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Questions and answers may refer to:
Music
Questions & Answers (album), by The Sleeping, 2006
"Questions and Answers" (Biffy Clyro song), 2003
"Questions and Answers" (Sham 69 song), 1979
"Questions and Answers", a song by Nektar from Remember the Future, 1973
Television
Questions and Answers (TV channel) or Voprosy I Otvety, a Russian game-show channel
Questions and Answers (TV programme), an Irish topical debate show
"Questions and Answers" (The Golden Girls), a television episode
Other uses
Google Questions and Answers, a free knowledge market
Questions and Answers, a work by Anastasius of Sinai
Questions and Answers, a seven-volume book by Mirra Alfassa
Erotapokriseis, Greek for 'questions and answers', a literary genre
See also
Question and Answer (disambiguation)
Q&A (disambiguation)
Frequently asked questions
Quiz game | wiki |
Sam Lane may refer to:
Sam Lane (comics), character that has appeared in DC Comics publications
Sam Lane (rugby union) (born 1991), Australian rugby union player
Sam Lane (field hockey) (born 1997), New Zealand field hockey player
See also
Samantha Lane (born 1979), Australian journalist
Samuel Lane (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Chevrolet Low Cab Forward (LCF) is line of commercial cab-over vehicles sold by Chevrolet in the United States since 2016. It can refer to:
A rebadge of the Isuzu Elf, for the 3500, 4500, and 5500 models
A rebadge of the Isuzu Forward, for the 6500 and 7500 models
Low
Cab over vehicles | wiki |
How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life) is an American single-camera sitcom created by Accidentally on Purpose creator Claudia Lonow that aired on ABC from April 3 to June 26, 2013. The series was produced by 20th Century Fox Television and stars Sarah Chalke as Polly who—along with her daughter—ends up moving into her parents' house because of the financial crisis and her divorce. On May 10, 2013, How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life) was canceled by ABC after one season.
Premise
The series follows a single and very uptight divorced mother, Polly (Chalke) who finds herself moving back in with her parents, Elaine and Max (Elizabeth Perkins and Brad Garrett), upon leaving her husband and due to the economic downturn. Polly's parents are laid back and relaxed, but the return is not as smooth and transitional as she thinks while having to deal with not only her parents and their lifestyle, but also with a best friend whom she almost dated and an ex-husband who wants her back.
Cast and characters
Sarah Chalke as Polly, a divorced mother.
Elizabeth Perkins as Elaine Green, Polly's mother and Natalie's grandmother.
Brad Garrett as Max Green, Elaine's husband and Polly's step-father.
Rachel Eggleston as Natalie Tatham, Polly's daughter and Elaine's granddaughter.
Jon Dore as Julian Tatham, Polly's ex-husband.
Stephanie Hunt as Jenn, Polly's co-worker and friend.
Development and production
In January 2012, ABC placed a pilot order for How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life). Claudia Lonow wrote the pilot episode, and serves as showrunner and head writer. Lonow also executive produces the series alongside Brian Grazer and Francie Calfo, under their production company Imagine Entertainment.
Casting announcements began in February 2012, with Sarah Chalke first cast in the lead role of Polly, the recently divorced mother who moves back in with her parents. Jon Dore then joined the series in the role of Julian, Polly's ex-husband. Following Dore, Elizabeth Perkins signed on to play the role of Elaine, Polly's optimistic and outspoken mother. Next to board the series was Rachel Eggleston as Natalie, Polly and Julian's six-year-old daughter. Brad Garrett then joined the series as Max, Polly's stepfather, who owns a successful chain of nightclubs. Rebecca Delgado Smith boarded the series in the role of Jenn, Polly's co-worker who occasionally helps Polly with her dating problems. Orlando Jones completed the main cast in the series when he signed on to play the role of Gregg, Polly's married best friend and co-worker.
On May 11, 2012, ABC placed a series order for the comedy. Shortly after the series order was placed, Rebecca Delgado Smith and Orlando Jones were dropped from the cast. Smith's role was subsequently recast with Stephanie Hunt. The series went into production early and the first season was completed by November 2012.
Episodes
References
External links
2010s American single-camera sitcoms
2013 American television series debuts
2013 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
English-language television shows
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television series by Imagine Entertainment | wiki |
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Peel (Arkansas)
Peel (Oregon)
Ausztrália
Peel (Új-Dél-Wales)
Kanada
Peel (Új-Brunswick)
Man-sziget
Peel (Man-sziget) | wiki |
The 2014 Northern Iowa Panthers football team represented the University of Northern Iowa in the 2014 NCAA Division I FCS football season. The team was coached by Mark Farley and played their home games in the UNI-Dome. They were a member of the Missouri Valley Football Conference. They finished the season 9–5, 6–2 in MVFC play to finish in third place. They received an at-large bid to the FCS Playoffs where they defeated Stephen F. Austin in the first round before losing in the second round to Illinois State.
Personnel
Roster
2014 Roster
Coaching staff
Season
Schedule
Source: Schedule
Media
The Panther Sports Network broadcast all home games live on television, marking the first time UNI had all home games on television. PSN affiliates for the 2014 season are:
CFU Channel 15
KCRG-TV Local 9.2 (Cedar Rapids)
WOI-DT Channel 5 D-2 (Ames/Des Moines)
KCAU-TV Channel 9 D-2 (Sioux City)
KGCW Channel 26 (Davenport)
The flagship radio station is 1540 AM KXEL in Waterloo, broadcasting all home and away games on an 11-station network.
Ranking movements
References
Northern Iowa
Northern Iowa Panthers football seasons
Northern Iowa
Northern Iowa Panthers football | wiki |
A public offering without listing, often called a POWL deal or a POWL, is a form of public equity offering by non-Japanese firms in the Japanese market, without the previously required simultaneous listing on a local exchange (e.g. TSE).
History
Prior to 1989, non-Japanese firms that wanted to sell equity into the Japanese market via public offering were required to list on a local Japanese stock exchange. Changes in regulations introduced in 1989 allowed this form of a public offering by foreign companies published, audited financial statements and with stock that is (or will be) listed on a foreign stock exchange which satisfies the requirements of the FSA.
Notable POWL issuance
Equity offerings via POWL have been a common part of Asia regional public offerings since the early 1990s, with Japanese investors often taking more than 20% of the offering through this format. ICBC and Bank of China (Hong Kong) used this format to allow their domestic public offerings to spread into Japan.
See also
Alternative public offering
PIPE deal
References
Corporate finance
Stock market
Equity securities
Initial public offering | wiki |
Samuel Lane was an English painter.
Samuel Lane may also refer to:
Samuel Armstrong Lane (1802–1892), English surgeon
Samuel Johnathan Lane (1830–1891), English-born barrister and political figure in Ontario, Canada
Samuel Lane (musician), British Christian musician and worship leader in the Vineyard Church
Samuel M. Lane House, Marion, Iowa, listed on the NRHP in Linn County, Iowa
See also
Sam Lane (disambiguation) | wiki |
Rodney Lee "Rod" Freeman (born November 5, 1950) is a retired professional basketball small forward who played one season in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Philadelphia 76ers during the 1973–74 season. He attended Vanderbilt University and in the 11th round of the 1973 NBA draft he was selected by the 76ers.
External links
1950 births
Living people
Basketball players from Indiana
Philadelphia 76ers draft picks
Philadelphia 76ers players
Small forwards
Sportspeople from Anderson, Indiana
Vanderbilt Commodores men's basketball players
American men's basketball players | wiki |
This is a list of episodes from the twentieth season of Real Time with Bill Maher. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this is the first season of Real Time where the shows do not premiere live. Rather, they are pre-recorded at 7:00 pm ET with the 10:00 pm ET airing unchanged. Episodes this season are taped from the show's studio with a limited audience due to the pandemic, with all guests appearing in studio.
Episodes
References
External links
HBO.com Episode List
Real Time with Bill Maher seasons
2022 American television seasons
Television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic | wiki |
β-Ureidoisobutyric acid is an intermediate in the catabolism of thymine.
References
Carboxamides
Ureas | wiki |
A hay rake is an agricultural rake used to collect cut hay or straw into windrows for later collection (e.g. by a baler or a loader wagon). It is also designed to fluff up the hay and turn it over so that it may dry. It is also used in the evening to protect the hay from morning dew. The next day a tedder is used to spread it again, so that the hay dries more quickly.
Types
A hay rake may be mechanized, drawn by a tractor or draft animals, or it may be a hand tool. The earliest hay rakes were nothing more than tree branches, but wooden hand rakes with wooden teeth, similar in design to a garden rake but larger, were prevalent in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and still are used in some locations around the world.
The typical early horse-drawn hay rake was a dump rake, a wide two-wheeled implement with curved steel or iron teeth usually operated from a seat mounted over the rake with a lever-operated lifting mechanism. This rake gathered cut hay into windrows by repeated operation perpendicular to the windrow, requiring the operator to raise the rake, turn around and drop the teeth to rake back and forth in order to form the windrow. In some areas, a sweep rake, which could also be a horse-drawn or tractor-mounted implement, could then be used to pick up the windrowed hay and load it onto a wagon.
Later, a mechanically more complicated rake was developed, known as the side delivery rake. This usually had a gear-driven or chain-driven reel mounted roughly at a 45-degree angle to the windrow, so the hay was gathered and pushed to one side of the rake as it moved across the field. A side delivery rake could be pulled longitudinally along the windrow by horses or a tractor, eliminating the laborious and inefficient process of raising, lowering, and back-and-forth raking required by a dump rake. This allowed for the continuous spiraling windrows of a classic mid-20th-century farm hayfield. Later versions of the side delivery rake used a more severe transverse angle and a higher frame system, but the basic principles of operation were the same.
Still later, a variety of wheel rakes or star wheel rakes were developed, with 5, 6, 7 or more spring-tooth encircled wheels mounted on a frame and ground driven by free-wheeling contact as the implement was pulled forward. These rakes were variously promoted as being mechanically simpler and trouble-free, gentler on the hay than a side-delivery rake, and cheaper to operate.
Currently a newer design called the rotary rake is in common use in Europe, and less frequently seen in the United States and Canada.
List of notable manufacturers
Claas
Molon
Fella
Kverneland with the Brands Vicon and Deutz-Fahr
See also
List of agricultural machinery
Hayrake table
Agricultural machinery | wiki |
PoDoFo is a software library and tools to work with the PDF file format. The name comes from the first two letters of each word in PDF's spelled-out form (Portable Document Format).
The PoDoFo library is a free portable C++ library which includes classes to parse a PDF file and modify its contents into memory. PoDoFo includes very simple classes to create PDF files. All classes are documented so it is easy to start writing an application using PoDoFo.
PoDoFo is primarily useful for applications that wish to do lower-level manipulation of PDF, such as extracting content or merging files. It is also useful if an application has specific requirements for its PDF output that more general output-oriented libraries like Cairo cannot satisfy. Canvas/drawing support is currently very limited in PoDoFo, so for pure output tasks a library like Cairo will be more suitable. PoDoFo cannot render PDF, so one should look at a library like Poppler for that.
PoDoFo is dependent on OpenSSL, zlib, freetype2, fontconfig (Unix and Mac OS X only), libjpeg (optional), libpng (optional) and LibTIFF (optional).
PoDoFo is released under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). The tests and tools which are included in PoDoFo are licensed under the GNU General Public License.
See also
List of PDF software
References
External links
Free PDF software
Free software programmed in C++
Cross-platform software
C++ libraries | wiki |
Diamond Head or Diamondhead may refer to:
Film and television
Diamondhead, a character in the television series Ben 10
Diamond Head (film), 1963
The Diamond Head Game, a 1975 American game show
Music
Diamond Head (English band), a British heavy metal band formed in 1976
Diamond Head (Diamond Head album), Diamond Head's self-titled seventh studio album
Diamond Head (Japanese band), a Japanese pop/rock band formed in 2000
Diamond Head (Phil Manzanera album), a 1975 album by Phil Manzanera
Diamondhead (album), a 2008 album by jazz saxophonist David "Fathead" Newman
"Diamond Head", an instrumental song by The Beach Boys from the 1968 album Friends
"Diamond Head" (song), an instrumental song by The Ventures from the 1964 album Walk, Don't Run, Vol. 2
Places
Diamond Head, Hawaii, volcanic cone on the Hawaiian island of Oahu
Diamondhead, Mississippi
Other uses
Diamondhead (comics), a Marvel Comics character
USS Diamond Head (AE-19), a 1945 World War II and Cold War ammunition supply ship | wiki |
Third party liability may refer to:
Vicarious liability, a legal doctrine
Third-party liability in insurance | wiki |
IEEE 802.18, the Radio Regulatory Technical Advisory Group ("RR-TAG"), is a working group of IEEE 802, the LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMCS). The working group currently has 6 projects on standards for radio-based systems:
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless Local area network- WLAN)
IEEE 802.15 (Wireless Personal area network - WPAN)
IEEE 802.16 (Wireless Metropolitan area network - WMAN)
IEEE 802.20 (Wireless Mobility)
IEEE 802.21 (Hand-off/Interoperability Between Networks)
IEEE 802.22 (Wireless Regional Area Network - WRAN).
The RR-TAG monitors the interests of the above 6 projects, at both national and international levels, and then makes comments and recommends policies to regulators, which balance the interests of all the wireless LMCS projects.
References
External links
IEEE 802 | wiki |
Saint Ambrose Catholic School or Saint Ambrose School may refer to:
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Tucson, Arizona
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Deerfield Beach, Florida - List of schools of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami
Saint Ambrose School - Godfrey, Illinois
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Cheverly, Maryland - List of schools of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington
Saint Ambrose of Woodbury Catholic School - Woodbury, Minnesota
Saint Ambrose Catholic Elementary School - Saint Louis, Missouri
Saint Ambrose School - Old Bridge, New Jersey - List of schools of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Metuchen
Saint Ambrose School - Latham, New York
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Brunswick, Ohio
Saint Ambrose School - Schuylkill Haven, Pennsylvania
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Houston, Texas - List of schools of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston
Saint Ambrose Catholic School - Annandale, Virginia | wiki |
Amniocentesis is a medical procedure used primarily in the prenatal diagnosis of genetic conditions. It has other uses such as in the assessment of infection and fetal lung maturity. Prenatal diagnostic testing, which includes amniocentesis, is necessary to conclusively diagnose the majority of genetic disorders, with amniocentesis being the gold-standard procedure after 15 weeks' gestation.
In this procedure, a thin needle is inserted into the abdomen of the pregnant woman. The needle punctures the amnion, which is the membrane that surrounds the developing fetus. The fluid within the amnion is called amniotic fluid, and because this fluid surrounds the developing fetus, it contains fetal cells. The amniotic fluid is sampled and analyzed via methods such as karyotyping and DNA analysis technology for genetic abnormalities.
An amniocentesis is typically performed in the second trimester between the 15th and 20th week of gestation. Women who choose to have this test are primarily those at increased risk for genetic and chromosomal problems, in part because the test is invasive and carries a small risk of pregnancy loss. However, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend that all women be offered prenatal assessment for aneuploidy, or the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes, by either genetic screening or diagnostic testing independent of maternal age or risk factors. There are relative contraindications to performing an amniocentesis, however no absolute contraindications have been identified.
Physicians have used the process of inserting a needle transabdominally into the uterus to extract amniotic fluid for the management of hydramnios, or excess amniotic fluid, as early as the late 1800s.
Medical uses
Amniocentesis may be performed for both diagnostic and therapeutic reasons.
Diagnostic indications
Genetic diagnosis
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend that all women be offered prenatal assessment for aneuploidy by either genetic screening or diagnostic testing independent of maternal age or risk factors. Prenatal genetic screening is intended to identify patients who are at increased risk of having a fetus with a genetic condition while prenatal genetic diagnostic testing detects whether a specific genetic condition is present in the fetus with high accuracy. Amniocentesis, along with chorionic villus sampling, are examples of prenatal diagnostic tests. Amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling are necessary to conclusively diagnose the majority of genetic disorders, with amniocentesis being the gold-standard procedure after 15 weeks' gestation. Transabdominal chorionic villus sampling is an alternative to amniocentesis if genetic diagnostic testing is to be performed in the first trimester between 10 and 15 weeks' gestation. It is important to note that prenatal genetic testing cannot identify all possible fetal genetic abnormalities or their outcomes. When deciding on whether to perform invasive genetic diagnostic testing such as amniocentesis, patients and their physicians should participate in a shared-decision making process that takes into account a patient's individual risk profile and preferences.
Amniocentesis may be offered to certain patients at higher risks of having a fetus with a genetic disorder. Factors that may place patients at increased risk of fetal genetic disorders include older maternal or paternal age, parental carrier of a balanced chromosomal rearrangement, parental aneuploidy or aneuploidy mosaicism, parental carrier of a genetic disorder, prior child with a structural birth defect, previous fetus or child with autosomal trisomy or sex chromosome aneuploidy, ultrasonographic evidence of a fetus with structural abnormalities, and a high-risk genetic screening test result.
Analysis of samples obtained from amniocentesis is accomplished via karyotyping and DNA analysis technology. Examples of conditions that may be detected include chromosomal abnormalities such as common aneuploidies like trisomy 13, trisomy 18, trisomy 21, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. Micro-deletions or micro-duplications, such as DiGeorge syndrome and Cri-du-Chat syndrome, sex-linked disorders, such as hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and specific genetic mutations previously demonstrated to be present in a family or suspected based on fetal ultrasound findings, such as sickle cell disease, Tay–Sachs disease, neurofibromatosis, and cystic fibrosis.
Assessment of fetal lung maturity
Amniocentesis has traditionally been performed to assess the extent of fetal lung development in the context of medical and obstetrical complications, with the intention of delivering the fetus if fetal lung maturity is demonstrated. Lack of fetal lung maturity increases the risk of infant respiratory distress syndrome.
Fetal lung development can be tested by sampling the amount of surfactant in the amniotic fluid obtained via amniocentesis. Several tests are available, including the lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio ("L/S ratio"), the presence of phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and the surfactant/albumin (S/A) ratio. An L/S ratio of 2.0 is associated with a lower incidence of infant respiratory distress syndrome.
The efficacy of performing amniocentesis for the assessment of fetal lung maturity has been called into question. The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine's joint statement on the matter states that "if significant maternal or fetal risks exist, delivery should occur regardless of biochemical maturity and if delivery could be deferred owing to absence of pulmonary maturity there is not a stringent indication for prompt delivery." Based on this rationale, the risks associated with amniocentesis, and the limited indications, performing amniocenteses for assessing fetal lung maturity may become obsolete except in instances where gestational age is unknown.
Assessment and management of infection
Chorioamnionitis, or intraamniotic infection, is an infection of any combination of the amniotic fluid, placenta, fetus, fetal membranes, or decidua. The gold standard for diagnosing chorioamnionitis is via a gram stain, glucose level, or culture of the amniotic fluid obtained via amniocentesis. However, in clinical practice, performing an amniocentesis for the purpose of diagnosing chorioamnionitis is rare and instead diagnosed based on clinical signs to ensure prompt treatment and avoid invasive prenatal testing.
Amniocentesis can be used to detect other congenital infections such as cytomegalovirus, hepatitis B, parvovirus B19, and toxoplasmosis.
Assessment of severity of Rh isoimmunization
The Rh factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If the mother is Rh negative and the father is Rh positive, a fetus has at least a 50% chance of being Rh positive. Rh incompatibility occurs when a mother has Rh-negative blood and her baby has Rh-positive blood. If the red blood cells of an Rh positive fetus cross into their Rh negative mother's blood flow, the mother is at risk of Rh sensitization, a process in which maternal antibodies form against red blood cell Rh antigens. Events causing fetomaternal hemorrhage, such as miscarriage, trauma to the abdomen during pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy, induced abortion, invasive pregnancy procedures, labor, and birth can lead to fetal Rh positive red blood cells entering the Rh negative maternal circulation. Rh sensitization typically does not cause problems during the first pregnancy of an Rh negative woman. However, in a subsequent pregnancy with an Rh positive fetus, the formed antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the red blood cells of the fetus, a process called Rh isoimmunization that can result in a condition known as Rhesus disease or hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.
Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn can lead to varying degrees of fetal anemia, which can potentially have devastating consequences including newborn jaundice, kernicterus, hydrops fetalis, and intrauterine fetal demise. RhD immune globulin (RhoGam) is administered to prevent maternal Rh sensitization in Rh negative patients that are non-sensitized to Rh antigens.
In the past, serial amniocenteses has been used to monitor isoimmunized pregnancies by measuring the levels of bilirubin, a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown, present in amniotic fluid using spectrophotometry. However, ultrasound detecting middle cerebral artery peak systolic velocity has now replaced serial amniocenteses for the management of isoimmunized pregnancies.
Amniocentesis is an invasive prenatal test that has the potential to cause maternal and fetal blood cell mixing, which can worsen Rh isoimmunization.
Therapeutic indications
Decompression of polyhydramnios
Polyhydramnios is an excessive accumulation of amniotic fluid that can lead to serious perinatal and maternal outcomes such as intrauterine fetal demise, preterm labor, premature rupture of membranes, and cesarean delivery. Physicians have used the process of inserting a needle transabdominally into the uterus to extract excess amniotic fluid, also known as a reductive amniocentesis or decompression, for the management of polyhydramnios as early as the late 1800s.
Reductive amniocentesis is currently indicated for severe cases of polyhydramnios only.
Decompression in twin oligohydramnios-polyhydramnios sequence (TOPS)
Twin oligohydramnios-polyhydramnios sequence is a rare condition that may occur when twins sharing a single placenta develop significant vascular cross-connections, known as anastomoses, resulting in blood flowing away from one twin to the other. This process can result in polyhydramnios in one twin and oligohydramnios in the other twin. Amniocentesis has been employed to reduce the volume in the sac with polyhydramnios in order to relieve amniotic fluid pressures, a process that may improving fetal circulation and outcomes.
Stem cells
Amniotic fluid, which is easily collected, cultured, and stored through cryopreservation, can be a rich source of pluripotent and multipotent mesenchymal, hematopoietic, neural, epithelial, and endothelial stem cells. A potential benefit of using amniotic stem cells over those obtained from embryos is that they address the ethical concerns among anti-abortion activists by obtaining pluripotent lines of undifferentiated cells without harm to a fetus or destruction of an embryo. In addition, the use of embryonic cells has been shown to develop into tumors such as teratocarcinomas and frequently acquire chromosomal errors, underscoring the benefits of utilizing amniotic stem cells.
Research has shown that cells from second trimester amniotic fluid are successful at differentiating into various cell lines.
Artificial heart valves, working tracheas, as well as muscle, fat, bone, heart, neural and liver cells have all been engineered through use of amniotic stem cells. Tissues obtained from amniotic cell lines show significant promise for patients with congenital diseases/malformations of the heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, and cerebral tissue.
The first amniotic stem cells bank in the US is active in Boston, Massachusetts.
Contraindications
There are no absolute contraindications to amniocentesis. Relative contraindications to the procedure include failure to discontinue anticoagulation therapy 48-72 hours prior to amniocentesis, infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and oligohydramnios. These patients are at a higher risk of complications if they undergo amniocentesis and should be counseled appropriately. In some cases, the advantages of obtaining the results of an amniocentesis may outweigh the increased risk of complications.
Patients on oral anticoagulation therapy have an increased risk of bleeding from the procedure and may be switched to low-molecular-weight heparin, which carries a lower risk for bleeding complications, prior to amniocentesis. There is an increased risk of mother-to-child (vertical) transmission of bloodborne infections in patients with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or HIV after amniocentesis. Patients with high viral loads are at a greater risk of vertical transmission of hepatitis B compared to patients with low viral loads. In patients living with HIV, amniocentesis should be deferred until a combined antiretroviral therapy (CART) regimen is established and the patient achieves a low or undetectable viral load.
While not a contraindication, an amniocentesis may be postponed if fusion of the amnion and chorion has not yet occurred. Performing an amniocentesis prior to the fusion of the amnion and chorion is more likely to lead to procedure failure that may require further sampling attempts.
Risks and complications
Amniocentesis performed for the purpose of prenatal diagnostic testing for genetic disorders has been established as a safe and accurate procedure. The risks and complications associated with amniocentesis include pregnancy loss, preterm labor and delivery, preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), fetal injuries, Rhesus disease, and amniotic fluid embolism. Oligohydramnios, fetomaternal hemorrhage, cell culture failure, multiple amniotic fluid extraction attempts, and infections are also possible complications. Additional maternal complications include vaginal bleeding, hematoma of the skin, damage to surrounding internal organs, procedural pain including stinging, pressure, and cramping, and post-procedure discomfort.
A serious risk of amniocentesis is pregnancy loss. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists note that the pregnancy loss rates attributable to amniocentesis are very low. The mechanism for pregnancy loss following amniocentesis is unknown but may be a consequence of bleeding, infection, or trauma to the fetus or the amniotic sac as a result of the procedure. Studies from 2000 to 2006 estimated the procedure-related pregnancy loss at 0.6-0.86%. The most recent systematic review of the literature and updated meta-analysis on the risk of pregnancy loss following amniocentesis was published in 2019. This study cites the amniocentesis-related pregnancy loss to be 0.30% (95% CI, 0.11–0.49%).
The incidence of amniocentesis-related complications, including pregnancy loss and procedure failure, may be mitigated when performed by experienced practitioners who complete 100 or more amniocenteses per year. Experienced practitioners are more likely to complete the procedure with only one puncture attempt. Multiple needle insertion attempts are associated with an increased risk of pregnancy loss. Early amniocentesis, defined as performing the procedure between 10 and 13 weeks' gestation, is associated with significantly higher rates of pregnancy loss following amniocentesis. Early amniocentesis also has higher rates of other complications, including membrane rupture, clubfoot, and amniotic fluid culture failure. For these reasons, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and other similar professional associations recommend against undergoing amniocentesis prior to 14 weeks' gestation.
In the past, twin pregnancies have been noted to have a higher rate of pregnancy loss (estimated at 3.07%) following amniocentesis. Past literature has shown that twin pregnancies increase the background risk of fetal loss following amniocentesis before 24 weeks' gestation by 1%. Although data on complications following amniocentesis in twin pregnancies continues to be limited, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists note that rate of pregnancy loss due to amniocentesis in this population is estimated to be around 2%. A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis showed similar findings, noting that pregnancy loss following amniocentesis may be lower than previously reported in twin pregnancies. The study also found no significant difference in rates of pregnancy loss between twin pregnancies that underwent amniocentesis and those that did not before 24 weeks of gestation.
Maternal factors that may further increase the risk of pregnancy loss following amniocentesis include:
Presence of uterine fibroids
Presence of Müllerian anomalies, which are a group of congenital defects affecting the development of the female reproductive tract
Active vaginal infection
Maternal body-mass index greater than 40 kg/m2
Multiparity, or 3 or more childbirths
History of 3 or more pregnancy losses
Carrying a fetus with structural malformations
Undergoing amniocentesis in the third trimester has been associated with an increased risk of preterm labor, as defined as the onset of labor between 20 and 37 weeks' gestation, and preterm delivery. Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) and subsequent leakage of amniotic fluid are additional possible complications, with the procedure-related PPROM rate following amniocentesis estimated to be between 1–2%. When compared to cases of spontaneous PPROM, patients with amniocentesis-related PPROM experience better outcomes and lower rates of pregnancy loss. Leakage of amniotic fluid can result in oligohydramnios, or an amniotic fluid volume that is less than the minimum expected for gestational age. Adequate amniotic fluid volumes are essential for fetal lung development. Therefore, possible consequences of oligohydramnios include infant respiratory distress and small, underdeveloped lungs known as fetal lung hypoplasia.
Needle injuries to the fetus are increasingly rare due to the practice of using continuous ultrasound-guidance, including during needle insertion and amniotic fluid extraction. Reported needle injuries include cord bleeding, ocular injuries, fetal brain and cutaneous injuries, and deformities such as clubfoot. The risk of fetal injury increases with increasing number of puncture attempts.
Maternal and fetal blood cells may mix during an amniocentesis and, as a result, patients with rhesus (RhD) negative blood types carrying a RhD positive fetus are at risk of Rh sensitization. Rh sensitization is a process in which maternal antibodies form against red blood cell RhD antigens. In subsequent pregnancies with RhD positive fetuses, maternal presence of these antibodies can attack and destroy fetal red blood cells, a process called Rh isoimmunization that can result in a condition known as Rhesus disease or hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. Maternal blood type is assessed prior to undergoing amniocentesis and RhD immune globulin (RhoGam) is typically administered within 72 hours of the procedure to prevent maternal Rh sensitization in RhD negative patients that are non-sensitized to RhD antigens.
Amniotic fluid embolism, a condition in which amniotic fluid or other fetal debris enters the maternal circulation, is an extremely rare and catastrophic complication of amniocentesis. Amniotic fluid embolism can result in cardiovascular collapse and has a poor maternal prognosis. However, amniotic fluid embolism following amniocentesis has been reported infrequently in the literature in the last 60 years, mostly in the context of case-reports.
Chorioamnionitis and uterine and maternal skin infections are potential complications of amniocentesis that can occur as a result of bacterial introduction throughout the course of the procedure. The risk of amniocentesis-related chorioamnionitis and uterine infections is less than 0.1%. Performing the procedure using sterile techniques can help prevent infection.
Fetomaternal hemorrhage, or the entrance of fetal blood into the maternal circulation, is another complication of amniocentesis. It can result in anemia that can have consequences of varying severity. The procedure-related risk of fetomaternal hemorrhage attributable to amniocentesis is 2.6%.
Amniotic fluid cell culture after amniocentesis has a failure rate of 0.1%. Later gestational ages at the time of the procedure and amniotic fluid samples contaminated with blood increase the risk of amniocyte culture failure.
While recognizing the aforementioned risks, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend that prenatal screening, or diagnostic testing for aneuploidy via procedures like amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, be discussed with and offered to all patients regardless of maternal age or risk profile.
Procedure and technique
An amniocentesis is typically performed in the second trimester between the 15th and 20th week of gestation; however, it can be done at any later gestational age. It is an outpatient procedure typically performed by an obstetrician-gynecologist with additional amniocentesis training.
Genetic counseling should be provided to the pregnant patient and informed consent should be obtained prior to the procedure.
Prior to the onset of the amniocentesis, the pregnant patient will undergo ultrasound evaluation to assess fetal viability and position, gestational age, amniotic fluid volume, maximum vertical pocket, umbilical cord insertion site, and any obvious fetal deformities. This information is utilized to determine the needle used and how the procedure should be performed. The fetus should be at least 15 weeks' gestation and the chorion and amnion should be fused.
Amniocentesis is a sterile procedure, therefore medical personnel performing and assisting with the procedure will scrub with antiseptic solution, use sterile gloves, clean the maternal abdomen with antiseptic solution, cover the ultrasound probe with a sterile cover, and use sterile ultrasound gel.
Ultrasound guidance is used continuously throughout the course of the procedure so that the needle is always visualized. A sterile 20–22 gauge spinal needle is firmly inserted perpendicular to the maternal abdomen. After puncturing the maternal abdomen, the operator punctures the uterus, gains access into amniotic cavity by puncturing the amniotic membrane while taking care not to cause membrane tenting, and proceeds to advance the needle into the amniotic cavity. The needle should be guided into the region of the maximum vertical pocket, where the single largest area of amniotic fluid devoid of fetal parts, umbilical cord, and placenta is available for sampling. Amniotic fluid is composed of fetal cells, urine, and lung secretions. 18-20 mL of amniotic fluid is slowly aspirated, with the first 1-2 mL typically discarded due to higher risk of maternal cell contamination. The remaining sample is submitted for laboratory testing. Fetal viability after the procedure should be confirmed by observing adequate fetal cardiac activity. The number of needle puncture attempts should be documented.
There is little scientific data supporting administration of prophylactic antibiotics prior to an amniocentesis and therefore, it is currently not recommended. Similarly, there is little scientific support for the placement of a local anesthetic prior to amniocentesis.
Maternal blood type is assessed prior to undergoing amniocentesis and RhD immune globulin (RhoGam) is typically administered within 72 hours of the procedure to prevent maternal isoimmunization in RhD negative patients that are non-sensitized to RhD antigens.
Amniocentesis technique differs in twin pregnancies and requires additional operator training. The two different approaches are the single-needle technique and two-needle insertion technique.
If used for prenatal genetic diagnosis, fetal cells may be separated by centrifugation from the extracted sample and grown in a culture medium in order to perform genetic tests. The types of tests performed on the sample will be determined by the patient's indications for undergoing amniocentesis. Fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH) and quantitative fluorescence polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) are two tests commonly performed on uncultured cells after amniocentesis, with results available within two days. These tests can accurately identify trisomy 13, trisomy 18, and trisomy 21. FISH is capable of providing a limited karyotype and, along with the aforementioned trisomies, can also detect aneuploidies in the X and Y sex chromosomes. Abnormal results from FISH studies should be confirmed with other cytogenetic testing, as false positives and negatives are possible Karyotypes are another common test performed on amniotic fluid to visualize chromosome number and characteristics, with a result turnaround of up to three weeks. Another test that may be performed is a chromosomal microarray, which can detect chromosomal imbalances, such as small- and large-scale deletions and duplications. Chromosomal microarray can be performed on cultured or uncultured fetal tissue, with results available as early as 3 days. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist recommends that patients who choose to undergo invasive diagnostic testing have access to chromosomal microarray analysis.
Recovery
After an amniocentesis, patients may resume their routine activity level while withholding from strenuous exercise. Some sources recommend house rest for the initial 24 hours after the procedure, though data supporting this recommendation is limited. Follow-up one week after the procedure is recommended to undergo ultrasound evaluation for fetal viability and assess healing of the puncture site. Post-procedural pain and discomfort should be minimal and temporary and may be managed with acetaminophen. Patients will be instructed to report to an emergency room if they experience vaginal bleeding or leakage of fluid, intense uterine pain, or a fever greater than 38°C.
History
Physicians have used the process of inserting a needle transabdominally into the uterus to extract amniotic fluid for the management of hydramnios, or excess amniotic fluid, as early as the late 1800s. In 1930, needle insertion into the amniotic sac was used to inject contrast dye for the purposes of amniography, or radiographic visualization of the fetal, placental, and uterine outlines. Beginning in the 1950s, amniocentesis was used to diagnose and determine the severity of Rhesus disease. In the mid 1950s, Fritz Fuchs and Povl Riis used fetal cells cultured from extracted amniotic fluid to determine fetal sex based on the presence of Barr Bodies. They postulated that this technique could provide information on the risk for X-linked disease in fetuses with carrier mothers. By the 1960s, this technology was being applied to X-linked conditions such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and hemophilia. In 1966, M. W Steele and W. R Breg Jr. were able to culture amniocytes that could undergo karyotyping. Their work opened the door to the prenatal diagnosis of aneuploidies. In 1972, R. G. Sutcliffe and D. J. H. Brock found that higher amniotic alpha-fetoprotein levels were associated with neural tube defects.
In 1972, ultrasound-guided amniocenteses began replacing free-handed taps following J. Bang and A. Northeved's initiative to employ ultrasound technology to improve amniocentesis. Up until the 1980s, static B-scan ultrasound-guidance was used for the procedure, a process that did not permit visualization of the needle in the amniotic cavity.
Eventually, real-time ultrasound scanners improved the ultrasound-assisted amniocentesis. Given its prenatal diagnostic accuracy for a range of fetal conditions and its relative safety profile, amniocentesis has become the most common invasive fetal testing procedure.
Society and culture
Prenatal sex discernment and sex-selective abortion
As stated in the history section, amniocentesis can be used to determine the sex of a fetus. This can be medically relevant in families that carry X-linked genetic conditions, since parents may want further genetic testing if the fetus is determined to be male (XY), and therefore has a higher likelihood of having the inherited disease. However, sex discernment is also used for social and cultural reasons. In some cultures, male children are more desirable than female children. This leads some parents to use amniocentesis and other forms of prenatal genetic testing (like chorionic villus sampling and preimplantation genetic diagnosis) to determine the sex of the child with the intent of terminating the pregnancy if the fetus is determined to have two X chromosomes. Sex-selective abortion is particularly common in countries such as China or India, among others. Sex-selective abortion is one of the causes for low child sex ratios in countries in Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe. There are also significantly skewed child sex ratios in the Caucasus region. Naturally, the human sex ratio is approximately 105 males for every 100 females, and any significant deviations from these values is usually considered evidence for sex selective abortion.
India and China have made prenatal sex determination illegal in an effort to prevent sex-selective abortion. In India, this happened through the 1994 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition Of Sex Selection) Act (PCPNDT Act). However, this has not necessarily affected the widespread practice of sex-selective abortion as abortion is generally legal, and this law has been inconsistently enforced. In China, the societal preference for male children was exacerbated by the historical one-child policy, where in many regions of China, parents were limited to having only one child. As with India, prenatal sex determination is banned in China but remains a widespread practice, with enforcement also proving to be difficult.
See also
Chorionic villus sampling
Amniotic stem cells
Elective genetic and genomic testing
Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling
Prenatal diagnosis
References
External links
Amniodex is an interactive decision support intervention designed for women faced with the decision of whether to undergo amniocentesis.
The Amniocentesis Report A Decision Guide for Expectant Parents and Health Care Professionals
Prenatal sex discernment
Tests during pregnancy | wiki |
Rock Crystal or rock crystal is:
the name sometimes given to a variety of quartz
a short novel Rock Crystal (novella) (1845) by Austrian writer Adalbert Stifter
(1805–1868)
a 19th-century French objet d'art, the Rock Crystal (Fabergé egg)
a type of decorative vase, rock crystal vase
a ewer typical of Fatimid art
one of a number of gemstones used for hardstone carving | wiki |
The amniotic sac, also called the bag of waters or the membranes, is the sac in which the embryo and later fetus develops in amniotes. It is a thin but tough transparent pair of membranes that hold a developing embryo (and later fetus) until shortly before birth. The inner of these membranes, the amnion, encloses the amniotic cavity, containing the amniotic fluid and the embryo. The outer membrane, the chorion, contains the amnion and is part of the placenta. On the outer side, the amniotic sac is connected to the yolk sac, the allantois, and via the umbilical cord, the placenta.
The yolk sac, amnion, chorion, and allantois are the four extraembryonic membranes that lie outside of the embryo and are involved in providing nutrients and protection to the developing embryo. They form from the inner cell mass; the first to form is the yolk sac followed by the amnion which grows over the developing embryo. The amnion remains an important extraembryonic membrane throughout prenatal development. The third membrane is the allantois, and the fourth is the chorion which surrounds the embryo after about a month and eventually fuses with the amnion.
Amniocentesis is a medical procedure where fluid from the sac is sampled during fetal development, between 15 and 20 weeks of pregnancy, to be used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections.
Structure
The amniotic cavity is the closed sac between the embryo and the amnion, containing the amniotic fluid. The amniotic cavity is formed by the fusion of the parts of the amniotic fold, which first makes its appearance at the cephalic extremity and subsequently at the caudal end and sides of the embryo. As the amniotic fold rises and fuses over the dorsal aspect of the embryo, the amniotic cavity is formed.
Development
At the beginning of the second week, a cavity appears within the inner cell mass, and when it enlarges, it becomes the amniotic cavity. The floor of the amniotic cavity is formed by the epiblast. Epiblast migrates between the epiblastic disc and trophoblast. In this way the epiblastic cells migrate between the embryoblast and trophoblast. The floor is formed by the epiblast which later on transforms to ectoderm while the remaining cells which are present between the embryoblast and trophoblast are called amnioblasts (flattened cells). These cells are also derived from epiblast which is transformed into ectoderm.
The amniotic cavity is surrounded by an extraembryonic membrane, called the amnion. As the implantation of the blastocyst progresses, a small space appears in the embryoblast, which is the primordium of the amniotic cavity. Soon, amniogenic (amnion-forming cells) called amnioblasts separate from the epiblast and line the amnion, which encloses the amniotic cavity.
The epiblast forms the floor of the amniotic cavity and is continuous peripherally with the amnion. The hypoblast forms the roof of the exocoelomic cavity and is continuous with the thin exocoelomic membrane. This membrane along with hypoblast forms the primary yolk sac. The embryonic disc now lies between the amniotic cavity and the primary yolk sac. Cells from the yolk sac endoderm form a layer of connective tissue, the extraembryonic mesoderm, which surrounds the amnion and yolk sac.
Birth
If, after birth, the complete amniotic sac or big parts of the membrane remain coating the newborn, this is called a caul.
When seen in the light, the amniotic sac is shiny and very smooth, but tough.
Once the baby is pushed out of the mother's uterus, the umbilical cord, placenta, and amniotic sac are pushed out in the after birth.
Function
The amniotic sac and its filling provide a liquid that surrounds and cushions the fetus. It is a site of exchange of essential substances, such as oxygen, between the umbilical cord and the fetus. It allows the fetus to move freely within the walls of the uterus. Buoyancy is also provided.
Clinical significance
Chorioamnionitis is inflammation of the amniotic sac (chorio- + amnion + -itis), usually because of infection. It is a risk factor for neonatal sepsis.
During labor, the amniotic sac must break so that the child can be born. This is known as rupture of membranes (ROM). Normally, it occurs spontaneously at full term either during or at the beginning of labor. A premature rupture of membranes (PROM) is a rupture of the amnion that occurs prior to the onset of labor. An artificial rupture of membranes (AROM), also known as an amniotomy, may be clinically performed using an amnihook or amnicot in order to induce or to accelerate labour.
The amniotic sac has to be punctured to perform amniocentesis. This is fairly routine procedure, but can lead to infection of the amniotic sac in a very small number of cases. Infection more commonly arises vaginally.
References
External links
https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Amniotic_egg.html
http://staff.um.edu.mt/acus1/IMPLANTATION.htm
Body fluids
Embryology
Obstetrics
Human anatomy
Midwifery | wiki |
The amnion is a membrane that closely covers the human and various other embryos when first formed. It fills with amniotic fluid, which causes the amnion to expand and become the amniotic sac that provides a protective environment for the developing embryo. The amnion, along with the chorion, the yolk sac and the allantois protect the embryo. In birds, reptiles and monotremes, the protective sac is enclosed in a shell. In marsupials and placental mammals, it is enclosed in a uterus.
The term is from Ancient Greek ἀμνίον 'little lamb', diminutive of ἀμνός 'lamb'. it is cognate with the English verb 'yean', bring forth young (usually lambs).
The amnion is a feature of the vertebrate clade Amniota, which includes reptiles, birds, and mammals. Amphibians and fish are not amniotes and thus lack the amnion. The amnion stems from the extra-embryonic somatic mesoderm on the outer side and the extra-embryonic ectoderm or trophoblast on the inner side.
In humans
In the human embryo, the earliest stages of the formation of the amnion have not been observed; in the youngest embryo that has been studied the amnion was already present as a closed sac, and appears in the inner cell-mass as a cavity. This cavity is roofed in by a single stratum of flattened, ectodermal cells, the amniotic ectoderm, and its floor consists of the prismatic ectoderm of the embryonic disk. Outside the amniotic ectoderm is a thin layer of mesoderm, which is continuous with that of the somatopleure and is connected by the body-stalk with the mesodermal lining of the chorion.
When first formed, the amnion is in contact with the body of the embryo, but about the fourth or fifth week amniotic fluid (also called liquor amnii) begins to accumulate within it. This fluid increases in quantity and causes the amnion to expand and ultimately to adhere to the chorion's inner surface, so that the extra-embryonic part of the coelom is obliterated. The amniotic fluid increases in quantity up to the sixth or seventh month of pregnancy, after which it diminishes somewhat; at the end of pregnancy it amounts to about 1 liter.
The amniotic fluid allows the free movements of the fetus during the later stages of pregnancy, and also protects it by diminishing the risk of injury from without. It contains less than two percent solids, consisting of urea and other extractives, inorganic salts, a small amount of protein, and frequently a trace of sugar. That some of the liquor amnii is swallowed by the fetus is proved by the fact that epidermal debris and hairs have been found among the contents of the fetal alimentary canal.
Clinical significance
Extra-amniotic pregnancy is a rare condition that results from a rupture of the amnion, leading to development of the fetus within the extraembryonic coelom.
Other animals
In reptiles, birds, and many mammals the amnion develops in the following manner:
At the point of constriction where the primitive digestive tube of the embryo joins the yolk sac a reflection or folding upward of the somatopleure takes place.
This, the amniotic fold, first makes its appearance at the cephalic extremity, and subsequently at the caudal end and sides of the embryo, and gradually rising, its different parts meet and fuse over the dorsal aspect of the embryo, and enclose a cavity, the amniotic cavity. This kind of amnion is known as pleuroamnion (formed by folding), as opposed to schyzoamnion (formed by delamination).
After the fusion of the edges of the amniotic fold, the two layers of the fold become completely separated, the inner forming the amnion, the outer the false amnion or serosa.
The space between the amnion and the serosa constitutes the extra-embryonic celom, and for a time communicates with the embryonic celom.
Cats and dogs are born inside of the amnion; the mother cuts it open and eats it.
In elephants, "The amnios is continued from the base of the umbilical cord upon the allantois, which is of considerable size, and is so interposed between the chorion and amnios, as to prevent any part of the amnios attaining the inner surface of the placenta. The amnios consists of two layers:one is the granular layer, continued upon the inner or foetal surface of the allantois, and thence upon the umbilical cord; the other is the smooth outer layer, continued upon the outer or chorional surface of the allantois, and thence upon the inner surface of the chorion."
Application
The amniotic membrane is used as a biological dressing to heal incurable wounds. For this purpose, the placenta in cesarean delivery is collected and under aseptic conditions, the amniotic membrane is separated and packaged and sold commercially. In valid commercial products to prevent transmission of viral infections such as HIV and hepatitis, the donor's blood (mother) is tested. Products usually pass the sterility and endotoxin test in accordance with the rules of the Food and Drug Administration of the country of manufacture.
Additional images
See also
Amniotic sac
References
External links
- "Female Reproductive System: placenta, chorionic plate"
McGill
The Foeto-Amnio-Placental complex
Embryology
Membrane biology
Biological matter | wiki |
Governor Blakiston may refer to:
Nathaniel Blakiston (1722 deaths), 8th Royal Governor of Maryland from 1698 to 1702
Nehemiah Blakiston (fl. 1690s), 2nd Governor of the Maryland colony from 1691 to 1692 | wiki |
Governor Blundell may refer to:
Edmund Augustus Blundell (1804–1868), 6th Governor of the Straits Settlements from 1855 to 1859
Denis Blundell (1907–1984), 12th Governor-General of New Zealand from 1972 to 1977 | wiki |
Transcendental chess (TC) also known as pre-chess, is a chess variant invented in 1978 by Maxwell Lawrence. Chess960 (Fischer random chess) is similar but has fewer starting positions. In transcendental chess the beginning positions of the pieces on the back row are randomly determined, with the one restriction that the bishops be on opposite-colored squares. There are 8,294,400 such positions in total. In Chess960 there are 960 possible starting positions, but that is because the king must be located between the rooks and both sides must have the same starting position. In transcendental chess there is no such rule so the position of one side can be any of 42×6!÷22 = 2,880. There is no castling. On the first turn a player, instead of making a move, can transpose any two pieces on the back row.
In Chess960 the back rows are mirror images, but in transcendental chess the setup of black and white is different 2,879 out of every 2,880 times (there being a 1-in-2,880 chance that both sides will draw the same setup). This can create inequalities in the position. One way to equalize these inequalities is to play a couplet: the players play two games with the same setup, one each as white and as black. To win the couplet, a player must win at least one game and draw or win the other. The other way to equalize the opening positions is auction transcendental chess, in which each player bids to give their opponent extra opening moves in order to play the side of the board they want.
In orthodox chess, innovations in opening play are increasingly hard to come by, with most good players having processed an extensive catalogue of opening moves—novelties tend to occur later in the game. Transcendental chess offers opening complexity and novelty immediately because every game starts in a dense and unfamiliar position.
Variations
D-chess: Similar to transcendental chess, but only one game is needed to be played against each opponent as the unequal starting positions are equalized with the weaker side having the option to transpose two pieces and then gets to move first.
Notes
References
External links
Chess variants
1978 in chess
Board games introduced in 1978
Contexts for auctions | wiki |
Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc., 676 F.3d 19 (2nd Cir., 2012), was a United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit decision regarding liability for copyright infringement committed by the users of an online video hosting platform.
The entertainment company Viacom sued YouTube, the video-sharing site owned by Google, alleging that YouTube had engaged in "brazen" and "massive" copyright infringement by allowing users to upload and view hundreds of thousands of videos owned by Viacom without permission. Google was brought into the litigation as YouTube's corporate owner. Google responded that the safe harbor provision of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act shielded the company from liability for the infringing behavior of its users. After an initial victory for YouTube at the district court level and then a reversal at the circuit court level, the parties settled out of court in 2014.
Background
In 2007 Viacom filed a US $1 billion lawsuit against Google and YouTube alleging that the site had engaged in "brazen" copyright infringement by allowing users to upload and view copyrighted material owned by Viacom. The complaint stated that over 150,000 unauthorized clips of Viacom's programming, including episodes of many popular television shows, had been made available on YouTube, and that these clips had collectively been viewed 1.5 billion times.
Viacom claimed that YouTube had infringed on its copyrights by performing (via Internet transmission), displaying, and reproducing Viacom's copyrighted works. Furthermore, the complaint contended that the defendants "engage in, promote and induce" the infringement, and that they had deliberately built up a library of infringing works in order to increase the site's traffic and advertising revenue. In total, Viacom claimed direct infringement and indirect infringement, specifically inducement, contributory infringement and vicarious infringement.
Viacom did not seek damages for any actions after Google put its Content ID filtering system in place in early 2008, and instead pursued declaratory relief on the ability of American copyright law in addressing Internet-enabled infringement. The lawsuit was later merged with similar complaints being pursued by other copyright holders.
District court proceedings
The case was first heard at the District Court for the Southern District of New York in 2008. During the pre-trial discovery phase, Viacom requested and received a court order for YouTube to hand over data detailing the viewing habits of every user who had ever watched videos on the site. The move led to concerns that the viewing habits of individual users could be identified through a combination of their IP addresses and usernames. The decision was criticized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, which called the court order "a setback to privacy rights"; and privacy advocates such as Simon Davies, who stated that the privacy of millions of YouTube users was threatened.
Judge Louis Stanton dismissed the privacy concerns as "speculative", and ordered YouTube to hand over documents totaling about 12 terabytes of data. On the other hand, Stanton rejected Viacom's request that YouTube hand over the source code of its search engine, saying that it was a trade secret. As a result of the data handover, many users began posting videos under the group name "Viacom Sucks!", often containing large amounts of profanity. However, Google and Viacom agreed that Google could anonymize all the data before giving it to Viacom. The privacy deal also applied to other litigants including the English Premier League, the Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization, and the Scottish Premier League.
Meanwhile, the deal exempted employees of both the defendants and the plaintiffs, whose de-anonymized data was provided separately. The employee data was later used in filings by both sides, because in some cases employees of the entertainment firms had uploaded their companies' content to YouTube voluntarily. Viacom cited internal e-mails sent among YouTube's founders discussing how to deal with clips uploaded to YouTube that were obviously the property of major media conglomerates. Google stated that Viacom itself had "hired no fewer than 18 different marketing agencies to upload its content to the site". Google argued that since Viacom and its lawyers were "unable to recognize that dozens of the clips alleged as infringements in this case were uploaded to YouTube" with Viacom's express authorization, "it was unreasonable to expect Google's employees to know which videos were uploaded without permission."
In 2010 Judge Stanton ruled that Google was protected by provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), notwithstanding evidence of intentional uploads of copyrighted content by the entertainment companies themselves. Stanton held that while YouTube undeniably had general knowledge that some copyrighted material had been uploaded by users, it did not know which clips had been uploaded with permission and which had not. He said that mandating video-sharing sites to proactively police every uploaded video "would contravene the structure and operation of the D.M.C.A." Stanton also noted that YouTube had successfully enacted a mass take-down notice issued by Viacom in 2007, indicating that this was a viable process for addressing infringement claims. And finally, Stanton rejected Viacom's comparisons between YouTube and other Internet-based, media-sharing companies, such as Grokster, that had previously been found guilty of contributory copyright infringement.
Circuit court ruling
Viacom appealed its loss to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and the circuit court's decision was issued in 2012. During these proceedings, Viacom and the other plaintiffs focused on internal e-mails among YouTube employees who were aware of widespread infringement by the platform's users, including specific instances that the district court had said could be considered knowledge that would disqualify YouTube from safe harbor protection.
Circuit court judges José A. Cabranes and Debra Ann Livingston reversed the district court's ruling, holding that "a reasonable jury could find that YouTube had actual knowledge or awareness of specific infringing activity on its website", while the ability to control infringing activity need not require knowledge of specific infringements. Thus, the case was again eligible for a jury trial at the district court level, in which YouTube would have to defend itself against the copyright infringement claims. Furthermore, the circuit court found flaws in the district court's opinion on whether YouTube qualified for the safe harbor protections of the DMCA, with some definitional matters concerning the term "syndication" under the statute remaining unsettled. Thus, the case was remanded to the district court for further fact-finding on these matters.
Subsequent developments
A new hearing on the dispute was heard in 2013 at the District Court for the Southern District of New York, again with Judge Louis Stanton presiding. After additional discussion on the ability of YouTube to control infringing activity by its users and the applicability of safe harbor protections under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (as instructed by the circuit court), Stanton again ruled in favor of YouTube and Google.
Stanton ruled that that YouTube had no actual knowledge of any specific instance of infringement of Viacom's works, and therefore could not have "willfully blinded itself" to the infringement. He also ruled that YouTube did not have the "right and ability to control" infringing activity because "there is no evidence that YouTube induced its users to submit infringing videos, provided users with detailed instructions about what content to upload or edited their content, prescreened submissions for quality, steered users to infringing videos, or otherwise interacted with infringing users to a point where it might be said to have participated in their activity."
Viacom initiated another appeal to the circuit court level, but they and Google announced in 2014 that they had reached an out-of-court settlement. No details on the nature of the settlement were revealed, except for the fact that no money changed hands.
See also
Google litigation
References
Paramount Global
Google litigation
History of YouTube
YouTube legal issues
YouTube controversies
Digital Millennium Copyright Act case law
2013 in United States case law | wiki |
Karma Thinleypa () est une lignée de lamas tibétains karma-kagyu.
Lignée
Dagpo Chogle Namgyal (1456-1539)
Palkhang Chodze Lotsawa Ngawang Chökyi Gyatso, Palkhang Lotsawa
Karma Thinleypa
Karma Thinley Rinpoché (1931-)
Notes et références
Lama Kagyu
Tulku
Bouddhisme tibétain | wiki |
Pseudoscorpions, also known as false scorpions or book scorpions, are small, scorpion-like arachnids belonging to the order Pseudoscorpiones, also known as Pseudoscorpionida or Chelonethida.
Pseudoscorpions are generally beneficial to humans since they prey on clothes moth larvae, carpet beetle larvae, booklice, ants, mites, and small flies. They are tiny, and are rarely noticed due to their small size, despite being common in many environments. When people do see pseudoscorpions, especially indoors, they are often mistaken for ticks or small spiders. Pseudoscorpions often carry out phoresis, a form of commensalism in which one organism uses another for the purpose of transport.
Characteristics
Pseudoscorpions belong to the class Arachnida. They are small arachnids with a flat, pear-shaped body, and pincer-like pedipalps that resemble those of scorpions. They usually range from in length. The largest known species is Garypus titanius of Ascension Island at up to . Range is generally smaller at an average of .
A pseudoscorpion has eight legs with five to seven segments each; the number of fused segments is used to distinguish families and genera. They have two very long pedipalps with palpal chelae (pincers), which strongly resemble the pincers found on a scorpion.
The pedipalps generally consist of an immobile "hand" and mobile "finger", the latter controlled by an adductor muscle. Members of the clade Iocheirata, which contains the majority of pseudoscorpions, are venomous, with a venom gland and duct usually located in the mobile finger; the venom is used to immobilize the pseudoscorpion's prey. During digestion, pseudoscorpions exude a mildly corrosive fluid over the prey, then ingest the liquefied remains.
The abdomen, referred to as the opisthosoma, is made up of twelve segments, each protected by sclerotized plates (called tergites above and sternites below). The abdomen is short and rounded at the rear, rather than extending into a segmented tail and stinger like true scorpions. The color of the body can be yellowish-tan to dark-brown, with the paired claws often a contrasting color. They may have two, four or no eyes.
Pseudoscorpions spin silk from a gland in their jaws to make disk-shaped cocoons for mating, molting, or waiting out cold weather, but they do not have book lungs like true scorpions and the Tetrapulmonata. Instead, they breathe exclusively through tracheae, which open laterally through two pairs of spiracles on the posterior margins of the sternites of abdominal segments 3 and 4.
Behavior
Some species have an elaborate mating dance, where the male pulls a female over a spermatophore previously laid upon a surface. In other species, the male also pushes the sperm into the female genitals using the forelegs. The female carries the fertilized eggs in a brood pouch attached to her abdomen, and the young ride on the mother for a short time after they hatch.
Between 20 and 40 young are hatched in a single brood, with more than one brood per year possible. The young go through three molts over the course of several years before reaching adulthood. Many species molt in a small, silken igloo that protects them from enemies during this vulnerable period.
After reaching adulthood, pseudoscorpions live 2–3 years. They are active in the warm months of the year, overwintering in silken cocoons when the weather grows cold. Smaller species live in debris and humus. Some species are arboreal, while others are phagophiles, eating parasites in an example of cleaning symbiosis. Some species are phoretic, others may sometimes be found feeding on mites under the wing covers of certain beetles.
Distribution
More than 3,300 species of pseudoscorpions are recorded in more than 430 genera, with more being discovered on a regular basis. They range worldwide, even in temperate to cold regions such as Northern Ontario and above the timberline in Wyoming's Rocky Mountains in the United States and the Jenolan Caves of Australia, but have their most dense and diverse populations in the tropics and subtropics, where they spread even to island territories such as the Canary Islands, where around 25 endemic species have been found. There are also two endemic species on the Maltese Islands. Species have been found under tree bark, in leaf and pine litter, in soil, in tree hollows, under stones, in caves such as the Movile Cave, at the seashore in the intertidal zone, and within fractured rocks.
Chelifer cancroides is the species most commonly found in homes, where it is often observed in rooms with dusty books. There, the tiny animals () can find their food such as booklice and house dust mites. They enter homes by riding insects (phoresy) larger than themselves, or are brought in with firewood.
Evolution
The oldest known fossil pseudoscorpion, Dracochela deprehendor is known from cuticle fragments of nymphs found in the Panther Mountain Formation near Gilboa in New York, dating to the mid-Devonian, around 383 million years ago. It has all of the traits of a modern pseudoscorpion, indicating that the order evolved very early in the history of land animals. Its morphology suggests that it is more primitive than any living pseudoscorpion. As with most other arachnid orders, the pseudoscorpions have changed very little since they first appeared, retaining almost all the features of their original form. After the Devonian fossils, almost no other fossils of pseudoscorpions are known for over 250 million years until Cretaceous fossils in amber, all belonging to modern families, suggesting that the major diversification of pseudoscorpions had already taken place by this time. The only fossil from this time gap is Archaeofeaella from the Triassic of Ukraine, approximately 227 million years ago, which is suggested to be an early relative of the family Feaellidae.
Historical references
Pseudoscorpions were first described by Aristotle, who probably found them among scrolls in a library where they would have been feeding on booklice. Robert Hooke referred to a "Land-Crab" in his 1665 work Micrographia. Another reference in the 1780s, when George Adams wrote of "a lobster-insect, spied by some labouring men who were drinking their porter, and borne away by an ingenious gentleman, who brought it to my lodging."
Classification
The following taxon numbers are calculated as of the end of 2012.
Order Pseudoscorpiones De Geer, 1778 (2 suborders)
† Family Dracochelidae Schawaller, Shear and Bonamo, 1991 (1 fossil genus, 1 fossil species)
Superfamily Chthonioidea Daday, 1888 (2 families)
Family Chthoniidae Daday, 1888 (44 genera, 700+ species [3 fossil species])
Family Pseudotyrannochthoniidae Beier, 1932 (5 genera, 49 species)
Superfamily Feaelloidea Ellingsen, 1906 (2 families)
Family Feaellidae Ellingsen, 1906 (1 genus, 12 species)
Family Pseudogarypidae Chamberlin, 1923 (2 genera, 7 species [5 fossil species])
Suborder Iocheirata Harvey, 1992 (5 superfamilies)
Superfamily Neobisioidea Chamberlin, 1930 (7 families)
Family Bochicidae Chamberlin, 1930 (12 genera, 42 species)
Family Gymnobisiidae Beier, 1947 (4 genera, 11 species)
Family Hyidae Chamberlin, 1930 (2 genera, 14 species)
Family Ideoroncidae Chamberlin, 1930 (11 genera, 59 species)
Family Neobisiidae Chamberlin, 1930 (33 genera, 595 species [4 fossil species])
Family Parahyidae Harvey, 1992 (1 genus, 1 species)
Family Syarinidae Chamberlin, 1930 (18 genera, 111 species)
Superfamily Garypoidea Simon, 1879 (6 families)
Family Garypidae Simon, 1879 (10 genera, 80 species)
Family Garypinidae Daday, 1888 (21 genera, 76 species [2 fossil species])
Family Geogarypidae Chamberlin, 1930 (3 genera, 60 species [3 fossil species])
Family Larcidae Harvey, 1992 (2 genera, 15 species)
Family Menthidae Chamberlin, 1930 (5 genera, 12 species)
Family Olpiidae Banks, 1895 (36 genera, 268 species)
Superfamily Cheiridioidea Hansen, 1894 (2 families)
Family Cheiridiidae Hansen, 1894 (7 genera, 73 species [1 fossil genus, 3 fossil species])
Family Pseudochiridiidae Chamberlin, 1923 (2 genera, 12 species [1 fossil species])
Superfamily Sternophoroidea Chamberlin, 1923 (1 family)
Family Sternophoridae Chamberlin, 1923 (3 genera, 20 species)
Superfamily Cheliferoidea Risso, 1827 (4 families)
Family Atemnidae Kishida, 1929 (21 genera, 178 species [1 fossil genus, 1 fossil species])
Family Cheliferidae Risso, 1827 (58 genera, 273 species [5 fossil genus, 12 fossil species])
Family Chernetidae Menge, 1855 (117 genera, 663 species [1 fossil genus, 3 fossil species])
Family Withiidae Chamberlin, 1931 (36 genera, 158 species [1 fossil genus, 1 fossil species])
Cladogram
After Benavides et al, 2019, with historic taxonomic groups from Harvey (1992).
References
Further reading
Mark Harvey (2011). Pseudoscorpions of the World
Joseph C. Chamberlin (1931): The Arachnid Order Chelonethida. Stanford University Publications in Biological Science. 7(1): 1–284.
Clarence Clayton Hoff (1958): List of the Pseudoscorpions of North America North of Mexico. American Museum Novitates. 1875. PDF
Max Beier (1967): Pseudoscorpione vom kontinentalen Südost-Asien. Pacific Insects 9(2): 341–369. PDF
P. D. Gabbutt (1970): Validity of Life History Analyses of Pseudoscorpions. Journal of Natural History 4: 1–15.
W. B. Muchmore (1982): Pseudoscorpionida. In "Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisms." Vol. 2. Parker, S.P.
J. A. Coddington, S. F. Larcher & J. C. Cokendolpher (1990): The Systematic Status of Arachnida, Exclusive of Acari, in North America North of Mexico. In "Systematics of the North American Insects and Arachnids: Status and Needs." National Biological Survey 3. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Mark S. Harvey (1991): Catalogue of the Pseudoscorpionida. (edited by V . Mahnert). Manchester University Press, Manchester.
External links
Video of Pseudoscorpions in Ireland
Extant Devonian first appearances | wiki |
Gets Me Through est un single d'Ozzy Osbourne.
Titres
Version Européenne
Gets Me Through [edit] (4:09)
No Place For Angels (3:24)
Alive (4:54)
Version Britannique
Gets Me Through [edit] (4:09)
No Place For Angels (3:24)
Version Américaine
Gets Me Through [edit]
Gets Me Through
Chanson interprétée par Ozzy Osbourne | wiki |
James Cotton (1935-2017) – musicista statunitense
James Cotton (n. 1975) – cestista statunitense | wiki |
Niagara Purple Eagles ice hockey may refer to either of the ice hockey teams that represent Niagara University:
Niagara Purple Eagles men's ice hockey
Niagara Purple Eagles women's ice hockey | wiki |
An outlaw motorcycle club is a motorcycle subculture. It is generally centered on the use of cruiser motorcycles, particularly Harley-Davidsons and choppers, and a set of ideals that purport to celebrate freedom, nonconformity to mainstream culture, and loyalty to the biker group.
This article contains a list of conflicts involving outlaw motorcycle clubs.
Australia
Asia
Balkans
Belgium
Canada
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
New Zealand
Scandinavia
Russia
South Africa
United Kingdom
United States
See also
Lennoxville massacre
Milperra massacre
National Western Complex shootout
River Run riot
Shedden massacre
Waco shootout
References | wiki |
The development of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion began in 2002, immediately after its predecessor, The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, was published. Rumors of a sequel to Morrowind started circulating in June 2004; the sequel's title was identified on September 10, 2004, the date of its official announcement. Oblivion was developed by Bethesda Game Studios, and the initial Xbox 360 and personal computer (PC) releases were co-published by Bethesda and Take-Two Interactive's subsidiary, 2K Games. According to interviews with Bethesda staff, the publisher-developer relationship—one of the few independent relations in the industry—worked well, and Bethesda was not subject to excessive corporate guidance. Initially scheduled for a November 22, 2005, release, in tandem with the Xbox 360's launch, Oblivion was delayed to a March 21, 2006, release for Windows PCs and the Xbox 360.
Developers working on Oblivion focused on providing a tighter storyline, with fewer filler quests and more developed characters. The developers sought to make information in the game world more accessible to players, making the game easier to pick up and play. Oblivion features improved AI (which Bethesda calls Radiant AI), improved physics courtesy of the Havok physics engine, and impressive graphics, taking advantage of advanced lighting and shader routines like high-dynamic-range rendering (HDR) and specular mapping. Bethesda developed and implemented procedural content creation tools in the creation of Oblivion's terrain, leading to landscapes that are more complex and realistic than those of past titles, with less of a drain on Bethesda's staff.
A PlayStation 3 version of Oblivion was released on March 20, 2007, in North America, and April 27, 2007, in Europe, following delays similar to those for the Xbox 360 release. The PlayStation 3 release was touted for its improvement over the graphics of the PC and Xbox 360 versions, although some of the improved shader routines optimized for the PlayStation 3 release were set to be ported over to the other releases through patches. A plan to distribute content through downloads paid by micropayment was initially met with criticism by customers due to its alleged low value, but later releases—at a reduced price, and with more content—proved more popular.
Business
Rumors and official announcements
The first rumors of another Elder Scrolls release after The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind began to circulate in June 2004, following Bethesda's posting of an e-mail searching for new staff. The new staff members were to participate in a team that would push "the bleeding-edge of RPG development for the PC and future-generation consoles". For those considering the job, the e-mail suggested that "knowledge of ... The Elder Scrolls [is] a plus". At the time, a member of Bethesda's staff played down the importance of the last comment, noting that Bethesda would "obviously" prefer applicants familiar with the company's products. Rumors were confirmed on July 12, 2004, when it was announced that Fallout 3 and the next Elder Scrolls title would be published by Bethesda and produced by Todd Howard. The title of the release was listed on September 10, 2004, when Bethesda officially announced the identity of the game in question: The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, followed by a feature in the October 2004 issue of Game Informer. At the time of the announcement, Bethesda had been working on Oblivion for two years (since 2002), just as Bethesda was completing work on Morrowind.
Release delays
Although preliminary reports from Reuters suggested an Oblivion release in tandem with the launch of the Xbox 360 on November 22, 2005, and the original announcement of the game set a release date of Winter 2005, Take-Two Interactive announced, during a conference call with analysts on October 31, 2005, that Oblivion's release was to be delayed until the second quarter of Take-Two's fiscal year. The new schedule would put the release between February and April 2006. The delay surprised many, especially online retailers, who had begun accepting pre-orders for consoles bundled with Oblivion. News of the delay came at a time following a burst of bad news from the company, including a 60% drop in expected earnings per share, the ongoing Hot Coffee minigame controversy, worse than average sales for the company's flagship Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, sudden drops in share prices, and delays for other company products.
Most commentators blamed Take-Two's corporate governance; one analyst stated that the company's troubles were more "company-specific than market-driven", and another declared company CEO Paul Eibeler to be the "worst CEO of 2005", pointing to "setbacks on the rollouts of newer games" as evidence of his failure. Pete Hines, Vice President of PR and Marketing for Bethesda, and Todd Howard, Executive Producer for the game, gave an update about the delay on the weekend of November 6, 2005. They planned to provide updates every subsequent weekend until the game's release. A commentator from Joystiq complained of the vagueness of the updates: "they don't get any more specific than to say, 'There is work that still needs to be done'. In fact, they say this three times just to make sure we know how hard they are working ... While it's nice to see the development team taking time out to update the fans, if the announcements continue to be as vague as this one, I'd rather just see them spend the extra time on the actual game."
Product showings
On May 16, 2005, Bethesda announced that they would be releasing Oblivion on Microsoft's Xbox 360 and that the game's public debut would come at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles on May 18, 2005. The version shown at E3 was substantially finished; most of the content was already in the game, lacking only the polish that the final months of development would bring. The game's world, for example, had already been fully constructed but still needed to undergo a "clutter pass", wherein minor game items—"books, weapons, and thousands of forks and plates"—are dropped into the game world.
Howard himself never took to the show. "It's like a beauty pageant", he told one reporter. "I have 20 minutes to give you a presentation on our games that by their nature are hard to demo in that time period, and then the person is going to check their watch and walk out and go see someone else's demo." Hines aimed to play against the standard convention at the show, avoiding the "noise and lights and heat and masses" of the show floor by retiring to a mini-theater—with air-conditioning, comfortable seating, and dim lighting—where attendees could comfortably watch. Howard agreed with the choice: "We've always taken sort of the meeting room approach. We don't have loud crazy booths."
During Microsoft's E3 pre-show conference, a ten-second preview of Oblivion was shown amid demo reels for other games. The preview consisted of a series of brief second-long shots of the game. Later on, during E3 proper, Bethesda showed a longer 25-minute demo that showcased further clipped scenes: the opening dungeon, a procedurally rendered forest, one of the game's towns, and other locales. Most viewers were impressed by Oblivion's showing. In the words of one reporter, "The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion isn't just one of the brightest gems in the Xbox 360's upcoming launch lineup, but it's also perhaps a perfect example of a next-generation role-playing game." Oblivion won a number of "best of" awards from a variety of game journalists: GameSpy's "RPG Game of Show" GameSpot's "Best RPG", IGN's "Best PC RPG", RPGFan's "Best Overall Game of E3 2005", and, most prestigiously, the "Best Role Playing Game" in the 2005 E3 Game Critics Awards.
A near-final build of Oblivion would later be shown at Microsoft's Consumer Electronics Show press tent—but not at its public Xbox 360 booth—in January 2006, showcasing the game's exteriors. A Joystiq reporter at the scene was not entirely impressed, finding the demo marred by long load times and slowdowns during combat. An Xbox representative reassured the reporter that all such issues would be worked out before the game's retail release. In the months prior to release, anticipation for the game ran high, with critics describing Oblivion as "the first next-gen game" only heightening attention. "People were expecting the game to cure blindness and heal the sick," said Hines.
Xbox 360 and PC release
After an almost four-month delay, Oblivion went gold on March 2, 2006, and was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 on March 21, 2006. Early rumors notwithstanding, Oblivion shipped on a single DVD-DL disc. One journalist voiced concern for the game's release date, as it was set in the same week as that of EA's The Godfather. Hines dismissed the suggestion, saying, "We tend to focus on what we can control and not worry about what we can't control. Given the level of interest and the number of pre-orders and so forth, we had a pretty good idea we'd be just fine no matter what else was happening that week." Oblivion was the first RPG title to be released for Microsoft's Xbox 360 console. In addition to the standard release version, a Collector's Edition was released for both Windows and Xbox 360 which includes the 112-page Pocket Guide to the Empire, a bonus DVD containing concept art, renders, and an approximately 45-minute-long documentary on the making of Oblivion, and a coin replica of the in-game currency of Tamriel. Its suggested release price of US$69.99 brought back "memories of game prices circa the Nintendo 64" for one Kotaku commentator. Some suggested that the included coin be used to create a "garish piece of jewelry".
Oblivion was well received in the gaming press; there was no critical disappointment, no "bump" in popular expectations, that might have been expected for such a highly anticipated game. Metacritic, an aggregate review site, gave the game a 94% score; IGN, GameSpot and GameSpy each gave the game their own individual "RPG of the Year" award. Oblivion also sold well, selling 1.7 million copies by April 10, 2006. Additionally, three million copies were sold by January 18, 2007. Pete Hines was satisfied with the release: "I feel like we delivered on what people expected ... I think the scores and awards reflect that we delivered on people's expectations."
PlayStation 3 release
The PS3 version of the game was ported/developed by 4J Studios who have worked with Bethesda in other projects. In April 2006, an inadvertently mailed version of Bethesda's supposed forthcoming game release list began a series of unconfirmed rumors of Oblivion releases for the PlayStation 3 and the PlayStation Portable (PSP). The list suggested that Oblivion would be a PlayStation 3 launch title and that the PSP version would be released in November. These rumors were confirmed on September 28, 2006, when Bethesda officially announced the titles, setting the PlayStation 3 version's North American release date for November 2006, European release date for March 2007, and the PSP version for Spring 2007. The two titles were set to be published by Bethesda alone in North America, and with Ubisoft as a co-publisher in Europe. Hines was mum regarding the change in publishers: "Too much backroom stuff." Ubisoft saw their first-quarter sales for 2007 rise 90.5%, to 134 million Euros, exceeding previous forecasts by 14 million Euros. Ubisoft CEO Yves Guillemot attributed the rise to "new-generation consoles and the impact of PlayStation 3 game sales, including Rainbow Six Vegas and Oblivion".
Despite the title being included in Sony's announced PlayStation 3 launch lineup at its annual Gamers' Day event in San Francisco, online retailers EBgames.com and Gamestop.com—two sites with a history of revealing the release dates of games before their publisher's announcements—were found on November 8, 2006, to have set Oblivion's release date as January 1, 2007. A few hours later, the delay was confirmed, as Pete Hines issued the statement that "Oblivion PS3 is now a Q1 2007 title". Hines gave no reason for the delay, but the news stirred suspicions of development difficulties working with the PlayStation 3, and that Bethesda was discouraged by the scarcity of PlayStation 3 consoles at launch. The North American PS3 release was later confirmed to be March 20, 2007, near the end of the first quarter window, with the European PS3 release set at April 27, 2007. Some reporters commented on a perceived parallelism between the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 delays and releases.
United Kingdom video games retailer GAME encountered distribution problems on release day in Europe. A branch on Oxford Street reported to Computer and Video Games (CVG), a video games magazine, that no units were in stock on the afternoon of April 27, 2007, and that other stores were in the same predicament. Other reports suggested that the game was not available in any of GAME's 400 UK and Ireland stores. GAME staff nonetheless told CVG reporters that copies would be available by next week, "possibly Monday". A Ubisoft representative attributed the shortage to high demand for the product and stated that copies were available online and at other High Street retailers. Other retailers, such as HMV and Virgin Megastore, reported no shortages.
Production and design
Staff
In 2002, Bethesda's Elder Scrolls team was split in two: half, mostly designers and artists, were sent to work on Morrowind expansions; and the rest, primarily programmers, were sent to work on technology for Oblivion. Ken Rolston, a former designer for Morrowind, was signed on as the game's Lead Designer. Code for the PC and Xbox 360 were somewhat interchangeable, owing to the similarity in system architecture between the consoles, but the team still had to divide its programming staff between the two. A number of staff with experience in developing for Sony platforms like the PlayStation 2 worked on optimizing the code for the subsequent PlayStation 3 release. The art and design staff were mostly unaffected by the need to develop for multiple consoles.
Publisher relations
On February 3, 2005, Bethesda entered into an agreement with Take-Two Interactive regarding the publication and release of Oblivion. Under the agreement, Bethesda would retain full control over Oblivion's development and the rights to any possible sequels, and Take-Two would agree to publish the game under its recently formed 2K Games sub-brand. According to Producer Gavin Carter, the team's experience was a rarity in the industry; few independent developer-publisher relationships still exist, and it was a surprise that Bethesda's experience worked out as well as it did. Carter described Take-Two's role as one of minimal interference, and the company mostly left Bethesda's development teams alone, trusting them to produce a "fantastic product" with minimal intervention or "red tape". The relationship was a rarity in the industry, according to Carter, where most developers are beholden to their publishers. Ashley Cheng, Oblivion's senior producer, concurred. There was "complete freedom" at Bethesda to decide their own path, whatever market trends might say. Of the legal proceedings affecting Bethesda's parent company ZeniMax during the initial stages of game development, when Bethesda founder Christopher Weaver sued the company for severance pay, Todd Howard said that he, as a producer, wasn't involved with corporate affairs. "I just focus on the games."
Design goals
The team's goal then was, in the words of Todd Howard, to "create the quintessential RPG of the next generation", with a focus on a "combination of freeform gameplay and cutting-edge graphics". Producing for next-generation machines, rather than a cheap upgrade, gave Bethesda an additional four years of development. Howard describes this as an aspect of Bethesda's greater goal of "Reinvention", where the team's goal is to make "a new game that stands on its own, that has its own identity". Howard spoke of the need to avoid repetition, to avoid merely adding "some new features and content, and keep doing that", describing that path as "a good way to drive your games into the ground". Bethesda, Howard stated, would focus instead on recapturing what made its past titles exciting "in the first place".
Keeping with the spirit of past games, Howard promised to continue with the spirit of "big-world, do-anything"-style games, feeling that a certain size and number of choices were needed to make role-playing feel "meaningful"; but now there was to be greater emphasis on keeping the game focused. Pete Hines saw the developments between games as less an issue of design focus and more as a "natural side effect of improving and refining how the game works". If smart decisions were made, ease of play would naturally follow. Oblivion would include fewer NPCs and quests than Morrowind, and mindless filler, which Howard felt the team had been guilty of in the past, would be avoided. In exchange, Producer Gavin Carter later explained, there would be a greater focus on length and depth in the quests, adding more "alternate paths", more characters "to connect with, who actually have personalities". Carter cast negative aspersions on aspects of gameplay too far removed from the game's central plot. Carter said such material was not needed, preferring instead that the focus be on the plot, on "fighting these demon lords", and that further material is "tertiary" and "takes away".
The role of the player character in the main quest was to be changed as well. In contrast to past games, where the player character would play a type of "chosen one", Oblivion would have the player character "find him, protect him, and help him". Aside from that, in the opinion of Hines, "the main quest has similar themes and tones as in past Elder Scrolls games", and should still feel "epic", simply because of the way the gamespace is designed: with openness in mind. Improving that aspect of the experience, said Hines, came mostly in the form of improved information presentation. The system would not intrude on the experience when the player merely wishes to "walk around and explore the world and do whatever he/she wants", but given the scenario where the player asks OK, I'm ready to do the next part of the main quest, where do I go?, the game would provide a ready answer, so as to avoid "confusion" and "downtime".
Technology
The Xbox 360 was set as Oblivion's base platform, being the "easiest to develop for", in the words of Pete Hines; the PC was considered more like a "random amalgamation of graphics cards and RAM and processors", and poorly "defined". As they had done with previous games in the series, Bethesda threw out their old content and technology and began work anew. A new engine was envisioned, one which would take advantage of advanced lighting and shader routines, like high-dynamic-range rendering and specular mapping. The final product was shipped with an engine formed of a mixture of in-house tech and Numerical Design Limited's Gamebryo engine, "tricked out" in collaboration with Bethesda's graphics programmers and NDL. Cheng has described the game as "pixel-shader heavy", taking advantage of the feature in rendering "metal, wood, stone, blood, skin", in addition to water, which was the only use Morrowind made of the technology. In particular, Oblivion uses normal maps, diffuse maps, specular maps, and parallax maps, which Howard described as "kind of like displacement mapping". Oblivion makes use of Radiant AI, a new artificial intelligence system that allows non-player characters to react and interact with the world around them dynamically. General goals, such as "Eat at this city at 2pm" are given to NPCs, and NPCs are left to determine how to achieve them. The absence of individual scripting for each character allowed for the construction of a world on a much larger scale than other games had developed, and aided in the creation of what Todd Howard described as an "organic feel" for the game.
Features introduced for the new release that had been absent in Morrowind included "full facial animations, lip synching, and full speech for all dialogue". Oblivion uses Havok as its physics engine, following in the footsteps of Half-Life 2. Havok is involved in modeling the game's representations of telekinesis, theft, traps, tumbling, paralysis, area effect fireball explosions, and the contact between arrows and their targets. Arrows, in Oblivion, may lodge themselves in objects and thereby increase their mass.
The inclusion of procedural content tools allowed for the creation of realistic environments at much faster rates than was the case with Morrowind. Using Interactive Data Visualization, Inc. (IDV)'s SpeedTree technology, for example, Bethesda artists were able to "quickly generate complex and organic tree shapes with relative ease". With its "parent/child hierarchies and iterative branch levels highly modifiable cylinder primitives", Bethesda's Noah Berry attests that "an entire tree shape can be created in a manner of minutes, just by adjusting numerical values and tweaking spline curve handles". Instead of Morrowind's artificially smoothed-over terrain, erosion algorithms incorporated in the landscape generation tools allowed for the creation of "craggy mountain vistas" quickly and easily.
PlayStation 3
The PS3 release featured a number of technical improvements over the Xbox 360 release; load times were reduced, fewer framerate drops were experienced, and several bugs were fixed. Draw distance was increased, and new shaders were included to render the foreground cleanly and sharply, leading to rocky landscapes with "craggy appearances" rather than "smooth, non-distinct surfaces". The new shader sets blended "near detail" and "far detail" onscreen, removing the harsh line that cut between them in previous releases. Bethesda decided against implementing SIXAXIS motion support for the game, considering Oblivion not to be of a type well-suited to such a feature. The Knights of the Nine content pack was included with the game, but other downloadable content releases were not. The latter release spawned a host of rumors across the Internet: a 1UP piece said the content was removed due to its negative effect on console performance, and other websites repeated the claim. Limitations of the PS3's system memory were suspected as the potential cause of the performance drop.
In an article for IGN, Pete Hines challenged the statements, providing an alternate rationale for the content packages' absence. Firstly, he stated, the expansions were removed to avoid giving a PS3 player an early advantage over other consoles' players. Secondly, he said, the game designers were unfamiliar with the PlayStation Network Store and Sony's online content distribution systems, and had not yet determined the best method of releasing the packages. The suggestion that the PS3's technical makeup determined the move could not be "farther from the truth". Hines confirmed that the shader improvements for the PS3 would eventually migrate to the PC and Xbox 360 through further patches, but he noted that some optimizations would remain exclusive to the PS3. In the end, the Xbox 360 and the PS3 would be "very much on a par" in their graphical performance.
Downloadable content
Background and Horse Armor
From April 2006 onwards, Bethesda began releasing small, downloadable packages of content from their website and over the Xbox Live Marketplace, for the equivalent of between one and three US dollars. The first package, a set of horse armor (barding) for Oblivions steeds, was released on April 3, 2006, costing 200 Marketplace points, equivalent to US$2.50 or £1.50; the corresponding PC release cost was US$1.99. Bethesda offered no rationale for the price discrepancy. These were not the first Oblivion-related Marketplace releases (the first was a series of dashboard themes and picture packs released prior to Oblivion's publication, in February 2006, for a nominal fee) nor were they entirely unexpected: Bethesda had previously announced their desire to support the Xbox release with downloadable Marketplace content, and other publishers had already begun to release similar packages for their games, at similar prices. A November 2005-release of a "Winter Warrior Pack" for Kameo: Elements of Power was also priced at 200 Marketplace points, and similar content additions had been scheduled for Project Gotham Racing 3 and Perfect Dark Zero. Indeed, Marketplace content additions formed a significant part of a March 2006 Microsoft announcement regarding the future of Xbox Live. "Downloadable in-game content is a main focus of Microsoft's strategy heading into the next-gen console war", stated one GameSpot reporter. "With more consoles on their way to retail, 80 games available by June, and new content and experiences coming to Xbox Live all the time, there has never been a better time to own an Xbox 360", announced Peter Moore. Nonetheless, although Xbox Live Arcade games, picture packs, dashboards and profile themes continued to be a Marketplace success for Microsoft, the aforementioned in-game content remained sparse. Pete Hines asserted,
"We were the first ones to do downloadable content like that—some people had done similar things, but no one had really done additions where you add new stuff to your existing game." There was no pressure from Microsoft to make the move.
Despite player complaints about paying for a purely decorative item, the horse armor content ended up being the best-selling piece of DLC for Oblivion by 2009. Oblivion horse armor became a model for many games that followed for implementing microtransactions in video games, and is considered the first primary example and often synonymous for microtransactions.
Later releases
April 4 also saw the announcement of two new downloadable content packs for the coming weeks: an "Orrery" quest that would see players set out to repair a Dwarven Orrery; and a "Wizard's Tower" that would offer a new home for player characters, complete with the capacity to grow herbs, summon atronachs, and make spells. 1UP predicted that, given Bethesda's response to customer criticism, those releases would be somewhat more substantial than the "Horse Armor" release was. On April 7, Bethesda priced the "Orrery". Offering what GameSpot called "more bang for less buck", Bethesda set the PC release price at US$1.89, and the Xbox 360 release price at 150 Marketplace points, equivalent to US$1.88. Joystiq offered their support—Big ups—to the company for the new price. "Although we passed on the $2.50 horse armor this week, we'll definitely be messin' with that Orrery device when it hits the Marketplace." The pack was eventually released on April 17. Also on April 7, EB Games and GameStop began offering a coupon promising one free download of the "Horse Armor" pack with every purchase of the PC edition of Oblivion. The "Wizard's Tower", called the "Frostcrag Spire" in-game, was released on April 24 for the same price as the "Orrery".
New releases continued into late 2006. The "Thieves' Den", a 2.27MB download offering the chance to "Uncover a famous pirate's lost ship and claim it for your own", was released on May 22 for the Xbox 360, priced at 150 Marketplace points, "roughly" equivalent to US$1.89. Explaining the add-on, Ashley Cheng stated "Basically, it's Goonies." "Mehrunes' Razor", a quest revolving around a mage in search of the deadly Daedric artifact known as Mehrunes' Razor, was released on June 14. It became the most expensive download yet, at US$2.99 for PC users and 250 Marketplace points, equivalent to US$3.13, for Xbox 360 owners. One 1UP.com reporter took the occasion to reflect on the increasing price of owning the "complete" Oblivion. With all the add-ons included, he calculated, "That's over $80 in game for the complete version of Oblivion, thus far." Foreseeing future problems with the upcoming PS3 release, and a potential bundling of all the software for a lower price, he wondered: "will Xbox 360 and PC users feel slighted? ... Microtransactions are sticky business." Joystiq continued to comment on the "Horse Armor" add-on in their notice of the quest's release. "With a weapon like that, who needs horse armor?" On July 13, "The Vile Lair", sporting a hidden crypt called "Deepscorn Hollow" for players bitten with Oblivion's vampirism bug, was released. Like the "Orrery" and the "Wizard's Tower", Bethesda set "The Vile Lair"'s PC release price at US$1.89, and the Xbox 360 release price at 150 Marketplace points, equivalent to US$1.88. Joystiq responded positively to the new price point. "What a bargain! ... It's good to see the folks at Oblivion have learned their lesson and aren't offering relatively super expensive content not fit to see the light of day."
On August 31, "Spell Tomes", adding books with "wondrous and powerful magic spells", to the random loot of fallen foes, was released, for the price of US$1.00 on both the Xbox 360 and the PC. Beginning on December 22 and continuing on until the end of the year, Bethesda offered their "Mehrunes Razor" package free of charge, as a sort of holiday gift. Oblivion's final content pack, named "Fighter's Stronghold", was released October 15, 2007. It was free to download in the first week after its release.
References
The Elder Scrolls
Elder Scrolls IV, The: Oblivion | wiki |
Oxalis illinoensis, the Illinois woodsorrel, is a species of flowering plant in the woodsorrel family (Oxalidaceae). It is endemic to the United States, where it found in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The limits of the range of this species are unclear due to its similarity to Oxalis grandis, with which there has been confusion.
Oxalis illinoensis is a perennial that produces yellow flowers with red-lined centers. Its primary habitat is calcareous forests and bluffs.
References
illinoensis
Endemic flora of the United States
Plants described in 1982
Flora without expected TNC conservation status | wiki |
Castlemead is the second tallest high-rise building in Bristol, England, after Castle Park View topped out in 2020. Designed by A.J. Hines and started in 1973, work was halted by a recession in the property market and it was completed in 1981. The building has a roof height of 80 metres or 262 feet and consists of 18 floors, 17 of which are offices.
Castlemead is owned by Regional Properties Ltd and managed by Knight Frank LLP.
In June 2021, a major £2.1 million refurbishment completed. This included upgrading all 18 floors up to Grade A standard and transforming the basement to facilitate the creation of 374 new bike spaces, together with cycle hire facilities, 18 new showers, storage lockers, large dedicated drying room, new secure access with lift and 12 electric car charging points.
The building is a short walk from Castle Park and the River Avon, and the Cabot Circus and Broadmead shopping areas.
Companies contained within the building include: IMDb, Beaufort Securities Stockbrokers, IBEX Global UK, Marsh Commercial, Equiniti, Bristol IT Company and MWB Business Exchange.
The building is also used by organisations including Lloyds TSB, and the City of Bristol College for holding exams.
See also
List of tallest buildings and structures in Bristol
References
External links
Official website
Buildings and structures in Bristol
Buildings and structures completed in 1981 | wiki |
Mark Herring may refer to:
Mark Herring (born 1961), Virginia Attorney General
Mark Herring (swimmer), New Zealand swimmer, who swam at the 2008 Olympics
See also
Marc Herring, multimedia artist and businessman | wiki |
Offside is one of the laws in association football, codified in Law 11 of the Laws of the Game. The law states that a player is in an offside position if any of their body parts, except the hands and arms, are in the opponents' half of the pitch, and closer to the opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent (the last opponent is usually, but not necessarily, the goalkeeper).
Being in an offside position is not an offence in itself, but a player so positioned when the ball is played by a teammate can be judged guilty of an offside offence if they receive the ball or will otherwise become "involved in active play", will "interfere with an opponent", or will "gain an advantage" by being in that position. Offside is often considered one of the most difficult to understand aspects of the sport.
Significance
Offside is judged at the moment the ball is last touched by the most recent teammate to touch the ball. Being in an offside position is not an offence in itself. A player who was in an offside position at the moment the ball was last touched or played by a teammate must then become involved in active play, in the opinion of the referee, in order for an offence to occur. When the offside offence occurs, the referee stops play, and awards an indirect free kick to the defending team from the place where the offending player became involved in active play.
The offside offence is neither a foul nor misconduct as it does not belong to Law 12. Like fouls, however, any play (such as the scoring of a goal) that occurs after an offence has taken place, but before the referee is able to stop the play, is nullified. The only time an offence related to offside is cautionable is if a defender deliberately leaves the field in order to deceive their opponents regarding a player's offside position, or if a forward, having left the field, returns and gains an advantage. In neither of these cases is the player penalised for being offside; instead they are cautioned for acts of unsporting behaviour.
An attacker who is able to receive the ball behind the opposition defenders is often in a good position to score. The offside rule limits attackers' ability to do this, requiring that they be onside when the ball is played forward. Though restricted, well-timed passes and fast running allow an attacker to move into such a situation after the ball is kicked forward without committing the offence. Officiating decisions regarding offside, which can often be a matter of only centimetres or inches, can be critical in games, as they may determine whether a promising attack can continue, or even if a goal is allowed to stand.
One of the main duties of the assistant referees is to assist the referee in adjudicating offside—their position on the sidelines giving a more useful view sideways across the pitch. Assistant referees communicate that an offside offence has occurred by raising a signal flag. However, as with all officiating decisions in the game, adjudicating offside is ultimately up to the referee, who can overrule the advice of their assistants if they see fit.
Application
The application of the offside rule may be considered in three steps: offside position, offside offence, and offside sanction.
Offside position
A player is in an "offside position" if they are in the opposing team's half of the field and also "nearer to the opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent." The 2005 edition of the Laws of the Game included a new IFAB decision that stated, "In the definition of offside position, 'nearer to his opponents' goal line' means that any part of their head, body or feet is nearer to their opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent. The arms are not included in this definition". By 2017, the wording had changed to say that, in judging offside position, "The hands and arms of all players, including the goalkeepers, are not considered." In other words, a player is in an offside position if two conditions are met:
Any part of the player's head, body or feet is in the opponents' half of the field (excluding the half-way line).
Any part of the player's head, body or feet is closer to the opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent.
The goalkeeper counts as an opponent in the second condition, but it is not necessary that the last opponent be the goalkeeper.
Offside offence
A player in an offside position at the moment the ball is touched or played by a teammate is only penalised for committing an offside offence if, in the opinion of the referee, they become involved in active play by:
Interfering with play
"playing or touching the ball passed or touched by a team-mate"
Interfering with an opponent
"preventing an opponent from playing or being able to play the ball by clearly obstructing the opponent’s line of vision or
challenging an opponent for the ball or
clearly attempting to play a ball which is close to them when this action impacts on an opponent or
making an obvious action which clearly impacts on the ability of an opponent to play the ball"
Gaining an advantage by playing the ball or interfering with an opponent when it has
"- rebounded or been deflected off the goalpost, crossbar, match official or an opponent
– been deliberately saved by any opponent"
In addition to the above criteria, in the 2017–18 edition of the Laws of the Game, the IFAB made a further clarification that, "In situations where a player moving from, or standing in, an offside position is in the way of an opponent and interferes with the movement of the opponent towards the ball this is an offside offence if it impacts on the ability of the opponent to play or challenge for the ball."
There is no offside offence if a player receives the ball directly from a goal kick, a corner kick, or a throw-in. It is also not an offence if the ball was last deliberately played by an opponent (except for a deliberate save). In this context, according to the IFAB, "A ‘save’ is when a player stops, or attempts to stop, a ball which is going into or very close to the goal with any part of the body except the hands/arms (unless the goalkeeper within the penalty area)."
An offside offence may occur if a player receives the ball directly from either a direct free kick, indirect free kick or dropped-ball.
Since offside is judged at the time the ball is touched or played by a teammate, not when the player receives the ball, it is possible for a player to receive the ball significantly past the second-to-last opponent, or even the last opponent, without committing an offence.
Determining whether a player is "involved in active play" can be complex. The quote, "If he's not interfering with play, what's he doing on the pitch?" has been attributed to Bill Nicholson and Danny Blanchflower. In an effort to avoid such criticisms, which were based on the fact that phrases such as "interfering with play", "interfering with an opponent", and "gaining an advantage" were not clearly defined, FIFA issued new guidelines for interpreting the offside law in 2003; and these were incorporated into Law 11 in July 2005. The new wording sought to define the three cases more precisely, but a number of football associations and confederations continued to request more information about what movements a player in an offside position could make without interfering with an opponent. In response to these requests, IFAB circular 3 was issued in 2015 to provide additional guidance on the criteria for interfering with an opponent. This additional guidance is now included in the main body of the law, and forms the last three conditions under the heading "Interfering with an opponent" as shown above. The circular also contained additional guidance on the meaning of a save, in the context of a ball that has "been deliberately saved by any opponent."
Offside sanction
The sanction for an offside offence is an indirect free kick for the opponent at the place where the offence occurred, even if it is in the player's own half of the field of play.
Officiating
In enforcing this rule, the referee depends greatly on an assistant referee, who generally keeps in line with the second-to-last opponent, the ball, or the halfway line, whichever is closer to the goal line of their relevant end. An assistant referee signals for an offside offence by first raising their flag to a vertical position and then, if the referee stops play, by partly lowering their flag to an angle that signifies the location of the offence:
Flag pointed at a 45-degree angle downwards: offence has occurred in the third of the pitch nearest to the assistant referee;
Flag parallel to the ground: offence has occurred in the middle third of the pitch;
Flag pointed at a 45-degree angle upwards: offence has occurred in the third of the pitch furthest from the assistant referee.
The assistant referees' task with regard to offside can be difficult, as they need to keep up with attacks and counter-attacks, consider which players are in an offside position when the ball is played, and then determine whether and when the offside-positioned players become involved in active play. The risk of false judgement is further increased by the foreshortening effect, which occurs when the distance between the attacking player and the assistant referee is significantly different from the distance to the defending player, and the assistant referee is not directly in line with the defender. The difficulty of offside officiating is often underestimated by spectators. Trying to judge if a player is level with an opponent at the moment the ball is kicked is not easy: if an attacker and a defender are running in opposite directions, they can be two metres apart in less than a second.
Some researchers believe that offside officiating errors are "optically inevitable". It has been argued that human beings and technological media are incapable of accurately detecting an offside position quickly enough to make a timely decision. Sometimes it simply is not possible to keep all the relevant players in the visual field at once. There have been some proposals for automated enforcement of the offside rule.
Motivation
The motivations for offside rules varied at different times, and were not always clearly stated when the rules were changed.
According to the anonymous author of a November 1863 newspaper article in the Sporting Gazette, "[f]or a player to place himself nearer his opponent's goal than the ball, and to wait for it to be kicked to him, is not anywhere recognised but as being decidedly unfair". Curry and Dunning suggest that offside play was considered "highly ungentlemanly" at some schools; this attitude may have been reflected in the use of terminology such as "sneaking" at Eton and "loiter[ing]" at Cambridge.
In general, offside rules intend to prevent players from "goal-hanging"–staying near the opponent's goal and waiting for the ball to be passed to them directly. This was considered to be unsportsmanlike and made the game boring.
In contrast, the offside rules force players not to get ahead of the ball, and thus favour dribbling the ball and short passes over few long passes.
History
Before 1863
Traditional games
A law similar to offside was used in the game of hurling to goals played in Cornwall in the early 17th century:
School and university football
Offside laws are found in the largely uncodified and informal football games played at English public schools in the early 19th century. An 1832 article discussing the Eton wall game complained of "[t]he interminable multiplicity of rules about sneaking, picking up, throwing, rolling, in straight, with a vast number more", using the term "sneaking" to refer to Eton's offside law. The novel Tom Brown's School Days, published in 1857 but based on the author's experiences at Rugby School from 1834 to 1842, discussed that school's offside law:
The first published set of laws of any code of football (Rugby School, 1845), stated that "[a] player is off his side if the ball has touched one of his own side behind him, until the other side touch it." Such a player was prevented from kicking the ball, touching the ball down, or interfering with an opponent.
Many other school and university laws from this period were similar to Rugby School's in that they were "strict"—i.e. any player ahead of the ball was in an off-side position. (This is similar to the current offside law in rugby, under which any player between the ball and the opponent's goal who takes part in play, is liable to be penalised.) Such laws included Shrewsbury School (1855), Uppingham School (1857), Trinity College, Hartford (1858), Winchester College (1863), and the Cambridge Rules of 1863.
Some school and university rules provided an exception to this general pattern. In the 1847 laws of the Eton Field Game, a player could not be considered "sneaking" if there were four or more opponents between him and the opponents' goal line. A similar "rule of four" was found in the 1856 Cambridge Rules and the rules of Charterhouse School (1863).
Club football
Most surviving rules of independent football clubs from before 1860 lack any offside law. This is true of the brief handwritten set of laws for the Foot-Ball Club of Edinburgh (1833), the published laws of Surrey Football Club (1849), the first set of laws of Sheffield Football Club (1858) and those of Melbourne Football Club (1859). In the Sheffield game, players known as "kick-throughs" were positioned permanently near the opponents' goal.
In the early 1860s, this began to change. In 1861, Forest FC adopted a set of laws based on the 1856 Cambridge Rules, with its "rule of four". The 1862 laws of Barnes FC featured a strict offside law. Sheffield FC adopted a weak offside law at the beginning of the 1863–64 season.
J. C. Thring
J. C. Thring was an advocate for the strictest possible offside law. A resident master at Uppingham School from 1859 to 1864, Thring criticised most existing offside laws for being too lax. The Rugby laws, for example, were at fault because they permitted an offside player to rejoin play immediately after an opponent touched the ball, while Eton's rule of four allowed "an immense amount of sneaking" when the number of players was unlimited.
Thring expressed his views through correspondence in the sporting newspapers such as The Field, and through the publication in 1862 of The Simplest Game, a proposed set of laws of football. In The Simplest Game, Thring included a strict offside law which required a player in an offside position ("out of play", in Thring's terminology) to "return behind the ball as soon as possible".
The influence of Thring's views is evidenced by the adoption of his proposed offside law from The Simplest Game in the first draft of the FA laws (see below).
The F. A. laws of 1863
On 17 November 1863, the newly formed Football Association adopted a resolution mirroring Thring's law from the Simplest Game:
This text was reflected in the first draft of laws drawn up by FA secretary Ebenezer Morley.
On 24 November, Morley presented his draft laws to the FA for final approval. That meeting was, however, disrupted by a dispute over the subject of "hacking" (allowing players to carry the ball, provided they could be kicked in the shins by opponents when doing so, in the manner of Rugby School). The opponents of hacking brought the delegates' attention to the Cambridge Rules of 1863 (which banned carrying and hacking): Discussion of the Cambridge rules, and suggestions for possible communication with Cambridge on the subject, served to delay the final "settlement" of the laws to a further meeting, on 1 December. A number of representatives who supported rugby-style football did not attend this additional meeting, resulting in hacking and carrying being banned.
Although the offside law was not itself a significant issue in the dispute between the pro- and anti-hacking clubs, it was completely rewritten. The original law, taken from Thring's Simplest Game, was replaced by a modified version of the equivalent law from the Cambridge Rules:
The law adopted by the FA was "strict"—i.e., it penalised any player in front of the ball. There was one exception for the "kick from behind the goal line" (the 1863 laws' equivalent of a goal kick). This exception was necessary because every player on the attacking side would have otherwise been "out of play" from such a kick.
Subsequent developments: offside position
Three-player rule (1866)
At the first revision of the FA laws, in February 1866, an important qualifier was added to soften the "strict" offside law:
At the FA's meeting, the alteration "gave rise to a lengthy discussion, many thinking with Mr Morley that it would be better to do away with the off side [law] altogether, especially as the Sheffield clubs had none. It being found, however, that the rule could not be expunged without notice, the alteration was passed."
Contemporaneous reports do not indicate the reason for the change. Charles Alcock, writing in 1890, suggested that it was made in order to induce two public schools, Westminster and Charterhouse, to join the Association. Those two schools did indeed become members of the FA after the next annual FA meeting (February 1867), in response to a letter-writing campaign by newly installed FA secretary Robert Graham.
Early proposals for change (1867–1874)
Over the next seven years, there were several attempts to change the three-player rule, but none was successful:
In 1867, Barnes FC proposed that the offside rule should be removed altogether, arguing that "a player did not stop to count whether there were three of his opponents between him and their own goal".
It was also proposed that the FA should revert to its original "strict" offside rule. This change was introduced in 1868 (Branham College), 1871 ("The Oxford Association") and 1872 (Notts County).
There were attempts to introduce the one-player rule of the Sheffield Football Association in 1867 (Sheffield FC), 1872 (Sheffield Football Association), 1873 (Nottingham Forest), and 1874 (Sheffield Association).
Offside was the subject of the biggest dispute between the Sheffield Football Association (which produced its own "Sheffield Rules") and the Football Association. However, the two codes were eventually unified without any change in this area; the Sheffield Clubs accepted the FA's three-player offside rule in 1877, after the FA compromised by allowing the throw-in to be taken in any direction.
Offside in own half (1907)
The original laws allowed players to be in an offside position even when in their own half. This happened rarely, but was possible when one team pressed high up the field, for example in a Sunderland v Wolverhampton Wanderers match in December 1901. When an attacking team adopted the so-called "one back" game, in which only the goalkeeper and one outfield player remained in defensive positions, it was even possible for players to be caught offside in their own penalty area.
In May 1905, Clyde FC suggested that players should not be offside in their own half, but this suggestion was rejected by the Scottish Football Association. It was objected that the change would lead to "forwards hanging about close to the half-way line, as opportunists". After the Scotland v England international of April 1906 ended with the Scottish wingers being repeatedly caught offside by England's use of a "one back" game, Clyde again proposed the same rule-change to the Scottish FA meeting: this time it was accepted.
The Scottish proposal gained support in England. At the 1906 meeting of the International Football Association Board, the Scottish FA announced that it would introduce the proposed change at the next annual meeting, in 1907. In March 1907, the council of the [English] Football Association approved this change, and it was passed by IFAB in June 1907.
Two-player rule (1925)
The Scottish FA urged the change from a three-player to a two-player offside rule as early as 1893. Such a change was first proposed at a meeting of IFAB in 1894, where it was rejected. It was proposed again by the SFA in 1902, upon the urging of Celtic FC, and again rejected. A further proposal from the SFA also failed in 1913, after the Football Association objected. The SFA advanced the same proposal in 1914, when it was again rejected after opposition from both the Football Association and the Football Association of Wales.
Meetings of the International Board were suspended after 1914 because of the First World War. After they resumed in 1920, the SFA once again proposed the two-player rule in 1922, 1923, and 1924. In 1922 and 1923, the Scottish Association withdrew its proposal after English FA opposed it. In 1924, the Scottish proposal was once again opposed by the English FA, and defeated; it was, however, indicated that a version of the proposal would be adopted the next year.
On 30 March 1925, the FA arranged a trial match at Highbury where two proposed changes to the offside rules were tested. During the first half, a player could not be offside unless within forty yards of the opponents' goal-line. In the second half, the two-player rule was used.
The two-player proposal was considered by the FA at its annual meeting on 8 June. Proponents cited the new rule's potential to reduce stoppages, avoid refereeing errors, and improve the spectacle, while opponents complained that it would give "undue advantage to attackers"; referees were overwhelmingly opposed to the change. The two-player rule was nevertheless approved by the FA by a large majority. At IFAB's meeting later that month, the two-player rule finally became part of the Laws of the Game.
The two-player rule was one of the more significant rule changes in the history of the game during the 20th century. It led to an immediate change in the style of play, with the game becoming more stretched, "short passing giv[ing] way to longer balls", and the development of the W-M formation. It also led to an increase in goalscoring: 4,700 goals were scored in 1,848 Football League games in 1924–25. This number rose to 6,373 goals (from the same number of games) in 1925–26.
Attacker level with second-last defender (1990)
In 1990, IFAB declared that an attacker level with the second-last defender is onside, whereas previously such a player had been considered offside. This change, proposed by the Scottish FA, was made in order to "encourage the attacking team" by "giving the attacking player an advantage over the defender".
Parts of body (2005)
In 2005, IFAB clarified that, when evaluating an attacking player's position for the purposes of the offside law, the part of the player's head, body or feet closest to the defending team's goal-line should be considered, with the hands and arms being excluded because "there is no advantage to be gained if only the arms are in advance of the opponent". In 2016, it was further clarified that this principle should apply to all players, both attackers and defenders, including the goalkeeper.
Defender outside the field of play (2009)
In 2009, it was stated that a defender who leaves the field of play without the referee's permission must be considered to be on the nearest boundary line for the purposes of deciding whether an attacker is in an offside position.
Halfway line (2016)
In 2016, it was clarified that a player on the halfway line itself cannot be in an offside position: part of the player's head, body or feet must be within the opponent's half of the field of play.
Unadopted experiments
During the 1973–74 and 1974–75 seasons, an experimental version of the offside rule was operated in the Scottish League Cup and Drybrough Cup competitions. The concept was that offside should only apply in the last of play (inside or beside the penalty area). To signify this, the horizontal line of the penalty area was extended to the touchlines. FIFA President Sir Stanley Rous attended the 1973 Scottish League Cup Final, which was played using these rules. The manager of one of the teams involved, Celtic manager Jock Stein, complained that it was unfair to expect teams to play under one set of rules in one game and then a different set a few days before or later. The experiment was quietly dropped after the 1974–75 season, as no proposal for a
further experiment or rule change was submitted for the Scottish Football Association board to consider.
In 1972, the North American Soccer League adopted a variation of the offside rule in which it added a line on the field 35 yards from each goal line; a player could only be offside within that area of the opponent's half. The rule was dropped in 1982 at the insistence of FIFA which threatened to withdraw recognition of the league if it did not apply all of the official rules of football.
Subsequent developments: exceptions at the restart of play
Goal kick
Since the first FA laws of 1863, a player has not been penalised for being in an offside position at the moment a teammate takes a goal kick. (According to the "strict" offside law used in 1863, every player on the attacking side would automatically have been in an offside position from such a goalkick, since it had to be taken from the goal line.)
Throw-in
Under the original laws of 1863, it was not possible to be offside from a throw-in; however, since the ball was required to be thrown in at right-angles to the touch-line, it would have been unusual for a player to gain significant advantage from being ahead of the ball.
In 1877, the throw-in law was changed to allow the ball to be thrown in any direction. The next year (1878) a new law was introduced to allow a player to be offside from a throw-in.
This situation lasted until 1920, when the law was altered to prevent a player being offside from a throw-in. This rule-change was praised on the grounds that it would deter teams from "seeking safety or wasting time by sending [the ball] into touch", and thus reduce stoppages.
Corner kick
When first introduced in 1872, the corner kick was required to be taken from the corner-flag itself, which made it impossible for an attacking player to be in an offside position relative to the ball. In 1874, the corner-kick was allowed to be taken up to one yard from the corner-flag, thus opening up the possibility of a player being in an offside position. At the International Football Conference of December 1882, it was agreed that a player should not be offside from a corner-kick; this change was incorporated into the Laws of the Game in 1883.
Free kick
The laws of football have always permitted an offside offence to be committed from a free kick. The free kick contrasts, in this respect, with other restarts of play such as the goal kick, corner kick, and throw-in.
A 1920 proposal by the FA to exempt the free-kick from the offside rule was unexpectedly rejected by IFAB. A further unsuccessful proposal to remove the possibility of being offside from a direct free-kick was rejected in 1929. Similar proposals to prevent offside offences from any free-kick were advanced in 1974 and 1986, each time without success. In 1987, the Football Association (FA) obtained the permission of IFAB to test such a rule in the 1987–88 GM Vauxhall Conference. At the next annual meeting, the FA reported to IFAB that the experiment had, as predicted, "assisted further the non-offending team and also generated more action near goal, resulting in greater excitement for players and spectators"; it nevertheless withdrew the proposal.
Offside trap
Pioneered in the early 20th century by Notts County and later adopted by influential Argentine coach Osvaldo Zubeldía, the offside trap is a defensive tactic designed to force the attacking team into an offside position. Just before an attacking player is played a through ball, the last defender or defenders move up field, isolating the attacker into an offside position. The execution requires careful timing by the defence and is considered a risk, since running up field against the direction of attack may leave the goal exposed. Now that changes to the interpretations of "interfering with play, interfering with an opponent and gaining an advantage" mean a player is not guilty of an offside offence unless they become directly and clearly involved in active play, players not involved in active play cannot be "caught offside", making the tactic riskier. An attacker, upon realising they are in an offside position, may simply choose to avoid interfering with play until the ball is played by someone else.
Manager Arrigo Sacchi was also known for using a high defensive line, with distance between the defence and midfield lines never greater than 25 to 30 metres, and the offside trap with his teams. He introduced a more attacking–minded tactical philosophy with A.C. Milan, which was highly successful, namely an aggressive high-pressing system, which used a 4–4–2 formation, an attractive, fast, attacking, and possession-based playing style, and which also used innovative elements such as zonal marking and a high back–line line playing the offside trap, which largely deviated from previous systems in Italian football, despite still maintaining defensive solidity.
Liverpool F.C. under Jürgen Klopp, a noted follower of Sacchi, have been known for their highly effective offside trap. It involves playing a high defensive line with quick centre-backs like Virgil van Dijk and Ibrahima Konaté who can move forward quickly to catch opponents offside. In the 2021–22 Premier League season, they caught almost double the amount of opponents offside than any other team.
Citations
General and cited references
External links
Laws of the Game 2021 - Offside
FIFA Offside Presentation, June 2005
Offside explained at AskTheRef.com
FIFA interactive guide
Professional Referee Organization offside discussion, from 2015 pre-season (includes video examples)
Association football terminology
Laws of association football
Association football
cs:Ofsajd#Fotbal | wiki |
Offside, off-side or off side may refer to:
Sport
Offside (sport), a rule in a number of field team sports designed to help ensure players move together as a team
Offside (association football)
Offside (American football)
Offside (bandy)
Offside (rugby)
Offside (ice hockey)
Offside (field hockey)
Off side, a side of the field in cricket fielding
Media
Offside (TV series), Scottish football programme
, a Japanese football manga from Natsuko Heiuchi
Offside (2000 film), a 2000 Turkish comedy-drama film
Offside (2005 film), German film
Offside (2006 Iranian film), Iranian film
Offside (2006 Swedish film), Swedish film
Offside (magazine), Swedish football magazine
Offside (book), Spanish novel from Manuel Vázquez Montalbán
Off Sides (Pigs vs. Freaks), 1980s American film starring Eugene Roche, Grant Goodeve and Tony Randall
Other uses
Offside, the side of the car furthest from the curb; See Right- and left-hand traffic
Off-side rule, an interpretation for indentation in some computer programming languages | wiki |
Slipstream is a Canadian drama film, released in 1973. Directed by David Acomba and written by William Fruet, it won the Canadian Film Award for Best Feature Film at the 25th Canadian Film Awards in 1973.
Synopsis
The film stars Luke Askew as Mike Mallard, a popular but reclusive radio DJ who broadcasts his show from an isolated barn in the wilderness. After he is discovered by four young people, he begins to get romantically involved with one of them, Kathy (Patti Oatman), while simultaneously battling with Alec (Eli Rill), his producer who wants him to play more contemporary pop hits.
The film's soundtrack includes music by Van Morrison and Eric Clapton.
Critical reception
The film's Best Feature Film win, over Kamouraska, Réjeanne Padovani, Paperback Hero and Between Friends, was widely derided by critics. The Globe and Mail film critic Betty Lee acknowledged that the film showed some promise on Acomba's part, but concluded that it "sags embarrasingly under its weight of honors". In its December 1973 year in review, the paper named it as the worst film of the year, and singled out the Canadian Film Award jury for a special "Grand Prix for General All-Around Stupidity" for choosing it over four much stronger nominees. Writing for Cinema Canada, journalist A. Ibrányi-Kiss opined that the film would have been an eminently deserving winner of an award for best first feature or most promising newcomer, but agreed that it was nowhere near the best Canadian film of the year.
Its victory was also later cited as an indication that the Quebec film directors who had boycotted the 1973 awards out of a perception that the event had a systemic bias against Quebec filmmakers, prompting the 1973 awards to be announced only by press conference and the subsequent 1974 awards to be cancelled entirely, had been correct in their beliefs.
References
External links
1973 films
Canadian drama films
English-language Canadian films
Best Picture Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
1970s English-language films
1970s Canadian films | wiki |
Jaycees or United States Junior Chamber is a leadership training and civic organization for people between the ages of 18 and 40.
Jaycee may also refer to:
Jaycee (given name), includes a list of people with the name
Jaycee (Tekken), lucha libre wrestling, video game character
See also
JC (disambiguation) | wiki |
Arteriotomy (or arterotomy) is a medical term for an opening or cut of an artery wall. It is a common step in many vascular surgical procedures and operations. The corresponding term for an incision into a vein is a venotomy.
Either a transverse or a longitudinal incision can be made (with respect to the direction of the artery), depending on the situation. The incision is typically made with a scalpel and extended with surgical scissors.
See also
List of surgeries by type
References
Vascular surgery | wiki |
Family II can refer to:
Family II engine, a straight-4 Opel-designed engine from the 1970s debuting in 1979
Ii clan (井伊氏), a Japanese family of samurai
Family 2 (film), a 2001 film by Takashi Miike
See also
Family (disambiguation)
Ii (disambiguation) | wiki |
Christopher Stollery (born 12 August 1965) is an Australian television actor. He graduated from Australia's National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA) in 1987. He has had guest roles on many TV series and miniseries and is most well known for his role on Sea Patrol as Federal Agent Greg Murphy, a role he has held since the series premiere in 2007. He is also well known for his role on State Coroner as Sgt. Dermot McLeod. He has had leading roles on The Flying Doctors and A Country Practice. He has also had roles on All Saints, White Collar Blue and Water Rats. He played the role of Lieutenant Nick Homer in the film A Divided Heart (2005).
External links
Living people
1965 births
Australian male television actors | wiki |
Tip of My Tongue may refer to:
"Tip of My Tongue" (Tommy Quickly song) (1963)
"Tip of My Tongue" (Diesel song) (1992)
"Tip of My Tongue" (Lynsey de Paul song) (1973)
"Tip of My Tongue" (Kenny Chesney song) (2019)
"Tip of My Tongue", a song by Jagged Edge (2009)
"Tip of My Tongue", a song by Kelly Clarkson included on her album All I Ever Wanted (2009)
"Tip of My Tongue", a song by The Tubes included on their album Outside Inside (1983)
Tip of My Tongue, a 2000 short movie with Ben Miller
See also
Tip of the tongue
Anterior tongue
"Tippa My Tongue", a song by the Red Hot Chilli Peppers
"Right on the Tip of My Tongue", a 1971 single by Brenda & the Tabulations | wiki |
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see "Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Metabolic changes in the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after eating).
A diagnostic fast refers to prolonged fasting from 1 to 100 hours (depending on age) conducted under observation to facilitate the investigation of a health complication, usually hypoglycemia. Many people may also fast as part of a medical procedure or a check-up, such as preceding a colonoscopy or surgery, or before certain medical tests. Intermittent fasting is a technique sometimes used for weight loss that incorporates regular fasting into a person's dietary schedule. Fasting may also be part of a religious ritual, often associated with specifically scheduled fast days, as determined by the religion.
Health effects
Fasting may have different results on health in different circumstances. To understand whether loss of appetite (anorexia) during illness was protective or detrimental, researchers in the laboratory of Ruslan Medzhitov at Yale School of Medicine gave carbohydrate to mice with a bacterial or viral illness, or deprived them of carbohydrate. They found that carbohydrate was detrimental to bacterial sepsis. But with viral sepsis or influenza, nutritional supplementation with carbohydrates was beneficial, decreasing mortality, whereas denying glucose to the mice, or blocking its metabolism, was lethal. The researchers put forth hypotheses to explain the findings and called for more research on humans to determine whether our bodies react similarly, depending on whether an illness is bacterial or viral.
Alternate-day fasting (alternating between a 24-hour "fast day" when the person eats less than 25% of usual energy needs, followed by a 24-hour non-fasting "feast day" period) has been shown to improve cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to a calorie restriction diet in people who are overweight, obese or have metabolic syndrome.
A 2021 review found that moderate alternate-day fasting for two to six months was associated with reductions of body weight, body mass index, and cardiometabolic risk factors in overweight or obese adults.
Medical application
Fasting is always practised prior to surgery or other procedures that require general anesthesia because of the risk of pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents after induction of anesthesia (i.e., vomiting and inhaling the vomit, causing life-threatening aspiration pneumonia). Additionally, certain medical tests, such as cholesterol testing (lipid panel) or certain blood glucose measurements require fasting for several hours so that a baseline can be established. In the case of a lipid panel, failure to fast for a full 12 hours (including vitamins) will guarantee an elevated triglyceride measurement.
Mental health
In one review, fasting improved alertness, mood, and subjective feelings of well-being, possibly improving overall symptoms of depression, and boosting cognitive performance.
Weight loss
Intermittent fasting for periods shorter than 24 hours has been shown to be effective for weight loss in obese and healthy adults and to maintain lean body mass.
Complications
In rare occurrences, dry fasting can lead to the potentially fatal refeeding syndrome upon reinstatement of food intake due to electrolyte imbalance.
Historical medical studies
Scientists have studied populations under famine conditions, and hunger strikes. Data from the Second World War suggests fasting inhibits atherosclerosis. This data led to the alternative name of "starvation diet", as a diet with 0 calories intake per day.
Other effects
It has been argued that fasting makes one more appreciative of food, and possibly drink.
Political application
Fasting is often used to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, or to achieve a goal such as a policy change. A spiritual fast incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of social injustice.
The political leader Gandhi undertook several long fasts as political and social protests. Gandhi's fasts had a significant impact on the British Raj and the Indian population generally.
In Northern Ireland in 1981, a prisoner, Bobby Sands, was part of the 1981 Irish hunger strike, protesting for better rights in prison. Sands had just been elected to the British Parliament and died after 66 days of not eating. 100,000 people attended his funeral, and the strike ended only after nine other men died. In all, ten men survived without food for 46 to 73 days.
César Chávez undertook several spiritual fasts, including a 25-day fast in 1968 promoting the principle of nonviolence and a fast of 'thanksgiving and hope' to prepare for pre-arranged civil disobedience by farm workers. Chávez regarded a spiritual fast as "a personal spiritual transformation". Other progressive campaigns have adopted the tactic.
Religious views
Fasting is practiced in various religions. Examples include Lent in Christianity; Yom Kippur, Tisha B'av, Fast of Esther, Tzom Gedalia, the Seventeenth of Tamuz, and the Tenth of Tevet in Judaism. Muslims fast during the month of Ramadan each year. The fast includes refraining from consuming any food or liquid from sun up until sundown.
Details of fasting practices differ. Eastern Orthodox Christians fast during specified fasting seasons of the year, which include not only the better-known Great Lent, but also fasts on every Wednesday and Friday (except on special holidays), together with extended fasting periods before Christmas (the Nativity Fast), after Easter (the Apostles Fast) and in early August (the Dormition Fast). Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) generally abstain from food and drink for two consecutive meals in a 24-hour period on the first Sunday of each month.
Like Muslims, they refrain from all drinking and eating unless they are children or are physically unable to fast. Fasting is a feature of ascetic traditions in religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. Mahayana traditions that follow the Brahma's Net Sutra may recommend that the laity fast "during the six days of fasting each month and the three months of fasting each year". Members of the Baháʼí Faith observe a Nineteen Day Fast from sunrise to sunset during March each year.
In alternative medicine
Although practitioners of alternative medicine promote "cleansing the body" through fasting, the concept of "detoxification“ is marketing myth with few scientific basis for its rationale or efficacy.
During the early 20th century, fasting was promoted by alternative health writers such as Hereward Carrington, Edward H. Dewey, Bernarr Macfadden, Frank McCoy, Edward Earle Purinton, Upton Sinclair and Wallace Wattles. All of these writers were either involved in the natural hygiene or new thought movement. Arnold Ehret's pseudoscientific Mucusless Diet Healing System espoused fasting.
Linda Hazzard, a notable quack doctor, put her patients on such strict fasts that some of them died of starvation. She was responsible for the death of more than 40 patients under her care.
In 1911, Upton Sinclair authored The Fasting Cure, which made sensational claims of fasting curing practically all diseases, including cancer, syphilis, and tuberculosis. Sinclair has been described as "the most credulous of faddists" and his book is considered an example of quackery. In 1932, physician Morris Fishbein listed fasting as a fad diet and commented that "prolonged fasting is never necessary and invariably does harm".
See also
Angus Barbieri's fast
Anorexia mirabilis
Anorexia nervosa
Asceticism
Autophagy
Black Fast
Break fast
Calorie restriction
Fasting and longevity
Fasting in Jainism
Force-feeding
Inedia
Ketosis
List of diets
List of fasting advocates
List of ineffective cancer treatments
Poustinia
Protein-sparing modified fast
Santhara
Simple living
Starvation
Starvation response
Superstition#Superstition and psychology
Taboo food and drink
Vegetarianism and religion
Weight loss
References
Further reading
Francis Gano Benedict. (1915). A Study of Prolonged Fasting. Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Joan Jacobs Brumberg. (1988). Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa As a Modern Disease. Harvard University Press.
Caroline Walker Bynum. (1987). Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women. University of California Press.
John Arthur Glaze. (1928). Psychological Effects of Fasting. American Journal of Psychology 40 (2): 236–253.
A. M. Johnstone. (2007). Fasting – the ultimate diet?. Obesity Reviews 8 (3): 211–222.
Walter Vandereycken, Ron Van Deth. (2001). From Fasting Saints to Anorexic Girls: The History of Self-Starvation. Bloomsbury Academic.
External links
Asceticism
Biologically-based therapies
Diets
Eating behaviors
Fad diets
Naturopathy
Religious food and drink | wiki |
In broadcasting, a commercial bumper, ident bumper, or break-bumper (often shortened to bump) is a brief announcement, usually two to fifteen seconds in length that can contain a voice over, placed between a pause in the program and its commercial break, and vice versa. The host, the program announcer, or a continuity announcer states the title (if any) of the presentation, the name of the program, and the broadcast or cable network, though not necessarily in that order. On children's television networks, they are sometimes called external eyecatches due to the resemblance of internal eyecatches in anime and there is usually no voice over, but some bumpers do feature one. Bumper music, often a recurring signature or theme music segment, is nearly always featured. Bumpers can vary from simple text to short films.
United States
Since 1976, most network television programs in the United States no longer use commercial bumpers; although some soap operas such as Days of Our Lives (which stopped using one in 2010) and The Young and the Restless, as well as the game show The Price Is Right, still feature mid-show bumpers. Commercial bumpers are still a common feature of radio. In radio, they are often used during sports broadcasts to ease the transition from play by play to commercial break and back to live action, as well as notify local stations that they should insert their station identification and/or commercials, many times using obscure musical selections of the board operator's choosing. One example of commercial bumpers still in use can be found on Cartoon Network's late night programming block, Adult Swim, whose extensive usage of bumpers has even spawned its own website. Another example of commercial bumpers in radio was their use in syndicated programming; for instance, the radio countdown programs American Top 40 and American Country Countdown feature a series of pre-recorded jingles and other outcues to transition to and from commercial breaks.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, in accordance with then-current regulations set by the Federal Communications Commission that required a distinction between programs and commercials, most children's programming bumpers would include the phrase "We'll be [right] back after these messages" (or variations of it), except for the bump before the final commercial break, which would usually say, "And now, these messages" (or variations of this phrase). The FCC significantly relaxed these rules in 1984, although to this day some networks still air these bumpers, particularly during programming that airs Sunday nights at 7 PM/6 PM Central that is not a news or information program such as 60 Minutes. Another common bumper phrase was "And now, a word from our sponsor."
Bumpers also had a technical reason for existence: Early videotape machines took several seconds to start playing video in proper synchronization with the program source. The board operator would cue the tape with a "preroll" of several seconds then use the start of the bumper as a signal to start the tape before "taking" it at the bumper's end. In the event of a glitch, the bumper was neither commercial nor programming content, and money would not be lost by the network or broadcaster.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a break-bumper is a brief appearance of a logo before and after advertising breaks, usually that of the television channel being watched.
Break-bumpers can either be animated or static. They are sometimes branded to advertise a special programme or event that will be broadcast on that channel, such as sporting events.
Historically, break-bumpers within a programme were tied to the programme itself, often featuring an image from the show, a short extract from the show's theme tune, and a caption naming the show and containing words such as "End of Part 1" (at the start of a break) or "Part 2" (at the end of a break). Some channels will also include a secondary bumper, which appears between channel trailers (which usually book-end ad breaks) and the commercial adverts themselves. E4 from launch and for a long time afterwards would use each of these to display the appropriate half of a two-word phrase.
Australia
In Australia, a break-bumper can be a brief appearance of a programme logo, animated logo, title card or an animated title card, just before an advertising break.
Break-bumpers can also be either animated or static information bars that appear for a few seconds, with program title and the logo of the television channel being watched. These are more often seen after a break and sometimes followed by information bars that show what programme is coming next or later.
Japan
In Japan, an or internal eyecatch is a scene or illustration used to begin and end a commercial break in a television program, especially in anime and tokusatsu shows. The term is used, in Japan, to refer to all kinds of bumpers.
In many television series, eyecatches are contemporaneous into the climax of a story, leading onto speculation during the commercial break.
Unlike in American programs, in which bumpers are typically supplied by the network (when they have them at all), eyecatches are almost always produced by the production company and considered a part of the program itself, rather than (or also serving as) a segue into a commercial break. They are typically two to six seconds in length. Eyecatches for children's programs are often longer and more elaborate, while eyecatches for programming intended for adults may consist of nothing more than the program's logo against a black background.
The term is used in the title of the 1991 Japanese film Eyecatch Junction.
Malaysia
In the 1990s, commercial bumpers were used by terrestrial television networks. Similar to those in the United Kingdom, it is a short appearance of a logo or a slide to remind the viewers of the programme being aired, which appears before or after breaks. The logo is usually that of the television channel or station being watched and/or of the programme's title. However, as the years passed on until the late 2000s, this changed to feature a message that the programme will return after the break ends, which is now more commonly seen on RTM's TV1 and TV2 and Media Prima's NTV7, 8TV and TV9. TV3 also uses this for sponsored programmes, but as of 2013, it also uses them for non-sponsored programs, such as children's programmes. The 1990s bumper style, however, is sometimes used sparingly.
Since 2003, nearly all of Astro's satellite television channels feature break bumpers that are placed before and after breaks. These bumpers consist of the logo of the aforementioned channels, as well as a slide promoting the current programme being broadcast and the next programme scheduled to air. Bumpers based on the subscription information sequence seen at the end of Astro Box Office promotional trailers from 2003 to 2006, appear in-between commercials and immediately before the program break ends, but not at the beginning of the block of replaced commercials.
Philippines
In the Philippines, one notable example of a television network that use break bumpers is ABS-CBN. From March 1, 1987 to October 30, 2005, its break bumper featured the stars zooming in on a black background, based on the Star Network era. This was the longest break bumper to be used by the network since its relaunch in 1986, being used for 18 years. In October 31, 2005, five years after the 2000 ABS-CBN logo was unveiled, the 1987 break bumper was replaced with the one that takes place on a blue background, with the network's 2000 logo appearing on a screen and when it zooms out, it places on a box or crystal plane and then the logo zooms in. The 2005 break bumper was used until February 4, 2014. On February 5, 2014, due to the introduction of the network's 2014 and current logo, the break bumper was again changed, this time taking place on a white background, with the 2014 ABS-CBN logo appearing on a screen, red, green and blue strings representing the colors of the network's logo appear while the logo is being zoomed out, and it zooms in. These bumpers last for 2 seconds and are played after the commercial, but from late 2014 until May 5, 2020, the 2014 break bumper can either be played after the title card that shows when the program pauses or after the advertisements. From June 13, 2016 to May 5, 2020, the 2014 bumper is shown in widescreen or letterboxed format, making the first break bumper to be in 16:9 aspect ratio.
The break bumper of Kapamilya Channel (replacement of the main ABS-CBN terrestrial network), however, displays the ABS-CBN logo on the screen and colors it with red, green, blue, and black. The rings will then zoom in, and the Kapamilya Channel logo will display and replace the ABS-CBN logo. ABS-CBN rings will then use as background once the Kapamilya Channel logo appears and the logo will zoom in along with the rings. It lasts for 5 seconds unlike with the break bumper used by the main ABS-CBN terrestrial network which only lasts for 2 seconds, and may be used after the title card that shows when the program pauses like with the 2014 break bumper of ABS-CBN main terrestrial network from late 2014 to May 5, 2020. Its ABS-CBN logo portion may also be seen on some other ABS-CBN-owned TV channels and channels that broadcast ABS-CBN shows, such as on TeleRadyo (i.e. between TV Patrol title card and commercial breaks) and A2Z (between the title card of a show and "You're Watching" bumper).
Upon airing of ASAP Natin 'To, FPJ: Da King (since January 24, 2021), and the network's Primetime Bida shows (since March 8, 2021, as part of TodoMax Primetime Singko) on TV5, show-exclusive break bumpers of ABS-CBN Entertainment were introduced on A2Z and TV5 where either the respective show's characters, elements related to the show and parts of the show's logo are shown during the duration of the bumper or simply show the ABS-CBN Entertainment logo and show's logo upon airing of the show-exclusive bumper. At the end of each bumper, either the show's logo and ABS-CBN Entertainment logos or simply the logo of the show appears and after they appear, either an object related to the show, show's logo, logo of the show and its characters, or both the show logo and ABS-CBN Entertainment logo zoom in. The length of a break bumper lasts for 5 seconds like the Kapamilya Channel break bumper. Like with the break bumpers of the main ABS-CBN terrestrial network from March 1, 1987 to May 5, 2020 and Kapamilya Channel, they do not have a music or sound at all. Some bumpers such as FPJ: Da King, Walang Hanggang Paalam, and Huwag Kang Mangamba zoom in in a right-slant fashion like the Kapamilya Channel bumper, while others zooms in a straightforward manner like the 2014–2020 break bumper of main ABS-CBN terrestrial network such as Ang Probinsyano and Marry Me, Marry You. Break bumpers of foreign television series and some drama series on TV5 and A2Z that also air on Kapamilya Channel (i.e. Count Your Lucky Stars, FPJ: Da King, and Init sa Magdamag) does not have the ABS-CBN Entertainment logo above the show's logo.
Poland
In Poland, television networks usually separate the rest of the programming with the word "Reklama" ("Commercial"). One of the examples are TVP's ones: First one was used since 1989 until 1990 and it consisted an ad agency's logo (eye in a form of letter S) in a black background with indigo 3D stars. Second one was used until 1992, which consisted newer ad agency logo (Loop in a form of during this time acronym (TP) with a ball) and a word "REKLAMA" in lower left corner in a black (until 1991 blue) background. Third one was used in early 1992 and it was a laser smashing a metal ball, in which later rotating 'REKLAMA' appears and in the same year, later version appeared, in which squares (or diagonal stripes, depending on channel) rotated the same word (and the same font) as previous. This one was used until launch of 1995 one (Inspired by gyroscope), in which was used until 1997. Later, in the late 1990s, these bumpers were used, depending on era, but had one thing: word in a ball (except July–August 1999, in which a "Meandres" series was used). Since 2000 (except 2012-2015, in which were was in both channels, inspired by kaleidoscope), graphics are now separated, and TVP1 since 2010 with newer graphic technologies, (TVP2 has the same since 2007), formerly, they had inspired by art (TVP1 - 2000-2010, TVP2 - 2000-2007), or by real-life ones (TVP1 had two bumpers inspired with it in which first ones was used for short period in 2010, second ones was used until 2012, TVP2 also had ones from the same era, but in a colors: Blue (in Winter) or purple (other seasons) and Orange, the same technique is used in branding from 2015 to 2021, but in all colors). Polsat, the first commercial TV Channel in Poland, used following bumpers:
1992-1994: Rotating spiral from Polsat's 1992 logo with REKLAMA text under it.
1994-1996: Rotating stripes forming a background and, appearing later, REKLAMA text. There were two variants: Blue-silver and pink-gold.
1996-1998: The sun emerges partially (upper part seen) from golden liquid and REKLAMA text (blue, with Arial font) appears on the lower left corner. On the end of ad break, it's the reversed situation.
1998 Easter: A chick runs on blue background, forming REKLAMA text. At the end of block, chick returns to previous place, removing colo(u)rful text.
1998-2001: "reklama" text repeated thrice, each one in different size, on white-indigo background.
Russia
In Russia, networks like Channel One and Russia-1 use the commercial bumpers as they appear as a one-off bumper. Channel One used the commercial idents from November 2004 to 31 August 2011 , As they started to use the short-lived commercial ident package called "The Four Seasons" which ran thru 1 September 2011 to 31 August 2012 , In these commercial idents the music was actually mostly classical with piano and violins, As they started to use the current commercial ident package "Clocks" which featured three separate piano pieces "Morning" (September 2012 to September 2013) and the popular "Noon" (which is the one that is the current piano piece should be used to this day) and "Night" (which they have started to use in 2016) they also used the 3-note piece as their three commercial idents debuted in 2012 and used the 3-note piece. In the international versions of these idents, they have used the information about to suggest a commercial. But networks like NTV use the commercial idents as an intro and outro idents. One of the famous commercial ident from NTV is the "Rectangle on the NTV" which has been used as an ident thru 6 September 1998 to 31 May 2001. Which in these idents feature the NTV logo being in a rectangle-shaped scope. At the beginning of each idents, the reminiscent of the commercial idents from 1996 or 1994. In the end of the commercials, flag and a part of the ident is shown. Another one is the short-lived one used from 1 June to 8 September 2001. Which in these commercial idents show the metal soviet pieces from the 1980s and 1990s. Basically new year idents of Channel One are always festive. starting with 1995 when the famous things of Christmas should be shown like Santa Claus and Christmas Tree and especially Spasskaya Tower. 1996 shouldn't have a festive offering but logo is in snow. Starting with 1997, new year commercial idents are born. First of them would be the one with a snowman doing something weird. These commercial idents are run from 24 December 1997 to 11 January 1998. Some of the most memorable new year commercial idents from Channel One we're the 2008 one, which features a Christmas tree with cards being animated. This one was run thru 22 December 2008 to 11 January 2009 and returned on 21 December 2009 to 10 January 2010. The 2010 one had an inspiration from A Trip to the Moon featured a rocket's adventures in Moscow. For some reason the commercial idents did not have the word "реклама" when it was uploaded to Vimeo. Actually the TV version did have the word "реклама". This ran from 20 December 2010 to 10 January 2011. But the Channel One had brought back the 2008 one in December 2011, the only difference is that the scope is now in 16:9. The 2008 ident had been repeated in 2012 and 2013.
In other countries
In Argentina, since around September 2010, it is compulsory for almost all broadcasters to use a commercial bumper, using the words "Espacio publicitario" (Commercial break) to separate the rest of the programme from the advertisements.
In German-speaking countries, the word "Werbung" (Advertisement) is used; in Switzerland, this word is also used in different languages: French: Publicité or Pub in short; Italian: Pubblicità. The same goes for France and Italy, but only second and third ones are written, respectively.
Bumpers on children's television
Bumpers or external eyecatches on children's television networks, and sometimes other networks, are similar to the internal eyecatches used in Japanese anime, with the difference being that the bumpers are supplied by the network. These usually appear only at the end of commercial breaks, but sometimes leading into the start of the break as well. Their primary purpose is to alert children that the commercial break has ended. Depending on the network, the bumper may or may not feature a voice over.
Often, these eyecatches have a secondary purpose: marketing. For example, cable network Nickelodeon uses them to help children learn to identify the network and thus increase brand awareness. Most children's television networks run these bumpers because of this reason. From the mid-1980s to the early 1990s periods, (in conjunction with branding firm Fred/Alan, Inc.), the network created 225 bumpers, some featuring catchy disco jingles recorded by a cappella group The Jive Five.
See also
Promo (media)
References
Television terminology
Interstitial television shows
Broadcasting
Television presentation
Anime and manga terminology | wiki |
can be broadly divided into metals, metalloids and nonmetals according to their shared physical and chemical properties. All metals have a shiny appearance (at least when freshly polished); are good conductors of heat and electricity; form alloys with other metals; and have at least one basic oxide. Metalloids are metallic-looking brittle solids that are either semiconductors or exist in semiconducting forms, and have amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides. Typical nonmetals have a dull, coloured or colourless appearance; are brittle when solid; are poor conductors of heat and electricity; and have acidic oxides. Most or some elements in each category share a range of other properties; a few elements have properties that are either anomalous given their category, or otherwise extraordinary.
Properties
Metals
Metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form mixtures (alloys) when combined with other metals; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.
Most metals are silvery looking, high density, relatively soft and easily deformed solids with good electrical and thermal conductivity, closely packed structures, low ionisation energies and electronegativities, and are found naturally in combined states.
Some metals appear coloured (Cu, Cs, Au), have low densities (e.g. Be, Al) or very high melting points (e.g. W, Nb), are liquids at or near room temperature (e.g. Hg, Ga), are brittle (e.g. Os, Bi), not easily machined (e.g. Ti, Re), or are noble (hard to oxidise, e.g. Au, Pt) or have nonmetallic structures (Mn and Ga are structurally analogous to, respectively, white P and I).
Metals comprise the large majority of the elements, and can be subdivided into several different categories. From left to right in the periodic table, these categories include the highly reactive alkali metals; the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and radioactive actinides; the archetypal transition metals, and the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Specialized subcategories such as the refractory metals and the noble metals also exist.
Metalloids
Metalloids are metallic looking brittle solids; tend to share electrons when they react with other substances; have weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides; and are usually found naturally in combined states.
Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.
Some metalloids (As, Sb) conduct electricity like metals.
The metalloids, as the smallest major category of elements, are not subdivided further.
Nonmetals
Nonmetals have open structures (unless solidified from gaseous or liquid forms); tend to gain or share electrons when they react with other substances; and do not form distinctly basic oxides.
Most are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.
Some nonmetals (C, black P, S and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).
From left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be divided into the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases. The reactive nonmetals near the metalloids show some incipient metallic character, such as the metallic appearance of graphite, black phosphorus, selenium and iodine. The noble gases are almost completely inert.
Comparison of properties
Overview
properties of metals and nonmetals are quite distinct, as shown in the table below. Metalloids, straddling the metal-nonmetal border, are mostly distinct from either, but in a few properties resemble one or the other, as shown in the shading of the metalloid column below and summarized in the small table at the top of this section.
Authors differ in where they divide metals from nonmetals and in whether they recognize an intermediate metalloid category. Some authors count metalloids as nonmetals with weakly nonmetallic properties. Others count some of the metalloids as post-transition metals.
Details
Anomalous properties
Within each category, elements can be found with one or two properties very different from the expected norm, or that are otherwise notable.
Metals
Sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, barium, platinum, gold
The common notions that "alkali metal ions (group 1A) always have a +1 charge" and that "transition elements do not form anions" are textbook errors. The synthesis of a crystalline salt of the sodium anion Na− was reported in 1974. Since then further compounds ("alkalides") containing anions of all other alkali metals except Li and Fr, as well as that of Ba, have been prepared. In 1943, Sommer reported the preparation of the yellow transparent compound CsAu. This was subsequently shown to consist of caesium cations (Cs+) and auride anions (Au−) although it was some years before this conclusion was accepted. Several other aurides (KAu, RbAu) have since been synthesized, as well as the red transparent compound Cs2Pt which was found to contain Cs+ and Pt2− ions.
Manganese
Well-behaved metals have crystal structures featuring unit cells with up to four atoms. Manganese has a complex crystal structure with a 58-atom unit cell, effectively four different atomic radii, and four different coordination numbers (10, 11, 12 and 16). It has been described as resembling "a quaternary intermetallic compound with four Mn atom types bonding as if they were different elements." The half-filled 3d shell of manganese appears to be the cause of the complexity. This confers a large magnetic moment on each atom. Below 727 °C, a unit cell of 58 spatially diverse atoms represents the energetically lowest way of achieving a zero net magnetic moment. The crystal structure of manganese makes it a hard and brittle metal, with low electrical and thermal conductivity. At higher temperatures "greater lattice vibrations nullify magnetic effects" and manganese adopts less complex structures.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium
The only elements strongly attracted to magnets are iron, cobalt, and nickel at room temperature, gadolinium just below, and terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, and thulium at ultra cold temperatures (below −54 °C, −185 °C, −254 °C, −254 °C, and −241 °C respectively).
Iridium
The only element encountered with an oxidation state of +9 is iridium, in the [IrO4]+ cation. Other than this, the highest known oxidation state is +8, in Ru, Xe, Os, Ir, and Hs.
Gold
The malleability of gold is extraordinary: a fist sized lump can be hammered and separated into one million paper back sized sheets, each 10 nm thick, 1600 times thinner than regular kitchen aluminium foil (0.016 mm thick).
Mercury
Bricks and bowling balls will float on the surface of mercury thanks to it having a density 13.5 times that of water. Equally, a solid mercury bowling ball would weigh around 50 pounds and, if it could be kept cold enough, would float on the surface of liquid gold.
The only metal having an ionisation energy higher than some nonmetals (sulfur and selenium) is mercury.
Mercury and its compounds have a reputation for toxicity but on a scale of 1 to 10, dimethylmercury ((CH3)2Hg) (abbr. DMM), a volatile colourless liquid, has been described as a 15. It is so dangerous that scientists have been encouraged to use less toxic mercury compounds wherever possible. In 1997, Karen Wetterhahn, a professor of chemistry specialising in toxic metal exposure, died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of DMM landed on her "protective" latex gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the then published procedures for handling this compound, it passed through her gloves and skin within seconds. It is now known that DMM is exceptionally permeable to (ordinary) gloves, skin and tissues. And its toxicity is such that less than one-tenth of a ml applied to the skin will be seriously toxic.
Lead
The expression, to "go down like a lead balloon" is anchored in the common view of lead as a dense, heavy metal—being nearly as dense as mercury. However, it is possible to construct a balloon made of lead foil, filled with a helium and air mixture, which will float and be buoyant enough to carry a small load.
Bismuth
Bismuth has the longest half-life of any naturally occurring element; its only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to be slightly radioactive, decaying via alpha decay with a half-life more than a billion times the estimated age of the universe. Prior to this discovery, bismuth-209 was thought to be the heaviest naturally occurring stable isotope; this distinction now belongs to lead-208.
Uranium
The only element with a naturally occurring isotope capable of undergoing nuclear fission is uranium. The capacity of uranium-235 to undergo fission was first suggested (and ignored) in 1934, and subsequently discovered in 1938.
Plutonium
It is a commonly held belief that metals reduce their electrical conductivity when heated. Plutonium increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around –175 to +125 °C.
Metalloids
Boron
Boron is the only element with a partially disordered structure in its most thermodynamically stable crystalline form.
Boron, antimony
These elements are record holders within the field of superacid chemistry. For seven decades, fluorosulfonic acid HSO3F and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid CF3SO3H were the strongest known acids that could be isolated as single compounds. Both are about a thousand times more acidic than pure sulfuric acid. In 2004, a boron compound broke this record by a thousand fold with the synthesis of carborane acid H(CHB11Cl11). Another metalloid, antimony, features in the strongest known acid, a mixture 10 billion times stronger than carborane acid. This is fluoroantimonic acid H2F[SbF6], a mixture of antimony pentafluoride SbF5 and hydrofluoric acid HF.
Silicon
The thermal conductivity of silicon is better than that of most metals.
A sponge-like porous form of silicon (p-Si) is typically prepared by the electrochemical etching of silicon wafers in a hydrofluoric acid solution. Flakes of p-Si sometimes appear red; it has a band gap of 1.97–2.1 eV. The many tiny pores in porous silicon give it an enormous internal surface area, up to 1,000 m2/cm3. When exposed to an oxidant, especially a liquid oxidant, the high surface-area to volume ratio of p-Si creates a very efficient burn, accompanied by nano-explosions, and sometimes by ball-lightning-like plasmoids with, for example, a diameter of 0.1–0.8 m, a velocity of up to 0.5 m/s and a lifetime of up to 1s. The first ever spectrographic analysis of a ball lightning event (in 2012) revealed the presence of silicon, iron and calcium, these elements also being present in the soil.
Arsenic
Metals are said to be fusible, resulting in some confusion in old chemistry as to whether arsenic was a true metal, or a nonmetal, or something in between. It sublimes rather than melts at standard atmospheric pressure, like the nonmetals carbon and red phosphorus.
Antimony
A high-energy explosive form of antimony was first obtained in 1858. It is prepared by the electrolysis of any of the heavier antimony trihalides (SbCl3, SbBr3, SbI3) in a hydrochloric acid solution at low temperature. It comprises amorphous antimony with some occluded antimony trihalide (7–20% in the case of the trichloride). When scratched, struck, powdered or heated quickly to 200 °C, it "flares up, emits sparks and is converted explosively into the lower-energy, crystalline grey antimony."
Nonmetals
Hydrogen
Water (H2O), a well known oxide of hydrogen, is a spectacular anomaly. Extrapolating from the heavier hydrogen chalcogenides, namely hydrogen sulfide H2S, hydrogen selenide H2Se, and hydrogen telluride H2Te, water should be "a foul-smelling, poisonous, inflammable gas…condensing to a nasty liquid [at] around –100° C". Instead, due to hydrogen bonding, water is "stable, potable, odorless, benign, and…indispensable to life".
Less well known of the oxides of hydrogen is the trioxide, H2O3. Berthelot proposed the existence of this oxide in 1880 but his suggestion was soon forgotten as there was no way of testing it using the technology of the time. Hydrogen trioxide was prepared in 1994 by replacing the oxygen used in the industrial process for making hydrogen peroxide, with ozone. The yield is about 40 per cent, at –78 °C; above around –40 °C it decomposes into water and oxygen. Derivatives of hydrogen trioxide, such as ("bis(trifluoromethyl) trioxide") are known; these are metastable at room temperature. Mendeleev went a step further, in 1895, and proposed the existence of hydrogen tetroxide as a transient intermediate in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide; this was prepared and characterised in 1974, using a matrix isolation technique. Alkali metal ozonide salts of the unknown hydrogen ozonide (HO3) are also known; these have the formula MO3.
Helium
At temperatures below 0.3 and 0.8 K respectively, helium-3 and helium-4 each have a negative enthalpy of fusion. This means that, at the appropriate constant pressures, these substances freeze with the addition of heat.
Until 1999 helium was thought to be too small to form a cage clathrate—a compound in which a guest atom or molecule is encapsulated in a cage formed by a host molecule—at atmospheric pressure. In that year the synthesis of microgram quantities of He@C20H20 represented the first such helium clathrate and (what was described as) the world's smallest helium balloon.
Carbon
Graphite is the most electrically conductive nonmetal, better than some metals.
Diamond is the best natural conductor of heat; it even feels cold to the touch. Its thermal conductivity (2,200 W/m•K) is five times greater than the most conductive metal (Ag at 429); 300 times higher than the least conductive metal (Pu at 6.74); and nearly 4,000 times that of water (0.58) and 100,000 times that of air (0.0224). This high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists to separate diamonds from imitations.
Graphene aerogel, produced in 2012 by freeze-drying a solution of carbon nanotubes and graphite oxide sheets and chemically removing oxygen, is seven times lighter than air, and ten per cent lighter than helium. It is the lightest solid known (0.16 mg/cm3), conductive and elastic.
Phosphorus
The least stable and most reactive form of phosphorus is the white allotrope. It is a hazardous, highly flammable and toxic substance, spontaneously igniting in air and producing phosphoric acid residue. It is therefore normally stored under water. White phosphorus is also the most common, industrially important, and easily reproducible allotrope, and for these reasons is regarded as the standard state of phosphorus. The most stable form is the black allotrope, which is a metallic looking, brittle and relatively non-reactive semiconductor (unlike the white allotrope, which has a white or yellowish appearance, is pliable, highly reactive and a semiconductor). When assessing periodicity in the physical properties of the elements it needs to be borne in mind that the quoted properties of phosphorus tend to be those of its least stable form rather than, as is the case with all other elements, the most stable form.
Iodine
The mildest of the halogens, iodine is the active ingredient in tincture of iodine, a disinfectant. This can be found in household medicine cabinets or emergency survival kits. Tincture of iodine will rapidly dissolve gold, a task ordinarily requiring the use of aqua regia (a highly corrosive mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids).
Notes
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Metals
Metalloids
Nonmetals | wiki |
A mastodon ( 'breast' + 'tooth') is any proboscidean belonging to the extinct genus Mammut. Mastodons inhabited North and Central America from the late Miocene up to their extinction at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 to 11,000 years ago.
Mastodons are the most recent members of the family Mammutidae, which diverged from the ancestors of elephants over 20 million years ago.
M. americanum, the American mastodon, and M. pacificus, the Pacific mastodon, are the youngest and best-known species of the genus. They lived in herds and were predominantly forest-dwelling animals. M. americanum is inferred to have had a browsing diet with a preference for woody material, distinct from that of the contemporary Columbian mammoth. Mastodons became extinct as part of the Quaternary extinction event that exterminated most Pleistocene megafauna present in the Americas, believed to have been caused by a combination of climate changes at the end of the Pleistocene and hunting by recently arrived Paleo-Indians, as evidenced by a number of kill sites where mastodon remains are associated with human artifacts.
History
A Dutch tenant farmer found the first recorded remnant of Mammut, a tooth some in weight, in the village of Claverack, New York, in 1705. The mystery animal became known as the "incognitum". In 1739 French soldiers at present-day Big Bone Lick State Park, Kentucky, found the first bones to be collected and studied scientifically. They carried them to the Mississippi River, from where they were transported to the National Museum of Natural History in Paris. Similar teeth were found in South Carolina, and some of the African slaves there supposedly recognized them as being similar to the teeth of African elephants. There soon followed discoveries of complete bones and tusks in Ohio. People started referring to the "incognitum" as a "mammoth", like the ones that were being dug out in Siberia – in 1796 the French anatomist Georges Cuvier proposed the radical idea that mammoths were not simply elephant bones that had been somehow transported north, but a species which no longer existed. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach assigned the scientific name Mammut to the American "incognitum" remains in 1799, under the assumption that they belonged to mammoths. Other anatomists noted that the teeth of mammoths and elephants differed from those of the "incognitum", which possessed rows of large conical cusps, indicating that they were dealing with a distinct species. In 1817 Cuvier named the "incognitum" Mastodon.
Cuvier assigned the name mastodon (or mastodont) – meaning "breast tooth" (Ancient Greek: μαστός "breast" and ὀδούς, "tooth"), – for the nipple-like projections on the crowns of the molars.
Taxonomy
Mastodon as a genus name is obsolete; the valid name is Mammut, as that name preceded Cuvier's description, making Mastodon a junior synonym. The change was met with resistance, and authors sometimes applied "Mastodon" as an informal name; consequently it became the common term for members of the genus. "Mastodon" is also used informally to describe other non-elephant proboscideans, such as gomphotheres.
Species include:
M. americanum, the American mastodon, is one of the best known and among the last species of Mammut. Its earliest occurrences date from the early-middle Pliocene (early Blancan stage). It was formerly regarded (see below) as having a continent-wide distribution, especially during the Pleistocene epoch, known from fossil sites ranging from present-day Alaska, Ontario and New England in the north, to Florida, and as far south as Honduras. Environmental DNA also suggests they ranged as far northeast as Greenland during the warmer conditions of the early Pleistocene. It had tusks that sometimes exceeded in length; they curved upwards, but less dramatically than those of the woolly mammoth. Its main habitat was cold spruce woodlands, and it is believed to have browsed in herds. It became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene approximately 11,000 years ago.
M. matthewi — found in the Snake Creek Formation of Nebraska, dating to the late Hemphillian (Late Miocene-Early Pliocene). Some authors consider it practically indistinguishable from M. americanum.
M. pacificus — based on a 2019 analysis, Pleistocene specimens from California and southern Idaho have been transferred from M. americanum to this new species. It differs from the eastern population in having narrower molars, six as opposed to five sacral vertebrae, a thicker femur, and a consistent absence of mandibular tusks.
M. raki — Its remains were found in the Palomas Formation, near Truth or Consequences, New Mexico, dating from the early-middle Pliocene, between 4.5 and 3.6 Ma. It coexisted with Equus simplicidens and Gigantocamelus and differs from M. americanum in having a relatively longer and narrower third molar, similar to the description of the defunct genus Pliomastodon, which supports its arrangement as an early species of Mammut. However, like M. matthewi, some authors do not consider it sufficiently distinct from M. americanum to warrant its own species.
M. cosoensis — found in the Coso Formation of California, dating to the Late Pliocene, originally a species of Pliomastodon, it was later assigned to Mammut.
M. furlongi, known from a partial mandible with three preserved molars (m1-m3) and a referred m3 from the Clarendonian of Oregon, originally placed in Pliomastodon.
M. nevadanus originally placed in Pliomastodon, based on a partial cranium with preserved molars and a right tusk from Thousand Creek beds of Humboldt County, Nevada, dating to the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene (Hemphillian) unlike M. americanum, the tusk cuves downwards.
Evolution
Mammut is a genus of the extinct proboscidean family Mammutidae, related to the family Elephantidae (mammoths and elephants), from which it originally diverged approximately twenty-seven million years ago. The following cladogram shows the placement of the American mastodon among other proboscideans, based on hyoid characteristics:
Mammut is thought to have evolved from a population of Zygolophodon that migrated into North America during the late early Miocene. Some Eurasian mammutid species have been attributed to Mammut, such as the Late Miocene-earliest Pleistocene species "Mammut" borsoni. However, their attribution to the genus has been regarded as questionable, as they are thought to have evolved from mammutids that remained in Eurasia, rather than descending from North American Mammut.
A complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence has been obtained from the tooth of an M. americanum skeleton found in permafrost in northern Alaska. The remains are thought to be 50,000 to 130,000 years old. This sequence has been used as an outgroup to refine divergence dates in the evolution of the Elephantidae. The rate of mtDNA sequence change in proboscideans was found to be significantly lower than in primates.
A 2020 analysis of mtDNA from American mastodon remains collected in eastern Beringia indicated they belonged to two genetically divergent clades. The clades were dated to different interglacials, suggesting a repeating pattern of colonization during an interglacial followed by extirpation during the subsequent glacial advance. The Beringian clades had less genetic diversity than populations present south of the ice sheets, suggesting they were founded by relatively small migrating populations.
Description
Modern reconstructions based on partial and skeletal remains reveal that mastodons were very similar in appearance to elephants and, to a lesser degree, mammoths, though not closely related to either one. Compared to mammoths and extant elephants, mastodons had a longer and wider body but were not as tall due to their shorter legs. Their limbs were more heavily muscled and had considerably thicker limb bones, making mastodons much more robust in comparison. As in modern elephants, the females were smaller than the males. The average shoulder height for male M. americanum was about with an average body mass of ; large males were up to in height and in weight.
They had a low and long skull with long curved tusks, with those of the males being more massive and more strongly curved. Mastodons had cusp-shaped teeth, very different from mammoth and elephant teeth (which have a series of enamel plates), well-suited for chewing leaves and branches of trees and shrubs.
Mastodons are typically depicted with a thick woolly mammoth-like coat of hair, but there is no preserved evidence for this, and consideration of the long tail (usually present in animals living in warm climates), size, body mass and environment implies the animal was not similarly hairy, and there is scant preserved evidence of body hair.
Paleobiology
Social behavior
Based on the characteristics of mastodon bone sites and strontium and oxygen isotopes from tusks, it can be inferred that, as in modern proboscideans, the mastodon social group consisted of adult females and young, living in bonded groups called mixed herds. The males abandoned the mixed herds once reaching sexual maturity and lived either alone or in male bond groupings. As in modern elephants, there probably was no seasonal synchrony of mating activity, with both males and females seeking out each other for mating when sexually active.
Diet
Mastodons have been characterized as predominantly browsing animals. Of New World proboscids, they appear to have been the most consistent in browsing rather than grazing, consuming C3 as opposed to C4 plants, and in occupying closed forests versus more open habitats. This dietary inflexibility may have prevented them from invading South America during the Great American Interchange, due to the need to cross areas of grassland to do so. Most accounts of gut contents have identified coniferous twigs as the dominant element in their diet. Other accounts (e.g., the Burning Tree mastodon) have reported no coniferous content and suggest selective feeding on low, herbaceous vegetation, implying a mixed browsing and grazing diet, with evidence provided by studies of isotopic bone chemistry indicating a seasonal preference for browsing. Study of mastodon teeth microwear patterns indicates that mastodons could adjust their diet according to the ecosystem, with regionally specific feeding patterns corresponding to boreal forest versus cypress swamps, while a population at a given location was sometimes able to maintain its dietary niche through changes in climate and browse species availability.
Distribution and habitat
The range of most species of Mammut is unknown as their occurrences are restricted to few localities, the exception being the American mastodon (M. americanum), which is one of the most widely distributed Pleistocene proboscideans in North America. M. americanum fossil sites range in time from the Blancan to Rancholabrean faunal stages and in locations from as far north as Alaska, as far east as Florida, and as far south as the state of Puebla in central Mexico, with an isolated record from Honduras, probably reflecting the results of the maximum expansion achieved by the American mastodon during the Late Pleistocene. A few isolated reports tell of mastodons being found along the east coast up to the New England region, with high concentrations in the Mid-Atlantic region. There is strong evidence indicating that the members of Mammut were forest dwelling proboscideans, predominating in woodlands and forests, and browsed on trees and shrubs. They apparently did not disperse southward to South America, it being speculated that this was because of a dietary specialization on a particular type of vegetation.
A 2022 study of ancient (Early Pleistocene, 2 million years ago) environmental DNA from the Kap Kobenhavn Formation of northern Greenland identified preserved DNA fragments of mastodons, assigned to M. americanum. This suggests that mastodons ranged as far north as Greenland during optimal conditions. Around this time, northern Greenland was 11–19 °C warmer than the Holocene, with a boreal forest hosting a species assemblage with no modern analogue. These are among the oldest DNA fragments ever sequenced.
Extinction
Fossil evidence indicates that mastodons probably disappeared from North America about 10,500 years ago as part of a mass extinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna that is widely believed to have been a result of human hunting pressure. The latest Paleo-Indians entered the Americas and expanded to relatively large numbers 13,000 years ago, and their hunting may have caused a gradual attrition of the mastodon population. Analysis of tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area shows a trend of declining age at maturation; this is contrary to what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from an unfavorable environment, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.
On the other hand, environmental DNA sequencing indicates that disappearance of megafaunal DNA in North America correlates in time with major changes in plant DNA, suggesting a key role of climate change. Modeling based on the whole of the proboscid fossil record also suggests climate was the more important factor, though with human hunting imposing a "double jeopardy" on mastodons and their kin.
See also
Coats–Hines site
List of museums and colleges with mastodon fossils on display
Manis Mastodon site
Snowmastodon site
Notes
References
External links
The Rochester Museum of Science – Expedition Earth Glaciers & Giants
Illinois State Museum – Mastodon
Calvin College Mastodon Page
American Museum of Natural History – Warren Mastodon
BBC Science and Nature:Animals – American mastodon Mammut americanum
BBC News – Greek mastodon find 'spectacular'
Missouri State Parks and Historic Sites – Mastodon State Historic Site
Saint Louis Front Page – Mastodon State Historic Site
Story of the Randolph Mastodon (Earlham College)
The Florida Museum of Natural History Virtual Exhibit – The Aucilla River Prehistory Project:When The First Floridians Met The Last Mastodons
Western Center for Archaeology & Paleontology, home of the largest mastodon ever found in the Western United States
Smithsonian Magazine Features Mammoths and Mastodons
360 View of a Mastodon Skull from Indiana State Museum
3-D Viewers of male and female mastodon skeletons at the University of Michigan Mammutidae digital fossil repository
Scientific American, "The Chicago Mastodon", 18 September 1880, p. 175
Messinian first appearances
Miocene proboscideans
Pleistocene extinctions
Pleistocene proboscideans
Pliocene proboscideans
Miocene mammals of North America
Pliocene mammals of North America
Pleistocene mammals of North America
Symbols of Indiana
Symbols of Michigan
Extinct animals of Canada
Paleontology in Michigan
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Ringold Formation Miocene Fauna | wiki |
is a Japanese martial arts term for a kind of psychological pressure. The seme is the one inflicting something on to the uke. It is also an attitude meant to disrupt the opponent's sense of confidence and resolution, prior to an attack.
The term is mostly used in kendo and in karatedo doshinkan.
References
See also
"Uke" and "Seme" in yaoi
Japanese martial arts terminology
Kendo
de:Seme | wiki |
Bewitched is an American television sitcom.
Bewitched may also refer to:
Film and video games
Bewitched (1945 film), a film noir by Arch Oboler
Bewitched (2005 film), comedy based on remaking the sitcom
Bewitched, a game for the VIC-20 by Imagine Software
Literature
The Bewitched, an 1852 novel by Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly
Music
Artists
Bewitched (American band), a band led by former Sonic Youth drummer Bob Bert
B*Witched, an Irish girl group
Albums
B*Witched (album), a 1998 album by the group
Bewitched (album), a 1994 album by Luna
Bewitched (EP), a 1985 EP by Look Blue Go Purple
Bewitched, a 1984 album by Andy Summers and Robert Fripp
Bewitched - Music from the Motion Picture by George Fenton (2005)
Bewitched, a 1993 album by Laura Fygi
Songs
"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered", also "Bewitched", a 1941 song by Rodgers and Hart
"Bewitched", a song by Candlemass from Nightfall
"Bewitched", a song by White Town from Socialism, Sexism & Sexuality | wiki |
In cryptography, Polar Bear is a stream cypher algorithm designed by Johan Håstad and Mats Näslund. It has been submitted to the eSTREAM Project of the eCRYPT network.
External links
Polar Bear eStream submission
Stream ciphers | wiki |
1 Samuel 11 is the eleventh chapter of the First Book of Samuel in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible or the first part of the Books of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible. According to Jewish tradition the book was attributed to the prophet Samuel, with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan, but modern scholars view it as a composition of a number of independent texts of various ages from c. 630–540 BCE. This chapter describes Saul obliterating the army of Nahash king of Ammon and liberating Jabesh-Gilead, thereby convincing the people about his ability to lead, and causing them to appoint him king. This is within a section comprising 1 Samuel 7–15 which records the rise of the monarchy in Israel and the account of the first years of King Saul.
Text
This chapter was originally written in the Hebrew language. It is divided into 15 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this chapter in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls including 4Q51 (4QSam; 100–50 BCE) with extant verses 1–2, 7–12.
Extant ancient manuscripts of a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint (originally was made in the last few centuries BCE) include Codex Vaticanus (B; B; 4th century) and Codex Alexandrinus (A; A; 5th century).
Places
Gibeah
Gilgal
Jabesh-Gilead
The threat of the Ammonites (11:1–3)
For this narrative, 4QSam (among the Dead Sea Scrolls; from first century BCE) and the writing of Josephus from first century CE, provide a background information that Nahash king of the Ammonites have subdued Israel's Transjordanian tribes (Gadites and Reubenites) and gouged the right eye of his captives (cf. 11:2 for explanation), but 7000 Israelites escaped and hid in Jabesh-Gilead, so now Nahash came to threaten the city. Significantly, Jabesh-Gilead was the only town refusing the call of arms in previous time (Judges 21), so now their chance of receiving help from other Israel tribes were slim, and that's probably why Nahash allowed them seven days to send messengers to try asking. Due to their prior refusal to join the call to arms, the people of Jabesh-Gilead were slaughtered by other tribes, except for 400 virgin girls who were left alive and given to be the wives of the survivors of the tribe of Benjamin (among 600 men) for a separate slaughter by the Israel tribes, so were it not for the inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead, the tribe of Benjamin would be annihilated.
Verse 1
Then Nahash the Ammonite came up and encamped against Jabesh Gilead; and all the men of Jabesh said to Nahash, "Make a covenant with us, and we will serve you.""
"Encamped": or "besieged".
"Nahash king of Ammon": this name means "serpent" in Hebrew.
Prior to the first word "Then..." 4QSam and Greek Septuagint texts have a phrase: "about a month later".
Prior to the whole verse, 4QSam and Josephus (Antiquities 6.5.1. [68-71]) attest to an addition which explains Nahash's practice of enemy mutilation, and by so doing provides a smoother transition to the following paragraph than is found in the Masoretic Text, or Greek Septuagint manuscripts. NRSV renders it as verse 10:27b as follows: "Now Nahash, king of the Ammonites, had been grievously oppressing the Gadites and the Reubenites. He would gouge out the right eye of each of them and would not grant Israel a deliverer. No one was left of the Israelites across the Jordan whose right eye Nahash, king of the Ammonites, had not gouged out. But there were 7,000 men who had escaped from the Ammonites and had entered Jabesh Gilead. About a month later, Nahash the Ammonite went up and besieged Jabesh Gilead." The variations may be explained as scribal errors due to homeoteleuton, in which case the scribe jumps from one word to another word with a similar ending later in the text. Comparing to the reading in 4QSam, NET Bible suggests that the scribe of the MT may have skipped from the phrase , , at the end of 1 Samuel 10:27, which should possibly be , , and picked up after the phrase , , "it happened about a month later...". 4QSam also contains a case of homeoteleuton in this passage, that the scribe first skipped from one case of , , "Gilead", to another, then inserted the missing 10 words between the lines of the 4QSam text. The fact that the scribe made this type of mistake and was able to make corrections indicates that the person was copying from a source that had these verses in it. Moreover, the 4QSam text first introduces Nahash with his full title, as the king of the Ammonites, which is considered the usual style.
Verse 2
And Nahash the Ammonite answered them, "On this condition I will make a covenant with you, that I may put out all your right eyes, and bring reproach on all Israel."
"Put out...right eyes": Josephus explains that without one's right eye and when the left eye was covered by a war shield, a soldier might be wholly useless in war.
Saul defeated the Ammonites and rescued Jabesh Gilead (11:4–15)
When the messengers from Jabesh Gilead reached Saul's hometown, Gibeah, Saul was working as a farmer and only heard about the situation second hand, after witnessing the townpeople publicly weeping over the news. Unlike others, Saul became angry after hearing the message, and it is said that God's spirit who brought on his anger (11:6; cf. Judges 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:25; especially Samson in 14:6, 19; 15:14). The way Saul called the people to arms was by dismembering a pair of his oxen ("a yoke of oxen") and sending the pieces to all places in the territory of Israel (cf. Judges 19:29–30), with a message that the people who refused to respond would have a fate like that of the oxen. Saul's strategy and eventual victory was similar to that of former judges: by dividing the forces (cf. Judges 7) to surround the enemy camp and attacking in an early morning, but the attribution of the victory was to YHWH (verse 12). The victory proves Saul's worthiness of the kingship contrary to the words of his opponents (10:26), but those critics were spared according to Saul's own wish and Saul was acclaimed king once more at Gilgal.
Verse 15
And all the people went to Gilgal; and there they made Saul king before the LORD in Gilgal; and there they sacrificed sacrifices of peace offerings before the LORD; and there Saul and all the men of Israel rejoiced greatly.
"And there they made Saul king": The Septuagint reads, "and Samuel anointed Saul king there," which is not improbable, as later David also had his original anointing by Samuel in front of his family (1 Samuel 16:12-13), then was twice publicly anointed, first as king of Judah (2 Samuel 2:4), and again as king over all Israel (2 Samuel 5:3), but this may be included in the word "made king" in Masoretic Text (see 1 Samuel 12:3, 1 Samuel 12:5). Josephus records that it was Samuel who suggested the second ordination in Gilgal and anointed Saul there with the 'holy oil'.
See also
Related Bible parts: Judges 21, 1 Samuel 8, 1 Samuel 9, 1 Samuel 10
Notes
References
Sources
Commentaries on Samuel
General
External links
Jewish translations:
Shmuel I – I Samuel – Chapter 11 (Judaica Press). Hebrew text and English translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
1 Samuel chapter 11. Bible Gateway
11 | wiki |
Hildegarde Withers is a fictional character, an amateur crime-solver, who has appeared in several novels, short stories and films. She was created by American mystery author Stuart Palmer (1905–1968).
Character
Miss Withers "whom the census enumerator had recently listed as 'spinster, born Boston, age thirty-nine, occupation school teacher'" becomes an amateur sleuth
in the first book of the series. Her adventures are usually comic but are nevertheless straightforward mysteries. She is a partial variation on Agatha Christie's Miss Marple. "A lean, angular spinster lady, her unusual hats and the black cotton umbrella she carries are her trademark. ... Hildegarde collects tropical fish, abhors alcohol and tobacco, and appears to have an irritable disposition. However, she is a romantic at heart and will extend herself to help young lovers." She collaborates, and frequently butts heads, with Inspector Oscar Piper, a high-ranking homicide detective in the New York Police Department.
Edna May Oliver starred in the first three screen adaptations, produced by RKO Radio Pictures, and is considered by fans of the film series the definitive Miss Withers. When Oliver left RKO in 1935 to sign with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, RKO attempted to continue the series with Helen Broderick and then ZaSu Pitts, but Oliver's presence was sorely missed and the films were poorly received. Author Palmer approved of Oliver's characterization so much that he gave the actress a mention in his Hollywood-based Withers novel The Puzzle of the Happy Hooligan.
Stuart Palmer collaborated with fellow mystery writer Craig Rice on several short stories that teamed Hildegarde Withers with Rice's lawyer-sleuth John J. Malone. This collaboration led to a Hollywood film, but due to contractual problems, Withers's character wound up being omitted from the movie. She was replaced by a feisty widow known as "Mrs. O'Malley". The film, a comic mystery released in 1950 as Mrs. O'Malley and Mr. Malone, starred James Whitmore and Marjorie Main as the title characters.
In 1972, ABC made a Withers television movie with Eve Arden as Withers and James Gregory as Piper. The movie was well-received but there weren't any sequels.
Novels
The Penguin Pool Murder (1931)
Murder on Wheels (1932)
Murder on the Blackboard (1932)
The Puzzle of the Pepper Tree (1933)
The Puzzle of the Silver Persian (1934)
The Puzzle of the Red Stallion (1935) [also published as "The Puzzle of the Briar Pipe"]
The Puzzle of the Blue Banderilla (1937)
The Puzzle of the Happy Hooligan (1941)
Miss Withers Regrets (1947)
Four Lost Ladies (1949)
The Green Ace (1950) [also published as "At One Fell Swoop"]
Nipped in the Bud (1951) [also published as "Trap for a Redhead"]
Cold Poison (1954) [also published as "Exit Laughing"]
Hildegarde Withers Makes the Scene (1969), completed by Fletcher Flora after Palmer's death
Short story collections
The Riddles of Hildegarde Withers (1947)
The Monkey Murder and other Tales (1950)
The People Vs. Withers and Malone (1963), written with Craig Rice, crossover with Rice's John J. Malone character
Hildegarde Withers: Uncollected Riddles (2002)
The Cases of Hildegarde Withers (2012)
Hildegarde Withers: Final Riddles? (2021)
Short fiction
'The Riddle of the Dangling Pearl'
'The Riddle of the Flea Circus'
'The Riddle of the Forty Costumes'
'The Riddle of the Brass Band'
'The Riddle of the Yellow Canary'
'The Riddle of the Blueblood Murders'
'The Riddle of Forty Naughty Girls'
'The Riddle of the Hanging Men'
'The Riddle of the Black Spade'
'The Riddle of the Marble Blade'
'The Riddle of the Whirling Lights'
'The Bill in the Saucer'
'The Riddle of the Doctor's Double'
'The Riddle of the Jack of Diamonds'
'A Fingerprint in Cobalt'
'The Riddle of the Purple Postcards'
'The Riddle of the Beggar on Horseback'
'Miss Withers and the Unicorn'
'The Riddle of the Green Ice'
'The Puzzle of the Scorned Woman'
'The Hungry Hippo'
'To Die in the Dark'
'The Riddle of the Twelve Amethysts'
'SNAFU Murder'
'The Riddle of the Black Museum'
'The Monkey Murder'
'The Riddle of the Double Negative'
'The Long Worm'
'Fingerprints Don't Lie'
'The Riddle of the Tired Bullet'
'Once Upon a Train'
'Where Angels Fear to Tread'
'Cherchez la Femme'
'The Jinx Man'
'Four Lost Ladies'
'Rift in the Loot'
'Hildegarde and the Spanish Cavalier'
'You Bet Your Life'
'Withers and Malone, Brain-Stormers'
'Who is Sylvia?'
'Withers and Malone, Crime-Busters'
'The Return of Hildegarde Withers'
'Hildegarde Withers Is Back'
'Hildegarde Plays It Calm'
Adaptations
The Penguin Pool Murder (1932), starring Edna May Oliver
Murder on the Blackboard (1934), starring Edna May Oliver
Murder on a Honeymoon (1935), starring Edna May Oliver (based on The Puzzle of the Pepper Tree, 1934)
Murder on a Bridle Path (1936), starring Helen Broderick
The Plot Thickens (1936), starring ZaSu Pitts
Forty Naughty Girls (1937), starring ZaSu Pitts
1950s lost TV sitcom pilot Amazing Miss Withers, starring Agnes Moorehead and Paul Kelly
A Very Missing Person (1972) (TV film), starring Eve Arden, with Julie Newmar. Based on Hildegarde Withers Makes the Scene (1969), completed by Fletcher Flora after Palmer's death
References
External links
Stuart Palmer and Hildegarde Withers: An Appreciation, an article by Steven Saylor
Book series introduced in 1931
Female characters in film
Female characters in literature
Literary characters introduced in 1931
Characters in American novels of the 20th century
Fictional amateur detectives
Fictional characters from Boston
Fictional schoolteachers
Film series introduced in 1932 | wiki |
The Mess Creek Escarpment is an escarpment in northwestern British Columbia, Canada, located on the east side of Mess Creek below Mess Lake and southeast of Telegraph Creek. It forms the central-western flank of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, exposing several layers of black columnar basaltic lava flows with distal rock fragments and pyroclastic rock deposits.
The Mess Creek Escarpment was named on January 2, 1980, by the Geological Survey of Canada in associated with Mess Creek.
See also
Geography of British Columbia
Geology of British Columbia
Volcanism of Canada
Volcanism of Western Canada
References
Escarpments of Canada
Geology of British Columbia
Landforms of British Columbia | wiki |
Neoscopelus is a genus of blackchins.
Species
The currently recognized species in this genus are:
Neoscopelus macrolepidotus J. Y. Johnson, 1863 (large-scaled lanternfish)
Neoscopelus microchir Matsubara, 1943 (shortfin neoscopelid)
Neoscopelus porosus R. Arai, 1969 (spangleside neoscopelid)
References
Myctophiformes
Taxa named by James Yate Johnson
Marine fish genera | wiki |
Roll with It may refer to:
Roll with It (album), an album by Steve Winwood
"Roll with It" (Easton Corbin song)
"Roll with It" (Steve Winwood song)
"Roll with It" (Oasis song)
"Roll with It", a song by the Steve Miller Band from Children of the Future
"Roll with It", a song by Marc Mysterio
"Roll with It", a song by Ani Difranco
"Roll with It", a song by Backstreet Boys from their eponymous debut album | wiki |
The lesser Papuan pipistrelle (Pipistrellus papuanus) is a species of vesper bat. It can be found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
References
Pipistrellus
Mammals described in 1881
Taxa named by Giacomo Doria
Taxa named by Wilhelm Peters
Bats of Oceania
Mammals of Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Western New Guinea
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
Bats of New Guinea | wiki |
Seo or SEO may refer to:
Search engine optimization, the process of improving the visibility of a website or a web page in search engines
Organisations
SEO Economic Research, a scientific institute
Spanish Ornithological Society (Sociedad Española de Ornitología)
People
Seo (surname), a Korean and Japanese family name
SEO (artist), Seo Soo-kyoung (born 1977) Korean painter in Berlin
Places
Séguéla Airport (IATA code), Ivory Coast
Serving Every Ohioan Library Center in Caldwell, Ohio, United States
Västra Götaland County (ISO 3166 code: SE-O), a county in Sweden
Seo, Kohistan, an administrative unit in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Seo (瀬尾村), a former village that was merged into Imaichi City, now itself also merged into Nikkō, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan
Other uses
Can Seo, a television series
Seasoned equity offering, a new equity issue by a company after its initial public offering
Security Engineering Officer
Senior Executive Officer, a grade within the United Kingdom's Civil Service
Socio-Economic Objective, an Australian Standard Research Classification from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
State electoral office
See also
Seo-gu (disambiguation) | wiki |
Scopelengys is a genus of blackchins.
Species
The recognized species in this genus are:
Scopelengys clarkei J. L. Butler & Ahlstrom, 1976
Scopelengys tristis Alcock, 1890 (Pacific blackchin)
References
Myctophiformes | wiki |
In cryptography, WG is a stream cypher algorithm developed by Guang Gong and Yassir Nawaz. It has been submitted to the eSTREAM Project of the eCRYPT network.
Stream ciphers | wiki |
The Consensus Model for APRN Regulation is a model and document created by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing to create consensus on licensure, accreditation, certification, and education for advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs).
The model has four roles: nurse practitioner, nurse anesthetist, nurse-midwife, and clinical nurse specialist. There are six population foci: family/individual across the lifespan, adult-gerontology, pediatrics, neonatal, women’s health/gender-related, and psych/mental health. APRNs are educated and certified in one of the four roles and one or more of the population foci. Beyond population foci, APRNs can focus on and become certified in a specialty.
The model establishes education standards for programs that prepare APRNs as well accreditation of certification boards. Individual state boards of nursing have either adopted or in the process of adopting the model for APRN regulation.
References
Nursing regulation
Advanced practice registered nursing
Nursing in the United States | wiki |
The Dar es Salaam pipistrelle (Pipistrellus permixtus) is a species of vesper bat. It is found only in Dar es Salaam Region and Pwani Region of Tanzania. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests.
References
Pipistrellus
Mammals described in 1957
Bats of Africa
Endemic fauna of Tanzania
Mammals of Tanzania
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
Peacock orchid is a common name for several orchids and may refer to:
Pleione (plant)
Psychilis | wiki |
Watt's pipistrelle (Pipistrellus wattsi) is a species of vesper bat found only in Papua New Guinea.
References
Pipistrellus
Mammals described in 1986
Taxa named by Darrell Kitchener
Bats of Oceania
Endemic fauna of Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Papua New Guinea
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
Bats of New Guinea | wiki |
Riverdale – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie Cook.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Professional wrestling is a fictional version of a combat sport.
Pro wrestling may also refer to:
Video games
Pro Wrestling (NES video game), Nintendo's wrestling video game
Pro Wrestling (Sega Master System video game), Sega's wrestling video game | wiki |
The Guam Department of Agriculture is a government agency in the United States territory of Guam. Its headquarters are in the village Mangilao.
References
External links
Guam Department of Agriculture
Government of Guam
State departments of agriculture of the United States
1924 establishments in Guam | wiki |
Clabber is a type of soured milk. It is produced by allowing unpasteurized milk to turn sour (ferment) at a specific humidity and temperature. Over time, the milk thickens or curdles into a yogurt-like consistency with a strong, sour flavor. In Joy of Cooking, "Clabber... is milk that has soured to the stage of a firm curd but not to a separation of the whey."
Prior to the now-popular use of baking powder, clabber was used as a quick leavener in baking. Due to its stability, clabbered milk has been popular in areas without access to steady refrigeration.
With the rise of almost universal pasteurization of milk and the regulation of commercial sales of raw milk, the making of clabber virtually stopped because the bacteria needed to clabber the milk is killed through the pasteurization process. Buttermilk is the closest pasteurized product to clabber that is available commercially. A somewhat similar food can be made from pasteurized milk by adding vinegar or lemon juice to fresh milk, which causes it to curdle.
Clabber is sometimes a middle step in cheesemaking, such as for Uzbekistan's kurt, Polish and for some cultured cheeses.
History
Clabber was brought to the South by the Ulster Scots who settled in the Appalachian Mountains. Clabber is still sometimes referred to as bonny clabber (originally "bainne clábair", from Gaelic bainne—milk, and clábair—sour milk or milk of the churndash). Clabber passed into Scots and Hiberno-English dialects meaning wet, gooey mud, though it is commonly used now in the noun form to refer to the food or in the verb form "to curdle".
In rural areas of the Southern United States, it was commonly eaten for breakfast with brown sugar, nutmeg, cinnamon, or molasses added. Some people also eat it with fruit or black pepper and cream.
Clabber was sometimes served with a specialized spoon. This is a serving utensil formed with the handle made at a 90 degree angle from the spoon bowl, to accommodate the manner in which clabber had to be ladled out of the container in which it formed.
Similar foods
Similar foods are the South African amasi, German Dickmilch (thick milk), Scandinavian filmjölk, Russian prostokvasha, Lithuanian rūgpienis , Latvian rūgušpiens, Polish and Hungarian aludttej.
See also
References
External links
Cuisine of the Southern United States
Fermented dairy products
Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies
Historical foods | wiki |
Porthos is a fictional musketeer.
Porthos may also refer to:
Porthos (building), an apartment building in the Dutch city Eindhoven
Porthos (Star Trek), a fictional dog in Star Trek
Seawise Giant, the longest ship ever built, called Porthos at one point
Porthos, a French luxury car manufacturer based in Boulogne-Billancourt from 1905 to 1914
See also
Porthos Range, a mountain range in Antarctica | wiki |
Off the Air is an American anthology television series that airs on Adult Swim. Every episode is composed of surreal videos of different media and purposes – animated and live-action short films, clips from feature films and other television series, stock videos, music videos, abstract loops – presented continuously and in succession. These videos are arranged around a single vague theme, as expressed in the episode's title, and are accompanied by songs by various artists. Dave Hughes, the creator of the series, also serves as its editor. He and the rest of the series' producers also commission artists to produce works to be featured in an episode.
Forty-two episodes have aired over eleven seasons since Off the Air premiered on January 1, 2011. Every episode had a time slot of 4 a.m., which has contributed to the series' obscurity and status among fans of Adult Swim. Three special episodes have been produced: "Dan Deacon: U.S.A.", "Seramthgin", and "Dan Deacon: When I Was Done Dying". The twentieth episode "NEWNOW" is a celebration of New Year's Day and the series' fifth anniversary featuring six original songs.
Series overview
Episodes
The closing credits of every episode list the featured videos and songs as well as their respective artists; generic stock footage is often employed, and suppliers (including Corbis, Getty Images, and iStock) are additionally credited. In the following lists, material commissioned for an episode are marked with a dagger (). Segments are shown in an episode with more than one excerpt and so are marked with a plus (+) and the number of the segment that has been previously shown earlier in an episode.
Season 1 (2011–12)
Season 2 (2012–13)
Season 3 (2013–14)
Season 4 (2014–15)
Season 5 (2015)
Season 6 (2016–17)
Season 7 (2017)
Season 8 (2018–19)
Season 9 (2019)
Season 10 (2020)
Season 11 (2021)
Season 12 (2022)
Specials
References
External links
Official livestream from Adult Swim
Lists of American adult animated television series episodes
Lists of American comedy television series episodes
Lists of anthology television series episodes | wiki |
Life Begins may refer to:
Life Begins (TV series), a British TV series broadcast on ITV between February 2004 and October 2006
Life Begins (1932 film), a film directed by James Flood and co-directed by Elliott Nugent
Life Begins (2009 film), a Canadian short drama film
A Life Begins, a 2010 Canadian French language drama film
See also | wiki |
The following is an episode list for the Australian television show The Elephant Princess, which aired on Network Ten. Season 1 premiered in Australia on 13 November 2008, and season two premiered in Canada on 6 February 2011. The series revolves around Alex Wilson, a teenager from suburban Melbourne, Australia, who discovers that she is in fact the heir to the throne of Manjipur, a fictitious kingdom in a parallel world that looks like India.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2008–09)
Season 2 (2011)
References
External links
Episode guide at the Internet Movie Database
Lists of Australian drama television series episodes
Lists of Australian children's television series episodes
Lists of fantasy television series episodes
2008 Australian television seasons
2009 Australian television seasons
2011 Australian television seasons | wiki |
United States v. Paul may refer to:
United States v. Paul, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 141 (1832), crimes under state law committed on federal property
See also
Paul v. United States, 20 Cl. Ct. 236 (1990), advising Congress whether payment to an individual was required | wiki |
Regular order within the context of the United States Congress refers to the semi-strict or strict application of committee and subcommittee processes, including public hearing opportunities and the holding of multiple votes. Said processes are designed to promote consensus-based forms of decision making, particularly in terms of fostering accommodations for minority viewpoints. In the context of the broader history of the U.S. Congress, regular order is closely associated with bipartisanship.
In contrast to following regular order, the normal Congressional structure and procedural approach can be somewhat bypassed by organizing task forces that the leadership runs, attempting to reduce the ability to propose amendments and otherwise shorten the length of time a measure is discussed.
Political reporter Ron Elving, of NPR has remarked that "regular order is not only a process, it is also a state of mind."
See also
Bipartisanship
History of the United States Congress
Procedures of the United States Congress
Structure of the United States Congress
List of current United States congressional joint committees
United States congressional committee
United States congressional subcommittee
References
External links
"Restoring regular order in congressional appropriations" - brookings.edu
Terminology of the United States Congress | wiki |
Biocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task. Modern biotechnology, specifically directed evolution, has made the production of modified or non-natural enzymes possible. This has enabled the development of enzymes that can catalyze novel small molecule transformations that may be difficult or impossible using classical synthetic organic chemistry. Utilizing natural or modified enzymes to perform organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed by the enzyme are classified as chemoenzymatic reactions.
History
Biocatalysis underpins some of the oldest chemical transformations known to humans, for brewing predates recorded history. The oldest records of brewing are about 6000 years old and refer to the Sumerians.
The employment of enzymes and whole cells have been important for many industries for centuries. The most obvious uses have been in the food and drink businesses where the production of wine, beer, cheese etc. is dependent on the effects of the microorganisms.
More than one hundred years ago, biocatalysis was employed to do chemical transformations on non-natural man-made organic compounds, with the last 30 years seeing a substantial increase in the application of biocatalysis to produce fine chemicals, especially for the pharmaceutical industry.
Since biocatalysis deals with enzymes and microorganisms, it is historically classified separately from "homogeneous catalysis" and "heterogeneous catalysis". However, mechanistically speaking, biocatalysis is simply a special case of heterogeneous catalysis.
Advantages of chemoenzymatic synthesis
-Enzymes are environmentally benign, being completely degraded in the environment.
-Most enzymes typically function under mild or biological conditions, which minimizes problems of undesired side-reactions such as decomposition, isomerization, racemization and rearrangement, which often plague traditional methodology.
-Enzymes selected for chemoenzymatic synthesis can be immobilized on a solid support. These immobilized enzymes demonstrate improved stability and re-usability.
-Through the development of protein engineering, specifically site-directed mutagenesis and directed evolution, enzymes can be modified to enable non-natural reactivity. Modifications may also allow for a broader substrate range, enhance reaction rate or catalyst turnover.
-Enzymes exhibit extreme selectivity towards their substrates. Typically enzymes display three major types of selectivity:
Chemoselectivity: Since the purpose of an enzyme is to act on a single type of functional group, other sensitive functionalities, which would normally react to a certain extent under chemical catalysis, survive. As a result, biocatalytic reactions tend to be "cleaner" and laborious purification of product(s) from impurities emerging through side-reactions can largely be omitted.
Regioselectivity and diastereoselectivity: Due to their complex three-dimensional structure, enzymes may distinguish between functional groups which are chemically situated in different regions of the substrate molecule.
Enantioselectivity: Since almost all enzymes are made from L-amino acids, enzymes are chiral catalysts. As a consequence, any type of chirality present in the substrate molecule is "recognized" upon the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex. Thus a prochiral substrate may be transformed into an optically active product and both enantiomers of a racemic substrate may react at different rates.
These reasons, and especially the latter, are the major reasons why synthetic chemists have become interested in biocatalysis. This interest in turn is mainly due to the need to synthesize enantiopure compounds as chiral building blocks for Pharmaceutical drugs and agrochemicals.
Asymmetric biocatalysis
The use of biocatalysis to obtain enantiopure compounds can be divided into two different methods:
Kinetic resolution of a racemic mixture
Biocatalyzed asymmetric synthesis
In kinetic resolution of a racemic mixture, the presence of a chiral object (the enzyme) converts one of the stereoisomers of the reactant into its product at a greater reaction rate than for the other reactant stereoisomer. The stereochemical mixture has now been transformed into a mixture of two different compounds, making them separable by normal methodology.
Biocatalyzed kinetic resolution is utilized extensively in the purification of racemic mixtures of synthetic amino acids. Many popular amino acid synthesis routes, such as the Strecker Synthesis, result in a mixture of R and S enantiomers. This mixture can be purified by (I) acylating the amine using an anhydride and then (II) selectively deacylating only the L enantiomer using hog kidney acylase. These enzymes are typically extremely selective for one enantiomer leading to very large differences in rate, allowing for selective deacylation. Finally the two products are now separable by classical techniques, such as chromatography.
The maximum yield in such kinetic resolutions is 50%, since a yield of more than 50% means that some of wrong isomer also has reacted, giving a lower enantiomeric excess. Such reactions must therefore be terminated before equilibrium is reached. If it is possible to perform such resolutions under conditions where the two substrate- enantiomers are racemizing continuously, all substrate may in theory be converted into enantiopure product. This is called dynamic resolution.
In biocatalyzed asymmetric synthesis, a non-chiral unit becomes chiral in such a way that the different possible stereoisomers are formed in different quantities. The chirality is introduced into the substrate by influence of enzyme, which is chiral. Yeast is a biocatalyst for the enantioselective reduction of ketones.
The Baeyer–Villiger oxidation is another example of a biocatalytic reaction. In one study a specially designed mutant of Candida antarctica was found to be an effective catalyst for the Michael addition of acrolein with acetylacetone at 20 °C in absence of additional solvent.
Another study demonstrates how racemic nicotine (mixture of S and R-enantiomers 1 in scheme 3) can be deracemized in a one-pot procedure involving a monoamine oxidase isolated from Aspergillus niger which is able to oxidize only the amine S-enantiomer to the imine 2 and involving an ammonia–borane reducing couple which can reduce the imine 2 back to the amine 1. In this way the S-enantiomer will continuously be consumed by the enzyme while the R-enantiomer accumulates. It is even possible to stereoinvert pure S to pure R.
Photoredox enabled biocatalysis
Recently, photoredox catalysis has been applied to biocatalysis, enabling unique, previously inaccessible transformations. Photoredox chemistry relies upon light to generate free radical intermediates. These radical intermediates are achiral thus racemic mixtures of product are obtained when no external chiral environment is provided. Enzymes can provide this chiral environment within the active site and stabilize a particular conformation and favoring formation of one, enantiopure product. Photoredox enabled biocatalysis reactions fall into two categories:
Internal coenzyme/cofactor photocatalyst
External photocatalyst
Certain common hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) cofactors (NADPH and Flavin) can operate as single electron transfer (SET) reagents. Although these species are capable of HAT without irradiation, their redox potentials are enhance by nearly 2.0 V upon visible light irradiation. When paired with their respective enzymes (typically ene-reductases) This phenomenon has been utilized by chemists to develop enantioselective reduction methodologies. For example medium sized lactams can be synthesized in the chiral environment of an ene-reductase through a reductive, baldwin favored, radical cyclization terminated by enantioselective HAT from NADPH.
The second category of photoredox enabled biocatalytic reactions use an external photocatalyst (PC). Many types of PCs with a large range of redox potentials can be utilized, allowing for greater tunability of reactive compared to using a cofactor. Rose bengal, and external PC, was utilized in tandem with an oxidoreductase to enantioselectively deacylate medium sized alpha-acyl-ketones.
Using an external PC has some downsides. For example, external PCs typically complicate reaction design because the PC may react with both the bound and unbound substrate. If a reaction occurs between the unbound substrate and the PC, enantioselectivity is lost and other side reactions may occur.
Further reading
Kim, Jinhyun; Lee, Sahng Ha; Tieves, Florian; Paul, Caroline E.; Hollmann, Frank; Park, Chan Beum (5 July 2019). "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as a photocatalyst". Science Advances. 5 (7): eaax0501. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax0501.
See also
List of enzymes
Industrial enzymes
References
External links
Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology - acib
The Centre of Excellence for Biocatalysis - CoEBio3
The University of Exeter - Biocatalysis Centre
Center for Biocatalysis and Bioprocessing - The University of Iowa
TU Delft - Biocatalysis & Organic Chemistry (BOC)
KTH Stockholm - Biocatalysis Research Group
Institute of Technical Biocatalysis at the Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH)
Biocascades Project
Enzymes
Organic chemistry
Catalysis | wiki |
Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries este o companie franco-italiană de transport maritim, cu în Genova, Italia. Deține 20 de nave. Cursele sunt organizate între Nice, Marseille, Calvi, Genova, Sardinia, Roma, precum și diferite insule aflate în Marea Mediterană. Zilnic, navele transportă între circa 25.000 și 40.000 de clienți.
Pachetul majoritar de acțiuni este deținut de un grup de investitori francezi și italieni.
Legături externe
Companii de transport din Italia
Companii de transport naval | wiki |
Dissonance has several meanings related to conflict or incongruity:
Cognitive dissonance is a state of mental conflict.
Cultural dissonance is an uncomfortable sense experienced by people in the midst of change in their cultural environment.
Consonance and dissonance in music are properties of an interval or chord (the quality of a discord)
Dissonance in poetry is the deliberate avoidance of assonance, i.e. patterns of repeated vowel sounds. Dissonance in poetry is similar to cacophony and the opposite of euphony.
Dissonance (album), a 2009 album by Enuff Z'Nuff.
Dissonance (film), a 2015 film.
"Dissonance", a 2023 song by Lovebites from the album Judgement Day
See also
Dissonants (album) | wiki |
Lillien Blanche Fearing (27 November 1863 – 1901) was an American lawyer and poet who was blind.
Life
Fearing was born in Davenport, Iowa in 1863. She lost her sight as the result of an accident whilst playing with other children when she was five or six. She was taught in college in Vinton, Iowa until 1884.
Four years later she moved to Chicago to study at the Union College of Law and graduated in 1890. Her sister and mother served as her amanuensis while she learned, and she became a leading pupil and she also started to write poetry. She was one of four students who shared the scholarship prize when they graduated in 1890. She was the only woman studying law in her year.
She was admitted to the Illinois Bar at Springfield and was able to practice law from her office in Chicago.
She died in 1901 after her third book "Mildred" was published.
Works
"The Sleeping World, and other Poems" (Chicago, 1887)
"In the City by the Lake" (Chicago, 1893).
"Mildred" (Chicago, 1901)
References
1863 births
1901 deaths
People from Davenport, Iowa
American lawyers
Blind writers
19th-century American poets
American women poets
19th-century American women writers
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century
19th-century American women lawyers
19th-century American lawyers | wiki |
Top Cops is a documentary program broadcast in the United States on the CBS television network from 1990 to 1993. Reruns aired on the USA Network in 1996.
Each episode of Top Cops consisted of two to three segments featuring commended police officers and dramatic recreations of the events leading to their having been honored.
References
External links
CBS original programming
1990 American television series debuts
1993 American television series endings
1990s American crime television series
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television series featuring reenactments | wiki |
Brandon Brooks (born 1989) is an American football guard.
Brandon Brooks may also refer to:
Brandon Brooks (basketball) (born 1987), American professional basketball player
Brandon Brooks (water polo) (born 1981), American water polo goalie | wiki |
A duckbill, bearpaw or cow's mouth was a style of shoe with a broad toe which was fashionable in the 15th and 16th centuries. This style started with Charles VIII of France, who had an extra toe, and was later worn by Henry VIII of England. It replaced the excessively long toe of the crakow but also tended to become impractical, as it became enlarged with stuffing and horns and so could be a foot wide, giving the wearer a waddling gait. It might also be adorned with slashes to show the fine lining and sumptuary laws were introduced to restrict all these excesses.
There is a surviving design for a duckbill shoe by Albrecht Dürer; he describes it as made on an absolutely straight, symmetric last, and as having an entirely flat sole of two thicknesses of leather. They were also to have straps over the instep.
References
Historical footwear | wiki |
This is a list of non-American heads of state who have received their undergraduate or postgraduate education from American colleges and universities.
Notes
United States
Educated | wiki |
United States v. Brewster could refer to:
United States v. Brewster (1833), 32 U.S. (7 Pet.) 164 (1833) (per curiam), on counterfeiting
United States v. Brewster (1972), 408 U.S. 501 (1972), on bribery and the Speech or Debate Clause | wiki |
The P&P Office Waste Paper Processor is a device that recycles paper into pencils by rolling and compressing paper around a piece of pencil lead with a small amount of adhesive. The device was designed by Chinese inventors Chengzhu Ruan, Yuanyuan Liu, Xinwei Yuan, and Chao Chen.
Design
The P&P Office Waste Paper Processor has been described by HowStuffWorks as looking like "a three-hole punch crossed with an electric pencil sharpener". The device receives paper via a slot in the side.
References
Inventions | wiki |
This is a list of Canadian provinces and territories by life expectancy. Life expectancy is the average number of years of age that a group of infants born in the same year can expect to live, if maintained, from birth. The source is from the Canadian Vital Statistics Death Database.
Life expectancy has increased in most Canadian provinces and territories due to medical advances in treating diseases such as heart disease and cancer - leading causes of death elsewhere worldwide. There were high gains in life expectancy in Nunavut due to improved rural health care; however, there were notable decreases in life expectancy in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Life expectancy in 2020 at birth
Past life expectancy
Life expectancy by health region, 2015-2017 3-year averages
See also
Notes
References
Lists of provinces and territories of Canada
Canada, life expectancy
Canada | wiki |
La Boda (Spanish "The Wedding") may refer to:
La boda (Goya), 1792 painting
La Boda (1964 film), Argentine film
La Boda (1982 film), Venezuelan film
"La Boda", single by Marisol (actress) 1967
"La Boda (Aventura song)", song by Bachata group Aventura from the album God's Project
See also
Boda (disambiguation) | wiki |
Alma River may refer to:
Alma River (Manouane River), a tributary of Lac Saint-Jean in Quebec, in Canada
Alma (Crimea)
Alma River (New Zealand)
Alma River (Australia), a 32 km tributary of Lyons River
See also
Almaș River (disambiguation) | wiki |
Coping or scribing is the woodworking technique of shaping the end of a moulding or frame component to neatly fit the contours of an abutting member. Joining tubular members in metalworking is also referred to as a cope, or sometimes a "fish mouth joint" or saddle joint.
Most English-speaking countries outside the United States use the terms scribe and scribing.
Coping is commonly used in the fitting of skirting and other mouldings in a room. It allows for clean joints between intersecting members when walls are not square to each other. The other method of fitting these mouldings that is commonly used is the mitre joint, but this technique relies upon knowing the precise angle between the walls for neat results. Coping is only ever used for internal corners. External corners are always mitred.
The main reason that scribed joints are used is that timber shrinks in width far more than it does in length. By using a scribed joint rather than an internal mitre joint, the effect of shrinkage is minimised. Also it is possible to arrange the scribed joints pointing away from the most common viewpoint (usually the doorway of a room) and so present the best appearance.
Coping is also commonly used in cabinet making for mouldings and frame components. The rails in frame and panel construction are commonly cope cut to fit the profile of the stiles. The technique is also common in the construction of doors and windows.
Scribe joinery is also commonly used in the building of log homes. The shape of the log underneath is scribed into the bottom of a log to be placed on top. This provides a tight seal between the two adjacent logs. It is also commonly used in the building of boats since there is rarely a straight edge but frequently many curves.
Traditionally, coping would be performed using a coping saw. There are also mechanical means of producing coped joints, including matching rail and stile cutters for the router as used in frame and panel construction.
See also
Cope and stick
References
External links
Tube Coping Calculator
Joinery | wiki |
Toate pînzele sus is a TV series of the Romanian Television (TVR), a film adaptation of the novel of the same name, ("All Sails Up!"), written by Radu Tudoran.
Plot summary
Produced between 1976 and 1978, the series is presents the adventures, which became legendary, of two friends, the Romanian Anton Lupan and the French Pierre Vaillant. Anton Lupan leaves in search of the schooner L'Esperance, his and his friends' ship, without knowing that it has been attacked by pirates. But, above all, he is searching for Pierre, so they can leave together for an unknown land; which those who have tried to penetrate this land have died or have returned, after terrible trials, without success in exploring it. He finds the ship, but no one knows anything about his friend. Anton Lupan is forced to leave alone to journey over the Atlantic, with Tierra del Fuego his destination. The crew has many adventures, facing Moorish pirates and trying to save the cook when he gets in trouble by making reckless bets in Latin American ports. The men are courageous and upright, and so they manage to overcome all their trials and follow their captain with confidence in searching for his missing friend.
Cast
Main cast
Ion Besoiu – Anton Lupan
Ilarion Ciobanu – Gherasim
Sebastian Papaiani – Ieremia
Jean Constantin – Ismail
– Haralamb
– Mihu
Julieta Szönyi – Adnana (1, 4–6, 8–12)
the puppy Lăbuș
Secondary roles
Ion Dichiseanu – Pierre Vaillant
– Agop
– Martin Strickland
Colea Răutu – Spânu
Ernest Maftei – old Alakaluf
Tamara Buciuceanu – captain's wife (of the port of Sulina)
Gheorghe Visu – Black Pedro
– watchman of the Sulina lighthouse
Alexandru Virgil Platon – pirate
– captain of the port of Sulina
– the robber sailor
Nicolae Enache Praida
– captain Iani
– the merchant from Marseille
– Adnana's father
Arcadie Donos
Aristide Teică
Petre Gheorghiu-Goe
Gheorghe Șimonca
– Slimbach
Ștefan Moisescu
N.N. Matei
Marcel Gingulescu
Ion Manolescu (II)
Episodes
Speranța
Secretul epavei ("The Secret of the Shipwreck")
Bazarul deșertăciunilor și Omul negru ("The Vanity Bazaar and the Boogeyman")
Cine ești dumneata, domnule Vaillant? ("Who Are You, Mr. Vaillant?")
Cântecul sirenei ("The Siren Song")
Ancora împotmolită ("The Stranded Anchor")
Uraganul și paharul de apă ("The Hurricane and the Glass of Water")
O întâlnire ... sau chiar două ("A Meeting... or Even Two")
Martin Strickland intră in scenă ("Martin Strickland Enters the Stage")
Praf de aur ("Gold Dust")
La capătul lumii ("At the End of the World")
Aventura nu s-a sfârșit ("The Adventure Is Not Over")
Production
The scenario for the series, based on Radu Tudoran's novel Toate pînzele sus! (1954), was written by Alexandru Struțeanu and Mircea Mureșan. The series was filmed in the Film Production Center studios in Bucharest; the producers benefited the support of the party and state organs from Constanța and Tulcea counties, and of the Ministries of Transport and Tourism. Shooting took place in the years 1975–1976.
The series was directed by Mircea Mureșan, helped by assistants directors Mariana Petculescu and Nicolae Corjos.
Production crew
Nicu Stan – cinematography
Nelly Merola – costumes
Maria Neagu – film editing
Radu Șerban – film score
Marcel Bogos – set dresser
Nicolae Ciolca – sound editing
Notes
1977 television series debuts
Adventure television series
Romanian drama television series
1978 television series endings | wiki |
General Burr may refer to:
Edward Burr (1859–1952), U.S. Army brigadier general
George Washington Burr (1865–1923), U.S. Army major general
Rick Burr (born 1964), Australian Army lieutenant general | wiki |
The Secret House is a 1917 thriller novel by the British writer Edgar Wallace. It featured the return of several characters who had appeared in his earlier work The Nine Bears.
References
Bibliography
Clark, Neil. Stranger than Fiction: The Life of Edgar Wallace, the Man Who Created King Kong. Stroud, UK: The History Press, 2015.
1917 British novels
Novels by Edgar Wallace
British thriller novels | wiki |
Going Places is an American television sitcom that aired on ABC from September 21, 1990, to March 8, 1991. The series stars Alan Ruck, Jerry Levine, Heather Locklear, and Hallie Todd as four young Hollywood writers renting a house together. It aired as part of the TGIF block. The series was created and executive produced by Robert Griffard and Howard Adler, and developed and executive produced by Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett for Miller-Boyett Productions, in association with Lorimar Television.
Cast
The four writers
Alan Ruck as Charlie Davis
Jerry Levine as Jack Davis and Charlie's brother
Heather Locklear as Alexandra "Alex" Burton
Hallie Todd as Kate Griffin
Supporting cast
Holland Taylor as Dawn St. Claire, producer for the hidden camera television show Here's Looking at You
Staci Keanan as Lindsay Bowen, a teenager who lives next door to the four writers
J.D. Daniels as Nick Griffin, Kate's nephew
Steve Vinovich as Dick Roberts, a daytime talk show host
Philip Charles MacKenzie as Arnie Ross, Dick Roberts' producer
Episodes
Broadcast and ratings
Going Places premiered on September 21, 1990 as the end of ABC's newly successful TGIF lineup, in the Friday 9:30/8:30c slot (#41). The series was officially canceled in May 1991. The series returned on May 31, 1991 for six weeks of summer reruns (mostly of the episodes aired after the concept and character revamp), and last aired on July 5, 1991 (#34).
References
Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle. The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946–Present, Random House, 2003.
External links
1990 American television series debuts
1991 American television series endings
1990s American sitcoms
American Broadcasting Company original programming
English-language television shows
Television shows set in Los Angeles
Television series about television
Television series by Lorimar Television
TGIF (TV programming block) | wiki |
Sangili may refer to
Sangili (1982 film), an Indian film
Sangili (2019 film), a Sri Lankan film
Sangili Murugan, an Indian film actor, scriptwriter and producer | wiki |
Netru Indru Naalai () may refer to:
Netru Indru Naalai (1974 film), a 1974 film
Netru Indru Naalai (2008 film), a 2008 film
Netru, Indru, Naalai (musical), musical stage show by Mani Ratnam
See also
Indru Netru Naalai, a 2016 film | wiki |
Assieme a Bryan Gunn, Jeremy Goss, Robert Newman, Chris Sutton e Ruel Fox, è primatista di presenze (6) con la maglia del Norwich City nelle competizioni calcistiche europee.
Palmarès
Giocatore
Competizioni internazionali
Tottenham: 1983-1984
Note
Collegamenti esterni
Calciatori gallesi
Calciatori della Nazionale gallese | wiki |
The Siboney de Cuba is a hybrid breed of cattle optimized for survival in harsh environments. They comprise 5/8 Holstein Friesian (Bos taurus) and 3/8 Zebu (Bos indicus). As such, they are a true hybrid of two species - however, they are fertile (although they do not breed true).
The breed was originally created in the 1970s to improve the milk yields of the hardy but poor yielding zebu by incorporating genes from the more productive but also more frail Holstein. The result has been an economically viable (and even profitable) animal, incorporating resistance to tropical climatic stresses.
References
Cattle breeds
Dairy cattle breeds | wiki |
In 2-dimensional hyperbolic geometry, the infinite-order hexagonal tiling is a regular tiling. It has Schläfli symbol of {6,∞}. All vertices are ideal, located at "infinity", seen on the boundary of the Poincaré hyperbolic disk projection.
Symmetry
There is a half symmetry form, , seen with alternating colors:
Related polyhedra and tiling
This tiling is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular polyhedra and tilings with vertex figure (6n).
See also
Hexagonal tiling
Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane
List of regular polytopes
References
External links
Hyperbolic and Spherical Tiling Gallery
Hyperbolic tilings
Infinite-order tilings
Isogonal tilings
Isohedral tilings
Hexagonal tilings
Regular tilings | wiki |
The Tacarcuna bat (Lasiurus castaneus) is a species of vesper bat. It is found in Costa Rica, Panama and possibly Colombia.
References
Lasiurus
Bats of Central America
Mammals described in 1960
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
Neodymium phosphide is an inorganic compound of neodymium and phosphorus with the chemical formula NdP.
Preparation
Neodymium phosphide can be obtained by reacting neodymium and phosphorus in a stoichiometric ratio:
4Nd + P4 -> 4NdP
Physical properties
Neodymium phosphide forms cubic crystals, space group Fmm, cell parameters a = 0.5838 nm, Z = 4.
Uses
The compound is a semiconductor used in high power, high frequency applications, and in laser diodes.
References
Phosphides
Neodymium compounds
Semiconductors
Rock salt crystal structure | wiki |
This is a list of online databases that publish funding opportunities.
Australian Directory of Philanthropy, Philanthropy Australia
Canada Business Network, Canadian federal government grants, loans and financing programs
ProQuest Pivot (formerly Community of Science Funding Opportunities), ProQuest
Dialog OnDisc Grants Database, Dialog OnDisc
FC Search, Foundation Center, replaced by Foundation Directory Online
Federal Assistance Program Retrieval System (FAPRS)
Federal Information Exchange (FEDIX), merged with RAMS
Federal Research in Progress (FEDRIP), National Technical Information Service
Fundica.com, private sector and public sector funding for Canadian businesses
Grants.gov, U.S. federal government grants
GrantGopher.com, grants for U.S.-based nonprofit organizations
GrantSearch, Australian grants, scholarships and funding opportunities for all sectors
GrantSelect
GrantScape, Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance
GrantSelect, American Association of State Colleges and Universities
Illinois Researcher Information Service (IRIS)
Research Professional, Research Limited
SciVal Funding, Elsevier
Sponsored Programs Information Network (SPIN), InfoEd
The Funding Portal, public sector funding for Canadian businesses, nonprofit organizations and academia
World Academy of Young Scientists
1DANA Portal, public funding platform for Researchers, Entrepreneurs, Academia, Industry for Malaysia by Agensi Inovasi Malaysia
Research-related lists
Online databases
Database-related lists | wiki |
In rugby football, the offside rule prohibits players from gaining an advantage from being too far forward. The specifics of the rule differ between the two major codes.
Rugby union
Offside laws in rugby union are complex. However the basic principle is simple: a player may not derive any advantage from being in front of the ball.
When the ball is carried by a single player in open play, any other player on the same team who is in front of the ball carrier is in an offside position. When the ball is in a ruck, maul, scrum or line-out, any player who is in front of the hindmost foot of the hindmost player of the same side in the ruck/maul/scrum/lineout is in an offside position. When the ball is in a scrum, the scrum-half must remain behind the ball and all other players not in the scrum must remain behind a line parallel to the goal-line and five metres behind the hindmost foot. A player in an offside position is forbidden from interfering with play in any way. In particular, a player in an offside position
may not receive a pass (forward passes are illegal in any event)
may not enter a ruck, maul or scrum
may not play the ball
may not move towards the ball
may not move towards, tackle or obstruct a player of the opposing team who has the ball, or who is waiting to receive the ball
must move at least 10 metres away from any opponent who is waiting to receive the ball
Infringement of any of these rules is generally punished with a penalty awarded to the opposing team. The opposing team may choose instead a scrum at the location where the offending team last played the ball. However, if the infringement was accidental (e.g. a player receives a forward pass without intending to be in an offside position) then a scrum is awarded at the location of infringement.
A player who is in an offside position remains offside until played onside in one of several ways:
a teammate who has remained onside runs ahead of the offside player (this may be either the ball carrier/kicker or another teammate who has remained behind the ball carrier/kicker)
the offside player runs behind the ball carrier/kicker
an opponent at least 10 metres away from the offside player kicks, passes, intentionally touches, or runs 5 metres with the ball
At a lineout only players in the line (normally 7 per team), a receiver (often the scrum-half) and a thrower (usually the hooker) from each team are allowed within 5 metres of the line, however the defending hooker must be at least 2 metres from the line so as not to disturb the other thrower. The remaining players must be more than 10 metres away from the line or they will be penalised. They may move closer only to catch a long throw-in, or after the line-out ends, when the ball or a player carrying it leaves the lineout in any direction.
If a player kicks the ball, out of hand, from the dead ball area, players can be in front of the kicker, as long as they do not leave the dead ball area before the ball has been kicked.
Rugby league
A defending player is offside if they are less than 10 metres away from the play-the-ball (or, if the play-the-ball is inside his 10-metre line, closer to it than the try-line is) when the ball is played. He is also offside if, during open play, he is closer to the opposition's try-line than the ball. At a scrum a defending player is also offside if he is less than 5 metres away from the base of the scrum.
An attacking player is offside if he is in front of the ball: if he is in front of a ball which is then kicked, he can be put onside if the kicker subsequently moves ahead of him before the ball is caught. If not, he must stand 10 metres away from the player who catches the ball (as if he were the acting half-back at a play-the-ball) or be penalised.
See also
Penalty (rugby)
References
Rugby league terminology
Rugby union terminology
Rugby | wiki |
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