is that the radius and ulna are growing at different rates. In this situation, the stress to the joint surface is not even and can cause some form of osteochondrosis in the elbow when the puppy grows or make already existing elbow dysplasia even worse. Some of the breeds that are susceptible to that are for example Dachshunds, Corgis, Pugs, Bulldogs, and Beagles.
Signs and symptoms
These conditions nearly all present with an insidious onset of pain referred to the location of the bony damage. Some, notably Kienbock's disease of the wrist, may involve considerable swelling, and Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease of the hip causes the victim to limp. The spinal form, Scheuermann's disease, may cause bending, or kyphosis of the upper spine, giving a "hunch-back" appearance.
Symptoms in animals
The most common symptoms are lameness and pain in the affected joints. Animals may try to ease the pain and walk differently and the pain can be noticed by the change in animals walking style. The condition affects both sides (right and left leg). On most occasions, the other leg is worse. This can result that the dog starts encumbering the other leg and the healthier leg becomes more strained. Sometimes the symptoms are so mild or there are no symptoms which can make it hard to detect that there is something wrong with that dog.
Cause
The ultimate cause for these conditions is unknown, but the most commonly cited cause factors are rapid growth, heredity, trauma (or overuse), anatomic conformation, and dietary imbalances; however, only anatomic conformation and heredity are well supported by scientific literature. The way that the disease is initiated has been debated. Although failure of chondrocyte differentiation, formation of a fragile cartilage, failure of blood supply to the growth cartilage, and subchondral bone necrosis all have been proposed as the starting point in the pathogenesis, recent literature strongly supports failure of blood supply to growth cartilage as most likely. Osteochondrosis can be usually inherited.
Factors
There are four factors: genetics, environment, diet, and exercise.
Environment is found to be a key factor in osteochondrosis occurring. The environment is related to diet and exercise. If the dog has good facilities to live a healthy life, meaning having a good diet and enough and the right kind of exercise, osteochondrosis may never occur even if there would be genetic susceptibility. Sometimes even if the environmental conditions are optimal there is still a chance that osteochondrosis will occur in the animal.
Dogs are very susceptible to calcium when they are growing up. Too much calcium in a diet can affect how the bone starts ossifying. That's one of the reasons why a correct diet for young growing dogs is important.
Diagnosis
Classification
In humans, these conditions may be classified into three groups:
Spinal: Scheuermann's disease(of the interspinal joints) which is a curve in the thoracic spine.
Articular: Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease (or, avascular necrosis of the femoral head in the hip), Köhler's disease (of the tarsal navicular bone of the foot), Freiberg's infraction (of the second or third metatarsal of the foot and less frequently the first or fourth; sometimes called Freiberg's Infraction or Freiberg's disease), Blount's disease (tibia vara), Kienböck's disease (lunate), Panner's disease (of the capitulum of the elbow). Other entities affecting mostly adults, but sometimes loosely lumped into these conditions include Preiser's disease (scaphoid) and Mueller-Weiss syndrome (tarsal navicular).
Non-articular: This group includes Sever's disease (of the calcaneus, or heel), and other conditions not completely characteristic of the osteochondroses, such as Osgood-Schlatter's disease (of the tibial tubercle) and Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome (proximal patellar tendon).
Treatment
There are many different kinds of treatments. One is to remove the loose piece of the leg. Or serving the branch of the lumbar muscle and ulnas attachment.
Most of the time if the osteochondrosis is in the shoulder joint, the veterinarian diagnoses it from X-rays or CT scans. Some studies show that osteochondrosis is more popular in male dogs than in female dogs.
Prognosis
The term osteochondrosis has been used to describe a wide range of lesions among different species. There are different types of the prognosis: latens, which is a lesion restricted to epiphyseal cartilage, manifesta, a lesion paired with a delay in endochondral ossification, and dissecans which is a cleft formation in the articular cartilage. The prognosis for these conditions is very variable, and depends both on the anatomic site and on the time at which it is detected. In some cases of osteochondrosis, such as Sever's disease and Freiberg's infraction, the involved bone may heal in a relatively normal shape and leave the patient asymptomatic. On the contrary, Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease frequently results in a deformed femoral head that leads to arthritis and the need for joint replacement.
See also
Osteochondritis
Osteochondritis dissecans
Osteochondropathy
References
External links
Chondropathies
Deforming dorsopathies | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 35-40 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 30-35 light-years
List of star systems within 40-45 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 35-40 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 35-40 light-years | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 40-45 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 35-40 light-years
List of star systems within 45-50 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 40–45 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 40–45 light-years | wiki |
Molecular evolution is the process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins across generations. The field of molecular evolution uses principles of evolutionary biology and population genetics to explain patterns in these changes. Major topics in molecular evolution concern the rates and impacts of single nucleotide changes, neutral evolution vs. natural selection, origins of new genes, the genetic nature of complex traits, the genetic basis of speciation, evolution of development, and ways that evolutionary forces influence genomic and phenotypic changes.
History
The history of molecular evolution starts in the early 20th century with comparative biochemistry, and the use of "fingerprinting" methods such as immune assays, gel electrophoresis and paper chromatography in the 1950s to explore homologous proteins.
The field of molecular evolution came into its own in the 1960s and 1970s, following the rise of molecular biology. The advent of protein sequencing allowed molecular biologists to create phylogenies based on sequence comparison, and to use the differences between homologous sequences as a molecular clock to estimate the time since the last universal common ancestor. In the late 1960s, the neutral theory of molecular evolution provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, though both the clock and the neutral theory were controversial, since most evolutionary biologists held strongly to panselectionism, with natural selection as the only important cause of evolutionary change. After the 1970s, nucleic acid sequencing allowed molecular evolution to reach beyond proteins to highly conserved ribosomal RNA sequences, the foundation of a reconceptualization of the early history of life.
Forces in molecular evolution
The content and structure of a genome is the product of the molecular and population genetic forces which act upon that genome. Novel genetic variants will arise through mutation and will spread and be maintained in populations due to genetic drift or natural selection.
Mutation
Mutations are permanent, transmissible changes to the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of a cell or virus. Mutations result from errors in DNA replication during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals, and other environmental stressors, or viruses and transposable elements. Most mutations that occur are single nucleotide polymorphisms which modify single bases of the DNA sequence, resulting in point mutations. Other types of mutations modify larger segments of DNA and can cause duplications, insertions, deletions, inversions, and translocations.
Most organisms display a strong bias in the types of mutations that occur with strong influence in GC-content. Transitions (A ↔ G or C ↔ T) are more common than transversions (purine (adenine or guanine)) ↔ pyrimidine (cytosine or thymine, or in RNA, uracil)) and are less likely to alter amino acid sequences of proteins.
Mutations are stochastic and typically occur randomly across genes. Mutation rates for single nucleotide sites for most organisms are very low, roughly 10−9 to 10−8 per site per generation, though some viruses have higher mutation rates on the order of 10−6 per site per generation. Among these mutations, some will be neutral or beneficial and will remain in the genome unless lost via genetic drift, and others will be detrimental and will be eliminated from the genome by natural selection.
Because mutations are extremely rare, they accumulate very slowly across generations. While the number of mutations which appears in any single generation may vary, over very long time periods they will appear to accumulate at a regular pace. Using the mutation rate per generation and the number of nucleotide differences between two sequences, divergence times can be estimated effectively via the molecular clock.
Recombination
Recombination is a process that results in genetic exchange between chromosomes or chromosomal regions. Recombination counteracts physical linkage between adjacent genes, thereby reducing genetic hitchhiking. The resulting independent inheritance of genes results in more efficient selection, meaning that regions with higher recombination will harbor fewer detrimental mutations, more selectively favored variants, and fewer errors in replication and repair. Recombination can also generate particular types of mutations if chromosomes are misaligned.
Gene conversion
Gene conversion is a type of recombination that is the product of DNA repair where nucleotide damage is corrected using an homologous genomic region as a template. Damaged bases are first excised, the damaged strand is then aligned with an undamaged homolog, and DNA synthesis repairs the excised region using the undamaged strand as a guide. Gene conversion is often responsible for homogenizing sequences of duplicate genes over long time periods, reducing nucleotide divergence.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is the change of allele frequencies from one generation to the next due to stochastic effects of random sampling in finite populations. Some existing variants have no effect on fitness and may increase or decrease in frequency simply due to chance. "Nearly neutral" variants whose selection coefficient is close to a threshold value of 1 / the effective population size will also be affected by chance as well as by selection and mutation. Many genomic features have been ascribed to accumulation of nearly neutral detrimental mutations as a result of small effective population sizes. With a smaller effective population size, a larger variety of mutations will behave as if they are neutral due to inefficiency of selection.
Selection
Selection occurs when organisms with greater fitness, i.e. greater ability to survive or reproduce, are favored in subsequent generations, thereby increasing the instance of underlying genetic variants in a population. Selection can be the product of natural selection, artificial selection, or sexual selection. Natural selection is any selective process that occurs due to the fitness of an organism to its environment. In contrast sexual selection is a product of mate choice and can favor the spread of genetic variants which act counter to natural selection but increase desirability to the opposite sex or increase mating success. Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, is imposed by an outside entity, typically humans, in order to increase the frequency of desired traits.
The principles of population genetics apply similarly to all types of selection, though in fact each may produce distinct effects due to clustering of genes with different functions in different parts of the genome, or due to different properties of genes in particular functional classes. For instance, sexual selection could be more likely to affect molecular evolution of the sex chromosomes due to clustering of sex specific genes on the X, Y, Z or W.
Intragenomic conflict
Selection can operate at the gene level at the expense of organismal fitness, resulting in intragenomic conflict. This is because there can be a selective advantage for selfish genetic elements in spite of a host cost. Examples of such selfish elements include transposable elements, meiotic drivers, killer X chromosomes, selfish mitochondria, and self-propagating introns.
Genome architecture
Genome size
Genome size is influenced by the amount of repetitive DNA as well as number of genes in an organism. The C-value paradox refers to the lack of correlation between organism 'complexity' and genome size. Explanations for the so-called paradox are two-fold. First, repetitive genetic elements can comprise large portions of the genome for many organisms, thereby inflating DNA content of the haploid genome. Secondly, the number of genes is not necessarily indicative of the number of developmental stages or tissue types in an organism. An organism with few developmental stages or tissue types may have large numbers of genes that influence non-developmental phenotypes, inflating gene content relative to developmental gene families.
Neutral explanations for genome size suggest that when population sizes are small, many mutations become nearly neutral. Hence, in small populations repetitive content and other 'junk' DNA can accumulate without placing the organism at a competitive disadvantage. There is little evidence to suggest that genome size is under strong widespread selection in multicellular eukaryotes. Genome size, independent of gene content, correlates poorly with most physiological traits and many eukaryotes, including mammals, harbor very large amounts of repetitive DNA.
However, birds likely have experienced strong selection for reduced genome size, in response to changing energetic needs for flight. Birds, unlike humans, produce nucleated red blood cells, and larger nuclei lead to lower levels of oxygen transport. Bird metabolism is far higher than that of mammals, due largely to flight, and oxygen needs are high. Hence, most birds have small, compact genomes with few repetitive elements. Indirect evidence suggests that non-avian theropod dinosaur ancestors of modern birds also had reduced genome sizes, consistent with endothermy and high energetic needs for running speed. Many bacteria have also experienced selection for small genome size, as time of replication and energy consumption are so tightly correlated with fitness.
Repetitive elements
Transposable elements are self-replicating, selfish genetic elements which are capable of proliferating within host genomes. Many transposable elements are related to viruses, and share several proteins in common....
Chromosome number and organization
The number of chromosomes in an organism's genome also does not necessarily correlate with the amount of DNA in its genome. The ant Myrmecia pilosula has only a single pair of chromosomes whereas the Adders-tongue fern Ophioglossum reticulatum has up to 1260 chromosomes. Cilliate genomes house each gene in individual chromosomes, resulting in a genome which is not physically linked. Reduced linkage through creation of additional chromosomes should effectively increase the efficiency of selection.
Changes in chromosome number can play a key role in speciation, as differing chromosome numbers can serve as a barrier to reproduction in hybrids. Human chromosome 2 was created from a fusion of two chimpanzee chromosomes and still contains central telomeres as well as a vestigial second centromere. Polyploidy, especially allopolyploidy, which occurs often in plants, can also result in reproductive incompatibilities with parental species. Agrodiatus blue butterflies have diverse chromosome numbers ranging from n=10 to n=134 and additionally have one of the highest rates of speciation identified to date.
Gene content and distribution
Different organisms house different numbers of genes within their genomes as well as different patterns in the distribution of genes throughout the genome. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, Drosophila, and Arabidopsis have particularly compact genomes with little repetitive content or non-coding DNA. Other organisms, like mammals or maize, have large amounts of repetitive DNA, long introns, and substantial spacing between different genes. The content and distribution of genes within the genome can influence the rate at which certain types of mutations occur and can influence the subsequent evolution of different species. Genes with longer introns are more likely to recombine due to increased physical distance over the coding sequence. As such, long introns may facilitate ectopic recombination, and result in higher rates of new gene formation.
Organelles
In addition to the nuclear genome, endosymbiont organelles contain their own genetic material typically as circular plasmids. Mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA varies across taxa, but membrane-bound proteins, especially electron transport chain constituents are most often encoded in the organelle. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are maternally inherited in most species, as the organelles must pass through the egg. In a rare departure, some species of mussels are known to inherit mitochondria from father to son.
Origins of new genes
New genes arise from several different genetic mechanisms including gene duplication, de novo origination, retrotransposition, chimeric gene formation, recruitment of non-coding sequence, and gene truncation.
Gene duplication initially leads to redundancy. However, duplicated gene sequences can mutate to develop new functions or specialize so that the new gene performs a subset of the original ancestral functions. In addition to duplicating whole genes, sometimes only a domain or part of a protein is duplicated so that the resulting gene is an elongated version of the parental gene.
Retrotransposition creates new genes by copying mRNA to DNA and inserting it into the genome. Retrogenes often insert into new genomic locations, and often develop new expression patterns and functions.
Chimeric genes form when duplication, deletion, or incomplete retrotransposition combine portions of two different coding sequences to produce a novel gene sequence. Chimeras often cause regulatory changes and can shuffle protein domains to produce novel adaptive functions.
De novo gene birth can also give rise to new genes from previously non-coding DNA. For instance, Levine and colleagues reported the origin of five new genes in the D. melanogaster genome from noncoding DNA. Similar de novo origin of genes has been also shown in other organisms such as yeast, rice and humans. De novo genes may evolve from transcripts that are already expressed at low levels. Mutation of a stop codon to a regular codon or a frameshift may cause an extended protein that includes a previously non-coding sequence. The formation of novel genes from scratch typically can not occur within genomic regions of high gene density. The essential events for de novo formation of genes is recombination/mutation which includes insertions, deletions, and inversions. These events are tolerated if the consequence of these genetic events does not interfere in cellular activities. Most genomes comprise prophages wherein genetic modifications do not, in general, affect the host genome propagation. Hence, there is higher probability of genetic modifications, in regions such as prophages, which is proportional to the probability of de novo formation of genes.
De novo evolution of genes can also be simulated in the laboratory. For example, semi-random gene sequences can be selected for specific functions. More specifically, they selected sequences from a library that could complement a gene deletion in E. coli. The deleted gene encodes ferric enterobactin esterase (Fes), which releases iron from an iron chelator, enterobactin. While Fes is a 400 amino acid protein, the newly selected gene was only 100 amino acids in length and unrelated in sequence to Fes. A similar approach has been used to select for random peptides and short proteins that can compensate for the lack of an essential enzyme, SerB, in E. coli. Indeed, such random proteins with a selective benefit can be created and thus provide evidence for evolution of functional proteins from non-functional sequences.
In vitro molecular evolution experiments
Principles of molecular evolution can be discovered and tested using laboratory experimentation. This usually involves the cloning and in vitro modification of genes and proteins outside cells. Since the pioneering work of Sol Spiegelmann in 1967 [ref], involving RNA that replicates itself with the aid of an enzyme extracted from the Qß virus [ref], several groups (such as Kramers [ref] and Biebricher/Luce/Eigen [ref]) studied mini and micro variants of this RNA in the 1970s and 1980s that replicate on the timescale of seconds to a minute, allowing hundreds of generations with large population sizes (e.g. 10^14 sequences) to be followed in a single day of experimentation. The chemical kinetic elucidation of the detailed mechanism of replication [ref, ref] meant that this type of system was the first molecular evolution system that could be fully characterised on the basis of physical chemical kinetics, later allowing the first models of the genotype to phenotype map based on sequence dependent RNA folding and refolding to be produced [ref, ref]. Subject to maintaining the function of the multicomponent Qß enzyme, chemical conditions could be varied significantly, in order to study the influence of changing environments and selection pressures [ref]. Experiments with in vitro RNA quasi species included the characterisation of the error threshold for information in molecular evolution [ref], the discovery of de novo evolution [ref] leading to diverse replicating RNA species and the discovery of spatial travelling waves as ideal molecular evolution reactors [ref, ref]. Later experiments employed novel combinations of enzymes to elucidate novel aspects of interacting molecular evolution involving population dependent fitness, including work with artificially designed molecular predator prey and cooperative systems of multiple RNA and DNA [ref, ref]. Special evolution reactors were designed for these studies, starting with serial transfer machines, flow reactors such as cell-stat machines, capillary reactors, and microreactors including line flow reactors and gel slice reactors. These studies were accompanied by theoretical developments and simulations involving RNA folding and replication kinetics that elucidated the importance of the correlation structure between distance in sequence space and fitness changes [ref], including the role of neutral networks and structural ensembles in evolutionary optimisation.
in vitro protein function evolution
Mutagenic hot spots in enzymes can be identified using NMR spectroscopy. In a proof-of-concept study, Bhattacharya and colleagues converted myoglobin, a non-enzymatic oxygen storage protein, into a highly efficient Kemp eliminase using only three mutations. This demonstrates that only few mutations are needed to radically change the function of a protein.
Molecular phylogenetics
Molecular systematics is the product of the traditional fields of systematics and molecular genetics. It uses DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to resolve questions in systematics, i.e. about their correct scientific classification or taxonomy from the point of view of evolutionary biology.
Molecular systematics has been made possible by the availability of techniques for DNA sequencing, which allow the determination of the exact sequence of nucleotides or bases in either DNA or RNA. At present it is still a long and expensive process to sequence the entire genome of an organism, and this has been done for only a few species. However, it is quite feasible to determine the sequence of a defined area of a particular chromosome. Typical molecular systematic analyses require the sequencing of around 1000 base pairs.
The driving forces of evolution
Depending on the relative importance assigned to the various forces of evolution, three perspectives provide evolutionary explanations for molecular evolution.
Selectionist hypotheses argue that selection is the driving force of molecular evolution. While acknowledging that many mutations are neutral, selectionists attribute changes in the frequencies of neutral alleles to linkage disequilibrium with other loci that are under selection, rather than to random genetic drift. Biases in codon usage are usually explained with reference to the ability of even weak selection to shape molecular evolution.
Neutralist hypotheses emphasize the importance of mutation, purifying selection, and random genetic drift. The introduction of the neutral theory by Kimura, quickly followed by King and Jukes' own findings, led to a fierce debate about the relevance of neodarwinism at the molecular level. The Neutral theory of molecular evolution proposes that most mutations in DNA are at locations not important to function or fitness. These neutral changes drift towards fixation within a population. Positive changes will be very rare, and so will not greatly contribute to DNA polymorphisms. Deleterious mutations do not contribute much to DNA diversity because they negatively affect fitness and so are removed from the gene pool before long. This theory provides a framework for the molecular clock. The fate of neutral mutations are governed by genetic drift, and contribute to both nucleotide polymorphism and fixed differences between species.
Some researchers argue that the neutral theory is not accurate and they mostly focus on the rates of positive effects of even small evolutionary changes. They point out that subtle changes in DNA very often have effects, but sometimes these effects are too small for natural selection to act on. Synonymous mutations are not necessarily neutral because there is not a uniform amount of each codon. The nearly neutral theory expanded the neutralist perspective, suggesting that several mutations are nearly neutral, which means both random drift and natural selection is relevant to their dynamics. The main difference between the neutral theory and nearly neutral theory is that the latter focuses on weak selection, not strictly neutral.
Another concept is constructive neutral evolution (CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions with the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting, and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the spliceosome to the complex interdependence of microbial communities.
Mutationists hypotheses emphasize random drift and biases in mutation patterns. Sueoka was the first to propose a modern mutationist view. He proposed that the variation in GC content was not the result of positive selection, but a consequence of the GC mutational pressure.
Protein evolution
While genomes store information and accumulate mutations, proteins are the active products of genes. Hence the evolution of protein function is critical to understand molecular evolution.
Evolution of proteins is studied by comparing the sequences and structures of proteins from many organisms. Similar sequences/structures indicating that the proteins diverged from a common origin; these proteins are homologous. Phylogenetic analysis of proteins has revealed how proteins evolve and change their structure and function over time.
Evolutionary rate. Using the amino acid sequences of hemoglobin and cytochrome c from multiple species, scientists were able to derive estimations of protein evolution rates. Each protein has its own rate, and that rate is relatively constant across phylogenies (i.e., hemoglobin does not evolve at the same rate as cytochrome c, but hemoglobins from humans, mice, etc. do have comparable rates of evolution). Not all regions within a protein mutate at the same rate; functionally important areas mutate more slowly and amino acid substitutions involving similar amino acids occurs more often than dissimilar substitutions. Overall, the level of polymorphisms in proteins seems to be fairly constant. Several species (including humans, fruit flies, and mice) have similar levels of protein polymorphism.
Functional evolution. Numerous enzymes and other proteins have been shown to change their function over the course of evolution. For example, ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) is known from thousands of organisms and has evolved a multitude of structural and functional variants. Class I RNRs use a ferritin subunit and differ by the metal they use as cofactors. In class II RNRs, the thiyl radical is generated using an adenosylcobalamin cofactor and these enzymes do not require additional subunits (as opposed to class I which do). In class III RNRs, the thiyl radical is generated using S-adenosylmethionine bound to a [4Fe-4S] cluster. That is, within a single family of proteins numerous structural and functional mechanisms can evolve.
Functional constructivism principle was used to explain the evolution of neurotransmitters' and hormonal differential regulation of behaviour
.
Relation to nucleic acid evolution
Protein evolution is inescapably tied to changes and selection of DNA polymorphisms and mutations because protein sequences change in response to alterations in the DNA sequence. Amino acid sequences and nucleic acid sequences do not mutate at the same rate. Due to the degenerate nature of DNA, bases can change without affecting the amino acid sequence. For example, there are six codons that code for leucine. Thus, despite the difference in mutation rates, it is essential to incorporate nucleic acid evolution into the discussion of protein evolution. At the end of the 1960s, two groups of scientists—Kimura (1968) and King and Jukes (1969)—independently proposed that a majority of the evolutionary changes observed in proteins were neutral. Since then, the neutral theory has been expanded upon and debated.
Discordance with morphological evolution
There are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological evolution, which are reflected in molecular and morphological systematic studies, especially of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotic microbes. These discordances can be categorized as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages). Neutral evolution possibly could explain the incongruences in some cases.
Journals and societies
The Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution publishes the journals "Molecular Biology and Evolution" and "Genome Biology and Evolution" and holds an annual international meeting. Other journals dedicated to molecular evolution include Journal of Molecular Evolution and Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. Research in molecular evolution is also published in journals of genetics, molecular biology, genomics, systematics, and evolutionary biology.
See also
Abiogenesis
Adaptor protein evolution
Comparative phylogenetics
Evolution
E. coli long-term evolution experiment
Evolutionary physiology
Evolution of dietary antioxidants
Genomic organization
Genetic drift
Genome evolution
Heterotachy
History of molecular evolution
Horizontal gene transfer
Human evolution
Molecular clock
Molecular paleontology
Neutral theory of molecular evolution
Nucleotide diversity
Parsimony
Population genetics
Selection
References
Further reading | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 45-50 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 40-45 light-years
List of star systems within 50-55 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 45–50 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 45–50 light-years | wiki |
The Fox News Channel (FNC) is an American basic cable and satellite news television channel that was founded by media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1996. In 2001 Roger Ailes appointed himself as permanent CEO of this news operation that was created as a Republican-centered alternative to CNN. In January 2002, the ratings of the channel surpassed top-rated CNN to become the No. 1 news cable channel. They fell in March 2002, but since then the network has maintained its No. 1 cable rating (as of 2019) with increasing viewership and international access.
Fox News' dominant status was challenged in the wake of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, with CNN taking the No. 1 network place back for a first time since the 2000s, alongside rival MSNBC in second place, with Fox News in third place. It has since regained the top spot.
1990s
Launch
The channel was created by Australian-born American media mogul Rupert Murdoch, who hired Roger Ailes as its founding CEO. The channel was launched on October 7, 1996 to 17 million cable subscribers. Prior to founding Fox News, Murdoch had gained significant experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corporation's British Sky Broadcasting subsidiary started Europe's first 24-hour news channel, Sky News, in the United Kingdom in 1989. With the success of his fourth network efforts in the United States, experience gained from Sky News, and turnaround of 20th Century Fox, Murdoch announced on January 31, 1996, that his company would be launching a 24-hour news channel to air on both cable and satellite systems as part of a News Corp. "worldwide platform" for Fox programming, reasoning that "The appetite for news – particularly news that explains to people how it affects them – is expanding enormously."
In February 1996, after former NBC executive and Republican Party political strategist Roger Ailes left America's Talking (now MSNBC), Murdoch called him to start the Fox News Channel. Ailes worked individuals through five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before launch, on October 7, 1996.
At launch, only 10 million households were able to watch Fox News, with none in the major media markets of New York City and Los Angeles. According to published reports, many media reviewers had to watch the first day's programming at Fox News' studios because it was not readily available. The rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single topic shows like Fox on Crime or Fox on Politics surrounded by news headlines. Interviews had various facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest.
2000s
In the 2000 presidential election, Fox News, which was available in 56 million homes nationwide, saw a staggering 440% increase in viewers, the biggest gain among the three cable news television networks.
2020s
Fox News ended 2020 as the most-watched network in cable news history. However, in January 2021, after the U.S. Capitol attack, it was less watched than CNN and MSNBC for three straight days, which had not happened since September 2000.
In August 2021, Fox required compulsory reporting of COVID-19 vaccination status from employees, despite prominent Fox personalities Tucker Carlson and Sean Hannity being opposed to mandatory reporting of COVID-19 vaccination status.
Programming
The Edge
Hosted by Paula Zahn, The Edge was one of the original programs on the network, focusing on talk between the host and newsmakers, like other programs on the network at the time. During the program's later years, John Gibson became host when the network discovered Zahn was in the midst of contract negotiations with CNN. The show was cancelled in 2002.
The O'Reilly Factor
On October 7, 1996, The O'Reilly Report aired its first episode, hosted by Bill O'Reilly. It was later renamed because of a suggestion by a friend. The O'Reilly Factor, unlike many other Fox News programs, was pre-recorded, or "live-to-tape," except when covering breaking news or special events. Some guests were interviewed before the "live-to-tape" period and were slotted in the program as appropriate. O'Reilly's producers said that video editing took place only when an interview exceeded the available length in a program, of which the total was 43 minutes (for an hour-long slot, once commercials and news breaks are added), though some critics suggested that interviews were sometimes edited after taping to suit O'Reilly's agenda.
O'Reilly and his producers discussed potential topics twice a week. A producer researched the story and booked guests for O'Reilly, and an information packet was produced with possible angles for O'Reilly to explore. The producers would often "pre-interview" the guest so that they know what potential points he or she might make. For each show, O'Reilly, with the assistance of his staff, produced a script with the words for the "Talking Points Memo" and "Most Ridiculous Item of the Day" segments, and points of discussion and questions for the guests that appeared on the program. On February 2, 2009, the show began airing in high definition and moved to the previous set used by the Fox Report.
The show ended in 2017 after O'Reilly was dismissed from the network due to sexual harassment allegations, leading to a large advertiser boycott of the show.
Your World with Neil Cavuto
Debuting as the Cavuto Business Report on the network's launch in 1996, Your World with Neil Cavuto has become a very popular show, hosted by reporter and commentator Neil Cavuto. The program covers the latest business news stories of the day, in addition to giving analysis on how the stock market moved through the day. It also covers political stories, such as how political actions may affect the markets, in addition to analysis of the markets by a group of analysts from one of the Cost of Freedom business block programs. Closing the program, the show has a commentary segment called "Common Sense," in which Neil gives his point of view on a news story of the day. The program is broadcast live weekdays at 4 p.m. ET.
Hannity and Colmes
Hannity & Colmes was an American television show on Fox News Channel, hosted by Sean Hannity and Alan Colmes, who respectively presented a conservative and liberal perspective. The series premiered in October 1996, and the final episode aired on January 9, 2009. It was the precursor to the current Hannity series, which currently airs in the same timeslot.
Fox Magazine
Fox Magazine was launched in 1997 as a weekly newsmagazine on the Fox News Channel. Hosted by Laurie Dhue, the program was an almost weekly look into some of the previous week's stories, in addition to special series produced by the program itself, such as its constant series about Nashville. These shows mostly consisted of adverts from the Fox News program and the National Rifle Association. Included in the programming were a recap of the previous week's commentaries from a number of the network's commentators. The program would come to an end on September 11, 2005, with Dhue leaving the network to work on Geraldo at Large.
Fox and Friends
Fox & Friends is a morning news show that debuted in 1998. It is currently hosted by Ainsley Earhardt, Steve Doocy, and Brian Kilmeade during the week. Weekends are hosted by Rachel Campos-Duffy, Pete Hegseth and Will Cain.
Drudge
Drudge was a television series on Fox News Channel that was hosted by Matt Drudge. Drudge left the show in 1999 after network executives refused to let him show a National Enquirer photograph of a 21-week-old fetus in protest of abortion.
References
Fox News
Fox News
Fox News
Fox News
Fox News | wiki |
Questioning is a major form of human thought and interpersonal communication. It involves employing a series of questions to explore an issue, an idea or something intriguing. Questioning is the process of forming and wielding that serves to develop answers and insight.
Questioning may also refer to:
Interrogation, interviewing as commonly employed by law enforcement officers, military personnel, and intelligence agencies with the goal of eliciting useful information
Scepticism, a state of uncertainty or doubt, or of challenging a previously held belief
Questioning (sexuality and gender), a phase or period where an individual re-assesses their sexual orientation/identity and/or gender identity
Socratic questioning (or Socratic maieutics), disciplined questioning that can be used to pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes
See also
Inquest, a judicial inquiry in common law jurisdictions, particularly one held to determine the cause of a person's death
Query (disambiguation) | wiki |
Shady Spring – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Wirginia Zachodnia, w hrabstwie Raleigh.
CDP w stanie Wirginia Zachodnia | wiki |
Officine Générale is a French men's and women's clothing brand founded by Pierre Mahéo.
The brand is based in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Paris and uses French, British and Italian fabrics. Mahéo has stated: “Officine Générale isn’t in the fashion industry. It isn’t fashion. Our point of view is different: beautiful normality.”
Its flagship store is located at 6 Rue du Dragon, just off of Boulevard Saint-Germain.
See also
rag & bone
Billy Reid
References
External links
The 10 Coolest French Brands Out Now Jian DeLeon, Complex.
Clothing brands of France
Clothing retailers of France
2000s fashion | wiki |
1 series or 1-series may refer to:
BMW 1 Series, a car series
IBM Series/1, a minicomputer series
Nikon 1 series, a camera series
See also
0 series (disambiguation)
7 series (disambiguation)
I series (disambiguation)
L series (disambiguation) | wiki |
Ottrelite is a form of chloritoid. Its empirical formula is .
See also
List of minerals
References
External links
Manganese(II) minerals
Iron(II) minerals
Magnesium minerals
Aluminium minerals
Nesosilicates | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 50-55 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 45-50 light-years
List of star systems within 55-60 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 50-55 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 50-55 light-years | wiki |
Armen open (album), een album van de Nederlandse zanger Guus Meeuwis uit 2011
Armen open (single), de tweede single van bovenstaand album | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 55-60 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 50-55 light-years
List of star systems within 60-65 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 55–60 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 55–60 light-years | wiki |
Humanity (umanità in inglese) può riferirsi a:
Cinema
Humanity – film del 1916 diretto da Gilbert Anderson
Humanity – film del 1933 diretto da John Francis Dillon
Musica
Humanity – album di Prince Lincoln Thompson del 1974
Humanity – album dei The Mad Capsule Markets del 1990
Humanity – singolo di ATB del 2005, dall'album Seven Years : 1998-2005
Humanity – singolo degli Scorpions del 2007, dall'album Humanity - Hour 1
Humanity – album dei Bleed from Within del 2009 | wiki |
Thunbergia brachytyla is een plantensoort uit de Acanthusfamilie (Acanthaceae). De soort komt voor in de Filipijnen.
Acanthusfamilie | wiki |
This is a list of star systems within 60-65 light years of Earth.
See also
Lists of stars
List of star systems within 55-60 light-years
List of star systems within 65-70 light-years
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
References
star systems within 60–65 light-years
Star systems
star systems within 60–65 light-years | wiki |
Orbital welding is a specialized area of welding whereby the arc is rotated mechanically through 360° (180 degrees in double up welding) around a static workpiece, an object such as a pipe, in a continuous process. The process was developed to address the issue of operator error in gas tungsten arc welding processes (GTAW), to support uniform welding around a pipe that would be significantly more difficult using a manual welding process, and to ensure high quality repeatable welds that would meet more stringent weld criteria set by ASME. In orbital welding, computer-controlled process runs with little intervention from the operator.
History
The orbital welding process was invented by Rodrick Rohrberg of North American Aviation to address fuel and hydraulic fluids leaking in and around the plumbing of the X-15 Rocket Research plane.
Equipment
The main components of every orbital welding system are the power supply with integrated computer control, the welding head and, where required, a wire feed mechanism. Welding of certain sizes and material types will also require the use of a water/coolant system. There are a large number of factors that can have an influence on the welding result. These aspects include the arc length, magnitude and pulse frequency of the welding current, welding speed, inert shielding gas, parent material, filler material, weld preparation, and thermal conductivity. Ultimately, a high-quality weld is achieved through detailed knowledge of how to precisely adjust all these parameters for each individual welding task.
Application
The welding process
It is very difficult to achieve the highest standards of quality and safety using manual welding. This is due to certain welding positions, overhead and down-hand welds for example, often leading to faulty welds due to restricted access the user has in these welding positions. In order to have complete control over the weld pool, a perfect balance must be maintained between gravitational force and surface tension at every position of the torch.
By using mechanised variants of the technique, certain parts of the welding process are handled by mechanical components. Note that a welder will always be monitoring and controlling the process. In an ideal situation, all welding parameters would be fully programmed before welding is started. In practice, however, the presence of variable constraints means that it is often necessary for the welder to make corrective interventions.
Orbital welding of tubing using totally enclosed weld heads is a fusion process under ASME Section IX. No filler metal is added.
A successful automatic orbital GTA weld is 100% repeatable as long as the operator monitors variables and performs periodic samples or coupons which are inspected for complete penetration. Noticing that a variable has changed is a primary skill and can be easily missed. Training and experience are required for an operator to be successful at consistently producing acceptable welds.
The successful automatic orbital GTA weld is very dependent upon refinement of several critical variables that involve programming the welding machine and set-up of the "weld head”.
Maintenance of the weld head often becomes a factor in repeatability of successful welds. Weld head internals can become charred from improper use. The charring is carbon deposits which can conduct electricity and short circuit the flow of current from the tungsten. Weld heads contain a system of precision planetary gears that can wear out over time. Proper cleaning and maintenance is required.
Successful orbital welding is also dependent upon using high quality tubing material. Typically only 316L stainless steel tubing (not pipe) and fittings are used for automatic orbital GTA welding and are obtained from a number of specialty manufacturers. The weld quality depends upon having a reasonably clean source of Argon for backing and shielding gas. Minimum purity would be 99.995% for typical industrial applications. For some applications it is necessary to use ultra high purity argon, 99.9998% purity and such applications requires the use of all high purity purge equipment (valves, regulators and flow control). Typically, no rubber components can be used for purge gas apparatus since the rubber absorbs and releases moisture and oxygen into the argon stream. Moisture and oxygen (in Argon) are contaminants detrimental to a successful automatic orbital weld.
Weld coupons, pieces of metal used to test a welders' skill, are typically prepared at the beginning of a welding shift, any time any variable is adjusted or changed and at the end of the shift (and more frequently as required by an inspector). Each coupon must be examined internally and externally to verify full penetration, proper bead width and other criteria. With smaller diameter pipe or tubing, it is usually necessary to section open the coupon to examine the weld bead. All coupons must exhibit complete penetration and consistent bead width. Variations in consistency are an indicator of a problem that must be resolved before continuing.
Orbital welding is more commonly performed on tubing than on pipe for several reasons, most important being that the production of tubing yields very consistent outside diameters which is critical to proper fit up in the weld head.
Automatic Orbital GTA welding has become the standard joining method for high integrity gas and liquid systems used in the Semiconductor and Pharmaceutical manufacturing industries. These systems are rated for extreme purity and leak tight integrity. An entire specialty industry supplying valves, fittings, regulators, gauges and other components for orbital welding and use in high purity applications has developed since the mid 1980s. For tube welding in high purity applications only a fully enclosed weld head may be used.
Materials
Orbital welding has almost always exclusively been carried out by the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG / GTAW) technique using non-consumable electrodes, with additional cold-wire feed where necessary. The easy control of heat input makes TIG-welding the ideal welding method for fully orbital welding of tubes with specialist orbital welding heads, that incorporate a clamping device, a TIG electrode on an orbital travel device and a shielding gas chamber. Many different types of metal can be welded; high-strength, high-temperature and corrosion-resistant steels, unalloyed and low-alloyed carbon steels, nickel alloys, titanium, copper, aluminum and associated alloys. Carried out in an inert atmosphere, this controlled technique produces results that are extremely clean, have low particle counts and are free from unwanted spatter. This enables the highest demands to be met regarding the mechanical and optical properties of a weld seam.
Tube diameters
Due to the precision of orbital TIG welding, even the smallest standard tube diameters from 1.6 millimetres can be processed. On a larger scale, pipes with diameters up to 170mm and walls up to 3.5mm thick can be joined using closed chamber weld heads. These weld heads allow the torch to be positioned very precisely and ensure that the pipe is held securely. The inert gas atmosphere in the closed chamber prevents heat from tinting, even with the most sensitive of materials. For tube diameters between 8 and 275mm, it is possible to use more manageable open welding heads (except for high purity applications). A flexible hose system is used to supply the welding head with power, inert gas, cooling water and filler wire where required. The need for filler wire during the welding process depends on the type of welding task; thicker tube walls and difficult-to-control parent materials require the use of additional material, whereas thin-walled tubes can be welded without extra wire.
In order to create high quality weld seams it is essential that tube ends are carefully prepared with the edges of the workpieces being free of scale and impurities. For thinner-walled tubes up to medium diameters, a simple right-angled saw cut is often sufficient. For thicker tube walls it is necessary to prepare the edges more carefully, for example using a U-groove cross-section.
Business sectors and markets
Owing to its ability to realise high purity results, orbital welding found its place in the production of clean-room components for the semiconductor industry. Its application has now expanded to the construction of pipework and equipment for diverse industries like food processing, pharmaceuticals, chemical engineering, automotive engineering, biotechnology, shipbuilding and aerospace. Automated orbital TIG welding is also used in the construction of power stations, (thermal power plants). The construction materials used must be able to withstand the enormous mechanical loads produced by the high pressures and temperatures created by the media carried in the tubes. Notches, pores and inclusions in the weld seams must be avoided at all costs, as these create weak points that can lead to subsequent formation of cracks. These in turn can have serious consequences in terms of component failure. This means that tubes are often made from nickel-based materials with walls up to 200mm thick. One manufacturer has developed an orbital narrow gap welding system with hot-wire feed specifically for this purpose, which uses running gear that moves on a guide ring fixed around the tube. This new variant has created a lot of interest in the sector, with the worldwide boom in power station construction fueling the never-ending search for increasingly productive manufacturing methods using new types of high-temperature steels.
Conclusion
Along with the current methods of using TIG cold and hot wire welding, there has also been steady progress in the development of MIG/MAG/FCAW welding which allows a whole range of new applications in a variety of industries including aerospace, medical, automotive and more. Orbital welding can provide reliable welding of reproducible quality using wide-ranging techniques and differing types of technique. This can be performed to a high standard even when using unusual materials, thick walls, small tube diameters and even within a difficult working environment. The cost of orbital welding equipment is 5-10 times the initial capital cost required in conventional welding equipment but the productivity is also significantly higher than conventional TIG (2-3 times).
References
Orbital TIG Welding Handbook by AXXAIR : https://offres.axxair.com/en/download-orbital-tig-welding-handbook
Orbital vs Manual Tig Welding : https://www.sfiorbimax.com.au/blogs/articles/orbital-vs-manual-tig-welding
Krüger, Jürgen; Schnee, Dieter (2007). Rundum sicher. bbr 3 (2007): 40-42.
ASME Bio Process Specification BPE 2014
Horizon Industrial Systems, Specification for Automatic Orbital Welding in Semiconductor Process
Chemical Engineering, March 2001 "Pipe & Fittings Make Easy Connections" pg 39, 40
Welding | wiki |
This is the discography of Cantopop artist Andy Lau.
Note: Compilations with no new material are not included on this list. English titles in italic indicates the name is simply a translation of the Chinese title as no official English title exists. Most translations were processed through Google Translate.
Albums
References
Lau, Andy
Pop music discographies | wiki |
A roll bender is a mechanical jig having three rollers used to bend a metal bar into a circular arc. The rollers freely rotate about three parallel axes, which are arranged with uniform horizontal spacing. Two outer rollers, usually immobile, cradle the bottom of the material while the inner roller, whose position is adjustable, presses on the topside of the material.
Roll bending may be done to both sheet metal and bars of metal. If a bar is used, it is assumed to have a uniform cross-section, but not necessarily rectangular, as long as there are no overhanging contours, i.e. positive draft. Such bars are often formed by extrusion. The material to be shaped is suspended between the rollers. The end rollers support the bottomside of the bar and have a matching contour (inverse shape) to it in order to maintain the cross-sectional shape. Likewise, the middle roller is forced against the topside of the bar and has a matching contour to it.
Operation
After the bar is initially inserted into the jig, the middle roller is manually lowered and forced against the bar with a screw arrangement. This causes the bar to undergo both plastic and elastic deformation. The portion of the bar between the rollers will take on the shape of a cubic polynomial, which approximates a circular arc. The rollers are then rotated moving the bar along with them. For each new position, the portion of the bar between the rollers takes on the shape of a cubic modified by the end conditions imposed by the adjacent sections of the bar. When either end of the bar is reached, the force applied to the center roller is incrementally increased, the roller rotation is reversed and as the rolling process proceeds, the bar shape becomes a better approximation to a circular arc. During the rolling process, the force applied to the center roller is incrementally increased to gradually bring the arc of the bar to the desired radius.
Plastic and elastic deformation
The plastic deformation of the bar is retained throughout the process. However, the elastic deformation is reversed as a section of bar leaves the area between the rollers. This spring-back needs to be compensated in adjusting the middle roller to achieve a desired radius. The amount of spring back depends upon the elastic compliance (inverse of stiffness) of the material relative to its ductility. Aluminum alloys, for example, tend to have high ductility relative to their elastic compliance, whereas steel tends to be the other way around. Therefore aluminum bars are more amenable to bending into an arc than are steel bars.
See also
Tube bending
Roll forming
Rolling (metalworking)
Metalworking
Plate rolling machine
References
Metalworking tools
Metal forming | wiki |
The slotted optical switch, sometimes known as opto switch or optical switch but not to be confused with the optical component, is a device comprising a photoemitter (e.g. LED) and a photodetector (e.g. photodiode) mounted in a single package so that the photoemitter normally illuminates the photodetector, but an opaque object can be inserted in a slot between them so as to break the beam. Associated circuitry is provided which changes state when the beam is interrupted. For example, the carriage of a computer printer may be fitted with a projection which interrupts the beam of a slotted switch when it reaches the end of its travel, causing circuitry to react appropriately. Another application of the slotted switch is in the type of computer mouse with a rotating ball. The ball measures distances moved by rotating orthogonal shafts which drive optical chopper wheels turning in the slots of slotted switches.
This device uses the same basic components as an opto-coupler, but is operated by manipulating the light path instead of the photoemitter input.
Illustrations and data on slotted optical switches are to be found in catalogues and manufacturers' data sheets.
References
Optoelectronics | wiki |
Akbari (; ) may refer to:
Places
Akbari, Fars
Akbari, Bavanat, Fars Province
Akbari, Hormozgan
Other uses
Akbari (surname)
Akbari Architecture, a style of Indo-Islamic architecture
Akbari Fort & Museum, a museum In Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
See also
Akbar (disambiguation)
Akhbari
Akbarism, a branch of Sufi metaphysics based on the teachings of Ibn Arabi, who was known as Shaykh al-Akbar | wiki |
A parsec is a unit of distance.
Parsec may also refer to:
Computing
PARSEC, a software package designed to perform electronic structure calculations of solids and molecules
Parsec (parser), a Parser combinator library for Haskell
Parsec (software), a desktop capturing application
Princeton Application Repository for Shared-Memory Computers
Convex Computer, originally named Parsec
A parallel simulation language used in GloMoSim
A rack extension from Propellerhead Software
Other uses
Parsec (magazine), an Argentine sci-fi magazine
Parsec (video game), a 1982 video game for the TI-99/4A
Parsec Awards, a set of awards for science fiction podcasts
"Parsec", a song by Stereolab from Dots and Loops
Parsecs, some levels in the video game Gaplus
See also
PARSEC47, a scrolling shooter video game | wiki |
A statue is a sculpture representing one or more people or animals.
Statue or The Statue may also refer to:
Film and TV
:fr:La Statue, a French silent film
The Statue (1913 film), a 1913 short comedy film
The Statue (1971 film), a 1971 British film comedy starring David Niven, Robert Vaughn and Virna Lisi
The Statue (Seinfeld), an episode of the U.S. sitcom Seinfeld
"The Statue", episode in the seventh season of The Andy Griffith Show
"The Statue", season three episode of The Waltons
The Statue (opera), (La Statue) a 19th-century opera
Games
Statues (game), a children's game
Music
La statue, an opera by Ernest Reyer
Albums
Statues (album), a 2003 album by Moloko
Songs
Statues (2020 song), by Amy Macdonald from Human Demands
"Statues", a song by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark from Organisation
"Statues", a song by Hüsker Dü from Everything Falls Apart
"The Statue", a song by Don MacLean from Prime Time
"Statue", a song by Immaculate Machine from Ones and Zeros
"Statues", a song by Death From Above 1979 from Outrage! Is Now
"Statue", a song by Lil' Eddie from City of My Heart
See also
Statue, National Museum of Iran 2401, a main work of Parthian art
List of statues
Sculpture (disambiguation) | wiki |
In microbiology, a culture plate is a low flat-bottomed laboratory container for growing a layer of organisms such as bacteria, molds, and cells on a thin layer of nutrient medium. The most common types are the petri dish and multiwell plates.
See also
Roux culture bottle
Inoculation loop
Test tube
References
Microbiology equipment | wiki |
Foa fo is a species of cardinalfish of the genus Foa. Its common names include Samoan Cardinalfish, Weedy cardinalfish, and Samoan Fo.
See also
List of short species names
References
Apogoninae
Fish described in 1905
Taxa named by David Starr Jordan
Taxa named by Alvin Seale | wiki |
A box cutter or utility knife is a knife used for general or utility purposes.
Box cutter, Boxcutter, or Boxcutters may refer to:
Box Cutter (Breaking Bad), season four premiere episode of the American television drama series Breaking Bad.
Boxcutter (musician), an electronic musician from Northern Ireland.
Vinnie Paz, an Italian American rapper also known as Boxcutter Pazzy.
Boxcutters (podcast), an Australian podcast dedicated to the discussion of television. | wiki |
Reds de Boston :
Reds de Boston (1890)
Red Sox de Boston | wiki |
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Bristol
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Cheshire
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Kent
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Norfolk
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Northumberland
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie Nottinghamshire
Broomhill – miejscowość w Anglii, w hrabstwie South Yorkshire, w Barnsley | wiki |
North American Fur Auctions (commonly known as NAFA) is a Canadian company that auctions on consignment fur pelts harvested in Canada and the United States. Its services are used by both large fur farms and small-time trappers. Its auctions are held three to four times a year in Toronto. It is the largest fur auction house in North America, and the second largest in the world.
In its May 2008 auction, NAFA handled nearly 3.5 million pelts. Animal types included otter, sable, beaver, raccoon, coyote, red fox, grey fox, lynx, bobcat, fisher, muskrat, mink, silver fox, badger, skunk, opossum, squirrel, ermine, timber wolf, wolverine and black bear.
NAFA is the successor to the Hudson's Bay Company's Canadian and U.S. fur auction businesses, which were spun off in 1987 and 1989, respectively. In 2019, NAFA filed for creditor protection (CCAA).
Communications
NAFA is a founding member of the North American Fur Industry Communications group (NAFIC), established in 2013 as a cooperative public educational program for the fur industry in Canada and the USA. NAFIC disseminates information via the Internet under the brand name “Truth About Fur”.
References
External links
Canadian auction houses
Fur trade
Hudson's Bay Company | wiki |
Ex-Girlfriend may refer to:
Ex-girlfriend, a former girlfriend
"The Ex-Girlfriend", a 1991 Seinfeld TV show episode
Ex Girlfriend (band), a female R&B/hip-hop band
The Ex-Girlfriends, a pop group featuring Lupe Fuentes
Ex-Girlfriends, a 2012 American romantic comedy-drama film
Ex-Girlfriends, a 2004 album by Low Millions
"Ex-Girlfriend" (song), a 2000 song by No Doubt
"X-Girlfriend", a song by Mariah Carey from the 1999 album Rainbow
"X-Girlfriend", a song by Bush from the 1994 album Sixteen Stone
The Ex (target), also known as the Ex-Girlfriend, a mannequin gun target
See also
EX (disambiguation)
Girlfriend (disambiguation)
eX-Girl, a Japanese pop trio | wiki |
Genetic testing is the analysis of human genes, proteins, and certain metabolites, in order to detect inherited disease-related propensities. These tests can predict the risk of disease in adults, as well as establish prenatal and infant prognoses. The benefits can be substantial, but so can the risks. The possible adverse consequences of genetic tests include discrimination in employment and health insurance and breaches of privacy. Government policies are therefore needed to assure the proper use of genetic tests. The first piece of federal legislation came into effect in 2000.
A second federal law, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA), has two parts. Title I prohibits genetic discrimination in health insurance. Title II prohibits employment discrimination.
Federal legislation
The first of two pieces of federal legislation to directly address the use of genetic information in the United States was the Executive Order Protecting Federal Employees. Signed into law by U.S. President Bill Clinton on February 8, 2000, the Executive Order prohibited all federal agencies and departments from using genetic information to discriminate in the hiring or promoting of federal employees. The Executive Order was endorsed by the American Medical Association, the American College of Medical Genetics, the National Society of Genetic Counselors, and the Genetic Alliance. The Executive Order also provided explicit genetic privacy regulations within the federal government.
The second piece of federal legislation to address the use of genetic information and discrimination in the United States was the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008. GINA protects U.S. citizens from genetic discrimination in employment as well as in health care and health insurance. The bill was signed into law on May 21, 2008 by President George W. Bush. Prior to the introduction of GINA in 2003, several bills of similar intent were introduced: the Genetic Privacy and Nondiscrimination Act of 1995, the Genetic Fairness Act of 1996, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination in Health Insurance Act of 1995 and the Genetic Confidentiality and Nondiscrimination Act of 1996.
GINA laws do not protect people from genetic discrimination in every circumstance. It does not apply when an employer has fewer than 15 employees. It does not cover people in the U.S. military or those receiving health benefits through the Veterans Health Administration or Indian Health Service. GINA also does not protect against genetic discrimination in forms of insurance other than health insurance, such as life, disability, or long-term care insurance.
State legislation
Currently, legislation pertaining to the use of genetic information and genetic discrimination at the state level varies by state. The first state laws regarding genetic information were typically designed to prohibit genetic discrimination, including prohibiting employers from demanding workers and applicants to provide genetic information as a condition of their employment. More recent laws have permitted individuals to undergo genetic testing when that individual is filing a compensation claim or has requested the test to demonstrate susceptibility to potentially toxic substances.
See also
Genetic privacy
References
United States federal policy
United States | wiki |
Chinese poker is a card game based on poker hand rankings. It is intended as a beginner-friendly game, with only a basic knowledge of poker hand rankings needed to get started. The format allows for frequent unexpected outcomes due to the large element of luck involved, meaning a beginner has a good chance of winning in the short term against even experienced opponents.
Gameplay
Chinese poker is typically played as a four-person game, though it can also be played with two or three.
Playing a hand
In Chinese poker, each player receives a 13-card hand from a standard 52-card deck. Each player then has to divide their cards into three poker hands (known as "setting"): two containing five cards each (known as "the middle" and "the back"), and one containing three cards ("the front"); the back must be the highest-ranking hand, and the front, the lowest-ranking hand (note that straights and flushes do not count in the three-card hand). The back hand is placed face down on the table in front of the player, then the middle hand is placed face down in front of the back hand, and the front hand is placed face down in front of the middle hand. After all the players have set their hands, each player will announce in turn (clockwise, starting from the left of the dealer) whether or not they are playing their hand. All players then announce their royalties, before revealing their hands.
If a player makes three flushes or three straights they automatically win the hand, regardless of the other players' hands. As shown in the photo, the middle player has made all three hands flush and is an automatic winner.
Scoring
The stakes played for in Chinese poker are known as units: an amount of money agreed on before the game starts. Basic scoring rules dictate that a player collects one unit from each opponent whose front, middle or back hand is beaten by their own corresponding hand. Thus, unlike most poker games, being second-best at the table is good enough to win money. In some variants players are also paid an additional unit if they win in two or three of the hands. In other variants players only get an additional unit if they win all three hands (known as a scoop). Also, due to the head-to-head nature of the comparisons, it is possible for different players to play for different stakes. For example, A and B could play for $100 per unit versus each other, while all other player pairings play for $10 per unit.
The two most common scoring systems used in Chinese poker are the 2–4 scoring method, and the 1–6 scoring method.
In the 2–4 method the player receives 1 unit for each of the three hands they win, and 1 unit called the overall unit is awarded to the player who wins two out of the three hands, or all of the three hands. In the event of a tie in one of the hands, no money is exchanged for this particular hand. If one player wins both of the other two hands, they collect 3 units (1 for each hand, and 1 overall). If they each win one hand, no units are exchanged (each win 1 unit, and there is no overall).
In the 1–6 method the player receives 1 unit for each of the three hands they win, and 3 bonus units (on top of the three for the hands) if they win all three hands.
Example
In the 2–4 method, Bob would pay Amy two units; Amy receives two points for winning front and back, loses one for losing middle and receives one as the overall unit for winning two out of three hands. In the 1–6 method, Bob would pay Amy one unit; again Amy receives two points for winning front and back and loses one for losing middle, but they do not receive any bonus units.
Royalties
Royalties, or bonuses as they are sometimes called, are extra units that may be awarded to players with particularly strong hands.
Royalties must be declared prior to the revealing of the hands.
Some hands and combinations of hands that are commonly awarded royalties are:
Straight flush
Four of a kind
Full house in the middle
Three of a kind in the front
Naturals
Naturals are special types of royalties where if dealt to a player, the player is rewarded immediately (prior to anyone surrendering), and the player does not set their hand:
Three straights
Three flushes
Six pairs (counting all three hands)
Four Three of a kind
Three Four of a kind
Three Straight flush
13 unique cards (i.e. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K, A) known as a Dragon
Naturals variants
No picture cards (Ace counts as a non-picture card)
All picture cards (including Ace)
Six and above (Ace counts as above)
12 or 13 of one colour
Players with the stronger natural wins and takes the bonus. If two players have six pair the player with the highest six pair wins otherwise it is a tie and no bonus is awarded. With flushes and straights the player with the highest back hand wins if that ties then the middle hand is compared. If that also ties then the front is compared.
In some variants all royalties are worth the same amount (e.g., 1 unit per royalty). In other variants each royalty is given a different payout (e.g., 1 unit for a four of a kind in the back, and 2 units for a straight flush in the back). Normally only the winner may be awarded a royalty (e.g., four sevens in the back beats four sixes in the back; therefore, only the player with sevens is awarded a royalty). Some modified rule sets allow the royalty bonus to cancel out and only the point for the hand/row is added. In some games players are allowed to break up straight flushes or four of a kinds and still receive royalties (e.g., a player is dealt four sevens; they may use three of them for a three of a kind in the front, and one as part of a straight in the middle). Some rules say that players are only allowed to claim one royalty per hand. The standard royalties point structure is listed below.
Point structure for royalties
While the royalty structure varies from game to game, the most common agreed-upon royalty structure is as follows:
* Non-standard natural; ^Variant-based natural
Surrendering
If a player chooses to surrender their hand, they will pay an amount greater than the amount paid when losing at least two hands, but less than the amount paid when getting scooped. When surrendered, a player is not required to pay any royalties to their opponents. In some variations surrendering is not an option.
Scoop/Home-run
In a Taiwanese variant, When a player loses all three hands to a certain player, it is considered scooped (打槍; Dǎqiāng) and is paid double of the base points. If a player scoops all three players, it is considered home-run (全壘打; Quánlěidǎ) and the payment is further doubled. However, calling a natural hand exempts it from scooping and thus scored separately.
Mis-set hand
If a player mis-sets their hand (e.g., they put three of a kind in the front, but only two pair in the middle) then they must pay each of their opponents still in the hand (players who have not surrendered) an amount equal to being scooped. In some variations players are still required to play their hands.
Current status
Chinese Poker was played at the 1995 and the 1996 World Series of Poker. In 1995, the $1,500 event was won by John Tsagaris, and the $5,000 event by Steve Zolotow. In 1996 the $1,500 event was won by Gregory Grivas, and the $5,000 event by Jim Feldhouse. There have been no Chinese Poker events at the World Series of Poker since 1996.
Variations
Open-face Chinese poker
In this variation the players are dealt five cards in the beginning. These cards are arranged faceup on the table to the back, middle, and front hands. The cards cannot be rearranged later. Then the players receive a single card at a time for the remaining 8 cards. This means it is possible to make an illegal hand. This variation originates from Finland.
Other variations
Low in the middle—In this variation, the middle hand is played as a deuce-to-seven low hand.
Criss Cross—This variation is played heads up: each player is dealt two 13 card hands and plays each of their hands against each of their opponents' hands. Players' hands are to be treated as two independent hands; they cannot exchange cards between the two hands.
In this variation, The Wheel (A, 2, 3, 4, 5) is the second highest straight. Therefore, it is ranked above a 9, 10, J, Q, K straight, but below a 10, J, Q, K, A straight.
Another variation scores the game 1 point per hand, with the winner of the game being the first to 11 points. If a player wins all 3 hands and there are 4 players, the winning player gets a 4th point.
References
Poker variants
Chinese card games | wiki |
A robber is someone who steals.
Robber(s) or The Robber(s) may also refer to:
Robber (TV series), a 2008 South Korean TV series
The Robber, a 2010 German film directed by Benjamin Heisenberg
The Robbers, a 1782 play by Friedrich Schiller
The Robbers (film), a 1962 Spanish crime film directed by Francisco Rovira Beleta
"Robbers" (The 1975 song), 2014
"Robbers" (Youngblood Hawke song), 2017
Die Räuber (opera) or The Robbers, a 1957 opera by Giselher Klebe
See also
Brycinus or robber tetras, a genus of ray-finned fish in the family Alestiidae
David "Robber" Lewis (1790–1820), American criminal
Robber barons (disambiguation)
Robbery (disambiguation) | wiki |
Hold Up, hold up, or Hold-Up may refer to:
Film
Hold-Up (1974 film), an Italian film
Hold-Up (1985 film), Franco-Canadian crime comedy
Hold-Up (2000 film), Austrian film
Hold-Up! (2012 film) (Spanish ¡Atraco!), Spanish-Argentine film directed by Eduard Cortés
Hold-up (2020 film), a French documentary
Games
Hold up (bridge), a contract bridge playing technique
Music
"Hold Up" (song), by Beyoncé, from Lemonade (2016)
"Hold Up", a 2012 song by Cash Out featuring Wale
"Hold Up", a song by Chris Brown from Exclusive (2007)
"Hold Up", a song by Demi Lovato from Unbroken (2011)
"Hold Up", a song by Lil Wayne feat. T-Streets, from I Am Not a Human Being (2010)
"Hold Up", a song by Marion Bands feat. Nipsey Hussle, from The Music of Grand Theft Auto V (2013)
"Hold Up", a song by The Raconteurs from Consolers of the Lonely (2008)
"Hold Up Hold Up Hold Up", a song by Young Dolph from Rich Slave (2020)
See also
The Holdup, an American reggae band
Robbery
Held up (disambiguation)
Hold-up problem
Hold-ups, stockings with an elasticized band at the top | wiki |
Bayi Square () in Nanchang, Jiangxi, China was built from August 1, 1977 to January 8, 1979, in memory of Nanchang Uprising (aka. August 1, 1927 Uprising).
The size of this square is 78,000 m2 now after a reconstruction taking place beginning in 2002. Since the day it was finished, it has always been the second largest square in China, after Tiananmen Square in Beijing.
Ever since it was constructed, this square became a main site for most big-scale ceremonies and marches. To ordinary residents, due to the extremely hot and humid climate in Nanchang, the square was a popular place for outdoor lounging during summer nights until recent years when more and more families are able to afford air conditioning. A music fountain, which was built in the south of the square has become a favourite destination for people, especially in summer nights.
References
Squares in Nanchang
Nanchang | wiki |
Stickup is a robbery at gunpoint.
Stick-Up may also refer to:
"Stick-Up", a song by Honey Cone
Stick-Up!, an album by Bobby Hutcherson | wiki |
Leonor Lasso de la Vega (b. before 1367 - d. 1432) was a Spanish noble woman from Cantabria and head of the prestigious House of Lasso de la Vega from 1367 - 1432.
Family origins
Leonor was the paternal great-granddaughter of Garci Lasso de la Vega I, the chancellor of the Kingdom of Castile, who was executed in 1326 by order of King Alfonso XI of Castile, and his wife Juana de Castañeda. She was the paternal granddaughter of Garci Lasso de la Vega II, assassinated by Peter of Castile in 1351, who was the highest royal official to the court of Fadrique Alfonso de Castilla, son of King Alfonso XI of Castile, and his wife, Leonor González de Cornado. She was the only daughter of Garci Lasso Ruiz de la Vega, who spent his life in the service of Henry II of Castile and was killed at the Battle of Nájera in 1367 whereupon Leonor rose to the position of head of house.
Biography
She was a lifelong benefactor of the Monasterio de Santa Clara de Castrojeríz which was founded by her grandparents, Garci Lasso de la Vega II and Leonor González de Cornado.
Marriage, descendants and legacy
Leonor's first marriage was with Juan Téllez de Castilla, the second lord of Aguilar de Campoo and the second lord of Castañeda. He was the son of Tello de Castilla who was in turn, the illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile and Eleanor de Guzmán. The couple had the following children:
Aldonza Téllez de Castilla y de la Vega (b. 1382 - d. 1449), who married Garci IV Fernández Manrique de Lara. The couple went on to become the first Condes de Castañeda. Their offspring went on to found the Marquesado de Aguilar de Campoo, the Ducado de Galisteo and the Condado de Osorno.
When Tello died on 14 August 1385 at the Battle of Aljubarrota, Leonor remarried in 1387 with Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, High Admiral of Castile, bringing with her dowry, the title over the town of Carrión de los Condes and a manor at Asturias de Santillana. The two had the following children:
García Lasso de la Vega, who according to his father's testamentary clauses had to change his name to Juan Hurtado de Mendoza.
Elvira Laso de Mendoza, married Gómez I Suárez de Figueroa, first head of the House of Feria, son of Lorenzo I Suárez de Figueroa, Grand Master of the Order of Santiago. The couple were parents of, amongst others, Lorenzo II Suárez de Figueroa, first Conde de Feria.
Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, founder of the powerful Dukedom known as the Dukes of the Infantado and 1st Marquis of Santillana.
Gonzalo Ruiz de Mendoza, whose grandmother, Mencía de Cisneros in her last will and testament of 1380 left him titles over Tierra de Campos and Vega with all its land and vassals.
Teresa de la Vega y Mendoza, married Álvaro Carrillo de Albornoz.
In August 1432, Leonor empowered her children Íñigo, Gonzalo y Elvira to draft her last will and testament, by which process, her daughter from her first marriage, Aldonza was disinherited.
After her death, all her domains went to the House of Mendoza through Íñigo López de Mendoza. In 1445 King, John II of Castile confirmed this action by granting the title of Marquis of Santillana, where after Santillana del Mar which became the center of the lordship of Torrelavega in Cantabria.
The Cantabrian surname "Lasso de la Vega" was passed on through this maternal line at later times throughout the years and is associated with various soldiers, poets, and golden age writers such as Garcilaso de la Vega, the soldier and poet, and Inca Garcilaso, the historian from the Viceroyalty of Peru.
References
The information on this page was mostly translated from its Spanish equivalent
Bibliography
Helen Nader, The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance (1350-1550)
14th-century births
Year of birth missing
1432 deaths
Spanish untitled nobility
Cantabrian nobility
History of Cantabria
Leonor | wiki |
Veriexec is a file-signing scheme for the NetBSD operating system.
It introduces a special device node () through which a signature list can be loaded into the kernel. The list contains file paths, together with hashes and an expected file type ("DIRECT" for executables, "INDIRECT" for scripts and "FILE" for shared libraries and regular files). The kernel then verifies the contents of the signed files against their hashes just before they are opened in an exec() or open() system call.
When Veriexec is enabled at level 0, the kernel will simply warn about signature mismatches. At level 1, it will prevent access to mismatched files. At level 2, it prevents signed files from being overwritten or deleted. At the highest, level 3, the kernel will not allow unsigned files to be accessed at all.
References
Lymn, Brett (2003). "NetBSD Verified Executables." Retrieved August 18, 2005.
"The NetBSD Veriexec subsystem." The NetBSD Guide. Retrieved August 16, 2005.
NetBSD | wiki |
A Cigar store Indian is an advertisement figure made to represent tobacconists.
Cigar store Indian may also refer to:
The Cigar Store Indian, Seinfeld TV episode
Cigar Store Indians, American band | wiki |
E1 (virus hepatitis C) es una proteína estructural viral en la hepatitis C.
Referencias
Enlaces externos
Proteína estructural viral | wiki |
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