text stringlengths 16 352k | source stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|
Ovarian disorders may refer to diseases primarily affecting, or centered on, the ovaries.
Some examples of ovarian diseases are:
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
Turner syndrome
Hypogonadism
Ovarian cancer | wiki |
Pseudomonad may refer to:
Biology
a member of:
Pseudomonadaceae, the family.
Pseudomonas, the genus.
Mathematics
Pseudomonad (Category Theory), a generalisation of a monad on a category. | wiki |
Kensington is an abstract strategy board game devised by Brian Taylor and Peter Forbes in 1979, named after London's Kensington Gardens, which contains the mosaic upon which the gameboard is patterned. It is played on a geometrical board based on the rhombitrihexagonal tiling pattern. The objective of the game is to capture a hexagon by occupying the six surrounding vertices. The game maintains an elegant simplicity while still allowing for astonishingly complex strategy. The placing and movement of tokens have been compared to nine men's morris.
Board
The gameboard geometry is based on rhombitrihexagonal tiling and consists of a combination of seven regular hexagons, thirty squares, and twenty-four triangles. Each player can win on either of the two hexagons of their respective colour, or on any of three "neutral" hexagons situated midway between the players. The board is composed of 72 total vertices where tokens can be located. Once all the tokens have been placed down, the board reaches about 42% saturation.
Gameplay
The two players, Red and Blue, alternately place tokens on the intersections of the board until each has placed fifteen. Thereafter they alternate turns sliding a single token along a line to an adjacent vertex.
A player who occupies the three vertices of any triangle has formed a mill and may relocate one enemy token. A double mill is formed by occupying the four vertices of any square; doing so allows the player to relocate two enemy tokens. No more than two tokens may be relocated in a single turn, even if a player completes a mill and double mill with the same move.
The winner is the first player to occupy all six vertices of either any neutral hexagon or one of their own color. A win can be achieved during either the placement or movement phases of the game.
Strategy
There is debate in the Kensington community as to the relative advantage of placing first or second. The player to place second also gets to place last which is a definite advantage because that placement cannot be directly countered. This advantage is offset by the other player being able to move first in the sliding phase. Most beginning players will find more success placing second. Often, the player who makes the first mill is able to scatter the opponent's tokens and win without difficulty. However, a skilled player may be able to recover from an opponent's mill. Relocated tokens can group together to form a mill across the board from their original locations. A popular strategy is to use one's tokens to form "jails" where the opponent's relocated tokens are sequestered and unable to form mills or hexagons.
Defense is very difficult and thus much of the game revolves around being first to secure a mill. The game often ends soon after the first mill is formed. A very powerful configuration is to be able to move a single token back and forth between two spaces creating a mill each turn. This results in certain victory.
Marketing
In a business venture parallel to Trivial Pursuit in Canada, the British inventors set up their own company to make and publish the game. This attracted a fair amount of press attention at the time and Kensington picked up a UK Game of the Year award. Attention for the game was short-lived and the game is now out of print, but second-hand copies are readily available online.
1979 edition
A 1979 edition was sold in a package resembling a double-LP album. The front part had a cut-out showing the centre of the one-piece non-folding gameboard which could be slid out of the sleeve like an LP. Rules were printed on the inside and the rear side showed the authors playing the game on the steps of the Albert Memorial. In the rules the authors offered a prize of £10,000 to the first person to find a position in which neither player of a two-player game could move.
Reception
Games included Kensington in their "Top 100 Games of 1982", finding the way pieces are positioned and moved was "reminiscent of nine men’s morris, but this game is more sophisticated."
Reviews
Jeux & Stratégie #20
See also
Diamond—a game inspired by Kensington
Further reading
Hiron, Alan (1982). The Official Book of Kensington. Chicago: Contemporary Books, Inc.
References
External links
Kensington game description at tragsnart.co.uk blog
Lotus rules for a game by Christian Freeling using the same board, at MindSports.nl
Board games introduced in 1979
Abstract strategy games | wiki |
Three ships of the United States Navy have been named Canopus after the first magnitude star Canopus in the constellation Argo.
was launched in 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Company as the Santa Leonora.
(ordered as AS-27, but reclassified before keel-laying) was a destroyer tender, but construction was canceled in 1945 prior to launching.
was launched on 12 February 1965.
Sources
United States Navy ship names | wiki |
Muzzy may refer to:
People
Muzzy Izzet (born 1974), Turkish-English former footballer
Muzzy Marcellino (1912–1997), American singer and musician
Rob Muzzy, American motorcycle racing team manager
Muzz, a British DJ and musical artist (formerly Muzzy)
Washington Muzzy (1828-1898), American farmer and politician
In fiction
Muzzy is a large furry alien who appears in the BBC educational films Muzzy in Gondoland, Muzzy Vocabulary Builder and Muzzy Comes Back''
Places
United States
Mount Jefferson (Massachusetts), also known as Muzzy Hill
Muzzy Field, stadium in Bristol, Connecticut | wiki |
Go (igra), igra
Go (programski jezik), programski jezik | wiki |
Fulltiming is a term used among motorhome individuals and families who live "full-time" in their motorhome or RV. Such mobile individuals are often called fulltimers. Fulltiming is a worldwide activity, and there are many bloggers who record their day-to-day life on the road. The term has been discussed in publications since around 1993.
Many are retired and just looking to do something different and see the world, but it is becoming increasingly common for young families to live, work and home school their children from their vehicle.
Individual fulltimers live different lifestyles. Some may choose to move their RV from one high-dollar camping resort to another. Some might volunteer or workcamp in order to trade labor for a campsite. Others might live off the grid and "boondock" (or "dry camp") full-time; in the United Kingdom this is known as "wildcamping" or "wildparking".
Fulltiming is becoming a popular way for single people and families to get a start in something that they own and avoid renting. Many people park their RV in one place and use it as a permanent residence.
See also
Snowbird (person)
Digital nomad
Vandwelling
Notes
References
Recreational vehicles
Modern nomads | wiki |
The FIBA EuroBasket All-Time leaders in games played are the basketball players with the most games played at the FIBA EuroBasket.
All-time leaders in games played
Counting all games played through the end of EuroBasket 2017
See also
FIBA EuroBasket
FIBA EuroBasket MVP
FIBA EuroBasket All-Tournament Team
FIBA World Cup
FIBA World Cup Records
FIBA Basketball World Cup Most Valuable Player
FIBA Basketball World Cup All-Tournament Team
FIBA's 50 Greatest Players (1991)
References
External links
EuroBasket
games | wiki |
Mourning is the expression of an experience that is the consequence of an event in life involving loss, causing grief, occurring as a result of someone's death, specifically someone who was loved although loss from death is not exclusively the cause of all experience of grief.
The word is used to describe a complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate, the expression of which varies by culture. Wearing black clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of mourning, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may follow religious traditions for such occasions.
Mourning may apply to the death of, or anniversary of the death of, an important individual such as a local leader, monarch, religious figure, or member of family. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years, some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.
Stages of grief
Mourning is a personal and collective response which can vary depending on feelings and contexts. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's theory of grief describes five separate periods of experience in the psychological and emotional processing of loss. These stages do not necessarily follow each other, and each period is not inevitable.
: This short phase of mourning occurs when a person first discovers the loss, and refuses to believe it. This is a more or less intense period where emotions seem virtually absent. The affected person can faint and may even vomit without being conscious. After this short stage of mourning, the reality of loss sets in.
: This phase is characterized by a sense of outrage due to the loss, accompanied by guilt in some cases.
: This phase sees a person engage in internal bargaining and negotiation.
: The depression phase can be the longest phase of the mourning process, characterized by great sadness, questioning, and distress. Mourners in this phase sometimes feel that they will never complete their mourning. They have experienced a wide range of emotions and their sorrow is great.
: The last stage of mourning, where the bereaved gets better. The reality of the loss is much more understood and accepted. The bereaved can still feel sadness, but has regained full functioning and has also reorganized life adjusting to the loss.
Grief can be defined as the period following the death of someone close. This is both psychological and social:
: When someone close to a person dies, the person enters a period of sorrow and questioning, or even nervous breakdown. There are three stages in the grieving process, encompassing the denial, depression and acceptance phases of Kübler-Ross' five step model.
: The feelings and mental state of the mourner affect their ability to maintain or enter into relationships with others, including professional, personal and sexual relationships. After the customs of burying or cremating the deceased, many cultures follow a number of socially-prescribed traditions that may affect the clothing a person wears and how long before or even if the mourner can remarry. These traditions are generally determined by the degree of kinship to and the social importance of the deceased.
Death can be a release for the mourner, in the case of the death of an abusive or tyrannical person, or when death terminates the long, painful illness of a loved one. However, this release may add remorse and guilt for the mourner.
Social customs and dress
Africa
Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, an (variants and in the Oromo language) is a traditional community organization whose members assist each other during the mourning process. Members make monthly financial contributions forming the 's fund. They are entitled to receive a certain sum of money from this fund to help cover funeral and other expenses associated with deaths. Additionally, members comfort the mourners: female members take turns doing housework, such as preparing food for the mourning family, while male members usually take the responsibility to arrange the funeral and erect a temporary tent to shelter guests who come to visit the mourning family. members are required to stay with the mourning family and comfort them for three full days.
Asia
East Asia
White is the traditional color of mourning in Chinese culture, with white clothes and hats formerly having been associated with death. In imperial China, Confucian mourning obligations required even the emperor to retire from public affairs upon the death of a parent. The traditional period of mourning was nominally 3 years, but usually 25–27 lunar months in practice, and even shorter in the case of necessary officers; the emperor, for example, typically remained in seclusion for just 27 days.
The Japanese term for mourning dress is , referring to either primarily black Western-style formal wear or to black kimono and traditional clothing worn at funerals and Buddhist memorial services. Other colors, particularly reds and bright shades, are considered inappropriate for mourning dress. If wearing Western clothes, women may wear a single strand of white pearls. Japanese-style mourning dress for women consists of a five-crested plain black silk kimono, a black and black accessories worn over white undergarments, black and white . Men's mourning dress consists of clothing worn on extremely formal occasions: a plain black silk five-crested kimono and black and white, or gray and white, striped trousers over white undergarments, a black crested jacket with a white closure, white or black and white . It is customary for Japanese-style mourning dress to be worn only by the immediate family and very close friends of the deceased; other attendees wear Western-style mourning dress or subdued Western or Japanese formal clothes.
Southeast Asia
In Thailand, people wear black when attending a funeral. Black is considered the mourning color, although historically it was white. Widows may wear purple when mourning the death of their spouse.
Filipino practices for mourning bear influence from Chinese, Japanese, and folk Catholic beliefs. The immediate family traditionally wear black, with white as a popular alternative. Other mourners may wear subdued colours when paying respects, with the color red universally considered taboo within 9–40 days of a death. It is believed that those who wear red, which is reserved for happier occasions, will die or suffer illness. Those who wear uniforms are allowed to wear a black armband, as are male mourners in . The bereaved, should they wear other clothes, wear a small scrap of black ribbon or a black plastic pin on the left breast, which is disposed of after mourning. The consumption of chicken during the wake and funeral is believed to bring death to the bereaved, who are forbidden from seeing mourners off. Counting nine days from moment of death, a novena of Masses or other prayers, a ritual known as the (from the word for "nine"), is performed; the actual funeral and burial may take place within this period or after, depending on circumstance. The spirit of the dead is believed to roam the earth until the 40th day after death, when it is said to cross into the afterlife, echoing the 40 days between Christ's Resurrection and Ascension into Heaven. The immediate family on this day hold a Mass and small feast, and again on the first anniversary of the death, known as the , which is the commonly accepted endpoint of official mourning.
West Asia
In the Assyrian tradition, just after a person passes away, the mourning family host guests in an open house style. Only bitter coffee and tea are served, showcasing the sorrowful state of the family. On the funeral day, a memorial mass is held in the church. At the graveyard, the people gather and burn incense around the grave as clergy chant hymns in the Syriac language. The closest female relatives traditionally bewail or lament in a public display of grief as the casket descends. A few others may sing a dirge or a sentimental threnody. During all these occasions, everyone is expected to dress completely in black. Following the burial, everyone returns to the church hall for afternoon lunch and eulogy. At the hall, the closest relatives sit on a long table facing the guests as many people walk by and offer their condolences. On the third day, mourners customarily visit the grave site with a pastor to burn incense, symbolising Jesus' triumph over death on the third day. This is also done 40 days after the funeral (representing Jesus ascending to heaven), and one year later to conclude the mourning period. Mourners wear only black until the 40 day mark and typically do not dance or celebrate any major events for one year.
Europe
Continental Europe
The custom of wearing unadorned black clothing for mourning dates back at least to the Roman Empire, when the , made of dark-colored wool, was worn during mourning.
Through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, distinctive mourning was worn for general as well as personal loss; after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of Huguenots in France, Elizabeth I of England and her court are said to have dressed in full mourning to receive the French Ambassador.
Widows and other women in mourning wore distinctive black caps and veils, generally in a conservative version of any current fashion.
In areas of Russia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Greece, Albania, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain, widows wear black for the rest of their lives. The immediate family members of the deceased wear black for an extended time. Since the 1870s, mourning practices for some cultures, even those who have emigrated to the United States, are to wear black for at least two years, though lifelong black for widows remains in some parts of Europe.
In Belgium, the Court went in public mourning after publication in the Moniteur Belge. In 1924, the court went in mourning after the death of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, for 10 days, the duke of Montpensier for five days, and a full month for the death of Princess Louise of Belgium.
White mourning
The color of deepest mourning among medieval European queens was white. In 1393, Parisians were treated to the unusual spectacle of a royal funeral carried out in white, for Leo V, King of Armenia, who died in exile. This royal tradition survived in Spain until the end of the 15th century. In 1934, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands reintroduced white mourning after the death of her husband Prince Henry. It has since remained a tradition in the Dutch royal family.
In 2004, the four daughters of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands all wore white to their mother's funeral. In 1993, the Spanish-born Queen Fabiola introduced it in Belgium for the funeral of her husband, King Baudouin of Belgium. The custom for the Queens of France to wear ("white mourning") was the origin of the White Wardrobe created in 1938 by Norman Hartnell for Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother). She was required to make a State visit to France while in mourning for her mother.
United Kingdom
Today, no special dress or behaviour is obligatory for those in mourning in the general population of the United Kingdom, although ethnic groups and religious faiths have specific rituals, and black is typically worn at funerals. Traditionally, however, strict social rules were observed.
Georgian and Victorian eras
By the 19th century, mourning behaviour in England had developed into a complex set of rules, particularly among the upper classes. For women, the customs involved wearing heavy, concealing black clothing, and the use of heavy veils of black crêpe. The entire ensemble was colloquially known as "widow's weeds" (from the Old English , meaning "garment"), and would either be newly created clothing, or overdyed clothing the mourner already owned. Up until the later 18th century, the clothes of the deceased, unless they were considerably poor, were still listed in the inventories of the dead, as clothing constituted a relatively high expense.
Special caps and bonnets, usually in black or other dark colours, were worn with these ensembles; mourning jewellery, often made of jet, was also worn, and became highly popular in the Victorian era. Jewellery was also occasionally made from the hair of the deceased. The wealthy would wear cameos or lockets designed to hold a lock of the deceased's hair or some similar relic.
Widows were expected to wear special clothes to indicate that they were in mourning for up to four years after the death, although a widow could choose to wear such attire for a longer period of time, even for the rest of her life. To change one's clothing earlier than this was considered disrespectful to the deceased, and, if the widow was still young and attractive, suggestive of potential sexual promiscuity. Those subject to the rules were slowly allowed to re-introduce conventional clothing at specific times; such stages were known by such terms as "full mourning", "half mourning", and similar descriptions. For half mourning, muted colours such as lilac, grey and lavender could be introduced.
Friends, acquaintances, and employees wore mourning to a greater or lesser degree depending on their relationship to the deceased. Mourning was worn for six months after the death of a sibling. Parents would wear mourning for a child for "as long as they [felt] so disposed". A widow was supposed to wear mourning for two years, and was not supposed to enter society for 12 months. No lady or gentleman in mourning was supposed to attend social events while in deep mourning. In general, servants wore black armbands when there had been a death in the household. However, amongst polite company, the wearing of a simple black armband was seen as appropriate only for military men, or others compelled to wear uniform in the course of their duties—a black armband instead of proper mourning clothes was seen as a degradation of proper etiquette, and to be avoided. In general, men were expected to wear mourning suits (not to be confused with morning suits) of black frock coats with matching trousers and waistcoats. In the later interbellum period between World War I and World War II, as the frock coat became increasingly rare, the mourning suit consisted of a black morning coat with black trousers and waistcoat, essentially a black version of the morning suit worn to weddings and other occasions, which would normally include coloured waistcoats and striped or checked trousers.
Formal mourning culminated during the reign of Queen Victoria, whose long and conspicuous grief over the death of her husband, Prince Albert, heavily influenced society. Although fashion began to be more functional and less restrictive for the succeeding Edwardian era, appropriate dress for men and women—including that for the period of mourning—was still strictly prescribed and rigidly adhered to. In 2014, The Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art mounted an exhibition of women's mourning attire from the 19th century, entitled Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire.
The customs were not universally supported, with Charles Voysey writing, "that it adds needlessly to the gloom and dejection of really afflicted relatives must be apparent to all who have ever taken part in these miserable rites."
The rules were gradually relaxed over time, and it became acceptable practice for both sexes to dress in dark colours for up to a year after a death in the family. By the late 20th century, this no longer applied, and black had been widely adopted by women in cities as a fashionable colour.
North America
United States
Mourning generally followed English forms into the 20th century. Black dress is still considered proper etiquette for attendance at funerals, but extended periods of wearing black dress are no longer expected. However, attendance at social functions such as weddings when a family is in deep mourning is frowned upon. Men who share their father's given name and use a suffix such as "Junior" retain the suffix at least until the father's funeral is complete.
In the antebellum South, with social mores that imitated those of England, mourning was just as strictly observed by the upper classes.
In the 19th century, mourning could be quite expensive, as it required a whole new set of clothes and accessories or, at the very least, overdyeing existing garments and taking them out of daily use. For a poorer family, this was a strain on resources.
At the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy explains to Glinda that she must return home because her aunt and uncle cannot afford to go into mourning for her because it was too expensive.
A late 20th and early 21st century North American mourning phenomenon is the rear window memorial decal. This is a large vinyl window-cling decal memorializing a deceased loved one, prominently displayed in the rear windows of cars and trucks belonging to close family members and sometimes friends. It often contains birth and death dates, although some contain sentimental phrases or designs as well.
The Pacific
Tonga
In Tonga, family members of deceased persons wear black for an extended time, with large plain Taʻovala. Often, black bunting is hung from homes and buildings. In the case of the death of royalty, the entire country adopts mourning dress and black and purple bunting is displayed from most buildings.
State and official mourning
States usually declare a period of 'official mourning' after the death of a head of state. in the case of a monarchy, court mourning refers to mourning during a set period following the death of a public figure or member of a royal family. The protocols for mourning vary, but typically include the lowering or posting half-mast of flags on public buildings. In contrast, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom is not flown at half-mast upon the death of a head of state, as there is always a monarch on the throne.
The degree and duration of public mourning is generally decreed by a protocol officer. It was not unusual for the British court to declare that all citizens should wear full mourning for a specified period after the death of the monarch or that the members of the court should wear full- or half-mourning for an extended time. On the death of Queen Victoria (22 January 1901), the Canada Gazette published an "extra" edition announcing that court mourning would continue until 24 January 1902. It directed the public to wear deep mourning until 6 March 1901 and half-mourning until 17 April 1901. As they had done in earlier years for Queen Victoria, her son King Edward VII, his wife Queen Alexandra and the Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, the royal family went into mourning on the death of Prince Philip in April 2021. The black-and-white costumes designed by Cecil Beaton for the Royal Ascot sequence in My Fair Lady were inspired by the "Black Ascot" of 1910, when the court was in mourning for Edward VII.
The principle of continuity of the State, however, is also respected in mourning, and is reflected in the French saying ("The king is dead, long live the king!"). Regardless of the formalities of mourning, the power of state is handed on, typically immediately if the succession is uncontested. A short interruption of work in the civil service, however, may result from one or more days of closing the offices, especially on the day of the state funeral.
In January 2006, on the death of Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the emir of Kuwait, a mourning period of 40 days was declared. In Tonga, the official mourning lasts for a year; the heir is crowned after this period has passed.
Religions and customs
Confucianism
There are five grades of mourning obligations in the Confucian Code. A person is expected to honor most of those descended from their great-great-grandfather, and most of their wives. The death of a person's father and mother would merit 27 months of mourning; the death of a person's grandfather on the male side, as well as their grandfather's wife, would be grade two, or necessitate 12 months of mourning. A paternal uncle is grade three, at nine months, with grade four is reserved for one's father's first cousin, maternal grandparents, siblings and sister's children (five months). First cousins once removed, second cousins and the parents of a man's wife's are considered grade five (three months).
Buddhism
Christianity
Eastern Christianity
Orthodox Christians usually hold the funeral either the day after death or on the third day, and always during the daytime. In traditional Orthodox communities, the body of the departed would be washed and prepared for burial by family or friends, and then placed in the coffin in the home. A house in mourning would be recognizable by the lid of the coffin, with a cross on it, and often adorned with flowers, set on the porch by the front door.
Special prayers are held on the third, seventh or ninth (number varies in different national churches), and 40th days after death; the third, sixth and ninth or twelfth month; and annually thereafter in a memorial service, for up to three generations. Kolyva is ceremoniously used to honor the dead.
Sometimes men in mourning will not shave for the 40 days. In Greece and other Orthodox countries, it is not uncommon for widows to remain in mourning dress for the rest of their lives.
When an Orthodox bishop dies, a successor is not elected until after the 40 days of mourning are completed, during which period his diocese is said to be "widowed".
The 40th day has great significance in Orthodox religion, considered the period during which soul of deceased wanders on earth. On the 40th day, the ascension of the deceased's soul occurs, and is the most important day in mourning period, when special prayers are held on the grave site of deceased.
As in the Roman Catholic rites, there can be symbolic mourning. During Holy Week, some temples in the Church of Cyprus draw black curtains across the icons. The services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday morning are patterned in part on the Orthodox Christian burial service, and funeral lamentations.
Western Christianity
The European social forms are, in general, forms of Christian religious expression transferred to the greater community.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Mass of Paul VI, adopted in 1969, allows several options for the liturgical color used in Masses for the Dead. Before the liturgical reform, black was the ordinary color for funeral Masses; in the revised use, several options are available, though black is the norm. According to the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (§346d-e), black vestments is to be worn at Offices and Masses for the dead; an indult was given for several countries to use violet or white vestments, and in some of those nations those colours have largely supplanted the use of black vestments.
Christian churches often go into mourning symbolically during the period of Lent to commemorate the sacrifice and death of Jesus. Customs vary among the denominations and include the covering or removal of statuary, icons and paintings, and use of special liturgical colors, such as violet/purple, during Lent and Holy Week.
In more formal congregations, parishioners also dress according to specific forms during Holy Week, particularly on Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, when it is common to wear black or sombre dress or the liturgical color purple.
Special prayers are held on the third, seventh, and 30th days after death;
Prayers are held on the third day, because Jesus rose again after three days in the sepulchre (1 Corinthians 15:4).
Prayers are held on the seventh day, because Joseph mourned his father Jacob seven days (Genesis 50:10) and in Book of Sirach is written that "seven days the dead are mourned" (Ecclesiasticus 22:13).
Prayers are held on the thirtieth day, because Aaron (Numbers 20:30) and Moses (Deuteronomy 34:8) were mourned thirty days.
Hinduism
Death is not seen as the final "end" in Hinduism, but is seen as a turning point in the seemingly endless journey of the indestructible "atman", or soul, through innumerable bodies of animals and people. Hence, Hinduism prohibits excessive mourning or lamentation upon death, as this can hinder the passage of the departed soul towards its journey ahead: "As mourners will not help the dead in this world, therefore (the relatives) should not weep, but perform the obsequies to the best of their power."
Hindu mourning is described in dharma shastras. It begins immediately after the cremation of the body and ends on the morning of the thirteenth day. Traditionally, the body is cremated within 24 hours after death; however, cremations are not held after sunset or before sunrise. Immediately after the death, an oil lamp is lit near the deceased, and this lamp is kept burning for three days.
Hinduism associates death with ritual impurity for the immediate blood family of the deceased, hence during these mourning days, the immediate family must not perform any religious ceremonies (except funerals), must not visit temples or other sacred places, must not serve the sages (holy men), must not give alms, must not read or recite from the sacred scriptures, nor can they attend social functions such as marriages and parties. The family of the deceased is not expected to serve any visiting guests food or drink. It is customary that the visiting guests do not eat or drink in the house where the death has occurred. The family in mourning are required to bathe twice a day, eat a single simple vegetarian meal, and try to cope with their loss.
On the day on which the death has occurred, the family do not cook; hence usually close family and friends will provide food for the mourning family. White clothing (the color of purity) is the color of mourning, and many will wear white during the mourning period.
The male members of the family do not cut their hair or shave, and the female members of the family do not wash their hair until the 10th day after the death. If the deceased was young and unmarried, the "Narayan Bali" is performed by the Pandits. The Mantras of "Bhairon Paath" are recited. This ritual is performed through the person who has given the Mukhagni (Ritual of giving fire to the dead body).
On the morning of the 13th day, a Śrāddha ceremony is performed. The main ceremony involves a fire sacrifice, in which offerings are given to the ancestors and to gods, to ensure the deceased has a peaceful afterlife. Pind Sammelan is performed to ensure the involvement of the departed soul with that of God. Typically after the ceremony, the family cleans and washes all the idols in the family shrine; and flowers, fruits, water and purified food are offered to the gods. Then, the family is ready to break the period of mourning and return to daily life.
Islam
In Shi'a Islam, examples of mourning practices are held annually in the month of Muharram, the first month of Islamic Lunar calendar. This mourning is held in the commemoration of Imam Al Husayn ibn Ali, who was martyred along with his 72 companions by Yazid bin Muawiyah. Shi'a Muslims wear black clothes and take out processions on road to mourn on the tragedy of Karbala. Shi'a Muslims also mourn the death of Fatima (the only daughter of Muhammad) and the Shi'a Imams.
Mourning is observed in Islam by increased devotion, receiving visitors and condolences, and avoiding decorative clothing and jewelry. Loved ones and relatives are to observe a three-day mourning period. Widows observe an extended mourning period (Iddah), four months and ten days long, in accordance with the Qur'an 2:234. During this time, she is not to remarry, move from her home, or wear decorative clothing or jewelry.
Grief at the death of a beloved person is normal, and weeping for the dead is allowed in Islam. What is prohibited is to express grief by wailing ("bewailing" refers to mourning in a loud voice), shrieking, tearing hair or clothes, breaking things, scratching faces, or uttering phrases that make a Muslim lose faith.
Directives for widows
The Qur'an prohibits widows from engaging themselves for four lunar months and ten days after the death of their husbands. According to Qur'an:
Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between mourning a husband's death and protection of the widow from censure that she became interested in remarrying too soon after her husband's death. This is also to ascertain whether or not she is pregnant.
Judaism
Judaism looks upon mourning as a process by which the stricken can re-enter into society, and so provides a series of customs that make this process gradual. The first stage, observed as all the stages are by immediate relatives (parents, spouse, siblings and children) is the (literally meaning "seven"), which consists of the first seven days after the funeral. The second stage is the (thirty), referring to the thirty days following the death. The period of mourning after the death of a parent lasts one year. Each stage places lighter demands and restrictions than the previous one in order to reintegrate the bereaved into normal life.
The most known and central stage is , which is a Jewish mourning practice in which people adjust their behaviour as an expression of their bereavement for the week immediately after the burial. In the West, typically, mirrors are covered and a small tear is made in an item of clothing to indicate a lack of interest in personal vanity. The bereaved dress simply and sit on the floor, short stools or boxes rather than chairs when receiving the condolences of visitors. In some cases relatives or friends take care of the bereaved's house chores, as cooking and cleaning. English speakers use the expression "to sit shiva".
During the , the mourners are no longer expected to sit on the floor or be taken care of (cooking/cleaning). However, some customs still apply. There is a prohibition on getting married or attending any sort of celebrations and men refrain from shaving or cutting their hair.
Restrictions during the year of mourning include not wearing new clothes, not listening to music and not attending celebrations. In addition, the sons of the deceased recite the Kaddish prayer for the first eleven months of the year during prayer services where there is a quorum of 10 men. The Kaddish prayer is then recited annually on the date of death, usually called the yahrzeit. The date is according to the Hebrew calendar. In addition to saying the Kaddish in the synagogue, a 24-hour memorial candle is lit in the home of the person saying the Kaddish.
See also
Burial
Cemetery
Cremation
Death wail
Half-mast
Month's Mind
Mourning portraits
Mourning ring
Mourning sickness
Requiem
Rudaali (Indian film)
Victorian fashion
Wake (ceremony)
Widow's cap
References
Citations
Bibliography
The Canada Gazette
Clothing of Ancient Rome
Charles Spencer, Cecil Beaton: Stage and Film Designs, London: Academy Editions, 1975. (no ISBN)
Karen Rae Mehaffey, The After-Life: Mourning Rituals and the Mid-Victorians, Lasar Writers Publishing, 1993. (no ISBN)
External links
The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning By Maurice Lamm
To Those Who Mourn a Christian view by Max Heindel
Funerals
History of clothing | wiki |
The title Movie War is used for Kamen Rider films which feature crossovers between TV series. Each film features characters from the series that is airing at the time and the previous one:
List of films | wiki |
The Sarasota Sun Sox were a minor league baseball team based in Sarasota, Florida that played in the Florida State League from 1961 to 1965. They were affiliated with the Kansas City Athletics in 1961 and the Chicago White Sox from 1962 to 1965.
Year-by-year record
References
Baseball teams established in 1961
Defunct Florida State League teams
Sports in Sarasota County, Florida
Chicago White Sox minor league affiliates
Kansas City Athletics minor league affiliates
Defunct baseball teams in Florida
Sports clubs disestablished in 1965
1961 establishments in Florida
1965 disestablishments in Florida
Baseball teams disestablished in 1965 | wiki |
Polti may refer to:
Team Polti, an Italian cycling team
Georges Polti, a French author | wiki |
The Bengal Sultanate–Kamata Kingdom War was a late 15th century conflict between the Kamata Kingdom and the Bengal Sultanate. As a result of the conflict the Khen dynasty was overthrown and the Bengal Sultanate extended its domain up to the Hajo in what is present day western Assam by 1502. Nevertheless, the Sultanate administration was removed in about ten years by the Assamese Bhuyans led by Harup Narayan.
Invasion
The conquest was instigated by Sachipatra, a Brahmin whose son was executed by King Nilambar for his promiscuity with the queen. In 1498, Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah responded to Sachipatra's plea, and dispatched military general Shah Ismail Ghazi with 24,000 soldiers, cavalry and a war flotilla to conquer Kamata. Ghazi's forces besieged the Kamatapur fort and destroyed the city. Hussain Shah imprisoned Nilambar of Kamata and ended the reign of the Khen dynasty. Though Kamatapur fell in 1498, Hussain Shah was able to annex up to Hajo not before 1502.
Aftermath
The region was brought under the administration of Sultanate governors in Hajo. Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kāmrū, Kamata, Jajnagar and Urisa". He also publicly inscribed the victory at a stone in Malda. The Sultan appointed his son, Shahzada Danyal, as the governor of the newly conquered region; that reached up to Hajo and intended to expand to Central Assam. Daniyal later fell to the Assamese Bhuyans within Hussein Shah's lifetime and his rule ended.
Notes
References
Military history of the Bengal Sultanate
Kingdoms of Assam | wiki |
In professional sports, a lockout is the shutdown of a professional sports league by team owners, usually due to a failure of a sports league to come to agree on a collective bargaining agreement with the league's player union. When a lockout occurs, owners close facilities and prevent any team activities, which can result in missed games, loss of paychecks, and unhappy fans. Notable lockouts include the 1972 Major League Baseball strike, the 1981 Major League Baseball strike, the 1982 NFL strike, 1987 NFL strike, the 1994–95 NHL lockout, the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, the 1998–99 NBA lockout, the 2004–05 NHL lockout, the 2011 NBA lockout, the 2012 NFL referee lockout, the 2012-13 NHL lockout and the 2021–22 Major League Baseball lockout.
See also
Holdout (sports)
MLB lockout
NBA lockout
NFL lockout
NHL lockout
References
Sports labor disputes in the United States
Terminology used in multiple sports | wiki |
The 2014 Matsumoto Yamaga FC season sees Matsumoto Yamaga compete in J. League Division 2. Matsumoto Yamaga are also competing in the 2014 Emperor's Cup.
When they made a 2–1 victory at Fukuoka on 1 November 2014, they secured a second place in J2 and promotion to J1 for the first time in their history.
Players
Pre-season Transfers
Mid-season Transfers
Competitions
J. League
League table
Matches
Emperor's Cup
References
2014 J.League Division 2 Fixture
Matsumoto Yamaga FC
Matsumoto Yamaga FC seasons | wiki |
Cette liste de ponts de Nouvelle-Zélande a pour vocation de présenter une liste de ponts remarquables de Nouvelle-Zélande, tant par leurs caractéristiques dimensionnelles, que par leur intérêt architectural ou historique.
La catégorie lien donne la classification de l'ouvrage parmi ceux présentés et propose un lien vers la fiche technique du pont sur le site Structurae, base de données et galerie internationale d'ouvrages d'art. La liste peut être triée selon les différentes entrées du tableau pour voir ainsi les ponts en arc ou les ouvrages les plus récents par exemple.
Les colonnes portée et longueur, exprimées en mètres indiquent respectivement la distance entre les pylônes de la travée principale et la longueur totale de l'ouvrage, viaducs d'accès compris.
Ponts présentant un intérêt historique ou architectural
Grands ponts
Ce tableau présente les ouvrages ayant des portées supérieures à 100 m (liste non exhaustive).
Notes et références
Références
Historic.org.nz, New Zealand Historic Places Trust (NZHPT)
Références diverses
Voir aussi
Articles connexes
Bridges in New Zealand
Transport in New Zealand
List of motorways and expressways in New Zealand
List of New Zealand State Highways
List of tunnels in New Zealand
Liens externes
Bridgemeister.com - Suspension bridges of New Zealand - Liste de ponts suspendus de Nouvelle-Zélande
Highestbridges.com - Category: Bridges in New Zealand - Liste des plus hauts ponts de Nouvelle-Zélande
Bibliographie
Ponts
Nouvelle-Zelande | wiki |
These are the official results of the Men's 800 metres event at the 1978 European Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia. The final was held on 31 August 1978.
The two favourites for the race were Steve Ovett and Sebastian Coe Ovett had won silver at 800 m at the previous European Championships in 1974 in Rome, and had won the 1500m, in spectacular fashion, at the IAAF World Cup the previous year (he was to remain unbeaten at that distance until the 1980 Olympics). Coe was the new British record holder at 800 m and the fastest man that year leading into the race at 800 m.
The race was billed in the press, the British press in particular, as a 'Coe versus Ovett' contest - a race that was the start of a rivalry that was to dominate not only British and European but World middle-distance running over the next few years. However, by concentrating on Coe and Ovett the press were ignoring the other talents in the race, including East Germany's Olaf Beyer.
In the race itself, Coe led from the front setting a blistering first lap pace, going through the bell in a suicidal 49.32 s. At 700 m, he was spent and Ovett kicked past him for home. However, the fast-finishing Beyer first caught Coe and then Ovett to strike gold, in doing so recording the fastest time that year.
Medalists
Results
Final
31 August
Semi-finals
30 August
Semi-final 1
Semi-final 2
Heats
29 August
Heat 1
Heat 2
Heat 3
Heat 4
Participation
According to an unofficial count, 24 athletes from 15 countries participated in the event.
(1)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(3)
(1)
(3)
(2)
(2)
See also
1974 Men's European Championships 800 metres (Rome)
1976 Men's Olympic 800 metres (Montreal)
1980 Men's Olympic 800 metres (Moscow)
1982 Men's European Championships 800 metres (Athens)
1983 Men's World Championships 800 metres (Helsinki)
1984 Men's Olympic 800 metres (Los Angeles)
1986 Men's European Championships 800 metres (Stuttgart)
References
Other Links
Results 1978 European Championship Results
800 metres
800 metres at the European Athletics Championships | wiki |
Wally Dallenbach may refer to:
Wally Dallenbach Sr., long-time participant in CART as a driver and then as an administrator
Wally Dallenbach Jr., his son, a driver in NASCAR and later a commentator for NBC and TNT | wiki |
The Democratic candidates in the 2016 United States presidential election hold a wide variety of stances on issues related to domestic and foreign policy and their political ideological views.
Domestic policy
Foreign policy
Political ideologies
Note that some of these terms are self-identifiers (in quotation marks): the views linked to may not adequately represent all of their policy stances.
See also
Democratic Party presidential candidates, 2016
Political positions of the Republican Party presidential primary candidates, 2016
References
Democratic Party
2016 United States Democratic presidential primaries | wiki |
In humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint). It is the largest joint in the human body. The knee is a modified hinge joint, which permits flexion and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of osteoarthritis.
It is often termed a compound joint having tibiofemoral and patellofemoral components. (The fibular collateral ligament is often considered with tibiofemoral components.)
Structure
The knee is a modified hinge joint, a type of synovial joint, which is composed of three functional compartments: the patellofemoral articulation, consisting of the patella, or "kneecap", and the patellar groove on the front of the femur through which it slides; and the medial and lateral tibiofemoral articulations linking the femur, or thigh bone, with the tibia, the main bone of the lower leg. The joint is bathed in synovial fluid which is contained inside the synovial membrane called the joint capsule. The posterolateral corner of the knee is an area that has recently been the subject of renewed scrutiny and research.
The knee is the largest joint and one of the most important joints in the body. It plays an essential role in movement related to carrying the body weight in horizontal (running and walking) and vertical (jumping) directions.
At birth, the kneecap is just formed from cartilage, and this will ossify (change to bone) between the ages of three and five years. Because it is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body, the ossification process takes significantly longer.
Articular bodies
The main articular bodies of the femur are its lateral and medial condyles. These diverge slightly distally and posteriorly, with the lateral condyle being wider in front than at the back while the medial condyle is of more constant width. The radius of the condyles' curvature in the sagittal plane becomes smaller toward the back. This diminishing radius produces a series of involute midpoints (i.e. located on a spiral). The resulting series of transverse axes permit the sliding and rolling motion in the flexing knee while ensuring the collateral ligaments are sufficiently lax to permit the rotation associated with the curvature of the medial condyle about a vertical axis.
The pair of tibial condyles are separated by the intercondylar eminence composed of a lateral and a medial tubercle.
The patella also serves an articular body, and its posterior surface is referred to as the trochlea of the knee. It is inserted into the thin anterior wall of the joint capsule. On its posterior surface is a lateral and a medial articular surface, both of which communicate with the patellar surface which unites the two femoral condyles on the anterior side of the bone's distal end.
Articular capsule
The articular capsule has a synovial and a fibrous membrane separated by fatty deposits. Anteriorly, the synovial membrane is attached on the margin of the cartilage both on the femur and the tibia, but on the femur, it communicates with the suprapatellar bursa or recess and extends the joint space proximally. The suprapatellar bursa is prevented from being pinched during extension by the articularis genus muscle. Behind, the synovial membrane is attached to the margins of the two femoral condyles which produces two extensions (semimembranosus bursa under medial head of the gastrocnemius and popliteal bursa under lateral head of the gastrocnemius ) similar to the suprapatellar bursa. Between these two extensions, the synovial membrane passes in front of the two cruciate ligaments at the center of the joint, thus forming a pocket direct inward.
Synovium lining the capsule and its bursae. The synovium also lines infrapatellar fat pad, the fat pad that lies below the ligamentum patellae. Synovium projecting into the fat pad as two foldings.
Bursae
Numerous bursae surround the knee joint. The largest communicative bursa is the suprapatellar bursa described above. Four considerably smaller bursae are located on the back of the knee. Two non-communicative bursae are located in front of the patella and below the patellar tendon, and others are sometimes present.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a thin, elastic tissue that protects the bone and makes certain that the joint surfaces can slide easily over each other. Cartilage ensures supple knee movement. There are two types of joint cartilage in the knees: fibrous cartilage (the meniscus) and hyaline cartilage. Fibrous cartilage has tensile strength and can resist pressure. Hyaline cartilage covers the surface along which the joints move. Collagen fibres within the articular cartilage have been described by Benninghoff as arising from the subchondral bone in a radial manner, building so called Gothic arches. On the surface of the cartilage these fibres appear in a tangential orientation and increase the abrasion resistance. There are no blood vessels inside of the hyaline cartilage, the alimentation is performed per diffusion. Synovial fluid and the subchondral bone marrow serve both as nutrition sources for the hyaline cartilage. Lack of at least one source induces a degeneration. Cartilage will wear over the years. Cartilage has a very limited capacity for self-restoration. The newly formed tissue will generally consist of a large part of fibrous cartilage of lesser quality than the original hyaline cartilage. As a result, new cracks and tears will form in the cartilage over time.
Menisci
The articular disks of the knee-joint are called menisci because they only partly divide the joint space. These two disks, the medial meniscus and the lateral meniscus, consist of connective tissue with extensive collagen fibers containing cartilage-like cells. Strong fibers run along the menisci from one attachment to the other, while weaker radial fibers are interlaced with the former. The menisci are flattened at the center of the knee joint, fused with the synovial membrane laterally, and can move over the tibial surface.
The upper and lower surfaces of the menisci are free. Each meniscus have anterior and posterior horns that meet in the intercondylar area of the tibia.
Medial meniscus is bigger, less curved, and thinner. Its posterior horn is thicker (14mm) than the anterior horn (6mm).
The lateral meniscus is smaller, more curved (nearly circular), and has more uniform thickness than medial meniscus (10mm). The lateral meniscus is less attached to the joint capsule, because its posterolateral surface is grooved by the popliteus tendon, separating the meniscus from the capsule. The popliteus tendon is not attached to the lateral meniscus.
Ligaments
The ligaments surrounding the knee joint offer stability by limiting movements and, together with the menisci and several bursae, protect the articular capsule.
Intracapsular
The knee is stabilized by a pair of cruciate ligaments. These ligaments are both extrasynovial, intracapsular ligaments. The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) stretches from the lateral condyle of femur to the anterior intercondylar area. The ACL is critically important because it prevents the tibia from being pushed too far anterior relative to the femur. It is often torn during twisting or bending of the knee. The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) stretches from medial condyle of femur to the posterior intercondylar area. This ligament prevents posterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur. Injury to this ligament is uncommon but can occur as a direct result of forced trauma to the ligament.
The transverse ligament stretches from the lateral meniscus to the medial meniscus. It passes in front of the menisci. It is divided into several strips in 10% of cases. The two menisci are attached to each other anteriorly by the ligament. The posterior (of Wrisberg) and anterior meniscofemoral ligaments (of Humphrey) stretch from the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the medial femoral condyle. They pass anterior and posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament respectively. The meniscotibial ligaments (or "coronary") stretches from inferior edges of the menisci to the periphery of the tibial plateaus.
Extracapsular
The patellar ligament connects the patella to the tuberosity of the tibia. It is also occasionally called the patellar tendon because there is no definite separation between the quadriceps tendon (which surrounds the patella) and the area connecting the patella to the tibia. This very strong ligament helps give the patella its mechanical leverage and also functions as a cap for the condyles of the femur. Laterally and medially to the patellar ligament the lateral and medial retinacula connect fibers from the vasti lateralis and medialis muscles to the tibia. Some fibers from the iliotibial tract radiate into the lateral retinaculum and the medial retinaculum receives some transverse fibers arising on the medial femoral epicondyle.
The medial collateral ligament (MCL a.k.a. "tibial") stretches from the medial epicondyle of the femur to the medial tibial condyle. It is composed of three groups of fibers, one stretching between the two bones, and two fused with the medial meniscus. The MCL is partly covered by the pes anserinus and the tendon of the semimembranosus passes under it. It protects the medial side of the knee from being bent open by a stress applied to the lateral side of the knee (a valgus force).
The lateral collateral ligament (LCL a.k.a. "fibular") stretches from the lateral epicondyle of the femur to the head of fibula. It is separate from both the joint capsule and the lateral meniscus. It protects the lateral side from an inside bending force (a varus force). The anterolateral ligament (ALL) is situated in front of the LCL.
Lastly, there are two ligaments on the dorsal side of the knee. The oblique popliteal ligament is a radiation of the tendon of the semimembranosus on the medial side, from where it is direct laterally and proximally. The arcuate popliteal ligament originates on the apex of the head of the fibula to stretch proximally, crosses the tendon of the popliteus muscle, and passes into the capsule.
Muscles
The muscles responsible for the movement of the knee joint belong to either the anterior, medial or posterior compartment of the thigh. The extensors generally belong to the anterior compartment and the flexors to the posterior. The two exceptions to this is gracilis, a flexor, which belongs to the medial compartment and sartorius, a flexor, in the anterior compartment.
Extensors
Flexors
Posterior compartment
Medial compartment:
Blood supply
The femoral artery and the popliteal artery help form the arterial network or plexus, surrounding the knee joint. There are six main branches: two superior genicular arteries, two inferior genicular arteries, the descending genicular artery and the recurrent branch of anterior tibial artery.
The medial genicular arteries penetrate the knee joint.
Function
The knee permits flexion and extension about a virtual transverse axis, as well as a slight medial and lateral rotation about the axis of the lower leg in the flexed position. The knee joint is called "mobile" because the femur and lateral meniscus move over the tibia during rotation, while the femur rolls and glides over both menisci during extension-flexion.
The center of the transverse axis of the extension/flexion movements is located where both collateral ligaments and both cruciate ligaments intersect. This center moves upward and backward during flexion, while the distance between the center and the articular surfaces of the femur changes dynamically with the decreasing curvature of the femoral condyles. The total range of motion is dependent on several parameters such as soft-tissue restraints, active insufficiency, and hamstring tightness.
Extended position
With the knee extended, both the lateral and medial collateral ligaments, as well as the anterior part of the anterior cruciate ligament, are taut. During extension, the femoral condyles glide and roll into a position which causes the complete unfolding of the tibial collateral ligament. During the last 10° of extension, an obligatory terminal rotation is triggered in which the knee is rotated medially 5°. The final rotation is produced by a lateral rotation of the tibia in the non-weight-bearing leg, and by a medial rotation of the femur in the weight-bearing leg. This terminal rotation is made possible by the shape of the medial femoral condyle, assisted by contraction of the popliteus muscle and the iliotibial tract and is caused by the stretching of the anterior cruciate ligament. Both cruciate ligaments are slightly unwound and both lateral ligaments become taut.
Flexed position
In the flexed position, the collateral ligaments are relaxed while the cruciate ligaments are taut. Rotation is controlled by the twisted cruciate ligaments; the two ligaments get twisted around each other during medial rotation of the tibia—which reduces the amount of rotation possible—while they become unwound during lateral rotation of the tibia. Because of the oblique position of the cruciate ligaments, at least a part of one of them is always tense and these ligaments control the joint as the collateral ligaments are relaxed. Furthermore, the dorsal fibers of the tibial collateral ligament become tensed during extreme medial rotation and the ligament also reduces the lateral rotation to 45–60°.
Clinical significance
Knee pain is caused by trauma, misalignment, degeneration, and conditions producing arthritis. The most common knee disorder is generally known as patellofemoral syndrome. The majority of minor cases of knee pain can be treated at home with rest and ice, but more serious injuries do require surgical care.
One form of patellofemoral syndrome involves a tissue-related problem that creates pressure and irritation in the knee between the patella and the trochlea (patellar compression syndrome), which causes pain. The second major class of knee disorder involves a tear, slippage, or dislocation that impairs the structural ability of the knee to balance the leg (patellofemoral instability syndrome). Patellofemoral instability syndrome may cause either pain, a sense of poor balance, or both.
Prepatellar bursitis also known as housemaid's knee is painful inflammation of the prepatellar bursa (a frontal knee bursa) often brought about by occupational activity such as roofing.
Age also contributes to disorders of the knee. Particularly in older people, knee pain frequently arises due to osteoarthritis. In addition, weakening of tissues around the knee may contribute to the problem. Patellofemoral instability may relate to hip abnormalities or to tightness of surrounding ligaments.
Cartilage lesions can be caused by:
Accidents (fractures)
Injuries
The removal of a meniscus
Anterior cruciate ligament injury
Posterior cruciate ligament injury
Posterolateral corner injury
Medial knee injuries
Considerable strain on the knee.
Any kind of work during which the knees undergo heavy stress may also be detrimental to cartilage. This is especially the case in professions in which people frequently have to walk, lift, or squat. Other causes of pain may be excessive on, and wear off, the knees, in combination with such things as muscle weakness and overweight.
Common complaints:
A painful, blocked, locked or swollen knee.
Sufferers sometimes feel as if their knees are about to give way, or may feel uncertain about their movement.
Overall fitness and knee injury
Physical fitness is related integrally to the development of knee problems. The same activity such as climbing stairs may cause pain from patellofemoral compression for someone who is physically unfit, but not for someone else (or even for that person at a different time). Obesity is another major contributor to knee pain. For instance, a 30-year-old woman who weighed 120lb at age 18 years, before her three pregnancies, and now weighs 285lb, had added 660lb of force across her patellofemoral joint with each step.
Common injuries due to physical activity
In sports that place great pressure on the knees, especially with twisting forces, it is common to tear one or more ligaments or cartilages. Some of the most common knee injuries are those to the medial side: medial knee injuries.
Anterior cruciate ligament injury
The anterior cruciate ligament is the most commonly injured ligament of the knee. The injury is common during sports. Twisting of the knee is a common cause of over-stretching or tearing the ACL. When the ACL is injured a popping sound may be heard, and the leg may suddenly give out. Besides swelling and pain, walking may be painful and the knee will feel unstable. Minor tears of the anterior cruciate ligament may heal over time, but a torn ACL requires surgery. After surgery, recovery is prolonged and low impact exercises are recommended to strengthen the joint.
Torn meniscus injury
The menisci act as shock absorbers and separate the two ends of bone in the knee joint. There are two menisci in the knee, the medial (inner) and the lateral (outer). When there is torn cartilage, it means that the meniscus has been injured. Meniscus tears occur during sports often when the knee is twisted. Menisci injury may be innocuous and one may be able to walk after a tear, but soon swelling and pain set in. Sometimes the knee will lock while bending. Pain often occurs when one squats. Small meniscus tears are treated conservatively but most large tears require surgery.
Fractures
Knee fractures are rare but do occur, especially as a result of a road accident. Knee fractures include a patella fracture, and a type of avulsion fracture called a Segond fracture. There is usually immediate pain and swelling, and a difficulty or inability to stand on the leg. The muscles go into spasm and even the slightest movements are painful. X-rays can easily confirm the injury and surgery will depend on the degree of displacement and type of fracture.
Ruptured tendon
Tendons usually attach muscle to bone. In the knee the quadriceps and patellar tendon can sometimes tear. The injuries to these tendons occur when there is forceful contraction of the knee. If the tendon is completely torn, bending or extending the leg is impossible. A completely torn tendon requires surgery but a partially torn tendon can be treated with leg immobilization followed by physical therapy.
Overuse
Overuse injuries of the knee include tendonitis, bursitis, muscle strains, and iliotibial band syndrome. These injuries often develop slowly over weeks or months. Activities that induce pain usually delay healing. Rest, ice and compression do help in most cases. Once the swelling has diminished, heat packs can increase blood supply and promote healing. Most overuse injuries subside with time but can flare up if the activities are quickly resumed. Individuals may reduce the chances of overuse injuries by warming up prior to exercise, by limiting high impact activities and keep their weight under control.
Varus or valgus deformity
There are two disorders relating to an abnormal angle in the coronal plane at the level of the knee:
Genu valgum is a valgus deformity in which the tibia is turned outward in relation to the femur, resulting in a knock-kneed appearance.
Genu varum is a varus deformity in which the tibia is turned inward in relation to the femur, resulting in a bowlegged deformity.
The degree of varus or valgus deformity can be quantified by the hip-knee-ankle angle, which is an angle between the femoral mechanical axis and the center of the ankle joint. It is normally between 1.0° and 1.5° of varus in adults. Normal ranges are different in children.
Surgical interventions
Before the advent of arthroscopy and arthroscopic surgery, patients having surgery for a torn ACL required at least nine months of rehabilitation, having initially spent several weeks in a full-length plaster cast. With current techniques, such patients may be walking without crutches in two weeks, and playing some sports in a few months.
In addition to developing new surgical procedures, ongoing research is looking into underlying problems which may increase the likelihood of an athlete suffering a severe knee injury. These findings may lead to effective preventive measures, especially in female athletes, who have been shown to be especially vulnerable to ACL tears from relatively minor trauma.
Articular cartilage repair treatment:
Arthroscopic debridement of the knee (arthroscopic lavage)
Mosaïc-plasty
Microfracture (Ice-picking)
Autologous chondrocyte implantation
Osteochondral Autograft and Allografts
PLC Reconstruction
Imaging
MRI
Both anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and posterior cruciate ligaments (PCL) are hypointense on both T1 and T2 weighted images of MRI. However, some high signal striations are often seen at the distal part of the ACL, making ACL higher intensity than PCL on MRI scans.
X-ray
Illustrations
Other animals
In humans, the term "knee" refers to the joints between the femur, tibia, and patella, in the leg.
In quadrupeds such as dogs, horses, and mice, the homologous joints between the femur, tibia, and patella, in the hind leg, are known as the stifle joint. Also in quadrupeds, particularly horses, ungulates, and elephants, the layman's term "knee" also commonly refers to the forward-facing joint in the foreleg, the carpus, which is homologous to the human wrist.
In birds, the "knee" refers to the joints between the femur and tibiotarsus, and also the patella (when present). The layman's term "knee" may also refer to the (lower and often more visible due to not being covered by feathers) joint between the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus, which is homologous to the human ankle.
In insects and other animals, the term knee widely refers to any hinge joint.
See also
Arthrofibrosis
Articular cartilage repair
Chondromalacia patellae
Fibular collateral ligament
Geniculum
Genuflection
Knee arthritis
Knee cartilage replacement therapy
Knee examination
Kneecapping
Kneeling
Knésetja
Medial collateral ligament
Partial knee replacement unicompartmental knee arthroplasty
Posterolateral corner injuries
Reflex hammer
References
External links
Animation of bones and ligament in the knee
MRI anatomy of a normal knee
Articles containing video clips
Knee | wiki |
Section 25 may refer to:
Section 25 (band), an English post-punk and electronic band
Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Section 25 of the Constitution of Australia
See also | wiki |
Tower Hamlets steht für
ein altes englisches Verwaltungsgebiet der Grafschaft Middlesex östlich der City of London, siehe Tower Division.
danach benannt: ein Stadtbezirk im Londoner East End, siehe London Borough of Tower Hamlets. | wiki |
This is a list of persons reported to have become father of a child at or after 75 years of age. These claims have not necessarily been verified.
Medical considerations
According to a 1969 study, there is a decrease in sperm concentration as men age. The study reported that 90% of seminiferous tubules in men in their 20s and 30s contained spermatids, whereas men in their 40s and 50s had spermatids in 50% of their seminiferous tubules. In the study, only 10% of seminiferous tubules from men aged > 80 years contained spermatids. In a random international sample of 11,548 men confirmed to be biological fathers by DNA paternity testing, the oldest father was found to be 66 years old at the birth of his child; the ratio of DNA-confirmed versus DNA-rejected paternity tests around that age is in agreement with the notion of general male infertility above age 65-66.
List of claims
See also
List of oldest birth mothers
List of people with the most children
List of multiple births
List of youngest birth fathers
List of youngest birth mothers
Pregnancy
Abraham and his son Isaac
Genealogies of Genesis including multiple accounts of super-aged fathers
References
External links
Well Known Fathers After 50
Who's broody now?
Older men who want to go from here to paternity
Fathers
Gerontology
Sexuality and age
Lists of men
Fatherhood
Human pregnancy
Biological records
Oldest things
Parenting-related lists | wiki |
Galbanino is a soft, mild, cheese produced by the Italian company Galbani. It most closely resembles a mild provolone cheese.
See also
List of stretch-cured cheeses
References
Italian cheeses
Stretched-curd cheeses | wiki |
The Alhambra–San Gabriel Line was a Pacific Electric interurban line which traveled between Los Angeles and Temple City.
History
The line was built by the Los Angeles & Pasadena Electric Railway starting in October 1901; it was the first standard gauge interurban railway in Southern California. It opened on June 21, 1902 running between Los Angeles General Hospital and the San Gabriel Mission, soon extended to the Masonic Home. The service became a part of the Pacific Electric system by 1911, terminating at the Pacific Electric Building. Tracks were extended to Temple City on July 29, 1924. Cars began bypassing the Mission in 1928.
The last trips occurred on November 30, 1941. After passenger service ended, tracks were retained for freight until removed in 1951.
Route
Between the 6th & Main Terminal and Sierra Vista Junction, the line followed the Northern District main line. At Sierra Vista Junction (where Huntington Drive and Main Street meet near the western border of Alhambra), the line diverged due east along the median of Main Street, continuing down Main through Alhambra (with a freight spur running south on Palm Avenue to the Southern Pacific's Alhambra depot on Mission Road), into San Gabriel (where Main Street becomes Las Tunas Drive) and finally into Temple City, where the line had an off-street terminal at the northeast corner of Las Tunas Drive and Kauffman Avenue. Additionally, there was a branch that turned south on Mission Drive in San Gabriel, passed along the southern edge of Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, then turned north on Junipero Serra Drive before rejoining the main line at Junipero Serra and Las Tunas drives.
List of major stations
References
Pacific Electric routes
Alhambra, California
San Gabriel, California
Railway services introduced in 1902
1902 establishments in California
Railway services discontinued in 1941
Railway lines closed in 1951
1951 disestablishments in California
Closed railway lines in the United States | wiki |
Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural, domestic or industrial biowaste. The climate change mitigation potential of biofuel varies considerably, from emission levels comparable to fossil fuels in some scenarios to negative emissions in others. Biofuels are mostly used for transportation, but can also be used for heating and electricity. Biofuels (and bioenergy in general) are regarded as a renewable energy source.
The two most common types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel. The U.S. is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel. The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.8 EJ per year, respectively. Demand for aviation biofuel is forecast to increase.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as maize, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.
Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (B100), but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles.
Terminology
The term "biofuel" is used in different ways. One definition is "Biofuels are biobased products, in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. They are produced from crops or natural products, such as wood, or agricultural residues, such as molasses and bagasse."
Other publications reserve the term biofuel for liquid or gaseous fuels, used for transportation.
Conventional biofuels (first generation)
First-generation biofuels (also denoted as "conventional biofuels") are made from food crops grown on arable land. The crop's sugar, starch, or oil content is converted into biodiesel or ethanol, using transesterification, or yeast fermentation.
Advanced biofuels (second generation)
To avoid a "food versus fuel" dilemma, second-generation biofuels (also called advanced biofuels or sustainable biofuels) are made from waste products. These are derived from agriculture and forestry activities such as rice straw, rice husk, wood chips, and sawdust.
The feedstock used to make the fuels either grow on arable land but are byproducts of the main crop, or they are grown on marginal land. Second-generation feedstocks also include straw, bagasse, perennial grasses, jatropha, waste vegetable oil, municipal solid waste and so forth.
Types
The following fuels can be produced using first, second, third or fourth-generation biofuel production procedures. Most of these can be produced using two or three of the different biofuel generation procedures.
Liquid
Ethanol
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult).The IEA estimates that ethanol production used 20% of sugar supplies and 13% of corn supplies in 2021.
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch from which alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can be made (such as potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (sometimes unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, is the most common fuel in Brazil, while pellets, wood chips and also waste heat are more common in Europe) Waste steam fuels ethanol factory – where waste heat from the factories also is used in the district heating grid. Corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol.
Other bioalcohols
Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. In the future it is hoped to be produced from biomass as biomethanol. This is technically feasible, but the production is currently being postponed for concerns that the economic viability is still pending. The methanol economy is an alternative to the hydrogen economy to be contrasted with today's hydrogen production from natural gas.
Butanol () is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with biobutanol as the only liquid product.
Biobutanol is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it will produce more energy than ethanol and allegedly can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), and is less corrosive and less water-soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. Escherichia coli strains have also been successfully engineered to produce butanol by modifying their amino acid metabolism. One drawback to butanol production in E. coli remains the high cost of nutrient rich media, however, recent work has demonstrated E. coli can produce butanol with minimal nutritional supplementation.
Biobutanol is sometimes called biogasoline, which is not correct, as it is chemically different, being an alcohol, not a hydrocarbon, like biogasoline.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100, also known as "neat" biodiesel) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel Second generation B100. , researchers at Australia's CSIRO have been studying safflower oil as an engine lubricant, and researchers at Montana State University's Advanced Fuels Center in the US have been studying the oil's performance in a large diesel engine, with results described as a "game-changer".
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine and modified equipment when mixed with mineral diesel. It can also be used in its pure form (B100) in diesel engines, but some maintenance and performance problems may then occur during wintertime utilization, since the fuel becomes somewhat more viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used.
Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'Unit Injector' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and atomized multiple-stage injection systems that are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many current-generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design.
Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning it contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion of biodiesel and reduces the particulate emissions from unburnt carbon. However, using pure biodiesel may increase NOx-emissions
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is non-toxic and biodegradable, and has a high flash point of about 300 °F (148 °C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 °F (52 °C).
In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles. Avril Group produces under the brand Diester, a fifth of 11 million tons of biodiesel consumed annually by the European Union. It is the leading European producer of biodiesel.
Green diesel
Green diesel is produced through hydrocracking biological oil feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Hydrocracking is a refinery method that uses elevated temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to break down larger molecules, such as those found in vegetable oils, into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines. It may also be called renewable diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO fuel) or hydrogen-derived renewable diesel. Unlike biodiesel, green diesel has exactly the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel. It does not require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use, but has not been produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum. Gasoline versions are also being developed. Green diesel is being developed in Louisiana and Singapore by ConocoPhillips, Neste Oil, Valero, Dynamic Fuels, and Honeywell UOP as well as Preem in Gothenburg, Sweden, creating what is known as Evolution Diesel.
Straight vegetable oil
Straight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower-quality oil has been used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and then used as a fuel. The IEA estimates that biodiesel production used 17% of global vegetable oil supplies in 2021.
Oils and fats reacted with 10 pounds of a short-chain alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (usually sodium hydroxide [NaOH] can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight-chain hydrocarbon with a high cetane number, low in aromatics and sulfur and does not contain oxygen. Hydrogenated oils can be blended with diesel in all proportions. They have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack.
Biogasoline
A study led by Professor Lee Sang-yup at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) and published in the international science journal Nature used modified E. coli fed with glucose found in plants or other non-food crops to produce biogasoline with the produced enzymes. The enzymes converted the sugar into fatty acids and then turned these into hydrocarbons that were chemically and structurally identical to those found in commercial gasoline fuel.
Bioethers
Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated fuels) are cost-effective compounds that act as octane rating enhancers. "Bioethers are produced by the reaction of reactive iso-olefins, such as iso-butylene, with bioethanol." Bioethers are created from wheat or sugar beets, and also be produced from the waste glycerol that results from the production of biodiesel. They also enhance engine performance, while significantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust emissions. Although bioethers are likely to replace ethers produced from petrolium in the UK, it is highly unlikely they will become a fuel in and of itself due to the low energy density. By greatly reducing the amount of ground-level ozone emissions, they contribute to air quality.
When it comes to transportation fuel there are six ether additives: dimethyl ether (DME), diethyl ether (DEE), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), and tert-amyl ethyl ether (TAEE).
The European Fuel Oxygenates Association identifies MTBE and ETBE as the most commonly used ethers in fuel to replace lead. Ethers were introduced in Europe in the 1970s to replace the highly toxic compound. Although Europeans still use bioether additives, the U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005 lifted a requirement for reformulated gasoline to include an oxygenate, leading to less MTBE being added to fuel.
Aviation biofuel
Gaseous
Biogas and biomethane
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. When and other impurities are removed from biogas, it is called biomethane.
Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing systems. Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere, it acts as a greenhouse gas.
Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their cattle by using anaerobic digesters.
Syngas
Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and various hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water. Before partial combustion, the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.
Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines, turbines or high-temperature fuel cells. The wood gas generator, a wood-fueled gasification reactor, can be connected to an internal combustion engine.
Syngas can be used to produce methanol, dimethyl ether and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer–Tropsch process to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures greater than 700 °C.
Lower-temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar, but results in syngas polluted with tar.
Solid
The term "biofuels" is also used for solid fuels that are made from biomass, even though this is less common.
Research into other types
Algae-based biofuels
Algae can be produced in ponds or tanks on land, and out at sea. Algal fuels have high yields, can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources, can be produced using saline water and wastewater, have a high ignition point, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Production requires large amounts of energy and fertilizer, the produced fuel degrades faster than other biofuels, and it does not flow well in cold temperatures.
By 2017, due to economic considerations, most efforts to produce fuel from algae have been abandoned or changed to other applications.
Electrofuels and solar fuels
This class of biofuels includes electrofuels and solar fuels. Electrofuels are made by storing electrical energy in the chemical bonds of liquids and gases. The primary targets are butanol, biodiesel, and hydrogen, but include other alcohols and carbon-containing gases such as methane and butane. A solar fuel is a synthetic chemical fuel produced from solar energy. Light is converted to chemical energy, typically by reducing protons to hydrogen, or carbon dioxide to organic compounds.
Fourth-generation biofuels also include biofuels that are produced by bioengineered organisms i.e. algae and cyanobacteria. Algae and cyanobacteria will use water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy to produce biofuels. This method of biofuel production is still at the research level. The biofuels that are secreted by the bioengineered organisms are expected to have higher photon-to-fuel conversion efficiency, compared to older generations of biofuels. One of the advantages of this class of biofuels is that the cultivation of the organisms that produce the biofuels does not require the use of arable land. The disadvantages include the cost of cultivating the biofuel-producing organisms being very high.
Extent of production and use
Global biofuel production was 81 Mtoe in 2017 which represented an annual increase of about 3% compared to 2010. Mtoe stands for Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent. Furthermore: "the US is the largest producer in the world producing 37 Mtoe in 2017; Brazil and South America, 23 Mtoe; and Europe (mainly Germany) 12 Mtoe".
An assessment from 2017 found that: "Biofuels will never be a major transport fuel as there is just not enough land in the world to grow plants to make biofuel for all vehicles. It can however, be part of an energy mix to take us into a future of renewable energy."
In 2021, worldwide biofuel production provided 4.3% of the world's fuels for transport, including a very small amount of aviation biofuel. By 2027 worldwide biofuel production is expected to supply 5.4% of the world’s fuels for transport including 1% of aviation fuel. The International Energy Agency (IEA) wants biofuels to make up 64% of the world demand for transportation fuels by 2050, in order to reduce dependency on petroleum. However, the production and consumption of biofuels are not on track to meet the IEA's sustainable development scenario. From 2020 to 2030 global biofuel output has to increase by 16% each year to reach IEA's goal.
Issues
Environmental impacts
Estimates about the climate impact from biofuels vary widely based on the methodology and exact situation examined.
In general, biofuels emit fewer greenhouse gas emissions when burned in an engine and are generally considered carbon-neutral fuels as the carbon emitted has been captured from the atmosphere by the crops used in production. However, life-cycle assessments of biofuels have shown large emissions associated with the potential land-use change required to produce additional biofuel feedstocks. A review of 179 studies published between 2009 and 2020 found that if no land-use change is involved, first-generation biofuels can—on average—have lower emissions than fossil fuels. However, there is an issue with competition with food. Up to 40% of corn produced in the United States is used to make ethanol, and worldwide 10% of all grain is turned into biofuel. A 50% reduction in grain used for biofuels in the US and Europe would replace all of Ukraine's grain exports. Also, several studies have shown that reductions in emissions from biofuels are achieved at the expense of other impacts, such as acidification, eutrophication, water footprint and biodiversity loss.
The use of second generation biofuels is thought to increase environmental sustainability, since the non-food part of plants is being used to produce second-generation biofuels, instead of being disposed. But the use of this class of biofuels increases the competition for lignocellulosic biomass, increasing the cost of these biofuels.
Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels
See also
Bioenergy Europe
BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport
Biofuels Center of North Carolina
Biofuelwatch
Biogas powerplant
International Renewable Energy Agency
List of biofuel companies and researchers
List of vegetable oils used for biofuel
Renewable energy by country
Renewable Energy Transition
Residue-to-product ratio
Sustainable aviation fuel
Sustainable transport
Table of biofuel crop yields
References
Sources
External links
Biofuels Journal
Alternative Fueling Station Locator (EERE)
Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels by the United Nations Environment Programme, October 2009.
Biofuels guidance for businesses, including permits and licences required on NetRegs.gov.uk
How Much Water Does It Take to Make Electricity?—Natural gas requires the least water to produce energy, some biofuels the most, according to a new study.
International Conference on Biofuels Standards – European Union Biofuels Standardization
Biofuels from Biomass: Technology and Policy Considerations Thorough overview from MIT
The Guardian news on biofuels
The US DOE Clean Cities Program – links to the 87 US Clean Cities coalitions, as of 2004.
Biofuels Factsheet by the University of Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems
Learn Biofuels – Educational Resource for Students
Anaerobic digestion
Biodegradable waste management
Bioenergy
Bright green environmentalism
Emerging technologies
Sustainable technologies
Emissions reduction
Economics and climate change
Fuels
Biomass
Renewable fuels | wiki |
Robert Cutting may refer to:
Robert L. Cutting Jr. (1836–1894), American banker and clubman
Robert L. Cutting (1812–1887), American businessman
Robert Fulton Cutting (1852–1934), American financier and philanthropist
Robert Bayard Cutting (1875–1918), American soldier | wiki |
Mike's Hard Lemonade Co. is an alcopop supplier based in Levittown, Pennsylvania. It is part of Badlands Beverage Brands, Inc. as of 2017. Founded in 1999, Mike's Hard Lemonade Co. defined the $3.2 billion flavored malt beverage category with the introduction of its new-to-market Mike's Hard Lemonade. Mike's partnered with the USO in 2018, donating $250k
References
External links
Lemonade
Flavored malt beverages
Alcopops | wiki |
XFV may refer to:
Lockheed XFV
Rockwell XFV-12
SoloTrek XFV | wiki |
Animal fats and oils are lipids derived from animals: oils are liquid at room temperature, and fats are solid. Chemically, both fats and oils are composed of triglycerides. Although many animal parts and secretions may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from rendered tissue fats from livestock animals like pigs, chickens and cows. Dairy products yield animal fat and oil products such as butter.
Certain fats, such as goose fat, have a higher smoke point than other animal fats, but are still lower than many vegetable oils such as olive or avocado.
Animal fats are commonly consumed as part of a western diet in their semi-solid form as either milk, butter, lard, schmaltz, and dripping or more commonly as filler in factory produced meat, pet food and fast-food products.
Culinary uses
Many animal fats and oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:
Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture.
Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less.
Flavor – some may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart.
Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, since many flavors are present in chemicals that are soluble in oil.
Secondly, oils can be heated, and used to cook foods. Oils suitable for this purpose must have a high flash point.
See also
Vegetable fats and oils
Kitchen rendering
Liquid
Triglyceride
Suet
Tallow
Ghee
References
Animal fats | wiki |
Baker High School may refer to one of these secondary schools in the United States:
Baker High School (Alabama)
Baker High School (California), member of the Hi-Lo League
Baker High School (Georgia)
Baker High School (Louisiana)
Baker High School (Montana), attended by Shann Schillinger
Baker High School (Oregon)
Charles W. Baker High School (Baldwinsville, New York)
George F. Baker High School (Tuxedo, New York)
Ida S. Baker High School (Cape Coral, Florida)
See also
Baker County High School (disambiguation) | wiki |
A flail is an agricultural implement for threshing.
Flail may also refer to:
Flail (weapon), a ball-on-a-chain bludgeon wielded with one hand by armored knights in single combat or medieval battles
Flail, the cutting part in some designs of brush hog, stump grinder, and woodchipper
Mine flail, a vehicle mounted device for removing land mines | wiki |
Dysorthography is a disorder of spelling which accompanies dyslexia by a direct consequence of the phonological disorder.
In the American classification from the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and the classification from the World Health Organization (WHO), it is a subtype of specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression.
To be noted that dysgraphia is not a symptom related to spelling difficulties but motor difficulties
See also
Neurolinguistics
Orthography
Dyslexia
References
Neurodevelopmental disorders
Writing
Learning disabilities | wiki |
Michael Levin (born 1943) is an American philosopher.
Michael Levin may also refer to:
Michael Levin (biologist) (born 1969), American biologist
Michael Levin (soldier) (1984–2006), American soldier in the Israel Defense Forces
Michael Graubart Levin (born 1958), American author
Mike Levin (born 1978), American politician from California
Mike Levin (paediatrician), British professor of paediatrics | wiki |
A name reaction is a chemical reaction named after its discoverers or developers. Among the tens of thousands of organic reactions that are known, hundreds of such reactions are well-known enough to be named after people. Well-known examples include the Grignard reaction, the Sabatier reaction, the Wittig reaction, the Claisen condensation, the Friedel-Crafts acylation, and the Diels-Alder reaction. Books have been published devoted exclusively to name reactions; the Merck Index, a chemical encyclopedia, also includes an appendix on name reactions.
As organic chemistry developed during the 20th century, chemists started associating synthetically useful reactions with the names of the discoverers or developers; in many cases, the name is merely a mnemonic. Some cases of reactions that were not really discovered by their namesakes are known. Examples include the Pummerer rearrangement, the Pinnick oxidation and the Birch reduction.
Although systematic approaches for naming reactions based on the reaction mechanism or the overall transformation exist (such as the IUPAC Nomenclature for Transformations), the more descriptive names are often unwieldy or not specific enough, so people names are often more practical for efficient communication.
See also
List of organic reactions
References | wiki |
There's No Place Like Home sunt 3 episoade din Lost, sezonul 4.
Episoade Lost | wiki |
Door Jam can refer to:
Doorjamb part of door frame
A Frasier episode of the same name
"Door Jam (2 Stupid Dogs)", an episode of 2 Stupid Dogs | wiki |
Genital warts are a sexually transmitted infection caused by certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). They may be flat or project out from the surface of the skin, and their color may vary; brownish, white, pale yellow, pinkish-red, or gray. There may be a few individual warts or several, either in a cluster or merged together to look cauliflower-shaped. They can be itchy and feel burning. Usually they cause few symptoms, but can occasionally be painful. Typically they appear one to eight months following exposure. Warts are the most easily recognized symptom of genital HPV infection.
HPV types 6 and 11 are responsible for causing majority of genital warts whereas HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, and 35 are also occasionally found. It is spread through direct skin-to-skin contact, usually during oral, genital, or anal sex with an infected partner. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and can be confirmed by biopsy. The types of HPV that cause cancer are not the same as those that cause warts.
Some HPV vaccines can prevent genital warts as may condoms. Treatment options include creams such as podophyllin, imiquimod, and trichloroacetic acid. Cryotherapy or surgery may also be an option. After treatment warts often resolve within six months. Without treatment, in up to a third of cases they resolve on their own.
About 1% of people in the United States have genital warts. Many people, however, are infected and do not have symptoms. Without vaccination nearly all sexually active people will get some type of HPV at one point in their lives. The disease has been known at least since the time of Hippocrates in 300 BC.
Signs and symptoms
They may be found anywhere in the anal or genital area, and are frequently found on external surfaces of the body, including the penile shaft, scrotum, or labia majora of the vagina. They can also occur on internal surfaces like the opening to the urethra, inside the vagina, on the cervix, or in the anus.
They can be as small as 1-5mm in diameter, but can also grow or spread into large masses in the genital or anal area. In some cases they look like small stalks. They may be hard ("keratinized") or soft. Their color can be variable, and sometimes they may bleed.
In most cases, there are no symptoms of HPV infection other than the warts themselves. Sometimes warts may cause itching, redness, or discomfort, especially when they occur around the anus. Although they are usually without other physical symptoms, an outbreak of genital warts may cause psychological distress, such as anxiety, in some people.
Causes
Transmission
HPV is most commonly transmitted through penetrative sex. While HPV can also be transmitted via non-penetrative sexual activity, it is less transmissible than via penetrative sex. There is conflicting evidence about the effect of condoms on transmission of low-risk HPV. Some studies have suggested that they are effective at reducing transmission. Other studies suggest that condoms are not effective at preventing transmission of the low-risk HPV variants that cause genital warts. The effect of condoms on HPV transmission may also be sex-dependent; there is some evidence that condoms are more effective at preventing infection of males than of females.
The types of HPV that cause warts are highly transmissible. Roughly three out of four unaffected partners of patients with warts develop them within eight months. Other studies of partner concordance suggest that the presence of visible warts may be an indicator of increased infectivity; HPV concordance rates are higher in couples where one partner has visible warts.
Latency and recurrence
Although 90% of HPV infections are cleared by the body within two years of infection, it is possible for infected cells to undergo a latency (quiet) period, with the first occurrence or a recurrence of symptoms happening months or years later. Latent HPV, even with no outward symptoms, is still transmissible to a sexual partner. If an individual has unprotected sex with an infected partner, there is a 70% chance that he or she will also become infected.
In individuals with a history of previous HPV infection, the appearance of new warts may be either from a new exposure to HPV, or from a recurrence of the previous infection. As many as one-third of people with warts will experience a recurrence.
Children
Anal or genital warts may be transmitted during birth. The presence of wart-like lesions on the genitals of young children has been suggested as an indicator of sexual abuse. However, genital warts can sometimes result from autoinoculation by warts elsewhere on the body, such as from the hands. It has also been reported from sharing of swimsuits, underwear, or bath towels, and from non-sexual touching during routine care such as diapering. Genital warts in children are less likely to be caused by HPV subtypes 6 and 11 than adults, and more likely to be caused by HPV types that cause warts elsewhere on the body ("cutaneous types"). Surveys of pediatricians who are child abuse specialists suggest that in children younger than 4 years old, there is no consensus on whether the appearance of new anal or genital warts, by itself, can be considered an indicator of sexual abuse.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of genital warts is most often made visually, but may require confirmation by biopsy in some cases. Smaller warts may occasionally be confused with molluscum contagiosum.
Genital warts, histopathologically, characteristically rise above the skin surface due to enlargement of the dermal papillae, have parakeratosis and the characteristic nuclear changes typical of HPV infections (nuclear enlargement with perinuclear clearing).
DNA tests are available for diagnosis of high-risk HPV infections. Because genital warts are caused by low-risk HPV types, DNA tests cannot be used for diagnosis of genital warts or other low-risk HPV infections.
Some practitioners use an acetic acid solution to identify smaller warts ("subclinical lesions"), but this practice is controversial. Because a diagnosis made with acetic acid will not meaningfully affect the course of the disease, and cannot be verified by a more specific test, a 2007 UK guideline advises against its use.
Prevention
Gardasil (sold by Merck & Co.) is a vaccine that protects against human papillomavirus types 6, 11, 16 and 18. Types 6 and 11 cause genital warts, while 16 and 18 cause cervical cancer. The vaccine is preventive, not therapeutic, and must be given before exposure to the virus type to be effective, ideally before the beginning of sexual activity. The vaccine is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in both males and females as early as 9 years of age.
In the UK, Gardasil replaced Cervarix in September 2012 for reasons unrelated to safety. Cervarix had been used routinely in young females from its introduction in 2008, but was only effective against the high-risk HPV types 16 and 18, neither of which typically causes warts.
Management
There is no cure for HPV. Existing treatments are directed towards the removal of visible warts, but these may also regress on their own without any therapy. There is no evidence to suggest that removing visible warts reduces transmission of the underlying HPV infection. As many as 80% of people with HPV will clear the infection within 18 months.
A healthcare practitioner may offer one of several ways to treat warts, depending on their number, sizes, locations, or other factors. All treatments can cause depigmentation, itching, pain, or scarring.
Treatments can be classified as either physically ablative, or topical agents. Physically ablative therapies are considered more effective at initial wart removal, but like all therapies have significant recurrence rates.
Many therapies, including folk remedies, have been suggested for treating genital warts, some of which have little evidence to suggest they are effective or safe. Those listed here are ones mentioned in national or international practice guidelines as having some basis in evidence for their use.
Physical ablation
Physically ablative methods are more likely to be effective on keratinized warts. They are also most appropriate for patients with fewer numbers of relatively smaller warts.
Simple excision, such as with scissors under local anesthesia, is highly effective.
Liquid nitrogen cryosurgery is usually performed in an office visit, at weekly intervals. It is effective, inexpensive, safe for pregnancy, and does not usually cause scarring.
Electrocauterization (sometimes called "loop electrical excision procedure" or LEEP) is a procedure with a long history of use and is considered effective.
Laser ablation has less evidence to suggest its use. It may be less effective than other ablative methods. It is extremely expensive, and often used as a last resort.
Formal surgical procedures, performed by a specialist under general anesthesia or spinal anesthesia may be necessary for larger or more extensive warts, intra-anal warts, or warts in children. It carries a greater risk of scarring than other methods.
Topical agents
A 0.15–0.5% podophyllotoxin (also called podofilox) solution in a gel or cream. It can be applied by the patient to the affected area and is not washed off. It is the purified and standardized active ingredient of podophyllin (see below). Podofilox is safer and more effective than podophyllin. Skin erosion and pain are more commonly reported than with imiquimod and sinecatechins. Its use is cycled (2 times per day for 3 days then 4–7 days off); one review states that it should only be used for four cycles.
Imiquimod is a topical immune response cream, applied to the affected area. It causes less local irritation than podofilox but may cause fungal infections (11% in package insert) and flu-like symptoms (less than 5% disclosed in package insert). It does not significantly impact the occurrence of new warts or the systemic reactions.
Sinecatechins is an ointment of catechins (55% epigallocatechin gallate) extracted from green tea and other components. Mode of action is undetermined. It appears to have higher clearance rates than podophyllotoxin and imiquimod and causes less local irritation, but clearance takes longer than with imiquimod.
Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) is less effective than cryosurgery, and is not recommended for use in the vagina, cervix, or urinary meatus.
Interferon can be used; it is effective, but it is also expensive and its effect is inconsistent.
Discontinued
A 5% 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) cream was used, but it is no longer considered an acceptable treatment due to the side-effects.
Podophyllin, podofilox and isotretinoin should not be used during pregnancy, as they could cause birth defects in the fetus.
Oral agents
Isotretinoin taken orally has been shown to treat recalcitrant condylomata acuminata (RCA) of the cervix.
Epidemiology
Genital HPV infections have an estimated prevalence in the US of 10–20% and clinical manifestations in 1% of the sexually active adult population. US incidence of HPV infection has increased between 1975 and 2006. About 80% of those infected are between the ages of 17–33. Although treatments can remove warts, they do not remove the HPV, so warts can recur after treatment (about 50–73% of the time). Warts can also spontaneously regress (with or without treatment).
Traditional theories postulated that the virus remained in the body for a lifetime. However, studies using sensitive DNA techniques have shown that through immunological response, the virus can either be cleared or suppressed to levels below what polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests can measure. One study testing genital skin for subclinical HPV using PCR found a prevalence of 10%.
Etymology
A condyloma acuminatum is a single genital wart, and condylomata acuminata are multiple genital warts. The word roots mean 'pointed wart' (from Greek κόνδυλος 'knuckle', Greek -ωμα -oma 'disease', and Latin acuminatum 'pointed'). Although similarly named, it is not the same as condyloma latum, which is a complication of secondary syphilis.
References
External links
Infections with a predominantly sexual mode of transmission
Papillomavirus-associated diseases
Virus-related cutaneous conditions
Infectious causes of cancer
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
This is the list of programmes broadcast on the British television channel, Challenge.
Programming
Current programming made by Challenge
Former programming made by Challenge
Current programming originally shown by other broadcasters
Former programming originally shown by other broadcasters
Former programming shown on The Family Channel
External links
Challenge.co.uk
.
.
.
British television-related lists
Lists of television series by network | wiki |
Events from the year 1633 in Spain
Incumbents
Monarch – Philip IV
Events
Births
- Juan Antonio de Frías y Escalante
Deaths
- Ana de Mendoza y Enríquez de Cabrera, 6th Duchess of the Infantado (b. 1554)
References
1630s in Spain
Years of the 17th century in Spain | wiki |
In biology and biochemistry, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site). Although the active site occupies only ~10–20% of the volume of an enzyme, it is the most important part as it directly catalyzes the chemical reaction. It usually consists of three to four amino acids, while other amino acids within the protein are required to maintain the tertiary structure of the enzymes.
Each active site is evolved to be optimised to bind a particular substrate and catalyse a particular reaction, resulting in high specificity. This specificity is determined by the arrangement of amino acids within the active site and the structure of the substrates. Sometimes enzymes also need to bind with some cofactors to fulfil their function. The active site is usually a groove or pocket of the enzyme which can be located in a deep tunnel within the enzyme, or between the interfaces of multimeric enzymes. An active site can catalyse a reaction repeatedly as residues are not altered at the end of the reaction (they may change during the reaction, but are regenerated by the end). This process is achieved by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, so more substrates have enough energy to undergo reaction.
Binding site
Usually, an enzyme molecule has only two active sites, and the active sites fit with one specific type of substrate. An active site contains a binding site that binds the substrate and orients it for catalysis. The orientation of the substrate and the close proximity between it and the active site is so important that in some cases the enzyme can still function properly even though all other parts are mutated and lose function.
Initially, the interaction between the active site and the substrate is non-covalent and transient. There are four important types of interaction that hold the substrate in a defined orientation and form an enzyme-substrate complex (ES complex): hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic force interactions. The charge distribution on the substrate and active site must be complementary, which means all positive and negative charges must be cancelled out. Otherwise, there will be a repulsive force pushing them apart. The active site usually contains non-polar amino acids, although sometimes polar amino acids may also occur. The binding of substrate to the binding site requires at least three contact points in order to achieve stereo-, regio-, and enantioselectivity. For example, alcohol dehydrogenase which catalyses the transfer of a hydride ion from ethanol to NAD+ interacts with the substrate methyl group, hydroxyl group and the pro-(R) hydrogen that will be abstracted during the reaction.
In order to exert their function, enzymes need to assume their correct protein fold (native fold) and tertiary structure. To maintain this defined three-dimensional structure, proteins rely on various types of interactions between their amino acid residues. If these interactions are interfered with, for example by extreme pH values, high temperature or high ion concentrations, this will cause the enzyme to denature and lose its catalytic activity.
A tighter fit between an active site and the substrate molecule is believed to increase the efficiency of a reaction. If the tightness between the active site of DNA polymerase and its substrate is increased, the fidelity, which means the correct rate of DNA replication will also increase. Most enzymes have deeply buried active sites, which can be accessed by a substrate via access channels.
There are three proposed models of how enzymes fit their specific substrate: the lock and key model, the induced fit model, and the conformational selection model. The latter two are not mutually exclusive: conformational selection can be followed by a change in the enzyme's shape. Additionally, a protein may not wholly follow either model. Amino acids at the binding site of ubiquitin generally follow the induced fit model, whereas the rest of the protein generally adheres to conformational selection. Factors such as temperature likely influences the pathway taken during binding, with higher temperatures predicted to increase the importance of conformational selection and decrease that of induced fit.
Lock and key hypothesis
This concept was suggested by the 19th-century chemist Emil Fischer. He proposed that the active site and substrate are two stable structures that fit perfectly without any further modification, just like a key fits into a lock. If one substrate perfectly binds to its active site, the interactions between them will be strongest, resulting in high catalytic efficiency.
As time went by, limitations of this model started to appear. For example, the competitive enzyme inhibitor methylglucoside can bind tightly to the active site of 4-alpha-glucanotransferase and perfectly fits into it. However, 4-alpha-glucanotransferase is not active on methylglucoside and no glycosyl transfer occurs. The Lock and Key hypothesis cannot explain this, as it would predict a high efficiency of methylglucoside glycosyl transfer due to its tight binding. Apart from competitive inhibition, this theory cannot explain the mechanism of action of non-competitive inhibitors either, as they do not bind to the active site but nevertheless influence catalytic activity.
Induced fit hypothesis
Daniel Koshland's theory of enzyme-substrate binding is that the active site and the binding portion of the substrate are not exactly complementary. The induced fit model is a development of the lock-and-key model and assumes that an active site is flexible and changes shape until the substrate is completely bound. This model is similar to a person wearing a glove: the glove changes shape to fit the hand. The enzyme initially has a conformation that attracts its substrate. Enzyme surface is flexible and only the correct catalyst can induce interaction leading to catalysis. Conformational changes may then occur as the substrate is bound. After the reaction products will move away from the enzyme and the active site returns to its initial shape. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the entire protein domain could move several nanometers during catalysis. This movement of protein surface can create microenvironments that favour the catalysis.
Conformational selection hypothesis
This model suggests that enzymes exist in a variety of conformations, only some of which are capable of binding to a substrate. When a substrate is bound to the protein, the equilibrium in the conformational ensemble shifts towards those able to bind ligands (as enzymes with bound substrates are removed from the equilibrium between the free conformations).
Types of non-covalent interactions
Electrostatic interaction: In an aqueous environment, the oppositely charged groups in amino acid side chains within the active site and substrates attract each other, which is termed electrostatic interaction. For example, when a carboxylic acid (R-COOH) dissociates into RCOO− and H+ ions, COO− will attract positively charged groups such as protonated guanidine side chain of arginine.
Hydrogen bond: A hydrogen bond is a specific type of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative electron donor that contain a pair of electrons such as oxygen, fluorine and nitrogen. The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the chemical nature and geometric arrangement of each group.
Van der Waals force: Van der Waals force is formed between oppositely charged groups due to transient uneven electron distribution in each group. If all electrons are concentrated at one pole of the group this end will be negative, while the other end will be positive. Although the individual force is weak, as the total number of interactions between the active site and substrate is massive the sum of them will be significant.
Hydrophobic interaction: Non-polar hydrophobic groups tend to aggregate together in the aqueous environment and try to leave from polar solvent. These hydrophobic groups usually have long carbon chain and do not react with water molecules. When dissolving in water a protein molecule will curl up into a ball-like shape, leaving hydrophilic groups in outside while hydrophobic groups are deeply buried within the centre.
Catalytic site
Once the substrate is bound and oriented to the active site, catalysis can begin. The residues of the catalytic site are typically very close to the binding site, and some residues can have dual-roles in both binding and catalysis.
Catalytic residues of the site interact with the substrate to lower the activation energy of a reaction and thereby make it proceed faster. They do this by a number of different mechanisms including the approximation of the reactants, nucleophilic/electrophilic catalysis and acid/base catalysis. These mechanisms will be explained below.
Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process
Approximation of the reactant
During enzyme catalytic reaction, the substrate and active site are brought together in a close proximity. This approach has various purposes. Firstly, when substrates bind within the active site the effective concentration of it significantly increases than in solution. This means the number of substrate molecules involved in the reaction is also increased. This process also reduces the desolvation energy required for the reaction to occur. In solution substrate molecules are surrounded by solvent molecules and energy is required for enzyme molecules to replace them and contact with the substrate. Since bulk molecules can be excluded from the active site this energy output can be minimised. Next, the active site is designed to reorient the substrate to reduce the activation energy for the reaction to occur. The alignment of the substrate, after binding, is locked in a high energy state and can proceed to the next step. In addition, this binding is favoured by entropy as the energy cost associated with solution reaction is largely eliminated since solvent cannot enter active site. In the end, the active site may manipulate the Molecular orbital of the substrate into a suitable orientation to reduce activation energy.
The electrostatic states of substrate and active site must be complementary to each other. A polarized negatively charged amino acid side chain will repel uncharged substrate. But if the transition state involves the formation of an ion centre then the side chain will now produce a favourable interaction.
Covalent catalysis
Many enzymes including serine protease, cysteine protease, protein kinase and phosphatase evolved to form transient covalent bonds between them and their substrates to lower the activation energy and allow the reaction to occur. This process can be divided into 2 steps: formation and breakdown. The former step is rate-limit step while the later step is needed to regenerate intact enzyme.
Nucleophilic catalysis: This process involves the donation of electrons from the enzyme's nucleophile to a substrate to form a covalent bond between them during the transition state. The strength of this interaction depends on two aspects.: the ability of the nucleophilic group to donate electrons and the electrophile to accept them. The former one is mainly affected by the basicity(the ability to donate electron pairs) of the species while the later one is in regard to its pKa. Both groups are also affected by their chemical properties such as polarizability, electronegativity and ionization potential. Amino acids that can form nucleophile including serine, cysteine, aspartate and glutamine.
Electrophilic catalysis: The mechanism behind this process is exactly same as nucleophilic catalysis except that now amino acids in active site act as electrophile while substrates are nucleophiles. This reaction usually requires cofactors as the amino acid side chains are not strong enough in attracting electrons.
Metal ions
Metal ions have multiple roles during the reaction. Firstly it can bind to negatively charged substrate groups so they will not repel electron pairs from active site's nucleophilic groups. It can attract negatively charged electrons to increase electrophilicity. It can also bridge between active site and substrate. At last, they may change the conformational structure of the substrate to favour reaction.
Acid/base catalysis
In some reactions, protons and hydroxide may directly act as acid and base in term of specific acid and specific base catalysis. But more often groups in substrate and active site act as Brønsted–Lowry acid and base. This is called general acid and general base theory. The easiest way to distinguish between them is to check whether the reaction rate is determined by the concentrations of the general acid and base. If the answer is yes then the reaction is the general type. Since most enzymes have an optimum pH of 6 to 7, the amino acids in the side chain usually have a pKa of 4~10. Candidate include aspartate, glutamate, histidine, cysteine. These acids and bases can stabilise the nucleophile or electrophile formed during the catalysis by providing positive and negative charges.
Conformational distortion
Quantitative studies of enzymatic reactions often found that the acceleration of chemical reaction speed cannot be fully explained by existing theories like the approximation, acid/base catalysis and electrophile/nucleophile catalysis. And there is an obvious paradox: in reversible enzymatic reaction if the active site perfectly fits the substrates then the backward reaction will be slowed since products cannot fit perfectly into the active site. So conformational distortion was introduced and argues that both active site and substrate can undergo conformational changes to fit with each other all the time.
Preorganised active site complementarity to the transition state
This theory is a little similar to the Lock and Key Theory, but at this time the active site is preprogrammed to bind perfectly to substrate in transition state rather than in ground state. The formation of transition state within the solution requires a large amount of energy to relocate solvent molecules and the reaction is slowed. So the active site can substitute solvent molecules and surround the substrates to minimize the counterproductive effect imposed by the solution. The presence of charged groups with the active site will attract substrates and ensure electrostatic complementarity.
Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms
In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis.
Glutathione reductase
The role of glutathione(GSH) is to remove accumulated reactive oxygen species which may damage cells. During this process, its thiol side chain is oxidised and two glutathione molecules are connected by a disulphide bond to form a dimer(GSSG). In order to regenerate glutathione the disulphide bond has to be broken, In human cells, this is done by glutathione reductase(GR).
Glutathione reductase is a dimer that contains two identical subunits. It requires one NADP and one FAD as the cofactors. The active site is located in the linkage between two subunits. The NADPH is involved in the generation of FADH-. In the active site, there are two cysteine residues besides the FAD cofactor and are used to break the disulphide bond during the catalytic reaction. NADPH is bound by three positively charged residues: Arg-218, His-219 and Arg-224.
The catalytic process starts when the FAD is reduced by NADPH to accept one electron and from FADH−. It then attacks the disulphide bond formed between 2 cysteine residues, forming one SH bond and a single S− group. This S− group will act as a nucleophile to attack the disulphide bond in the oxidised glutathione(GSSG), breaking it and forming a cysteine-SG complex. The first SG− anion is released and then receives one proton from adjacent SH group and from the first glutathione monomer. Next the adjacent S− group attack disulphide bond in cysteine-SG complex and release the second SG− anion. It receives one proton in solution and forms the second glutathione monomer.
Chymotrypsin
Chymotrypsin is a serine endopeptidase that is present in pancreatic juice and helps the hydrolysis of proteins and peptide. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in L-isomers of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan. In the active site of this enzyme, three amino acid residues work together to form a catalytic triad which makes up the catalytic site. In chymotrypsin, these residues are Ser-195, His-57 and Asp-102.
The mechanism of chymotrypsin can be divided into two phases. First, Ser-195 nucleophilically attacks the peptide bond carbon in the substrate to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nucleophilicity of Ser-195 is enhanced by His-57, which abstracts a proton from Ser-195 and is in turn stabilised by the negatively charged carboxylate group (RCOO−) in Asp-102. Furthermore, the tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate generated in this step is stabilised by hydrogen bonds from Ser-195 and Gly-193.
In the second stage, the R'NH group is protonated by His-57 to form R'NH2 and leaves the intermediate, leaving behind the acylated Ser-195. His-57 then acts as a base again to abstract one proton from a water molecule. The resulting hydroxide anion nucleophilically attacks the acyl-enzyme complex to form a second tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate, which is once again stabilised by H bonds. In the end, Ser-195 leaves the tetrahedral intermediate, breaking the CO bond that connected the enzyme to the peptide substrate. A proton is transferred to Ser-195 through His-57, so that all three amino acid return to their initial state.
Unbinding
Substrate unbinding is influenced by various factors. Larger ligands generally stay in the active site longer, as do those with more rotatable bonds (although this may be a side effect of size). When the solvent is excluded from the active site, less flexible proteins result in longer residence times. More hydrogen bonds shielded from the solvent also decrease unbinding.
Cofactors
Enzymes can use cofactors as ‘helper molecules’. Coenzymes are referred to those non-protein molecules that bind with enzymes to help them fulfill their jobs. Mostly they are connected to the active site by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bond or hydrophobic interaction. But sometimes a covalent bond can also form between them. For example, the heme in cytochrome C is bound to the protein through thioester bond. In some occasions, coenzymes can leave enzymes after the reaction is finished. Otherwise, they permanently bind to the enzyme. Coenzyme is a broad concept which includes metal ions, various vitamins and ATP. If an enzyme needs coenzyme to work itself, it is called an apoenzyme. In fact, it alone cannot catalyze reactions properly. Only when its cofactor comes in and binds to the active site to form holoenzyme does it work properly.
One example of the coenzyme is Flavin. It contains a distinct conjugated isoalloxazine ring system. Flavin has multiple redox states and can be used in processes that involve the transfer of one or two electrons. It can act as an electron acceptor in reaction, like the oxidation of NAD to NADH, to accept two electrons and form 1,5-dihydroflavin. On the other hand, it can form semiquinone(free radical) by accepting one electron, and then converts to fully reduced form by the addition of an extra electron. This property allows it to be used in one electron oxidation process.
Inhibitors
Inhibitors disrupt the interaction between enzyme and substrate, slowing down the rate of a reaction. There are different types of inhibitor, including both reversible and irreversible forms.
Competitive inhibitors are inhibitors that only target free enzyme molecules. They compete with substrates for free enzyme acceptor and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. They have two mechanisms. Competitive inhibitors usually have structural similarities to the substrates and or ES complex. As a result, they can fit into the active site and trigger favourable interactions to fill in the space and block substrates from entry. They can also induce transient conformational changes in the active site so substrates cannot fit perfectly with it. After a short period of time, competitive inhibitors will drop off and leave the enzyme intact.
Inhibitors are classified as non-competitive inhibitors when they bind both free enzyme and ES complex. Since they do not compete with substrates for the active site, they cannot be overcome by simply increasing the substrate concentration. They usually bind to a different site on the enzyme and alter the 3-dimensional structure of the active site to block substrates from entry or leaving the enzyme.
Irreversible inhibitors are similar to competitive inhibitors as they both bind to the active site. However, irreversible inhibitors form irreversible covalent bonds with the amino acid residues in the active site and never leave. Therefore, the active site is occupied and the substrate cannot enter. Occasionally the inhibitor will leave but the catalytic site is permanently altered in shape. These inhibitors usually contain electrophilic groups like halogen substitutes and epoxides. As time goes by more and more enzymes are bound by irreversible inhibitors and cannot function anymore.
Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors
Competitive inhibitor: HIV protease inhibitor
HIV protease inhibitors are used to treat patients having AIDS virus by preventing its DNA replication. HIV protease is used by the virus to cleave Gag-Pol polyprotein into 3 smaller proteins that are responsible for virion assembly, package and maturation. This enzyme targets the specific phenylalanine-proline cleave site within the target protein. If HIV protease is switched off the virion particle will lose function and cannot infect patients. Since it is essential in viral replication and is absent in healthy human, it is an ideal target for drug development.
HIV protease belongs to aspartic protease family and has a similar mechanism. Firstly the aspartate residue activates a water molecule and turns it into a nucleophile. Then it attacks the carbonyl group within the peptide bond (NH-CO) to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nitrogen atom within the intermediate receives a proton, forming an amide group and subsequent rearrangement leads to the break down of the bond between it and the intermediate and forms two products.
Inhibitors usually contain a nonhydrolyzable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine groups that mimic the tetrahedral intermediate. Since they share a similar structure and electrostatic arrangement to the transition state of substrates they can still fit into the active site but cannot be broken down, so hydrolysis cannot occur.
Non-competitive inhibitor: Strychnine
Strychnine is a neurotoxin that causes death by affecting nerves that control muscular contraction and cause respiration difficulty. The impulse is transmitted between the synapse through a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. It is released into the synapse between nerve cells and binds to receptors in the postsynaptic cell. Then an action potential is generated and transmitted through the postsynaptic cell to start a new cycle.
Glycine can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitter receptors, thus a larger amount of acetylcholinesterase is required to trigger an action potential. This makes sure that the generation of nerve impulses is tightly controlled. However, this control is broken down when strychnine is added. It inhibits glycine receptors(a chloride channel) and a much lower level of neurotransmitter concentration can trigger an action potential. Nerves now constantly transmit signals and cause excessive muscular contraction, leading to asphyxiation and death.
Irreversible inhibitor:Diisopropyl fluorophosphate
Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DIFP) is an irreversible inhibitor that blocks the action of serine protease. When it binds to the enzyme a nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs and releases one hydrogen fluoride molecule. The OH group in the active site acts as a nucleophile to attack the phosphorus in DIFP and form a tetrahedral intermediate and release a proton. Then the P-F bond is broken, one electron is transferred to the F atom and it leaves the intermediate as F− anion. It combines with a proton in solution to form one HF molecule. A covalent bond formed between the active site and DIFP, so the serine side chain is no longer available to the substrate.
In drug discovery
Identification of active sites is crucial in the process of drug discovery. The 3-D structure of the enzyme is analysed to identify active site residues and design drugs which can fit into them. Proteolytic enzymes are targets for some drugs, such as protease inhibitors, which include drugs against AIDS and hypertension. These protease inhibitors bind to an enzyme's active site and block interaction with natural substrates. An important factor in drug design is the strength of binding between the active site and an enzyme inhibitor. If the enzyme found in bacteria is significantly different from the human enzyme then an inhibitor can be designed against that particular bacterium without harming the human enzyme. If one kind of enzyme is only present in one kind of organism, its inhibitor can be used to specifically wipe them out.
Active sites can be mapped to aid the design of new drugs such as enzyme inhibitors. This involves the description of the size of an active site and the number and properties of sub-sites, such as details of the binding interaction. Modern database technology called CPASS (Comparison of Protein Active Site Structures) however allows the comparison of active sites in more detail and the finding of structural similarity using software.
Application of enzyme inhibitors
Allosteric sites
An allosteric site is a site on an enzyme, unrelated to its active site, which can bind an effector molecule. This interaction is another mechanism of enzyme regulation. Allosteric modification usually happens in proteins with more than one subunit. Allosteric interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step. They allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site.
See also
Hugh Stott Taylor
SitEx
References
Further reading
Alan Fersht, Structure and Mechanism in Protein Science: A Guide to Enzyme Catalysis and Protein Folding. W. H. Freeman, 1998.
Bugg, T. Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry. (2nd edition), Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2004. .
Enzymes
Catalysis | wiki |
Articles on Long Island Railroad include:
Long Island Rail Road
History of the Long Island Rail Road
List of Long Island Rail Road stations | wiki |
In the sport of baseball, a loss is a statistic credited to the pitcher of the losing team responsible for the run that gives the opposing team the lead with which the game is won (the go-ahead run). The losing pitcher is the pitcher responsible for the go-ahead run to reach base for a lead that the winning team never relinquishes. If a pitcher allows a run which gives the opposing team the lead, his team comes back to lead or tie the game, and then the opposing team regains the lead against a subsequent pitcher, the earlier pitcher does not get the loss.
Cy Young holds the MLB loss record with 316; Pud Galvin is second with 308. Young and Galvin are the only players to earn 300 or more losses.
Key
List
See also
Baseball statistics
List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball career games started leaders
List of Major League Baseball career games finished leaders
Sources
Baseball-Reference.com
Losses leaders | wiki |
Metopium toxiferum, the poisonwood, Florida poisontree, or hog gum, is a species of flowering tree in the cashew or sumac family, Anacardiaceae, that is native to the American Neotropics. It produces the irritant urushiol much like its close relatives poison sumac and poison oak. It is related to black poisonwood (Metopium brownei).
Distribution and habitat
This tree grows abundantly in the Florida Keys and can also be found in various ecosystems in southern Florida. Its range extends from Florida and The Bahamas south through the Caribbean.
References
External links
Poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum)
Anacardiaceae
Trees of the Southeastern United States
Trees of the Caribbean
Plants described in 1896
Poisonous plants | wiki |
Thomas the Tank Engine Game is a board game published in 1986 by Waddingtons.
Contents
Thomas the Tank Engine Game is a game in which four engines start at the sheds and must get to the station around the various lines.
Reception
Charles Vasey reviewed Thomas the Tank Engine Game for Games International magazine, and gave it 4 stars out of 5, and stated that "Among its intended market the game is a great success but is too simple other than for tinkering with by older gamers. Although, having said that, I have noticed it is a popular game for visitors to take down and play about with. Four stars and no mistaking."
References
Board games introduced in 1986 | wiki |
New Amsterdam, série télévisée américaine en huit épisodes diffusée en 2008 ;
New Amsterdam, série télévisée américaine diffusée en 2018.
Voir aussi | wiki |
The College of Allied Health Sciences is a college at East Carolina University. The school comprises all allied health majors except those offered by the College of Nursing.
External links
East Carolina University divisions
Health sciences schools in the United States | wiki |
A muntin (US), muntin bar, glazing bar (UK), or sash bar is a strip of wood or metal separating and holding panes of glass in a window. Muntins can be found in doors, windows, and furniture, typically in Western styles of architecture. Muntins divide a single window sash or casement into a grid system of small panes of glass, called "lights" or "lites".
In UK use, a muntin is a vertical member in timber panelling or a door separating two panels.
Windows with "true divided lights" make use of thin muntins, typically 1/2" to 7/8" wide in residential windows, positioned between individual panes of glass. In wooden windows, a fillet is cut into the outer edge of the muntin to hold the pane of glass in the opening, and putty or thin strips of wood or metal are then used to hold the glass in place. The inner sides of wooden muntins are typically milled to traditional profiles. In the US, the thickness of window muntins has varied historically, ranging from very slim in 19th century Greek revival buildings to thick in 17th and early 18th century buildings.
Until the middle of the 19th century, it was economically advantageous to use smaller panes of glass, which were much more affordable to produce, and fabricate them into a grid to make large windows and doors. The division of a window or glazed door into smaller panes was considered more architecturally attractive than large panes. In the UK and other countries, muntins (often called 'glazing bars' in England and 'astragals' in Scotland) were removed from the windows of thousands of older buildings during the nineteenth century in favor of large panes of plate glass. Restoration of these buildings in the following century often included reinstatement of the glazing bars, which are now seen as essential architectural elements of period buildings.
The term 'muntin' is often confused with 'mullion' (elements that separate complete window units), and 'astragal' (which closes the gap between two leaves of a double door). Many companies use the term 'grille' when referring to a decorative element of wood or other material placed over a single pane of glass to resemble muntins separating multiple panes of glass. In the UK, the term 'grille' tends to be used only when there are bars sandwiched between panes of insulated glass.
Double- or triple-layer insulated glass can be used in place of ordinary single panes in a window divided by muntins, though this reduces the effectiveness of the insulation. Other insulating glass arrangements include insertion of a decorative grid of simulated metal, wooden, or plastic muntins sandwiched between two large panels of glass, sometimes adding another grid of simulated wood muntins facing the interior to produce a more convincing divided light appearance.
In furniture
In furniture, a muntin is the central vertical member of the framework of a piece of furniture, the outside members being called stiles.
References
Windows
Architectural elements | wiki |
Mark Allen (1958–) triatlonista, ironman
Mark Allen (1986–) északír sznúkerjátékos | wiki |
A transmission brake or driveline parking brake is an inboard vehicle brake that is applied to the drivetrain rather than to the wheels.
Historically, some early cars used transmission brakes as the normal driving brake and often had wheel brakes on only one axle, if that. In current vehicles, these brakes are now rare. They are found in some makes, notably Land Rover, usually for light off-road vehicles. Simple transmission brakes could be found in large vehicles too, such as the 16 inch single disc parking brake used in the M19 Tank Transporter of World War II. Such a system was also used on the HMMWV.
The transmission brake is provided solely as a parking brake or handbrake. Normal wheel brakes are still provided for use when driving. Driver's manuals usually caution against using the transmission brake when driving, as it is neither powerful enough nor robust enough and so will not work effectively and may even be damaged by trying to stop a moving vehicle.
Transmission brakes use drum brakes, rather than disc brakes, as they are intended as a static parking brake, rather than a high performance dynamic brake. Drum brakes allow simpler adjustment with cable-actuated hand lever mechanisms. The brake is mounted to the rear output shaft of the transfer box.
As the transmission brake is mounted inboard of the final drive and its reduction gearing, the brake rotates relatively faster, but with less torque, than a wheel brake. The apparently undersized transmission brake thus has more holding ability than its small size might suggest, but is less suitable for driving loads. The braking forces would also be passed through the final drive and axle drive shafts, with possible risk of overloading them.
One advantage of a transmission brake is that it locks the entire drivetrain, including all four wheels of a four wheel drive vehicle. However any differential action, either within an axle or front-to-back on an all wheel drive (permanent 4×4) vehicle can still allow movement. For this reason a transmission brake is convenient as a parking brake, but should not be relied upon if a mechanic is to be working beneath the vehicle and wheel chocks should be used instead. A second advantage is that they remove the need to provide cable connections to the wheel brakes, on off-road vehicles where such may be prone to damage.
Automatic transmissions
A form of transmission brake is commonly fitted to automatic transmissions. These brakes use a dog clutch or pawl system, rather than friction linings. They thus provide a simple and positive lock when stationary, but cannot (or at least, should not) be engaged when moving.
In the US, this is the conventional form of parking brake and leads to the handbrake being almost entirely ignored and thought of only as the 'emergency' brake.
See also
Transbrake
Line lock
References
Vehicle braking technologies | wiki |
A threshold is the sill of a door. Some cultures attach special symbolism to a threshold. It is called a door saddle in New England.
Etymology
Various popular false etymologies of this word exist, some of which were even recorded by dictionaries in the past and even created by early linguists before linguistics became a strictly scientific field. Some of these false etymologies date from the time of Old English or even earlier.
Many different forms of this word are attested in Old English, which shows that the original meaning of this word and especially of its latter half was already obscure at the time and that most or all of the different Old English spellings were the result of folk etymologies. Although modern dictionaries do not yet record the results of the latest etymological research on this word, they do record the results of older research that shows that the second half is not related to the modern word hold. According to the linguist Anatoly Liberman, the most likely etymology is that the term referred to a threshing area that was originally not part of the doorway but was later associated with it:
Cultural symbolism
In many cultures it has a special symbolism: for instance, in Poland, Ukraine and Russia it is considered bad luck to shake hands or kiss across the threshold when meeting somebody. In many countries it is considered good luck for a bridegroom to carry the bride over the threshold to their new home.
References
Doors
Superstitions
Architectural elements | wiki |
Microsoft Operations Manager (MOM) er et system til at holde styr på hændelser og ydelse af Microsoft's Windows Server System.
Produktet giver mulighed for at overvåge talrige computere forbundet i netværk. MOM overvåger blandt andet Active Directory og Microsoft Exchange servere.
Versioner til Windows
2000 – Microsoft Operations Manager 2000
2005 – Microsoft Operations Manager 2005
Se også
Windows Server System
Software fra Microsoft | wiki |
This list covers all faults and fault-systems that are either geologically important or connected to prominent seismic activity. It is not intended to list every notable fault, but only major fault zones.
See also
Lists of earthquakes
Tectonics
References
Structural geology
Seismic zones
Tectonics
Fault lines
Fault zones | wiki |
Living in a Box is an English rock band.
Living in a Box may also refer to:
Living in a Box (album), their first album released in 1987
"Living in a Box" (song), from their album of the same name | wiki |
The College of Nursing is a college located within East Carolina University. It offers one undergraduate degree, nursing. The college offers a Masters of Science in Nursing with eight concentrations. The college also offers a PhD program. This program is to advance nursing practice and nursing education.
On October 12, 2007, the University of North Carolina Board of Governors permitted the re-designation of the School of Nursing to the College of Nursing.
References
East Carolina University divisions | wiki |
Mountain biking is a sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, usually using specially designed mountain bikes. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain, such as air or coil-sprung shocks used as suspension, larger and wider wheels and tires, stronger frame materials, and mechanically or hydraulically actuated disc brakes. Mountain biking can generally be broken down into five distinct categories: cross country, trail riding, all mountain (also referred to as "Enduro"), downhill, and freeride.
This sport requires endurance, core strength and balance, bike handling skills, and self-reliance. Advanced riders pursue both steep technical descents and high incline climbs. In the case of freeride, downhill, and dirt jumping, aerial maneuvers are performed off both natural features and specially constructed jumps and ramps.
Mountain bikers ride on off-road trails such as singletrack, back-country roads, wider bike park trails, fire roads, and some advanced trails are designed with jumps, berms, and drop-offs to add excitement to the trail. Riders with enduro and downhill bikes will often visit ski resorts that stay open in the summer to ride downhill-specific trails, using the ski lifts to return to the top with their bikes. Because riders are often far from civilization, there is a strong element of self-reliance in the sport. Riders learn to repair broken bikes and flat tires to avoid being stranded. Many riders carry a backpack, including water, food, tools for trailside repairs, and a first aid kit in case of injury. Group rides are common, especially on longer treks. Mountain bike orienteering adds the skill of map navigation to mountain biking.
History
Late 1800s
One of the first examples of bicycles modified specifically for off-road use is the expedition of Buffalo Soldiers from Missoula, Montana, to Yellowstone in August 1896.
1900s–1960s
Bicycles were ridden off-road by road racing cyclists who used cyclocross as a means of keeping fit during the winter. Cyclo-cross eventually became a sport in its own right in the 1940s, with the first world championship taking place in 1950.
The Rough Stuff Fellowship was established in 1955 by off-road cyclists in the United Kingdom.
In Oregon in 1966, one Chemeketan club member, D. Gwynn, built a rough terrain trail bicycle. He named it a "mountain bicycle" for its intended place of use. This may be the first use of that name.
In England in 1968, Geoff Apps, a motorbike trials rider, began experimenting with off-road bicycle designs. By 1979 he had developed a custom-built lightweight bicycle which was uniquely suited to the wet and muddy off-road conditions found in the south-east of England. They were designed around 2 inch x 650b Nokian snow tires though a 700x47c (28 in.) version was also produced. These were sold under the Cleland Cycles brand until late 1984. Bikes based on the Cleland design were also sold by English Cycles and Highpath Engineering until the early 1990s.
1970s–1980s
There were several groups of riders in different areas of the U.S.A. who can make valid claims to playing a part in the birth of the sport. Riders in Crested Butte, Colorado, and Mill Valley, California, tinkered with bikes and adapted them to the rigors of off-road riding. Modified heavy cruiser bicycles, old 1930s and '40s Schwinn bicycles retrofitted with better brakes and fat tires, were used for freewheeling down mountain trails in Marin County, California, in the mid-to-late 1970s. At the time, there were no mountain bikes. The earliest ancestors of modern mountain bikes were based around frames from cruiser bicycles such as those made by Schwinn. The Schwinn Excelsior was the frame of choice due to its geometry. Riders used balloon-tired cruisers and modified them with gears and motocross or BMX-style handlebars, creating "klunkers". The term would also be used as a verb since the term "mountain biking" was not yet in use. The first person known to fit multiple speeds and drum brakes to a klunker is Russ Mahon of Cupertino, California, who used the resulting bike in cyclo-cross racing. Riders would race down mountain fire roads, causing the hub brake to burn the grease inside, requiring the riders to repack the bearings. These were called "Repack Races" and triggered the first innovations in mountain bike technology as well as the initial interest of the public (on Mt. Tamalpais in Marin CA, there is still a trail titled "Repack"—in reference to these early competitions). The sport originated in California on Marin County's Mount Tamalpais.
It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s that road bicycle companies started to manufacture mountain bicycles using high-tech lightweight materials. Joe Breeze is normally credited with introducing the first purpose-built mountain bike in 1978. Tom Ritchey then went on to make frames for a company called MountainBikes, a partnership between Gary Fisher, Charlie Kelly and Tom Ritchey. Tom Ritchey, a welder with skills in frame building, also built the original bikes. The company's three partners eventually dissolved their partnership, and the company became Fisher Mountain Bikes, while Tom Ritchey started his own frame shop.
The first mountain bikes were basically road bicycle frames (with heavier tubing and different geometry) with a wider frame and fork to allow for a wider tire. The handlebars were also different in that they were a straight, transverse-mounted handlebar, rather than the dropped, curved handlebars that are typically installed on road racing bicycles. Also, some of the parts on early production mountain bicycles were taken from the BMX bicycle. Other contributors were Otis Guy and Keith Bontrager.
Tom Ritchey built the first regularly available mountain bike frame, which was accessorized by Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly and sold by their company called MountainBikes (later changed to Fisher Mountain Bikes, then bought by Trek, still under the name Gary Fisher, currently sold as Trek's "Gary Fisher Collection"). The first two mass-produced mountain bikes were sold in the early 1980s: the Specialized Stumpjumper and Univega Alpina Pro. In 1988, The Great Mountain Biking Video was released, soon followed by others. In 2007, Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes was released, documenting mountain bike history during the formative period in Northern California. Additionally, a group of mountain bikers called the Laguna Rads formed a club during the mid eighties and began a weekly ride, exploring the uncharted coastal hillsides of Laguna Beach, California. Industry insiders suggest that this was the birth of the freeride movement, as they were cycling up and down hills and mountains where no cycling specific trail network prexisted. The Laguna Rads have also held the longest running downhill race once a year since 1986.
At the time, the bicycle industry was not impressed with the mountain bike, regarding mountain biking to be short-term fad. In particular, large manufacturers such as Schwinn and Fuji failed to see the significance of an all-terrain bicycle and the coming boom in 'adventure sports'. Instead, the first mass-produced mountain bikes were pioneered by new companies such as MountainBikes (later, Fisher Mountain Bikes), Ritchey, and Specialized. Specialized was an American startup company that arranged for production of mountain bike frames from factories in Japan and Taiwan. First marketed in 1981, Specialized's mountain bike largely followed Tom Ritchey's frame geometry, but used TiG welding to join the frame tubes instead of fillet-brazing, a process better suited to mass production, and which helped to reduce labor and manufacturing cost. The bikes were configured with 15 gears using derailleurs, a triple chainring, and a cogset with five sprockets.
1990s–2000s
Throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, mountain biking moved from a little-known sport to a mainstream activity. Mountain bikes and mountain bike gear, once only available at specialty shops or via mail order, became available at standard bike stores. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century, even some department stores began selling inexpensive mountain bikes with full-suspension and disc brakes. In the first decade of the 21st century, trends in mountain bikes included the "all-mountain bike", the 29er and the one by drivetrain (though the first mass-produced 1x drivetrain was Sram's XX1 in 2012). "All-mountain bikes" were designed to descend and handle well in rough conditions, while still pedaling efficiently for climbing, and were intended to bridge the gap between cross-country bikes and those built specifically for downhill riding. They are characterized by of fork travel. 29er bikes are those using 700c sized rims (as do most road bikes), but wider and suited for tires of two inches (50mm) width or more; the increased diameter wheel is able to roll over obstacles better and offers a greater tire contact patch, but also results in a longer wheelbase, making the bike less agile, and in less travel space for the suspension. The single-speed is considered a return to simplicity with no drivetrain components or shifters but thus requires a stronger rider.
2000's-2020's
Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the rear, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. This is called a mullet bicycle, most common with a 29-inch wheel in the front and a 27.5-inch wheel in the back. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5" travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities.
In 2020, due to COVID-19, mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$1000.
Equipment
Bike
Mountain bikes differ from other bikes primarily in that they incorporate features aimed at increasing durability and improving performance in rough terrain. Most modern mountain bikes have some kind of suspension, 26, 27.5 or 29 inch diameter tires, usually between 1.7 and 2.5 inches in width, and a wider, flat or upwardly-rising handlebar that allows a more upright riding position, giving the rider more control. They have a smaller, reinforced frame, usually made of wide tubing. Tires usually have a pronounced tread, and are mounted on rims which are stronger than those used on most non-mountain bicycles. Compared to other bikes, mountain bikes also use hydraulic disc brakes. They also tend to have lower ratio gears to facilitate climbing steep hills and traversing obstacles. Pedals vary from simple platform pedals, where the rider simply places the shoes on top of the pedals, to clipless, where the rider uses a specially equipped shoe with a cleat that engages mechanically into the pedal.
Accessories
Glasses with little or no difference from those used in other cycling sports, help protect against debris while on the trail. Filtered lenses, whether yellow for cloudy days or shaded for sunny days, protect the eyes from strain. Downhill, freeride, and enduro mountain bikers often use goggles similar to motocross or snowboard goggles in unison with their full face helmets.
Shoes generally have gripping soles similar to those of hiking boots for scrambling over un-ridable obstacles, unlike the smooth-bottomed shoes used in road cycling. The shank of mountain bike shoes is generally more flexible than road cycling shoes. Shoes compatible with clipless pedal systems are also frequently used; however, flat pedals are preferred for aggressive downhill biking due to safety concerns.
Clothing is chosen for comfort during physical exertion in the backcountry, and its ability to withstand falls. Road touring clothes are often inappropriate due to their delicate fabrics and construction. Depending on the type of mountain biking, different types of clothes and styles are commonly worn. Cross-country mountain bikers tend to wear lycra shorts and tight road style jerseys due to the need for comfort and efficiency. Downhill riders tend to wear heavier fabric baggy shorts or moto-cross style trousers in order to protect themselves from falls. All mountain/enduro riders tend to wear light fabric baggy shorts and jerseys as they can be in the saddle for long periods of time.
Hydration systems are important for mountain bikers in the backcountry, ranging from simple water bottles to water bags with drinking tubes in lightweight backpacks known as a hydration pack. (e.g.Camelbaks).
GPS systems are sometimes added to the handlebars and are used to monitor progress on trails.
Pump to inflate tires.
Inflator with Cartridge to inflate a tube or tubeless tire.
Bike tools and extra bike tubes are important, as mountain bikers frequently find themselves miles from help, with flat tires or other mechanical problems that must be handled by the rider.
High-power lights based on LED technology, used for mountain biking at night.
Some sort of protective case
Protective gear
The level of protection worn by individual riders varies greatly and is affected by speed, trail conditions, the weather, and numerous other factors, including personal choice. Protection becomes more important where these factors may be considered to increase the possibility or severity of a crash.
A helmet and gloves are usually regarded as sufficient for the majority of non-technical riding. Full-face helmets, goggles and armored suits or jackets are frequently used in downhill mountain biking, where the extra bulk and weight may help mitigate the risks of bigger and more frequent crashes.
Helmet. The use of helmets, in one form or another, is almost universal amongst mountain bikers. The three main types are; cross-country, rounded skateboarder style (nicknamed "half shells" or "skate style"), and full-face. Cross-country helmets tend to be light and well ventilated, and more comfortable to wear for long periods, especially while perspiring in hot weather. In XC competitions, most bikers tend to use the usual road-racing style helmets, for their lightweight and aerodynamic qualities. Skateboard helmets are simpler and usually more affordable than other helmet types; provide great coverage of the head and resist minor scrapes and knocks. Unlike road-biking helmets, skateboard helmets typically have a thicker, hard plastic shell which can take multiple impacts before it needs to be replaced. The trade-off for this is that they tend to be much heavier and less ventilated (sweatier), therefore not suitable for endurance-based riding. Full-face helmets (BMX-style) provide the highest level of protection and tend to be stronger than skateboarding style and includes a jaw guard to protect the face. The weight is the main issue with this type, but today they are often reasonably well-ventilated and made of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber. (Full-face helmets with detachable chin-guards are available in some locations, but there are compromises to keep in mind with these designs.) As all helmets should meet minimum standards, SNELL B.95 (American Standard) BS EN 1078:1997 (European Standard), DOT, or "motorized ratings" are making their way into the market. The choice of helmet often comes down to rider preference, the likelihood of crashing, and on what features or properties of a helmet they place emphasis. Helmets are mandatory at competitive events and almost without exception at bike parks, most organizations also stipulate when and where full-face helmets must be used.
Body armor and pads, often referred to simply as "armor", are meant to protect limbs and body in the event of a crash. While initially made for and marketed for downhill riders, free-riders, and jump/street riders, body armor has trickled into other areas of mountain biking as trails have become steeper and more technically complex (hence bringing a commensurately higher injury risk). Armor ranges from simple neoprene sleeves for knees, and elbows to complex, articulated combinations of hard plastic shells and padding that cover a whole limb or the entire body. Some companies market body armor jackets and even full-body suits designed to provide greater protection through greater coverage of the body and more secure pad retention. Most upper-body protectors also include a spine protector that comprises plastic or metal reinforced plastic plates, over foam padding, which are joined so that they articulate and move with the back. Some mountain bikers also use BMX-style body armor, such as chest plates, abdomen protectors, and spine plates. New technology has seen an influx of integrated neck protectors that fit securely with full-face helmets, such as the Leatt-Brace. There is a general correlation between increased protection and increased weight/decreased mobility, although different styles balance these factors differently. Different levels of protection are deemed necessary/desirable by different riders in different circumstances. Backpack hydration systems such as Camelbaks, where a water-filled bladder is held close to the spine, are used by some riders for their perceived protective value. More recently, with the increase in enduro racing, backpack hydration systems are also being sold with inbuilt spine protection. However, there is only anecdotal evidence of protection.
Gloves can offer increased comfort while riding, by alleviating compression and friction, and can protect against superficial hand injuries. They provide protection in the event of strikes to the back or palm of the hand or when putting the hand out in a fall and can protect the hand, fingers, and knuckles from abrasion on rough surfaces. Many different styles of gloves exist, with various fits, sizes, finger lengths, palm padding, and armor options available. Armoring knuckles and the backs of hands with plastic panels is common in more extreme types of mountain biking. Most of it depends on preference and necessity.
First aid kits are often carried by mountain bikers so that they are able to clean, dress cuts, abrasions, and splint broken limbs. Head, brain, and spinal injuries become more likely as speeds increase. All of these can bring permanent changes in quality of life. Experienced mountain bike guides may be trained in dealing with suspected spinal injuries (e.g., immobilizing the victim and keeping the neck straight). Seriously injured people may need to be removed by stretcher, by a motor vehicle suitable for the terrain, or by helicopter.
Protective gear cannot provide immunity against injuries. For example, concussions can still occur despite the use of helmets, and spinal injuries can still occur with the use of spinal padding and neck braces. The use of high-tech protective gear can result in a revenge effect, whereupon some cyclists feel safe taking dangerous risks.
Because the key determinant of injury risk is kinetic energy, and because kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, effectively each doubling of speed can quadruple the injury risk. Similarly, each tripling of speed can be expected to bring a nine-fold increase in risk, and each quadrupling of speed means that a sixteen-fold risk increase must be anticipated.
Higher speeds of travel also add danger due to reaction time. Because higher speeds mean that the rider travels further during his/her reaction time, this leaves less travel distance within which to react safely. This, in turn, further multiplies the risk of an injurious crash.
In general, although protective gear cannot always prevent the occurrence of injuries, the use of such equipment is appropriate, as is maintaining it in serviceable condition. Because mountain biking takes place outdoors, ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is present, and UV rays are known to degrade plastic components. Accordingly, and as a rule of thumb, a bicycle helmet should be replaced every five years, or sooner if it appears damaged. Additionally, if the helmet has been involved in an accident or has otherwise incurred impact-type damage, then it should be replaced promptly, even if it does not appear to be visibly damaged.
Categories
Cross-country cycling
Cross-Country (XC) generally means riding point-to-point or in a loop including climbs and descents on a variety of terrain. A typical XC bike weighs around 9-13 kilos (20-30 lbs), and has of suspension travel front and sometimes rear. Cross country mountain biking focuses on physical strength and endurance more than the other forms, which require greater technical skill. Cross country mountain biking is the only mountain biking discipline in the Summer Olympic Games.
All-mountain/Enduro
All-mountain/Enduro bikes tend to have moderate-travel suspension systems and components which are stronger than XC models, typically 160-180mm of travel on a full suspension frame, but at a weight that is suitable for both climbing and descending.
Enduro racing includes elements of DH racing, but Enduro races are much longer, sometimes taking a full day to complete, and incorporate climbing sections to connect the timed downhill descents (often referred to as stages). Typically, there is a maximum time limit for how long a rider takes to reach the top of each climb, while finishers of the downhill portions are ranked by fastest times.
Historically, many long-distance XC races would use the descriptor "enduro" in their race names to indicate their endurance aspect. Some long-standing race events have maintained this custom, sometimes leading to confusion with the modern Enduro format, that has been adopted to the Enduro World Series.
Enduro racing was commonly seen as a race for all abilities. While there are many recreational riders that do compete in Enduro races, the sport is increasingly attracting high-level riders such as Sam Hill or Isabeau Courdurier.
Downhill
Downhill (DH) is, in the most general sense, riding mountain bikes downhill. Courses include large jumps (up to and including ), drops of 3+ meters (10+ feet), and are generally rough and steep from top to bottom. The rider commonly travels to the point of descent by other means than cycling, such as a ski lift or automobile, as the weight of the downhill mountain bike often precludes any serious climbing.
Because of the extremely steep terrain (often located in summer at ski resorts), downhill mountain biking is one of the most extreme and dangerous cycling disciplines. Minimum body protection in a true downhill setting entails wearing knee pads and a full-face helmet with goggles, albeit riders and racers commonly wear various forms of full-body suits that include padding at selected locations.
Downhill-specific bikes are universally equipped with front and rear suspension, large disc brakes, and use heavier frame tubing than other mountain bikes. Downhill bicycles now weigh around , while the most expensive professional downhill mountain bikes can weigh as little as , fully equipped with custom carbon fiber parts, air suspension, tubeless tires and more. Downhill frames have anywhere from of travel and are usually equipped with a travel dual-crown fork.
Four-cross/Dual Slalom
Four-cross/Dual Slalom (4X) is a discipline in which riders compete either on separate tracks, as in Dual Slalom, or on a short slalom track, as in 4X. Most bikes used are light hard-tails, although the last World Cup was actually won on a full-suspension bike. The track is downhill and has dirt jumps, berms, and gaps.
Professionals in tend to concentrate either on downhill mountain biking or 4X/dual slalom because they are very different. However, some riders, such as Cedric Gracia, used to compete in both 4X and DH, although that is becoming more rare as 4X takes on its own identity.
Freeride
Freeride / Big Hit / Hucking, as the name suggests, is a 'do anything' discipline that encompasses everything from downhill racing without the clock to jumping, riding 'North Shore' style (elevated trails made of interconnecting bridges and logs), and generally riding trails and/or stunts that require more skill and aggressive techniques than XC.
"Slopestyle" type riding is an increasingly popular genre that combines big-air, stunt-ridden freeride with BMX style tricks. Slopestyle courses are usually constructed at already established mountain bike parks and include jumps, large drops, quarter-pipes, and other wooden obstacles. There are always multiple lines through a course and riders compete for judges' points by choosing lines that highlight their particular skills.
A "typical" freeride bike is hard to define, but typical specifications are 13-18 kilos (30-40 lbs) with of suspension front and rear. Freeride bikes are generally heavier and more amply suspended than their XC counterparts, but usually, retain much of their climbing ability. It is up to the rider to build his or her bike to lean more toward a preferred level of aggressiveness.
Dirt Jumping
Dirt Jumping (DJ) is the practice of riding bikes over shaped mounds of dirt or soil and becoming airborne. The goal is that after riding over the 'lip' the rider will become airborne, and aim to land on the 'knuckle'. Dirt jumping can be done on almost any bicycle, but the bikes chosen are generally smaller and more maneuverable hardtails so that tricks such as backflips, whips, and tabletops, are easier to complete. The bikes are simpler so that when a crash occurs there are fewer components to break or cause the rider injury. Bikes are typically built from sturdier materials such as steel to handle repeated heavy impacts of crashes and bails.
Trials
Trials riding consists of hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles, without touching a foot onto the ground. It can be performed either off-road or in an urban environment. This requires an excellent sense of balance. The emphasis is placed on techniques of effectively overcoming the obstacles, although street-trials (as opposed to competition-oriented trials) is much like Street and DJ, where doing tricks with style is the essence. Trials bikes look almost nothing like mountain bikes. They use either 20", 24" or 26" wheels and have very small, low frames, some types without a saddle.
Urban/Street
Urban/Street is essentially the same as urban BMX (or Freestyle BMX), in which riders perform tricks by riding on/over man-made objects. The bikes are the same as those used for Dirt Jumping, having 24" or 26" wheels. Also, they are very light, many in the range of , and are typically hardtails with between 0-100 millimeters of the front suspension. As with Dirt Jumping and Trials, style and execution are emphasized.
Trail riding
Trail riding or trail biking is a varied and popular non-competitive form of mountain biking on recognized, and often waymarked and graded, trails; unpaved tracks, forest paths, etc. Trails may take the form of single routes or part of a larger complex, known as trail centers. Trail difficulty typically varies from gentle 'family' trails (green) through routes with increasingly technical features (blue and red) to those requiring high levels of fitness and skill (black) incorporating demanding ascents with steep technical descents comparable to less extreme downhill routes. As difficulty increases trails incorporate more technical trail features such as berms, rock gardens, uneven surfaces, drop offs and jumps. The most basic of bike designs can be used for less severe trails, but there are "trail bike" designs which balance climbing ability with good downhill performance, almost always having 120-150mm of travel on a suspension fork, with either a hard tail or a similar travel rear suspension. Many more technical trails are also used as routes for cross country, enduro, and even downhill racing.
Marathon
Mountain Bike Touring or Marathon is long-distance touring on dirt roads and single track with a mountain bike.
With the popularity of the Great Divide Trail, the Colorado Trail and other long-distance off-road biking trails, specially outfitted mountain bikes are increasingly being used for touring. Bike manufacturers like Salsa have even developed MTB touring bikes like the Fargo model.
Mixed Terrain Cycle-Touring or rough riding is a form of mountain-bike touring but involves cycling over a variety of surfaces and topography on a single route, with a single bicycle that is expected to be satisfactory for all segments. The recent surge in popularity of mixed-terrain touring is in part a reaction against the increasing specialization of the bicycle industry. Mixed-terrain bicycle travel has a storied history of focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and freedom of travel over varied surfaces.
Bikepacking
Bikepacking is a self-supported style of lightly loaded single or multiple night mountain biking. Bikepacking is similar to bike touring, however the two sports generally use different bikes and the main difference is the method of carrying gear. Bikepacking generally involves carrying less gear and using smaller frame bags while bike touring will use panniers.
A typical bikepacking set-up includes a frame bag, handlebar roll, seat pack, and backpack and typical gear includes lightweight and basic camping gear, and a bike repair kit.
Mountain bikes are generally used as many bike packing destinations are reached via forest-service roads or singletrack trails. Mountain bikes specific to bike-packing use a slightly taller frame to get the maximum frame bag capacity. This is achieved by using a longer headtube, a more horizontal top tube, and a reduced stem degree.
Generally, bikepackers tend to cover anywhere from 25 to 75 miles (40 – 120 km) in a given day as the riding can be technical.
Risks
Risk of injury is present when mountain biking, especially in the more extreme disciplines like downhill biking, free ride and dirt jumping. Injuries range from minor wounds, such as cuts and abrasions from falls on gravel or other surfaces, to major injuries such as broken bones, head or spinal injuries resulting from impacts with rocks, trees or the terrain being ridden on. Another risk factor is that mountain biking often takes place in wilderness or remote areas so emergency response can be delayed in the event of sustained injury.
Protective equipment can protect against minor injuries and reduce the extent or seriousness of major impacts, but may not protect a rider from major impacts or accidents. To reduce the risk of injury, a rider will also take steps to minimize the risk of accidents, and thus the potential for injury; by choosing trails which fall within the range of their experience level, ensuring that they are fit enough to deal with the trail they have chosen, and keeping their bike in top mechanical condition.
Lastly, maintenance of the rider's bike is carried out more frequently for mountain biking than for utility cycling or casual commuter biking. Mountain biking places higher demands on every part of the bike. Jumps and impacts can crack the frame or damage components or the tire rims, and steep, fast descents can quickly wear out brake pads. Since the widespread adoption of hydraulic and mechanical disk brakes on most mountain bikes from the late 1990s, the issues of brake pad wear, misalignment with, or slippage of rim brake pads on rims designed for rim brakes or "V brakes", has become a non-issue. Thus, whereas a casual rider may only check over and maintain their bike every few months, a mountain biker will check and properly maintain the bike before and after every ride.
Advocacy organizations
Mountain bikers have faced land access issues from the beginnings of the sport. Some areas where the first mountain bikers have ridden have faced extreme restrictions or elimination of riding.
This opposition has led to the development of local, regional, and international mountain bike groups. The different groups that formed generally work to create new trails, maintain existing trails, and help existing trails that may have issues. Groups work with private and public entities from the individual landowner to city parks departments, on up through the state level at the DNR, and into the federal level. Different groups will work individually or together to achieve results.
Advocacy organizations work through numerous methods such as education, trail workdays, and trail patrols. Examples of the education an advocacy group can provide include: Educate local bicycle riders, property managers, and other user groups on the proper development of trails, and on the International Mountain Bicycling Association's (IMBA), "Rules of the Trail." Examples of trail work days can include: Flagging, cutting, and signing a new trail, or removing downed trees after a storm. A trail patrol is a bike rider who has had some training to help assist others (including non-cyclists), trail users.
The IMBA is a non-profit advocacy group whose mission is to create, enhance and preserve trail opportunities for mountain bikers worldwide. IMBA serves as an umbrella organization for mountain biking advocacy worldwide and represents more than 700 affiliated mountain biking groups. The group was originally formed to fight widespread trail closures. In 1988, five California mountain bike clubs linked to form IMBA. The founding clubs were: Concerned Off-Road Bicyclists Association, Bicycle Trails Council East Bay, Bicycle Trails Council Marin, Sacramento Rough Riders, and Responsible Organized Mountain.
Environmental impact
According to a review published by the International Mountain Bicycling Association, the environmental impact of mountain biking, as a relatively new sport, is poorly understood. The review notes that "as with all recreational pursuits, it is clear that mountain biking contributes some degree of environmental degradation". Mountain biking can result in both soil and vegetation damage, which can be caused by skidding, but also by the construction of unauthorised features such as jumps and bridges, and trails themselves. Several studies have reported that a mountain bike's impact on a given length of trail surface is comparable to that of a hiker, and substantially less than that of an equestrian or motorized off-road vehicle.
A critical literature review by Jason Lathrop on the ecological impact of mountain biking notes that while recreational trail use in general is well studied, few studies explore the specific impact of mountain biking. He quotes the Bureau of Land Management: "An estimated 13.5 million mountain bicyclists visit public lands each year to enjoy the variety of trails. What was once a low use activity that was easy to manage has become more complex".
The environmental impacts of mountain biking can be greatly reduced by not riding on wet or sensitive trails, keeping speeds modest so as to minimize cornering forces and braking forces, not skidding, and by staying on the trail.
Mountain biking has been demonstrated to act as a human-mediated form of seed dispersal. Due to advancements in technology mountain bikers have begun to move onto trail networks once only accessible by hikers. The nature of their movement patterns also plays an important role as a vector for seed dispersal. Mountain bikes are not bound to any specific type of infrastructure and can therefore move freely between ecological environments acting as a connecting dispersal vector between habitats. Combined with their relatively long range and speeds they also contribute to long-range dispersal. In an effort to understand and assess the socio-ecological consequences of mountain bikes as a vector for seed dispersal Fabio Weiss, Tyler J. Brummer, and Gesine Pufal conducted an environmental impact study on forest trails in Freiburg, Germany. The results of the study found that although the majority of seeds detached from tires within the first 5–20 meters; small portions of seeds were still present after 200–500 meters contributing to moderate dispersal. The potential for long-distance dispersal was found through the transport of seeds on areas of the bike that did not come into frequent contact with the ground. The study also found that the majority of participants only cleaned their bikes on average every 70 km or every two rides. Rides executed in two different areas have the potential to connect previously unconnected habitats creating the potential for unwanted plant invasions.
To mitigate the accidental dispersal of an unwanted invasive species, the authors of the study proposed the following measures to support conservation:
a) Clean the bike between rides in different habitats, before traveling and especially before entering sensitive natural areas and regions.
b) Control weeds and non-native species at trailheads and trail margins.
c) Educate mountain bike riders about the potential dispersal of different species (good stewardship begets riding privileges).
d) Encourage cooperation between mountain bikers and managing authorities (avoid condescending regulations, establishment of monitored designated riding areas).
See also
Mountain bike
Mountain bike racing
Downhill mountain biking
Enduro (mountain biking)
Singletrack
List of professional mountain bikers
Mountain Bike Hall of Fame
Glossary of cycling
References
External links
International Mountain Biking Association
Cycle sport
Adventure travel
fr:Vélo tout terrain | wiki |
A "Dear Colleague" letter is an official correspondence which is sent by a Member, committee, or officer of the United States House of Representatives or United States Senate and which is distributed in bulk to other congressional offices. A "Dear Colleague" letter may be circulated in paper form through internal mail, distributed on a chamber floor, or sent electronically.
"Dear Colleague" letters are often used to encourage others to cosponsor, support, or oppose a bill. "Dear Colleague" letters concerning a bill or resolution generally include a description of the legislation or other subject matter along with a reason or reasons for support or opposition. Senders or signatories of such letters become identified with the particular issue. "Dear Colleague" letters can also create an "unofficial link" in the Capitol Hill information chain.
Additionally, "Dear Colleague" letters are used to inform Members and their offices about events connected to congressional business or modifications to House or Senate operations. The Committee on House Administration and the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, for example, routinely circulate "Dear Colleague" letters to Members concerning matters that affect House or Senate operations, such as House changes to computer password policies or a reminder about Senate restrictions on mass mailings prior to elections.
These letters frequently begin with the salutation "Dear Colleague". The length of such correspondence varies, with a typical "Dear Colleague" running one to two pages.
"Dear Colleague" letters have also been used by a number of executive agencies, often to make statements on policy or to otherwise disseminate information.
Development
Member-to-Member correspondence has long been used in Congress. For example, given that early House rules required measures to be introduced only in a manner involving the "explicit approval of the full chamber", Representatives needed permission to introduce legislation. A not uncommon communication medium for soliciting support for this action was a letter to colleagues. Representative Abraham Lincoln, in 1849, formally notified his colleagues in writing that he intended to seek their authorization to introduce a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia.
The phrase "Dear Colleague" has been used to refer to a widely distributed letter among Members at least since early in the 20th century. In 1913, The New York Times included the text of a "Dear Colleague" letter written by Representative Finly H. Gray to Representative Robert N. Page in which Gray outlined his "conceptions of a fit and proper manner" in which Members of the House should "show their respect for the President" and "express their well wishes" to the first family. In 1916, The Washington Post included the text of a "Dear Colleague" letter written by Representative William P. Borland and distributed to colleagues on the House floor. The letter provided an explanation of an amendment he had offered to a House bill.
Congress has since expanded its use of the Internet and electronic devices to facilitate distribution of legislative documents. Electronic "Dear Colleague" letters can be disseminated via internal networks in the House and Senate, supplementing or supplanting paper forms of the letters. Such electronic communication has increased the speed and facilitated the process of distributing "Dear Colleague" letters.
Use of "Dear Colleague" letters
In the contemporary Congress, Members use both printed copy distribution and electronic delivery for sending "Dear Colleague" letters.
House of Representatives
In the House, Members may choose to send "Dear Colleague" letters through internal mail, through the e-"Dear Colleague" system, or both. Regardless of distribution method, House "Dear Colleague" letters are required to address official business and must be signed by a Member or officer of Congress.
Members of the House often send out "Dear Colleague" letters to recruit cosponsors for their measures. The practice of recruiting cosponsors has become more important since the passage of H.Res. 42 in the 90th Congress (1967-1969). H.Res. 42 amended House rules to permit bill cosponsors, but limited the number to 25. In 1979, the House agreed to H.Res. 86, which further amended House rules to permit unlimited numbers of cosponsors.
Internal mail
"Dear Colleague" letters sent through internal mail must be written on official letterhead, address official business, and be signed by a Member or officer of Congress. A cover letter must accompany the "Dear Colleague" letter, addressed to the deputy chief administrative officer of the House for customer solutions, with specific distribution instructions and authorization as to the number to be distributed. The deadline for morning distribution is 9:45 a.m. and for afternoon mail delivery 1:45 p.m.
e-"Dear Colleague" System
An increasing number of congressional offices transmit "Dear Colleague" letters electronically. Pursuant to the House Members' Congressional Handbook, the rules regulating a paper "Dear Colleague" letter sent via internal mail are also applicable to a letter sent electronically. Electronic versions of "Dear Colleague" letters sent prior to August 12, 2008, are stored in a Microsoft Exchange public folder that is accessible to all House Members and staff. Electronic versions of "Dear Colleague" letters sent on or after August 12, 2008, are archived on the House e-"Dear Colleague" website.
Since 2003, 46,072 "Dear Colleague" letters have been sent electronically. In 2007, 12,297 "Dear Colleague" letters were sent electronically. Figure 1 shows the total number of "Dear Colleague" letters sent electronically between 2003 and 2007. The disparity in the number of "Dear Colleague" letters sent electronically between 2003-2006 and 2007 might be explained in part by increased use of electronic communications tools in the House.
A reduction in electronic "Dear Colleague" letters sent in August may occur because of the month-long district work period or recess that normally occurs in August. Following the August recess, especially in an election year, the number of "Dear Colleague" letters decreases. The decrease may occur as the result of Congress typically adjourning in the fall.
On August 12, 2008, the House introduced a web-based e-"Dear Colleague" distribution system. The e-"Dear Colleague" system replaced the email-based system. Under the e-"Dear Colleague" system, Members and staff "will be able to compose e-Dear Colleagues online, and associate them with up to three issue areas. Members and staff will be able to independently manage their subscription to various issue areas and receive e-Dear Colleagues according to individual interest."
Senate
Similar to the House paper system, "Dear Colleague" letters in the Senate are written on official letterhead and address official business, but there is not a central distribution policy. In general, when using the paper system, Senators and chamber officers create their own "Dear Colleague" letters and have them reproduced at the Senate Printing Graphics and Direct Mail Division. Once reproduced, letters are delivered to the Senate Mailroom by the sending office, accompanied by a distribution form or cover letter with specific distribution instructions.
The current distribution numbers for "Dear Colleague" letters in the Senate are
100 for all Senators;
20 for standing, select, and special committees;
5 for the joint leadership; and
1 each for the officers of the Senate (total of 7).
The choice to send "Dear Colleague" letters electronically is at the discretion of the individual Senate office. There is no central distribution system for electronic Senate "Dear Colleague" letters. While no central distribution system for electronic "Dear Colleague" letters exists in the Senate, other organizations (i.e., party organizations and informal caucuses) may choose to distribute "Dear Colleague" letters to their membership.
Executive agencies
Several agencies of the federal government have made use of "Dear Colleague" letters to disseminate information to the public, including those of the Department of Transportation, the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Department of Education. In particular, the Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights has used "Dear Colleague" letters to issue statements on policy regarding the interpretation of Title IX with respect to LGBT students and sexual assault.
Notes
Terminology of the United States Congress | wiki |
Aqualad is a character appearing in DC comicics.
Aqualad may also refer to:
Aqualad (Jackson Hyde)
"Aqualad" (Titans episode)
Aqualad (Titans character) | wiki |
Pride of the Blue Grass may refer to:
Pride of the Blue Grass (1939 film), an American film directed by William C. McGann
Pride of the Blue Grass (1954 film), an American film directed by William Beaudine | wiki |
Manba may refer to:
Beta-mannosidase, an enzyme
A branch of the alternative fashion trend Ganguro | wiki |
Kapana is a way of preparing raw meat, typically beef, in Namibia by grilling it on an open fire. The grilled meat is often sold at stalls in open markets; it is cut into small pieces and grilled and sold while it is cooking. People from all walks of life come and enjoy the meat. There are often many people selling it at one place, so the price is always negotiable. Kapana business has contributed in a small way to the economic development of the country by giving unemployed young people an opportunity to start their business with a very low capital and look after their family. The township of Katutura in Windhoek is known for its kapana.
Preparation
A metal plate is welded into a grill stand with a flat top and the wood burns under it. The Kapana men (as they are called, although a few women also make their living this way), cut the raw meat with a machete into smaller pieces, and prepare the chili sauce with onions, tomatoes and spices. When the top is hot enough, the meat is placed on the grill, and the men begin calling for customers. To save meat and money, a Kapana man only throws on the grill a small amount of meat to attract customers to his stand. When they arrive, he will then put more to satisfy them. The cooking time is five to ten minutes, and the sauce is already made, so each customer enjoys freshly grilled juicy Kapana. Kapana can also be made with pork, but it is more expensive.
Culture
Kapana is inexpensive to buy and fast to cook. The area around the Kapana stand is regarded as a social place, meeting new people of varying economic backgrounds while enjoying the lunch. Although most people could grill beef at home, many prefer to go and eat Kapana while having conversation and making new friends.
Kapana traders compete noisily for customers, each shouting and claiming that his meat is the best cooked.
In 2014, a drought in Namibia meant that the farms that traditionally provided meat to the Kapana men could not keep up with the demand. Kapana meat had to be shipped from afar, increasing the price and making it difficult for the men to make a profit.
See also
Barbecue
Namibia
Namibian cuisine
African cuisine
West African cuisine
List of African cuisines
References
Namibian cuisine
Beef dishes | wiki |
Koriand'r is a character appearing in DC comicics.
Koriand'r may also refer to:
"Koriand'r" (Titans episode)
Koriand'r (Titans character) | wiki |
This is a list of the winning and nominated programs of the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a series, miniseries, film, or special. Since the award ceremony of 1998, the category has been divided into Special Visual Effects for a Series and Special Visual Effects for a Miniseries, Movie, or Special. In 1991, the Television Academy nominated four programs, but did not determine a winner.
Before becoming well-known directors, Neill Blomkamp, Gareth Edwards, and Robert Stromberg were nominees for the award.
Winners and nominations
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Programs with multiple awards
7 awards
Game of Thrones
3 awards
Star Trek: The Next Generation
Star Trek: Voyager
2 awards
Battlestar Galactica
Boardwalk Empire
The Mandalorian
Star Trek: Enterprise
Programs with multiple nominations
9 nominations
Star Trek: Voyager
8 nominations
Game of Thrones
Stargate SG-1
Star Trek: The Next Generation
7 nominations
Star Trek: Enterprise
Vikings
6 nominations
Battlestar Galactica
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine
5 nominations
The Walking Dead
4 nominations
Black Sails
Boardwalk Empire
Star Trek
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea
3 nominations
The Borgias
The Crown
Gotham
The Handmaid's Tale
Heroes
Lost in Space
The Man in the High Castle
Stargate Universe
Stranger Things
Westworld
The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles
2 nominations
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Band of Brothers
Da Vinci's Demons
Falling Skies
Lost
The Mandalorian
Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King
Rome
Sherlock
Stargate Atlantis
Star Trek: Discovery
Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan
The Umbrella Academy
The X-Files
Notes
References
External links
Special Visual Effects
Visual effects awards | wiki |
The FIBA EuroBasket All-time leading scorers in total points scored are the basketball players with the most total points scored in the FIBA EuroBasket.
All-time leading scorers in total points scored
Counting all games played through the end of EuroBasket 2017
See also
FIBA EuroBasket
FIBA EuroBasket MVP
FIBA EuroBasket All-Tournament Team
FIBA EuroBasket All-Time leaders in games played
FIBA World Cup
FIBA World Cup Records
FIBA Basketball World Cup Most Valuable Player
FIBA Basketball World Cup All-Tournament Team
FIBA's 50 Greatest Players (1991)
External links
EuroBasket | wiki |
Jason Todd is a character appearing in comic books and media published by DC Comics.
Jason Todd may also refer to:
Jason Todd Ipson
Jason Todd Ready
"Jason Todd" (Titans episode)
Jason Todd (Titans character) | wiki |
School of Arts or school of arts may refer to:
Art school, an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts
Mechanics' institutes, Victorian-era educational establishments formed to provide education, particularly in technical subjects, to working men, sometimes called School of Arts
School of Arts, Lahore, Pakistan
School of Arts of Edinburgh, the forerunner of Mechanics' institutes
School of Arts, part of Hogeschool Gent
See also
School of Art and Design (disambiguation)
School of Arts and Crafts of Toledo, 19th century school for the training of artists and craftsmen in Toledo, Spain
School of the Arts (disambiguation)
Yale School of Art, first professional art school in the U.S. | wiki |
Jimmy Connors was the defending champion, but did not participate this year.
Andrei Chesnokov won the tournament, beating Amos Mansdorf in the final, 6–4, 6–3.
Seeds
Andrei Chesnokov (champion)
Amos Mansdorf (final)
Christo van Rensburg (quarterfinals)
Mark Koevermans (quarterfinals)
Gilad Bloom (semifinals)
Tomás Carbonell (second round)
N/A
David Engel (second round)
Draw
Finals
Top half
Bottom half
References
Main Draw
Tel Aviv Open
1990 Riklis Classic | wiki |
Bothrops affinis est un synonyme attribué à deux espèces de serpents :
Bothrops affinis Gray, 1849, synonyme de Bothrops atrox (Linnaeus, 1758)
Bothrops affinis Bocourt, 1868, synonyme de Atropoides occiduus (Hoge, 1966)
Synonyme de serpents (nom scientifique)
Crotalinae | wiki |
Skopo may refer to:
Skopo (food), an African dish of meat made from cow, goat, or sheep's head
Skopo, Sežana, a village in Slovenia | wiki |
A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin baccalaureus) or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin baccalaureatus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years (depending on institution and academic discipline). The two most common bachelor's degrees are the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Bachelor of Science (BS or BSc). In some institutions and educational systems, certain bachelor's degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate educations after a first degree has been completed, although more commonly the successful completion of a bachelor's degree is a prerequisite for further courses such as a master's or a doctorate.
In countries with qualifications frameworks, bachelor's degrees are normally one of the major levels in the framework (sometimes two levels where non-honours and honours bachelor's degrees are considered separately). However, some qualifications titled bachelor's degree may be at other levels (e.g., MBBS) and some qualifications with non-bachelor's titles may be classified as bachelor's degrees (e.g. the Scottish MA and Canadian MD).
The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, who was too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner. By the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word baccalaureus came to be associated with bacca lauri ("laurel berry") in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours.
Under the British system, and those influenced by it, undergraduate academic degrees are differentiated between honours degrees (sometimes denoted by the addition of "(Hons)" after the degree abbreviation) and non-honours degrees (known variously as pass degrees, ordinary degrees or general degrees). An honours degree generally requires a higher academic standard than a pass degree, and in some systems an additional year of study beyond the non-honours bachelor's. Some countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada, have a postgraduate "bachelor with honours" degree. This may be taken as a consecutive academic degree, continuing on from the completion of a bachelor's degree program in the same field, or as part of an integrated honours program. Programs like these typically require completion of a full year-long research thesis project.
Scheme of completion periods in each country
The map shows how long it takes for students in different countries to get a bachelor's degree. It generally takes between 3 and 6 years.
Variations
Africa
In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power. For example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French.
Algeria
Bachelor's degrees in Algerian universities are called "الليسانس" in Arabic or la licence in French; the degree normally takes three years to complete and is a part of the LMD ("licence", "master", "doctorat") reform, students can enroll in a bachelor's degree program in different fields of study after having obtained their baccalauréat (the national secondary education test). The degree is typically identical to the program of France's universities, as specified in the LMD reform. Bachelor's degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science.
Botswana
Bachelor's degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years. The system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One (2:1), Second Class Division Two (2:2) and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition (Arts, Science, Law, etc.), but in recent years, there have been a number of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library and Information.
Kenya
In Kenya, university education is supported by the government,. A bachelor's degree is awarded to students who successfully complete a three to seven-year course depending on the area of study. For most degree programs, a research project and an internship period after which a report is written by the student is a must before the student is allowed to graduate. In 2012, a number of select colleges were upgraded to university status in a bid to increase the intake of students into degree programs.
Morocco
In Morocco, a bachelor's degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah (Arabic, French: licence). The course of study takes three years, which are further divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year. After successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization (études fondamentales) or professional specialization (études professionnelles). The second cycle is one year after whose completion students receive the licence d'études fondamentales or the licence professionnelle.
This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003.
Nigeria
University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelor's degree. In cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course. Students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. Nigerian universities offer BSc, BTech (usually from Universities of Technology), BArch (six years), and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as BEng. Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES (Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme) but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, during the bachelor thesis in the final year. The classifications of degrees: first-class, second-class (upper and lower), third-class (with honours; i.e., BSc (Hons)) and a pass (no honours). First- and second-class graduates are immediately eligible for advanced postgraduate degrees (i.e., MSc and PhD), but other classes may be required for an additional postgraduate diploma before such eligibility.
Furthermore, all graduating students are obliged to do the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) requirement, which usually takes one year, after which they are eligible to pursue higher degrees. The NYSC is a paramilitary service that involves students' being posted to different parts of the country to serve in various capacities. Principal objectives of the NYSC are to forge national cohesion, encourage students to apply their obtained knowledge to solving problems of rural Nigeria, and others. The NYSC was established by law after the Nigerian Civil War.
Polytechnical schools (polytechnics) in Nigeria are not considered universities. They are mandated to educate technicians of high calibre; they offer the OND (ordinary national diploma) and the HND (higher national diploma). The polytechnics focus very strongly on practical technical training. The BSc and HND are compared in engineering circles, but there are significant differences in training philosophies.
Honours degrees in Nigeria are differentiated only on the basis of performance. Honours degrees include the first-class degree, second-class degrees (upper and lower) and the third-class degree, but not the pass. All university students must do an independent research project which applies the knowledge obtained during the previous years of study.
The project work must be submitted in the semester before graduation and usually takes a significant number of points. Further course work is not precluded during the project work, but the courses are fewer and are at an advanced level. Project work is orally defended before the faculty and before peers. In the sciences and engineering a demonstration of the project is usually required. The exceptions are theoretical work.
South Africa
In South Africa, an honours degree is an additional postgraduate qualification in the same area as the undergraduate major, and requires at least one further year of study as well as a research report.
Tunisia
In Tunisia, a bachelor's degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah in Arabic, or la license in French; the degree takes three years to complete and is a part of the LMD (license, master, doctorat) reform, students can enroll in a bachelor's degree program in different fields of study after having obtained their baccalauréat (the national secondary education test). The degree is typically identical to the program of France's universities, as specified in the LMD reform. Most universities in Tunisia offer the 3-year bachelor's degree, except some fields, which are Medicine, Pharmacy, Engineering, Architecture and Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, solely offered by Tunis Business School and lasts 4 years.
The Americas
Usually the region presents associates, bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and postdoctoral degrees.
Brazil
In Brazil, a bachelor's degree takes from three years to six years to complete depending on the course load and the program. A bachelor's degree is the title sought by Brazilians in order to be a professional in a certain area of human knowledge. Master's and doctoral degrees are additional degrees for those seeking an academic career or a specific understanding of a field.
Even without a formal adhesion to the Bologna system, a Brazilian "bachelor's" would correspond to a European "first cycle". A Brazilian "bachelor's" takes three to six years for completion, as well as usually a written monograph or concluding project, in the same way that a European bachelor's can be finished in three to four years, after which time Europeans may embark on a one- to two-year 2nd cycle program usually called a "master's", according to the Bologna Process.
Depending on programs and personal choices, Europeans can achieve a master's degree in as little as four years (a three-year bachelor's and a one-year master's) and as long as six years (a four-year bachelor's, a two-year master's) of higher education. In Brazil it would be possible to have a specialization "lato-sensu" degree—which differs from a Brazilian "stricto-sensu" master's degree—in as little as three years (two years for a "tecnólogo" degree and an additional year for a specialization) or as long as eight years (six years for professional degrees, plus two years for a master's "stricto-sensu" degree—typical in medicine or engineering).
Canada
Education in Canada is governed independently by each province and territory; however, a common framework for degrees was agreed to by the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, in 2007. This adopted descriptors for bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees that were deliberately similar to those defined by the Bologna Process.
Under the framework, four general forms of bachelor's degree are defined: general programs that provide a broad education and prepare graduates for graduate-entry professional programs or employment generally; in-depth academic programs in a specific subject that prepare graduates for postgraduate study in the field or employment generally; applied programs that concentrate on a mastery of practice rather than knowledge; and professional programs, often (but not exclusively) graduate-entry, that prepare graduates to practice as professionals in a specific field. This last category includes graduate-entry degrees titled as if they were doctorates, such as MD, JD and DDS degrees—despite their names, these are considered bachelor's degrees.
Bachelor's degrees may take either three or four years to complete and are awarded by colleges and universities. In many universities and colleges, bachelor's degrees are differentiated either as (ordinary) bachelor's or as honours bachelor's degrees. The term "honours" is an academic distinction, which indicates that students must achieve their bachelor's degree with a sufficiently high overall grade point average; in addition, some programs may require more education than non-honours programs. The honours degrees are sometimes designated with the abbreviation in brackets of "(Hon(s))".
Going back in history, the Bachelor with Honours (Latin baccalaureatus cum honore, French baccalauréat spécialisé) was traditionally taken as the highest undergraduate degree. The program requires at least 4 years of studies, with strong emphasis on the research-based Honours Seminar Thesis which is considered approximately equivalent to a formal master's thesis. Universities show the academic degree as well as the possible honours distinction (Latin honours) on the diploma (e.g., "BACCALAUREATUS ARTIUM CUM HONORE ... CUM LAUDE").
In Quebec, students have to take a minimum of two years of college before entering, for example, a three-year Bachelor of Science (BSc) or a four-year Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) program. As a consequence, there is no de jure "honours degree" (although some universities market some of their programs as being de facto honours degrees in their English-language materials) but there are some specializations called "concentrations" in French, which are mostly taken as optional courses.
In the province of Ontario, the most bachelor's degrees offered by Ontario universities are academic in nature. In contrast, Ontario legislation requires bachelor's degrees offered by Ontario colleges to be applied and vocationally focused.
Colombia
In Colombia, secondary school has two milestones, in 9th and 11th grades. After completing the first 4 years of secondary school (6th, 7th, 8th and 9th grades), a student is considered to have completed the basic secondary school while after completed the last two years (10th and 11th grades) is considered to have completed "bachillerato" or high school diploma.
This degree can be either academic (the most common) or:
military, given by military specialised schools. It provides the opportunity for male students not to go to otherwise compulsory military service.
commercial, which grants students focused skills on accountancy.
technical, which grants students focused skills on technical abilities such as electricity, mechanics and related matters.
academic, which grants students focused skills on elementary education.
After graduating from high-school, hopeful students must take a nationwide exam that determines their eligibility to apply for their desired program, depending on the score the student achieves on the exam. In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is similar to the US model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a "profesional" (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to six years of study according to the chosen program. However, strictly-career-related subjects are taken from the very beginning unlike US where focused career-related subjects usually are part of the curriculum from the third year. The other option is called a "técnico" (technician); this degree consists of only two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a "tecnólogo" (equivalent to an associate degree), and consist of 3 years of study. A technical school gives to the student, after a program of two years, an undergraduate degree in areas like software development, networks and IT, accountancy, nursing and other areas of health services, mechanics, electricity and technic-like areas.
Universities offer graduate degrees in ICFES endorsed programs like medicine, engineering, laws, accountancy, business management and other professional areas. A typical undergraduate program usually takes 10 or 11 semesters and some (i.e. medicine) require an additional period of service or practice to apply for the degree. A student who has obtained an undergraduate degree can opt to continue studying a career after completing their undergraduate degree by continuing onto master's and doctorate degrees. They can also choose to do a specialization in certain fields of study by doing an extra year.
Costa Rica, El Salvador and Venezuela
In these countries, there are two titles that should not be confused:
High school students who pass their bachillerato or high school exams obtain a certificate of Bachiller deEducación Secundaria (not the same as a 'Bachelor' for higher education degrees), which is needed in order to enter a university and is usually requested by companies in their profiles.
University students obtain an American equivalent bachelor's degree in their respective fields after completing four years of education, and a licenciatura licentiate degree completing one more year of studies (and meeting other requisites unique to each institution, it is common to write a dissertation on the professional field), this enables them to work as professionals in their chosen areas; for example, a Profesor en Enseñanza Secundaria ("Licentiate degree in secondary education") enables a person to work as a high school teacher. Currently, the trend is for universities not to offer a bachelor's degree and to offer instead a licentiate's or "ingeniero" degree after five years of education.
Guyana
In Guyana, the universities offer bachelor programs in different streams like Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science in nursing, design and arts, liberal arts, psychology, Doctor of Medicine (MD) and other health science programs. These programs are delivered by University of Guyana, Texila American University, Green Heart Medical University, Lesley university and many more offers these bachelor programs.
Mexico
Bachelor's degrees may take an average of five years (from four to five years) to complete depending on the course load and the program and they are awarded by colleges and universities. Medicine is from 6 to 7 years. Each college has its own curriculum and requirements with an emphasis of their choice, governed independently by each state of the republic. After finishing all the subjects the student require a final work, which means the completion of particular honours seminars, research and development or a written thesis in a particular field. Mexico's regulations established as an obligation in order to receive their license and title the fulfillment of a "social service" to the nation (usually for those who finished their studies in a public institution) as a remuneration to society in the form of social actions, the benefits, as students, were received during training. This requirement takes about six months to one year depending on the type of degree. Bachelor's degree should not be falsely related with its Spanish cognate "bachiller", which designate a prerequisite for matriculate in a career or bachelor studies. The official name for a bachelor's degree in Mexico is "licenciado" and such studies are referred as "licenciatura".
Bachelor's degrees should not be confused with Engineering Degrees, where an Ingeniería is prefixed to the name and requires additional courses for certification as an Engineer.
United States
Bachelor's degrees in the United States are typically designed to be completed in four years of full-time study, which typically represents an average of 15 hours of weekly instruction per four-month semester, two semesters per year, for a total of eight semesters and 120 instructional credit hours, although some programs, such as engineering or architecture, may take five years, and some universities and colleges allow students, usually with the help of summer school, who are taking many classes each semester or who have existing credit from high school Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate course exams, to complete them more rapidly. Some US colleges and universities have a separate academic track known as an "honours" or "scholars" program, generally offered to the top percentile of students, based on GPA, that offers more challenging courses or more individually directed seminars or research projects instead or in addition to the standard core curriculum. Those students are awarded the same bachelor's degree as students completing the standard curriculum but with the notation in cursu honorum on the transcript and the diploma. Usually, the above Latin honours are separate from the notation for this honours course, but a student in the honours course generally must maintain grades worthy of at least the cum laude notation anyway. Hence, a graduate might receive a diploma Artium Baccalaureatum rite or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in the regular course or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in cursu honorum in the honours course.
If the student has completed the requirements for an honours degree only in a particular discipline (e.g., English language and literature), the degree is designated accordingly (e.g., "BA with Honours in English"). In this case, the degree candidate will complete the normal curriculum for all subjects except the selected discipline ("English", in the preceding example). The requirements in either case usually require completion of particular honours seminars, independent research at a level higher than usually required (often with greater personal supervision by faculty than usual), and a written honours thesis in the major subject.
Many universities and colleges in the United States award bachelor's degrees with Latin honours, usually (in ascending order) cum laude ("with honor/praise"), magna cum laude ("with great honor/praise"), summa cum laude ("with highest honor/praise"), and the occasionally seen maxima cum laude ("with maximal honor/praise"). Requirements for such notations of honours generally include minimum grade point averages (GPA), with the highest average required for the summa distinction (or maxima, when that distinction is present). In the case of some schools, such as Bates College, Carleton College, Colby College, Middlebury College, Guilford College, Franklin College Switzerland, and larger universities like the University of Virginia, Princeton University, North Carolina State University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, a senior thesis for degrees in the humanities or laboratory research for natural science (and sometimes social science) degrees is also required. Five notable exceptions are Reed College, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Evergreen State College, Sarah Lawrence College, and Bennington College, which do not have deans' lists, Latin honours recognitions, or undergraduate honours programs or subjects.
Asia
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, universities and colleges award three- and four-year degrees (three-year degrees courses are called pass courses and four-year degree courses are called honours courses) in science and business BSc, BBS, BBA, , etc. and three- and four-year degrees in arts (BA, BSS, etc.). Engineering universities provide four-year degree programs for bachelor's degree courses of study (BSc in Eng and BSc). Medical colleges have five-year degree programmes (MBBS, BDS). In law education there is a two-year LLB degree after completing three years in a BA program for a total of five years of study. There is also a four-year LLB honours degree. The Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) and Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) are professional degrees awarded to students who complete a five-year course of study in the field at some universities. All of these programs begin after achieving the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC – in total 12 years of school education).
China
There are 13 kinds of statutory bachelor's degrees in China: Bachelor of Philosophy, Economics, Laws, Education, Arts, History, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine, Management, Military Science, and Fine Arts.
Since the undergraduate education system in China is modeled after its American counterpart, all of the degrees are adapted from those of the United States except for the issuing of the degree certificate. Once a student has fulfilled their course requirements, a "graduate certificate" will be given. In order to get the degree, a student must finish and pass the dissertation stage; only then will they be awarded a degree certified by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China.
Most bachelor's degree in China needs four years to complete, with the exception that the Bachelor of Medicine degree requires five years. Although some colleges (), vocational colleges () and colleges in some universities offer two or three year programs for students, they can not graduate with any degree, except for those who pass the upgrade exam during college and then study an extra two-year undergraduate course at another university and pass a dissertation.
Any Chinese citizen can also get a bachelor's degree via the undergraduate majors of the Self-Taught Higher Education Examinations ().
Fiji
The colonial link and the establishment of the University of the South Pacific in 1968 allowed the education system to follow suit from the qualification system of the Commonwealth. University of the South Pacific is the only university in the Oceania region to be internationally recognized outside Australia and New Zealand with its bachelor's and other awards program. It is also the highest ranked in the university ranking in the island region and also ranked above some Australian universities like the University of Canberra, University of Sunshine Coast and New Zealand universities like Lincoln University and Waikato Institute of Technology.
India
Bachelor's degrees in India normally take 3 years of study to complete, although courses like BE/BTech, MBBS, BVSc or BArch take longer. A BE/BTech usually takes 4 years, while an MBBS or BArch usually takes 5 years to complete. Most of the Science, Commerce, and Arts degrees are honours degrees with electives chosen by the student. With the implementation of National Education Policy 2020, undergraduate degree programs will take 4 years with an option to leave the program in 3 years.
Common bachelor's degrees and abbreviations:
Bachelor of Arts: BA
Bachelor of Business Administration: BBA
Bachelor of Management Studies: BMS
Bachelor of Science: BSc
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology: BSIT
Bachelor of Commerce: Bcom
Bachelor of Fine Arts: BFA
Bachelor of Laws: LLB
Bachelor of Engineering: BE
Bachelor of Technology: BTech
Bachelor of Education: BEd (BEd degrees are offered after completion of a 3-year undergraduate coursework.)
Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery: MBBS
Bachelor of Veterinary Science: BVSc
Bachelor of Architecture: BArch
For the academic grading system in India, see academic grading in India.
Students usually start their bachelor's after completing their Class XII from either a National or State Board.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, most of the current bachelor's degrees are domain-specific degrees. Therefore, there are more than 20 bachelor's degrees. For instance, S.Psi. for Sarjana Psikologi (literally translated as "Bachelor of Psychology/BPsy, BA"), S.T. for Sarjana Teknik (literally translated as "Bachelor of Engineering"), S.Si. for Sarjana Sains (literally translated as "Bachelor of Science"), S.Farm. for Sarjana Farmasi (literally translated as "Bachelor of Pharmacy"), S.E. for Sarjana Ekonomi (literally translated as "Bachelor of Economy"), S.Kom. for Sarjana Ilmu Komputer (literally translated as "Bachelor of Computer Science"), S.S. for Sarjana Sastra (literally translated as "Bachelor of Literature") or S.Sos. for Sarjana Ilmu Sosial (literally translated as "Bachelor of Social Sciences"). In the past, the Indonesian academic system adopted the old European/western degrees, such as the Ir (insinyur from Dutch ingenieur) for an engineering degree and the common academic degree (doktorandus from Dutch and ultimately Latin doctorandus) for a degree in either social or natural sciences.
Iran
In Iran, students can study different undergraduate or postgraduate courses leading to a BS, a MS or a PhD that is recognised and equivalent to similar qualifications given in other countries. Students can also provide three to six (often four) years of education leading to a BS.
Jordan
Since the undergraduate education system in Jordan is modeled after its American counterpart, all the degrees are adapted from those of the United States excepting the release of the degree certificate. Once a student has fulfilled their course requirements, a graduate certificate will be given. In order to get the degree in some majors of study, a student must finish and pass the dissertation stage; only then will they be awarded a degree credentialed by the Ministry of Higher Education of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Four years of education is the standard length.
Malaysia
Institutes of higher learning in Malaysia provide three or four years of education leading to a BSc Hons Degree (). The standards of categorization is almost consistent among Malaysian Universities. Candidates who excel in their academic results will be awarded a First Class Bachelor Hons Degree (usually 3.67 CGPA and above), followed by Class Second Upper (usually between 3.00 and 3.66 CGPA), Class Second Lower (usually 2.50–2.99 CGPA), Class Three (usually 2.00–2.49 CGPA) and General Degree (Without Honours), for usually 1.99 and below CGPA candidates.
Nepal
In Nepal, the bachelor's degree was initially a three-year program for courses like Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS), Bachelor of Sciences (BSc), Bachelor of Education (BEd), Bachelor of Arts (BA) from Tribhuvan University, Pokhara University, Purbanchal University and Kathmandu University but now it is mostly a four-year program for new courses like Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Business Information Systems (BBIS), Bachelor of Information Management (BIM), Bachelor of Engineering (BE), Bachelor of Science in Computer Studies and Information Technology (BScCSIT). Some bachelor's programs are still three years long, such as the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Education (BEd). It is completed after 10+2 level (high school) or diploma or any other equivalent level of studies. Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Information Management (BIM), Bachelor of Business Information Systems (BBIS), Bachelor of Engineering, and Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Information Technology (BScCSIT) are a few popular bachelor's degree programs. BSc and BBSc have recently turned into four-year programs from three-year programs. In Nepal, Tribhuvan University as an oldest and biggest University based on number of student and academic department, Kathmandu University, Purbanchal University, Pokhara University, Nepal Sanskrit University and other new regional universities are operating currently. MBA and BBA from all universities are examined under the system of percentage and GPA, and traditional university courses are accessed on division base like pass division, second division, first division and distinction. In Nepal, there is no top up, honours and exchange or related tie up degree courses authorized and practiced by Nepalese Government and other educational institutions, but today, affiliation with foreign universities, online and distance learning are popular with the young modern working population. MBA, BBA, BPharmacy, BSc Nursing, Bachelor of Nursing (BN), BE are in high professional demand in Nepalese market. For admission in a university, a compulsory admission test given by the respective university is to be passed by a student in order to get placement in an affiliated college of that university for the specific subject category. In the test, a separate quota is also awarded for females and disadvantaged groups to create diversity and equality.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, arts, commerce, and science colleges provide four-year bachelor's degrees (BA, BSc, BBA, BCom, etc.). Generally these programs are of four years duration as elsewhere in the world and begin after completing higher secondary school education by receiving a Higher Secondary School Certificate (acknowledging one's twelve years of study by the respective board. After successful completion of these programs, a bachelor's degree is awarded by the respective university. Engineering and medical colleges provide four- and five-year degree programs, respectively, for bachelor's degrees (BE/BS/BSc Engg and MBBS) that also begin after higher secondary school year 12. The Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) degree program is of five years' duration.
Philippines
In the Philippines, where the term "course" is commonly used to refer to a bachelor's degree major, course of study or program, several undergraduate categories exist—the two most common degrees awarded being Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Bachelor of Arts (BA or AB). Specializations ("majors") in economics, business administration, social work, agriculture, nursing, accountancy, architecture and engineering are offered as BS degrees in most colleges and universities. Other common degrees are Bachelor in Education (BEd) and Bachelor of Laws (LLB, a professional degree). Being patterned after the United States, all universities and colleges offer graduation with honours – cum laude, magna cum laude, and summa cum laude.
South Korea
Universities, colleges, and institutions of higher learning provide the bachelor's degree, called 'haksa' (). For example, a university student who majored in literature and graduates obtains a BA, called 'munhaksa' (). Even if they do not go to an institution of higher learning, a person can get a bachelor's degree through the Bachelor's Degree Examination for Self-Education.
Sri Lanka
Recognized institutes of higher learning only are authorized to award degrees in Sri Lanka. Three years full-time bachelor's degree without an area of specialization is known as a general degree. A degree with a specialization (in accounting, chemistry, plant biotechnology, zoology, physics, engineering, IT, law, etc.) is known as an honors degree and requires four years (120 credits or more) of study and more entrance qualifications. A degree in medicine, an MBBS, requires a minimum of six years.
Europe
Bachelor's degrees exist in almost every country in Europe. However, these degrees were only recently introduced in some Continental European countries, where bachelor's degrees were unknown before the Bologna process. Some countries like France call it Licence. Undergraduate programs in Europe overall lead to the following most widely accepted degrees:
Bachelor of Science degree (BSc), 35%–40% of undergraduate programs;
Bachelor of Arts degree (BA), 30%–35% of undergraduate programs;
Bachelor of Laws degree (LLB), 1% of total programs, widely accepted in the law discipline.
The rest of the programs typically lead to a Bachelor of Engineering degree (BEng), Bachelor of Business Administration degree (BBA), or other variants. Also, associate degrees are rising in popularity on the undergraduate level in Europe.
On a per-country, per-discipline and sometimes even per-institute basis, the duration of an undergraduate degree program is typically three or four years, but can range anywhere from three to six years. This is an important factor in the student's decision-making process.
Austria
The historical situation in Austria was very similar to that in Germany, with the traditional first degrees being the magister and the diplom, which are master's-level qualifications. From 2004, bachelor's degrees have been reintroduced as part of the Bologna Process reforms. These can be studied at universities, leading to a bachelor's degree (BA or BSc) after three or four years, and at Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science), leading to a bachelor (FH) after three years.
Belgium
Education in Belgium is run by the language communities, with separate higher education systems being administered by the Flemish Community and the French Community. Both systems have been reformed to align with the Bologna Process, the Flemish Community from 2003 and the French Community from 2004. In the Flemish Community, bachelor's degrees may be either academic or professional. These degrees last three years, and may be followed in both cases by an advanced bachelor diploma (; ), lasting one year (c.f. the Australian bachelor honours degree). All of these qualifications are at level 6 on the EQF, to which the Flemish Qualification Framework was referenced in June 2011. In the French Community, universities award grade de bachelier (3 years) as the equivalent of bachelor's degrees. Outside of universities, professional programs may be type long (long type) or type court (short type), both of which are offered at hautes ecoles and ecoles supérieures des arts. The long type takes in a grade de bachelier (type long) (3 years), which is followed by a master degree (1 or 2 years), while the short type has a grade de bachelier professionnalisant (type court) (3 years), which may be followed by a bachelier de spécialisation (1 year). All bachelier degrees (including the bachelier de spécialisation) are equivalent to level 6 of the EQF, but have not been formally referenced.
Croatia
Most public universities and community colleges in Croatia today offer a three-year bachelor program, which can be followed up typically with a two-year master's (graduate) program.
All bachelor's degrees in Croatia are professional. For distinction, in universities the title is "univ. bacc." (university bachelor) and in community colleges is just "bacc.".
Zagreb School of Economics and Management has a four-year bachelor's program.
Academies that specialize in the arts, e.g. the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, have four-year bachelor's programs followed by a one-year master's.
Czech Republic
Historically, the baccalaureus was the undergraduate degree awarded to students who graduated from the course of trivium (grammar, dialectic and rhetoric) at a faculty of liberal arts (either at the Charles University or at the University of Olomouc). It was a necessary prerequisite to continue either with the faculty of liberal arts (quadrivium leading to a master's degree and further to a doctoral degree) or to study at one of the other three historical faculties—law, medicine or theology.
A bachelor's degree, abbreviated BcA, in the field of fine arts, and Bc (Bakalář in Czech) in other fields is awarded for accredited undergraduate programs at universities and colleges.
The vast majority of undergraduate programmes offered in the Czech Republic have a standard duration of three years.
In the Czech tertiary education system, most universities and colleges today offer a three-year bachelor program, which can be followed up typically with a two-year master's (graduate) program. Some specializations, such as doctors of medicine and veterinary doctors, hold exceptions from the general system in that the only option is a six-year master's program with no bachelor stage (graduate with title doctor). This is due mainly to the difficulty of meaningfully splitting up the education for these specialisations.
Denmark
The bachelor's degree was re-introduced at universities in Denmark in 1993, after the original degree (baccalaureus) was abandoned in 1775. The bachelor's degree is awarded after three or four years of study at a university and follows a scheme quite similar to the British one. Two bachelor's degrees are given at the university level today:
Bachelor of Science (BSc), awarded to students with main focus on scientific, medical, or technical areas;
Bachelor of Arts (BA), awarded to students whose main focus is on humanistic, theological, or jurisprudence areas.
However, both in the business and the academic world in Denmark, the bachelor's degree is still considered to be "the first half" of a master's (candidatus). It is often not considered a degree in its own right, despite the politicians' best attempts to make it more accepted.
The bachelor's degree has also been used since the late 1990s in a number of areas like nursing and teaching. Usually referred to as a "professional bachelor" (Danish: professionsbachelor), these degrees usually require 3 to years of combined theoretical and practical study at a "professional university college" (Danish: professionshøjskole) or "business academy" (Danish: "erhvervsakademier"). These professional bachelor's degrees do grant access to some university master's program. These professional bachelor's degrees are considered to be a full education.
France
The traditional bachelor's degree is the equivalent of the French Licence three-year degree. Since the new European system of 2004 LMD Bologna process was founded, it has become standard to recognize a bachelor's degree over three years with a licence degree, a master's degree over five years, and a doctorate over eight years.
Some private institutions are however literally naming their degrees bachelor. Some of these bachelor are "Diplômes visés" (often delivered by specialized private schools, such as business, design, film or journalism schools), others are "Diplômes certifiés" by the French State. The others are not accredited by the French State.
Germany
Historically, the bachelor's degree, called "Bakkalaureus", existed in Germany since the late Middle Ages. But it was abolished by the educational reforms undertaken in 1820. The Abitur degree – the final degree received in school after a specialized 'college phase' of two years – replaced it, and universities only awarded graduate degrees.
The magister degree, a graduate degree, was awarded after five years of study. In 1899, a second graduate degree, the diplom, was introduced when the Technische Hochschulen (TH) received university status. With the introduction of the universities of applied sciences, a shortened version of the latter, referred to as Diplom (FH) and designed to take three to four years, was phased in between 1969 and 1972.
However, in 1998, in order to comply with the European Bologna process, a new educational law reintroduced the bachelor's degree (first degree after three years of study) in Germany. Today, these degrees can be called either "Bakkalaureus" or "bachelor" (in accordance with federal law), but the English term is more common. According to the Bologna model, the bachelor is followed by the post-graduate master's degree of another two years. The traditional degrees of diplom and magister were mostly abolished in 2010, although the diplom still persists in a few subjects and universities and has been reintroduced as alternative degree in some places.
The traditional degrees have been re-mapped to the new European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) point system to make them comparable to the new bachelor's degree. Traditional and Bologna process degrees are ranked as follows in Germany:
Bachelor: 180, 210, or 240 ECTS points required;
Diplom FH: 240 ECTS;
Diplom Uni or TH: 300 ECTS;
Master: 300 ECTS (including bachelor).
Greece
The Greek bachelor's degree is called πτυχίο (transliterated to "ptychio"; Greek: πτυχίο; ptychio in dhimotiki from 1976–present; or defunct ; ptychion in polytonic, katharevousa up until 1976). It is earned after four to six years of undergraduate studies, depending on the field, and is a first cycle qualification in the Bologna Process with 240 or more ECTS credits. It is placed at level 6 of the national qualifications framework of Greece which is officially named Hellenic Qualification Framework (HQF), which is referenced to level 6 of the European Qualifications Framework. It is classified as a level 6 qualification in the ISCED.
The bachelor's degree is provided by all Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), including universities, specialist HEIs, formerly technological educational institutes (TEIs) (1983-2019).
In 1995, it changed TEI six-semester-mode of undergraduate degree programme of studies legally equivalent to an ordinary bachelor's degree (Ord) (-year; 210 ECTS, 1983–1995) into nine-semester-mode (4-year; 240 ECTS, 1995–2019). Technical universities and some universities offer a 5-year (300 ECTS) undergraduate programme leading to a Δίπλωμα (Greek) Diploma (integrated-master-level-granting, Master's degree equivalent) at Level 7 of the HQF.
Hungary
In the classic, pre-Bologna educational system, Hungarian academic programs were not divided into bachelor's and master's degrees. However, while an average university () degree lasted 5 years, there were undergraduate college () degrees obtainable, in either 3 or 4 years of length. These diplomas are today considered to be equivalents of a BA/BSc (undergraduate college) or an MA/MSc (university) degree.
The Bologna System was introduced in 2005, and with the last classes graduating in 2009, it is the sole form of higher education in the country. Bachelor's degrees (, "basic degree") usually last 3 years, but there are degrees in certain areas of education - most notably engineering, economics, and some natural sciences - where an additional semester is required, lengthening the program to 3,5 years. While regular master's degrees (, "master degree") are only obtainable with a pre-existing bachelor's degree, the Hungarian system makes notable exceptions with law degrees, teacher's degrees, medical degrees, and some unique fields of study (i.e. forestry engineering at the University of Sopron): these degrees are called non-divisional degrees (), and while technically being MA/MSc degrees, they have the same entering criteria as BA/BSc degrees, and have a span of 5 or 6 years.
Italy
Italian students graduate from high school at age 19, and the current higher education system includes:
"laurea triennale" (three-year degree) or simply "laurea", corresponds to bachelor's degree. The course takes three years to complete and grants access to graduate degrees.
"laurea magistrale", corresponds to master's degree and takes two years to complete.
"laurea magistrale a ciclo unico", (one cycle degree) is a title provided by particular faculties like law school and medical school. It takes 5 to 6 year to complete and grants the access to a profession.
A bachelor's degree holder has the title of "dottore" (doctor)
A master's degree holder has the title of "dottore magistrale" (master doctor)
In order to graduate, students must earn credits (ECTS) and write a thesis for which students have to elaborate on an argument under the supervision of a professor (generally from three to eight ECTS). Graduation marks go from 66 to 110. According to each faculty internal ruling, a lode may be awarded to candidates with a 110/110 mark for recognition of the excellence of the final project.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the bachelor's degree was introduced in 2002 with the change of the Dutch degree system due to the European Bologna process. Until that time, the Dutch universities did not have a Bachelor level degree (although the Candidate's diploma existed until 1982, which was more-or-less of the same level). Prior to the Dutch degree system change a single program at the university comprised the same course load as the bachelor's and master's programs together which led to the doctorandus degree (or for legal studies to the "Meester in de rechten" and engineering to "Ingenieur"). In 2002, with the introduction of the Bachelor's master's doctorate system, the single (4- or 5-year) program at Dutch universities has been changed and split into a 3-year program leading to the bachelor's degree and a subsequent a 1- or 2-year program leading to the master's degree.
Those who had already started the doctorandus program could, upon completing it, opt for the doctorandus degree (before their name, abbreviated to 'drs.'), or simply use the master's degree (behind their name) in accordance with the new standard. Since these graduates do not have a separate bachelor's degree (which is in fact – in retrospect – incorporated into the program), the master's degree is their first academic degree.
In 2003/2004, the Dutch degree system was changed because of the Bologna process. Former degrees included:
baccalaureus (bc. for bachelor, corresponding to a BASc or BAA degree, it may be formally rendered as "B", followed by the specialization field, instead of "bc.")
doctorandus (prefix abbreviated to drs.; it corresponds to MA or MSc, but it may be formally rendered as M instead of drs.),
ingenieur (ing.) for graduates of the four-year courses offered by Dutch higher vocational colleges (HBO, that is; hoger beroepsonderwijs) see: university of applied science. It is similar to a BASc, BEng, BBE, BAS or BICT (BIT., and it may be formally rendered as B followed by the specialization field, instead of ing.
ir. for those having graduated from technical university after a minimum of five years, corresponding to a MSc, but it may be formally rendered as M, instead of ir.),
meester in de rechten (mr.; it corresponds to LLM, but it may be formally rendered as M instead of mr.) and
doctor (dr.; it corresponds to PhD, but it may formally be rendered as D instead of dr.) are still granted along with their international equivalents.
While the titles ing., bc., ir., mr., drs. and dr. are used before one's own name, the degrees B, M or D are mentioned after one's name. It is still allowed to use the traditional titles.
Whether a bachelor's degree is granted by a hogeschool or university is highly relevant since these parallel systems of higher education have traditionally served somewhat different purposes, with the vocational colleges mainly concentrating on skills and practical training. A BA or BSc from a university grants "immediate" entry into a master's program. Moreover, this is usually considered a formality to allow students to switch to foreign universities master's programs. Meanwhile, those having completed a HBO from a vocational college, which represented the highest possible level of vocational education available, can only continue to a "master's" on completion of a challenging year of additional study, which in itself can serve as a type of selection process, with the prospective MSc students being required to cover a great deal of ground in a single year.
Recently, HBO (vocational) master's degrees have been introduced in the Netherlands. Graduates thereof may use neither the extension "of Arts" (MA) nor "of Science" (MSc). They may use an M followed by the field of specialization (e.g., MDes).
This year of study to "convert" from the vocational to academic (WO – wetenschappelijk onderwijs, literally "scientific education") is also known as a "bridge" or "premasters" year. Note that despite the use of the terminology "university of applied science" the higher vocational colleges are not considered to be "universities" within the Netherlands.
Important aspects of Dutch bachelor's degree courses (and others) relative to some of those offered abroad include:
Duration. While in many countries courses are completed in a given time under normal circumstances, degree courses offered at some (though by no means all) Dutch institutions, including the most prestigious, can only be completed in three years by the best performing students.
Academic year. The Dutch academic year has a formal duration of 42 weeks. In practice students are often expected and required to spend a great deal of the "free" time revising for examinations. This is not always true elsewhere, as in many countries a very long summer break is taken or examinations are before the winter break rather than after.
Learning curve. Some education systems, notably the British one, involve a gentle introduction during the first year. This is generally not the case in the Netherlands, with the difficulty level in the first year serving as a type of "self-selection" with less committed and less able students routinely finding it difficult to keep up.
In February 2011, the Dutch State Secretary of Education decided to adhere to the recommendations written in a report by the Veerman Commission. In the near future, the distinction between academic and higher vocational degrees will disappear.
North Macedonia
In 2003, the German-style education system was changed to conform to the ECTS because of the Bologna process. The existing academic degree granted with a diploma was transformed into a baccalaureus (bachelor's degree). The universities usually award a bachelor's degree after three years (following which, a master's degree will be two years long) or four years (following which, a master's degree will be one year long).
Norway
A bachelor's degree in Norway requires three years of full-time studies, that is, 180 ECTS. There are some exceptions, for example physiotherapy. Norwegian bachelor's degrees are either programme bachelor's degrees or elective bachelor's degrees.
Poland
In Poland, the licentiate degree corresponds to the bachelor's degree in Anglophone countries. In Polish, it is called licencjat. To obtain the licencjat degree, one must complete three years of study. There is also a similar degree called engineer (inżynier) which differs from the licencjat in that it is awarded by technical universities and the program usually lasts for 3.5 years. After that, the student can continue education for 2 or 1.5 years, respectively, to obtain a magister degree, which corresponds to a master's degree.
Portugal
Presently, the bachelor's degree in Portugal does not exist.
Before the Bologna process (2006/2007), the bacharelato (bachelor's degree) existed in the Portuguese higher education system. It required three years of study, being roughly equivalent to the present licenciatura. At that time, the licenciatura referred to a licentiate's degree (equivalent to the present master's degree), which required usually five years of study. A licenciatura could also be obtained by performing two years of study after obtaining a bacharelato.
Today, the former and current licenciatura degrees are referred in Portugal, respectively, as pre-Bologna and post-Bologna licenciaturas.
Russia, Azerbaijan and Armenia
The specialist's degree (), was the first academic distinction in the Soviet Union, awarded to students upon completion of five-year studies at the university level. The degree can be compared both to the bachelor's and master's degree. In the early 1990s, Bakalavr (Бакалавр, "bachelor") degrees were introduced in all the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States except Turkmenistan. After the bakalavr degree (usually four years), one can earn a master's degree (another one or two years) while preserving the old five-year specialist scheme.
Spain
In Spain, due to the ongoing transition to a model compliant with the Bologna agreement, exact equivalents to the typical Anglosphere bachelor's degree and master's degree are being implemented progressively. Currently, there is an undergraduate bachelor's degree called "título de grado" or simply "grado" (its duration generally being four years), a postgraduate master's degree called "título de máster" or "máster" (between one and two years), and a doctor's degree called "título de doctor" or "doctorado". The "título de grado" is now the prerequisite to access a master's degree. The "título de máster" is now the prerequisite to access doctoral studies, and its duration and the kind of institutions that can teach these programs are regulated in the framework of the European Higher Education Area.
Spanish university qualifications are now defined by law (currently RD 1509 of 12 September 2008), included the 2008 reform was the replacement of the Catalog of titles by the Registry of Universities, Centers and Titles (RUCT)
Up until 2009/2010, the system was split into three categories of degrees. There were the so-called first-cycle degrees: "diplomado" or "ingeniero técnico", with nominal durations varying between three and four years; there were also second-cycle degrees: "licenciado" or "ingeniero" with nominal durations varying between four and six years; and finally the third-cycle degrees: "doctor". The official first-cycle degrees are comparable in terms of duration, scope, and educational outcomes to an Anglo-Saxon bachelor's degree. Meanwhile, the second-cycle degrees are comparable in terms of duration, scope, and educational outcomes to an Anglo-Saxon bachelor's + master's degrees combination if compared with the Anglo-Saxon system. In this traditional system the access to doctoral studies was granted only to the holders of "licenciado", "ingeniero" or "arquitecto" (second-cycle) degrees, and the "master" or "magister" titles were unregulated (so, there coexisted so-called "master" programs with different durations, from some months to two years, backed by universities or centers without any official recognition) and only the reputation of the program/institution could back them.
Specialisation now includes about 800 specific recognised study programmes and qualification titles although he former general qualification nomenclature has been retained so that grade/licencado is approximately BA or BSc while maestro generally indicates a practice licence similar to MA and doctorado a PhD published original research thesis.
Note: The Anglophone Bachelor's degree should not be confused with the official university entrance precursor, the Spanish Baccalaureate qualification available to Year Twelve students. That qualification is distinct from the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme for young adults with similar aspirations.
Sweden
The Swedish equivalent of a bachelor's degree is called kandidatexamen. It is earned after three years of studies, of which at least a year and a half in the major subject. A thesis of at least 15 ECTS credits must be included in the degree.
As part of the Bologna process, Sweden aligned the length of its undergraduate and graduate programmes. Previously, there was a Bachelor of Law degree (juris kandidat) which required 4.5 years of study, but this degree now has a new name, juristexamen (and is now a master's degree called "Master of Laws").
Similarly, the graduate engineering degree previously known as Civilingenjör was 4.5 years long, but was split into an undergraduate bachelor's degree of 3 years (180 ECTS credits) and a Master's degree of 2 years (120 credits).
Switzerland
Like Austria and Germany, Switzerland did not have a tradition of bachelor's and master's degrees. In 2003, after the application of the Bologna process, bachelor's and graduate master's degrees replaced the old degrees. the Rectors' Conference of the Swiss Universities granted holders of a lizentiat or diploma the right to use the corresponding master title. , certificates of equivalence are issued by the university that issued the original degree. Currently three to four years of study are required to be awarded a bachelor's degree. A master's degree will require another two to three years of coursework and a thesis.
Turkey
There are institutions which award bachelor's degrees in almost every city in Turkey. Examples are Ankara University, Bilkent University, Boğaziçi University, Marmara University, Hacettepe University, Istanbul Bilgi University, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul University, Koç University, Middle East Technical University, Sabancı University, Yeditepe University, Gaziantep University, Istanbul Gelisim University and Yıldız Technical University. They all grant bachelor of arts or science degrees upon completion of an eight-semester course. There are opportunities to undertake a double major. Turkey is participating in the Bologna Process.
United Kingdom
The bachelor's degree is the standard undergraduate degree in the United Kingdom, with the most common degrees being the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BSc). Most bachelor's degree courses (apart from the very rare postgraduate awards, and those in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science) lead to honours degrees, with ordinary degrees generally only being awarded to those who do not meet the required pass mark for an honours degree. With the exception of the postgraduate bachelor's degrees and bachelor's degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science, UK bachelor's degrees (whether honours or non-honours) are first cycle (end of cycle) qualifications under the Bologna Process. Postgraduate bachelor's degrees and bachelor's degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are second cycle (end of cycle) qualifications. Some bachelor's degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science offer intercalated degrees en route to the final qualification.
Bachelor's degrees should not be confused with baccalaureate qualifications, which derive their name from the same root. In the UK, baccalaureate qualifications, e.g. International Baccalaureate, Welsh Baccalaureate, English Baccalaureate, are gained at secondary schools rather than being degree-level qualifications.
Until the 19th century, a bachelor's degree represented the first degree in a particular faculty, with Arts representing undergraduate study, thus the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) at Oxford and the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) at Cambridge, for example, were postgraduate degrees. Vestiges of this system still remain in the ancient universities, with Oxford and Cambridge awarding BAs for undergraduate degrees in both arts and sciences (although both award undergraduate BTh degrees through associated theological colleges, and Oxford awards BFA degrees in addition to the BA) and defining other bachelor's degrees (e.g., BPhil, BCL) as postgraduate awards equivalent to master's degrees, although many postgraduate bachelor's degrees have now been replaced by equivalent master's degrees (e.g., LLM for the LLB at Cambridge and MSc for the BSc at Oxford). The same historical usage of indicating an undergraduate degree by it being in the faculty of arts rather than being a bachelor's degree gives rise to the Oxbridge MA and the Scottish MA).
Common bachelor's degrees and abbreviations:
Bachelor of Arts: BA
Bachelor of Science: BSc
Bachelor of Laws: LLB
Bachelor of Civil Law: BCL
Bachelor of Engineering: BEng
Bachelor of Education: BEd
Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery: MBBS, MBBCh, BMBS, BMBCh
Bachelor of Dental Surgery: BDS
England, Wales and Northern Ireland
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, bachelor's degrees usually take three years of study to complete, although courses may take four years where they include a year abroad or a placement year. Degrees may have titles related to their broad subject area or faculty, such as BA or BSc, or may be more subject specific (e.g. BEng or LLB). The majority of bachelor's degrees are now honours degrees, although this has not always been the case historically.
Although first degree courses are usually three years (360 credits), direct second year entry is sometimes possible for students transferring from other courses or those who have completed foundation degrees, via accreditation of prior learning or more formal credit transfer arrangements. Some universities compress the three-year course into two years by teaching for a full calendar year (180 credits) rather than a standard academic year (120 credits), thus maintaining the full 360-credit extent of the course.
In addition to bachelor's degrees, some institutions offer integrated master's degrees as first degrees in some subjects (particularly in STEM fields). These integrate teaching at bachelor's and master's level in a four-year (five-year if with industrial experience) course, which often shares the first two years with the equivalent bachelor's course.
The normal academic standard for bachelor's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is the honours degree. These are normally classified into one of four classes of honours, depending upon the marks gained in examinations and other assessments:
First class honours (1st)
Second class honours, divided into:
Upper division, or upper second (2:1)
Lower division, or lower second (2:2)
Third class honours (3rd)
Some institutions have announced that they intend to replace this system of classifying honours degrees with an American-style Grade Point Average. An ordinary (or unclassified) degree, which only requires passes worth 300 credits rather than the 360 of the honours degree, may be awarded if a student has completed the full honours degree course but has not obtained sufficient passes to earn a degree. Completion of just the first two years of the course can lead to a Diploma of Higher Education and completion of only the first year to a Certificate of Higher Education.
On the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, standard undergraduate bachelor's degrees with and without honours are at level 6, although the courses include learning across levels 4 to 6. Honours degrees normally require 360 credits with a minimum of 90 at level 6, while ordinary degrees need 300 credits with a minimum of 60 at level 6. Bachelor's degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are at level 7, with learning spanning levels 4 to 7, and are not normally credit rated. The Diploma of Higher Education is a level 5 (second year of bachelor's degree) qualification and requires 240 credits, a minimum of 90 at level 5; The Certificate of Higher Education is a level 4 (first year of bachelor's degree) qualification and requires 120 credits, a minimum of 90 at level 4.
Other qualifications at level 6 of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications or the Regulated Qualifications Framework, such as graduate diplomas and certificates, some BTEC Advanced Professional awards, diplomas and certificates, and the graduateship of the City & Guilds of London Institute are at the same level as bachelor's degrees, although not necessarily representing the same credit volume.
Scotland
At Scottish universities, bachelor's degrees (and the equivalent Scottish MA awarded by some institutions) are normally honours degrees, taking four years of study (or five with a year abroad or in industry), but may also be ordinary degrees (also known as pass, general or designated degrees) requiring three years of study. Honours degrees may be awarded as BA (Hons) or MA (Hons) in the arts and social sciences, or BSc (Hons) for sciences, or have more specific titles such as BEng. As in the rest of the UK, integrated master's degrees, taking five years in Scotland, are also offered as first degrees alongside bachelor's degrees.
An honours degree may be directly linked to professional or vocational qualifications, particularly in fields such as engineering, surveying and architecture. These courses tend to have highly specified curricula, leaving students without many options for broader study. Others, following a more traditional route, start off with a broad range of studies across the faculty that has admitted the student or, via modular study, across the whole university. Students on these courses specialise later in their degree programmes. Typically degree grades are based only on the final two years of study, after a specialisation has been chosen, so broader study courses taken in the first two years do not affect the final degree grade.
Honours degrees are subdivided into classes in the same way as the rest of the UK, depending on the overall grade achieved. These are, from highest to lowest; first class, upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), and third class.
Ordinary degrees are awarded to students who have completed three years at university studying a variety of related subjects. These may be taken over a broad range of subjects or (as with honours degrees) with a specialisation in a particular subject (in the latter case, they are sometimes known s designated degrees). As ordinary degrees in Scotland constitute a distinct course of study, rather than a grade below honours degrees, they can be graded (from lowest to highest) as "pass", "merit" or "distinction". As in the rest of the UK, Certificates and Diplomas of Higher Education may be earned by those completing one and two years of a bachelor's degree course respectively.
The first two years, sometimes three, of both an ordinary degree and an honours degree are identical, but candidates for the ordinary degree study in less depth in their final year and often over a wider variety of subjects, and do not usually complete a dissertation. A Scottish ordinary degree is thus different from ordinary degrees in the rest of the UK in comprising a distinct course of study from the honours degree. In keeping with the Scottish "broad education" philosophy, ordinary degrees (and more rarely honours ones) may mix different disciplines such as sciences and humanities taught in different faculties and in some cases even different universities.
Bachelor's degrees with honours are at level 10 of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) and require 480 credits with a minimum of 90 at level 10 and 90 at level 9. Ordinary degrees are at level 9 and require 360 credits with a minimum of 90 at level 9. Both honours degrees and ordinary degrees qualify as first cycle (end of cycle) qualifications in the Bologna Process. Bachelor's degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are at level 11 of the SCQF and are second cycle (end of cycle) qualifications in the Bologna Process.
Oceania
Australia
In Australia, a "bachelor degree" is normally a three to four-year program, leading to a qualification at level 7 of the Australian Qualifications Framework. Entry to a number of professions, such as law practice and teaching, require a bachelor's degree (a 'professional' degree). Other degrees, such as Bachelor of Arts don't necessarily elicit entry into a profession, though many organisations require a bachelor's degree for employment.
A one-year postgraduate bachelor honours degree can be achieved as a consecutive stand-alone course following a bachelor's degree in the same field, or as an additional year as part of a bachelor's degree program. The honours course is normally only open to those who do well in their bachelor's degree program and involves study at a more advanced level than that bachelor's degree. Both the bachelor and bachelor honours degrees are aligned with level 6 of the EQF, the same as British and Irish bachelor's degrees with and without honours, and other Bologna Process first cycle qualifications.
Some bachelor's degrees (e.g. engineering and environmental science) include an integrated honours degree as part of a four-year program. Honours is generally for students who want to take up a research track for postgraduate studies, and increasingly for those who want an extra edge in the job market. Marking scales for Honours differ; generally, First Class Honours (85–100%) denotes an excellent standard of achievement; Second Class Division 1 (75–84%) a high standard; Second Class Division 2 (65–74%) a good standard; Third Class (50–64%) satisfactory standard; a final mark below 50% is a fail of the course.
Bachelor honours degrees include a major Independent research component, allowing students to develop skills that will enable them to proceed to further study or to work in research roles in industry. First-class or second-class (upper division) honours are generally required for entry into doctoral programs (e.g. PhDs, etc.); an alternative route to doctoral study is via a "masters degree".
New Zealand
In New Zealand, only recognised institutions – usually universities and polytechnics – have degree-awarding powers.
Most bachelor's degrees are three years full-time, but certain degrees, such as the Bachelor of Laws and the Bachelor of Engineering degrees, require four years of study. A bachelor with honours is a program of four years duration (e.g., Bachelor of Arts with Honours). A Bachelor of Medicine degree requires a minimum of six years.
Where students opt to study two bachelor's degrees simultaneously – referred to as a "conjoint degree" or "double degree" – an extra year of study is added. The number of years of study required is determined based on the degree with the greatest number of years. For example, a BCom degree requires three years of full-time study, but a double BCom–LLB degree will require five years of full-time study because the LLB degree is four years long. Exceptional students may choose to complete a degree in a shorter amount of time by taking on extra courses, usually with the help of summer school. Students who complete a double degree program will have two separate bachelor's degrees at the end of their studies.
Consistently high-performing students may also be invited to complete the 'honours' program. The bachelor with honours usually requires an extra year of study with an extra honours thesis/dissertation. This degree is considered to fall between the bachelor's and master's levels on the European Qualifications Framework. An honours award is indicated by the addition of "Hons" to the degree name or abbreviation (for example, "Bachelor of Laws (Hons)"). Some honours degree courses also offer a postgraduate diploma (PGDip) as an exit qualification, which often consists of the same workload but with added flexibility. A PGDip does not usually require a dissertation. However, the student may complete one if desired. A diploma award is indicated by "PGDip" and the degree field (for example, "PGDipArts" or "PGDipScience".
Subjects
Many other specialized bachelor's degrees are offered as well. Some are in very specialized areas, like the five-year BIDes or BScIDes degree in industrial design. Others are offered only at a limited number of universities, such as the Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University's Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (BSFS). The University of Delaware offers a Bachelor of Applied Arts and Science (BAASc) degree, a degree which often indicates an interdisciplinary course of study for many majors within its School of Arts and Science. Stanford University's Bachelor of Arts and Science degree is for students who are receiving one degree but who have completed two arts and sciences majors, one of which would ordinarily lead to the BA and one of which would ordinarily lead to the BSc.
At many institutions one can only complete a two-degree program if the bachelor's degrees to be earned are of different types (e.g., one could earn a BA in philosophy and a BScCEng in chemical engineering simultaneously, but a person studying philosophy and English would receive only a single BA with the two majors). Rules on this vary considerably, however.
Agriculture
The Bachelor of Science in Agriculture [BSc (Ag) or BSc (Hons) Agriculture] offers a broad training in the sciences. The focus of this four-year applied degree is on the development of analytical, quantitative, computing and communication skills. Students learn how to apply the knowledge and principles of science to the understanding and management of the production, processing and marketing of agricultural products, and to the management and conservation of our natural resources. All students undertake rural field trips and approved professional experience within agricultural or horticultural enterprises, natural resource management, agribusiness industries, or commercial or government organisations active in the field.
Architecture and design
The Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) degree is a professional degree awarded to students who complete the five-year course of study in the field at some universities. Many universities offer a BSc or BA (majoring in architecture) after the first three or four years, and then a post-graduate diploma, BArch or MArch for the following two to four years.
The Bachelor of Design (BDes, or S.Ds. in Indonesia) is awarded to those who complete the four- or four-and-a-half-year course of study in design, usually majoring in a specific field of design, such as interior design or graphic design.
The Bachelor of Industrial Design (BID) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by a university for a four-year course of study that specializes on the design of industrial products. Some colleges also offer four-year B.I.D. programs.
Arts
The Bachelor of Arts degrees (BA, AB; also known as Artium Baccalaureus) along with the Bachelor of Science degrees are the most common undergraduate degrees given. Originally, in the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin, all undergraduate degrees were in the faculty of arts, hence the name of the degree. The Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences (BAASc) is an undergraduate degree that bridges academic and work-life experiences.
Engineering
The Bachelor of Engineering degree or Bachelor of Applied Science degree or Bachelor of Science in Engineering degree is a professional degree awarded to students who have completed the three or four-year course of study in engineering. Common abbreviations include BEng, BASc, AMIE and BScEng. The BAI (baccalaureus in arte ingeniaria) degree is awarded by the University of Dublin (Trinity College Dublin). Some South African universities refer to their engineering degrees as BIng (Baccalaureus Ingeniaria).
Bachelor of Engineering degrees available to study include: aerospace, automotive, chemical, civil, computer, electrical & electronic (E&E), industrial, mechatronic, and mechanical engineering.
Business and management
Computer science and information systems
There are various undergraduate degrees in information technology incorporating programming, database design, software engineering, networks and information systems. These programs prepare graduates for further postgraduate research degrees or for employment in a variety of roles in the information technology industry. The program focus may be on the technical or theoretical aspects of the subject matter, depending on which course is taken.
Theoretically oriented degrees focus on computer science and are correspondingly titled. These include the Bachelor of Computing (BComp) and Bachelor of Computer Science (BCompSc) degrees. Computer science is also offered as a major within most Bachelor of Science programs.
The practically oriented degrees cover many disciplines from within the IT industry including software engineering, information systems, and data communications. Examples here include the Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (BScIT), the Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA), the Bachelor of Information Technology, and the Bachelor of Applied Science (Information Technology) (BAScIT)) degrees. Many of the disciplines taught as part of these degrees are covered under other degrees, such as engineering, as well.
Degrees combining IT with business study are also offered at many universities. Specialized programs in information systems—such as the Bachelor of Business Information Systems (BBIS) program—are often positioned as professionally oriented degrees. More general degrees here would include business degrees, such as the BBA or BCom, with information systems as a concentration.
Economics
A Bachelor of Economics (BEcon, BSc(Econ) and BEc) is awarded in British and Commonwealth institutions after following a rigorous programme of theoretical quantitative economic learning. Programmes usually include study of both microeconomics and macroeconomics, alongside empirical work in the form of econometrics. Economics can also be offered as a Bachelor of Science (with a more general focus on the quantitative methods) or a Bachelor of Arts (with a qualitative focus on the concepts). The Bachelor of Economics is substantially more theoretical and mathematical then the more commonly offered brethren.
Health care
Medicine
In countries following British tradition (the University of Malta is an exception), medical students pursue an undergraduate medical education and receive bachelor's degrees in medicine and surgery (MBBChir, MBBS, BMBS, BM, MBChB, etc.).
This was historically taken at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin after the initial BA degree, and in Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin the BA is still awarded for the initial three years of medical study, with the BMBCh, MBBChir, or MBBChBAO, respectively, being awarded for the subsequent clinical stage of training. Some British universities give a bachelor's degree in science, or medical science, midway through the medical course, and most allow students to intercalate a year of more specialized study for an intercalated Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Medical Science (BMedSc), or Bachelor of Medical Biology (BMedBiol) degree with honors.
Although notionally MB and BS are two degrees, they must be taken together. In some Irish universities, a third degree, Bachelor of Arts in Obstetrics (BAO), is added. However, this third degree is an anachronism from the 19th century and is not registerable with the Irish Medical Council. In the UK, these qualifications, while retaining the title of bachelor's degrees, are master's degree level qualifications.
Use of the courtesy title of doctor is attached to the profession of doctor or physician and is granted by registration, not by earning the qualifying degree. Trainee doctors in the UK are allowed to use the title once they begin their training and receive provisional registration.
The Canadian MD degree is, despite its name, classified as a bachelor's degree.
Dentistry
Dentistry is offered both as an undergraduate and a postgraduate course. In countries following the British model, the first degree in dentistry is the Bachelor of Dental Surgery, which is a master's degree level qualification in the UK. In some parts of the world, the doctorate of dental surgery (DDS) is the usual undergraduate program. Postgraduate courses such as the Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent) – awarded exclusively by the University of Sydney in Australia – require a previous bachelor's degree.
Midwifery
The Bachelor of Midwifery degree is a professional degree awarded to students who have complete a three- to five-year (depending on the country) course of study in midwifery. Common abbreviations include BScMid, BM, BMid and BHScMid.
Physiotherapy
Physiotherapy is offered both as an undergraduate and a graduate course of study. Studies leading to the Bachelor of Physiotherapy (BPT) degree usually constitute the undergraduate program. In the graduate program, courses leading to a degree such as the Master of Physiotherapy degree are offered.
In the Canadian province of Quebec, French universities offer both undergraduate and graduate courses leading to the procurement of a Bachelor of Science degree with a major in physiotherapy and a Master of Science degree specialized in physiotherapy. McGill University, the Université de Montréal, and the Université de Sherbrooke are among the post-secondary institutions that offer such programs.
Optometry
Optometry is a four-year or five-year course. Although students graduate with a BSc after three years of study, passing a further supervised preregistration year is required to become a fully qualified optometrist. The National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences is among the post-secondary institutions that offer such programs. It is the academic arm of The Tun Hussein Onn National Eye Hospital and the only eye hospital based institution in Malaysia.
Nursing
The Bachelor of Nursing degree is a three- to five-year undergraduate degree that prepares students for a career in nursing. Often the degree is required to gain "registered nurse", or equivalent, status—subject to completion of exams in the area of residence. Sometimes, though, the degree is offered only to nurses who are already registered. Alternative titles include Bachelor of Science in Nursing and Bachelor of Nursing Science, with abbreviations BScN, BN and BNSc.
Paramedicine
Paramedicine is offered both as an undergraduate and a postgraduate course in some countries. The Bachelor of Paramedicine (BScP, BP, BHScP) is a three- to a five-year undergraduate degree that prepares students for a career in paramedicine, paramedic services or emergency medical services. Countries such as Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa have established paramedicine degree programs. The United States does not require a degree for paramedicine practice.
Veterinary science
The Bachelor of Veterinary Science program is generally a five-year course of study that is required for becoming a veterinarian. It is also known as the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery at some universities (BVMS). In the UK, this is a master's degree level qualification that retains the title of bachelor's for historical reasons. In the United States, no bachelor's degree of veterinary science is given, only the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree is.
Pharmacy
The Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) degree is a common undergraduate degree for the practice of pharmacy. In the United States, Canada, and France, however, all colleges of pharmacy have now phased out the degree in favor of the PharmD, or doctor of pharmacy, degree or the PhD, doctor of philosophy, degree in pharmacy. Some universities, such as the University of Mississippi, award a Bachelor of Science in Pharmaceutical Sciences (BScPSc) degree as a part of the seven-year PharmD program after the completion of the first four years. However, the BScPSc degree does not qualify the recipient for the practice of pharmacy, for which students must earn a PharmD degree.
Public health
Public health is usually studied at the master's degree level. Australia is one of the few countries where studies in Public Health are available at undergraduate level. Indeed, Australian undergraduate students may major in specific areas of Public Health such as Health Promotion/Education, Epidemiology, Healthcare Administration and Public Health Nutrition. The Bachelor of Science in Public Health (BScPH) degree is a four-year undergraduate degree that prepares students for careers in the public, private, or nonprofit sectors in areas such as public health, environmental health, health administration, epidemiology, or health policy and planning.
Medical and health sciences
The Bachelor of Health Science (BHSc/BSHS) is a specialized degree awarded to students whose studies have focused on health care, health sciences, or health professions. Specific areas of study can include nursing, radiography, health care management, and health education among the other broad areas of health sciences. Some BHSc/BSHS programs are intended for prerequisite study to professional graduate programs, including physical therapy, physician assistant studies, and medicine. The degree is typically awarded following four to five years of collegiate study.
The title BMedSc, BBioMedSc, BMedSc or BVMedSc is granted to students who have qualified in the field of biomedical science and medical science or veterinary medical science respectively. Universities that offer this course include the University of Western Ontario in Canada, University of Birmingham in the UK and the University of New South Wales, the University of Canberra, the University of Queensland, the University of Sydney, RMIT University, Flinders University, Griffith University, Monash University, Australian National University and the University of Melbourne in Australia.
The degree of BMedSc can be awarded for students completing an intercalated degree whilst studying medicine as an intermediate award. The degree of BMedSc may also be awarded to an individual who, having followed the prescribed course of study for the degrees of MBChB, does not complete the undergraduate clinical training. In brief, this is normally awarded after the candidate has completed successfully the first three years of an undergraduate medical degree at certain UK (and Commonwealth) medical institutions.
The Bachelor of Science in human biology degree is awarded by several universities around the world and focuses on biomedical research, health care, biotech business, pharmaceutical sciences, or a combination thereof.
Kinesiology
The Bachelor of Kinesiology degree (BK or BScK)is a specialized degree in the field of human movement and kinetics. Some schools still offer it under the aegis of a School of Physical Education (BPEd or BHPEd), although "kinesiology" or "human kinetics" is currently the more popularly accepted term for the discipline.
Nutrition and dietetics
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics (BSND), Bachelor of Food Science and Nutrition (BFSN)
Specific areas of study include clinical nutrition, food technology, hospitality and services management, research, community worker, health care management, educator, sports science, agricultural sciences, private practice and other allied health fields.
The degree is awarded following four to six years of collegiate study in America (average five years), from three to four in Europe and Australia. In America (especially Latin America), Nutrition per se is separated from Dietetics, where the latter is equivalent to a technical degree.
Aviation
The Bachelor of Aviation (BAv) is awarded to students who complete a four-year course of study in the field of aviation.
Divinity and theology
The Bachelor of Divinity, Bachelor of Theology, Bachelor of Religious Studies, Bachelor of Biblical Studies, and Bachelor of Religious Education (BD, BTh, BRS, BBS, and BRE) degrees are awarded on completion of a program of study of divinity or related disciplines, such as theology, religious studies, or religious education.
Traditionally, the BD was a graduate degree rather than a first degree and typically emphasised academic theology, biblical languages, etc. However, this has become a less common arrangement.
While the theological bachelor's degree is generally conferred upon completion of a four-year program, it is also conferred in some specialized three-year programs. From there, the next level of advancement is generally the Master of Divinity (MDiv), Master of Theology (ThM), Master of Religious Studies, or Master of Religious Education (MRE) degree. In the United States, the "mainline" Protestant clergy typically take a four-year bachelor's degree in whatever field they choose, then earn the MDiv (Master of Divinity) degree in an additional three years as part of preparation for ordination.
Fine arts
The Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree is a specialized degree awarded for courses of study in the fine arts, frequently by an arts school or conservatory, although it is equally available at a significant number of traditional colleges and universities. In contrast to the BA or BS, which are generally considered to be academic degrees, the BFA is usually referred to as a professional degree, whose recipients have generally received four years of study and training in their major field as compared to the two years of study in the major field usually found in most traditional non-Commonwealth Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science programs.
In the United States, the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree differs from a Bachelor of Arts degree in that the majority of the program consists of a practical studio component, as contrasted with lecture and discussion classes. A typical BFA program in the United States consists of two-thirds study in the arts, with one-third in more general liberal arts studies. For a BA in art, the ratio might be reversed.
Film and television
The Bachelor of Film and Television (BFTV) degree is an undergraduate degree for the study of film and television production including areas of cinematography, directing, film production, script writing, sound, screenwriting, animation, and typography.
Integrated studies
The Bachelor of Integrated Studies (BIS) is an interdisciplinary bachelor's degree offered by several universities in the United States and Canada. It allows students to design a customized and specific course of study to best suit their educational and professional objectives. Generally, this degree is sponsored by two or more departments within the university. Schools which confer the BIS degree include the University of Manitoba, Pittsburg State University, University of South Carolina Upstate, Weber State University, Ferris State University, Arizona State University, University of Minnesota, Miami University (Ohio), the University of Virginia, the University of New Brunswick, George Mason University, and Tallinn University of Technology amongst others.
Journalism
The Bachelor of Journalism (BAJ or BScJ) degree is a professional degree awarded to students who have studied journalism at a four-year accredited university. Not all universities, however, grant this degree. In the United States, schools tend to offer the BA or BS with a major in journalism instead. The world's oldest school of journalism at the University of Missouri offers a BJ degree, not to be confused with the bachelor's degree in jurisprudence at Oxford University. In South Africa, Rhodes University has the oldest school of journalism in Africa and allows students to take a fourth-year specialisation to raise their BA to BAJ status, equivalent to a BA (Hons).
Landscape architecture
The Bachelor of Landscape Architecture (B.L.Arch.) degree is awarded to students who complete the five- (in some countries four-) year course of study in the field.
Liberal arts
The Bachelor of Liberal Arts, Bachelor of General Studies, Bachelor of Liberal Studies, Bachelor of Science in general studies, or Bachelor of Applied Studies (BLA, BGS, BLS, BScGS, BAS) degree is sometimes awarded to students who major in the liberal arts, in general, or in interdisciplinary studies. The Bachelor of Professional Studies is awarded to students who major in professional career studies.
Library science
The Bachelor of Library Science or Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLSc, BLISc) degree is sometimes awarded to students who major in library science, although Master of Library Science degrees are more common.
Music
The Bachelor of Music (BMus) degree is a professional or academic undergraduate degree in music at most conservatories in the US and the UK. It is also commonly awarded at schools of music in large private or public universities. Areas of study typically include music performance, music education, music therapy, music composition, academic fields (music history/musicology, music theory, ethnomusicology), and may include jazz, commercial music, recording technology, sacred music/music ministry, or music business. Small liberal arts colleges and universities without schools of music often award only BA in music, with different sets of requirements. (see also: BFA)
Nonprofit studies
A Bachelor of Nonprofit and Nongovernmental Organization Studies is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on practices of the nonprofit sector. This area of inquiry examines the management and effectiveness of the nonprofit sector, and has sub-areas of research including administration, marketing, communication, economics, human resources, philanthropy, ethics, law, information technology, social entrepreneurship, grant writing, policy, fundraising, advocacy, volunteerism and civic engagement.
A variety of higher education institutions and research organizations are dedicated to the teaching and research of issues related to the nonprofit sector. Additionally, individual courses within related disciplines (e.g. Business, Sociology, Public Policy) examine nonprofit studies in a variety of contexts.
Nonprofit studies may also refer to studies of the voluntary sector, third sector, nongovernmental organizations, or civil society.
Mortuary science
The Bachelor of Mortuary Science (BMS) is a professional undergraduate degree, awarded by the Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science of Cincinnati, Ohio and Southern Illinois University Carbondale. It was introduced in 1986 and it is awarded to students that complete 120 semester hours of course work and receive passing scores on the National Board Exam administered by The International Conference of Funeral Service Examining Boards.
Philosophy
The Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil. or PhB) degree is either an undergraduate or graduate degree (MPhil). Generally, it entails independent research or a thesis/capstone project.
Psychology
The Bachelor of Psychology degree (BPsych, or PsyB; also Bachelor of Arts or Science in Psychology, BAPsy, BScPsy) is a degree awarded to students who have completed a specialized course of study in the field of psychology - i.e. as opposed to a broad major in the subject within a general BA or BSc degree.
Variants include the Bachelor of Arts in Applied Psychology, Bachelor of Arts in Clinical Psychology, Bachelor of Arts in Forensic Psychology, Bachelor of Arts in Organizational Psychology.
Courses typically last four years, but may be as long as six. See Psychologist#Licensing and regulation and #Education and training
Public affairs and policy management
The Bachelor of Public Affairs and Policy Management (BPAPM) is a four-year undergraduate degree in policy studies offered by the Arthur Kroeger College of Public Affairs at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. First introduced in 1999, the degree was created in response to an evolving needs within the public sector, and the need to prepare students for different public policy related challenges.
Education
The Bachelor of Education degree (BEd) is a four-year undergraduate professional degree offered by many American colleges and universities for those preparing to be licensed as teachers. Variants include the BEd, BAEd, BAT (Bachelor of Arts for Teaching), and BST degrees. Preparation for the MS in education, this degree is most often received by those interested in early childhood, elementary level, and special education, or by those planning to be school administrators. Secondary level teachers often major in their subject area instead (i.e., history, chemistry, or mathematics), with a minor in education. Some states require elementary teachers to choose a subject major as well, and minor in education.
In Canada, the bachelor of education is a two-year professional degree in which students will specialise in either elementary or secondary education, and that is taken after the completion of a three or four-year bachelor's degree with a major in a teachable subject, such as English, French, mathematics, biology, chemistry, or a social science. Some universities also offer concurrent, five-year programs with student completing both a bachelor's degree in arts or science as well as their BEd. The possession of a BEd and a second bachelor's degree is required to teach in most public anglophone and francophone schools in Canada. The BEd prepares teachers for completion of either MA (Master of Arts) programs in education, MEd (Master of Education) programs, or postgraduate certificates in education.
Science with education
The Bachelor of Science and/with Education degree (BScEd) is a degree awarded to students who complete the four- to five-year course of study in the field of science (major and minor in general biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics) and education. Although notionally BSc and BEd are two degrees, they must be taken together. The graduates will work as science (physics, chemistry, biology) teachers in high schools, as lecturers in pre university colleges and matriculation centers and can progress to postgraduate programs (MSc and PhD) in various areas in science or education.
Forestry
The Bachelor of Science in forestry (BScF) is a degree awarded to students who complete a three-year course of study in the field of forestry.
Science
The Bachelor of Science degrees (BSc, ScB) along with the Bachelor of Arts degrees are the most common undergraduate degrees given. The Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences (BAASc) is an undergraduate degree that bridges academic and work-life experiences.
Science in law
The Bachelor of Science in Law degree (BScL) is a special-purpose degree that allows someone who has had some prior studies but has not achieved a bachelor's degree to resume his or her education and take up the study of law with the goal of eventually receiving the juris doctor degree.
Social sciences
The Bachelor of Social Science (BSSc) is a three- or four-year undergraduate British degree that enables students to specialize in the area of social science. Compared to the Bachelor of Arts, which allows students to study a vast range of disciplines, the Bachelor of Social Science enables students to develop more central and specialized knowledge of the social sciences. Many universities place the Bachelor of Social Science between the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science undergraduate degrees.
Social work
The Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) degree is a four-year undergraduate degree. Usually the first two years consist of liberal arts courses and the last two years focus on social work classes in human development, policy/law, research, and practice. Programs accredited by the Council on Social Work Education require BSW students to complete a minimum of 400 field education or internship hours. Accredited BSW programs often allow students who are interested in obtaining a Master of Social Work degree to complete the degree in a shorter amount of time or waive courses.
In Latin America, this is a four to five-year degree that can replace liberal arts subjects into health sciences, resulting in social work as a type of community psychology and socioeconomic studies, focused in hospitals, prisons, or pedagogy, among others.
Technology
The Bachelor of Technology degree (BTech) is a three- or four-year undergraduate degree. Generally, the program is comparable to a Bachelor of Science degree program, which is additionally supplemented by either occupational placements (supervised practical or internships) or practice-based classroom courses.
Law
The Bachelor of Laws (LLB) is the principal academic degree in law in most common law countries other than the United States, and anglophone Canada, where it has been superseded by the juris doctor (JD) degree.
Talmudic law
The Bachelor of Talmudic Law degree (BTL) or a First Talmudic Degree (FTD) is the degree awarded in most Yeshivas around the United States.
Tourism studies
The Bachelor of Tourism Studies (BTS) degree is awarded to those who complete the four- or five-year course of study in tourism, laws regarding tourism, planning and development, marketing, economics, sociology, anthropology, arts and world history (dependent on the country in which one takes the course), ticketing, hospitality, computer applications, and much more. The course would have an interdisciplinary approach with a vast range of units so the tourismologist professional would be able to identify necessary actions toward a sustainable touristic environment focus on local community uniqueness, values and traditions.
As tourism is a growing industry, in India there is a lot of opportunity for those who complete this course of study. It is available in select universities of India.
Mathematics
The Bachelor of Mathematics or Bachelor of Mathematical Sciences degree (BMath and BMathSc) is given at the conclusion of a four-year honours program or a three-year general program. Several universities, mostly in Canada and Australia, award such degrees. The usual degree for mathematics in all other countries is the BSc.
Urban and regional planning
The Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning or Bachelor of Urban Planning or just Bachelor of Planning degree (BURP, BUP, or BPlan) is a degree offered at some institutions as a four or five-year professional undergraduate degree in urban planning. Programs vary in their focus on studio work and may or may not involve professional practice.
Innovation
The Bachelor of Innovation is a four-year degree in a range of different fields. The major fields, in engineering, business, arts, science or education, are similar to their associated BA or BSc degrees. The general education elements are restructured to provide a common core of innovation, entrepreneurship and team skills. The degree was created as a direct response to the increasing pace of innovation in today's society and the need for graduates that understanding effective teaming, as well as the innovation process.
See also
Elective bachelor's degree
Graduate school
Honours degree
Licensure
List of admission tests to colleges and universities
Master's degree
Validation of foreign studies and degrees
References
External links
College.gov, US Department of Education
"Education and Learning: Bachelor's Degrees: Qualifications Explained" UK Government site listing qualifications for bachelor's degrees in the UK
"Meaning of the Baccalaureate", National Forum on College Level Learning (US) Statistical Pilot Study of the Baccalaureate (2004)
Academic degrees of the United States | wiki |
Tung Tau Tsuen () is the name of several features in Hong Kong:
Tung Tau Tsuen (Yuen Long Kau Hui), in the Yuen Long Kau Hui area, next to Yuen Long Station, Yuen Long
Tung Tau Tsuen (Ha Tsuen), in the Ha Tsuen area, this one closer to Tin Shui Wai Station, Yuen Long
Tung Tau Tsuen (Kowloon), a village that was located in Kowloon
Tung Tau Tsuen Road, a street in Kowloon City District and Wong Tai Sin District of Hong Kong
Tung Tau Estate, a public housing estate on that road
See also:
Tung Tau Wai, a village in Wang Chau, Yuen Long District
Tung Tau Wai San Tsuen (lit. 'Tung Tau Wai New Village'), adjacent to Tung Tau Wai | wiki |
Skop may refer to:
Skop (food), or inyama yenhloko, an African dish made of cow, goat, or sheep's head
Skop (village), a village in Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland
Skop (Dr. Slump), a character in the manga Dr. Slump
Marko Škop (born 1974), Slovak film director
See also
Scop (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Entente Cordiale (; ) comprised a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic which saw a significant improvement in Anglo-French relations. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial demarcation addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict between the two states and their predecessors, and replaced the modus vivendi that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 with a more formal agreement. The Entente Cordiale represented the culmination of the policy of Théophile Delcassé (France's foreign minister from 1898 to 1905), who believed that a Franco-British understanding would give France some security in Western Europe against any German system of alliances (see Triple Alliance (1882)). Credit for the success of the negotiation of the Entente Cordiale belongs chiefly to Paul Cambon (France's ambassador in London from 1898 to 1920) and to the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Lansdowne.
An important feature of the agreement was the mutual recognition that Egypt was fully in the British sphere of influence and likewise Morocco in France's, with the proviso that France's eventual dispositions for Morocco include reasonable allowance for Spain's interests there. At the same time, Britain ceded the Los Islands (off French Guinea) to France, defined the frontier of Nigeria in France's favour, and agreed to French control of the upper Gambia valley; while France renounced its exclusive right to certain fisheries off Newfoundland. Furthermore, French and British proposed zones of influence in Siam (Thailand), which was eventually decided not to be colonised, were outlined, with the eastern territories, adjacent to French Indochina, becoming a proposed French zone, and the western, adjacent to Burmese Tenasserim, a proposed British zone. Arrangements were also made to allay the rivalry between British and French colonists in the New Hebrides.
In signing of the Entente Cordiale both powers reduced the virtual isolation into which they had withdrawn—France involuntarily, Britain complacently—while they had eyed each other over African affairs. Britain had no major-power ally apart from Japan (1902), which held little sway in European waters; France had none but the Russian Empire, soon to become militarily discredited in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. The agreement upset the diplomacy of Germany, whose policy had long relied on Franco-British antagonism. A German attempt to check the French in Morocco in 1905 (the Tangier Incident, or First Moroccan Crisis), and thus to upset the Entente, served only to strengthen it. Military discussions between the French and the British general staffs were soon initiated. Franco-British solidarity was confirmed at the Algeciras Conference (1906) and reconfirmed in the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911).
Background
The French term Entente Cordiale (usually translated as "cordial agreement" or "cordial understanding") comes from a letter written in 1843 by the British Foreign Secretary Lord Aberdeen to his brother, in which he mentioned "a cordial, good understanding" between the two nations. This was translated into French as Entente Cordiale and used by Louis Philippe I in the French chamber that year. When used today the term almost always denotes the second Entente Cordiale, that is to say, the written and partly secret agreement signed in London between the two powers on 8 April 1904.
The agreement was a change for both countries. France had been isolated from the other European powers, in part because of the destruction of the Napoleonic Wars, threat of liberalism and perceived recklessness in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck also managed to estrange France from potential allies, as it was thought that France might seek revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, reverse its territorial losses and continue to press for the conquest of the Saar and territories in the Ruhr. Britain had maintained a policy of "splendid isolation" on the European continent for nearly a century, intervening in continental affairs only when it was considered necessary to protect British interests by limiting the power of other countries, such as Russia in the Balkans, or supporting the creation of Belgium to weaken the Netherlands and create a buffer between France and the German states. The situation for Britain and France changed in the last decade of the 19th century.
The change had its roots in a British loss of confidence after the Second Boer War and a growing fear of the strength of Germany. As early as March 1881, the French statesman Léon Gambetta and the Prince of Wales, Albert Edward, met at the Château de Breteuil to discuss an alliance against Germany. The Scramble for Africa prevented the countries from coming to terms, however. On the initiative of Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, there were three rounds of British-German talks between 1898 and 1901. The British decided not to join the Triple Alliance, broke off the negotiations with Berlin, and revived the idea of a British-French alliance.
When the Russo-Japanese War was about to erupt, France and Britain found themselves on the verge of being dragged into the conflict on the side of their respective allies. France was firmly allied with Russia, while the British had recently signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In order to avoid going to war, both powers "shucked off their ancient rivalry" and resolved their differences in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific. Toward this end, French foreign minister Théophile Delcassé, and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary, negotiated an agreement on colonial matters, and Lord Lansdowne and Paul Cambon, the French Ambassador to the Court of St James's, signed the resulting convention on 8 April 1904.
Documents signed
The Entente was composed of three documents:
The first and most important document was the Declaration respecting Egypt and Morocco. In return for the French promising not to "obstruct" British actions in Egypt, the British promised to allow the French to "preserve order ... and provide assistance" in Morocco. Free passage through the Suez Canal was guaranteed, finally putting the Convention of Constantinople into force, and the erection of fortifications on part of the Moroccan coast forbidden. The treaty contained a secret annex dealing with the possibility of "changed circumstances" in the administration of either of the two countries.
The second document dealt with Newfoundland and portions of West and Central Africa. The French gave up their rights (stemming from the Treaty of Utrecht) over the western coast of Newfoundland, although they retained the right to fish the coast. In return, the British gave the French the town of Yarbutenda (near the modern border between Senegal and the Gambia) and the Iles de Los (part of modern Guinea). An additional provision dealt with the border between French and British possessions east of the River Niger (present-day Niger and Nigeria).
The final declaration concerned Siam (Thailand), Madagascar, and the New Hebrides (Vanuatu). In Siam, the British recognised a proposed French sphere of influence to the east of the Menam (Chao Phraya) River basin; in turn, the French recognised a proposed British influence over the territory to the west of the Menam basin. Both parties eventually disclaimed any idea of annexing Siamese territory. The British withdrew their objection to the French introducing a tariff in Madagascar. The parties came to an agreement which would "put an end to the difficulties arising from the lack of jurisdiction over the natives of the New Hebrides".
Aftermath
It is unclear what exactly the Entente meant to the British Foreign Office. For example, in early 1911, following French press reports contrasting the virility of the Triple Alliance with the moribund state of the Entente, Eyre Crowe minuted: "The fundamental fact of course is that the Entente is not an alliance. For purposes of ultimate emergencies it may be found to have no substance at all. For the Entente is nothing more than a frame of mind, a view of general policy which is shared by the governments of two countries, but which may be, or become, so vague as to lose all content."
The Triple Alliance collapsed when Italy remained neutral at the outbreak of World War I, while the Entente endured.
Commemoration
The 100th anniversary of the Entente Cordiale in 2004 was marked by a number of official and unofficial events, including a state visit to France in April by Queen Elizabeth II, and a return visit by President Jacques Chirac in November. British troops (the band of the Royal Marines, the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, the Grenadier Guards and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery) also led the Bastille Day parade in Paris for the first time, with the Red Arrows flying overhead.
At both London Waterloo International and Paris Gare du Nord, the flags of Great Britain and of France were depicted, connected with the words 'Entente cordiale' superimposed on posters. Some French political leaders had complained about the name "Waterloo" for the destination of trains from Paris, because the London terminus is named after the 1815 battle in which a British-led alliance defeated Napoleon's army, and in 1998 French politician Florent Longuepée wrote to British Prime Minister Tony Blair demanding, without success, that the name be changed. However, in November 2007 St Pancras International became the new London terminus for the Eurostar service.
Entente Cordiale Scholarships
The name "Entente Cordiale" is used for the Entente Cordiale Scholarships scheme, a selective Franco-British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo-French summit in London.
It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, and by the British Council in France and the British embassy in Paris for French students. Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations. The scheme aims to foster mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow. The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996.
See also
Anglo-French Supreme War Council
France–United Kingdom relations
Auld Alliance
British military history
Causes of World War I
Diplomatic history of World War I
Diplomatic history of World War II
Entente (disambiguation)
Entente frugale
Foreign relations of France
Franco-British Council
Franco-British Union
French entry into World War I
History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
References
Further reading
Andrew, Christopher. Théophile Delcassé and the making of the Entente Cordiale: A reappraisal of French Foreign Policy 1898–1905 (1968)
Andrew, Christopher. "France and the Making of the Entente Cordiale." Historical Journal 10#1 (1967): 89-105. online.
Bell, P. M. H. France and Britain, 1900-1940: Entente and Estrangement (1996).
Capet, Antoine, ed. Britain, France and the entente cordiale since 1904 (Springer, 2006).
Hargreaves, J. D. "The Origin of the Anglo-French Military Conversations in 1905." History 36.128 (1951): 244-248. online
Hargreaves, J. D. "Entente Manquee: Anglo-French Relations, 1895-1896." Cambridge Historical Journal 11#1 (1953): 65-92. online.
Hennlichová, Marcela. "The Royal Visit to Paris and the Presidential Visit to London in 1903 — An Icebreaker of the Public Opinion or a Milestone in the History of the Entente Cordiale?" "Prague Papers on the History of International Relations" 1 (2019): 38-53. online
Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001) pp 115–17, 164–68
Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902 (1951).
Macmillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) ch 6
Rolo, P. J. V. Entente Cordiale: the origins and negotiation of the Anglo-French agreements of 8 April 1904. Macmillan/St Martin's Press, London 1969.
Šubrtová, Marcela. "Great Britain and France on the Way to the Entente Cordiale." Prague Papers on the History of International Relations 1 (2014): 79–97. online
Šubrtová, Marcela. "The Anglo-French Rapprochement and the Question of Morocco." West Bohemian Historical Review 2 (2016): 213-241 online
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954) online free
Williamson, Samuel R. The politics of grand strategy: Britain and France prepare for war, 1904-1914 (1990).
External links
Entente cordiale
First declaration of the Entente cordiale including secret articles
A statistical commemoration of the Entente Cordiale published jointly by the British and French Ministries of Defence (British MOD text, bilingual)
A statistical commemoration of the Entente Cordiale published jointly by the British and French Ministries of Defence (French MOD text, bilingual)
1904 in France
1904 in the United Kingdom
20th-century military alliances
British Empire in World War I
France in World War I
France–United Kingdom relations
Late modern Europe
Treaties concluded in 1904
Treaties entered into force in 1904
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties of the French Third Republic
1904 in international relations | wiki |
El WCW World Six-Man Tag Team Championship fue un campeonato de lucha libre profesional de la empresa World Championship Wrestling en 1991.
Este campeonato era defendido en tríos, a diferencia del común de los campeonatos por equipos.
Lista de campeones
Véase también
Campeonatos de la WCW | wiki |
Moderator may refer to:
Government
Moderator (town official), elected official who presides over the Town Meeting form of government in various American states.
Internet
Internet forum moderator, a person given special authority to enforce the rules on a forum or social media platforms
Game moderator
Moderator of a Usenet newsgroup
Google Moderator, an application to assist chairmen of online meetings
Religion
Moderator of the General Assembly, the chairperson of the highest court in Presbyterian and Reformed churches
Moderators and clerks in the Church of Scotland, the chairperson of any of the courts of the Church of Scotland
Moderator of the curia, an administrative position in the Catholic church
Nuclear engineering
Neutron moderator, a medium that reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, for example in a nuclear reactor
Other uses
Moderator variable, in statistics, a qualitative or quantitative variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between dependent and independent variables
Sound moderator, a suppressor attached to a firearm
A faction in the Regulator–Moderator War
Discussion moderator, a person who controls the tone of a discussion or debate | wiki |
Seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization.
Seminar may refer to:
Seminar (play), a 2011 Broadway play by Theresa Rebeck
Seminar (album), 1989 album by Sir Mix-a-Lot
"The Seminar" (The Office), a 2011 episode American comedy television series The Office
Seminar, monthly journal established in 1959 by Romesh Thapar and Raj Thapar | wiki |
The Walt Disney World Swan and Dolphin Resort consists of three hotels:
Walt Disney World Dolphin
Walt Disney World Swan
Walt Disney World Swan Reserve | wiki |
A pinhole is a small circular hole, as could be made with the point of a pin. In optics, pinholes with diameter between a few micrometers and a hundred micrometers are used as apertures in optical systems. Pinholes are commonly used to spatially filter a beam (such as a laser beam), where the small pinhole acts as a low-pass filter for spatial frequencies in the image plane of the beam.
A small pinhole can act as a lens, focusing light. This effect is used in pinhole cameras and camera obscura. This effect is also used in pinhole occluders, which are used by ophthalmologists, orthoptists and optometrists to test visual acuity. The same principle has also been applied as an alternative to corrective lenses: a screen of pinholes is mounted on an eyeglass frame and worn as pinhole glasses.
Besides pinholes made by the point of a pin, precision commercial pinholes are often made by laser drilling through a thin foil.
References
Optical components | wiki |
Following the referendum in the United Kingdom on its membership of the European Union on 23 June 2016, polling companies continued to use standard questions in order to gauge public opinion on the country's relationship with the EU.
Right/wrong
Following the EU referendum, there have been numerous opinion polls on the question of whether the UK was 'right' or 'wrong' to vote to leave the EU. The results of these polls are shown in the table below.
Selective polling
Remain/leave
There have also been polls to gauge support for remaining in or leaving the EU. The following polls, unless the notes state otherwise, asked how respondents would vote in a second referendum.
Selective polling
Three-option referendum
On 6 July 2018, the UK Cabinet agreed a statement at Chequers that set out a proposal for the future relationship between the United Kingdom and the European Union, following which two members of the Cabinet resigned. On 16 July 2018 the former Education Secretary Justine Greening noted the lack of a political consensus behind the Chequers proposal and said that, due to a 'stalemate' in the House of Commons, the issue of Brexit should be referred back to the electorate. She proposed a referendum with three options: to leave the EU on such terms as might be agreed between the UK Government and the EU 27; to leave the EU without agreed terms; or to remain in the EU. Voters would be asked to mark a first and second preference using the supplementary vote system. If there were no majority for any particular option among first-preference votes, the third-placed option would be eliminated and second preferences would be used to determine the winner from the two remaining options.
The following table shows opinion polls that have been conducted on how people would vote in a three-option referendum. The table shows the poll results for a first round in which all three options would be available, and for a second round in which only the top two options in the first round would be available.
Selective polling
Four-option referendum
Some polls have offered respondents a choice between remaining in the EU, leaving the EU but remaining within the European Single Market or EU Customs Union (see notes), accepting the negotiated deal and leaving without a deal.
Support for a third referendum (the first being in 1975)
There have been opinion polls to gauge support for a second referendum, on whether to accept or reject the final Brexit deal. Polling results vary depending on how the question is phrased: in general a "second referendum" is less popular than a "public vote" or similar descriptor. One YouGov poll conducted in April 2018 for Best for Britain showed much greater support for the public "[having] a final say on whether Britain accepts the deal or remains in the EU after all" than for "a public vote" on the same question.
Selective polling
On the UK rejoining the EU
Some polls conducted prior to the UK's formal exit worded the question as whether to rejoin rather than stay in the EU.
See also
Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)
Opinion polling for the 2019 United Kingdom general election
Opinion polling for the next United Kingdom general election
Opinion polling for the 2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom
References
External links
EURef2 Poll of Polls — What UK Thinks
United Kingdom
European Union membership
Brexit | wiki |
Big Brother 4 is the fourth season of various versions of Big Brother and may refer to:
Big Brother 2002 (Netherlands), the 2002 Dutch edition of Big Brother
Gran Hermano Spain (Season 4), the 2002-2003 edition of Big Brother in Spain
Big Brother Germany (Season 4), the 2003 German edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 4 (UK), the 2003 UK edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 4 (U.S.), the 2003 US edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 4 (Australia), the 2004 Australian edition of Big Brother
Big Brother Brasil 4, the 2004 Brazilian edition of Big Brother
Grande Fratello Season 4, the first 2004 edition of Big Brother in Italy
Big Brother 4 (Big Mother), the 2005 Greek edition of Big Brother
Gran Hermano Argentina (Season 4), the first 2007 Argentinian edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 4 (Croatia), the 2007 Croatian edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 4 (Bulgaria), the 2008 Bulgarian edition of Big Brother
Big Brother 2008 (Finland), the 2008 edition of Big Brother in Finland
Big Brother Africa (season 4), the 2009 African edition of Big Brother
Secret Story 2010 (France), the 2010 edition of Big Brother in France
Bigg Boss (Season 4), the 2010-2011 edition of Big Brother in India
Veliki brat 2011, the 2011 edition of Big Brother in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Croatia
Big Brother Norway (Season 4), the 2011 edition of Big Brother in Norway
Pinoy Big Brother (season 4), the 2011-2012 edition of Big Brother in the Philippines
Big Brother 2012 (Denmark), the 2012 Danish edition of Big Brother
HaAh HaGadol 4, the 2012 edition of Big Brother in Israel
Secret Story 4 (Portugal), the 2013 edition of Big Brother in Portugal
Big Brother Canada (season 4), the 2016 edition of Big Brother Canada
See also
Big Brother (franchise)
Big Brother (disambiguation) | wiki |
.ca ist die länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain (ccTLD) Kanadas. Sie wird durch die Canadian Internet Registration Authority (kurz CIRA) verwaltet und gehört zu den ältesten Top-Level-Domains weltweit, sie existiert bereits seit dem 14. Mai 1987.
Verwaltung
Zunächst wurde die Verwaltung der Top-Level-Domain .ca der University of British Columbia zugewiesen, wo die Domain von einer einzigen Person verwaltet wurde. Im Jahr 2000 wurde die Verwaltung der Domain schließlich an die gemeinnützige Canadian Internet Registration Authority übergeben. Adressen können wie üblich nicht direkt beantragt werden, sondern müssen über einen Domain-Name-Registrar angefordert werden.
Trotz der restriktiven Vergabekriterien ist die Top-Level-Domain .ca international vergleichsweise bedeutend. Im Dezember 2012 wurde erstmals die Marke zwei Millionen registrierter Adressen überschritten, womit sich .ca deutlich vor der Endung .us positioniert hat.
Eigenschaften
Registrierungen finden heute ausschließlich auf zweiter Ebene statt. Früher gab es die Möglichkeit, auch auf dritter Ebene unter einer Domain auf zweiter Ebene, die den Bundesstaat repräsentiert, eine Adresse zu registrieren, jedoch besteht diese Möglichkeit seit Oktober 2010 nicht mehr. Bestehende Adressen durften beibehalten werden. Nur natürliche oder juristische Personen mit einem Wohnsitz oder einer Niederlassung in Kanada dürfen .ca-Domains registrieren. Einzige Ausnahme sind Inhaber einer in Kanada eingetragenen Marke, die dann allerdings exakt der gewünschten Domain entsprechen muss.
Im Januar 2012 hat CIRA ein Konsultationsverfahren begonnen, um die Unterstützung internationalisierter Domainnamen zu überprüfen. Dieses wurde im Februar des gleichen Jahres abgeschlossen und anschließend im Herbst verkündet, insgesamt 16 Zeichen der französischen Sprache zulassen zu wollen. Diese sollen voraussichtlich ab Januar 2013 zur Verfügung stehen, Inhaber bestehender Domains werden bei der Vergabe sprachlich ähnlicher Adressen bevorzugt behandelt. Eine klassische Sunrise- und Landrush-Periode gab es nicht.
Datenschutz
Im Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen Top-Level-Domains ist der Inhaber einer Adresse nicht öffentlich einsehbar, sofern es sich um eine Privatperson und nicht um ein Unternehmen handelt. Dies geht auf eine Änderung der Datenschutzrichtlinie von CIRA im Juli 2008 zurück. Sie wurde sowohl von Juristen als auch der Unterhaltungs- und Filmindustrie als zu wenig beziehungsweise zu stark restriktiv kritisiert.
Im August 2012 wurden Inhaber von .ca-Domains Opfer eines größeren Phishing-Angriffs. In einer gefälschten E-Mail wurden sie gebeten, ihre Domain kostenpflichtig zu verlängern, obwohl diese noch gar nicht ausgelaufen war. Die Vergabestelle CIRA hat die betreffende Website circa.cc, über welche der Betrug abgewickelt wurde, abgeschaltet und die Domain aus Sicherheitsgründen auf sich selbst registriert.
Bedeutung
Die Vergabestelle CIRA veröffentlichte Mitte 2013 ein sogenanntes Factbook, in dem die Verbreitung und Bedeutung der Top-Level-Domain dargestellt wird. Demnächst besitzt .ca unter kanadischen Nutzern einen Marktanteil von 30 Prozent und liegt direkt hinter .com. 49 Prozent aller Kanadier würden .ca beim Surfen bevorzugen.
Weblinks
Offizielle Website der Vergabestelle CIRA/ACEI
Einzelnachweise
Länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain
Medien (Kanada)
Technik (Kanada) | wiki |
Кбел може бити:
Кбел (Колин), насељено мјесто у округу Колин, Средњочешки крај, Чешка Република
Кбел (Плзењ-југ), насељено мјесто у округу Плзењ-југ, Плзењски крај, Чешка Република | wiki |
Hello and Goodbye may refer to:
Hello & Goodbye, album by Jump5
Hello-Goodbye (1970 film), light comedy film.
Hello and Goodbye (1972 film), Soviet comedy film.
Hello and Goodbye (play), 1965 play by Athol Fugard.
[[Hello and Goodbye (L.A. Law)|"Hello and Goodbye" (L.A. Law)]], an episode of L.A. Law
"Hello and Goodbye", a song in the musical Evita "Hello and Goodbye", a song in the film From Noon till Three "Hello and Goodbye", a song from The Ataris album End Is Forever''
See also
"Hello, Goodbye", a 1967 song by the Beatles
Goodbye and Hello (disambiguation)
Hello Goodbye (disambiguation) | wiki |
Puja () is a worship ritual performed by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains to offer devotional homage and prayer to one or more deities, to host and honor a guest, or to spiritually celebrate an event. It may honor or celebrate the presence of special guests, or their memories after they die. The word pūjā is Sanskrit, and means reverence, honor, homage, adoration, and worship. Puja, the loving offering of light, flowers, and water or food to the divine, is the essential ritual of Hinduism. For the worshipper, the divine is visible in the image, and the divinity sees the worshipper. The interaction between human and deity, between human and guru, is called darshan, seeing.
In Hindu practice, puja is done on a variety of occasions, frequencies, and settings. It may include a daily puja done in the home, or occasional temple ceremonies and annual festivals. In other cases, puja is held to mark a few lifetime events such as the birth of a baby or a wedding, or to begin a new venture. The two main areas where puja is performed are in the home and at temples to mark certain stages of life, events or some festivals such as Durga Puja and Lakshmi Puja. Puja is not mandatory in Hinduism. It may be a routine daily affair for some Hindus, a periodic ritual for some, and rare for other Hindus. In some temples, various pujas may be performed daily at various times of the day; in other temples, they may be occasional.
Puja varies according to the sect, region, occasion, deity honored, and steps followed. In formal Nigama ceremonies, a fire may be lit in honor of the god Agni, without an idol or image present. In contrast, in Agama ceremonies, an idol or icon or image of a deity is present. In both ceremonies, a lamp (Diya) or incense stick may be lit while a prayer is chanted or a hymn is sung. Puja is typically performed by a Hindu worshiper alone, though sometimes in the presence of a priest who is well-versed in complex rituals and hymns. In temples and priest-assisted events puja, food, fruits, and sweets may be included as sacrificial offerings to the ceremony or deity, which, after the prayers, becomes prasad – food shared by all gathered.
Both Nigama and Agama puja are practiced in Hinduism in India. In Hinduism of Bali Indonesia, Agama puja is most prevalent both inside homes and in temples. Puja is sometimes called Sembahyang in Indonesia.
Etymology
Puja has unclear origins. J. A. B. van Buitenen states that "puja" emerged from yajna rituals, linking it to the Pravargya Vedic rite. The Rigveda in hymn 8.17 uses the word "Sachipujanayam" (शाचिपूजनायं) in the twelfth verse, where it is an epithet for god Indra in a context of vocative singular "praise". The ancient scholar and Vedic text commentator Sāyana explains the term as a form of "praise, worship, invocation". The Grhyasutras use puj in the context of rites, as does Sanskrit scholar Pāṇini. However, none of these texts imply puja as a form of devotional prayer worship.
According to Natalia Lidova, puja is unlikely to be of Indo-Aryan and Vedic origin because it lacks a Sanskrit root and it also lacks cognate parallels in other Indo-European languages. Its root are probably Dravidian in origin, but the evidence for this alternative hypothesis is also largely missing possibly because devotional worship is not as ancient as Hinduism. Collins states that the roots may be "pu" (flower) and "ge" (make), or a form of "making flower sacrifice". However, this proposal is problematic because "pu" comes from an Indo-European root, while "ge" from Dravidian. Charpentier suggests the origin of the word Puja may lie in the Dravidian languages. Two possible Tamil roots have been suggested: 'to smear with something' or "to do with flowers" (from 'flower' and 'to do'). or similar Telugu roots (from 'flower' and 'to do').
Origins
According to scholars, one of the earliest mentions of pūjā is in the Grihya Sutras, which provide rules for domestic rites. These Sutras, dated to be about 500 BC, use the term puja to describe the hospitality to honor priests who were invited to one's home to lead rituals for departed ancestors. As with vedic times, the general concept of puja remained the same, but expanded to welcoming the deity along with the deity's spiritual essence as one's honored guest. The Puranic corpus of literature, dating from about 6th century CE, contain extensive outline on how to perform deity puja (deva pūjā). Deity puja thus melds Vedic rites with devotion to deity in its ritual form. As with many others aspects of Hinduism, both Vedic puja and devotional deity puja continued, the choice left to the Hindu.
As a historical practice, pūjā in Hinduism, has been modeled around the idea of hosting a deity, or important person, as an honored and dearest guest in the best way one can, given one's resources, and receiving their happiness and blessing in return. Paul Thieme suggests from passages in the Rāmāyaṇa that the word pūjā referred to the hospitable reception of guests and that the things offered to guests could be offered to the gods and their dwellings. The rituals in question were the "five great sacrifices" or pañcamahāyajña recorded in the Gṛhyasūtra texts (for this literature, see Kalpa). The development of pūjā thus emerged from Vedic domestic traditions and was carried into the temple environment by analogy: just as important guests had long been welcomed in well-to-do homes and offered things that pleased them, so too were the gods welcomed in temple-homes and offered things that pleased them. Copper-plate charters recording grants of lands to temples show that this religious practice was actively encouraged from the mid-4th century.
Significance
In the earliest texts describing Vedic puja, the significance of puja was to host the priest so that he could make direct requests to the gods. An example petition prayer made during a Vedic puja, according to Wade Wheelock, is:
Indra-Agni, slayers of Vrtra with the beautiful thunderbolt, prosper us with new gifts;
O Indra, bring treasures with your right hand;
O Agni grant the enjoyments of a good household;
Give (us) vigor, wealth in cattle, and possession of good horses.
– ÄsvSü
In contrast to Vedic pujas, the significance of deity pujas shifted from petitions and external goals to the experience of oneness with the deities and their spiritual essence. It became a form of Yoga whose final result aimed to be the consciousness of god through homage to god. Nevertheless, even with this evolved theoretical spiritual significance, for many people, puja continued to be a vehicle to petition desires and appeals, such as for good health of one's child, speedy recovery from illness, success in venture envisioned or such. In the structure and practice of puja, the mantras and rituals focus on spirituality, and any petitions and appeals are tacked only to the end of the puja.
Zimmer relates puja to yantras, with the rituals helping the devotee focus on the spiritual concepts. Puja in Hinduism, claims Zimmer, is a path and process of transformation of consciousness, where the devotee and the spiritual significance of the deity are brought together. This ritual puja process, in different parts of India, is considered to be liberating, releasing, purifying and a form of Yoga of spirit and emotions.
Puja in Hinduism sometimes involves themes beyond idols or images. Even persons, places, rivers, concrete objects or anything is seen as manifestations of divine reality by some Hindus. The access to the divine is not limited to renunciatory meditation as in yoga school of Hinduism or idols in bhakti school. For some the divine is everywhere, without limit to its form, and a puja to these manifestations signifies the same spiritual meaning to those who choose to offer a prayer to persons, places, rivers, concrete objects or anything else.
Temple pūjā
Temple (Mandir) pūjā is more elaborate than the domestic versions and typically done several times a day. They are also performed by a temple priest, or pujari. In addition, the temple deity (patron god or goddess) is considered a resident rather than a guest, so the puja is modified to reflect that; for example the deity is "awakened" rather than "invoked" in the morning. Temple pujas vary widely from region to region and for different sects, with devotional hymns sung at Vaishnava temples for example. At a temple puja, there is often less active participation, with the priest acting on behalf of others.
Structure, services and steps
Elaborate pūjā
A full home or temple puja can include several traditional upacaras or "attendances". The following is an example puja; these steps may vary according to region, tradition, setting, or time particularly in ways the deity is hosted. In this example, the deity is invited as a guest, the devotee hosts and takes care of the deity as an honored guest, hymns and food are offered to the deity, after an expression of love and respect the host takes leave and with affection expresses good bye to the deity. Indologist Jan Gonda has identified 16 steps (shodasha upachara) that are common in all varieties of puja:
Avahana (“invocation”). The deity is invited to the ceremony from the heart.
Asana. The deity is offered a seat.
Padya. The deity's feet are symbolically washed.
Water is offered for washing the head and body
Arghya. Water is offered so the deity may wash its mouth.
Snana or abhisekha. Water is offered for symbolic bathing.
Vastra (“clothing”). Here a cloth may be wrapped around the image and ornaments affixed to it.
Upaveeda or Mangalsutra. Putting on the sacred thread.
Anulepana or gandha. Perfumes and ointments are applied to the image. Sandalwood paste or kumkum is applied.
Pushpa. Flowers are offered before the image, or garlands draped around its neck.
Dhupa. Incense is burned before the image.
Jyot or Aarti. A burning lamp is waved in front of the image.
Naivedya. Foods such as cooked rice, fruit, clarified butter, sugar, and betel leaf are offered.
Namaskara or pranama. The worshipper and family bow or prostrate themselves before the image to offer homage.
Parikrama or Pradakshina. Circumambulation around the deity.
Taking leave.
Sometimes additional steps are included:
Dhyana (“Meditation”). The deity is invoked in the heart of the devotee.
Acamanıya. Water is offered for sipping.
Aabaran. The deity is decorated with ornaments.
Chatram. Offering of umbrella.
Chamaram Offering of fan or fly-whisk (Chamara).
Visarjana or Udvasana. The deity is moved from the place.
There are variations in this puja method such as:
Pancha upachara puja (puja with 5 steps).
Chatushasti upachara puja (puja with 64 steps).
The structure of elaborate puja also varies significantly between temples, regions, and occasions.
Archana puja is a brief intercessionary puja on behalf of an individual that can be undertaken after the main puja.
Quick pūjā
A quick puja has the same structure as acts people would ordinarily perform for a quick reception, hospitality and affectionate interaction with a beloved guest. First the deity is greeted, acknowledged by name and welcomed, sometimes with a diya or lighted incense stick. The devotee proceeds to connect with the spiritual manifestation by meditating (a form of darshan), or chanting hymns and mantras, then personal prayers follow. After the prayer is finished, the spiritual visitor as the guest is affectionately thanked and greeted goodbye. A quick meditative puja is sometimes offered by some Hindus without an idol or image. According to Chris Fuller, an anthropologist, Hindu texts allow flexibility and abbreviated puja according to the occasion, needs, and personal preferences.
In Balinese Hinduism
In Hinduism of Bali Indonesia, puja is sometimes called Sembahyang. The word originates from two words in old Javanese: sembah and hyang. Sembah means to respect and bow down; Hyang means divine, God or Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, holy man, and ancestors. So to pray means to respect, bow down, surrender to the divine and ancestors.
Sembahyang (Puja) is an obligation for Balinese Hindus, the prayers and hymns are derived from the Vedas. A family typically offers prayers every day, with Kewangen and other offerings. Kewangen means aromatic, and it is made from leaves and flowers in form of auspicious Vedic symbols. Balinese use kewangen to worship the divine, both in form of Purusha (soul) and Pradana (body). As with India, Balinese make offerings, including symbolic inclusion of fire, incense and mantras.
Guru puja
In the case of great spiritual masters, there is also a custom to perform puja for a living person especially in Guru Purnima. Gurus are sometimes chosen as objects of puja and honored as living gods or seen as the embodiment of specific deities. Gurus are sometimes adorned with symbolic clothes, garlands and other ornaments, and celebrated with incense, washing and anointing their feet, giving them fruits, food and drinks and meditating at their feet, asking for their blessing.
As a social and human rights event
As with church services in Christianity, Pūjā in Hinduism has served as a means for Hindu communities outside India to gather, socialize, discover new friends and sometimes discuss ways to address social discrimination of Hindus. For example, Marion O'Callaghan reports that the Hindu diaspora brought as indentured laborers to Trinidad by the British colonial government, suffered discriminatory laws that did not recognize traditional Hindu marriages or inheritance rights of children from a traditional Hindu marriage, nor did the non-Hindu majority government allow pyre cremation or construction of crematorium. These Hindu rituals were considered pagan and uncivilized. Pujas offered a way for Hindus to meet, socially organize and petition their human rights. Over time, pujas became as much a social and community recreational event as a religious event.
Critique of pūjā in the Pūrva Mīmāṃsaka school
Although pujā is accepted as a valid religious activity by Hindus at large, it has long been criticised by Mīmāṃsā thinkers. The foundational work of this school was the Karmamīmāṃsāsūtra or "Aphorisms for Enquiry into the Act," composed by Jaimini. The earliest surviving commentary was by Śabara who lived around the end of the fourth century. Śabara's commentary, known as Śabarabhāṣya held pride of place in Mīmāṃsā in that Sabara's understanding was taken as definitive by all later writers. In his chapter entitled Devatādikaraṇa (9: 1: 5: 6–9), Śabara examined the popular understanding of the gods and attempted to refute the belief that they have material bodies, are able to eat the offerings made to them, and are capable of being pleased and so able to reward worshippers. Basing himself on the Vedas (he refused to accept the Mahābhārata, Purāṇa texts or even the Smṛti literatures as valid sources of authority), Śabara concluded that the gods are neither corporeal nor sentient and thus unable to enjoy offerings or own property. For this he appealed to empirical observation, noting that offerings do not decrease in size when given to the gods; any decrease is simply due to exposure to the air. Likewise he argued that substances are offered to gods not according to the wishes of the gods, but that "what is vouched for by direct perception is that the things are used according to the wishes of the temple servants (pratyakṣāt pramāṇāt devatāparicārakāṇām abhiprāyaḥ). In the course of his discussion, Śabara's asserted that "there is no relation between the case of guests and the sacrificial act." This incidental remark provided sound historical proof that pūjā was built on analogy with atithi, the ancient Vedic tradition of welcoming guests. What Śabara was maintaining was that this analogy was not valid. While the Mīmāṃsakas continued to maintain this interpretation for centuries, their defeat in debate at the hands of Śaṅkarācārya led to theirs being a minority view. Mīmāṃsakas flourished even into the 17th century, as evidenced by the commentaries of Nīlakaṇṭha.
Regional names
Puja is called in Tamil, bucha () in Thai, and sometimes also in Bengali.
See also
Añjali Mudrā
Buddhist prayer beads
Coconut: use for worship
Culture of India
Dhupa
Guru-shishya tradition
Hindu iconography
Hindu prayer beads
Hindu temple
Homa (ritual)
Indian honorifics
Mala
List of Hindu festivals, many of which involve Puja
List of materials used in Hinduism
Mudras
Namaste
Panchalinga Darshana
Pranāma
Prasada
Puja (Buddhism)
Pādodaka
Sacred food as offering
Satyanarayan Puja
Seven stages of Yoga
Tapas (Indian religions)
The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual
Worship in Hinduism
Yajna
References
External links
Puja, Expressions of Hindu Devotion, Susan S. Bean, Museum Anthropology, Volume 21, Issue 3, pages 29–32, December 1997
Hindu practices
Hindu rituals
Honor
Yoga | wiki |
The Insurgents is the feature film debut of director Scott Dacko. It stars Mary Stuart Masterson, John Shea, Henry Simmons, Juliette Marquis and Michael Mosley. Shot on 24p, high-definition video in New York City in February 2006, the story revolves around four politically disillusioned Americans who build a truck bomb to spark a revolution.
In its world premiere at the 2006 Oldenburg International Film Festival, The Insurgents won the German Independence Audience Award for Best Picture. In its US premiere at the 2007 Palm Beach International Film Festival, The Insurgents won the Best Screenplay award. The Insurgents won Best Feature - Video at the 2007 Long Island International Film Expo.
References
Making an Indie Film by Cade Metz, PC Magazine, May 3, 2006.
Oldenburg International Film Festival web site
External links
2006 films
2000s thriller films
American political thriller films
Films scored by Mario Grigorov
2000s English-language films
2000s American films | wiki |
A surfboard is a narrow plank used in surfing. Surfboards are relatively light, but are strong enough to support an individual standing on them while riding an ocean wave. They were invented in ancient Hawaii, where they were known as papa he'e nalu in the Hawaiian language, and were usually made of wood from local trees, such as koa. They were often over in length and extremely heavy. Major advances over the years include the addition of one or more fins (skegs) on the bottom rear of the board to improve directional stability, and numerous improvements in materials and shape.
Modern surfboards are made of polyurethane or polystyrene foam covered with layers of fiberglass cloth, and polyester or epoxy resin. The result is a light and strong surfboard that is buoyant and maneuverable. Recent developments in surfboard technology have included the use of carbon fiber and kevlar composites, as well as experimentation in biodegradable and ecologically friendly resins made from organic sources. Each year, approximately 400,000 surfboards are manufactured.
Sizing
Choice of surf board type and size can be complex. Depending, amongst other things, on:
Skill, fitness and surfing style
Expected wave conditions
Body dimensions of the surfer (height and weight)
Traditionally board lengths have been sized according to the height of the surfer, meaning in general that longer boards would be recommended for taller surfers. Standard dimensions for board size has for long been the board's length, width and thickness. More recently however, the weight of the surfer has also started to be taken into account, meaning in general that a heavier surfer would be recommended a board with more volume.
Parts
Bottom
The surface of the board that rests on the water is usually concave but sometimes convex. The bottom can also feature channels and other planing features shaped into the board in order to maximize or direct water flow across the board's bottom surface.
Concave
Modern surfboards often contain multiple contours on the bottom of the board, termed concaves. These concaves have different uses and vary among different types of surfboards. Most concaves on the modern shortboard begin about back from the nose of the board on the bottom and then carry out through the middle to the tail of the surfboard. The purpose of concave is to direct water through the fins of the surfboard. Surfboard shapers sometimes experiment with concaves to create different drive and response characteristics on each individual surfboard.
Convex
Some older and more traditional surfboards along with many modern boards that take inspiration from these older boards utilize a convex rather than concave design on the bottom of the surfboard. These boards displace more water and sit lower in the wave than a surfboard with a concave bottom.
Deck
The deck is the surface of the board that the surfer stands on. Contours such as concaves (similar to the deck of a skateboard) or rail channels (to add structural rigidity) can also be shaped into the deck. Surfwax is applied to this surface. Wax comes in different degrees of hardness allowing its application in differing water temperatures. The ideal choice of wax hardness is determined by the water temperature.
Fins
The surfboard fin is a stabilizing rudder fixed to the rear of the surfboard to prevent it from sliding sideways. In the early days, surfers would stabilize the board by hanging the toes of their back foot over the edge of the board and would steer by putting their foot in the water. The American surfer Tom Blake was the first to experiment with adding a fin to a surfboard, fastening the keel from an old speedboat to a surfboard in 1935. About one or two years later, Woody "Spider" Brown independently developed a similar design, but Brown himself gave Blake precedence: "(I made my first surfboard keel) about '36 or '37, somewhere in there; about the same time. But, I didn't know anything about (Blake) and his experiments with adding fins to surfboards. See, we were all separated out. I was in San Diego and he was in L.A., way up there.". This innovation revolutionized surfing, allowing surfers to direct the board's momentum and providing more balance when turning.
The template of the modern surfboard fin was developed by George Greenough in the 1960s. The single fin changed little until the late 70s, when a second was added and popularised by Australian Mark Richards. In October 1980, after seeing a twin fin surfboard with a "trigger point" fin Simon Anderson had the idea for a new, equal size, version of the existing three fin prototypes which was later dubbed the "thruster". He created a prototype and 30 years later his "thruster" design is still the most popular fin design for surfboards.
In the early 90s removable fin systems were developed and embraced. This provides a standardized system that allows fins to be easily removed or replaced, utilizing set screws to hold the fins in place. These systems provided surfers with the ability to alter the riding characteristics of a surfboard, by changing the size and shape of fins used. This innovation opened the market to a range of fin designs, including single foiled fins, concave inside surfaces, and curved fins. Another variation of fin was later designed in the time frame known as the soul fin, a sleek bendable attachment.
Tunnel fins were invented in the 1960s by Richard Deese, and were found on longboards by multiple manufacturers of that era, including Dewey Weber. Bob Bolen, A.K.A. 'the Greek', patented the "Turbo Tunnel" in the late 1990s.
Since the mid 1990s, half tunnel fins have mainly been used on very long hollow wooden surfboards mainly surfed by Roy Stuart.
Bullet Fins were invented in the 2005 by Ron Pettibone to increase surfboard hull planing and rail-to-rail transition speed. The patent-pending fins are based on 50 years of hydrodynamic research on the bulbous bow hull design. Just as with the bow of a ship, the traditional surfboard fin creates a wave as it displaces the water in its path. The resulting turbulence places drag on the surfboard. The bulb of the Bullet Fin reduces this drag by creating a new (primary) fin wave in front of the original (secondary) wave. This new bulb wave is designed to be nearly 180 degrees out of phase with the original fin wave to subtract its turbulence thus reducing fin drag.
Winged fins are another type of surfboard fin, the genesis of which was America's Cup sailboat design. The Starfin was designed in the 1980s by the America's Cup yacht designer, Ben Lexcen, who had designed the winged keel for the America's Cup boat, Australia II. The small thruster-sized fin, the RedTip 3D is manufactured by FCS.
Fins with winglets—tiny wings—were invented in 2005. The purpose of winglets, as in airplane design, is to increase lift (horizontal turning force in the case of surfboard fins) while reducing drag, by reducing the fin-tip vortex.
Fins with a camber have an asymmetrical profile. In windsurfing camber is used to increase the lift to drag ratio of the fin and to minimise cavitation and the risk of spin-out. In particular windsurfers trying to improve speed records use camber fins, as the maximum performance is required on one down-wind course direction. As the camber is fixed to one side, performance when sailing in one direction is improved but performance in the other way is deteriorated.
Fins with self-adjusting camber offer the improved qualities in both port side and starboard side sailing directions.
Spitfire fins are based on the wing configuration used by Spitfire aeroplanes. The elliptical wing shapes work very well as surfboard fins and several manufacturers make fins with this more upright stance, as it increases drive and maneuverability.
In 2004 Frank Fish introduced the world to Whale Bumps with their Tubercle effect. Several fin manufacturers tried making some fins at that time, after the article was discussed on Swaylock's design Forum. The process of grinding bumps, which are properly foiled, into an existing fin is an arduous, time consuming task. Hand foiling tubercles can take up to 40 hours+. Roy Stuart worked on wooden prototypes for years before creating the first polycarbonate, 3d printed, whale bumped surfboard fins in 2013.
Thrusters and Tri-fins
The tri-fin's design attempts to incorporate the glide of a longboard and the performance of a shortboard into a single layout. The additional fins ensure that even what riding down the line, two, or at least one, vertical control surface is in black water (not unstable foam) allows riders better turning capabilities. In a Thruster, the symmetric, usually larger, single center fin is flanked by twin asymmetric, cambered fins. The camber is angled front in and top in, directing energy from the incoming wave to lift the board and straighten it, not dissimilar from the force vectoring provided by the geometry of a rocket's nozzle.
Quad
A "Quad" four fins, typically arranged as two pairs of thrusters in wing formation, which are quick down the line but tend to lose energy through turns. The energy is lost as the board goes up the wave because the fins are now vectoring energy from the oncoming water toward the back of the board, bleeding speed.
Nubster
Created by professional surfer Sean Mattison as a rear stabilization fin. Dubbed a "guitar pick" the nubster was designed to be used as a fifth fin. The Nubster helped professional surfer Kelly Slater win contests in New York and Portugal in 2011.
Leash
A surfboard leash or leg rope is the cord that attaches a surfboard to the surfer. It prevents the surfboard from being swept away by waves and stops runaway surfboards from hitting other surfers and swimmers. Modern leashes comprise a urethane cord where one end has a band with a velcro strap attached to the surfer's trailing foot, and the opposite has a velcro strap attached to the tail end of the surfboard.
Jack O'Neill lost his left eye in a surf leash accident as the surgical tubing used in the early designs allowed the leash to overstretch, causing the surfboard to fly back towards the surfer. Subsequent cords were made with less elastic materials.
Nose
The front tip of the board. This can be pointed or rounded and can be made with a steep incline ("rocker", see below) or a gentle one.
Tail
The shape of the tail affects how a board responds. Tail shapes vary from square, pin, squash, swallow, diamond, and so on—each one in turn having its own family of smaller variants. A pin tail causes the board to move faster in the water, whereas the hip tail is created to help balance more than speed.
Traction Pad
Surfboard traction pads, deck grips, tailpads. There are several names for this piece of foam applied to the top of a surfboard to increase the grip and allow surfers to have more control and perform more high performance maneuvers. Traction pads are used on both shortboards and longboards, usually applied to the tail area of a surfboard.
Traction pads for the middle section of the deck, known as the "Mid Traction Pads" are mainly used on performance shortboards for increased grip. Unlike a tail pad - mid-deck traction pads need wax for added grip.
Rails
The edges of the board. A rounded rail is called "soft", while a more squared-off rail is called "hard", and rails that are in between are termed "50/50" ("fifty-fifty"). Larger, fuller rails contain a greater volume of foam giving the board increased buoyancy along the edge, while sharper, narrower rails have less volume, making the board easier to "sink" and "lean on edge". While riding down the line, one rail is always in the water while the other is suspended freely in the air. Turns are largely a matter of transitioning from rail to tail and over to the contralateral (opposing) rail.
Rocker
This refers to the vertical curve of the board between nose and tail. Rockers may be described as either heavy (steeply curved) or relaxed (less curved) and may be either continuous (a single curve between tip of nose and end of tail) or staged (distinct flat section in middle portion of board). The nose rocker or flip is the curve between the front tip and the middle or flattest portion of the board, and the tail rocker or kick is that between the tail and the middle/ flattest portion. An increase in flip helps keep the board from "pearling"; larger boards often require a greater flip. A larger kick adds maneuverability and lift to the tail at speed and provides tail sensitivity in critical turns. More relaxed rockers help the board to handle better on flatter sections of water, while heavy rockers increase the board's overall form drag but also give true lift when reaching planing speed and have a smaller turning radius.
The board's rails and deck may also be referred to as having rocker. A board with a v-shaped tail, for example, has had the lower/ outer portion of its rear rails reduced, increasing its tail rail rocker. Having a flat, even deck rocker will increase a board's flexibility, while a convex deck rocker creates a board that is thicker along the board's stringer and stiffer in the water.
Stringer
In board design, the "stringer" is a board's central plane of reflection, down the middle of its deck and its keel. In construction, the stringer can have no special parts, or can embed a stiff, thin, vertical slat, usually of wood but sometimes of carbon fiber, running from nose to tail. The stringer serves to increase the board's overall strength and reduce its flexibility. Some boards have multiple stringers.
Construction
To achieve positive buoyancy and a stiff deck, shapers have always reached for a foam, often hardened with a tensile skin, using Toucan beak engineering concepts.
Delamination is a problem where the skin of the board (i.e. fiberglass) separates from the foam core. All surfboards made of foam and resin can face the problem of delamination. A common reason for delamination is excessive heat. Delamination often first appears around dents.
Modern surfboards are usually made of foam using one of the following construction materials:
Polyurethane (PU foam) with polyester resin have been used in surfboards since the 1950s, and is, therefore, the oldest of the modern construction methods. Many hand-shaped boards are made of PU since it is a brittle material, making it easy to form by hand using sandpaper, shortening the build time. Both PU boards made by hand or by machines are usually more affordable compared to other foam materials. Some drawbacks are the toxicity of the material, that it is non-recyclable and that the PU foam is more flexible than some alternatives, making the board less stiff so that it can bend and twist more during use. PU foam can also absorb water and yellow over time. Note that it is also possible to build PU boards using epoxy resin. PU is still the most used material in surf board construction today.
Polystyrene (PS foam) with epoxy resin has a lower weight, but is not as strong as the more traditional PU foam. The PS foam core is therefore enclosed with a layer of epoxy to increase strength. Within polystyrene, mainly two types are used in surfboard construction; EPS and XPS. The reason epoxy resin is used exclusively instead of polyester resin on these boards, is that the polystyrene foam reacts chemically upon contact with polyester resin, causing the PS foam to melt. EPS and XPS have the advantages that they are more environmentally friendly, can last longer and are recyclable. However, they are more time consuming to shape by hand, taking for example 2 to 4 times as long to build. Often PS boards are not as stiff as PU boards, which may be the reason most professional surfers still prefer PU.
Expanded polystyrene is the lightest foam material commonly used to produce surfboards today, being lighter than both PU and XPS. A drawback to EPS is that it is difficult to shape by hand, and EPS boards are therefore typically made using machines where the shaping of the foam is near completed after the molding itself. It is possible to buy such semi-finished EPS boards (known as "pop out boards") to which the buyer can add glassfiber and resin themselves. Another drawback with EPS foam is that it absorbs water more easily. EPS has a structure consisting of individually closed cells, but there are air gaps between the cells themselves where water can enter. This gives EPS a higher permeability. EPS boards typically don't delaminate easily, but should be constructed using a vent to prevent delamination due to outgassing.
Extruded polystyrene (XPS foam) is somewhat heavier than EPS, and usually weighs as much as PU or more. XPS has a homogenous structure consisting of several layers of continuously extruded closed cells. XPS therefore resists water absorption very well, since there are no air gaps between the beads. Depending on construction, XPS boards may however be more prone delamination due to the closed structure preventing the epoxy resin getting a good grip on the foam. Improvements in manufacturing has alleviated some of these problems. XPS boards typically don't have a vent.
Fiberglass is the most common skin regardless of foam type. Other skin materials used are bamboo, carbon fiber, hemp kevlar and innegra.
EPS and XPS boards are sometimes erroneously referred to as "epoxy boards", while PU boards sometimes are erroneously referred to as "fiberglass boards". These designations are not correct. Firstly, fiberglass is the most common skin for all the mentioned foam types. Secondly, PU foam boards can also be constructed using epoxy resin.
Polyurethane (PU) boards
Surfboards have traditionally been constructed using polyurethane foam and it remains a popular choice. They are made stronger with one or more stringers going down the middle of the board. The foam is molded into a "blank", in the rough shape of a surfboard. Once the blanks have been made they are given to shapers. Shapers then cut, plane, and sand the board to its specifications. Finally, the board is covered in one or more layers of fiberglass cloth and resin. It is during this stage that the fins or boxes for removable fins are attached and the leash plug installed. Another method of making boards is using epoxy resin and prolapse polystyrene foam, instead of polyester resin and polyurethane foam. In recent years, surfboards made out of balsa and a polystyrene core are becoming more popular. Even solid balsa surfboards are available.
Although foam boards are usually shaped by hand, the use of machines to shape them has become increasingly popular. Vacuum forming and modern sandwich construction techniques borrowed from other industries have also become common. Many surfers have switched to riding sandwich-construction epoxy boards which have become especially popular with beginner surfers as they provide a durable, inexpensive, entry-level board.
Balsa boards
The Ochroma pyramidale wood's surfboard history originates in the Hawaiians, and the wood lead surfing's landfall on the US west coast in the 1940s. Being light and strong, balsa wood was long considered a perfect material for surfboards. Shapers could not use this fragile wood to make entire surfboards until after WWII, when fiberglass skins were invented.
Balsa wood boards are lighter, more buoyant and easier to handle than other boards. These boards have some disadvantages, however: they are not as sturdy as solid redwood boards.
Hollow wooden boards
Hollow wooden surfboards are made of wood and epoxy or oil (as a sustainable alternative to epoxy), and are a reversion to using wood after the foam became dominant in the 1950s. Hollow wooden surfboards specifically have no foam in their construction. (Boards made with foam and wood are commonly known as compsands or veneer boards.) Various construction methods are used to hollow the inside of the surfboard and lighten the weight of the completed board. Generally, a hollow wood surfboard is 30% to 300% heavier than a standard foam and resin surfboard. The main inspiration, apart from beauty, is that this is a more environmentally friendly method of construction (compared to epoxy and polyurethane methods) which uses fast-growing plantation wood such as paulownia, cedar, spruce, redwood, and, of course, balsa.
The current construction methods descend from the 1930s Tom Blake paddleboarding method, which favors a central stringer with individually shaped transverse ribs covered with a skin and rails. A modern interpretation of Tom Blake's work is the perimeter stringer method used by some manufacturers, utilizing laminated rails as stringers connected with a series of plywood ribs. This skeleton is then sheathed with 5mm-thick wood strips, creating a fast hollow board with good flex properties.
The parallel profile system was developed from cold molded (double diagonal) boat building, and uses at least four layers of material laminated over a male mold into a curved blank, including enough wood for rails, which are then shaped.
The chambering method follows a system in which planks of paulownia wood are selected and the rocker of the board is cut into each. The planks are then chambered to reduce weight, and then bonded together to form a hollow or "chambered" blank.
CUSH - skinned surfboards
One of the most recent modern advancements in surfboard technology is the creation of high performance boards which are wrapped in a stretchable soft skin which does not absorb water. The internal structure of Cush (cushion) boards is an epoxy surfboard with an EPS (extruded polystyrene) shaped foam core. The "skin", made of a gloss coated foam, is stretched and adhered while vacuumed over the surface of the entire epoxy surfboard. The purpose of the cush is for dampening of chatter, absorption of impact landings, airs, grip, and overall added protection for a light epoxy board. Jim Richardson, 25-year veteran shaper on the North Shore of Oahu, first pioneered this technology in the mid 1990s. And recently a few company's including Spacestick, Radiowake and CUSH (brand) have begun to market the advancements to the surfing community. Spacestick and CUSH surfboards are the current manufacturer for the various brands as of 2018.
Composite Sandwich Construction
The Composite Sandwich type of board construction became popular among garage shapers and later, major manufacturers, during the 1990s and 2000s. This construction method entails hand- or machine-shaping a foam blank from EPS foam and then vacuum-bagging or hand-laminating a more dense layer of foam, wood, or carbon onto the bottom and deck of the EPS foam core, usually separating the two layers with lightweight fiberglass cloth (2 oz pr. sq.yd, or 70 g/m2) or other composites cloths. This can also be accompanied with parabolic rails made of balsa or other buoyant woods, carbon, or other high-density materials. This blank construction is then laminated with epoxy resin and fiberglass or other composite cloth as any other surfboard would be, by hand or via vacuum bag.
The construction is referred to as a sandwich as it consists of the top skin, fiberglass or other composite cloth, the EPS core, fiberglass or other composite cloth, and the bottom skin, the cross section of which appears as a sandwich with the different layers. Firewire Surfboards pioneered this technology for the mass-produced surfboard market beginning in 2006.
Soft skin construction, such as Cush or Spacestick boards, adds an additional soft shell skin to the outside of a sandwich construction board. The soft skin is vacuumed to the cloth and epoxy so that the soft shell is exposed--- meaning the hard glass and resin are protected inside, and under, the soft cush skin.
Board types and variations
Shortboard
Since the late 1960s when Gordon Clark found the optimum formulation of urethane foam, many of the surfboards in common use have been of the shortboard variety between in length with a pointed nose and a rounded or squarish tail, typically with three "skegs" (fins) but sometimes with two or as many as five. Surfers generally find a shortboard quick to maneuver compared with other types of surfboards, but because of a lack of flotation due to the smaller size, the shortboard is harder to catch waves with, often requiring steeper, larger and more powerful waves and very late takeoffs, where the surfer catches the wave at the critical moment before it breaks.
A Bonzer is a surfboard designed by the Campbell Brothers that can have three or five fins and is punctuated with a large center fin and 2-4 smaller side fins(side bites). This, combined with deep double concave channels creates a distinctive board. The manufacturer has shown that these channels create versatile and controlled characteristics using the venturi effect which guides the water off of the surface of the board through a narrowed passage.
Hybrid
Modern hybrid boards are usually in length with a more rounded profile and tail shape. Hybrid boards are usually used in smaller waves and can have any fin set up. They are more about having fun than high performance or tricks. They can be easier to ride for beginning surfers and generally perform well in surfing conditions where the more traditional long and short boards might not.
Fish
Usually a short stubby board under in length developed from kneeboards in 1967 by Steve Lis. Other prominent fish shapers include Skip Frye, Larry Mabile and Steve Brom. Primarily a twin fin set up with a swallow tail shape and popular in smaller waves, the fish enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in the early 2000s after legendary surfer Tom Curren rode one during an ASP event at Hossegor. Note, any type of board (such as shortboard or mini-longboard) can have a fish tail, and these are commonly referred to as a "fish", but they lack the other properties of a traditional, or "retro" fish as described here.
Mid length
A mid length surfboard is generally 177cm to 200cm (7' to 8') in length with a slightly more performance-focused shape than the similar-sized normal board. Narrow outline & thruster-fin set-up make it a close companion in size and performance to a round-outline single-fin mini mal. Mid length surfboards excel good in both small and weak & large mushy waves by light and heavy surfers. A mid length is one of the most versatile 'all-around' boards for fun and performance.
Funboard
The funboard combines elements of both shortboards and longboards and are generally midsized, usually have a length of , thickness of and width of . The funboard's design allows waves to be caught more easily than a shortboard, yet with a shape that makes it more maneuverable than a longboard; hence it is a popular type of surfboard, especially among beginners or those transitioning from longboarding to the more difficult shortboarding. It is considered a good combination of the speed of a longboard and the maneuverability of a shortboard.
Gun
Big wave boards of length are considered guns. These have a thin, almost needle-like profile with single, quad, or thruster fin set up. It has the appearance of a shortboard but at a longboard size. Guns are often used at big wave locations such as Waimea Bay, Jaws (Hawaii), and Mavericks.
Longboard
The longboard is primarily a single-finned surfboard with large rounded nose and length of . Noseriders are a class of longboards that enable the rider to walk to the tip and nose ride. These are also called "Mals", a shortened form of "Malibu boards". They range from long, or taller than the rider in overall length. The advantage of a longboard is its substantial buoyancy and planing surface enable surfers to ride waves generally deemed too small to propel a shortboard. Longboards are more suitable for beginners because of the board's size and ease of catching waves. In the proper conditions, a skilled surfer can ride a wave standing on the nose of a longboard with their toes over the nose's edge: in this way, with the "toes on the nose", the surfer can "hang ten". Compared to the shortboards, longboards are considerably easier to learn on as they are capable of achieving stability, thus making the transition quite difficult.
Classic longboards
Longboards are the original and very first variety of board used in standup surfing. Ever since the sixth-century CE the ancient Hawaiians have used solid wooden boards when practicing their ancient art of Hoe he'e nalu. Surfing was brought to the Hawaiian Islands by Polynesians and has since become popular worldwide. The ancient boards were carved and fashioned out of solid wood, reaching lengths of long and weighing as much as 70 kg. Both men and women, royalty and commoners surfed. But the longest of boards (the Olo) was reserved for royalty. During the 19th century, some extreme western missionaries actively discouraged surfing, viewing it as sinful. Surfing almost died out completely. In recent times replicas have been made of Olo's and alaia's by experienced surfers and shapers wishing to explore the roots of the sport.
By the early 20th century, only a handful of people surfed, mostly at Waikiki. But there, it started to grow again. Beginning in 1912, Duke Kahanamoku, a Hawaiian Olympic swimmer in the early 1900s, brought surfing to mainland United States and Australia. Because of this, Duke is considered the "Father of Modern Surfing". From that point on, surfing became an integral part of the California beach lifestyle. In Malibu (in Los Angeles county), the beach was so popular amongst the early surfers that it lent its name to the type of longboard, the Malibu Surfboard. In the 1920s boards made of plywood or planking called Hollowboards came into use. These were typically in length and very light. During the 1950s, the surf trend took off dramatically as it obtained a substantial amount of popularity as a sport. The design and material of longboards in the 1950s changed from using solid wood to balsa wood. The length of the boards still remained the same at an average of , and had then become widely produced. It was not until the late 1950s and early 1960s when the surfboard design had closely evolved into today's modern longboard. The introduction of polyurethane foam and fiberglass became the technological leap in design. In the 1960s, the longboard continued to remain popular as its material changed from balsa wood to fiberglass and polyurethane foam.
In the 1960s, the introduction of the shortboard, averaging , allowed surfers to make tighter turns, quicker maneuvers, and achieve faster speeds, thus radically changing the way people surfed. This "shortboard revolution" nearly made longboards obsolete for all practical purposes. But in the early 1990s, the longboard returned, integrating a number of the design features invented during the shortboard revolution. Surfers rediscovered the grace and poise – the "glide" – of the longboard, and the fun of classic maneuvers that are not possible on a shortboard. In some circles, the battle between longboards and shortboards continues. But many surfers live by a philosophy of finding the joy of surfing a mix of boards and surfing styles to suit the waves of the day.
Modern longboards
The modern longboard has undergone many changes since its earlier models in the past. Today's longboard is much lighter than its predecessors. Its polyurethane foam and fiberglass design allows less drag on waves. Today's longboards are typically long, although some ride boards up to in length. Additionally, there is a revival of stand-up paddle-based surfing with boards up to in length (for stability). The classic single-fin longboard retains much of its classic design including a single fin, weight, and considerable buoyancy. A longboard with a single fin allows the board to pivot turn in order to remain in the curl of the wave. Due to recent advances in technology, the longboard has expanded its family into different variations of the classic longboard.
The 2+1
The 2+1 longboard is the most versatile board of the longboard family, offering greater maneuverability. Sometimes referred as a "single-fin with training wheels", the 2+1's fins actually takes the features of the classic longboard and the Tri-fin. The fins of the 2+1 take the rigid stability of a classic longboard, and fuses with the strength and drive of a Tri-fin.
Mini Tanker
The mini tanker is basically a shortened longboard shape that utilizes the same longboard design elements and enhanced maneuverability due to the shorter shape. These boards are normally ridden by those wanting the feel of a longboard with the increased agility of a short board .
The Malibu
Named after Malibu, California, this racy longboard shape is a little narrower than most, with slightly pulled in nose and tail sections for extra maneuverability on Malibu's famous right hand point breaks. This classic shape has been ridden and praised by experienced surfers for its maneuverability and performance. Classic tricks that can be performed on a Malibu are "Hang Fives" and "Hang tens" whereby the surfer walks to the nose of the board and hangs 5 or 10 toes over the nose, the "soul arch", drop knee turns, head dips, switch stance maneuvers, and so on.
Olo
Originally reserved for Hawaiian royalty due to its size and weight, these wooden boards can exceed lengths of and reach weights up to 90 kg.
Alaia
A traditional finless wooden surfboard, typically ridden by ancient native Hawaiians, not of royal descent. The surfboard typically runs 90 kg.
However modern day Alaias can be much thinner. Many are a mere thick, and can be as short as . Common woods used in current construction are paulownia, cedar, and other woods suitable for salty ocean waters. The tails come in different styles. The boards are notoriously difficult to ride.
Tandem
The first stand up surfboard ridden in Australia by Duke Kahanamoku and Isabel Letham is an oversized longboard with enough buoyancy to support two people, tandem surfing.
See also
Longboarding
Skateboard
Snowboard
Surfboard lock
Surf culture
Wind surfing
References
Surfing equipment | wiki |
Human trafficking in Arizona is the illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, and forced labor as it occurs in the state of Arizona, and it is widely recognized as a modern-day form of slavery. It includes "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs."
According to the U.S. State Department, Arizona is a main destination and transit point for labor and sex trafficking, both nationally and internationally. Some contributing factors include its proximity to Mexico, San Diego and Las Vegas, its warm weather, its network of freeways, and the fact that it is a major conference destination, and home to many professional sporting events. The Great Recession also hit Phoenix particularly hard, leading to a spike in homeless youth who are vulnerable to human traffickers. Cindy McCain has raised awareness of human trafficking in Arizona and across the United States and served as co-chair of the Arizona Governor Jan Brewer's Task Force on Human Trafficking.
Laws
Unlawfully Obtaining Labor or Services; classification (AZ) - Arizona Legislation making it illegal to obtain labor or services through the use of bodily harm, threatening or restraining victim, and/or withholding victim's personal records.
Sex Trafficking; classification (AZ) - Arizona Legislation that defines what sex trafficking is. States that it is illegal to recruit, entice, harbor, transport, provide or obtain by any means another person with the intent of causing the other person to engage in prostitution by force, fraud or coercion. If a person is under the age of eighteen, it is illegal to entice, harbor, transport, provide, or obtain by any means that person with the intent of causing that person to engage in prostitution.
Trafficking of Persons for Forced Labor or Services; classifications; definitions (AZ) - Arizona Legislation that defines labor trafficking as "transport another person or to entice, recruit, harbor, provide or otherwise obtain another person for transport by deception, coercion or force,". Also states that it is illegal to knowingly traffic another person or benefit from the trafficking of another person for labor or services.
Demographics
In July 2014, Arizona State University, Office of Sex Trafficking Intervention Research conducted a survey of 246 homeless youth ages 18–25. 25% reported being victims of human trafficking with 18% of those currently being controlled by a trafficker. LGBTQ youth were significantly more likely (38%) to be trafficked than straight youth (20%). The range of age of first time being trafficked ranged from 5 to 23, with an average of age of 14.
A 2015 study by Arizona State University looked at sex trafficking among adults on probation in Maricopa county. They found that 38% of adult probation officers had a sex trafficking victim on their case load and 25.6% had a sex trafficker. Of the victims of sex trafficking, 39.3% were currently being trafficked and 92.9% were female.
Anti-human trafficking efforts
Gov. Jan Brewer has put together a Task Force on Human Trafficking consisting of advocates and politicians. Following their recommendation, the Arizona police academy has incorporated sex training in the classroom and exams. In addition, the Arizona Peace Officer Standards and Training Board is distributing a sex-trafficking video for current officers.
Phoenix
In 2014, the Phoenix City Council approved a five-year plan to combat trafficking in the city. During this time, they hope to create a cultural shift that makes human trafficking unacceptable by having a Stop Human Trafficking campaign, partnering with media outlets, promoting the national hotline, putting up awareness posters. They hope to educate the media on how to report human trafficking, partner with human trafficking experts, and conduct trainings for businesses and organizations that are more likely to come in contact with victims. They plan to increase law enforcement by holding mandatory training through law enforcement, identifying runaways through partnerships with the police missing persons unit, getting a better diversion program for trafficking victims, and better technology to identify pimps and victims.
They also plan on increasing services for victims so by 2020, victims will have access to a broad continuum of care with multiple choices for services. They plan to create a database that hosts information on service provider agencies, and assess the gaps in services, especially in the first 48 hours after the first responders show up.
National Day of Johns
National Day of Johns was a sex trafficking sting in connection with Super Bowl XLIX, held in Phoenix. Almost 600 people were arrested and 68 victims were rescued. Super Bowls attract sex traffickers and many of the rescued victims said they were brought to Arizona specifically for the Super Bowl.
Arizona's Not Buying It
Arizona's Not Buying It is a campaign initiated by the Arizona Attorney General in partnership with Shared Hope International designed to fight child sex trafficking. It features several celebrities, voicing their support for the campaign, including Derrick Hall, Anthony LeBlanc, Mark Lewis, Kurt Warner, Dr. Ray Perkins, Danny White, Dan Manucci, Jay Taylor and Steve Holden.
Organizations
The Underage Sex-Trafficking Coalition was formed in 2011 by the Arizona Attorney General. It seeks to raise public awareness, educate the community and advocate to strengthen laws about human trafficking. It began the Arizona's Not Buying It Campaign, in partnership with Shared Hope International, to fight child sex trafficking.
Arizona League to End Regional Trafficking (ALERT) is a coalition representing partnerships with law enforcement, faith-based communities, non-profit organizations, social service agencies, attorneys and concerned citizens. ALERT helps victims of trafficking by providing: food and shelter; medical care; mental health counseling; immigration assistance; legal assistance; language interpretation; case management; and other culturally appropriate services throughout the state of Arizona.
MOMA's House is an organization based in Laveen that helps female victims recover from sex trafficking by providing shelter, a supportive environment, and a program to help them develop life and career skills.
Training and Resources United to Stop Trafficking (TRUST) focuses on raising awareness about human trafficking through training and providing resources.
'''Coalition Against Human Trafficking - Northern Arizona (CAHT-NAZ) a coalition dedicated to providing awareness training throughout the Verde Valley and providing support to groups looking to organize new coalitions throughout Northern Arizona. https://caht-naz.org/
References
Arizona
Crime in Arizona | wiki |
Exercise is a body activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.
It is performed for various reasons, including weight loss or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, hone athletic skills, improve health, or simply for enjoyment. Many individuals choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve well-being as well as mental health.
In terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none.
Classification
Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:
Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more oxygen than it would while resting. The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance. Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, dancing, playing tennis, continuous training, and long distance running.
Anaerobic exercise, which includes strength and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and increase muscle mass, as well as improve bone density, balance, and coordination. Examples of strength exercises are push-ups, pull-ups, lunges, squats, bench press. Anaerobic exercise also includes weight training, functional training, Eccentric Training, interval training, sprinting, and high-intensity interval training which increase short-term muscle strength.
Flexibility exercises stretch and lengthen muscles. Activities such as stretching help to improve joint flexibility and keep muscles limber. The goal is to improve the range of motion which can reduce the chance of injury.
Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed.
Types of exercise can also be classified as dynamic or static. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolic pressure to rise significantly, albeit transiently, during the performance of the exercise.
Health effects
Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life. People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential. The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity. For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week. A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer worldwide. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.
Fitness
Most people can increase fitness by increasing physical activity levels. Increases in muscle size from resistance training are primarily determined by diet and testosterone. This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population. There is evidence that exercising in middle age may lead to better physical ability later in life.
Early motor skills and development is also related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children who are more proficient with motor skills early on are more inclined to be physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle.
The type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. There is some weak evidence that high-intensity interval training may improve a person's VO2 max slightly more than lower intensity endurance training. However, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries.
Cardiovascular system
The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. Low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality.
Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. Studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise.
There is a dose-response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly men. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active.
Studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles.
Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40–60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). Persons who modify their behavior after myocardial infarction to include regular exercise have improved rates of survival. Persons who remain sedentary have the highest risk for all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. According to the American Heart Association, exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.
Some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs.
Immune system
Although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence. However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. Studies have shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes. The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have a slightly elevated natural killer cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.
Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with a lower incidence of upper respiratory tract infections in marathon runners.
Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, an important cardiovascular risk marker. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.
Cancer
A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, "[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer–specific, and colon cancer–specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers." Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being. For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning. This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise.
Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer. Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise. Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise. Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often have high drop-out rates.
There is low-quality evidence for an effect of aerobic physical exercises on anxiety and serious adverse events in adults with hematological malignancies. Aerobic physical exercise may result in little to no difference in the mortality, quality of life, or physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and reduction in fatigue.
Neurobiological
Depression
Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of euphoria, colloquially known as a "runner's high" in distance running or a "rower's high" in crew, through the increased biosynthesis of at least three euphoriant neurochemicals: anandamide (an endocannabinoid), β-endorphin (an endogenous opioid), and phenethylamine (a trace amine and amphetamine analog).
Sleep
Preliminary evidence from a 2012 review indicated that physical training for up to four months may increase sleep quality in adults over 40 years of age. A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved sleep for most people, and may help with insomnia, but there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that exercise can improve sleep quality in people with insomnia.
Libido
One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use.
Respiratory system
People who participate in physical exercise experience increased cardiovascular fitness.
There is some level of concern about additional exposure to air pollution when exercising outdoors, especially near traffic.
Mechanism of effects
Skeletal muscle
Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes muscle hypertrophy and gains in muscle strength by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB). The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via phosphorylation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and subsequent activation of mTORC1, which leads to protein biosynthesis in cellular ribosomes via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets (the p70S6 kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1). The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in plasma insulin. Similarly, increased muscle protein synthesis (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed muscle protein breakdown (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid.
Aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and an increased capacity for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance. These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular AMP:ATP ratio, thereby triggering the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which subsequently phosphorylates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis.
Other peripheral organs
Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. Exercise reduces levels of cortisol, which causes many health problems, both physical and mental. Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals. There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of VO2 max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.
Central nervous system
The effects of physical exercise on the central nervous system are mediated in part by specific neurotrophic factor hormones that are released into the blood stream by muscles, including BDNF, IGF-1, and VEGF.
Public health measures
Community-wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. Studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary. There is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance. Following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function. Brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost-effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies.
Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels. The city of Bogotá, Colombia, for example, blocks off of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. Such pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy BMI.
Parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.
The European Commission's Directorate-General for Education and Culture (DG EAC) has dedicated programs and funds for Health Enhancing Physical Activity (HEPA) projects within its Horizon 2020 and Erasmus+ program, as research showed that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries, and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a Eurobarometer on sport and physical activity.
Exercise trends
Worldwide there has been a large shift toward less physically demanding work. This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home, and fewer active recreational pursuits. Personal lifestyle changes, however, can correct the lack of physical exercise.
Research published in 2015 suggests that incorporating mindfulness into physical exercise interventions increases exercise adherence and self-efficacy, and also has positive effects both psychologically and physiologically.
Social and cultural variation
Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising. In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors (such as at home or health clubs), while in others, people primarily exercise outdoors. People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to a variety of reasons including geographic location and social tendencies.
In Colombia, for example, citizens value and celebrate the outdoor environments of their country. In many instances, they use outdoor activities as social gatherings to enjoy nature and their communities. In Bogotá, Colombia, a 70-mile stretch of road known as the Ciclovía is shut down each Sunday for bicyclists, runners, rollerbladers, skateboarders and other exercisers to work out and enjoy their surroundings.
Similarly to Colombia, citizens of Cambodia tend to exercise socially outside. In this country, public gyms have become quite popular. People will congregate at these outdoor gyms not only to use the public facilities, but also to organize aerobics and dance sessions, which are open to the public.
Sweden has also begun developing outdoor gyms, called utegym. These gyms are free to the public and are often placed in beautiful, picturesque environments. People will swim in rivers, use boats, and run through forests to stay healthy and enjoy the natural world around them. This works particularly well in Sweden due to its geographical location.
Exercise in some areas of China, particularly among those who are retired, seems to be socially grounded. In the mornings, square dances are held in public parks; these gatherings may include Latin dancing, ballroom dancing, tango, or even the jitterbug. Dancing in public allows people to interact with those with whom they would not normally interact, allowing for both health and social benefits.
These sociocultural variations in physical exercise show how people in different geographic locations and social climates have varying motivations and methods of exercising. Physical exercise can improve health and well-being, as well as enhance community ties and appreciation of natural beauty.
Nutrition and recovery
Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients while providing ample micronutrients, to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.
Active recovery is recommended after participating in physical exercise because it removes lactate from the blood more quickly than inactive recovery. Removing lactate from circulation allows for an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system, as an individual may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.
Exercise has an effect on appetite, but whether it increases or decreases appetite varies from individual to individual, and is affected by the intensity and duration of the exercise.
Excessive exercise
Excessive exercise or overtraining occurs when a person exceeds their body's ability to recover from strenuous exercise.
History
The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Dating back to 65 BCE, it was Marcus Cicero, Roman politician and lawyer, who stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor." Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the Early Middle Ages as a means of survival by the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe.
More recently, exercise was regarded as a beneficial force in the 19th century. In 1858 Archibald MacLaren opened a gymnasium at the University of Oxford and instituted a training regimen for Major Frederick Hammersley and 12 non-commissioned officers. This regimen was assimilated into the training of the British Army, which formed the Army Gymnastic Staff in 1860 and made sport an important part of military life. Several mass exercise movements were started in the early twentieth century as well. The first and most significant of these in the UK was the Women's League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by Mary Bagot Stack, that had 166,000 members in 1937.
The link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was further established in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by Jerry Morris. Dr. Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.
Other animals
Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate energy balance.
Mice having access to activity wheels engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults. Artificial selection of mice exhibited significant heritability in voluntary exercise levels, with "high-runner" breeds having enhanced aerobic capacity, hippocampal neurogenesis, and skeletal muscle morphology.
The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of salmon showed minor improvements of endurance, and a forced swimming regimen of yellowtail amberjack and rainbow trout accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming. Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training. No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards, although one study did report a training effect. In lizards, sprint training had no effect on maximal exercise capacity, and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.
See also
Active living
Behavioural change theories
Bodybuilding
Exercise hypertension
Exercise intensity
Exercise intolerance
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis
Exercise-induced asthma
Exercise-induced nausea
Kinesiology
Metabolic equivalent
Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
Non-exercise associated thermogenesis
Supercompensation
Warming up
References
External links
Adult Compendium of Physical Activities – a website containing lists of Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) values for a number of physical activities, based upon
MedLinePlus Topic on Exercise and Physical Fitness
Physical activity and the environment – guidance on the promotion and creation of physical environments that support increased levels of physical activity.
Science Daily's reference on physical exercise | wiki |
Crop weeds are weeds that grow amongst crops.
Despite the potential for some crop weeds to be used as a food source, many can also prove harmful to crops, both directly and indirectly. Crop weeds can inhibit the growth of crops, contaminate harvested crops and often spread rapidly. They can also host crop pests such as aphids, fungal rots and viruses. Cost increases and yield losses occur as a result. Striga, one of the main cereal crop weeds in Sub-Saharan Africa, commonly causes yield losses of 40–100% and accounts for around $7 billion in losses annually. Around 100 million hectares of land in Sub-Saharan Africa are affected by striga. Barnyard grass has been identified as a culprit in global rice yield losses and certain species have been known to mimic rice.
Examples of crop weeds include chickweed, barnyard grass, dandelion, striga and Japanese knotweed.
See also
Weed of cultivation
References
Weeds
Agricultural pests
Crops | wiki |
The Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) is a flatfish of the family Pleuronectidae. They are demersal fish living on or near sand, gravel or clay bottoms at depths of between . The halibut is among the largest teleost (bony) fish in the world, and is a threatened species due to a slow rate of growth and overfishing. Halibut are strong swimmers and are able to migrate long distances. Halibut size is not age-specific, but rather tends to follow a cycle related to halibut (and therefore food) abundance.
The native habitat of the Atlantic halibut is the temperate and arctic waters of the northern Atlantic, from Labrador and Greenland to Iceland, the Barents Sea and as far south as the Bay of Biscay and Virginia. It is the largest flatfish in the world, reaching lengths of up to and weights of . Its lifespan can reach 50 years.
Age can be estimated by counting the rings laid down inside the otolith – a bony structure found inside the inner ear of the fish.
Description
The Atlantic halibut is a right-eyed flounder. It is flattened sideways and habitually lies on the left side of its body with both eyes migrating to the right side of its head during development. When the larvae are born, they start in the upright position like most other fish having one eye on each side of the head. Once the larvae reach one inch in length, the left eye moves over the snout to the right side of the head. At the same time, the coloring on the left side begins to fade to white while the upper side of the fish is a uniformly dark chocolate, olive or slate color, and can be almost black. The end of the caudal fin is concave. Young fish are paler with more mottled coloration. Male adults average about but can range to upwards of , rarely reaching . Females can get as large as .
Biology
Atlantic Halibut have a relatively slow growth rate and late onset of sexual maturity, with males attaining maturity at seven to eight years old, females at 10 to 11 years, and individuals averagely live around 25 to 30 years old. The oldest to have been caught was 50 years old. The Alaskan Halibut is a batch spawner where females lay anywhere from a few thousand to four million eggs (depending on the size and age of the fish, older females tend to lay only two million in one spawning period). Spawning occurs between December to April near the bottom of the ocean between . The egg size is around 3.0–3.8 mm and the larvae at time of hatching is 6.5 mm. Growth weight is dependent on the density, competition, and availability of food.
Habitat
This marine fish usually lives on the ocean floor at depths between , but it occasionally comes closer to the surface. The larvae are pelagic, drifting relatively helplessly, but at around 4 cm, they migrate to the bottom. Young between the ages of two and four years live close to the shore, moving into deeper waters as they grow older.
Geographic distribution
Found in both the eastern and western portions of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic, found from southwestern Greenland and Labrador, Canada to Virginia in the USA. They are found in the eastern Atlantic around Iceland, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe to Russia. A map of the Atlantic Halibut's geographic distribution can be found on the Official Website of Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries.
This demersal fish is found ranging from the latitude and longitude coordinates: 79°N - 36°N, 77°W - 55°E.
Role in ecosystem
The Atlantic halibut occupies a relatively high trophic level in the food chain.
Diet
The diet of the Atlantic halibut consists mainly of other fish, e.g. cod, haddock, herring, pogge, sand eels and capelin, but it will also eat cephalopods, large crustaceans and other benthos organisms.
During the first year of their life, halibut mostly feed on plankton. Once they turn 1, they feed on euphausiids and small fish until around age 3. As the halibut grows, the diet mostly consists of other fish including smaller halibut.
Predators
Atlantic halibut are eaten by seals, and are a staple food of the Greenland shark. Killer whales are also natural predators of the halibut. Humans also consume halibut.
Commercial fishing of wild Atlantic halibut
The wild Atlantic halibut was formerly a very important food fish, but due to its slow rate of population growth, it is unable to recover quickly from overfishing, and the fishery has largely collapsed. Consequently, wild fish labelled as "halibut" are usually one of the other large flatfishes, including Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis.
The most popular way to catch the Alaskan halibut is to use circle hooks that are baited with herring or other similar fish, fished from the bottom with cannonball weights of up to 36 ounces on a slider.
The survival rate of caught and released halibut is 95 percent due to the lack of having a swim bladder and not severely suffering from changes in water pressure (as long as the captured halibut is in excellent condition).
Farming
Due to its popularity as a food fish, Atlantic halibut has attracted investment in fish farming. As of 2006, five countries—Canada, Norway, the UK, Iceland and Chile—were engaged in some form of Atlantic halibut aquaculture production.
Conservation status
In 1996, the IUCN rated it as Endangered and placed it on its Red List.
The Atlantic halibut is a US National Marine Fisheries Service Species of Concern, one of those species about which the U.S. Government's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has some concerns regarding status and threats, but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The American Fisheries Society has classified the species as "Vulnerable". In 2010, Greenpeace International added the Atlantic halibut to its seafood red list of "fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."
The Atlantic halibut has been on the endangered species list since 1996 due to overfishing since it became commercially important during the 19th century since the great meat demand of the halibut and being one of the largest flatfishes and essentially being easy to capture.
References
External links
Video of larval Atlantic halibut reared in a tank and feeding on Artemia
Atlantic halibut
Fish of the North Sea
Fish of the North Atlantic
Fauna of Atlantic Canada
Fauna of the British Isles
Atlantic halibut
Atlantic halibut | wiki |
Clarkson Golden Knights ice hockey may refer to either of the ice hockey teams that represent Clarkson University:
Clarkson Golden Knights men's ice hockey
Clarkson Golden Knights women's ice hockey | wiki |
Cornell Big Red ice hockey may refer to either of the ice hockey teams that represent Cornell University:
Cornell Big Red men's ice hockey
Cornell Big Red women's ice hockey | wiki |
Petticoat breeches were voluminously wide, pleated pants, reminiscent of a skirt, worn by men in Western Europe during the 1650s and early 1660s. The very full loose breeches were usually decorated with loops of ribbons on the waist and around the knee. They were so loose and wide that they became known as petticoat breeches. They give very much the impression of very baggy loose shorts since they are not gathered at the knee.
They replaced Spanish breeches during the 1650s as the most popular leg wear of most of Western Europe. By the early 1660s, if they were gathered at the bottom they were called rhinegraves.
References
External links
Pieter de Hooch Paintings Two pages of paintings of Dutch men in petticoat breeches by Pieter de Hooch.
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Breeches
Skirts | wiki |
Twin Wasp may refer to one of three engines of the Pratt & Whitney Wasp series:
Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp
Pratt & Whitney R-1535 Twin Wasp Junior
Pratt & Whitney R-2180-E Twin Wasp E
See also
Pratt & Whitney R-2180-A Twin Hornet | wiki |
Take It All is an American game show hosted by Deal or No Deal host Howie Mandel. It premiered on NBC on December 10, 2012, as part of the 2012–13 television season. In April 2012, NBC placed a seven-episode order for the show under the original title Howie Mandel's White Elephant.
On each episode, five contestants participate in a game similar to a white elephant gift exchange, attempting to win or steal more-valuable prizes each round to avoid elimination. The final two contestants participate in a variant on the prisoner's dilemma in which one decision by each of the two finalists determines whether they both go home with prizes, one winner takes everything, or they both go home with nothing.
Gameplay
Main game
Five unopened boxes, each containing a prize worth between $5,000 and $12,000, are displayed on a video wall. The first contestant chooses a box, whose contents are revealed; however, the price is not stated. Each subsequent contestant may either choose a box or steal the prize from one opponent. When a contestant's prize is stolen, they must immediately either steal from a different opponent or choose one of the remaining boxes. They may not immediately steal back the prize that was taken from them. Once per game, each contestant may secretly choose to block the prize they hold from being stolen by any opponent for the rest of that round.
The round continues until every contestant has a prize. If all contestants after the first choose boxes and/or steal only from one another, the first contestant is given an opportunity to trade prizes with one opponent if they choose; this is treated the same as an attempt to steal and can be blocked. The values of the prizes are then revealed, and the contestant with the least valuable prize is eliminated and forfeits all their winnings.
Two more rounds are played in this manner, with one available box per contestant and increased prize values in each: $15,000 to $25,000 in the second round, and $30,000 to $100,000 in the third. In each of these rounds, the contestant who finished with the most valuable prize in the previous one chooses first. The two remaining contestants after the third round advance to the Prize Fight.
Prize Fight
The final two contestants each select one envelope from a set of 10, containing cash values that range from $25,000 to $250,000. The values in the envelopes are not immediately revealed. Each separately and secretly decides to "keep mine" or "take it all," similar in format to the prisoner's dilemma. If both contestants choose "keep mine," each receives the prizes they accumulated in the first three rounds, plus the cash value of the envelope they chose. If one chooses "keep mine" and the other chooses "take it all," the "take it all" contestant wins the prizes and cash awards accumulated by both, while the "keep mine" contestant leaves with nothing. If both choose "take it all," they lose all their cash and prizes and leave empty-handed.
Nielsen ratings
See also
Friend or Foe?
Shafted
Golden Balls
References
External links
2010s American game shows
2012 American television series debuts
2012 American television series endings
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Television series by Universal Television | wiki |
Princeton Tigers ice hockey may refer to either of the ice hockey teams that represent Princeton University:
Princeton Tigers men's ice hockey
Princeton Tigers women's ice hockey | wiki |
Spanish is the second most spoken language in the United States. Over 41 million people aged five or older speak Spanish at home. Spanish is also the most learned language other than English, with about six million students. Estimates range from 41 million to over 50 million native speakers, heritage language speakers, and second-language speakers. There is an Academy of the Spanish Language located in the United States as well.
In the United States there are more speakers of Spanish than speakers of French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Hawaiian, the various varieties of Chinese, the Indo-Aryan languages, and the Native American languages combined. According to the 2019 American Community Survey conducted by the US Census Bureau, Spanish is spoken at home by 41.8 million people aged five or older, more than twice as many as in 1990.
Spanish has been spoken in what is now the United States since the 15th century, with the arrival of Spanish colonization in North America. Colonizers settled in areas that would later become Florida, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California as well as in what is now the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Spanish explorers explored areas of 42 of the future US states leaving behind a varying range of Hispanic legacy in North America. Western regions of the Louisiana Territory were also under Spanish rule between 1763 and 1800, after the French and Indian War, which further extended Spanish influences throughout what is now the United States.
After the incorporation of those areas into the United States in the first half of the 19th century, Spanish was later reinforced in the country by the acquisition of Puerto Rico in 1898. Waves of immigration from Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, El Salvador, and elsewhere in Latin America have strengthened the prominence of Spanish in the country. Today, Hispanics are one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States, which has increased the use and importance of Spanish in the United States. However, there is a marked decline in the use of Spanish among Hispanics in America, declining from 78% in 2006 to 73% in 2015, with the trend accelerating as Hispanics undergo language shift to English.
History
Early Spanish settlements
The Spanish arrived in what would later become the United States in 1493, with the Spanish arrival to Puerto Rico. Ponce de León explored Florida in 1513. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, Florida. The Spanish later left but others moved in and it is the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the continental United States. Juan Ponce de León founded San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1508. Historically, the Spanish-speaking population increased because of territorial annexation of lands claimed earlier by the Spanish Empire and by wars with Mexico and by land purchases.
Spanish Louisiana
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, land claimed by Spain encompassed a large part of the contemporary U.S. territory, including the French colony of Louisiana from 1769 to 1800. In order to further establish and defend Louisiana, Spanish Governor Bernardo de Gálvez recruited Canary Islanders to emigrate to North America. Between November 1778 and July 1779, around 1600 Isleños arrived in New Orleans, and another group of about 300 came in 1783. By 1780, the four Isleño communities were already founded. When Louisiana was sold to the United States, its Spanish, Creole and Cajun inhabitants became U.S. citizens, and continued to speak Spanish or French. In 1813, George Ticknor started a program of Spanish Studies at Harvard University.
Spain also founded settlements along the Sabine River, to protect the border with French Louisiana. The towns of Nacogdoches, Texas and Los Adaes were founded as part of this settlement, and the people there spoke a dialect descended from rural Mexican Spanish, which is now almost completely extinct.
Although it's commonly thought in Nacogdoches that the Hispanic residents of the Sabine River area are ,
their Spanish dialect is derived from rural Mexican Spanish, and their ancestors came from Mexico and other parts of Texas.
Annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War
In 1821, after Mexico's War of Independence from Spain, Texas was part of the United Mexican States as the state of Coahuila y Tejas. A large influx of Americans soon followed, originally with the approval of Mexico's president. In 1836, the now largely "American" Texans fought a war of independence from the central government of Mexico. The arrivals from the US objected to Mexico's abolition of slavery. They declared independence and established the Republic of Texas. In 1846, the Republic dissolved when Texas entered the United States of America as a state. By 1850, fewer than 16,000 or 7.5% of Texans were of Mexican descent, Spanish-speaking people (both Mexicans and non-Spanish European settlers, including German Texans) were outnumbered six to one by English-speaking settlers (both Americans and other immigrant Europeans).
After the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming also became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. Most of New Mexico, western Texas, southern Colorado, southwestern Kansas, and the Oklahoma panhandle were part of the territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The geographical isolation and unique political history of this territory led to New Mexican Spanish differing notably from both Spanish spoken in other parts of the United States of America and Spanish spoken in the present-day United Mexican States.
Mexico lost almost half of the northern territory gained from Spain in 1821 to the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). This included parts of contemporary Texas, and Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, California, Nevada, and Utah. Although the lost territory was sparsely populated, the thousands of Spanish-speaking Mexicans subsequently became U.S. citizens. The war-ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) does not explicitly address language. Although Spanish initially continued to be used in schools and government, the English-speaking American settlers who entered the Southwest established their language, culture, and law as dominant, displacing Spanish in the public sphere.
The California experience is illustrative. The first California constitutional convention in 1849 had eight Californio participants; the resulting state constitution was produced in English and Spanish, and it contained a clause requiring all published laws and regulations to be published in both languages. One of the first acts of the first California Legislature of 1850 was to authorize the appointment of a State Translator, who would be responsible for translating all state laws, decrees, documents, or orders into Spanish.
Such magnanimity did not last very long. As early as February 1850, California adopted the Anglo-American common law as the basis of the new state's legal system. In 1855, California declared that English would be the only medium of instruction in its schools. These policies were one way of ensuring the social and political dominance of Anglos.
The state's second constitutional convention in 1872 had no Spanish-speaking participants; the convention's English-speaking participants felt that the state's remaining minority of Spanish-speakers should simply learn English; and the convention ultimately voted 46–39 to revise the earlier clause so that all official proceedings would henceforth be published only in English.
Despite the displacement of Spanish from the public sphere, much of the border region, including most of Southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and south Texas, was home to Spanish speaking communities until at least the beginning of the 20th century.
Spanish–American War (1898)
In 1898, consequent to the Spanish–American War, the United States took control of Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam as American territories. In 1902, Cuba became independent from the United States, while Puerto Rico remained a U.S. territory. The American government required government services to be bilingual in Spanish and English, and attempted to introduce English-medium education to Puerto Rico, but the latter effort was unsuccessful.
Once Puerto Rico was granted autonomy in 1948, even mainlander officials who came to Puerto Rico were forced to learn Spanish. Only 20% of Puerto Rico's residents understand English, and although the island's government had a policy of official bilingualism, it was repealed in favor of a Spanish-only policy in 1991. This policy was reversed in 1993 when a pro-statehood party ousted a pro-independence party from the commonwealth government.
Hispanics as the largest minority in the United States
The relatively recent but large influx of Spanish-speakers to the United States has increased the overall total of Spanish-speakers in the country. They form majorities and large minorities in many political districts, especially in California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas (the American states bordering Mexico), and also in South Florida.
Mexicans first moved to the United States as refugees in the turmoil of the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1917, but many more emigrated later for economic reasons. The large majority of Mexicans are in the former Mexican-controlled areas in the Southwest. From 1942 to 1962, the Bracero program would provide for mass Mexican migration to the United States.
At over 5 million, Puerto Ricans are easily the second largest Hispanic group. Of all major Hispanic groups, Puerto Ricans are the least likely to be proficient in Spanish, but millions of Puerto Rican Americans living in the U.S. mainland are fluent in Spanish. Puerto Ricans are natural-born U.S. citizens, and many Puerto Ricans have migrated to New York City, Orlando, Philadelphia, and other areas of the Eastern United States, increasing the Spanish-speaking populations and in some areas being the majority of the Hispanophone population, especially in Central Florida. In Hawaii, where Puerto Rican farm laborers and Mexican ranchers have settled since the late 19th century, seven percent of the islands' people are either Hispanic or Hispanophone or both.
The Cuban Revolution of 1959 created a community of Cuban exiles who opposed the Communist revolution, many of whom left for the United States. In 1963, the Ford Foundation established the first bilingual education program in the United States for the children of Cuban exiles in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 boosted immigration from Latin American countries, and in 1968, Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act. Most of these one million Cuban Americans settled in southern and central Florida, while other Cubans live in the Northeastern United States; most are fluent in Spanish. In the city of Miami today Spanish is the first language mostly due to Cuban immigration. Likewise, the Nicaraguan Revolution and subsequent Contra War created a migration of Nicaraguans fleeing the Sandinista government and civil war to the United States in the late 1980s. Most of these Nicaraguans migrated to Florida and California.
The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of both economic and political problems. The largest immigration wave occurred as a result of the Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s, in which 20 to 30 percent of El Salvador's population emigrated. About 50 percent, or up to 500,000 of those who escaped, headed to the United States, which was already home to over 10,000 Salvadorans, making Salvadoran Americans the fourth-largest Hispanic and Latino American group, after the Mexican-American majority, stateside Puerto Ricans, and Cubans.
As civil wars engulfed several Central American countries in the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of Salvadorans fled their country and came to the United States. Between 1980 and 1990, the Salvadoran immigrant population in the United States increased nearly fivefold from 94,000 to 465,000. The number of Salvadoran immigrants in the United States continued to grow in the 1990s and 2000s as a result of family reunification and new arrivals fleeing a series of natural disasters that hit El Salvador, including earthquakes and hurricanes. By 2008, there were about 1.1 million Salvadoran immigrants in the United States.
Until the 20th century, there was no clear record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. Between the 18th and early 19th centuries, there were many European immigrants who went to Venezuela, only to later migrate to the United States along with their children and grandchildren who were born and/or grew up in Venezuela speaking Spanish. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States; however, there are few specific figures indicating these statistics. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education, only to remain there following graduation. They are frequently joined by relatives. However, since the early 1980s, the reasons for Venezuelan emigration have changed to include hopes of earning a higher salary and due to the economic fluctuations in Venezuela which also promoted an important migration of Venezuelan professionals to the US. In the 2000s, dissident Venezuelans migrated to South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas (adding to their existing Hispanic populations), New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland.
Refugees from Spain also migrated to the U.S. due to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and political instability under the regime of Francisco Franco that lasted until 1975. The majority of Spaniards settled in Florida, Texas, California, New Jersey, New York City, Chicago, and Puerto Rico.
The publication of data by the United States Census Bureau in 2003 revealed that Hispanics were the largest minority in the United States and caused a flurry of press speculation in Spain about the position of Spanish in the United States. That year, the Instituto Cervantes, an organization created by the Spanish government in 1991 to promote Spanish language around the globe, established a branch in New York.
Historical demographics
In total, there were 36,995,602 people aged five or older in the United States who spoke Spanish at home (12.8% of the total U.S. population) according to the 2010 census.
Current status
Although the United States has no de jure official language, English is the dominant language of business, education, government, religion, media, culture, and the public sphere. Virtually all state and federal government agencies and large corporations use English as their internal working language, especially at the management level. Some states, such as Arizona, California, Florida, New Mexico, and Texas provide bilingual legislated notices and official documents in Spanish and English and in other commonly-used languages. English is the home language of most Americans, including a growing proportion of Hispanics. Between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of Hispanics who spoke Spanish at home decreased from 78 to 73 percent. As noted above, the only major exception is the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in which Spanish is the official and the most commonly-used language.
Throughout the history of the Southwest United States, the controversial issue of language as part of cultural rights and bilingual state government representation has caused sociocultural friction between Anglophones and Hispanophones. Spanish is now the most widely-taught second language in the United States.
Possibly at least partially as a result of a language barrier, children from Spanish-speaking households in the United States experience 50% higher rates of obesity than those in English-speaking households, according to the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Families may not have access to health education materials or resources in Spanish, and food labels are typically in English only.
California
California's first constitution recognized Spanish-language rights:
By 1870, English-speakers were a majority in California; in 1879, the state promulgated a new constitution with a clause under which all official proceedings were to be conducted exclusively in English, which remained in effect until 1966. In 1986, California voters added a new constitutional clause by referendum:
Spanish remains widely spoken throughout the state, and many government forms, documents, and services are bilingual in English and Spanish. Although all official proceedings are to be conducted in English:
Arizona
The state, like its neighbors in the Southwest, has had close linguistic and cultural ties with Mexico. The state, except for the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, was part of the New Mexico Territory until 1863, when the western half was made into Arizona Territory. The area of the former Gadsden Purchase spoke mostly Spanish until the 1940s although the Tucson area had a higher ratio of anglophones (including Mexican Americans who were fluent in English). The continuous arrival of Mexican settlers increases the number of Spanish-speakers.
Florida
Most of the residents of the Miami metropolitan area speak Spanish at home, and the influence of Spanish can even be seen in many features of the local dialect of English. Miami is considered the "capital of Latin US" for its many bilingual corporations, banks, and media outlets that cater to international business. In addition, there are several other major cities in Florida with a sizable percentage of the population able to speak Spanish, most notably Tampa (18%) and Orlando (16.6%). Ybor City, a historical neighborhood close to Downtown Tampa, was founded and is populated chiefly by Spanish and Cuban immigrants. Most Latinos in Florida are of Cuban (especially in Miami and Tampa) ancestry followed by Puerto Rican (Miami and Orlando) and Mexican (Tampa and Fort Myers/Naples) ancestry.
New Mexico
New Mexico is commonly thought to have Spanish as an official language alongside English because of its wide usage and legal promotion of Spanish in the state; however, the state has no official language. New Mexico's laws are promulgated in both Spanish and English. English is the state government's paper working language, but government business is often conducted in Spanish, particularly at the local level. Spanish has been spoken in New Mexico since the 16th century.
Because of its relative isolation from other Spanish-speaking areas over most of its 400-year existence, New Mexico Spanish, particularly the Spanish of northern New Mexico and Colorado has retained many elements of 16th- and 17th-century Spanish lost in other varieties and has developed its own vocabulary. In addition, it contains many words from Nahuatl, the language that is still spoken by the Nahua people in Mexico. New Mexican Spanish also contains loanwords from the Pueblo languages of the upper Rio Grande Valley, Mexican-Spanish words (mexicanismos), and borrowings from English. Grammatical changes include the loss of the second-person plural verb form, changes in verb endings, particularly in the preterite, and the partial merger of the second and third conjugations.
Texas
In Texas, English is the state's de facto official language although it lacks de jure status and is used in government. However, the longstanding presence of Spanish Speaking Texans (see: Tejanos and Mexican Americans), in addition to the ebb and flow of Spanish-speaking people across the border since the Texas Revolution, has resulted in large significance of Spanish as a minority language in Texas. Texas's counties close to the Mexican border are mostly Hispanic and so Spanish is commonly spoken in the region. The Texas government, in Section 2054.116 of the Government Code, mandates providing by state agencies of information on their websites in Spanish to assist residents who have limited English proficiency.
Kansas
Spanish has been spoken in the state of Kansas since at least the early 1900s, primarily because of several waves of immigration from Mexico. That began with refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution (c. 1910–1920). There are now several towns in Kansas with significant Spanish-speaking populations: Liberal, Garden City, and Dodge City all have Latino populations over 40%. Recently, linguists working with the Kansas Speaks Project have shown how high numbers of Spanish-speaking residents have influenced the dialect of English spoken in areas like Liberal and in other parts of southwest Kansas. There are many Spanish-language radio stations throughout Kansas, like KYYS in the Kansas City area as well as various Spanish-language newspapers and television stations throughout the state. Several towns in Kansas boast Spanish-English dual language immersion schools in which students are instructed in both languages for varying amounts of time. Examples include Horace Mann Elementary in Wichita, named after the famous educational reformer, and Buffalo Jones Elementary in Garden City, named after Charles "Buffalo" Jones, a frontiersman, bison preservationist, and cofounder of Garden City.
Puerto Rico
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico recognizes Spanish and English as official languages, but Spanish is the dominant first language. This is largely due to the fact that the territory was under Spanish control for 400 years, and was inhabited by mainly Spanish-speaking settlers prior to being ceded to the United States in 1898.
Place names
Because much of the US was once under Spanish, and later Mexican sovereignty, many places have Spanish names dating to these times. These include the names of several states and major cities. Some of these names preserve older features of Spanish orthography, such as San Ysidro, which would be in modern Spanish. Later, many other names were created in the American period by non-Spanish speakers, often violating Spanish syntax. This includes names such as Sierra Vista.
Learning trends
In 1917, the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese was founded, and the academic study of Spanish literature was helped by negative attitudes towards German due to World War I.
Spanish is currently the most widely taught language after English in American secondary schools and higher education. More than 790,000 university students were enrolled in Spanish courses in the autumn of 2013, with Spanish the most widely taught foreign language in American colleges and universities. Some 50.6% of the over 1.5 million U.S. students enrolled in foreign-language courses took Spanish, followed by French (12.7%), American Sign Language (7%), German (5.5%), Italian (4.6%), Japanese (4.3%), Chinese (3.9%), Arabic (2.1%), and Latin (1.7%). These totals remain relatively small in relation to the total U.S. population.
Radio and media
Spanish language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media. While foreign language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s.
The 1930s were boom years. The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest. American stations were close to Mexico, which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968. Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Latino discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration.
Variation
There is a great diversity of accents of Spanish in the United States. The influence of English on American Spanish is very important. In many Latino (also called Hispanic) youth subcultures, it is common to mix Spanish and English to produce Spanglish, a term for code-switching between English and Spanish, or for Spanish with heavy English influence.
The Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (North American Academy of the Spanish Language) tracks the developments of the Spanish spoken in the United States and the influences of English.
Varieties
Linguists distinguish the following varieties of the Spanish spoken in the United States:
Mexican Spanish: the US–Mexico border, throughout the Southwest from California to Texas, as well as in Chicago, but becoming ubiquitous throughout the Continental United States. Standard Mexican Spanish is often used and taught as the standard dialect of Spanish in the Continental United States.
Caribbean Spanish: Spanish as spoken by Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Dominicans. It is largely heard throughout the Northeast and Florida, especially New York City and Miami, and in other cities in the East.
Central American Spanish: Spanish as spoken by Hispanics with origins in Central American countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. It is largely heard in major cities throughout California and Texas, as well as Washington, DC; New York; and Miami.
South American Spanish: Spanish as spoken by Hispanics with origins in South American countries such as Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia. It is largely heard in major cities throughout New York State, California, Texas, and Florida.
Colonial Spanish: Spanish as spoken by descendants of Spanish colonists and early Mexicans before the United States expanded and annexed the Southwest and other areas.
Californian (1769–present): California, especially the Central Coast
Isleño Spanish (1783–present): St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana
Sabine River Spanish: Parts of Sabine and Natchitoches Parishes, Louisiana, and the Moral community west of Nacogdoches. Moribund, originated from rural Mexican Spanish.
New Mexican Spanish: Central and north-central New Mexico and south-central Colorado and the border regions of Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico, and southeastern Colorado
Many Spanish speakers in the US speak it as a heritage language.
Many of these heritage speakers are semi-speakers, or transitional bilinguals, which means they spoke Spanish in early childhood but largely switched to an English-speaking environment. They typically have a strong passive command of the language, but never fully acquired it. Other, fluent heritage speakers have not undergone such a total shift from Spanish to English in their immediate family.
Transitional bilinguals often produce errors which are rarely found among native Spanish speakers but which are common among second-language learners.
Transitional bilinguals often face difficulties in Spanish classrooms since teaching materials designed for English monolinguals and those designed for fluent heritage speakers are both inadequate.
Heritage speakers in general have a native or near-native phonology.
Dialect contact
Spanish in the US shows mixing and dialect leveling between different varieties of Spanish in large cities with Hispanics of different origins. For example, Salvadorans in Houston show a shift towards lowered rates of /s/ reduction, due to contact with the larger number of Mexican speakers and the low prestige of Salvadoran Spanish.
Los Angeles has its own vernacular Spanish variety, the result of dialect leveling between speakers of different, mainly central Mexican varieties. The children of Salvadoran parents who grow up in Los Angeles typically grow up speaking this variety. Other cities may have their own vernacular Spanish varieties as well.
Voseo, the use of the second person pronoun instead of or alongside the more widespread , is widespread among Honduran and Salvadoran immigrants to the US. The children of these immigrants tend to accommodate to more widespread use of , although at the same time they maintain occasional use of as a symbol of Central American identity. Second-generation Salvadoran-Americans often engage in verbal voseo, using voseo-related verb forms alongside due to linguistic insecurity in contact situations. On the other hand, third-generation Salvadoran-Americans have begun using pronominal voseo, with being used alongside the verb forms associated with .
Common English words derived from Spanish
Many standard American English words are of Spanish etymology, or originate from third languages but entered English via Spanish.
Admiral (originally from Arabic)
Avocado ( from Nahuatl )
Aficionado
Banana (originally from Wolof)
Buckaroo ()
Cafeteria ()
Chili (from Nahuatl )
Chocolate (from Nahuatl )
Cigar ()
Corral
Coyote (from Nahuatl )
Desperado ()
Guerrilla
Guitar ()
Hurricane ( from the Taíno storm god Juracán)
Junta
Lasso ()
Patio
Potato (; see Etymology of "potato")
Ranch ()
Rodeo
Siesta
Tomato ( from Nahuatl )
Tornado
Vanilla ()
Phonology
Spanish in the US often has some phonological influence from English. For example, bilinguals who grew up in the Mesilla Valley in southern New Mexico most often pronounce as a tap instead of a trilled when it comes at the beginning of a word or after a consonant. Even in word-medial position is frequently pronounced as a tap. The use of a trill is even less frequent in northern New Mexico, where contact with monolingual Mexican Spanish is lesser.
has been reported as an allophone of in Chicano Spanish in the Southwest, both when spelled and when spelled . This is primarily due to English influence.
Although Mexican Spanish generally pronounces as a velar fricative, Chicano Spanish often realizes it as a glottal , like English's h sound. In addition, may occasionally be realized as a fricative in initial position.
The vowel system of Spanish speakers in the US may also be affected by English influence. For example, can be fronted.
Much of the variation in US Spanish pronunciation reflects the differences between other Spanish dialects and varieties:
Like in most of Hispanic America, and (before and ) are pronounced as , just like . However, seseo (not distinguishing from ) is also typical of the speech of Hispanic Americans of Andalusian and Canarian descent. Also, the English pronunciation of soft c helps to entrench seseo even though occurs in English.
Spanish in Spain, particularly the regions with a distinctive phoneme, pronounces with the tip of tongue against the alveolar ridge. Phonetically, that is an "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant , with a weak "hushing" sound that is reminiscent of fricatives. In the Americas and in Andalusia and the Canary Islands, both in Spain, Standard European Spanish may sound similar to like English sh as in she. However, that apico-alveolar realization of is common in some Latin American Spanish dialects which lack . Some inland Colombian Spanish, particularly Antioquia, and Andean regions of Peru and Bolivia also have an apico-alveolar .
American Spanish usually features yeísmo, with no distinction between and , and both are pronounced . However, yeísmo is an expanding and now a dominant feature of European Spanish, particularly in urban speech (Madrid, Toledo) and especially in Andalusia and the Canary Islands, but has been preserved in some rural areas of northern Spain. Speakers of Rioplatense Spanish pronounce both and as or . The traditional pronunciation of the digraph , , is preserved in some dialects along the Andes range, especially in inland Peru and the highlands of Colombia highlands, northern Argentina, and all of Bolivia and Paraguay.
Most speakers with ancestors born in the coastal regions may debuccalize or aspirate syllable-final to or entirely drop; this, está ("s/he is") sounds like or , as in southern Spain (Andalusia, Murcia, Castile–La Mancha (except the northeastern part), Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla).
(before or ) and are usually aspirated to in Caribbean and other coastal dialects as well as in Colombia, southern Mexico, and most of southern Spain. While it may be in other dialects of the Americas and often in Peru, that is a common feature of Castilian Spanish. It is usually aspirated to , like in most of southwestern Spain. Very often, especially in Argentina and Chile, becomes more fronted before high vowels and then approaches the realization of German in ich. In other phonological environments, it is realized as either or .
In many Caribbean dialects, the phonemes and can be exchanged or sound alike at the end of a syllable: caldo > ca[r]do, cardo > ca[l]do. At the end of words, becomes silent, which gives Caribbean Spanish a partial non-rhoticity. That occurs left often happens as well in Ecuador and Chile and is a feature brought from Extremadura and westernmost Andalusia, in Spain.
In many Andean regions, the alveolar trill of rata and carro is realized as an alveolar approximant or even a voiced apico-alveolar . The alveolar approximant is particularly associated with an indigenous substrate and is quite common in Andean regions, especially in inland Ecuador, Peru, most of Bolivia, and parts of northern Argentina and Paraguay.
In Puerto Rico, besides , , and , syllable-final can be realized as , an influence of American English: "verso" (verse) can become , besides , , or ; "invierno" (winter) can become , aside from , , or ; and "escarlata" (scarlet) can become , aside from , , or []. Word-finally, is usually one of the following:
a trill, a tap, approximant, , or silent before a consonant or a pause, as in amo paterno 'paternal love', and amor ,
a tap, approximant, or before a vowel-initial word, as in amo and eterno 'eternal love').
Voiced consonants , , and are pronounced as plosives after and sometimes before any consonant in most Colombian Spanish dialects (rather than the fricative or approximant characteristic of most other dialects), as in pardo , barba , algo , peligro , desde , rather than , , , , . A notable exception is the Nariño Department and most Costeño speech (Atlantic coastal dialects), which feature the soft fricatives that are common to all other Hispanic American and European dialects.
Word-finally, is frequently velar in Latin American Spanish and pan (bread) is often pronounced . To an English-speaker, the makes pan sound like pang. Velarization of word-final is so widespread in the Americas that only a few regions maintain the alveolar, , as in Europe: most of Mexico, Colombia (except for coastal dialects), and Argentina (except for some northern regions). Elsewhere, velarization is common although alveolar word-final appears among some educated speakers, especially in the media or in singing. Velar word-final is also frequent in Spain, especially in the South (Andalusia and the Canary Islands) and in the Northwest: Galicia, Asturias, and León.
Vocabulary and grammar
The vocabulary and grammar of US Spanish reflect English influence, accelerated change, and the Latin American roots of most US Spanish.
One example of English influence is that the usage of Spanish words by American bilinguals shows a convergence of semantics between English and Spanish cognates. For example, the Spanish words atender ("to pay attention to") and éxito ("success") have acquired a similar semantic range in American Spanish to the English words "attend" and "exit." In some cases, loanwords from English turn existing Spanish words into homonyms: coche has come to acquire the additional meaning of "coach" in the United States, it retains its older meaning of "car."
Other phenomena include:
Loan translations such as 'to run for', 'to apply for', and instead of 'to dream of' frequently occur.
Expressions with , such as , are widespread. Though these appear to be calques, they likely represent a semantic extension.
Spanish speakers in the US tend to use more often instead of . This is an extension of an ongoing trend within Spanish, since historically was used far less often. For more information, see Spanish copulas.
Spanish speakers in the southwest tend to use the morphological future tense exclusively to express grammatical mood. The periphrastic construction ' infinitive' is used for speaking about events that will occur in the future.
While varieties of Spanish in the US have traditionally not used voseo, this feature has been introduced by Central American immigrants. While the children of these immigrants use voseo much less often than their parents, the pronoun remains as a symbol of identity. Verbal voseo is often found among linguistically insecure second-generation Salvadoran-Americans in contact with speakers of other varieties, while pronominal voseo is often found among third-generation Salvadoran-Americans who have adopted the -related verb forms but maintain the pronoun as a symbol of identity.
Spanish-speakers who are more proficient in English tend to use the subjunctive mood less often. This same preference for the indicative also correlates independently with lower education in Spanish, reflecting variation in monolingual Spanish.
Disappearance of de (of) in certain expressions, as is the case with Canarian Spanish: esposo Rosa for esposo de Rosa, gofio millo for gofio de millo, etc.
Doublets of Arabic-Latin synonyms, with the Arabic form being more common in American Spanish, which derives from Latin American Spanish and so is influenced by Andalusian Spanish, like Andalusian and Latin American alcoba for standard peninsular habitación or dormitorio ('bedroom') or alhaja for standard joya ('jewel').
See List of words having different meanings in Spain and Hispanic America.
Future
Spanish is the most commonly spoken non-English language in the United States. Continued immigration is a key reason for the continued presence and use of Spanish, since the descendants of early immigrants and those incorporated into the United States as a result of annexation have largely undergone language shift to English.
Spanish-language mass media (such as Univisión, Telemundo, and Azteca América) support the use of Spanish, although they increasingly serve bilingual audiences. In addition, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) makes many American manufacturers use multilingual product labeling in English, French, and Spanish, three of the four official languages of the Organization of American States (OAS).
Besides the specialized businesses that have long catered to Hispanophone immigrants, a small but increasing number of mainstream American retailers also now advertise bilingually in Spanish-speaking areas and offer bilingual customer services. One common indicator of such businesses is Se Habla Español, which means "Spanish Is Spoken".
The annual State of the Union Address and other presidential speeches are translated into Spanish, following the precedent set by the Clinton administration in the 1990s. Moreover, non-Hispanic American origin politicians fluent in Spanish speak in Spanish to Hispanic-majority constituencies. There are 500 Spanish newspapers, 152 magazines, and 205 publishers in the United States. Magazine and local television advertising expenditures for the Hispanic market have increased substantially from 1999 to 2003, with growth of 58 percent and 43 percent, respectively.
Historically, immigrants' languages tend to disappear or to be reduced by generational assimilation, with English monolingualism predominant by the third generation. This pattern has largely held steady among more recent immigrants—including Spanish-speakers—and their descendants.
Spanish disappeared in several countries and US territories during the 20th century, notably in the Philippines and in the Pacific Island countries of Guam, Micronesia, Palau, the Northern Marianas islands, and the Marshall Islands.
The English-only movement seeks to establish English as the sole official language of the United States. Generally, they exert political public pressure upon Hispanophone immigrants to learn English and speak it publicly. As universities, business, and the professions use English, there is much social pressure to learn English for upward socio-economic mobility. These social pressures and policies contribute to the loss of Spanish and the shift to English.
Generally, Hispanics (13.4% of the 2002 US population) are bilingual to a degree. A Simmons Market Research survey recorded that 19 percent of Hispanics speak only Spanish, 9 percent speak only English, 55 percent have limited English proficiency, and 17 percent are fully English-Spanish bilingual.
Intergenerational transmission of Spanish is a more accurate indicator of Spanish's future in the United States than raw statistical numbers of Hispanophones. Although Hispanics hold varying English proficiency levels, almost all second-generation Hispanics speak English, but about 50 percent speak Spanish at home. Two thirds of third-generation Mexican Americans speak only English at home. Calvin Veltman undertook in 1988, for the National Center for Education Statistics and for the Hispanic Policy Development Project, the most complete study of Anglicization by Hispanophone immigrants. Veltman's language shift studies document abandonment of Spanish at rates of 40 percent for immigrants who arrived in the US before the age of 14, and 70 percent for immigrants who arrived before the age of 10. The complete set of the studies' demographic projections postulates the near-complete assimilation of a given Hispanophone immigrant cohort within two generations. Although his study based itself upon a large 1976 sample from the Bureau of the Census, which has not been repeated, data from the 1990 census tend to confirm the great Anglicization of the Hispanic population.
Literature
American literature in Spanish dates back to 1610 when a Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá first published his epic poem History of New Mexico. However, it was not until the late 20th century that Spanish, Spanglish, and bilingual poetry, plays, novels, and essays were readily available on the market through independent, trade, and commercial publishing houses and theaters. Cultural theorist Christopher González identifies Latina/o authors—such as Oscar “Zeta” Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Gilbert Hernandez, Sandra Cisneros, and Junot Díaz—as having written innovative works that created new audiences for Hispanic Literature in the United States.
See also
List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United States
List of U.S. cities with diacritics
List of U.S. communities with Hispanic majority populations
List of Spanish-language newspapers published in the United States
Biennial academic conference of Spanish in the United StatesGeneral:'
Bilingual education
Spanglish
Spanish language in the Americas
Spanish language in science and technology
List of colloquial expressions in Honduras
Spanish language in the Philippines
History of the Spanish language
Languages in the United States
Hispanic
References
Further reading
Spain–United States relations | wiki |
Phil Kean Design Group is an American international architecture, interior design and residential construction company.
Overview
The firm was founded by Phil Kean. He is a member of the American Institute of Building Design, American Institute of Architects, Florida Green Building Coalition, Greater Orlando Builders Association and the U.S. Green Building Council. He was also a past-President of Orlando's Master Custom Builder Council.
Phil Kean Design Group is also known for its custom smart homes. Its use of sustainable designs has earned the group various certifications like the Energy Star, USGBC LEED-H Platinum, Indoor airPlus, NAHB Green Emerald FGBC Platinum and more. It has partnered with Tesla on some smart homes.
References
Architecture firms based in Florida
2002 establishments in Florida
Interior design firms | wiki |
RPI Engineers ice hockey may refer to either of the ice hockey teams that represent Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute:
RPI Engineers men's ice hockey
RPI Engineers women's ice hockey | wiki |
Tequilero de Primera is a certification bestowed upon someone who has completed an approved seminar on tequila and is therefore authorized to promote tequila from Mexico. Seminars and eventual certification can be obtained from the Western Mexican state of Jalisco.
The term "tequilero" also refers to Mexicans who helped to smuggle alcohol into the United States during the Era of Prohibition from 1920 to 1933, a time when the United States outlawed the sale, manufacture, and transportation of non-religious alcohol.
References
Tequila
Spanish language
Alcohol in Mexico | wiki |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.