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Robert Bennet may refer to:
Robert Bennet (bishop) (died 1617), English bishop
Robert Bennet of Chesters, Scottish gentleman and prisoner on the Bass Rock
Robert Bennet (surveyor) ( 1621–1622), English surveyor and politician
Robert Bennet (Roundhead) (1605–1683), English politician
Robert Bennet (theologian) (died 1687), English theologian and writer
Robert Ames Bennet (1870–1954), American western and science fiction writer
Bob Bennet (1879–1962), New Zealand rugby union player
See also
Robert Bennett (disambiguation) | wiki |
Information architecture (IA) is the structural design of shared information environments; the art and science of organizing and labelling websites, intranets, online communities and software to support usability and findability; and an emerging community of practice focused on bringing principles of design, architecture and information science to the digital landscape. Typically, it involves a model or concept of information that is used and applied to activities which require explicit details of complex information systems. These activities include library systems and database development.
Information management lies between data management and knowledge management. Data management focuses on handling individual pieces of data for example by using databases. Knowledge management focuses on information that exists within a humans mind, and how to extract and share this. Information Architecture is distinct from process management but there are often valuable interactions between information and process and practitioners have developed tools such as information/process matrices.
Definition
Information architecture has somewhat different meanings in different branches of information systems or information technology:
The structural design of shared information environments.
The art and science of organizing and labeling web sites, intranets, online communities, and software to support findability and usability.
An emerging community of practice focused on bringing principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.
The combination of organization, labeling, search and navigation systems within websites and intranets.
Extracting required parameters/data of Engineering Designs in the process of creating a knowledge-base linking different systems and standards.
A blueprint and navigational aid to the content of information-rich systems.
A subset of data architecture where usable data (a.k.a. information) is constructed in and designed or arranged in a fashion most useful or empirically holistic to the users of this data.
The practice of organizing the information / content / functionality of a web site so that it presents the best user experience it can, with information and services being easily usable and findable (as applied to web design and development).
The conceptual framework surrounding information, providing context, awareness of location and sustainable structure.
Debate
The difficulty in establishing a common definition for "information architecture" arises partly from the term's existence in multiple fields. In the field of systems design, for example, information architecture is a component of enterprise architecture that deals with the information component when describing the structure of an enterprise.
While the definition of information architecture is relatively well-established in the field of systems design, it is much more debatable within the context of online information(i.e., websites). Andrew Dillon refers to the latter as the "big IA–little IA debate". In the little IA view, information architecture is essentially the application of information science to web design which considers, for example, issues of classification and information retrieval. In the big IA view, information architecture involves more than just the organization of a website; it also factors in user experience, thereby considering usability issues of information design.
Notable people in information architecture
Richard Saul Wurman, credited with coining the term information architecture in relation to the design of information
Peter Morville, president of Semantic Studios and co-author of Information Architecture for the World Wide Web (1998, 2002, 2006, 2015)
Louis Rosenfeld, founder of Rosenfeld Media and co-author of Information Architecture for the World Wide Web (1998, 2002, 2006, 2015)
Jesse James Garrett
Christina Wodtke
See also
Applications architecture
Card sorting
Chief experience officer
Content management
Content strategy
Controlled vocabulary
Data management
Data presentation architecture
Digital humanities
Ecological interface design
Enterprise information security architecture
Faceted classification
Human factors and ergonomics
Informatics
Interaction design
Process architecture
Site map
Social information architecture
Tree testing
User experience design
Wayfinding
Web graph
Web literacy (Infrastructure)
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Enterprise architecture
Information governance
Information science
Records management
Technical communication | wiki |
St. John's Cross may refer to:
the Maltese Cross, the symbol of the Order of Saint John and the Venerable Order of St John
in heraldry, a charge similar to the cross pattée, but with straight parallel lines at the centre and trapeziform widenings at the ends
the symbol “⌘” (Looped square, in analogy to its name in Scandinavian languages like Danish Johanneskors) | wiki |
This article lists the members of the Acolytes by its incarnations.
Known members
References
Acolytes | wiki |
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Cyclone (Indiana)
Cyclone (Kentucky)
Cyclone (Missouri)
Cyclone (Nyugat-Virginia)
Cyclone (Pennsylvania) | wiki |
EOS is the built-in operating system of the Coleco Adam.
Overview
The functions are grouped into categories as follows.
Executive calls
eos_init
eos_hard_init
eos_hard_reset_net
eos_delay_after_hard_reset
eos_synchronize_clocks
eos_scan_for_devices
eos_relocate_pcb
eos_soft_init
eos_exit_to_smartwriter
eos_switch_memory_banks
Console Output
eos_console_init
eos_console_display_regular
eos_console_display_special
Printer Interface
eos_print_character
eos_print_buffer
eos_printer_status
eos_start_print_character
eos_end_print_character
Keyboard Interface
eos_keyboard_status
eos_read_keyboard
eos_start_read_keyboard
eos_end_read_keyboard
File Operations
eos_file_manager_init
eos_check_directory_for_file
eos_find_file_1
eos_find_file_2
eos_find_file_in_fcb
eos_check_file_mode
eos_make_file
eos_update_file_in_directory
eos_open_file
eos_close_file
eos_read_file
eos_write_file
eos_trim_file
eos_initialize_directory
eos_reset_file
eos_get_date
eos_put_date
eos_delete_file
eos_rename_file
Device Operations
eos_find_pcb
eos_find_dcb
eos_request_device_status
eos_get_device_status
eos_soft_reset_device
eos_soft_reset_keyboard
eos_soft_reset_printer
eos_read_block
eos_read_one_block
eos_start_read_one_block
eos_end_read_one_block
eos_write_block
eos_write_one_block
eos_start_write_one_block
eos_end_write_one_block
eos_start_read_character_device
eos_end_read_character_device
eos_read_character_device
eos_start_write_character_device
eos_end_write_character_device
eos_write_character_device
Video RAM Management
eos_set_vdp_ports
eos_set_vram_table_address
eos_load_ascii_in_vdp
eos_put_ascii_in_vdp
eos_write_vram
eos_read_vram
eos_put_vram
eos_get_vram
eos_write_vdp_register
eos_read_vdp_register
eos_fill_vram
eos_calculate_pattern_position
eos_point_to_pattern_position
eos_write_sprite_table
Game Controllers
eos_read_game_controller
eos_update_spinner
Sound Routines
eos_sound_init
eos_sound_off
eos_start_sound
eos_play_sound
eos_end_sound
Subroutines
eos_decrement_low_nibble
eos_decrement_high_nibble
eos_move_high_nibble_to_low_nibble
eos_add_a_to_hl
References
External links
Technical Reference Manual chapter 3
EOS-5 source code
Boot code, Forum
Disk operating systems
Discontinued operating systems
1983 software | wiki |
In abstract algebra, alternativity is a property of a binary operation. A magma G is said to be if for all and if for all A magma that is both left and right alternative is said to be ().
Any associative magma (that is, a semigroup) is alternative. More generally, a magma in which every pair of elements generates an associative submagma must be alternative. The converse, however, is not true, in contrast to the situation in alternative algebras. In fact, an alternative magma need not even be power-associative.
References
Properties of binary operations | wiki |
Bethnal Green es una localidad ubicada en el municipio de Tower Hamlets, en el área metropolitana de Londres, Inglaterra. Según el censo de 2011, tiene una población de 19 308 habitantes.
Referencias
Enlaces externos
Tower Hamlets | wiki |
In baseball, a perfect game is a game in which one or more pitchers complete a minimum of nine innings with no batter from the opposing team reaching any base. To achieve a perfect game, a team must not allow any opposing player to reach base by any means: no hits, walks, hit batsmen, uncaught third strikes, catcher's or fielder's interference, or fielding errors; in short, "27 up, 27 down" (for a nine-inning game).
A perfect game, by definition, is also a no-hitter, a win, and a shutout. A fielding error that does not allow a batter to reach base, such as a misplayed foul ball, does not spoil a perfect game. Games that last fewer than nine innings, regardless of cause, in which a team has no baserunners do not qualify as perfect games. Games in which a team reaches first base only in extra innings also do not qualify as perfect games.
The first known use of the term perfect game was in ; its current definition was formalized in . In Major League Baseball (MLB), the feat has been achieved 23 times – 21 times since the modern era began in 1901, most recently by Félix Hernández of the Seattle Mariners on August 15, 2012. Although it is possible for several pitchers to combine for a perfect game (which has happened 19 times in MLB no-hitters), every MLB perfect game so far has been thrown by a single pitcher. Nippon Professional Baseball's 2007 Japan Series ended with a combined perfect game.
History
The first known occurrence of the term perfect game in print was in 1908. I. E. Sanborn's report for the Chicago Tribune about Addie Joss's performance against the White Sox calls it "an absolutely perfect game, without run, without hit, and without letting an opponent reach first base by hook or crook, on hit, walk, or error, in nine innings". Several sources have claimed that the first recorded usage of perfect game was by Ernest J. Lanigan in his Baseball Cyclopedia, made in reference to Charlie Robertson's 1922 perfect game. The Chicago Tribune came close to the term in describing Lee Richmond's game for Worcester in 1880: "Richmond was most effectively supported, every position on the home nine being played to perfection." Similarly, in writing up John Montgomery Ward's 1880 perfect game, the New York Clipper described the "perfect play" of Providence's defense.
There has been one perfect game in the World Series, thrown by Don Larsen for the New York Yankees against the Brooklyn Dodgers on October 8, 1956. By coincidence, Larsen was in attendance when Yankee pitcher David Cone threw a perfect game in 1999 on the same day that Larsen and Yogi Berra (the catcher in the 1956 perfect game) were invited to do the ceremonial first pitch.
Ron Hassey is the only catcher in MLB history to have caught more than one perfect game (his first was with pitcher Len Barker in 1981 and his second was with pitcher Dennis Martínez in 1991).
The most recent perfect game for MLB was on August 15, 2012, Félix Hernández of the Seattle Mariners against the Tampa Bay Rays. He struck out the side twice and struck out twelve total batters in a 1–0 victory.
Rule definition by MLB
As of 2021, the Major League Baseball definition of a perfect game is largely a side effect of the decision made by the major leagues' Committee for Statistical Accuracy on September 4, 1991, to redefine a no-hitter as a game in which the pitcher or pitchers on one team throw a complete game of nine innings or more without surrendering a hit. That decision removed a number of games that had long appeared in the record books: those lasting fewer than nine innings, and those in which a team went hitless in regulation but then got a hit in extra innings. The definition of perfect game was made to parallel this new definition of the no-hitter, in effect substituting "baserunner" for "hit". As a result of the 1991 redefinition, for instance, Harvey Haddix does not receive credit for a perfect game or a no-hitter for his performance on May 26, 1959, when he threw 12 perfect innings against the Milwaukee Braves before a batter reached in the 13th.
A rule change in effect for the 2020 through 2022 seasons awarded the offensive team a free runner on second base each half-inning during extra innings. This rule opened the possibility of a team scoring a run (batting in the free baserunner on a sacrifice fly, for example) without any player ever reaching first base. This would still have been recorded as a perfect game according to MLB's official record-keeper, the Elias Sports Bureau, since an automatic runner is not a batter who reached base safely.
Another rule change effective for the same two seasons stipulated that games that are part of doubleheaders last only seven innings. Such a game in which one team did not reach first base would not have been credited as a perfect game (similar to weather-shortened games). However, if such a doubleheader game were to have at least two extra innings and one team still did not reach first base, then the game would have been credited as a perfect game. During those two seasons, no potential perfect games were affected. Both rule changes were expected to be reversed prior to the 2022 season; however, the extra innings rule did return while doubleheaders reverted to a full nine-inning length.
In other leagues
In Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the first perfect game was thrown by Hideo Fujimoto of the Giants on June 28, 1950, against the Nishi Nippon Pirates.
The most recent perfect game for NPB was thrown by Chiba Lotte Marines pitcher Rōki Sasaki on April 10, 2022. Sasaki tied an existing NPB record by striking out 19 batters, and set a new record by striking out 13 consecutive batters. Sasaki compiled a game score of 106, surpassing the 105 for Kerry Wood's 20 strikeout game from the 1998 Major League Baseball season, which was the highest MLB game score since the end of the baseball color line.
On April 11, 2021, University of North Texas softball pitcher Hope Trautwein threw a perfect game, facing 21 batters and striking out all 21. It was the first seven-inning perfect game with every out being a strikeout in NCAA Division I history.
The only perfect game thrown in a Little League World Series championship was by Ángel Macías of the Monterrey, Mexico, team in 1957.
Four Puerto Rico pitchers combined for an 8-inning perfect game against Israel in the 2023 World Baseball Classic. Starter José De León recorded ten strikeouts in 5 2/3 innings, and three relievers recorded the remaining outs before the game ended early because of the mercy rule. It was ruled to not be a perfect game by the Elias Sports Bureau as they stipulate that a perfect game must last at least 9 innings. Puerto Rico international José De León stated at the time that "It's perfect for us".
See also
Harvey Haddix's near-perfect game
Armando Galarraga's near-perfect game
Eight-ender in curling
Golden set in tennis
Maximum break in snooker
Nine-dart finish in darts
Perfect game in bowling
Notes
Sources
Alvarez, Mark, ed. (1993). The Perfect Game: A Classic Collection of Facts, Figures, Stories and Characters from the Society for American Baseball Research (Taylor).
Anderson, David W. (2000). More Than Merkle: A History of the Best and Most Exciting Baseball Season in Human History (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press).
Browning, Reed (2003). Cy Young: A Baseball Life (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press).
Buckley Jr., James (2002). Perfect: The Inside Story of Baseball's Seventeen Perfect Games (Triumph Books).
Chen, Albert (2009). "The Greatest Game Ever Pitched", Sports Illustrated (June 1; available online).
Coffey, Michael (2004). 27 Men Out: Baseball's Perfect Games (New York: Atria Books).
Cook, William A. (2004). Waite Hoyt: A Biography of the Yankees' Schoolboy Wonder (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland).
Deutsch, Jordan A. et al. (1975). The Scrapbook History of Baseball (New York: Bobbs-Merrill).
Deveaux, Tom (2001). The Washington Senators, 1901–1971 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland).
Dewey, Donald, and Nicholas Acocella (1995). The Biographical History of Baseball (New York: Carroll & Graf).
Dickson, Paul (2009). The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, 3d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton).
Egan, James M. (2008). Base Ball on the Western Reserve: The Early Game in Cleveland and Northeast Ohio, Year by Year and Town by Town, 1865–1900 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland).
Elston, Gene (2006). A Stitch in Time: A Baseball Chronology, 3d ed. (Houston, Tex.: Halcyon Press).
Fleitz, David L. (2004). Ghosts in the Gallery at Cooperstown: Sixteen Little-Known Members of the Hall of Fame (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland).
Forker, Dom, Robert Obojski, and Wayne Stewart (2004). The Big Book of Baseball Brainteasers (Sterling).
Gallagher, Mark (2003). The Yankee Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing LLC).
Hanlon, John (1968). "First Perfect Game In the Major Leagues", Sports Illustrated (August 26; available online).
Holtzman, Jerome (2003). "Pitching Perfection Is in the Eye of the Beholder", Baseball Digest (June; available online).
James, Bill. The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, rev. ed. (Simon and Schuster, 2003).
Kennedy, Kostya (1996). "His Memory Is Perfect", Sports Illustrated (October 14; available online)
Lewis, Allen (2002). "Tainted No-hitters", Baseball Digest (February; available online).
Lupica, Mike (1999). Summer of '98: When Homers Flew, Records Fell, and Baseball Reclaimed America (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons).
McNeil, William F. (2003). The Dodgers Encyclopedia, 2d ed. (Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing LLC).
Nemec, David (2006 [1994]). The Official Rules of Baseball Illustrated (Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot).
Newman, Bruce (1981). "Perfect in Every Way", Sports Illustrated (May 25; available online).
Nowlin, Bill (2005). "Rick Wise", in '75: The Red Sox Team That Saved Baseball, ed. Bill Nowlin and Cecilia Tan (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Rounder).
Okrent, Daniel, and Steve Wulf (1989). Baseball Anecdotes (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Reisler, Jim (2007). The Best Game Ever: Pirates vs. Yankees, October 13, 1960 (New York: Carroll & Graf).
Robbins, Mike (2004). Ninety Feet from Fame: Close Calls with Baseball Immortality (New York: Carroll & Graf).
Schneider, Russell (2005). The Cleveland Indians Encyclopedia, 3d ed. (Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing LLC).
Schott, Tom, and Nick Peters (2003). The Giants Encyclopedia (Champaign, Ill.: Sports Publishing LLC).
Simon, Thomas P., ed. (2004). Deadball Stars of the National League (Brassey's).
Sullivan, Dean, ed. (2002). Late Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1945–1972 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press).
Thielman, Jim (2005). Cool of the Evening: The 1965 Minnesota Twins (Minneapolis, Minn.: Kirk House Publishers).
Vass, George (1998). "Here Are the 13 Most Fascinating No-Hitters", Baseball Digest (June).
Vass, George (2002). "Seven Most Improbable No-Hitters", Baseball Digest (August; available online).
Vass, George (2007). "One Out Away from Fame: The Final Out of Hitless Games Has Often Proved to Be a Pitcher's Toughest Conquest", Baseball Digest (June; available online).
Westcott, Rich (2005). Veterans Stadium: Field of Memories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press).
Young, Mark C. (1997). The Guinness Book of Sports Records (Guinness Media).
Zingg, Paul J., and Mark D. Medeiros (1994). Runs, Hits, and an Era: the Pacific Coast League, 1903–58 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press).
External links
Perfect Games Baseball Almanac links to boxscores of both official and unofficial games
Pitchers who retired 27 consecutive batters or more over a span of two or more games Baseball Prospectus article by Keith Woolner on "hidden" perfect games (also see the follow-up)
Rare Feats: Perfect Games MLB.com links to historical video and audio extracts
Pitching statistics
Baseball terminology
Perfect scores in sports | wiki |
Samoan Americans are Americans of Samoan origin, including those who emigrated from the United States Territory of American Samoa and immigrants from the Independent State of Samoa to the United States. Samoan Americans are Pacific Islanders in the United States Census, and are the second largest Pacific Islander group in the U.S., after Native Hawaiians.
American Samoa has been an unincorporated territory of the United States since 1900, and Samoa, formally known as the Independent State of Samoa and known as Western Samoa until 1997, is an independent nation that gained its independence from New Zealand in 1962. American Samoa(which is under the jurisdiction of the United States of America) and Samoa together make up the Samoan Islands, an archipelago that covers 1,170 sq mi (3,030 km2). Like Native Hawaiians, the Samoans arrived on the mainland US in the 19th century serving in the US armed forces, fishermen and later worked as agricultural laborers and factory workers.
As per 2021 U.S. Census estimates, there are over 240,000 people of Samoan descent living in the United States, including those of partial ancestry, which is roughly over the population of the Independent State of Samoa, as of 2021. Honolulu, Hawaii, has the largest Samoan population of over 12,000 making up over 2% of the city's population. There are large Samoan communities in Greater Los Angeles, Orange County, California, San Francisco Bay Area, and Greater San Diego counties in the state of California. Other states with cities and towns with significant communities are Alaska, Arizona, Missouri, Oregon, Nevada, Texas, Utah, and Washington.
History
Migration from Samoan Islands to the United States began in the 19th century. A small group of Samoans were part of the first Mormon Polynesian colony in the U.S., which was founded in Utah in 1889 and consisted of Samoans, Hawaiian natives, Tahitians, and Maori people.
American Samoa officially became a U.S. territory in 1900 with the Treaty of Cession of Tutuila and in 1904 with the Treaty of Cession of Manu'a.
In the 1920s a small group of Mormons from American Samoa emigrated to the modern United States. They were brought by American Mormons to
Laie, Hawaii to assist in building the Mormon Temple of this place. The community grew over the decade and in 1929 there were already 125 American Samoans living in Laie, but the Samoan migration to Hawaii fell in the following years. It was probably due to the crash of 29, the loss of an important rice field for the community, and the Second World War. In the second half of the 1940s about 300 mostly military families of American Samoans emigrated to the United States specifically to Hawaii.
In 1951, nearly 1,000 American Samoans linked with the army (i.e. military personnel and their relatives) migrated to the Honolulu's American bases by accepting an invitation from the US Navy (which had left its bases in the Pago Pago city, as American Samoa began to be administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior) so that the Marines could continue working for the Navy. However, many of them later migrated to California (in 1952).
In 1952 the natives of American Samoa become U.S. nationals, although not American citizens, through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. This encouraged Samoan emigration to the United States and during the rest of the decade nearly four thousand Samoans migrated to the U.S., mostly to California and Hawaii. Many more Samoans migrated to the United States in the 1960s, surpassing those who emigrated in the previous decade. In fact, the largest Samoan migration to the U.S. occurred at this time (mainly at the beginning of the decade). After 1965 increased migration from Samoa republic. At this time, many Samoans serving in the US military emigrated to be stationed in Hawaii. In the 1970s over 7,540 Western Samoans emigrated to the United States, although the number of people from American Samoa who emigrated to the U.S. is unknown.
In 1972, the number of American Samoans living in the United States exceeded the Samoan population in American Samoa, and California took the place of Tutuila as the main Samoan-populated region. In 1980 over 22,000 Samoa-born lived in the U.S., mostly of Western Samoa (more than 13,200), while 9,300 were from American Samoa.
Demographics
According to 2021 U.S. Census Bureau estimates, there were 243,682 Samoan people in the United States stateside population, including those who have partial Samoan ancestry. The Samoan American community consists in Americans of both American Samoan and Western Samoan descent.
California
63,000 people of Samoan origin reside in California, meaning almost one-third of the Samoan population in the U.S. lives in California. 0.2% of California's population is of Samoan descent. The number of those who identify as Samoan alone is 36,443. The percentages and numbers of Samoan people residing in cities listed below vary from 2015 to 2018, according to the "5-Year Estimates Detailed Tables" from the U.S. Census Bureau.
Southern California
Carson (1.8-2.2%), Compton (0.3-0.5%), and Long Beach (0.7-0.8%), and Paramount (0.7-1%) in Los Angeles County, Oceanside (0.5-0.6%) in San Diego County, and Twentynine Palms (0.9-1.1%) in San Bernardino County have among the highest concentration of Samoans in Southern California, which include those of partial ancestry. Also in San Diego, the very first Samoan church in the entire United States, was founded in 1955 by Rev. Suitonu Galea'i. From there, multiple Samoan churches throughout California branched from the First Samoan Congregational Christian Church of San Diego. There are Samoan communities enumerating several hundred in Moreno Valley (300 to 500) and San Bernardino (400), at least 0.2% of the city’s populations.
Northern California
The public housing communities in the Bayview-Hunters Point, Potrero Hill, and Visitacion Valley neighborhoods in San Francisco are home to much of the city’s Samoan community. As per the 2015-18 estimates, San Francisco is 0.2-0.3% Samoan (1,807-2,262 residents). The 2018 estimate of the number of Samoans in San Francisco is a decrease from the 2000 reported number of Samoans, which was 2,311 (which did not account for people who reported to be part Samoan). In the East Bay Area, San Leandro is home to a sizable Samoan community (0.4%-0.6%), as well as in Daly City (0.4-0.9%), East Palo Alto (1.2-1.3%), and Hayward (0.6%-0.9%). In Daly City, Samoan restaurants and businesses are located off Geneva Avenue. In 1972, the First Samoan Congregational Church of San Jose was founded by Rev. Felix T. and Molly T. Ava Molifua, affiliated with Northern California UCC. San Jose has over 3,000 Samoans in residence (0.3%).
In the Central Valley and inland California, where compared to the Bay Area has a slightly smaller percentage of Samoans, higher populations are commonly found in the areas of Modesto (0.2%), Sacramento, and Stockton. The city of Sacramento has over 1,800 to 2,200 Samoans, about 0.4% of its population.
In Central California, Samoan Americans are concentrated in Monterey County, which was home to a U.S. Army base, Fort Ord, which closed in 1994. The populations are concentrated in Marina (0.8-1%) and Seaside (0.4%-0.9%).
Other Western U.S.
Oregon and Washington
The Seattle−Tacoma, Washington area is also home to a sizable Samoan community, especially in the cities of Kent (1.5%), Renton (1%), Federal Way (1.6%), SeaTac (2.9%), and White Center (3.2%). Seattle has 1,500 Samoans, 0.2% of the city's population. The First Samoan Christian Congregational Church in the Washington state was established in 1964 in southeast Seattle, where Samoans settled in the Pacific Northwest. The south Seattle neighborhoods of Columbia City and Rainier Valley have had sizeable Samoan communities since the 1960s and 1970s. Nearly 6,000 people of their descendants reside in Pierce County, Washington, making up 0.7% of the county's population. Tacoma is home to 1,800 Samoans, making up nearly one percent of the city's population.
The Dalles, Oregon has a Samoan community of nearly 200 Samoan people, making up 1.3% of the city's population.
Utah and other western U.S.
Utah statewide is 0.6% Samoan including those with some non-Samoan ancestry, and 0.3% are those who identify as Samoan alone. Utah has a history of Samoan immigration dating back to the late 1800s, due to them taking up Mormonism which was preached and influenced to them by missionairies who had come to Polynesian islands. Utah's Mormon community had housing and services for some Polynesian immigrants, which also included Tongans and Maori. Salt Lake City, Utah is home to 1,500 Samoan-origin people, 0.7% of the city's population. Salt Lake County cities such as Kearns (2%), Taylorsville (1.5%), and West Valley City (1.8%) having above average proportions of Samoan people for Utah. There is a sizable Samoan community in Utah County, specifically Provo, which is at least 0.3% Samoan.
There is a Samoan community in Colorado Springs, Colorado of 430 people (0.1%), and Lawton, Oklahoma (0.3%), in which Comanche County, Oklahoma is at least 0.6% Pacific Islander (2010), mainly Samoan.
Las Vegas, Nevada is home to over 1,500 Samoans, 0.2% of the city's population.
Alaska and Hawaii
Outside the mainland U.S., many Samoan Americans have settled in Hawaii and Alaska. About 2.8% of Hawaiian residents are of Samoan descent, with 1.3% having full Samoan ancestry. Many live on the island of Oahu. Linapuni Street, especially the Kuhio Park Terrace apartments in Honolulu, has the highest concentration of Samoans of any residential area in Hawaii, at 37% of residents. Central Palolo has the highest percentage of any Hawaiian tract, with 4% having a Samoan background. The Oahu town of Laie has 1,380 Samoan Americans, about 21% of the town, one of the highest concentration of Samoan Americas of any town or city in the U.S.
Two percent of people in the city of Anchorage, Alaska are of Samoan descent, with nearly 6,000 living in the city. Alaska has a relatively high proportion of them, comprising about 0.8% of the state's population.
Midwest and South
In the Midwest, a significant Samoan community is in Independence, Missouri, where around 1,000 Samoan people reside (0.9% of the city). In nearby Kansas City, Missouri there lives 340 Samoans, which is 0.1% of the city's population.
In the Eastern United States and Southeastern United States, Samoan communities exist in Fayetteville, North Carolina and Clarksville, Tennessee. There are 365 Samoan-origin people in Prince William County, Virginia, and a Samoan church in Alexandria.
There is a community of Samoans in Liberty County, Georgia.
In Texas, there is a Samoan community prominent in the Dallas-Fort Worth suburb of Euless (0.5%), and a Samoan church in the city of Killeen (0.3%).
Military
Significant numbers of Samoan Americans serve in the U.S. Military. American Samoa has the highest rate of military enlistment of any state or territory.
Sports
American football is the most popular sport in American Samoa. Per capita, the Samoan Islands have produced the highest number of National Football League players. In 2010, it was estimated that a boy born to Samoan parents is 56 times more likely to get into the NFL than any other boy in America.
Notable people
Entertainment
Queen Muhammad Ali, film director
Cooper Andrews, actor
Nephi Hannemann, actor
Dwayne Johnson, actor, professional wrestler
Mark Kanemura, dancer
Tony Meredith, dancer, choreographer
Josefa Moe, entertainer, celebrity
Tanoai Reed, stunt performer, actor
Music
Alex Aiono, singer, YouTuber
Boo-Yaa T.R.I.B.E., hip hop group
Drew Deezy, rapper
Cheryl Deserée, singer-songwriter
Dinah Jane, singer; member of Fifth Harmony
Taimane Gardner, ukulele player, composer
Maryanne Ito, soul singer
Bunny Michael, musician, rapper
Mavis Rivers, jazz singer
Tedashii, Christian hip hop artist
Tenelle, singer-songwriter
Politics, law and government
Uluao Jr Aumavae, politician; 2nd Chief Equity Officer Anchorage Alaska (2020–2024)
Tulsi Gabbard, politician; U.S. Representative for Hawaii's 2nd congressional district (2013–2021)
Mike Gabbard, politician, member of the Hawaii State Senate
Mufi Hannemann, politician; 12th Mayor of Honolulu (2005–2010)
Bode Uale, Hawaii state court judge
Sports
American football
Al Afalava
C. J. Ah You
Harland Ah You
Tui Alailefaleula
Clifton Alapa
Tyson Alualu
Brad Anae
Robert Anae
Charley Ane
Charlie Ane
Donovan Arp
Devin Asiasi
Isaac Asiata
Matt Asiata
Sal Aunese
Kahlil Bell
Kendrick Bourne
Inoke Breckterfield
Algie Brown
DeForest Buckner
Colby Cameron
Jordan Cameron
Suʻa Cravens
Scott Crichton
Hershel Dennis
Luther Elliss
Justin Ena
DeQuin Evans
Nuʻu Faʻaola
Jonathan Fanene
Eletise Fiatoa
Malcom Floyd
Fou Fonoti
Toniu Fonoti
Chris Fuamatu-Maʻafala
Setema Gali
Randall Goforth
Micah Hannemann
Wayne Hunter
Nate Ilaoa
Junior Ioane
Sale Isaia
Senio Kelemete
Pat Kesi
Hauʻoli Kikaha
Glen Kozlowski
Mike Kozlowski
Jake Kuresa
Shawn Lauvao
Kili Lefotu
Sefo Liufau
Joe Lobendahn
Al Lolotai
Malaefou MacKenzie
Kaluka Maiava
Damien Mama
Frank Manumaleuga
Brandon Manumaleuna
Vince Manuwai
Marcus Mariota
Jeremiah Masoli
Hercules Mataʻafa
Fred Matua
Rey Maualuga
Josh Mauga
Itula Mili
Roy Miller
Edwin Mulitalo
Louis Murphy
Kai Nacua
Jim Nicholson
Ken Niumatalolo
Al Noga
Niko Noga
Pete Noga
Chris Owusu
Tenny Palepoi
Joe Paopao
David Parry
Saul Patu
Domata Peko
Kyle Peko
Tupe Peko
Ropati Pitoitua
Kennedy Polamalu
Troy Polamalu
Pulu Poumele
Jeremiah Poutasi
Tavita Pritchard
Mike Purcell
Keilani Ricketts
Jason Rivers
Blaine Saipaia
Dan Saleaumua
Dru Samia
Brashton Satele
Samson Satele
Brian Schwenke
Kona Schwenke
Ian Seau
Junior Seau
Mike Sellers
Isaac Seumalo
Danny Shelton
Sealver Siliga
Mana Silva
JuJu Smith-Schuster
Brian Soi
Paul Soliai
Vic Soʻoto
Xavier Suʻa-Filo
Nicky Sualua
Frank Summers
Alameda Taʻamu
Ed Taʻamu
Tua Tagovailoa
Nuʻu Tafisi
Kelly Talavou
Lofa Tatupu
Vai Taua
Will Taʻufoʻou
Junior Tautalatasi
Terry Tautolo
Sae Tautu
J. R. Tavai
Daniel Teʻo-Nesheim
Manti Teʻo
Martin Tevaseu
Jack Thompson
D. J. Tialavea
John Timu
Pisa Tinoisamoa
Albert Toeaina
Pago Togafau
Levine Toilolo
Mao Tosi
Charles Tuaau
Esera Tuaolo
Natu Tuatagaloa
Marques Tuiasosopo
Peter Tuiasosopo
Lavasier Tuinei
Mark Tuinei
Van Tuinei
Joe Tuipala
Willie Tuitama
Maugaula Tuitele
Andria Tupola
Mike Ulufale
Morris Unutoa
Jeremiah Valoaga
Lenny Vandermade
Larry Warford
Albert Wilson
Athletics
Jeremy Dodson, sprints
Gary Fanelli, long-distance
Anthony Leiato, shot put
Baseball
Benny Agbayani
Isiah Kiner-Falefa
Sean Manaea
Basketball
Rashaun Broadus
James Johnson
Dion Prewster
Wally Rank
Peyton Siva
Mekeli Wesley
Wendell White
Mixed martial arts
Andre Fili
Kendall Grove
Max Holloway
Raquel Paʻaluhi
Professional wrestling
Afa Anoaʻi
Afa Anoaʻi Jr.
Lloyd Anoaʻi
Vanessa Borne
Deuce
Emily Dole
Sam Fatu
Nia Jax
Dwayne Johnson
Sean Maluta
Roman Reigns
Rikishi
Rosey
Samoa Joe
Samu
Tamina Snuka
Umaga
The Usos
Yokozuna
Rugby
Thretton Palamo, union
Psalm Wooching, union
Swimming
Virginia Farmer
Stewart Glenister
Robin Leamy
Other
Robyn Ah Mow-Santos, volleyball
Mariah Bullock, soccer
Tony Finau, golf
Konishiki Yasokichi, sumo
Greg Louganis, diving
Garrett Muagututia, volleyball
Fua Logo Tavui, sailing
Other
Matt Keikoan, poker player
Alema Leota, Robin Hood
Caroline Sinavaiana-Gabbard, writer, literature professor
See also
Samoan Australians
Samoan New Zealanders
Samoa - United States relations
Native Hawaiians
References
External links
American people of Samoan descent
Oceanian American
Pacific Islands American
Polynesian American | wiki |
The Golden Globe Award for Best Director – Motion Picture is a Golden Globe Award that has been presented annually by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, an organization composed of journalists who cover the United States film industry for publications based outside North America, since 1943.
Having won all four of his nominations, Elia Kazan has been honored most often in this category. Clint Eastwood, Miloš Forman, David Lean, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, and Oliver Stone tie for second place with three wins each. Steven Spielberg has had the most nominations (fourteen). Barbra Streisand, Chloé Zhao and Jane Campion are the only women to have won the award.
In the following lists, the first names, listed in bold type against a blue background, are the winners, and the following names are the remaining nominees. The years given are those in which the films under consideration were released, not the year of the ceremony, which takes place in January of the following year.
Winners and nominees
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Multiple nominations
More than 5 nominations
Steven Spielberg (14/3)
Martin Scorsese (9/3)
Clint Eastwood (7/3)
Fred Zinnemann (7/2)
Francis Ford Coppola (6/2)
Sidney Lumet (6/1)
5 nominations
Woody Allen (5/0)
John Huston (5/2)
Stanley Kramer (5/1)
Mike Nichols (5/1)
Billy Wilder (5/2)
Robert Wise (5/0)
4 nominations
Robert Altman (4/1)
David Fincher (4/1)
Miloš Forman (4/3)
Peter Jackson (4/1)
Elia Kazan (4/4)
Stanley Kubrick (4/0)
David Lean (4/3)
Ang Lee (4/2)
Alexander Payne (4/0)
Robert Redford (4/1)
Rob Reiner (4/0)
Ridley Scott (4/0)
Oliver Stone (4/3)
Quentin Tarantino (4/0)
Peter Weir (4/0)
William Wyler (4/1)
3 nominations
Hal Ashby (3/0)
Richard Attenborough (3/1)
Bernardo Bertolucci (3/1)
James L. Brooks (3/0)
James Cameron (3/2)
George Cukor (3/1)
Ron Howard (3/0)
Alejandro González Iñárritu (3/1)
James Ivory (3/0)
Norman Jewison (3/0)
Sam Mendes (3/2)
Anthony Minghella (3/0)
Vincente Minnelli (3/1)
Alan Parker (3/0)
Sydney Pollack (3/0)
John Schlesinger (3/0)
George Stevens (3/0)
2 nominations
Kathryn Bigelow (2/0)
Peter Bogdanovich (2/0)
John Boorman (2/0)
Richard Brooks (2/0)
Jane Campion (2/1)
George Clooney (2/0)
Joel Coen (2/0)
Alfonso Cuarón (2/2)
Stephen Daldry (2/0)
Bob Fosse (2/0)
William Friedkin (2/2)
John Frankenheimer (2/0)
Mel Gibson (2/1)
Roland Joffé (2/0)
Spike Lee (2/0)
Barry Levinson (2/0)
Joshua Logan (2/1)
George Lucas (2/0)
Baz Luhrmann (2/0)
David Lynch (2/0)
Joseph L. Mankiewicz (2/0)
Martin McDonagh (2/0)
Robert Mulligan (2/0)
Christopher Nolan (2/0)
Roman Polanski (2/1)
Otto Preminger (2/0)
Martin Ritt (2/0)
David O. Russell (2/0)
Mark Rydell (2/0)
Steven Soderbergh (2/0)
Barbra Streisand (2/1)
Peter Yates (2/0)
Edward Zwick (2/0)
Multiple winners
4 awards
Elia Kazan
3 awards
Clint Eastwood
Miloš Forman
David Lean
Martin Scorsese
Steven Spielberg
Oliver Stone
2 awards
James Cameron
Francis Ford Coppola
Alfonso Cuarón
William Friedkin
John Huston
Ang Lee
Sam Mendes
Billy Wilder
Fred Zinnemann
See also
BAFTA Award for Best Direction
Academy Award for Best Director
Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Director
Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film
Independent Spirit Award for Best Director
References
General
Director
Lists of films by award
Awards for best director | wiki |
QTECH (по-русски произносится «КЬЮТЭ́К») — российская компания, .
История
Продукция
Ссылки
Телекоммуникационные компании России | wiki |
Niobium oxide, sometimes called columbium oxide, may refer to:
Niobium monoxide (niobium(II) oxide), NbO
Niobium dioxide (niobium(IV) oxide), NbO2
Niobium pentoxide (niobium(V) oxide), Nb2O5
In addition to the above, other distinct oxides exist
general formula Nb3n+1O8n−2 where n ranges from 5 - 8 inclusive, e.g. Nb8O19 (Nb16O38).
Nb12O29 and Nb47O116
Natural niobium oxide is sometimes known as niobia.
References | wiki |
The Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy is a Golden Globe Award presented annually by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association. It is given in honor of an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role in a musical or comedy film. Previously, there was a single award for "Best Actor in a Motion Picture", but the creation of the category in 1951 allowed for recognition of it and the Best Actor – Drama.
The formal title has varied since its inception. In 2006, it was officially called: "Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy". , the wording is "Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy".
Winners and nominees
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Multiple nominations
10 nominations
Jack Lemmon
9 nominations
Johnny Depp
8 nominations
Walter Matthau
6 nominations
Dustin Hoffman
5 nominations
Jim Carrey
Cary Grant
Steve Martin
Robin Williams
4 nominations
Michael Caine
Robert De Niro
Hugh Grant
Danny Kaye
Kevin Kline
Eddie Murphy
Bill Murray
Jack Nicholson
Peter O'Toole
Peter Sellers
John Travolta
3 nominations
Christian Bale
Warren Beatty
Nicolas Cage
Billy Crystal
Jeff Daniels
Leonardo DiCaprio
Colin Farrell
Albert Finney
Ryan Gosling
Tom Hanks
Bob Hope
Hugh Jackman
Marcello Mastroianni
Dudley Moore
Joaquin Phoenix
Patrick Swayze
Glenn Ford
2 nominations
Alan Alda
Woody Allen
Fred Astaire
Antonio Banderas
Sacha Baron Cohen
Jack Black
Mel Brooks
Steve Carell
Daniel Craig
Bing Crosby
Tom Cruise
Matt Damon
Danny DeVito
Michael Douglas
Richard Dreyfuss
Ralph Fiennes
James Franco
Clark Gable
James Garner
Richard Gere
Paul Giamatti
Brendan Gleeson
Joseph Gordon-Levitt
Charles Grodin
George Hamilton
Rex Harrison
Charlton Heston
Nathan Lane
Harold Lloyd
Lee Marvin
Lin-Manuel Miranda
James Mason
Ewan McGregor
David Niven
Al Pacino
Robert Preston
John C. Reilly
Burt Reynolds
Tim Robbins
Alberto Sordi
Kevin Spacey
Billy Bob Thornton
Gene Wilder
Multiple wins
3 wins
Jack Lemmon (2 consecutive)
Robin Williams
2 wins
Michael Caine
Colin Farrell
Danny Kaye
Dudley Moore
Jack Nicholson
Sacha Baron Cohen (for the same character)
See also
Academy Award for Best Actor
Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor
Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead
BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role
Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor in a Comedy
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role
References
Golden Globe Awards
Film awards for lead actor | wiki |
The Battle of Waynesboro is a name given to two different battles during the American Civil War:
Battle of Waynesboro, Virginia, March 2, 1865
Battle of Waynesboro, Georgia, December 4, 1864 | wiki |
Wat Nimmanoradee Floating Market was built in Bangkok, Thailand in the Rattanakosin Era 120 or AD 1902. It is an ancient market located opposite Nimmanoradee Temple with Khlong Phasi Charoen flowing between them. Even though the market is very old, it has been maintained to have the same environment and activities as in the past, such as the old-style wooden houses, selling food, paying respect to the Buddha and the rowing of boats along the canal.
In the market, there are many restaurants with many kinds of modern and traditional food. Also, there is a traditional retail store selling antique appliances, toys, snacks from 20–30 years ago that are rare in the present market. There is a Thai traditional clinic to cure diseases by using Thai herbal treatment and Thai massage. Another zone of the market is a relaxation area with a variety of trees and flowers where tourists can rest. In addition, there are an art exhibition gallery for people who enjoy artwork and a local museum that tells the story and the lifestyle of people in this community in the past.
References
Buildings and structures in Bangkok | wiki |
The Synechococcaceae are a family of cyanobacteria.
References
Synechococcales
Cyanobacteria families | wiki |
The First Men in the Moon is a novel by H. G. Wells.
The First Men in the Moon may also refer to:
A Trip to the Moon, a silent adaptation of the novel and Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon
The First Men in the Moon (1919 film), silent adaptation of the novel
First Men in the Moon (1964 film), film adaptation of the novel
The First Men in the Moon (2010 film), television adaptation of the novel
See also
Apollo 11, the NASA mission that sent the first men to the surface of the Moon
Apollo 8, the NASA mission that sent the first men around the Moon
Project Apollo, the NASA program that sent the first astronauts to the Moon
Moon Race, the Cold War competition between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. to reach the Moon | wiki |
Gopher is an Atari 2600 game written by Sylvia Day and published by U.S. Games in 1982. The player controls a shovel-wielding farmer who protects a crop of three carrots from a gopher.
Gameplay
The gopher tunnels left and right and up to the surface. When he makes a hole to the surface he will attempt to steal a carrot. The farmer must hit the gopher to send him back underground or fill in the holes to prevent him from reaching the surface. If gopher has taken any of the three carrots, a pelican will occasionally fly overhead and drop a seed which, if the farmer catches it, he can plant it in the place of the missing carrot. The longer the game, the faster the gopher gets. The game ends when the gopher successfully removes all three carrots. There are two skill levels and is for one or two players, giving a total of four game variations.
Reception
Legacy
An unlicensed version was released by Zellers in Canada and was called Farmer Dan. it uses the box art of Plaque Attack by Activision.
References
External links
Gopher at Atari Mania
Gopher at AtariAge (archived)
1982 video games
Atari 2600 games
Atari 2600-only games
Single-player video games
U.S. Games games
Video games developed in the United States | wiki |
Snape – miejscowość w hrabstwie North Yorkshire (Anglia)
Snape – miejscowość w hrabstwie Suffolk (Anglia)
Snape – angielska grupa muzyczna
Severus Snape – fikcyjna postać z książek o Harrym Potterze | wiki |
Conscience is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience stands in contrast to elicited emotion or thought due to associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and reflexive responses, as in sympathetic central nervous system responses. In common terms, conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an act that conflicts with their moral values. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based on reason has occasioned debate through much of modern history between theories of basics in ethic of human life in juxtaposition to the theories of romanticism and other reactionary movements after the end of the Middle Ages.
Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or to divinity. The diverse ritualistic, mythical, doctrinal, legal, institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential, emotive, spiritual or contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience. Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, with its subject probably learned or imprinted as part of a culture.
Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the "voice within", the "inner light", or even Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice heard only when he was about to make a mistake. Conscience, as is detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law, is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole, has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film.
Views
Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about its role in ethical decision-making, three approaches have addressed it:
Religious views
Secular views
Philosophical views
Religious
In the literary traditions of the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, conscience is the label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil, that a soul acquires from the completion of acts and consequent accretion of karma over many lifetimes. According to Adi Shankara in his Vivekachudamani morally right action (characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward), helps "purify the heart" and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us "direct perception of the Reality". This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non-eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness.
In the Zoroastrian faith, after death a soul must face judgment at the Bridge of the Separator; there, evil people are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature, or conscience, and "to all time will they be guests for the House of the Lie." The Chinese concept of Ren, indicates that conscience, along with social etiquette and correct relationships, assist humans to follow The Way (Tao) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony.
Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism. In the Pali scriptures, for example, Buddha links the positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and a calm, well-directed mind. It is regarded as a spiritual power, and one of the "Guardians of the World". The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation. Santideva (685–763 CE) wrote in the Bodhicaryavatara (which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian Buddhist university of Nalanda) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such as generosity, forbearance and training the awareness to be like a "block of wood" when attracted by vices such as pride or lust; so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative absorption. Conscience thus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness where the mind withdraws from sensory interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole.
The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote in his Meditations that conscience was the human capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true, tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe: "To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind. Only there, delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts."
The Islamic concept of Taqwa is closely related to conscience. In the Qur’ān verses 2:197 & 22:37 Taqwa refers to "right conduct" or "piety", "guarding of oneself" or "guarding against evil". Qur’ān verse 47:17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer's taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will but requires inspiration from God. In Qur’ān verses 91:7–8, God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul, the conscience and has taught it the wrong (fujūr) and right (taqwā). Hence, the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul, allowing it to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried, held accountable on the day of judgment for responsibilities to God and all humans.
Qur’ān verse 49:13 states: "O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwā." In Islam, according to eminent theologians such as Al-Ghazali, although events are ordained (and written by God in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the Preserved Tablet), humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right, and are thus responsible for their actions; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God enhanced by knowledge and practise of the Five Pillars of Islam, deeds of piety, repentance, self-discipline and prayer; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful acts. Marshall Hodgson wrote the three-volume work: The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization.
In the Protestant Christian tradition, Martin Luther insisted in the Diet of Worms that his conscience was captive to the Word of God, and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience. To Luther, conscience falls within the ethical, rather than the religious, sphere. John Calvin saw conscience as a battleground: "the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God's throne is not firmly established therein". Many Christians regard following one's conscience as important as, or even more important than, obeying human authority. A Christian view of conscience might be: "God gave us our conscience so we would know when we break His Law; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent." This can sometimes (as with the conflict between William Tyndale and Thomas More over the translation of the Bible into English) lead to moral quandaries: "Do I unreservedly obey my Church/priest/military/political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture?" Some contemporary Christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the Ten Commandments or of Jesus as the highest authority in any situation, regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law. In the Gospel of John (7:53–8:11) (King James Version) Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating: "'He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.' And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground. And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one" [However the word 'conscience' is not in the original New Testament Greek, and is not in the vast majority of Bible versions.] (see Jesus and the woman taken in adultery). In the Gospel of Luke (10: 25–37) Jesus tells the story of how a despised and heretical Samaritan (see Parable of the Good Samaritan) who (out of compassion/pity - the word 'conscience' is not used) helps an injured stranger beside a road, qualifies better for eternal life by loving his neighbor, than a priest who passes by on the other side.
This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law, was demonstrated dramatically in Antigone's defiance of King Creon's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor, appealing to the "unwritten law" and to a "longer allegiance to the dead than to the living".
Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical "judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins [a person] to do good and to avoid evil". The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) describes: "Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey. Its voice, ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid evil, tells him inwardly at the right movement: do this, shun that. For man has in his heart a law inscribed by God. His dignity lies in observing this law, and by it he will be judged. His conscience is man’s most secret core, and his sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in his depths." Thus, conscience is not like the will, nor a habit like prudence, but "the interior space in which we can listen to and hear the truth, the good, the voice of God. It is the inner place of our relationship with Him, who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern, to understand the path we ought to take, and once the decision is made, to move forward, to remain faithful" In terms of logic, conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied. Thus, Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom, so as to form a correct conscience. Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care before confession. Catholic teaching holds that, "Man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions. He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience, especially in religious matters". This right of conscience does not allow one to arbitrarily disagree with Church teaching and claim that one is acting in accordance with conscience. A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources, that is, seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by Christ to teach it. Nevertheless, despite one's best effort, "[i]t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed ... This ignorance can often be imputed to personal responsibility ... In such cases, the person is culpable for the wrong he commits." The Catholic Church has warned that "rejection of the Church's authority and her teaching ... can be at the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct". An example of someone following his conscience to the point of accepting the consequence of being condemned to death is Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). A theologian who wrote on the distinction between the 'sense of duty' and the 'moral sense', as two aspects of conscience, and who saw the former as some feeling that can only be explained by a divine Lawgiver, was John Henry Cardinal Newman. A well known saying of him is that he would first toast on his conscience and only then on the pope, since his conscience brought him to acknowledge the authority of the pope.
Judaism arguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority; the case has been made that throughout Jewish history, rabbis have circumvented laws they found unconscionable, such as capital punishment. Similarly, although an occupation with national destiny has been central to the Jewish faith (see Zionism) many scholars (including Moses Mendelssohn) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important adjunct to the Talmudic tradition. The concept of inner light in the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers is associated with conscience. Freemasonry describes itself as providing an adjunct to religion and key symbols found in a Freemason Lodge are the square and compasses explained as providing lessons that Masons should "square their actions by the square of conscience", learn to "circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind." The historian Manning Clark viewed conscience as one of the comforters that religion placed between man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by the Book of Job and the Book of Ecclesiastes, leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what matters most in life ("being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for") can never happen. Leo Tolstoy, after a decade studying the issue (1877–1887), held that the only power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of religious institutions, was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through reason and conscience. Many prominent religious works about conscience also have a significant philosophical component: examples are the works of Al-Ghazali, Avicenna, Aquinas, Joseph Butler and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (all discussed in the philosophical views section).
Secular
The secular approach to conscience includes psychological, physiological, sociological, humanitarian, and authoritarian views. Lawrence Kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans, associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility, being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications (such as Jiminy Cricket) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas. Erik Erikson placed the development of conscience in the 'pre-schooler' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality development. The psychologist Martha Stout terms conscience "an intervening sense of obligation based in our emotional attachments." Thus a good conscience is associated with feelings of integrity, psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using adjectives such as "quiet", "clear" and "easy".
Sigmund Freud regarded conscience as originating psychologically from the growth of civilisation, which periodically frustrated the external expression of aggression: this destructive impulse being forced to seek an alternative, healthy outlet, directed its energy as a superego against the person's own "ego" or selfishness (often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood). According to Freud, the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt, which can be a factor in the development of neurosis; Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super-ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions, disobedience to which provokes a 'fear of conscience'.
Antonio Damasio considers conscience an aspect of extended consciousness beyond survival-related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for behavior.
Conscience as a society-forming instinct
Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to form societies: groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do.
Charles Darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or community; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the "greater duration of impression of social instincts" in the struggle for survival. In such a view, behavior destructive to a person's society (either to its structures or to the persons it comprises) is bad or "evil". Thus, conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid provoking fear or contempt in others; being experienced as guilt and shame in differing ways from society to society and person to person. A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity to see ourselves from the point of view of another person. Persons unable to do this (psychopaths, sociopaths, narcissists) therefore often act in ways which are "evil".
Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some "other" as being in a social relationship. Thus, nationalism is invoked in conscience to quell tribal conflict and the notion of a Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quell national conflicts. Yet such crowd drives may not only overwhelm but redefine individual conscience. Friedrich Nietzsche stated: "communal solidarity is annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that, when they break out passionately, whip the individual far past the average low level of the 'herd-conscience.'" Jeremy Bentham noted that: "fanaticism never sleeps ... it is never stopped by conscience; for it has pressed conscience into its service." Hannah Arendt in her study of the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, notes that the accused, as with almost all his fellow Germans, had lost track of his conscience to the point where they hardly remembered it; this wasn't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty, so much as by the fact that anyone whose conscience did develop doubts could see no one who shared them: "Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not because he had none, but because his conscience spoke with a "respectable voice", with the voice of the respectable society around him".
Sir Arthur Keith in 1948 developed the Amity-enmity complex. We evolved as tribal groups surrounded by enemies; thus conscience evolved a dual role; the duty to save and protect members of the in-group, and the duty to show hatred and aggression towards any out-group.
An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those of animals, whether animals in human society (pets, working animals, even animals grown for food) or in the wild. One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve, their conscience begins to respect that former "other", and urge actions that protect it. Similarly, in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities (such as the Australian magpie) that have a high degree of etiquettes, rules, hierarchies, play, songs and negotiations, rule-breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness.
Evolutionary biology
Contemporary scientists in evolutionary biology seek to explain conscience as a function of the brain that evolved to facilitate altruism within societies. In his book The God Delusion, Richard Dawkins states that he agrees with Robert Hinde's Why Good is Good, Michael Shermer's The Science of Good and Evil, Robert Buckman's Can We Be Good Without God? and Marc Hauser's Moral Minds, that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our Darwinian past. He subsequently reinforced this idea through the lens of the gene-centered view of evolution, since the unit of natural selection is neither an individual organism nor a group, but rather the "selfish" gene, and these genes could ensure their own "selfish" survival by, inter alia, pushing individuals to act altruistically towards its kin.
Neuroscience and artificial conscience
Numerous case studies of brain damage have shown that damage to areas of the brain (such as the anterior prefrontal cortex) results in the reduction or elimination of inhibitions, with a corresponding radical change in behaviour. When the damage occurs to adults, they may still be able to perform moral reasoning; but when it occurs to children, they may never develop that ability.
Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate the free will necessary for what is termed the 'veto' of conscience over unconscious mental processes (see Neuroscience of free will and Benjamin Libet) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act occurring 350–400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the 'readiness potential.'
Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial in artificial intelligence systems to improve their long-term performance and direct their introspective processing.
Philosophical
The word "conscience" derives etymologically from the Latin conscientia, meaning "privity of knowledge"
or "with-knowledge". The English word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one's motives, as well as a consciousness of our own actions. Thus conscience considered philosophically may be first, and perhaps most commonly, a largely unexamined "gut feeling" or "vague sense of guilt" about what ought to be or should have been done. Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation (or the applicable normative principles, rules or laws) and can arise from parental, peer group, religious, state or corporate indoctrination, which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ("traditional conscience"). Conscience may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a situation ("critical conscience"). In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service to others, critical conscience can be aided by a "spark" of intuitive insight or revelation (called marifa in Islamic Sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval Christian scholastic moral philosophy). Conscience is accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of 'inner light' and approbation or 'inner darkness' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed or declined.
Medieval
The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al-Ghazali divided the concept of Nafs (soul or self (spirituality)) into three categories based on the Qur’an:
Nafs Ammarah (12:53) which "exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil"
Nafs Lawammah (75:2) which is "the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong"
Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27) which is "a self that reaches the ultimate peace"
The medieval Persian philosopher and physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi believed in a close relationship between conscience or spiritual integrity and physical health; rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, use his intellect and apply justice in his life. The medieval Islamic philosopher Avicenna, whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, wrote his famous isolated-but-awake "Floating Man" sensory deprivation thought experiment to explore the ideas of human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul; his hypothesis being that it is through intelligence, particularly the active intellect, that God communicates truth to the human mind or conscience. According to the Islamic Sufis conscience allows Allah to guide people to the marifa, the peace or "light upon light" experienced where a Muslim's prayers lead to a melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise depicted in the Qur’ān.
Some medieval Christian scholastics such as Bonaventure made a distinction between conscience as a rational faculty of the mind (practical reason) and inner awareness, an intuitive "spark" to do good, called synderesis arising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously denied (for example to perform an evil act), becoming a source of inner torment. Early modern theologians such as William Perkins and William Ames developed a syllogistic understanding of the conscience, where God's law made the first term, the act to be judged the second and the action of the conscience (as a rational faculty) produced the judgement. By debating test cases applying such understanding conscience was trained and refined (i.e. casuistry).
In the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas regarded conscience as the application of moral knowledge to a particular case (S.T. I, q. 79, a. 13). Thus, conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began with synderesis, the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good (which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory of Natural Law) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles. According to Singer, Aquinas held that conscience, or conscientia was an imperfect process of judgment applied to activity because knowledge of the natural law (and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein) was obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow-feeling (Summa Theologiae, I–II, I). Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of prudence to explain why some people appear to be less "morally enlightened" than others, their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others.
Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is an evil action but an errant conscience is only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable or vincible ignorance of factors that one has a duty to have knowledge of. Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards real goods (from God) which encouraged human flourishing, rather than the apparent goods of sensory pleasures. In his Commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Aquinas claimed it was weak will that allowed a non-virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one requiring moral constraint.
Thomas A Kempis in the medieval contemplative classic The Imitation of Christ (ca 1418) stated that the glory of a good man is the witness of a good conscience. "Preserve a quiet conscience and you will always have joy. A quiet conscience can endure much, and remains joyful in all trouble, but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy." The anonymous medieval author of the Christian mystical work The Cloud of Unknowing similarly expressed the view that in profound and prolonged contemplation a soul dries up the "root and ground" of the sin that is always there, even after one's confession and however busy one is in holy things: "therefore, whoever would work at becoming a contemplative must first cleanse his [or her] conscience." The medieval Flemish mystic John of Ruysbroeck likewise held that true conscience has four aspects that are necessary to render a man just in the active and contemplative life: "a free spirit, attracting itself through love"; "an intellect enlightened by grace", "a delight yielding propension or inclination" and "an outflowing losing of oneself in the abyss of ... that eternal object which is the highest and chief blessedness ... those lofty amongst men, are absorbed in it, and immersed in a certain boundless thing."
Modern
Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics, published after his death in 1677, argued that most people, even those that consider themselves to exercise free will, make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self-preservation. The solution, according to Spinoza, was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity. Thus, living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts, our desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis, that is without reference to time. Hegel's obscure and mystical Philosophy of Mind held that the absolute right of freedom of conscience facilitates human understanding of an all-embracing unity, an absolute which was rational, real and true. Nevertheless, Hegel thought that a functioning State would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge, just as similar non-objective opinions are generally rejected in science. A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of Joseph Butler who argued that conscience is God-given, should always be obeyed, is intuitive, and should be considered the "constitutional monarch" and the "universal moral faculty": "conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own authority with it." Butler advanced ethical speculation by referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature: first, "self-love" (seeking individual happiness) and second, "benevolence" (compassion and seeking good for another) in conscience (also linked to the agape of situational ethics). Conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment, thought Butler, because it was more likely to be clear and certain (whereas calculations of self-interest tended to probable and changing conclusions). John Selden in his Table Talk expressed the view that an awake but excessively scrupulous or ill-trained conscience could hinder resolve and practical action; it being "like a horse that is not well wayed, he starts at every bird that flies out of the hedge".
As the sacred texts of ancient Hindu and Buddhist philosophy became available in German translations in the 18th and 19th centuries, they influenced philosophers such as Schopenhauer to hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress our conscience, not wishes and thoughts; "for it is only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will"; the good conscience, thought Schopenhauer, we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in the phenomenon of another, it affords us the verification "that our true self exists not only in our own person, this particular manifestation, but in everything that lives. By this the heart feels itself enlarged, as by egotism it is contracted."
Immanuel Kant, a central figure of the Age of Enlightenment, likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on: "the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me ... the latter begins from my invisible self, my personality, and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise myself as existing in a universal and necessary (and not only, as in the first case, contingent) connection." The 'universal connection' referred to here is Kant's categorical imperative: "act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." Kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty, but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty, not expectation of any such bliss. Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greater metaphysical unity. John Plamenatz in his critical examination of Rousseau's work considered that conscience was there defined as the feeling that urges us, in spite of contrary passions, towards two harmonies: the one within our minds and between our passions, and the other within society and between its members; "the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest, and the appeal, though often unsuccessful, is always disturbing. However, corrupted by power or wealth we may be, either as possessors of them or as victims, there is something in us serving to remind us that this corruption is against nature."
Other philosophers expressed a more sceptical and pragmatic view of the operation of "conscience" in society.
John Locke in his Essays on the Law of Nature argued that the widespread fact of human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws that occasionally might contradict those of the state. Locke highlighted the metaethics problem of whether accepting a statement like "follow your conscience" supports subjectivist or objectivist conceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality, or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal and immutable principles to the individual: "if conscience be a proof of innate principles, contraries may be innate principles; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others avoid." Thomas Hobbes likewise pragmatically noted that opinions formed on the basis of conscience with full and honest conviction, nevertheless should always be accepted with humility as potentially erroneous and not necessarily indicating absolute knowledge or truth. William Godwin expressed the view that conscience was a memorable consequence of the "perception by men of every creed when the descend into the scene of busy life" that they possess free will. Adam Smith considered that it was only by developing a critical conscience that we can ever see what relates to ourselves in its proper shape and dimensions; or that we can ever make any proper comparison between our own interests and those of other people. John Stuart Mill believed that idealism about the role of conscience in government should be tempered with a practical realisation that few men in society are capable of directing their minds or purposes towards distant or unobvious interests, of disinterested regard for others, and especially for what comes after them, for the idea of posterity, of their country, or of humanity, whether grounded on sympathy or on a conscientious feeling. Mill held that certain amount of conscience, and of disinterested public spirit, may fairly be calculated on in the citizens of any community ripe for representative government, but that "it would be ridiculous to expect such a degree of it, combined with such intellectual discernment, as would be proof against any plausible fallacy tending to make that which was for their class interest appear the dictate of justice and of the general good."
Josiah Royce (1855–1916) built on the transcendental idealism view of conscience, viewing it as the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality, our plan of being ourself, of making common sense ethical decisions. But, he thought, this was only true insofar as our conscience also required loyalty to "a mysterious higher or deeper self".
In the modern Christian tradition this approach achieved expression with Dietrich Bonhoeffer who stated during his imprisonment by the Nazis in World War II that conscience for him was more than practical reason, indeed it came from a "depth which lies beyond a man's own will and his own reason and it makes itself heard as the call of human existence to unity with itself." For Bonhoeffer a guilty conscience arose as an indictment of the loss of this unity and as a warning against the loss of one's self; primarily, he thought, it is directed not towards a particular kind of doing but towards a particular mode of being. It protests against a doing which imperils the unity of this being with itself. Conscience for Bonhoeffer did not, like shame, embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its owner's life; it reacted only to certain definite actions: "it recalls what is long past and represents this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable". The man with a conscience, he believed, fights a lonely battle against the "overwhelming forces of inescapable situations" which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences. Simon Soloveychik has similarly claimed that the truth distributed in the world, as the statement about human dignity, as the affirmation of the line between good and evil, lives in people as conscience.
As Hannah Arendt pointed out, however, (following the utilitarian John Stuart Mill on this point): a bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character; in fact only those who affirm a commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with remorse, guilt or shame by a bad conscience and their need to regain integrity and wholeness of the self. Representing our soul or true self by analogy as our house, Arendt wrote that "conscience is the anticipation of the fellow who awaits you if and when you come home." Arendt believed that people who are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by an immoral act or crime, since they can "count on its being forgotten the next moment;" bad people are not full of regrets. Arendt also wrote eloquently on the problem of languages distinguishing the word consciousness from conscience. One reason, she held, was that conscience, as we understand it in moral or legal matters, is supposedly always present within us, just like consciousness: "and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to do and what to repent; before it became the lumen naturale or Kant's practical reason, it was the voice of God."
Albert Einstein, as a self-professed adherent of humanism and rationalism, likewise viewed an enlightened religious person as one whose conscience reflects that he "has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value."
Einstein often referred to the "inner voice" as a source of both moral and physical knowledge: "Quantum mechanics is very impressive. But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing. The theory produces a good deal but hardly brings one closer to the secrets of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice."
Simone Weil who fought for the French resistance (the Maquis) argued in her final book The Need for Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind that for society to become more just and protective of liberty, obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in the conscience of most citizens, so that social obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on human character when fulfilled. Simone Weil also in that work provided a psychological explanation for the mental peace associated with a good conscience: "the liberty of men of goodwill, though limited in the sphere of action, is complete in that of conscience. For, having incorporated the rules into their own being, the prohibited possibilities no longer present themselves to the mind, and have not to be rejected."
Alternatives to such metaphysical and idealist opinions about conscience arose from realist and materialist perspectives such as those of Charles Darwin. Darwin suggested that "any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or as nearly as well developed, as in man." Émile Durkheim held that the soul and conscience were particular forms of an impersonal principle diffused in the relevant group and communicated by totemic ceremonies. AJ Ayer was a more recent realist who held that the existence of conscience was an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into the moral habits of a given person or group of people, and what causes them to have precisely those habits and feelings. Such an inquiry, he believed, fell wholly within the scope of the existing social sciences. George Edward Moore bridged the idealistic and sociological views of 'critical' and 'traditional' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract 'rightness' and the various degrees of the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute, for many persons, the specifically 'moral sentiment' or conscience. For others, however, an action seems to be properly termed 'internally right', merely because they have previously regarded it as right, the idea of 'rightness' being present in some way to his or her mind, but not necessarily among his or her deliberately constructed motives.
The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in A Very Easy Death (Une mort très douce, 1964) reflects within her own conscience about her mother's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy and understanding of others.
Michael Walzer claimed that the growth of religious toleration in Western nations arose amongst other things, from the general recognition that private conscience signified some inner divine presence regardless of the religious faith professed and from the general respectability, piety, self-limitation, and sectarian discipline which marked most of the men who claimed the rights of conscience. Walzer also argued that attempts by courts to define conscience as a merely personal moral code or as sincere belief, risked encouraging an anarchy of moral egotisms, unless such a code and motive was necessarily tempered with shared moral knowledge: derived either from the connection of the individual to a universal spiritual order, or from the common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people. Ronald Dworkin maintains that constitutional protection of freedom of conscience is central to democracy but creates personal duties to live up to it: "Freedom of conscience presupposes a personal responsibility of reflection, and it loses much of its meaning when that responsibility is ignored. A good life need not be an especially reflective one; most of the best lives are just lived rather than studied. But there are moments that cry out for self-assertion, when a passive bowing to fate or a mechanical decision out of deference or convenience is treachery, because it forfeits dignity for ease." Edward Conze stated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our conscience being wholly located in our body; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when we act in an unselfish way and conversely "repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense of guilt."
The philosopher Peter Singer considers that usually when we describe an action as conscientious in the critical sense we do so in order to deny either that the relevant agent was motivated by selfish desires, like greed or ambition, or that he acted on whim or impulse.
Moral anti-realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate conscience supervene on natural facts with a posteriori necessity; or arise a priori because moral facts have a primary intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical. It has also been argued that there is a measure of moral luck in how circumstances create the obstacles which conscience must overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of enforceable property rights and the rule of law, access to universal health care plus the absence of high adult and infant mortality from conditions such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and famine, people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs of conscience associated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food, bribe tax inspectors or police officers, and commit murder in guerrilla wars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies. Roger Scruton has claimed that true understanding of conscience and its relationship with morality has been hampered by an "impetuous" belief that philosophical questions are solved through the analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests. Susan Sontag similarly argued that it was a symptom of psychological immaturity not to recognise that many morally immature people willingly experience a form of delight, in some an erotic breaking of taboo, when witnessing violence, suffering and pain being inflicted on others. Jonathan Glover wrote that most of us "do not spend our lives on endless landscape gardening of our self" and our conscience is likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles, as by choice of partner, friends and job, as well as where we choose to live. Garrett Hardin, in a famous article called "The Tragedy of the Commons", argues that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good—by means of his or her conscience—merely sets up a system which, by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to those lacking in conscience, while fostering guilt (including anxiety about his or her individual contribution to over-population) in people acting upon it, actually works toward the elimination of conscience from the race.
John Ralston Saul expressed the view in The Unconscious Civilization that in contemporary developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong, their critical conscience, to technical experts; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market, while citizen participation in public affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private-interest lobbying turns even elected representatives against the public interest.
Some argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act against conscience, even if the judgement of conscience is likely to be erroneous (say because it is inadequately informed about the facts, or prevailing moral (humanist or religious), professional ethical, legal and human rights norms). Failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be seriously mistaken, may only promote situations where one's conscience is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non-virtuous and selfish acts; indeed, insofar as it is appealed to as glorifying ideological content, and an associated extreme level of devotion, without adequate constraint of external, altruistic, normative justification, conscience may be considered morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole. Langston argues that philosophers of virtue ethics have unnecessarily neglected conscience for, once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all others to live by, its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues; indeed, amongst people in what each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement about how to act. Emmanuel Levinas viewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of resistance to our selfish powers, developing morality by calling into question our naive sense of freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily, or with violence, this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control.
In other words, the welcoming of the Other, to Levinas, was the very essence of conscience properly conceived; it encouraged our ego to accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people, that selfish freedom of will "does not have the last word" and that realising this has a transcendent purpose: "I am not alone ... in conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a priori [see a priori and a posteriori] framework-a conceptless experience."
Conscientious acts and the law
English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason; this gradually reforming the medieval Roman law-based system with forms of action, written pleadings, use of juries and patterns of litigation such as Demurrer and Assumpsit that displayed an increased concern for elements of right and wrong on the actual facts. A conscience vote in a parliament allows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong. In his trial in Jerusalem Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided: "punishability of an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his conscience or the prescripts of his religion". The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) which is part of international customary law specifically refers to conscience in Articles 1 and 18. Likewise, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) mentions conscience in Article 18.1. It has been argued that these articles provide international legal obligations protecting conscientious objectors from service in the military.
John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice defines a conscientious objector as an individual prepared to undertake, in public (and often despite widespread condemnation), an action of civil disobedience to a legal rule justifying it (also in public) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues (such as justice as liberty or fairness) and the principles of morality and law derived from them. Rawls considered civil disobedience should be viewed as an appeal, warning or admonishment (showing general respect and fidelity to the rule of law by the non-violence and transparency of methods adopted) that a law breaches a community's fundamental virtue of justice. Objections to Rawls' theory include first, its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society's basic appreciation of justice or to emerging moral or ethical principles (such as respect for the rights of the natural environment) which are not yet part of it and second, the difficulty of predictably and consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust. Conscientious objection (also called conscientious refusal or evasion) to obeying a law, should not arise from unreasoning, naive "traditional conscience", for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic institutions. Instead it should be based on "critical conscience' – seriously thought out, conceptually mature, personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible (that is, not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires, whim or impulse), for example, either with all laws requiring conscription for military service, or legal compulsion to fight for or financially support the State in a particular war. A famous example arose when Henry David Thoreau the author of Walden was willingly jailed for refusing to pay a tax because he profoundly disagreed with a government policy and was frustrated by the corruption and injustice of the democratic machinery of the state. A more recent case concerned Kimberly Rivera, a private in the US Army and mother of four children who, having served 3 months in Iraq War decided the conflict was immoral and sought refugee status in Canada in 2012 (see List of Iraq War resisters), but was deported and arrested in the US.
In the Second World War, Great Britain granted conscientious-objection status not just to complete pacifists, but to those who objected to fighting in that particular war; this was done partly out of genuine respect, but also to avoid the disgraceful and futile persecutions of conscientious objectors that occurred during the First World War.
Amnesty International organises campaigns to protect those arrested and or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs, particularly concerning intellectual, political and artistic freedom of expression and association. Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma, was the winner of the 2009 Amnesty International Ambassador of Conscience Award. In legislation, a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law (for example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs.
Expressed justifications for refusing to obey laws because of conscience vary. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons—notably, members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine. Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from the conviction that even acceptance of work under military orders acknowledges the principle of conscription that should be everywhere condemned before the world can ever become safe for real democracy. A conscientious objector, however, does not have a primary aim of changing the law. John Dewey considered that conscientious objectors were often the victims of "moral innocency" and inexpertness in moral training: "the moving force of events is always too much for conscience". The remedy was not to deplore the wickedness of those who manipulate world power, but to connect conscience with forces moving in another direction- to build institutions and social environments predicated on the rule of law, for example, "then will conscience itself have compulsive power instead of being forever the martyred and the coerced." As an example, Albert Einstein who had advocated conscientious objection during the First World War and had been a longterm supporter of War Resisters' International reasoned that "radical pacifism" could not be justified in the face of Nazi rearmament and advocated a world federalist organization with its own professional army.
Samuel Johnson pointed out that an appeal to conscience should not allow the law to bring unjust suffering upon another. Conscience, according to Johnson, was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of something to be done or something to be avoided; in questions of simple unperplexed morality, conscience is very often a guide that may be trusted. But before conscience can conclusively determine what morally should be done, he thought that the state of the question should be thoroughly known. "No man's conscience", said Johnson "can tell him the right of another man ... it is a conscience very ill informed that violates the rights of one man, for the convenience of another."
Civil disobedience as non-violent protest or civil resistance are also acts of conscience, but are designed by those who undertake them chiefly to change, by appealing to the majority and democratic processes, laws or government policies perceived to be incoherent with fundamental social virtues and principles (such as justice, equality or respect for intrinsic human dignity). Civil disobedience, in a properly functioning democracy, allows a minority who feel strongly that a law infringes their sense of justice (but have no capacity to obtain legislative amendments or a referendum on the issue) to make a potentially apathetic or uninformed majority take account of the intensity of opposing views. A notable example of civil resistance or satyagraha ("satya" in sanskrit means "truth and compassion", "agraha" means "firmness of will") involved Mahatma Gandhi making salt in India when that act was prohibited by a British statute, in order to create moral pressure for law reform. Rosa Parks similarly acted on conscience in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama refusing a legal order to give up her seat to make room for a white passenger; her action (and the similar earlier act of 15-year-old Claudette Colvin) leading to the Montgomery bus boycott. Rachel Corrie was a US citizen allegedly killed by a bulldozer operated by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) while involved in direct action (based on the non-violent principles of Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi) to prevent demolition of the home of local Palestinian pharmacist Samir Nasrallah. Al Gore has argued "If you're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration." In 2011, NASA climate scientist James E. Hansen, environmental leader Phil Radford and Professor Bill McKibben were arrested for opposing a tar sands oil pipeline and Canadian renewable energy professor Mark Jaccard was arrested for opposing mountain-top coal mining; in his book Storms of my Grandchildren Hansen calls for similar civil resistance on a global scale to help replace the 'business-as-usual' Kyoto Protocol cap and trade system, with a progressive carbon tax at emission source on the oil, gas and coal industries – revenue being paid as dividends to low carbon footprint families.
Notable historical examples of conscientious noncompliance in a different professional context included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by Japanese Consul-General Chiune Sugihara in Kaunas (the temporary capital of Lithuania between Germany and the Soviet Union) and by Raoul Wallenberg in Hungary in 1944 to allow Jews to escape almost certain death. Ho Feng-Shan the Chinese Consul-General in Vienna in 1939, defied orders from the Chinese ambassador in Berlin to issue Jews with visas for Shanghai. John Rabe a German member of the Nazi Party likewise saved thousands of Chinese from massacre by the Japanese military at Nanking. The White Rose German student movement against the Nazis declared in their 4th leaflet: "We will not be silent. We are your bad conscience. The White Rose will not leave you in peace!" Conscientious noncompliance may be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an international moral order or 'core' historical rights (such as the right to life, right to a fair trial and freedom of opinion) in states where non-violent protest or civil disobedience are met with prolonged arbitrary detention, torture, forced disappearance, murder or persecution.
The controversial Milgram experiment into obedience by Stanley Milgram showed that many people lack the psychological resources to openly resist authority, even when they are directed to act callously and inhumanely against an innocent victim.
World conscience
World conscience is the universalist idea that with ready global communication, all people on earth will no longer be morally estranged from one another, whether it be culturally, ethnically, or geographically; instead they will conceive ethics from the utopian point of view of the universe, eternity or infinity, rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely within the restrictive boundaries of "blood and territory".
Often this derives from a spiritual or natural law perspective, that for world peace to be achieved, conscience, properly understood, should be generally considered as not necessarily linked (often destructively) to fundamentalist religious ideologies, but as an aspect of universal consciousness, access to which is the common heritage of humanity. Thinking predicated on the development of world conscience is common to members of the Global Ecovillage Network such as the Findhorn Foundation, international conservation organisations like Fauna and Flora International, as well as performers of world music such as Alan Stivell. Non-government organizations, particularly through their work in agenda-setting, policy-making and implementation of human rights-related policy, have been referred to as the conscience of the world
Edward O Wilson has developed the idea of consilience to encourage coherence of global moral and scientific knowledge supporting the premise that "only unified learning, universally shared, makes accurate foresight and wise choice possible". Thus, world conscience is a concept that overlaps with the Gaia hypothesis in advocating a balance of moral, legal, scientific and economic solutions to modern transnational problems such as global poverty and global warming, through strategies such as environmental ethics, climate ethics, natural conservation, ecology, cosmopolitanism, sustainability and sustainable development, biosequestration and legal protection of the biosphere and biodiversity. The NGO 350.org, for example, seeks to attract world conscience to the problems associated with elevation in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.
The microcredit initiatives of Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus have been described as inspiring a "war on poverty that blends social conscience and business savvy".
The Green party politician Bob Brown (who was arrested by the Tasmanian state police for a conscientious act of civil disobedience during the Franklin Dam protest) expresses world conscience in these terms: "the universe, through us, is evolving towards experiencing, understanding and making choices about its future'; one example of policy outcomes from such thinking being a global tax (see Tobin tax) to alleviate global poverty and protect the biosphere, amounting to 1/10 of 1% placed on the worldwide speculative currency market. Such an approach sees world conscience best expressing itself through political reforms promoting democratically based globalisation or planetary democracy (for example internet voting for global governance organisations (see world government) based on the model of "one person, one vote, one value") which gradually will replace contemporary market-based globalisation.
The American cardiologist Bernard Lown and the Russian cardiologist Yevgeniy Chazov were motivated in conscience through studying the catastrophic public health consequences of nuclear war in establishing International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 and continues to work to "heal an ailing planet".Worldwide expressions of conscience contributed to the decision of the French government to halt atmospheric nuclear tests at Mururoa in the Pacific in 1974 after 41 such explosions (although below-ground nuclear tests continued there into the 1990s).
A challenge to world conscience was provided by an influential 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that critically analyzed the dilemma in which multiple individuals, acting independently after rationally consulting self-interest (and, he claimed, the apparently low 'survival-of-the-fittest' value of conscience-led actions) ultimately destroy a shared limited resource, even though each acknowledges such an outcome is not in anyone's long-term interest. Hardin's conclusion that commons areas are practicably achievable only in conditions of low population density (and so their continuance requires state restriction on the freedom to breed), created controversy additionally through his direct deprecation of the role of conscience in achieving individual decisions, policies and laws that facilitate global justice and peace, as well as sustainability and sustainable development of world commons areas, for example including those officially designated such under United Nations treaties (see common heritage of humanity). Areas designated common heritage of humanity under international law include the Moon, Outer Space, deep sea bed, Antarctica, the world cultural and natural heritage (see World Heritage Convention) and the human genome. It will be a significant challenge for world conscience that as world oil, coal, mineral, timber, agricultural and water reserves are depleted, there will be increasing pressure to commercially exploit common heritage of mankind areas.
The philosopher Peter Singer has argued that the United Nations Millennium Development Goals represent the emergence of an ethics based not on national boundaries but on the idea of one world. Ninian Smart has similarly predicted that the increase in global travel and communication will gradually draw the world's religions towards a pluralistic and transcendental humanism characterized by an "open spirit" of empathy and compassion.
Noam Chomsky has argued that forces opposing the development of such a world conscience include free market ideologies that valorise corporate greed in nominal electoral democracies where advertising, shopping malls and indebtedness, shape citizens into apathetic consumers in relation to information and access necessary for democratic participation. John Passmore has argued that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness, should take into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now, it will be as a consequence of conscience not only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility, but assisting us to remain periodically anxious, passionate and discontented, for these are necessary components of care and compassion. The Committee on Conscience of the US Holocaust Memorial Museum has targeted genocides such as those in Rwanda, Bosnia, Darfur, the Congo and Chechnya as challenges to the world's conscience. Oscar Arias Sanchez has criticised global arms industry spending as a failure of conscience by nation states: "When a country decides to invest in arms, rather than in education, housing, the environment, and health services for its people, it is depriving a whole generation of its right to prosperity and happiness. We have produced one firearm for every ten inhabitants of this planet, and yet we have not bothered to end hunger when such a feat is well within our reach. This is not a necessary or inevitable state of affairs. It is a deliberate choice" (see Campaign Against Arms Trade). US House of Representatives Speaker Nancy Pelosi, after meeting with the 14th Dalai Lama during the 2008 violent protests in Tibet and aftermath said: "The situation in Tibet is a challenge to the conscience of the world." Nelson Mandela, through his example and words, has been described as having shaped the conscience of the world. The Right Livelihood Award is awarded yearly in Sweden to those people, mostly strongly motivated by conscience, who have made exemplary practical contributions to resolving the great challenges facing our planet and its people. In 2009, for example, along with Catherine Hamlin (obstetric fistula and see fistula foundation)), David Suzuki (promoting awareness of climate change) and Alyn Ware (nuclear disarmament), René Ngongo shared the Right Livelihood Award "for his courage in confronting the forces that are destroying the Congo Basin's rainforests and building political support for their conservation and sustainable use". Avaaz is one of the largest global on-line organizations launched in January 2007 to promote conscience-driven activism on issues such as climate change, human rights, animal rights, corruption, poverty, and conflict, thus "closing the gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want".
Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience
In a notable contemporary act of conscience, Christian bushwalker Brenda Hean protested against the flooding of Lake Pedder despite threats and that ultimately lead to her death. Another was the campaign by Ken Saro-Wiwa against oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led to his execution. So too was the act by the Tank Man, or the Unknown Rebel photographed holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing's Tiananmen Square on 5 June 1989. The actions of United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld to try and achieve peace in the Congo despite the (eventuating) threat to his life, were strongly motivated by conscience as is reflected in his diary, Vägmärken (Markings). Another example involved the actions of Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr to try and prevent the My Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War. Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of the Sydney Hilton bombing stating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that "I guess I was quite unique in the prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt, whereas everyone else said they were innocent." Vasili Arkhipov was a Russian naval officer on out-of-radio-contact Soviet submarine B-59 being depth-charged by US warships during the Cuban Missile Crisis whose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo (unanimous agreement to launch was required) may have averted a nuclear war. In 1963 Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc performed a famous act of self-immolation to protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the Vietnamese Ngo Dinh Diem regime.
Conscience played a major role in the actions by anaesthetist Stephen Bolsin to whistleblow (see list of whistleblowers) on incompetent paediatric cardiac surgeons at the Bristol Royal Infirmary. Jeffrey Wigand was motivated by conscience to expose the Big Tobacco scandal, revealing that executives of the companies knew that cigarettes were addictive and approved the addition of carcinogenic ingredients to the cigarettes. David Graham, a Food and Drug Administration employee, was motivated by conscience to whistleblow that the arthritis pain-reliever Vioxx increased the risk of cardiovascular deaths although the manufacturer suppressed this information. Rick Piltz from the U.S. global warming Science Program, blew the whistle on a White House official who ignored majority scientific opinion to edit a climate change report ("Our Changing Planet") to reflect the Bush administration's view that the problem was unlikely to exist." Muntadhar al-Zaidi, an Iraqi journalist, was imprisoned and allegedly tortured for his act of conscience in throwing his shoes at George W. Bush. Mordechai Vanunu an Israeli former nuclear technician, acted on conscience to reveal details of Israel's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986; was kidnapped by Israeli agents, transported to Israel, convicted of treason and spent 18 years in prison, including more than 11 years in solitary confinement.
At the awards ceremony for the 200 metres at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City John Carlos, Tommie Smith and Peter Norman ignored death threats and official warnings to take part in an anti-racism protest that destroyed their respective careers. W. Mark Felt an agent of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation who retired in 1973 as the Bureau's Associate Director, acted on conscience to provide reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with information that resulted in the Watergate scandal. Conscience was a major factor in US Public Health Service officer Peter Buxtun revealing the Tuskegee syphilis experiment to the public. The 2008 attack by the Israeli military on civilian areas of Palestinian Gaza was described as a "stain on the world's conscience". Conscience was a major factor in the refusal of Aung San Suu Kyi to leave Burma despite house arrest and persecution by the military dictatorship in that country.
Conscience was a factor in Peter Galbraith's criticism of fraud in the 2009 Afghanistan election despite it costing him his United Nations job. Conscience motivated Bunnatine Greenhouse to expose irregularities in the contracting of the Halliburton company for work in Iraq. Naji al-Ali a popular cartoon artist in the Arab world, loved for his defense of the ordinary people, and for his criticism of repression and despotism by both the Israeli military and Yasser Arafat's PLO, was murdered for refusing to compromise with his conscience. The journalist Anna Politkovskaya provided (prior to her murder) an example of conscience in her opposition to the Second Chechen War and then-Russian President Vladimir Putin. Conscience motivated the Russian human rights activist Natalia Estemirova, who was abducted and murdered in Grozny, Chechnya in 2009. The Death of Neda Agha-Soltan arose from conscience-driven protests against the 2009 Iranian presidential election. Muslim lawyer Shirin Ebadi (winner of the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize) has been described as the 'conscience of the Islamic Republic' for her work in protecting the human rights of women and children in Iran. The human rights lawyer Gao Zhisheng, often referred to as the 'conscience of China' and who had previously been arrested and allegedly tortured after calling for respect for human rights and for constitutional reform, was abducted by Chinese security agents in February 2009. 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo in his final statement before being sentenced by a closed Chinese court to over a decade in jail as a political prisoner of conscience stated: "For hatred is corrosive of a person’s wisdom and conscience; the mentality of enmity can poison a nation’s spirit." Sergei Magnitsky, a lawyer in Russia, was arrested, held without trial for almost a year and died in custody, as a result of exposing corruption. On 6 October 2001 Laura Whittle was a naval gunner on HMAS Adelaide (FFG 01) under orders to implement a new border protection policy when they encountered the SIEV-4 (Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel-4) refugee boat in choppy seas. After being ordered to fire warning shots from her 50 calibre machinegun to make the boat turn back she saw it beginning to break up and sink with a father on board holding out his young daughter that she might be saved (see Children Overboard Affair). Whittle jumped without a life vest 12 metres into the sea to help save the refugees from drowning thinking "this isn't right; this isn't how things should be." In February 2012 journalist Marie Colvin was deliberately targeted and killed by the Syrian Army in Homs during the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising and Siege of Homs, after she decided to stay at the "epicentre of the storm" in order to "expose what is happening". In October 2012 the Taliban organised the attempted murder of Malala Yousafzai a teenage girl who had been campaigning, despite their threats, for female education in Pakistan. In December 2012 the 2012 Delhi gang rape case was said to have stirred the collective conscience of India to civil disobedience and public protest at the lack of legal action against rapists in that country (see Rape in India) In June 2013 Edward Snowden revealed details of a US National Security Agency internet and electronic communication PRISM (surveillance program) because of a conscience-felt obligation to the freedom of humanity greater than obedience to the laws that bound his employment.
In literature, art, film, and music
The ancient epic of the Indian subcontinent, the Mahabharata of Vyasa, contains two pivotal moments of conscience. The first occurs when the warrior Arjuna being overcome with compassion against killing his opposing relatives in war, receives counsel (see Bhagavad-Gita) from Krishna about his spiritual duty ("work as though you are performing a sacrifice for the general good"). The second, at the end of the saga, is when king Yudhishthira having alone survived the moral tests of life, is offered eternal bliss, only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with him by purported divine rules and laws. The French author Montaigne (1533–1592) in one of the most celebrated of his essays ("On experience") expressed the benefits of living with a clear conscience: "Our duty is to compose our character, not to compose books, to win not battles and provinces, but order and tranquillity in our conduct. Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live properly". In his famous Japanese travel journal Oku no Hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Deep North) composed of mixed haiku poetry and prose, Matsuo Bashō (1644–94) in attempting to describe the eternal in this perishable world is often moved in conscience; for example by a thicket of summer grass being all that remains of the dreams and ambitions of ancient warriors. Chaucer's "Franklin's Tale" in The Canterbury Tales recounts how a young suitor releases a wife from a rash promise because of the respect in his conscience for the freedom to be truthful, gentle and generous.
The critic A. C. Bradley discusses the central problem of Shakespeare's tragic character Hamlet as one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young Prince with his "great anxiety to do right" from obeying his father's hell-bound ghost and murdering the usurping King ("is't not perfect conscience to quit him with this arm?" (v.ii.67)).
Bradley develops a theory about Hamlet's moral agony relating to a conflict between "traditional" and "critical" conscience: "The conventional moral ideas of his time, which he shared with the Ghost, told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father; but a deeper conscience in him, which was in advance of his time, contended with these explicit conventional ideas. It is because this deeper conscience remains below the surface that he fails to recognise it, and fancies he is hindered by cowardice or sloth or passion or what not; but it emerges into light in that speech to Horatio. And it is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him". The opening words of Shakespeare's Sonnet 94 ("They that have pow'r to hurt, and will do none") have been admired as a description of conscience. So has John Donne's commencement of his poem :s:Goodfriday, 1613. Riding Westward: "Let man's soul be a sphere, and then, in this, Th' intelligence that moves, devotion is;"
Anton Chekhov in his plays The Seagull, Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters describes the tortured emotional states of doctors who at some point in their careers have turned their back on conscience. In his short stories, Chekhov also explored how people misunderstood the voice of a tortured conscience. A promiscuous student, for example, in The Fit describes it as a "dull pain, indefinite, vague; it was like anguish and the most acute fear and despair ... in his breast, under the heart" and the young doctor examining the misunderstood agony of compassion experienced by the factory owner's daughter in From a Case Book calls it an "unknown, mysterious power ... in fact close at hand and watching him." Characteristically, Chekhov's own conscience drove him on the long journey to Sakhalin to record and alleviate the harsh conditions of the prisoners at that remote outpost. As Irina Ratushinskaya writes in the introduction to that work: "Abandoning everything, he travelled to the distant island of Sakhalin, the most feared place of exile and forced labour in Russia at that time. One cannot help but wonder why? Simply, because the lot of the people there was a bitter one, because nobody really knew about the lives and deaths of the exiles, because he felt that they stood in greater need of help that anyone else. A strange reason, maybe, but not for a writer who was the epitome of all the best traditions of a Russian man of letters. Russian literature has always focused on questions of conscience and was, therefore, a powerful force in the moulding of public opinion."
E. H. Carr writes of Dostoevsky's character the young student Raskolnikov in the novel Crime and Punishment who decides to murder a 'vile and loathsome' old woman money lender on the principle of transcending conventional morals: "the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a stricken conscience (which a less subtle writer would have given us) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of man." Hermann Hesse wrote his Siddhartha to describe how a young man in the time of the Buddha follows his conscience on a journey to discover a transcendent inner space where all things could be unified and simply understood, ending up discovering that personal truth through selfless service as a ferryman. J. R. R. Tolkien in his epic The Lord of the Rings describes how only the hobbit Frodo is pure enough in conscience to carry the ring of power through war-torn Middle-earth to destruction in the Cracks of Doom, Frodo determining at the end to journey without weapons, and being saved from failure by his earlier decision to spare the life of the creature Gollum. Conor Cruise O'Brien wrote that Albert Camus was the writer most representative of the Western consciousness and conscience in its relation to the non-Western world. Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird portrays Atticus Finch (played by Gregory Peck in the classic film from the book (see To Kill a Mockingbird)) as a lawyer true to his conscience who sets an example to his children and community.
The Robert Bolt play A Man For All Seasons focuses on the conscience of Catholic lawyer Thomas More in his struggle with King Henry VIII ("the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his conscience than to any other thing"). George Orwell wrote his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four on the isolated island of Jura, Scotland to describe how a man (Winston Smith) attempts to develop critical conscience in a totalitarian state which watches every action of the people and manipulates their thinking with a mixture of propaganda, endless war and thought control through language control (double think and newspeak) to the point where prisoners look up to and even love their torturers. In the Ministry of Love, Winston's torturer (O'Brien) states: "You are imagining that there is something called human nature which will be outraged by what we do and will turn against us. But we create human nature. Men are infinitely malleable".
A tapestry copy of Picasso's Guernica depicting a massacre of innocent women and children during the Spanish civil war is displayed on the wall of the United Nations building in New York City, at the entrance to the Security Council room, demonstrably as a spur to the conscience of representatives from the nation states. Albert Tucker painted Man's Head to capture the moral disintegration, and lack of conscience, of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death.
The impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh wrote in a letter to his brother Theo in 1878 that "one must never let the fire in one's soul die, for the time will inevitably come when it will be needed. And he who chooses poverty for himself and loves it possesses a great treasure and will hear the voice of his conscience address him every more clearly. He who hears that voice, which is God's greatest gift, in his innermost being and follows it, finds in it a friend at last, and he is never alone! ... That is what all great men have acknowledged in their works, all those who have thought a little more deeply and searched and worked and loved a little more than the rest, who have plumbed the depths of the sea of life."
The 1957 Ingmar Bergman film The Seventh Seal portrays the journey of a medieval knight (Max von Sydow) returning disillusioned from the crusades ("what is going to happen to those of us who want to believe, but aren't able to?") across a plague-ridden landscape, undertaking a game of chess with the personification of Death until he can perform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience (overturning the chess board to distract Death long enough for a family of jugglers to escape in their wagon). The 1942 Casablanca centers on the development of conscience in the cynical American Rick Blaine (Humphrey Bogart) in the face of oppression by the Nazis and the example of the resistance leader Victor Laszlo.The David Lean and Robert Bolt screenplay for Doctor Zhivago (an adaptation of Boris Pasternak's novel) focuses strongly on the conscience of a doctor-poet in the midst of the Russian Revolution (in the end "the walls of his heart were like paper").The 1982 Ridley Scott film Blade Runner focuses on the struggles of conscience between and within a bounty hunter (Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford)) and a renegade replicant android (Roy Batty (Rutger Hauer)) in a future society which refuses to accept that forms of artificial intelligence can have aspects of being such as conscience.
Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his last great choral composition the Mass in B minor (BWV 232) to express the alternating emotions of loneliness, despair, joy and rapture that arise as conscience reflects on a departed human life. Here JS Bach's use of counterpoint and contrapuntal settings, his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins ("Qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis") evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity expressing his belief that "with devotional music, God is always present in his grace".
Ludwig van Beethoven's meditations on illness, conscience and mortality in the Late String Quartets led to his dedicating the third movement of String Quartet in A Minor (1825) Op. 132 (see String Quartet No. 15) as a "Hymn of Thanksgiving to God of a convalescent". John Lennon's work "Imagine" owes much of its popular appeal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocities created by war, religious fundamentalism and politics. The Beatles George Harrison-written track "The Inner Light" sets to Indian raga music a verse from the Tao Te Ching that "without going out of your door you can know the ways of heaven'. In the 1986 movie The Mission the guilty conscience and penance of the slave trader Mendoza is made more poignant by the haunting oboe music of Ennio Morricone ("On Earth as it is in Heaven") The song Sweet Lullaby by Deep Forest is based on a traditional Baegu lullaby from the Solomon Islands called "Rorogwela" in which a young orphan is comforted as an act of conscience by his older brother. The Dream Academy song 'Forest Fire' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our 'black cloud' 'bringing down a different kind of weather ... letting the sunshine in, that's how the end begins."
The American Society of Journalists and Authors (ASJA) presents the Conscience-in-Media Award to journalists whom the society deems worthy of recognition for demonstrating "singular commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice".
The Ambassador of Conscience Award, Amnesty International's most prestigious human rights award, takes its inspiration from a poem written by Irish Nobel prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney called "The Republic of Conscience".
Winners of the award have included: Malala Yousafzai, singer and social justice activist Harry Belafonte, musician Peter Gabriel (2008), Nelson Mandela (2006), the Irish rock band U2 (2005), Mary Robinson and Hilda Morales Trujillo (a Guatemalan women's rights activist) (2004) and the author and public intellectual Václav Havel (2003).
See also
Amity-enmity complex
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, chapter XXVII: "Of Identity and Diversity"
Altruism
Conscientious objector
Conscientiousness
Consciousness
Ethics
Evolutionary ethics
Evolution of morality
Free will
Guilt
Inner light
Jiminy Cricket, symbol of conscience in Pinocchio (1940 film)
List of nonviolence scholars and leaders
Mind–body problem
Moral emotions
Moral value
Morality
Outline of self
Philosophy of mind
Rationality and power
Rationality
Reason
Sraosha, Deity of Conscience
Social conscience
Subtle body
Synderesis
Further reading
References
External links
Concepts in ethics
Concepts in the philosophy of mind
Ethics
Personality
Philosophy of life
Philosophy of mind | wiki |
2000 Egyptian League Cup, it was the first ever edition, participation first division teams only on voluntary basis.
Clubs play without international players (matches played during African Nations' Cup and Olympic qualifiers).
Ahly, Mansoura and El Ittihad Alexandria declined to participate.
Group stage
Group A
Group B
Knock-out stage
Bracket
Semifinals
|}
Ninth place play-off
|}
Seventh place play-off
|}
Fifth place play-off
|}
Third place play-off
Notes:
Match ended 1–2, but the result was confirmed as 2–0 in favor of Ma'aden as a result of Suez used ineligible player.
Final
Final ranking
References
Egyptian League Cup
1999–2000 in Egyptian football | wiki |
Perfectionism may refer to:
Perfectionism (psychology), a personality trait
Perfectionism (philosophy), a persistence of will
Christian perfection, a doctrine taught in Methodism and Quakerism
Perfectionist movement; see Oneida Community, a Christian sect
Perfectionist (album), by Natalia Kills
See also
Perfection (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Coelosphaeriaceae are a family of cyanobacteria.
References
Cyanobacteria families
Synechococcales | wiki |
This list of tunnels in Sweden includes any road, rail or waterway tunnel in Sweden.
Under construction:
Förbifart Stockholm, road, 17 km (started in 2014, estimate completion in 2030)
Västlänken, Göteborg, railway, 2 tubes, 6 km (started in 2017, estimate completion in 2026)
Varbergstunneln, Varberg, railway, 3.1 km (started in 2019, estimate completion in 2024)
Extension of the Blue line, Kungsträdgården-Nacka, Metro, 8 km, making it 22 km (started in 2019, estimate completion in 2030)
Planned construction:
Through Kålmården, railway, around 8 km (estimate start in 2021, estimate completion in 2035)
Under the Göteborg Landvetter Airport, railway, around 5 km (estimate start in 2026, estimate completion in 2035)
See also
List of tunnels by location
Sweden
Tunnels
Tunnels | wiki |
Keybase is a key directory that maps social media identities to encryption keys (including, but not limited to PGP keys) in a publicly auditable manner. Additionally it offers an end-to-end encrypted chat and cloud storage system, called Keybase Chat and the Keybase Filesystem respectively. Files placed in the public portion of the filesystem are served from a public endpoint, as well as locally from a filesystem mounted by the Keybase client.
Keybase supports publicly connecting Twitter, GitHub, Reddit, Hacker News, and Mastodon identities, including websites and domains under one's control, to encryption keys. It also supports Bitcoin, Zcash, Stellar, and QRL wallet addresses. Keybase has supported Coinbase identities since initial public release, but ceased to do so on March 17, 2017, when Coinbase terminated public payment pages. In general, Keybase allows for any service with public identities to integrate with Keybase.
On May 7, 2020, Keybase announced it had been acquired by Zoom, as part of Zoom's "plan to further strengthen the security of [its] video communications platform".
Identity proofs
Keybase allows users to prove a link between certain online identities (such as a Twitter or Reddit account) and their encryption keys. Instead of using a system such as OAuth, identities are proven by posting a signed statement as the account a user wishes to prove ownership of. This makes identity proofs publicly verifiable – instead of having to trust that the service is being truthful, a user can find and check the relevant proof statements themselves, and the Keybase client does this automatically.
App
In addition to the web interface, Keybase offers a client application for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and most desktop Linux distributions, written in Go with an Electron front end. The app offers additional features to the website, such as the end-to-end encrypted chat, teams feature, and the ability to add files to and access private files in their personal and team Keybase Filesystem storage. Each device running the client app is authorized by a signature made either by another device or the user's PGP key. Each device is also given a per-device NaCl (pronounced "salt") key to perform cryptographic operations.
Chat
Keybase Chat is an end-to-end encrypted chat built in to Keybase launched in February 2017. A distinguishing feature of Keybase Chat is that it allows Keybase users to send messages to someone using their online aliases (for example a reddit account), even if they haven't signed up to Keybase yet.
If the recipient (the online alias owner) has an account on Keybase, they will seamlessly receive the message. If the recipient doesn't have a Keybase account, and later signs up and proves the link between the online account and their devices, the sender's device will rekey the message for the recipient based on the public proof they posted, allowing them to read the message. Since the Keybase app checks the proof, it avoids trust on first use.
Keybase Filesystem (KBFS)
Keybase allows users to store up to 250 GB of files in a cloud storage called the Keybase Filesystem for free. There are no storage upgrades available, but paid plans allowing for more data are planned. The filesystem is divided into three parts: public files, private files, and team files. On Unix-like machines, the filesystem is mounted to /keybase, and on Microsoft Windows systems it is usually mounted to the K drive. Currently, mobile versions of the Keybase client can only download files from kbfs, and can not mount it. However, they do support operations such as rekeying files as necessary. In October 2017 Keybase brought out end-to-end encrypted Git repositories.
Public files
Public files are stored in /public/username, and are publicly visible. All files in the public filesystem are automatically signed by the client. Only the user who the folder is named after can edit its contents, however, a folder may be named after a comma-separated list of users (e.g. a folder /public/foo,bar,three would be editable by the users foo, bar, and three).
Public files can be accessed by any user. Single user folders are displayed at and are also accessible by opening the directory in the mounted version of the filesystem. Multi user folders (such as /public/foo,bar,three) are only accessible through the mounted version of the system.
Private files
Private files are stored in /private/username, and are only visible to username. Private folders, like public folders, can be named after more than one user (e.g. a folder /private/foo,bar,three would be readable and editable by the users foo, bar, and three). Private files can also be read only for users after "#" (e.g. a folder /private/writer1,writer2,#reader1,reader2 would be readable and editable by the users writer1 and writer2 but only readable for reader1 and reader2). Unlike public files, all private files are both encrypted and signed before being uploaded, making them end-to-end encrypted.
Team files
Team files are stored in /team/teamname, and are publicly visible to team members. All files in the team filesystem are automatically encrypted and signed by the client. Only users who are marked as writers can edit its contents, however, any readers can access the files stored there.
Teams
In September 2017, Keybase launched Keybase Teams. A team is described as "...a named group of people." Each team has a private folder in the Keybase filesystem, and a number of chat channels (similar to Slack). Teams can also be divided into "subteams" by placing a . in the team name. For example, wikipedia.projects would be a subteam of wikipedia, while wikipedia.projects.foobar would be a subteam of wikipedia.projects (and therefore, also of wikipedia).
Team administration
Teams are largely administered by adding signatures to a chain. Each signature can add, remove, or change the membership of a user in a team, as well as when changes are made to subteams.
Each chain starts with a signature made by the team owner, with subsequent actions signed on by team admins or users. This ensures that every action is made by an authorized user, and that actions can be verified by anyone in possession of the public key used.
References
External links
Keybase on GitHub
Key management
OpenPGP
Free software programmed in Go
Tor onion services
Computer-related introductions in 2014
2020 mergers and acquisitions | wiki |
Elias Ehlers (born 15 December 1985, Holstebro, Denmark) is a Danish stand-up comedian.
He was the winner of DM in stand-up 2006, TV2 Zulu Comedy Fight Club in 2007, and he has repeatedly appeared in Stand-up.dk and Comedy Aid. His acts often consist of self-irony, flashbacks to his childhood and political considerations.
References
External links
1985 births
Living people
People from Holstebro
Danish male comedians
Danish stand-up comedians | wiki |
A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. The term is sometimes used to refer to doline, enclosed depressions that are locally also known as vrtače and shakeholes, and to openings where surface water enters into underground passages known as ponor, swallow hole or swallet. A cenote is a type of sinkhole that exposes groundwater underneath. Sink and stream sink are more general terms for sites that drain surface water, possibly by infiltration into sediment or crumbled rock.
Most sinkholes are caused by karst processes – the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks, collapse or suffosion processes. Sinkholes are usually circular and vary in size from tens to hundreds of meters both in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms. Sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide.
Formation
Natural processes
Sinkholes may capture surface drainage from running or standing water, but may also form in high and dry places in specific locations. Sinkholes that capture drainage can hold it in large limestone caves. These caves may drain into tributaries of larger rivers.
The formation of sinkholes involves natural processes of erosion or gradual removal of slightly soluble bedrock (such as limestone) by percolating water, the collapse of a cave roof, or a lowering of the water table. Sinkholes often form through the process of suffosion. For example, groundwater may dissolve the carbonate cement holding the sandstone particles together and then carry away the lax particles, gradually forming a void.
Occasionally a sinkhole may exhibit a visible opening into a cave below. In the case of exceptionally large sinkholes, such as the Minyé sinkhole in Papua New Guinea or Cedar Sink at Mammoth Cave National Park in Kentucky, an underground stream or river may be visible across its bottom flowing from one side to the other.
Sinkholes are common where the rock below the land surface is limestone or other carbonate rock, salt beds, or in other soluble rocks, such as gypsum, that can be dissolved naturally by circulating ground water. Sinkholes also occur in sandstone and quartzite terrains.
As the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns develop underground. These sinkholes can be dramatic, because the surface land usually stays intact until there is not enough support. Then, a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur.
Space and Planetary Bodies
On 2 July 2015, scientists reported that active pits, related to sinkhole collapses and possibly associated with outbursts, were found on the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by the Rosetta space probe.
Artificial processes
Collapses, commonly incorrectly labeled as sinkholes, also occur due to human activity, such as the collapse of abandoned mines and salt cavern storage in salt domes in places like Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, in the United States of America. More commonly, collapses occur in urban areas due to water main breaks or sewer collapses when old pipes give way. They can also occur from the overpumping and extraction of groundwater and subsurface fluids.
Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new water-diversion systems are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created; the substantial weight of the new material can trigger a collapse of the roof of an existing void or cavity in the subsurface, resulting in development of a sinkhole.
Classification
Solution sinkholes
Solution or dissolution sinkholes form where water dissolves limestone under a soil covering. Dissolution enlarges natural openings in the rock such as joints, fractures, and bedding planes. Soil settles down into the enlarged openings forming a small depression at the ground surface.
Cover-subsidence sinkholes
Cover-subsidence sinkholes form where voids in the underlying limestone allow more settling of the soil to create larger surface depressions.
Cover-collapse sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes or "dropouts" form where so much soil settles down into voids in the limestone that the ground surface collapses. The surface collapses may occur abruptly and cause catastrophic damages. New sinkhole collapses can also form when human activity changes the natural water-drainage patterns in karst areas.
Pseudokarst sinkholes
Pseudokarst sinkholes resemble karst sinkholes but are formed by processes other than the natural dissolution of rock.
Human accelerated sinkholes
The U.S. Geological Survey notes that "It is a frightening thought to imagine the ground below your feet or house suddenly collapsing and forming a big hole in the ground." Human activities can accelerate collapses of karst sinkholes, causing collapse within a few years that would normally evolve over thousands of years under natural conditions. Soil-collapse sinkholes, which are characterized by the collapse of cavities in soil that have developed where soil falls down into underlying rock cavities, pose the most serious hazards to life and property. Fluctuation of the water level accelerates this collapse process. When water rises up through fissures in the rock, it reduces soil cohesion. Later, as the water level moves downward, the softened soil seeps downwards into rock cavities. Flowing water in karst conduits carries the soil away, preventing soil from accumulating in rock cavities and allowing the collapse process to continue.
Induced sinkholes occur where human activity alters how surface water recharges groundwater. Many human-induced sinkholes occur where natural diffused recharge is disturbed and surface water becomes concentrated. Activities that can accelerate sinkhole collapses include timber removal, ditching, laying pipelines, sewers, water lines, storm drains, and drilling. These activities can increase the downward movement of water beyond the natural rate of groundwater recharge. The increased runoff from the impervious surfaces of roads, roofs, and parking lots also accelerate man-induced sinkhole collapses.
Some induced sinkholes are preceded by warning signs, such as cracks, sagging, jammed doors, or cracking noises, but others develop with little or no warning. However, karst development is well understood, and proper site characterization can avoid karst disasters. Thus most sinkhole disasters are predictable and preventable rather than “acts of God”. The American Society of Civil Engineers has declared that the potential for sinkhole collapse must be a part of land-use planning in karst areas. Where sinkhole collapse of structures could cause loss of life, the public should be made aware of the risks.
The most likely locations for sinkhole collapse are areas where there is already a high density of existing sinkholes. Their presence shows that the subsurface contains a cave system or other unstable voids. Where large cavities exist in the limestone large surface collapses can occur, such the Winter Park, Florida sinkhole collapse. Recommendations for land uses in karst areas should avoid or minimize alterations of the land surface and natural drainage.
Since water level changes accelerate sinkhole collapse, measures must be taken to minimize water level changes. The areas most susceptible to sinkhole collapse can be identified and avoided. In karst areas the traditional foundation evaluations (bearing capacity and settlement) of the ability of soil to support a structure must be supplemented by geotechnical site investigation for cavities and defects in the underlying rock. Since the soil/rock surface in karst areas are very irregular the number of subsurface samples (borings and core samples) required per unit area is usually much greater than in non-karst areas.
In 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated the cost for repairs of damage arising from karst-related processes as at least $300 million per year over the preceding 15 years, but noted that this may be a gross underestimate based on inadequate data. The greatest amount of karst sinkhole damage in the United States occurs in Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania. The largest recent sinkhole in the USA is possibly one that formed in 1972 in Montevallo, Alabama as a result of man-made lowering of the water level in a nearby rock quarry. This "December Giant" or "Golly Hole" sinkhole measures long, wide and deep.
Other areas of significant karst hazards include the Ebro Basin in northern Spain; the island of Sardinia; the Italian peninsula; the Chalk areas in southern England; Sichuan, China; Jamaica; France;Croatia; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Slovenia; and Russia, where one-third of the total land area is underlain by karst.
Occurrence
Sinkholes tend to occur in karst landscapes. Karst landscapes can have up to thousands of sinkholes within a small area, giving the landscape a pock-marked appearance. These sinkholes drain all the water, so there are only subterranean rivers in these areas. Examples of karst landscapes with numerous massive sinkholes include Khammouan Mountains (Laos) and Mamo Plateau (Papua New Guinea). The largest known sinkholes formed in sandstone are Sima Humboldt and Sima Martel in Venezuela.
Some sinkholes form in thick layers of homogeneous limestone. Their formation is facilitated by high groundwater flow, often caused by high rainfall; such rainfall causes formation of the giant sinkholes in the Nakanaï Mountains, on the New Britain island in Papua New Guinea. Powerful underground rivers may form on the contact between limestone and underlying insoluble rock, creating large underground voids.
In such conditions, the largest known sinkholes of the world have formed, like the Xiaozhai Tiankeng (Chongqing, China), giant sótanos in Querétaro and San Luis Potosí states in Mexico and others.
Unusual processes have formed the enormous sinkholes of Sistema Zacatón in Tamaulipas (Mexico), where more than 20 sinkholes and other karst formations have been shaped by volcanically heated, acidic groundwater. This has produced not only the formation of the deepest water-filled sinkhole in the world—Zacatón—but also unique processes of travertine sedimentation in upper parts of sinkholes, leading to sealing of these sinkholes with travertine lids.
The U.S. state of Florida in North America is known for having frequent sinkhole collapses, especially in the central part of the state. Underlying limestone there is from 15 to 25 million years old. On the fringes of the state, sinkholes are rare or non-existent; limestone there is around 120,000 years old.
The Murge area in southern Italy also has numerous sinkholes. Sinkholes can be formed in retention ponds from large amounts of rain.
On the Arctic seafloor, methane emissions have caused large sinkholes to form.
Human uses
Sinkholes have been used for centuries as disposal sites for various forms of waste. A consequence of this is the pollution of groundwater resources, with serious health implications in such areas.
The Maya civilization sometimes used sinkholes in the Yucatán Peninsula (known as cenotes) as places to deposit precious items and human sacrifices.
When sinkholes are very deep or connected to caves, they may offer challenges for experienced cavers or, when water-filled, divers. Some of the most spectacular are the Zacatón cenote in Mexico (the world's deepest water-filled sinkhole), the Boesmansgat sinkhole in South Africa, Sarisariñama tepuy in Venezuela, the Sótano del Barro in Mexico, and in the town of Mount Gambier, South Australia. Sinkholes that form in coral reefs and islands that collapse to enormous depths are known as blue holes and often become popular diving spots.
Local names
Large and visually unusual sinkholes have been well known to local people since ancient times. Nowadays sinkholes are grouped and named in site-specific or generic names. Some examples of such names are listed below.
Aven – In the south of France this name means pit cave in occitan.
Black holes (not to be confused with cosmic black holes) – This term refers to a group of unique, round, water-filled pits in the Bahamas. These formations seem to be dissolved in carbonate mud from above, by the sea water. The dark color of the water is caused by a layer of phototropic microorganisms concentrated in a dense, purple colored layer at depth; this layer "swallows" the light. Metabolism in the layer of microorganisms causes heating of the water. One of them is the Black Hole of Andros.
Blue holes – This name was initially given to the deep underwater sinkholes of the Bahamas but is often used for any deep water-filled pits formed in carbonate rocks. The name originates from the deep blue color of water in these sinkholes, which is created by the high clarity of the water and the great depth of the sinkholes; only the deep blue color of the visible spectrum can penetrate such depth and return after reflection.
Cenotes – This refers to the characteristic water-filled sinkholes in the Yucatán Peninsula, Belize and some other regions. Many cenotes have formed in limestone deposited in shallow seas created by the Chicxulub meteorite's impact.
Sótanos – This name is given to several giant pits in several states of Mexico.
Tiankengs – These are extremely large sinkholes, typically deeper and wider than , with mostly vertical walls, most often created by the collapse of caverns. The term means sky holes in Chinese; many of this largest type of sinkhole are located in China.
Tomo – This term is used in New Zealand karst country to describe pot holes.
Piping pseudokarst
The 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole formed suddenly in May of that year; torrential rains from Tropical Storm Agatha and a bad drainage system were blamed for its creation. It swallowed a three-story building and a house; it measured approximately wide and deep. A similar hole had formed nearby in February 2007.
This large vertical hole is not a true sinkhole, as it did not form via the dissolution of limestone, dolomite, marble, or any other water-soluble rock. Instead, they are examples of "piping pseudokarst", created by the collapse of large cavities that had developed in the weak, crumbly Quaternary volcanic deposits underlying the city. Although weak and crumbly, these volcanic deposits have enough cohesion to allow them to stand in vertical faces and to develop large subterranean voids within them. A process called "soil piping" first created large underground voids, as water from leaking water mains flowed through these volcanic deposits and mechanically washed fine volcanic materials out of them, then progressively eroded and removed coarser materials. Eventually, these underground voids became large enough that their roofs collapsed to create large holes.
Crown hole
A crown hole is subsidence due to subterranean human activity, such as mining and military trenches. Examples have included, instances above World War I trenches in Ypres, Belgium; near mines in Nitra, Slovakia; a limestone quarry in Dudley, England; and above an old gypsum mine in Magheracloone, Ireland.
Notable examples
Some of the largest sinkholes in the world are:
In Africa
Boesmansgat – South African freshwater sinkhole, approximately deep.
Lake Kashiba – Zambia. About 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres) in area and about deep.
In Asia
Blue Hole – Dahab, Egypt. A round sinkhole or blue hole, deep. It includes an archway leading out to the Red Sea at , which has been the site for many freediving and scuba attempts, the latter often fatal.
Akhayat sinkhole is in Mersin Province, Turkey. Its dimensions are about in diameter with a maximum depth of .
Well of Barhout – Yemen. A deep pit cave in Al-Mahara, Yemen.
Bimmah Sinkhole (Hawiyat Najm, the Falling Star Sinkhole, Dibab Sinkhole) – Oman, approximately deep.
The Baatara gorge sinkhole and the Baatara gorge waterfall next to Tannourine in Lebanon
Dashiwei Tiankeng in Guangxi, China, is deep, with vertical walls. At the bottom is an isolated patch of forest with rare species.
The Dragon Hole, located south of the Paracel Islands, is the deepest known underwater ocean sinkhole in the world. It is deep.
Shaanxi tiankeng cluster, in the Daba Mountains of southern Shaanxi, China, covers an area of nearly 5019 square kilometers with the largest sinkhole being 520 meters in diameter and 320 meters deep.
Teiq Sinkhole (Taiq, Teeq, Tayq) in Oman is one of the largest sinkholes in the world by volume: . Several perennial wadis fall with spectacular waterfalls into this deep sinkhole.
Xiaozhai Tiankeng – Chongqing, China. Double nested sinkhole with vertical walls, deep.
In the Caribbean
Dean's Blue Hole – Bahamas. The second deepest known sinkhole under the sea, depth . Popular location for world championships of free diving, as well as recreational diving.
In Central America
Great Blue Hole – Belize. Spectacular, round sinkhole, deep. Unusual features are tilted stalactites in great depth, which mark the former orientation of limestone layers when this sinkhole was above sea level.
2007 Guatemala City sinkhole
2010 Guatemala City sinkhole
In Europe
Hranice Abyss, in the Moravia region of the Czech Republic, is the deepest known underwater cave in the world. The lowest confirmed depth (as of 27 September 2016) is 473 m (404 m below the water level).
Pozzo del Merro, near Rome, Italy. At the bottom of an conical pit, and approximately deep, it is among the deepest sinkholes in the world (see Sótano del Barro below).
Red Lake – Croatia. Approximately deep pit with nearly vertical walls, contains an approximately deep lake.
Gouffre de Padirac – France. It is 103 m (338 ft) deep, with a diameter of 33 metres (108 ft). Visitors descend 75 m via a lift or a staircase to a lake allowing a boat tour after entering into the cave system which contains a 55 km subterranean river.
Vouliagmeni – Greece. The sinkhole of Vouliagmeni is known as "The Devil Well", because it is considered extremely dangerous. Four scuba divers have died in it. Maximum depth of and horizontal penetration of .
Pouldergaderry – Ireland. This sinkhole is located in the townland of Kilderry South near Miltown, Co. Kerry at . The sinkhole, which is located in an area of karst bedrock, is approximately in diameter and deep with many mature trees growing on the floor of the hole. At the level of the surrounding ground, the sinkhole covers an area of approximately 1.3 acres. Its presence is indicated on Ordnance Survey maps dating back to 1829.
In North America
Mexico
Cave of Swallows – San Luis Potosí. deep, round sinkhole with overhanging walls.
Puebla sinkhole – Santa Maria Zacatepec, Puebla. diameter and deep, it is still growing . 2021.
Sima de las Cotorras – Chiapas. across, deep, with thousands of green parakeets and ancient rock paintings.
Zacatón – Tamaulipas. Deepest water-filled sinkhole in world, deep.
United States
Amberjack Hole – blue hole located off the coast of Sarasota, Florida.
Bayou Corne sinkhole – Assumption Parish, Louisiana. About 25 acres in area and deep.
The Blue Hole – Santa Rosa, New Mexico. The surface entrance is only 80 feet (24 m) in diameter, it expands to a diameter of 130 feet (40 m) at the bottom.
Daisetta Sinkholes – Daisetta, Texas. Several sinkholes have formed, the most recent in 2008 with a maximum diameter of and maximum depth of .
Devil's Millhopper – Gainesville, Florida. deep, wide. Twelve springs, some more visible than others, feed a pond at the bottom.
Golly Hole or December Giant – Calera, Alabama. Appeared 2 December 1972. Approximately by and deep.
Grassy Cove – Cumberland County, Tennessee. in area and deep, a National Natural Landmark.
Green Banana Hole – a blue hole located off the coast of Sarasota, Florida.
Gypsum Sinkhole – Utah, in Capitol Reef National Park. Nearly in diameter and approximately deep.
Kingsley Lake – Clay County, Florida. in area, deep and almost perfectly round.
Lake Peigneur – New Iberia, Louisiana. Original depth , currently at Diamond Crystal Salt Mine collapse.
Winter Park Sinkhole – Winter Park, Florida. Appeared 8 May 1981. It was approximately wide and deep. It was notable as one of the largest recent sinkholes to form in the United States. It is now known as Lake Rose.
In Oceania
Harwood Hole – Abel Tasman National Park, New Zealand. deep.
In South America
Sima Humboldt – Bolívar, Venezuela. Largest sinkhole in sandstone, deep, with vertical walls. Unique, isolated forest on bottom.
In the western part of Cerro Duida, Venezuela, there is a complex of canyons with sinkholes. Deepest sinkhole is deep (from lowest rim within canyon); total depth .
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
US Geological Survey Water Science School page about sinkholes
Daily Telegraph slide show of 31 sinkholes
Video of Sinkhole forming in Texas (8 May 2008)
Google map of deepest "hole" for each state (Andy Martin)
Tennessee sinkholes 54,000+ sinkholes
Road hazards
Dinaric karst formations
Natural disasters | wiki |
P80 may refer to:
Automobiles
BMW P80, a family of Formula One engines
Toyota Starlet (P80), a Japanese car
Volvo P80 platform, a Swedish mid-size automobile platform
WM P80, a French prototype racing car
Other vehicles
P80 (rocket stage), a rocket engine
, a corvette of the Indian Navy
Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, an American jet fighter
Pottier P.80, a French sport aircraft
Other uses
Nikon Coolpix P80, a digital camera
P80, a national road of Latvia
Pestivirus NS3 polyprotein peptidase, an enzyme
p80, a subunit of the protein Katanin
See also
Pistole 80, a military designation for the Glock pistol
Polymer80, an American firearms manufacturer | wiki |
A broom is a cleaning tool which also had other uses (e.g. magical and punitive).
Broom may also refer to:
People
Broom (surname)
Places
Broom, Bedfordshire, England
Broom, Cumbria, England
Park Broom, Cumbria, England
Broom, a neighbourhood of Newton Mearns, East Renfrewshire, Scotland
Broom, South Yorkshire, England
Broom, Warwickshire, England
Broom, Pembrokeshire, Wales, in Kilgetty/Begelly community
Loch Broom, Scotland
Other uses
Broom (plant), a group of shrubs
Broom: An International Magazine of the Arts, a modernist literary magazine
Equipment used in broomball
Broom (album), an album by the American band Someone Still Loves You Boris Yeltsin
See also
Brome (disambiguation)
Broome (disambiguation) | wiki |
A raft is any flat structure for support or transportation over water. It is usually of basic design, characterized by the absence of a hull. Rafts are usually kept afloat by using any combination of buoyant materials such as wood, sealed barrels, or inflated air chambers (such as pontoons), and are typically not propelled by an engine. Rafts are an ancient mode of transport; naturally-occurring rafts such as entwined vegetation and pieces of wood have been used to traverse water since the dawn of humanity.
Human-made rafts
Traditional or primitive rafts were constructed of wood or reeds. Modern rafts may also use pontoons, drums, or extruded polystyrene blocks. Inflatable rafts up to the 20th century used flotation chambers made of goat- or buffalo-skins, but most now use durable, multi-layered rubberized fabrics. Depending on its use and size, it may have a superstructure, masts, or rudders.
Timber rafting is used by the logging industry for the transportation of logs, by tying them together into rafts and drifting or pulling them down a river. This method was very common up until the middle of the 20th century but is now used only rarely.
Large rafts made of balsa logs and using sails for navigation were important in maritime trade on the Pacific Ocean coast of South America from pre-Columbian times until the 19th century. Voyages were made to locations as far away as Mexico, and many trans-Pacific voyages using replicas of ancient rafts have been undertaken to demonstrate possible contacts between South America and Polynesia.
The type of raft used for recreational rafting is almost exclusively an inflatable raft, manufactured of flexible materials for use on whitewater.
Natural rafts
In biology, particularly in island biogeography, non-manmade rafts are an important concept. Such rafts consist of matted clumps of vegetation that has been swept off the dry land by a storm, tsunami, tide, earthquake or similar event; in modern times they sometimes also incorporate other kind of flotsam and jetsam, e.g. plastic containers. They stay afloat by its natural buoyancy and can travel for hundreds, even thousands of miles and are ultimately destroyed by wave action and decomposition, or make landfall.
Rafting events are important means of oceanic dispersal for non-flying animals. For small mammals, amphibians and reptiles in particular, but for many invertebrates as well, such rafts of vegetation are often the only means by which they could reach and – if they are lucky – colonize oceanic islands before human-built vehicles provided another mode of transport.
Image gallery
See also
Floating island
Great Raft
Kon-Tiki
L’Égaré II
La Balsa and Las Balsas
Lifeboat
Pre-Columbian rafts
Pumice raft
The Raft of the Medusa
Thor Heyerdahl
Poon Lim
References
External links
Rafting on the Drina River (1951) - BH Film - Official chanal
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Australian Reed Raft
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Brazilian Jangada
Homemade Raft Plans and Photos of Rafts
Neutrino Raft – vessels made from scrap
Types of Whitewater Rafts
! | wiki |
William or Bill Brawley may refer to:
William H. Brawley (1841–1916), U.S. Representative from South Carolina and U.S. federal judge
William M. Brawley (born 1949), member of the North Carolina General Assembly
Billy Brawley (born 1984), Scottish footballer
"Big Bill" Brawley, a character in the film The Bruiser | wiki |
Yanesha may refer to:
Yanesha people, an indigenous people of Peru
Yanesha language, their language
Yanesha Communal Reservation | wiki |
Destination: Love LIVE! at Cold Rice är ett album från 1996 av The Make-Up.
Låtarna på albumet
Musikalbum 1996 | wiki |
A spam blog, also known as an auto blog or the neologism splog, is a blog which the author uses to promote affiliated websites, to increase the search engine rankings of associated sites or to simply sell links/ads.
The purpose of a splog can be to increase the PageRank or backlink portfolio of affiliate websites, to artificially inflate paid ad impressions from visitors (see made for AdSense or MFA-blogs), and/or use the blog as a link outlet to sell links or get new sites indexed. Spam blogs are usually a type of scraper site, where content is often either inauthentic text or merely stolen (see blog scraping) from other websites. These blogs usually contain a high number of links to sites associated with the splog creator which are often disreputable or otherwise useless websites.
This is used often in conjunction with other spamming techniques, including spings.
History
The term splog was popularized around mid August 2005 when it was used publicly by Mark Cuban, It developed from multiple linkblogs that were trying to influence search indexes and others trying to Google bomb every word in the dictionary.
See also
Adversarial information retrieval
CAPTCHA
Blog scraping
Link farm
Spam in blogs
Spamdexing
References
External links
Blogger: About Spam Blogs
SVMs for the Blogosphere: Blog Identification and Splog Detection
news.com.com: "Tempted by blogs, spam becomes 'splog'"
The Guardian, 17 November 2005, "Cashing in on fake blogs"
Black hat search engine optimization
Blogs
Spamming | wiki |
Richard Lewis Johnson (December 18, 1946 – June 15, 1994) was an American professional basketball player.
A 6'9" center from Grambling State University, Johnson played parts of three seasons (1968–1971) with the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association. He averaged 4.7 points per game in his NBA career and won an NBA Championship ring in 1969.
Johnson later played for several American Basketball Association teams.
References
External links
Rich Johnson NBA Statistics at Basketball-Reference.com
1946 births
1994 deaths
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Louisiana
Boston Celtics draft picks
Boston Celtics players
Carolina Cougars players
Centers (basketball)
Grambling State Tigers men's basketball players
Miami Floridians players
Pittsburgh Condors players
Sportspeople from Alexandria, Louisiana
Wilkes-Barre Barons players | wiki |
Winding is a common name for an electromagnetic coil.
Winding may also refer to:
People with the name Winding:
Alberte Winding (born 1963), Danish singer and actress
Andréas Winding (1928–1977), French cinematographer
August Winding (1835–1899), Danish pianist and composer
Johannes Winding Harbitz (1831–1917), Norwegian politician
Kai Winding (1922–1983), Danish trombonist and jazz composer
Nicolas Winding Refn (born 1970), Danish filmmaker
Romain Winding (born 1951), French cinematographer
Victor Winding (1929–2014), British actor
Other uses:
Winding number, an integer representing the total number of times that a curve travels counterclockwise around a point
Winding hole, a widened section of canal used for turning boats
Winding, the lowering and raising of men and equipment in mining
Getting the wind knocked out of you
See also
Wind (disambiguation)
Wound (disambiguation)
Wingdings | wiki |
Une antitoxine est un anticorps ayant la capacité de neutraliser une toxine spécifique. Les antitoxines sont produites par certains animaux, plantes et bactéries.
Liens internes
Vaccination
Immunologie
Antidote | wiki |
The 2008 Michigan House of Representatives elections were held on November 4, 2008, with partisan primaries to select the parties' nominees in the various districts on August 5, 2008. , this remains the last time the Democrats won a majority in the Michigan State House.
Results
Districts 1–28
Districts 29–55
Districts 56–83
Districts 84–110
See also
Michigan Legislature
United States congressional delegations from Michigan
References
External links
Michigan Department of State
State of Michigan
Michigan Representatives
Gongwer News Service – Michigan
Michigan Information & Research Service
House of Representatives
2008
Michigan House of Representatives
November 2008 events in the United States | wiki |
Tanger is the French spelling of Tangier, sometimes called Tangiers, a city in Morocco.
Tanger may also refer to:
Geography
Tanger (river), a tributary to the Elbe in Germany
Tanger-Med, a Moroccan cargo port
People with the surname
Helen Tanger (born 1978), Dutch Olympic rower
Stanley Tanger (1923–2010), U.S. businessman and philanthropist
Sports
Atletico Tanger, a Moroccan football club
IR Tanger, a Moroccan football club
Other uses
Louise Arnold Tanger Arboretum, an arboretum in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Steven Tanger Center for the Performing Arts in Greensboro, North Carolina, U.S.
Tanger Factory Outlet Centers, a U.S. real estate company
Tanger Outlets The Walk, an open-air mall in Atlantic City, New Jersey, U.S.
Tanger Family Bicentennial Garden, a public garden in Greensboro, North Carolina, U.S. | wiki |
Pop's Ultimate Star was TV2's reality television show which pits former reality contestants againest each other, most of whom are former NZ Idol contestants. The show was produced by Eyeworks Touchdown, with first prize $50,000 and a Kia 'Rio' car. It is hosted by Dominic Bowden and was originally scheduled to be held in the St. James Theatre in Auckland. After damage to the St. James theatre the show was shifted to the Bruce Mason theatre before finally relocating to TVNZ's Avalon studio in Wellington.
Originally, public voting occurred from the performance show on Sunday, where the eventual two contestants who have the lowest public votes will then be in a "sing off" on Wednesday, where the judges eliminated one contestant. After week five, TVNZ changed the format and a contestant was eliminated in the Sunday night show by the judges after the two with the lowest number of public votes were chosen.
The judges are music industry veterans Peter Urlich from Th' Dudes, Jordan Luck from The Exponents, Harry Lyon from Hello Sailor and Kim Willoughby from When The Cat's Away. Lyon is the show's musical director and Willoughby the performance coach and stylist.
The show debuted on 29 May 2007, receiving mainly negative reviews, ranging from judges, song choice, lighting, singing and the most common one was the sound issue. Another controversial issue was the introduction of immunity challenges, during episodes two through four.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Contestant
! Placing
! Status
! Bottom 2
|-
| Joe Cotton
| Former singer – TrueBliss
Winner
|-
| Nik Carlson
| Runner-up, NZ Idol Season two
Runner-Up
|-
| Matthew Saunoa
| Winner, NZ Idol Season three
Eliminated
|-
| Emily Williams
| Runner-up, Australian Idol and singer – Young Divas
Eliminated
|Nik Carlson
|-
| David Wikaira-Paul
| Former actor – Shortland Street
Eliminated
| Nik Carlson
|-
| Ben Lummis
| Winner, NZ Idol Season one
Eliminated
| Emily Williams
|-
| Camillia Temple
| 3rd place, NZ Idol Season one
Eliminated
| Nik Carlson
|-
| Steve Broad
| 3rd place, NZ Idol Season two
Eliminated
| Camillia Temple
|-
| Rosita Vai
| Winner, NZ Idol Season two
Eliminated
| Nik Carlson
|-
| Keri Harper
| Former singer – TrueBliss
Eliminated
| Emily Williams
|}
External links
Official Homepage
New Zealand popular music
2007 New Zealand television series debuts
New Zealand reality television series
New Zealand music television series
TVNZ 2 original programming | wiki |
A wind instrument is a musical instrument that contains some type of resonator (usually a tube) in which a column of air is set into vibration by the player blowing into (or over) a mouthpiece set at or near the end of the resonator. The pitch of the vibration is determined by the length of the tube and by manual modifications of the effective length of the vibrating column of air. In the case of some wind instruments, sound is produced by blowing through a reed; others require buzzing into a metal mouthpiece, while yet others require the player to blow into a hole at an edge, which splits the air column and creates the sound.
Methods for obtaining different notes
Using different air columns for different tones, such as in the pan flute. These instruments can play several notes at once.
Changing the length of the vibrating air column by changing the length of the tube through engaging valves (see rotary valve, piston valve) which route the air through additional tubing, thereby increasing overall tube length, lowering the fundamental pitch. This method is used on nearly all brass instruments.
Changing the length of the vibrating air column by lengthening and/or shortening the tube using a sliding mechanism. This method is used on the trombone and the slide whistle.
Changing the frequency of vibration through opening or closing holes in the side of the tube. This can be done by covering the holes with fingers or pressing a key which then closes the hole. This method is used in nearly all woodwind instruments.
Making the column of air vibrate at different harmonics without changing the length of the column of air (see natural horn and harmonic series).
Almost all wind instruments use the last method, often in combination with one of the others, to extend their register.
Types
Wind instruments are typically grouped into two families:
Brass instruments (horns, trumpets, trombones, euphoniums, and tubas)
Woodwind instruments (recorders, flutes, oboes, clarinets, saxophones, and bassoons)
Woodwind instruments were originally made of wood, just as brass instruments were made of brass, but instruments are categorized based on how the sound is produced, not by the material used to construct them. For example Saxophones are typically made of brass, but are woodwind instruments because they produce sound with a vibrating reed. On the other hand, the didgeridoo, the wooden cornett (not to be confused with the cornet), and the serpent are all made of wood (or sometimes plastic), and the olifant is made from ivory, but all of them belong to the family of brass instruments because the vibration is initiated by the player's lips.
In brass instruments, the player's lips themselves vibrate, causing the air within the instrument to vibrate.
In woodwind instruments, the player either:
causes a reed to vibrate, which agitates the column of air (as in a saxophone, clarinet, oboe or duduk)
blows over a fipple, across an open hole against an edge (as in a recorder or ocarina), or
blows across the edge of an open hole (as in a flute).
In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, wind instruments are classed as aerophones.
Physics of sound production
Sound production in all wind instruments depends on the entry of air into a flow-control valve attached to a resonant chamber (resonator). The resonator is typically a long cylindrical or conical tube, open at the far end. A pulse of high pressure from the valve will travel down the tube at the speed of sound. It will be reflected from the open end as a return pulse of low pressure. Under suitable conditions, the valve will reflect the pulse back, with increased energy, until a standing wave forms in the tube.
Reed instruments such as the clarinet or oboe have a flexible reed or reeds at the mouthpiece, forming a pressure-controlled valve. An increase in pressure inside the chamber will decrease the pressure differential across the reed; the reed will open more, increasing the flow of air. The increased flow of air will increase the internal pressure further, so a pulse of high pressure arriving at the mouthpiece will reflect as a higher-pressure pulse back down the tube. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end. The reed vibrates at a rate determined by the resonator.
For Lip Reed (brass) instruments, the players control the tension in their lips so that they vibrate under the influence of the air flowing through them. They adjust the vibration so that the lips are most closed, and the air flow is lowest, when a low-pressure pulse arrives at the mouthpiece, to reflect a low-pressure pulse back down the tube. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end.
For Air Reed (flute and fipple-flute) instruments, the thin grazing air sheet (planar jet) flowing across an opening (mouth) in the pipe interacts with a sharp edge (labium) to generate sound. The jet is generated by the player, when blowing through a thin slit (flue). For recorders and flue organ pipes this slit is manufactured by the instrument maker and has a fixed geometry. In a transverse flute or a pan flute the slit is formed by the musicians between their lips.
Due to acoustic oscillation of the pipe the air in the pipe is alternatively compressed and expanded. This results in an alternating flow of air into and out of the pipe through the pipe mouth. The interaction of this transversal acoustic flow with the planar air jet induces at the flue exit (origin of the jet) a localised perturbation of the velocity profile of the jet. This perturbation is strongly amplified by the intrinsic instability of the jet as the fluid travels towards the labium. This results into a global transversal motion of the jet at the labium.
The amplification of perturbations of a jet by its intrinsic instability can be observed when looking at a plume of cigarette smoke. Any small amplitude motion of the hand holding the cigarette results into an oscillation of the plume increasing with distance upwards and eventually a chaotic motion (turbulence). The same jet oscillation can be triggered by gentle air flow in the room, which can be verified by waving with the other hand.
The oscillation of the jet around the labium results into a fluctuating force of the airflow on the labium. Following the third law of Newton the labium exerts an opposite reaction force on the flow. One can demonstrate that this reaction force is the source of sound that drives the acoustic oscillation of the pipe.
A quantitative demonstration of the nature of this type of sound source has been provided by Alan Powell when studying a planar jet interacting with a sharp edge in the absence of pipe (so called edgetone). The sound radiated from the edgetone can be predicted from a measurement of the unsteady force induced by the jet flow on the sharp edge (labium). The sound production by the reaction of the wall to an unsteady force of the flow around an object is also producing the aeolian sound of a cylinder placed normal to an air-flow (singing wire phenomenon). In all these cases (flute, edgetone, aeolian tone...) the sound production does not involve a vibration of the wall. Hence the material in which the flute is made is not relevant for the principle of the sound production. There is no essential difference between a golden or a silver flute.
The sound production in a flute can be described by a lumped element model in which the pipe acts as an acoustic swing (mass-spring system, resonator) that preferentially oscillates at a natural frequency determined by the length of the tube. The instability of the jet acts as an amplifier transferring energy from the steady jet flow at the flue exit to the oscillating flow around the labium. The pipe forms with the jet a feedback loop. These two elements are coupled at the flue exit and at the labium. At the flue exit the transversal acoustic flow of the pipe perturbs the jet. At the labium the jet oscillation results in a generation of acoustic waves, which maintain the pipe oscillation.
The acoustic flow in the pipe can for a steady oscillation be described in terms of standing waves. These waves have a pressure node at the mouth opening and another pressure node at the opposite open pipe termination. Standing waves inside such an open-open tube will be multiples of a half-wavelength.
To a rough approximation, a tube of about 40 cm. will exhibit resonances near the following points:
For a reed or lip-reed instrument: 220 Hz (A3), 660 Hz (E5), 1100 Hz (C#6).
For an air-reed instrument: 440 Hz (A4), 880 Hz (A5), 1320 Hz (E6).
In practice, however, obtaining a range of musically useful tones from a wind instrument depends to a great extent on careful instrument design and playing technique.
The frequency of the vibrational modes depends on the speed of sound in air, which varies with air density. A change in temperature, and only to a much smaller degree also a change in humidity, influences the air density and thus the speed of sound, and therefore affects the tuning of wind instruments. The effect of thermal expansion of a wind instrument, even of a brass instrument, is negligible compared to the thermal effect on the air.
Bell
The bell of a wind instrument is the round, flared opening opposite the mouthpiece. It is found on clarinets, saxophones, oboes, horns, trumpets and many other kinds of instruments. On brass instruments, the acoustical coupling from the bore to the outside air occurs at the bell for all notes, and the shape of the bell optimizes this coupling. It also plays a major role in transforming the resonances of the instrument. On woodwinds, most notes vent at the uppermost open tone holes; only the lowest notes of each register vent fully or partly at the bell, and the bell's function in this case is to improve the consistency in tone between these notes and the others.
Breath pressure
Playing some wind instruments, in particular those involving high breath pressure resistance, produce increases in intraocular pressure, which has been linked to glaucoma as a potential health risk. One 2011 study focused on brass and woodwind instruments observed "temporary and sometimes dramatic elevations and fluctuations in IOP". Another study found that the magnitude of increase in intraocular pressure correlates with the intraoral resistance associated with the instrument and linked intermittent elevation of intraocular pressure from playing high-resistance wind instruments to incidence of visual field loss. The range of intraoral pressure involved in various classes of ethnic wind instruments, such as Native American flutes, has been shown to be generally lower than Western classical wind instruments.
See also
Aeotana
Aerophone
Concert band
Shorthand for orchestra instrumentation
References
Further reading
Wind Instrument Summary CDs are: "Microsoft Musical Instruments" ( now out of production but sometimes available on Amazon ), and "Tuneful Tubes?" ( http://sites.google.com/site/tunefultubes )
External links
Aerophones | wiki |
Gender feminism may refer to:
A term used by Christina Hoff Sommers in the 1994 book Who Stole Feminism?
A form of difference feminism
Care-focused feminism | wiki |
Say Hey may refer to:
Sports
Willie Mays (1931- ), American baseball player, nicknamed “the Say Hey Kid”
Music
Say Hey Records, music label
"Say Hey", a single from Ira Losco discography
"Say Hey", a song by the Tubes from Love Bomb (The Tubes album)
"Say Hey", a song by Kylie Minogue from Impossible Princess 1997
"Say Hey (I Love You)", a 2008 song by Michael Franti & Spearhead featuring Jamaica Cherine Anderson | wiki |
The St. Louis Stock Exchange was a regional stock exchange located in St. Louis, Missouri. Opened in 1899, in September 1949, the St. Louis Stock Exchange was acquired by the Chicago Stock Exchange, and renamed the Midwest Stock Exchange.
History
Early years of the exchange
The St. Louis Stock Exchange opened in 1899. Trade volume peaked a year later with $44 million. In April 1902, St. Louis Stock Exchange president Alfred H. Bauer announced that committees had been elected to serve for one year terms. The constitution and bylaws of the new exchange were adopted on January 3, 1903, and made effective on February 1, 1903.
According to stock exchange president George Herbert Walker, business transacted on the exchange floor was less in 1904 than in 1903, as with other regional stock exchanges in major cities excluding New York. Trust companies in 1904 traded 18,440 shares for $3,567,591, banks traded 5,698 shares valued at $1,548,878, mining stocks of 17,077 were traded for $7,866, and miscellaneous stocks saw 12,144 shares traded for $770,767. A great deal of business was also done with United Railways, St. Louis Transit Company, and Brown Brothers. Total transactions in 1904 came to $10.5 million, against $16.4 million in 1903.
On November 13, 1908, The New York Times reported that stock value in St. Louis banks and trusts companies had increased by $3,020,000 since October 31, due to a "complete revival of confidence" in the St. Louis Stock Exchange. The times stated that brokers related that it was the heaviest buying the city had seen in three years, leaving them "almost unable to accommodate their patrons." Stock value and trading was for companies such as the Mercantile Trust Company, the Boatmen's Bank, the Mechanics' American National Bank, the National Bank of Commerce, and industrial and manufacturing stocks such as the American Car and Foundry Company. On November 13, the latter announced it would reopen its Detroit shops soon as a result on secured contracts.
Financial crisis of 1914
After closing for four months during a financial crisis on July 30, 1914, the president of the exchange board of directors announced on December 4, 1914, that the St. Louis Stock Exchange would open the following week. In a meeting on December 7, the governors of the exchange had a special meeting and voted to resume trading in stocks unanimously, with price restrictions and after assurances that bankers believed the financial situation had improved. The meeting noted 180 stocks made public, out of the 565 issues on the board. A statement from the exchange's Committee of Five asserted that the exchange would open again on Saturday, December 12, with hours resuming between 10 and 3 o'clock each day except Saturday, when dealings ended at noon. On the reopening, the Times reported that "opening prices were steady and demand for high-grade securities good."
Market and policy changes
On April 13, 1926, directors of the exchange voted to extend trading time from 75 minutes to two and a half hours, from 10 am to 12:30 pm except Saturday, "thereby placing the local exchange on a parity with exchanges in other cities." The board also established stock lists of trading quotations. As of early 1927, Harry S. Rein was chairman of the exchange. On January 12, 1927, he announced that in 1925, the exchange had seen stock sales totaling 591,966 shares, or $32,087,323. In 1926, it had fallen to a total of 382,856 shares, or $17,101,763 in value.
On March 26, 1929, the exchange saw a session close without an issue scoring a gain, as "nine issues reached new lows" for the year.
On April 5, 1938, the exchange elected J. Gates Williams as president to succeed president Ben F. Jacobs.
Proposed merger
On August 30, 1948, the press reported that several brokers in multiple cities were discussing a large merger of several midwestern stock exchanges. The plan at that point included exchanges in Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and St. Louis. With a projected volume of $350,000,000 a year in trading, it would make the proposed exchange the largest in the United States outside of New York. St. Louis Stock Exchange officers refused to talk to the press about the plan, and the exchange at that point had a normal business annually of $7,000,000. On May 26, the members of the exchange voted twenty-six to eight in favor of the merger. On June 10, 1949, The New York Times reported that the proposed merger had resulted in disagreement within St. Louis financial circles. A key anti-consolidation group was said to include the four companies whose stocks were most active on the local St. Louis exchange: Wagner Electric Company, Laclede Steel Company, F. Burkart Manufacturing Company, and Griesedieck-Western Brewery Company.
On June 27, 1949, the president of the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, George C. Smith, said that the proposed September 1 merger between the St. Louis exchange with three exchanges would cause "some grave injuries" to the city. The banks also maintained that they might lose most of the exchange business to Chicago banks, where the new proposed exchange would be headquartered. a group opposing the merger sought a new ballot on the project, maintaining that the merger would omit from slower moving St. Louis stocks from the Chicago listings, leaving them to be sold over-the-counter in St. Louis.
On June 29, president of St. Louis exchange John A. Isaacs Jr. declared in letter to exchang members and all St. Louis banks that the merger was "the only practicable means of providing a strong market for midwest companies," and a necessity. He noted that business in the exchange had been drying up, with much of the business moving east.
More protests were lodged in early July 1949, by four brokers in the firm: Paul Brown & Co, A. G. Edwards & Sons, Edward D. Jones & Co. and I. M. Simon & Co. They said they "deny the right of any majority of the members of the exchange here to dissolve." On July 14, 1949, the governing committee of the St. Louis Stock Exchange signed a formal contract to join the new Midwest exchange, overruling the four members firm who had recently voiced opposition. The official merger between the five midwest exchanges was set for September 15, 1949.
On June 29, 1949, St. Louis exchange president John A. Isaacs Jr. promoted the merger in a letter, and stated that recent lows in trading were "not limited to St. Louis. The trend has been shared by other regional exchanges. After meeting (on the subject of a merger), it was concluded the only way to save an active exchange market for midwestern securities was to concentrate the trading on one large exchange."
Merger
In September 1949, the St. Louis Stock Exchange was acquired by the Chicago Stock Exchange, and renamed the Midwest Stock Exchange.
See also
St. Louis Mining and Stock Exchange
List of former stock exchanges in the Americas
List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas
Economy of St. Louis
References
Former stock exchanges in the United States
1899 establishments in Missouri
1949 disestablishments in the United States | wiki |
General Cole may refer to:
Charles H. Cole (1871–1952), Massachusetts Volunteer Militia general
Eli K. Cole (1867–1929), U.S. Marine Corps major general
Eric Cole (1906–1992), British Army major general
Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772–1842), British Army general
George Cole (British Army officer) (1911–1973), British Army lieutenant general
George M. Cole (1853–1933), U.S. Army major general
George W. Cole (1827–1875), Union Army brevet major general
John T. Cole (1895–1975), U.S. Army brigadier general
Jonathan Cole (British Army officer) (born 1967), British Army major general
Nelson D. Cole (1833–1899), U.S. Army brigadier general
Thomas F. Cole (general) (born 1928), U.S. Army major general
William E. Cole (1874–1953), U.S. Army major general
See also
Attorney General Cole (disambiguation) | wiki |
Last mile may refer to:
Last mile (telecommunications), the final leg of a telecoms network
Last mile (transportation), the final leg
"Last Mile", a song by Badmarsh & Shri from the album Signs
See also
The Last Mile (disambiguation) | wiki |
Microsoft Student is a discontinued application from Microsoft designed to help students in schoolwork and homework. It included Encarta, as well as several student-exclusive tools such as additional Microsoft Office templates (called Learning Essentials) and integration with other Microsoft applications, like Microsoft Word. An example of that is data citations, Encarta dictionary and research Encarta features, which are available in a toolbar in Word.
The product also included Microsoft Math, language and literature resources (book summaries), and research tools (such as access to an online version of Encarta). Student 2006 was the first version of the product and a new version was produced by Microsoft every year until 2009.
Microsoft announced in March 2009 that they will cease to sell Microsoft Student and all editions of the Encarta encyclopedia by June 2009, citing changes in the way people seek information and in the traditional encyclopedia and reference material market as the key reasons behind the termination. Encarta's closing is widely attributed to competition from the larger online encyclopedia Wikipedia.
References
Student | wiki |
Mary McElroy may refer to:
Mary Arthur McElroy (1841–1917), sister of the 21st President of the United States, Chester A. Arthur
Mary McElroy (kidnapping victim) (c. 1907–1940), American kidnapping victim
Mary S. McElroy (born 1965), U.S. federal judge from Rhode Island | wiki |
Jennie, Jenny, or Jennifer Robertson may refer to:
People
Jennifer Robertson, Canadian actress, also known as Jenn
Jennie Smillie Robertson (1878-1981), Canadian physician
Jennifer Robertson (athlete) in 1989 IAAF World Cross Country Championships – Junior women's race
Jennifer Robertson (Quadriga), heir to Quadriga cryptocurrency fund
Jennifer Ellen Robertson on List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 2011
Fictional characters
Jennifer Robertson, character in A Smile Like Yours
Jennifer Robertson, character in The Seán Cullen Show
Jenny Robertson, character in Jenny Robertson, Your Friend is not Coming, story in Free Love and Other Stories
Jenny Robertson, character in Attack of the Herbals
See also
Jennifer Roberson (born 1953), American author
Jean Robertson (disambiguation) | wiki |
Delayed ejaculation (DE) describes a man's inability or persistent difficulty in achieving orgasm, despite typical sexual desire and sexual stimulation. Generally, a man can reach orgasm within a few minutes of active thrusting during sexual intercourse, whereas a man with delayed ejaculation either does not have orgasms at all or cannot have an orgasm until after prolonged intercourse which might last for 30–45 minutes or more. Delayed ejaculation is closely related to anorgasmia.
In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), fifth edition, the definition of DE requires 1 of 2 symptoms: either a marked delay in or a marked infrequency or absence of ejaculation on 75% to 100% of occasions for at least 6 months of partnered sexual activity without the individual desiring delay, and causing significant distress to the individual. DE is meant to describe any and all of the ejaculatory disorders that result in a delay or absence of ejaculation. The Third International Consultation on Sexual Medicine defined DE as an IELT threshold beyond 20 to 25
minutes of sexual activity, as well as negative personal consequences such as bother or distress. Of note, most men's intravaginal ejaculation latency time range is approximately 4 to 10 minutes. While ejaculatory latency and control were significant criteria to differentiate men with DE from those without ejaculatory disorders, bother/distress did not emerge as a significant factor.
Delayed ejaculation is the least common of the male sexual dysfunctions, and can result as a side effect of some medications. In one survey, 8% of men reported being unable to achieve orgasm over a two-month period or longer in the previous year. DEs are either primary and lifelong or acquired. Acquired DEs may be situational. While most men do experience occasional or short term delayed ejaculation issues, the prevalence of lifelong DE and acquired long term DE is estimated around 1% and 4%, respectively.
Signs and symptoms
Delayed ejaculation can be mild (men who still experience orgasm during intercourse, but only under certain conditions), moderate (cannot ejaculate during intercourse, but can during fellatio or manual stimulation), severe (can ejaculate only when alone), or most severe (cannot ejaculate at all). All forms may result in a sense of sexual frustration. In most cases, delayed ejaculation presents the condition in which the man can climax and ejaculate only during masturbation, but not during sexual intercourse. As of 2015, the DSM-V uses the term "delayed ejaculation" instead of older terms such as "inhibited ejaculation", "impotent ejaculation" or "retarded ejaculation". To determine what amount of time counts as delayed, one source uses a measurement of the mean time for a man to achieve ejaculation in a study of 500 couples having heterosexual vaginal intercourse, which was 8 minutes (with a standard deviation of 7.1 minutes).Due to men's reputation for being reliably able to ejaculate during sex, in cases where a man faces delayed ejaculation, the woman may perceive that it is due to her not being attractive or due to a fault in her sexual techniques.
Causes
The etiologies of delayed ejaculation can be age-related, organic, psychological, or pharmacological.
Primary lifelong DEs are poorly understood and rarely explained by few congenital anatomic causes (viz., Müllerian duct cyst, Wolfian duct abnormalities, prune belly syndrome, imperforate anus, congenital ejaculatory duct obstruction, genetic abnormalities including cystic fibrosis, etc.)
Anatomic causes (acquired ejaculatory duct obstruction)
Infective/Inflammation (residual damage from acute infections, chronic infections, urethritis, prostatitis, orchitis, genitourinary tuberculosis, schistosomiasis, lichen sclerosis, etc.)
Neurogenic causes (diabetic autonomic neuropathy, spinal cord or nerve root injury from trauma or disc prolapse, multiple sclerosis, etc.). DE can be due to the injury to pelvic nerves responsible for orgasm from trauma as a result of pelvic surgery (viz., prostate surgery including transurethral resection of prostate and bladder neck incision, proctocolectomy, bilateral sympathectomy, abdominal aortic aneurysmectomy, para-aortic lymphadenectomy etc.). Some men report a lack of sensation in the nerves of the glans penis, which may or may not be related to external factors, including a history of circumcision.
Endocrine (hypogonadism, pituitary disorders such as hyperprolactinaemia and Cushing's disease, thyroid disorders, etc.). Although low testosterone level had been considered a risk factor in the past, more recent studies have not confirmed any association between ejaculation times and serum testosterone levels.
Delayed ejaculation is a possible side effect of alcohol and certain medications, including antipsychotics, antidepressants including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), opiates such as morphine or oxycodone, many benzodiazepines such as Valium or Xanax, and certain antihypertensives including thiazide diuretics, alpha-adrenergic blockers and ganglion blockers. Although they may increase sexual desire, stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine have an inhibitory effect on ejaculation, and can cause erectile dysfunction and reduced penile sensitivity via their vasoconstrictive effects.
Psychological (acute psychological distress, relationship distress, psychosexual skill deficit, disconnect between arousal and sexual situations, masturbation style and frequency, etc.)
Psychological and lifestyle factors have been discussed as potential contributors, including insufficient sleep, distraction due to worry, distraction from the environment, anxiety about pleasing their partner and anxiety about relationship problems.
Religious guilt over sex can cause delayed ejaculation.
"Spectatoring", the problem of perceiving sex as a performance rather than a mutual experience and process of pleasure "in the moment" can cause delayed ejaculation.
Men who are solely aroused by sexual fetishes may be unable to ejaculate from regular intercourse.
Idiosyncratic masturbation and lack of desire for stimuli are also proposed risk factors for DE. The word Idiosyncratic means something that pertains to an individual. In this case, it means a person who has a way of masturbating that is unique (or out of the ordinary). Most men stroke their penis with their hand in a way that vaguely imitates the stimulation from intercourse. An idiosyncratic style is defined as a technique not easily duplicated by a partner utilizing their hand, mouth, anus, or vagina. In these patients delayed ejaculation is adaptation to a certain masturbatory technique. Lawrence Sank (1998) wrote about the "Traumatic masturbatory syndrome", when the sensations a man feels when masturbating may bear little resemblance to the sensations he experiences during intercourse. Factors such as pressure, angle and grip during masturbation can make for an experience so different from sex with a partner that the ability to ejaculate is reduced or eliminated. One in three men with DE report Idiosyncratic masturbation. Also, high-frequency masturbation is associated with prolonged DE in penetrative sex with the partner accounting for another one third of the cases. Fantasy/partner disparity – that is to say, variant sexual fantasy during masturbation that was not incorporated into sex with their partner – accounted for one in five DEs. According to DSM-5-TR, "Delayed ejaculation is associated with highly frequent masturbation, use of masturbation techniques not easily duplicated by a partner, and marked disparities between sexual fantasies during masturbation and the reality of sex with a partner."
Intravaginal ejaculation disorder is a peculiar Japanese case, but is very similar to "traumatic masturbatory syndrome," which is also mainly caused by intense masturbation.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis and management of DE warrant one of the most comprehensive medical evaluation in sexual health assessment that includes a full medical and sexual history performed along with a detailed physical examination. Understanding the quality of the sexual response cycle (desire, arousal, ejaculation, orgasm, and refractory period); details of the ejaculatory response, sensation, frequency, and sexual activity/techniques; cultural context and history of the disorder; partner's assessment of the disorder and if the partner has any sexual dysfunction themselves; and the overall satisfaction of the sexual relationship are all important to garner during history-taking.
Relatively normal latency to orgasm with self masturbation as compared to insertive or intravaginal ejaculation latency time reasonably rules out most of the organic causes of DEs.
Treatment
Primary, lifelong DEs are poorly understood and hence less well studied. Organic causes in the acquired DEs should be addresses promptly. Retraining masturbatory practices and re-calibrating the mismatch of sexual fantasies with arousal are essential when these are contributing to DE. Techniques geared towards reduction of anxiety are important skills that can help overcome performance anxiety, as this can often interrupt the natural erectile function through orgasmic progression.
Sex therapy
Therapy usually involves homework assignments and exercises intended to help a man get used to having orgasms through insertional intercourse, vaginal, anal, or oral, that is through the way to which he is not accustomed. Commonly, the couple is advised to go through three stages. At the first stage, a man masturbates in the presence of his partner. Sometimes, this is not an easy matter as a man may be used to having orgasms alone. After a man learns to ejaculate in the presence of his partner, the man's hand is replaced with the hand of his partner. In the final stage, the receptive partner inserts the insertive partner's penis into the partner's vagina, anus, or mouth as soon as the ejaculation is felt to be imminent. Thus, a man gradually learns to ejaculate inside the desired orifice by an incremental process.
Medication
There is as yet no reliable medication for all cases of delayed ejaculation. Some studies have found that PDE5 inhibitors such as Viagra have little effect. Viagra can have a delaying effect on ejaculation, possibly through additional effect in the brain or decrease of sensitivity in the head of the penis.
Cabergoline, an agonist of dopamine D2 receptors which inhibits prolactin production, was found in a small study to fully restore orgasm in one third of anorgasmic subjects, and partially restore orgasm in another third. Limited data has shown that the drug amantadine may help to relieve SSRI-induced orgasmic dysfunction. Cyproheptadine, buspirone, stimulants such as amphetamines (including the antidepressant bupropion), nefazodone has been used to treat SSRI-induced anorgasmia. Reducing the SSRI dosage may also resolve anorgasmia problems. Yohimbine has been shown to be effective in the treatment of orgasmic dysfunction in men.
Other
Meditation has demonstrated effectiveness in case studies.
See also
Anorgasmia
Edging (sexual practice)
Premature ejaculation
Retrograde ejaculation
Sexual repression
References
External links
Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia – Delayed ejaculation.
Sexual health
Orgasm
Ejaculation | wiki |
A ball and chain is a physical restraint device historically applied to prisoners, primarily in the British Empire and its former colonies, from the 17th century until as late as the mid-20th century. A type of shackle, the ball and chain is designed so that the weight of the iron ball at the end of the short chain restricts and limits the pace at which its wearer is able to move, making any attempt at escape much more difficult.
See also
Electronic tagging
References
Physical restraint
Iron objects | wiki |
Flying qualities is one of the three principal regimes in the science of flight test, which also includes performance and systems. Flying qualities involves the study and evaluation of the stability and control characteristics of an aircraft. They have a critical bearing on the safety of flight and on the ease of controlling an airplane in steady flight and in maneuvers.
Relation to stability
To understand the discipline of flying qualities, the concept of stability should be understood. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim; that is, there are no unbalanced forces or moments acting on the vehicle to cause it to deviate from steady flight. If this condition exists, and if the vehicle is disturbed, stability refers to the tendency of the vehicle to return to the trimmed condition. If the vehicle initially tends to return to a trimmed condition, it is said to be statically stable. If it continues to approach the trimmed condition without overshooting, the motion is called a subsidence. If the motion causes the vehicle to overshoot the trimmed condition, it may oscillate back and forth. If this oscillation damps out, the motion is called a damped oscillation and the vehicle is said to be dynamically stable. On the other hand, if the motion increases in amplitude, the vehicle is said to be dynamically unstable.
The theory of stability of airplanes was worked out by G. H. Bryan in England in 1904. This theory is essentially equivalent to the theory taught to aeronautical students today and was a remarkable intellectual achievement considering that at the time Bryan developed the theory, he had not even heard of the Wright brothers' first flight. Because of the complication of the theory and the tedious computations required in its use, it was rarely applied by airplane designers. Obviously, to fly successfully, pilotless airplanes had to be dynamically stable. The airplane flown by the Wright brothers, and most airplanes flown thereafter, were not stable, but by trial and error, designers developed a few planes that had satisfactory flying qualities. Many other airplanes, however, had poor flying qualities, which sometimes resulted in crashes.
Handling qualities are those characteristics of a flight vehicle that govern the ease and precision with which a pilot is able to perform a flying task. This includes the human-machine interface. The way in which particular vehicle factors affect flying qualities has been studied in aircraft for decades, and reference standards for the flying qualities of both fixed-wing aircraft and rotary-wing aircraft have been developed and are now in common use. These standards define a subset of the dynamics and control design space that provides good handling qualities for a given vehicle type and flying task.
Historical development
Bryan showed that the stability characteristics of airplanes could be separated into longitudinal and lateral groups with the corresponding motions called modes of motion. These modes of motion were either aperiodic, which means that the airplane steadily approaches or diverges from a trimmed condition, or oscillatory, which means that the airplane oscillates about the trim condition. The longitudinal modes of a statically stable airplane following a disturbance were shown to consist of a long-period oscillation called the phugoid oscillation, usually with a period in seconds about one-quarter of the airspeed in miles per hour and a short-period oscillation with a period of only a few seconds. The lateral motion had three modes of motion: an aperiodic mode called the spiral mode that could be a divergence or subsidence, a heavily damped aperiodic mode called the roll subsidence, and a short-period oscillation, usually poorly damped, called the Dutch roll mode.
Some early airplane designers attempted to make airplanes that were dynamically stable, but it was found that the requirements for stability conflicted with those for satisfactory flying qualities. Meanwhile, no information was available to guide the designer as to just what characteristics should be incorporated to provide satisfactory flying qualities.
By the 1930s, there was a general feeling that airplanes should be dynamically stable, but some aeronautical engineers were starting to recognize the conflict between the requirements for stability and flying qualities. To resolve this question, Edward Warner, who was working as a consultant to the Douglas Aircraft Company on the design of the DC-4, a large four-engine transport airplane, made the first effort in the United States to write a set of requirements for satisfactory flying qualities. Dr. Warner, a member of the main committee of the NACA, also requested that a flight study be made to determine the flying qualities of an airplane along the lines of the suggested requirements. This study was conducted by Hartley A. Soulé of Langley. Entitled Preliminary Investigation of the Flying Qualities of Airplanes, Soulé's report showed several areas in which the suggested requirements needed revision and showed the need for more research on other types of airplanes. As a result, a program was started by Robert R. Gilruth with Melvin N. Gough as the chief test pilot.
Evaluation of flying qualities
The technique for the study of flying qualities requirements used by Gilruth was first to install instruments to record relevant quantities such as control positions and forces, airplane angular velocities, linear accelerations, airspeed, and altitude. Then a program of specified flight conditions and maneuvers was flown by an experienced test pilot. After the flight, data were transcribed from the records and the results were correlated with pilot opinion. This approach would be considered routine today, but it was a notable original contribution by Gilruth that took advantage of the flight recording instruments already available at Langley and the variety of airplanes available for tests under comparable conditions.
An important quantity in flying qualities measurements in turns or pull-ups is the variation of control force on the control stick or wheel with the value of acceleration normal to the flight direction expressed in g units. This quantity is usually called the force per g.
Relation to Spacecraft
A new generation of spacecraft now under development by NASA to replace the Space Shuttle and return astronauts to the Moon will have a manual control capability for several mission tasks, and the ease and precision with which pilots can execute these tasks will have an important effect on performance, mission risk and training costs. No reference standards currently exist for flying qualities of piloted spacecraft.
See also
Flight test
Cooper-Harper rating scale
Pilot-induced oscillation
Longitudinal static stability
Flight envelope
References
External links
Airplane Stability and Control by Malcolm L. Abzug
Stengel R F: Flight Dynamics. Princeton University Press 2004, .
Aerospace engineering | wiki |
A Bullfight is a fight between a bull and a man
Bullfight, or The Bullfight may also refer to:
Bullfight (Goya), 1824 painting by Goya
The Bullfight, novelette by Yasushi Inoue 1949
Bullfight, play with music by Rolando Valdés-Blain
The Bullfight (La Course de taureaux, 1951) documentary film by Pierre Braunberger
"Bullfight", song by A Day to Remember from Bad Vibrations 2016 | wiki |
Food market may mean
Marketplace, a public market with vendor stalls or spaces
A retail store selling food such as a
Grocery store
Supermarket
Hypermarket
General store (historically)
Food marketing, the science of marketing applied to food retailing | wiki |
Brown rot may refer to the following diseases:
Wood-decay fungus, fungi that digest moist wood, causing rot, includes various species that infect living trees and cured wood
Ralstonia solanacearum, an aerobic, non-sporing, plant pathogenic bacterium that causes brown rot in a wide range of crops
Monilinia fructicola, a plant pathogenic fungus, the cause of brown rot in stone fruits, such as plums, peaches, nectarines and almonds
Two of the Gnomoniopsis - G. smithogilvyii or G. castanea - in chestnuts
Almond brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola | wiki |
The Robert Louis Stevenson Memorial is an outdoor memorial commemorating Robert Louis Stevenson, in Portsmouth Square, San Francisco, California.
References
External links
Chinatown, San Francisco
Monuments and memorials in California
Outdoor sculptures in San Francisco
Robert Louis Stevenson | wiki |
The 2015 Carlow Senior Hurling Championship was the 86th staging of the Carlow Senior Hurling Championship since its establishment by the Carlow County Board in 1887. The championship began on 11 July 2015 and ended on 18 October 2015.
St. Mullin's were the defending champions.
On 18 October 2015, St. Mullin's won the championship following a 1-14 to 0-10 defeat of Mount Leinster Rangers in the final. This was their 25th championship title, their second in succession.
Results
Semi-finals
Final
References
Carlow Senior Hurling Championship
Carlow Senior Hurling Championship | wiki |
First Cut may refer to:
First Cut (UK TV series), a British series of documentaries
First Cut (U.S. TV series), an American medical drama series on The CW Television Network, retitled Emily Owens, M.D.
First Cut (album), 2000 album by Mai Kuraki
The First Cut – The Immediate Anthology, 2001 album by P.P. Arnold
Vacancy 2: The First Cut, 2008 American film
Caedmon's Song, also known as The First Cut, 1990 novel by Peter Robinson
Neighboring Sounds (band), formerly known as The First Cut, an indie band from Bergen, Norway
See also
Rough cut, the first cut of a film
First haircut | wiki |
Moby Duck may refer to:
Moby Duck (Disney), a Disney cartoon character
Moby Duck (film), a 1965 Warner Bros. animated film short
The Seafair Pirates' ship
Moby-Duck: The True Story of 28,800 Bath Toys Lost at Sea and of the Beachcombers, Oceanographers, Environmentalists, and Fools, Including the Author, Who Went in Search of Them, a 2011 book by Donovan Hohn | wiki |
The 1987 Cincinnati Bengals season was the team's 18th in the National Football League (NFL). The team could not improve upon its 10–6 year of the previous campaign, as the team dipped to a record of 4–11 in a season shortened by one game due to another players' strike, in which replacement players were used for three games.
Offseason
NFL Draft
Personnel
Staff
Roster
NFL replacement players
After the league decided to use replacement players during the NFLPA strike, the following team was assembled:
Regular season
Schedule
Standings
Team leaders
Passing
Rushing
Receiving
Defensive
Kicking and punting
Special teams
Awards and records
Anthony Muñoz, AFC Pro Bowl Selection
Tim Krumrie, AFC Pro Bowl Selection
References
External links
1987 Cincinnati Bengals at Pro-Football-Reference.com
Cincinnati Bengals
Cincinnati Bengals seasons
Cinc | wiki |
Weeton – miejscowość w hrabstwie East Riding of Yorkshire (Anglia)
Weeton – miejscowość w hrabstwie Lancashire (Anglia)
Weeton – miejscowość w hrabstwie North Yorkshire (Anglia) | wiki |
CnaG is an abbreviation for two separate Gaelic organisations:
Cumann na nGaedheal ("Society of the Gaels") - an historic political party in Ireland
Comunn na Gàidhlig ("The Gaelic language Society") - an organisation which seeks to promote Scottish Gaelic language and culture | wiki |
Mystery Road may refer to:
Mystery Road (film), a 2013 Australian neo-western crime film
Mystery Road (TV series), an Australian television drama series beginning in 2018
Mystery Road (album), a 1989 album by Drivin N Cryin
The Mystery Road, a 1921 British drama film
See also
Gravity hill, a geographical phenomenon where a downward-sloping hill appears to slope upward | wiki |
The Fellowship of Christian Councils in Southern Africa (FOCCISA) is an international ecumenical organization. Founded in 1980 as the Fellowship of Christian Councils in East and Southern Africa, it changed to its current name in 1999. It is a member of the World Council of Churches. FOCCISA members include:
Botswana Council of Churches
Christian Council of Lesotho
Christian Council of Mozambique
Christian Council of Tanzania
Council of Christian Churches in Angola
Council of Churches in Namibia
Council of Churches in Zambia
Council of Swaziland Churches
Malawi Council of Churches
National Council of Churches of Kenya
South African Council of Churches
Zimbabwe Council of Churches
External links
Economic Justice Network of FOCCISA
World Council of Churches listing
Christian organizations established in 1980
Members of the World Council of Churches
Christian organizations based in Africa
Regional councils of churches | wiki |
The President Is Missing may refer to:
The President Is Missing (novel) (2018)
The President Is Missing (video game) (1988)
See also
The President's Plane Is Missing (disambiguation) | wiki |
Ciak... si canta! – programma televisivo italiano
Ciak, si canta – TV movie statunitense | wiki |
Bulgakov Museum may refer to:
Bulgakov Museum in Moscow, Russia
Mikhail Bulgakov Museum, Kiev, Ukraine
Bulgakov exposition in the One Street Museum, Kiev, Ukraine | wiki |
Feather headdress may refer to:
War bonnet (Plains Indians)
Montezuma's headdress (Mexico)
Mahiole (Hawaii)
Toupha (Byzantium)
See also
Featherwork
Headgear
Featherwork | wiki |
Matka may refer to:
Places
Matka, Estonia, a village in Lüganuse Parish, Ida-Viru County, Estonia
Matka Canyon, a canyon in the Republic of North Macedonia
Matka, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Matka, Saraj, a village in Saraj Municipality, Republic of North Macedonia
Other
Matka (silk), a type of silk fabric in ancient India
Matka gambling, a type of betting and lottery
Matka-class missile boat, a group of hydrofoil missile boats built for the Soviet Navy
Matki (earthen pot)
Ghatam, a percussion instrument
Mother (opera) (), a 1929 quarter-tone opera by Alois Hába
The Mother (Čapek play) (), a 1938 play by Karel Čapek
See also | wiki |
Premi e riconoscimenti
McDonald's All-American Game (2001)
NCAA AP All-America First Team (2005)
NCAA AP All-America Third Team (2004)
Miami Heat: 2006
Altri progetti
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Weight/Measurement (W/M) is een methode om vrachttarieven te bepalen.
Bij zeevracht wordt aangehouden: per 1000 kilogram of per kubieke meter, afhankelijk welke van de twee factoren het grootst is. Een zeer licht product zal op volume worden gefactureerd, een product met veel massa wordt op gewicht gefactureerd.
Bij luchtvracht gaat het meestal om lagere gewichten en kleinere afmetingen. Daar wordt per kilogram of per 7000 kubieke centimeters (één kubieke voet) gehanteerd, afhankelijk welke factor het grootst is.
Goederenvervoer | wiki |
The Cycle Queens of America is a women's motorcycle club founded by Margaret Bonham of Washington, DC and Delores Davis of Philadelphia in 1958 after she was excluded from the then all White women's motorcycle club called the Motor Maids. Its members came from numerous states in the USA and its uniform was red and white. Unlike others women's clubs of the time, to clarified misconceptions of its being a "Negro club" club secretary Davis stated in 1962 that it was never a racial segregated. Cycle Queens members held field meets in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky and Maryland and were competing in many races at the time. Members ranged from 23 to 65 years old.
The club organized field events and raise donations for charity.
References
Motorcycle clubs in the United States
Organizations established in 1958
1958 establishments in the United States | wiki |
The word preserve may refer to:
Common uses
Fruit preserves, a type of sweet spread or condiment
Nature reserve, an area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or other special interest, usually protected
Arts, entertainment, and media
Preserve, a 2004 compilation involving the band Wow & Flutter
"Preserve", a 2013 season 2 episode of The Mind of a Chef
Other uses
Preserve (company), an American sustainable consumer goods company
Preserve (horse), a British Thoroughbred racehorse
See also
Food preservation
Preservation (disambiguation)
Protection (disambiguation) | wiki |
A tankard is a form of drinkware.
Tankard or The Tankard may also refer to:
Tankard (surname), including a list of people with the surname
Tankard (band), a German thrash metal band
The Tankard (album), a 1995 album by the band
Ontario Tankard, Ontario men's provincial curling championship
See also | wiki |
Gaula or GAULA may refer to:
Places
Gaula (Madeira), a civil parish in the municipality of Santa Cruz in the island of Madeira in Portugal
Gaula (Trøndelag), a river in Trøndelag county in Norway
Gaula river valley or Gauldalen, a valley in Trøndelag county in Norway
Gaula (Vestland), a river in Vestland county in Norway
Gaula River (India), a river in India originating in the Lesser Himalayas
Other
Gaula (newspaper), a local Norwegian newspaper
Gaula (raga), a musical scale (raga) in Carnatic music (South Indian classical music)
Amadigi di Gaula, a "magic" opera in three acts, with music by George Frideric Handel
Grupos de Acción Unificada por la Libertad Personal (Unified Action Groups for Personal Liberty), groups in the National Army of Colombia combating hostage-taking | wiki |
The Dermocarpellaceae are a family of cyanobacteria.
References
Pleurocapsales
Cyanobacteria families | wiki |
Preincarnate may refer to:
Pre-existence of Christ
Preincarnate (album), 2002 album by Bethany Joy Lenz
Preincarnate (novel), 2010 novella by Shaun Micallef | wiki |
Caryophyllia scillaemorpha est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Caryophylliidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Liens externes
Notes et références
Caryophylliidae | wiki |
Nightwish is a 1989 American science fiction horror film directed by Bruce R. Cook and produced by Andrew Keith Walley. The film starred Brian Thompson, Jack Starrett, Elizabeth Kaitan, Alisha Das and Clayton Rohner.
Cast
Brian Thompson - Dean
Jack Starrett - Professor
Elizabeth Kaitan - Donna
Alisha Das - Kim
Clayton Rohner - Jack
Robert Tessier - Stanley
Tom Dugan - Wendall
Gayle Vance - Fruit Stand Lady
Reception
Rue Morgue reviewed the film in 2019, noting that "There are a number of beautiful green-lit dream sequences and séances in Nightwish that give off a Re-Animator vibe, which makes sense because the Art Director worked on both films."
References
External links
1989 films
1989 horror films
American horror films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films | wiki |
The carosello is a landrace variety of muskmelon (Cucumis melo) found in Southern Italy. It is common in the Apulia region of Italy.
Varieties
Carosello barese is a rare heirloom variety of carosello. "Barese" means "from Bari", the major port city of Apulia.
Another variety is the Barattiere "Tondo Liscio" (rounded smooth) of Manduria, an Apulian city which was an ancient Messapian settlement.
Uses
In Italian cuisine, carosello is used in the same manner as the cucumber. It is typically consumed in an immature, unripened state.
See also
Ark of Taste
Barattiere – another landrace variety of muskmelon
References
Further reading
Melons
Landraces
Ark of Taste foods | wiki |
Jens Fiedler may refer to:
Jens Fiedler (canoeist), East German sprint canoer
Jens Fiedler (cyclist) (born 1970), German Olympic track cyclist
Jens Fiedler (handballer) (born 1966), German handball player | wiki |
24 Horas may refer to:
24 horas (Chile), a Chilean newscast
24 Horas (Colombian TV program), broadcast by the programadora 24 Hours
24 Horas (Mexican TV program), broadcast by Televisa
24 Horas (Spanish TV channel), broadcast by TVE
See also
24 Oras, a Filipino newscast | wiki |
Agricultural revolution may refer to:
First Agricultural Revolution (circa 10,000 BC), the prehistoric transition from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture (also known as the Neolithic Revolution)
Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th century), The spread of new crops and advanced techniques in the Muslim world
British Agricultural Revolution (17th–19th century), an unprecedented increase in agricultural productivity in Great Britain (also known as the Second Agricultural Revolution)
Scottish Agricultural Revolution (17th–19th century), the transformation into a modern and productive system
Third Agricultural Revolution (1930s–1960s), an increase in agricultural production, especially in the developing world (also known as the Green Revolution)
See also
Collective farming
Land reform
Precision agriculture
Agrarian revolution (disambiguation)
Green Revolution (disambiguation)
Agronomic revolution
Revolution (disambiguation)
Agricultural
Agrarian change | wiki |
Le tableau suivant établit l'historique des sélections de la draft des Pistons de Détroit, au sein de la National Basketball Association (NBA) depuis 1948.
Pistons de Détroit (1957-)
Pistons de Fort Wayne (1948-1956)
Références
Draft de la NBA
Joueur drafté par les Pistons de Détroit
Pistons de Détroit | wiki |
William Legge may refer to:
William Legge (Royalist) (1608–1670), British Member of Parliament for Southampton, 1661–1670
William Legge (MP for Portsmouth) (c.1650–c.1697), son of the above, British Member of Parliament for Portsmouth, 1685
William Legge, 1st Earl of Dartmouth (1672–1750), Lord Privy Seal
William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth (1731–1801), British statesman, Secretary of State for the Colonies 1772–1775
William Legge, 4th Earl of Dartmouth (1784–1853), Fellow of the Royal Society
William Legge, 5th Earl of Dartmouth (1823–1891), Conservative politician
William Legge, 6th Earl of Dartmouth (1851–1936), Conservative politician
William Legge, 7th Earl of Dartmouth (1881–1958), Conservative politician
William Legge, 10th Earl of Dartmouth (born 1949), British peer and politician
William Kaye Legge (1869-1946), senior British Army officer during the First World War
William Vincent Legge (1841–1918), Australian ornithologist
William Legge (bishop) (1913–1999), Canadian Anglican priest
See also
Wilfred Legg (born 1906), South African athlete
Billy Legg (born 1948), English footballer | wiki |
This is a list of lists of armoured fighting vehicles.
By period
List of armoured fighting vehicles of World War I
List of interwar armoured fighting vehicles
List of military vehicles of World War II
List of armoured fighting vehicles of World War II
List of modern armoured fighting vehicles
List of main battle tanks by generation
By country
List of armoured fighting vehicles by country
List of Sd.Kfz. designations (Germany from 1939)
Tanks in the Japanese Army (Japan up to present)
List of Polish armoured fighting vehicles
List of tanks of the Soviet Union
List of armoured fighting vehicles of Ukraine
List of tanks of the United Kingdom (United Kingdom up to 1945)
List of FV series military vehicles (United Kingdom after 1945)
List of "M" series military vehicles (United States)
By type
List of armoured trains
List of artillery, including self-propelled guns
List of main battle tanks by country
See also
Armoured fighting vehicle classification
Tank
Tank classification
History of the tank | wiki |
The Chosen Few Motorcycle Club are the first mixed race outlaw motorcycle club. Their first white member joined in 1960.
Other clubs
The same name is used by dozens of other unrelated motorcycle clubs in Iowa, New York, Texas, and other areas. The Chosen Few MC is based in the South Central California area with additional chapters nationwide and in the Philippines.
References
Outlaw motorcycle clubs
1959 establishments in California
Organizations established in 1959
Motorcycle clubs in the United States | wiki |
Jenny James is a British orienteer.
She competed at the 1999 World Orienteering Championships in Inverness, where she placed fourth in the relay with the British team.
She won a bronze medal in the relay with the British team at the 2000 European Orienteering Championships in Truskavets, along with Yvette Baker and Heather Monro.
At the 2001 World Orienteering Championships in Tampere, she placed fifth with the British relay team.
She was British Champion in 2001, and Nights Champion in 1997 and 2000.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
British orienteers
Foot orienteers
Competitors at the 2001 World Games | wiki |
"What Does It Take" is a song by American singer Dave Days. It served as the third and final single from his 2010 EP Dinner and a Movie. It is one of Dave's most recognizable songs, and was also played on Disney Channel's So Random!.
Music video
The song's music video is set in a high school, where Dave realizes he has gotten the lead part in the school play. Amanda Lynn (Days' interest in the video) sees she has gotten the second lead, and runs to her boyfriend, who ignores her. Days and Lynn begin to practice together, and during rehearsal, she falls, and gets up in slow motion with her hair blowing in the wind, when Dave realizes that's what he is seeing, he snaps out of it and continues to rehearse. Opening night comes around, and Lynn's boyfriend is in the stands, looking disinterested in the play. Days and Lynn begin to dance, and after the dance she walks off. Dave grabs her hand and proceeds to say the lines in the bridge of the song. They then lean in for a kiss, and the boyfriend sends in a gang of people to attack the cast and crew, along with himself. The cast fends off the kids, and its down to the boyfriend and Days. An audience member throws Dave his guitar. Dave blocks a hit from a sword the boyfriend is carrying, and knocks him to the ground by hitting him with the head of the guitar while doing a guitar flip. He then takes the sword he had and puts it to his neck while he is on the ground. The audience then claps, and Days and Lynn hug and wave to the crowd.
2010 songs | wiki |
Geological history may refer to:
Historical geology, or paleogeology is a discipline that seeks to reconstruct and understand the
geological history of Earth, or;
History of geology, the development of the scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth. | wiki |
Antix may refer to:
Antix (video game), a 1985 game for MS-DOS developed by the creator of Tetris
Antix Productions, a UK television production company who produce Most Haunted
antiX, a Linux distribution based on Debian
Antix (rapper), British-Jordanian hip hop artist
Antix (band), a band from Los Angeles, California
See also
Antics (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Symphyonemataceae is a family of cyanobacteria.
References
Nostocales
Cyanobacteria families | wiki |
Forda marginata is a species of aphid. It is a pest of millets. It has been recorded on barnyard grass, Elymus sp., Hordeum spp., Setaria spp., wheat, and oats in the United States.
References
Eriosomatinae
Insect pests of millets | wiki |
1987 earthquake may refer to:
1987 Ecuador earthquakes
1987 Edgecumbe earthquake (New Zealand)
1987 Santiago de Chuco earthquake (Peru)
1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake (Los Angeles, California, US) | wiki |
Sipha elegans is a species of aphid. It is a pest of millets.
References
Aphididae
Insect pests of millets | wiki |
Our Daily Bread is a devotional calendar-style booklet published by Our Daily Bread Ministries (formerly RBC Ministries) in over 55 languages.
The booklet is one of the most widely read Christian devotionals in circulation today. It was first published in April 1956, and includes writing about the Bible and insights into Christian living. The booklet's title originates from a line of the Lord's Prayer.
The contents include a Bible passage, and a relevant article for each day of the year. It is written by a different author each day, and also features additional Bible passages for people following Our Daily Bread's "Bible In One Year" reading program.
References
External links
Christian devotional literature
Magazines published in Michigan
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Online magazines published in the United States
1956 establishments in the United States
Christian magazines
Magazines established in 1956
Religious magazines published in the United States | wiki |
1933 earthquake may refer to:
1933 Baffin Bay earthquake (Canada, tsunami)
1933 Diexi earthquake (China)
1933 Long Beach earthquake (Los Angeles, California, US) (small tsunami)
1933 Sanriku earthquake (Japan) (great, tsunami)
See also
List of earthquakes in 1933 | wiki |
YTH domain containing 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the YTHDC2 gene.
References
Further reading | wiki |
CDV may refer to:
cdv Software Entertainment, a German video game publisher
Canine distemper virus
, a 19th-century photograph format
CD Video, a video format
CDV Records, Cosima De Vito's record label
Merle K. (Mudhole) Smith Airport, Cordova, Alaska, US, IATA Code
405 in Roman numerals
Compagnia della Vela, known as CDV
Car-derived van
Criminal Domestic Violence | wiki |
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