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Advanced packaging is the aggregation and interconnection of components before traditional integrated circuit packaging. Advanced packaging allows multiple devices (electrical, mechanical, or semiconductor) to be merged and packaged as a single electronic device. Unlike traditional integrated circuit packaging, advanced packaging employs processes and techniques that are performed at semiconductor fabrication facilities. Advanced packaging thus sits between fabrication and traditional packaging -- or, in other terminology, between BEoL and post-fab. Advanced packaging includes multi-chip modules, 3D ICs, 2.5D ICs, heterogeneous integration, fan-out wafer-level packaging, system-in-package, quilt packaging, combining logic (processors) and memory in a single package, die stacking, several chiplets or dies in a package, combinations of these techniques, and others.
Advanced packaging can help achieve performance gains through the integration of several devices in one package and associated efficiency gains (by reducing the distances signals have to travel, in other words reducing signal paths), and allowing for high numbers of connections between devices, without having to resort to smaller transistors which have become increasingly more difficult to manufacture.
References
Semiconductor technology | wiki |
Udot or UDOT may refer to the following:
Udot, Federated States of Micronesia, an island in the Federated States of Micronesia
Utah Department of Transportation, in Utah, United States of America | wiki |
A permission slip is a form that a school or other organization sends home with a student to a parent in which the parent provides authorization for minors to travel under the auspices of the school or organization for an event, such as a field trip.
Permission slips are required by law in many places in order for an organization to be allowed to take a student on a trip. While laws vary by jurisdiction, they are generally present in accordance with the laws minors must be given by their parents or legal guardians to be transported by another adult.
Information that may be found on a permission slip may include the student's name, the location where the field trip will occur, and emergency contact info.
Application to adult students at a school
Some schools allow students who have reached the age of majority to sign their own permission slips; other schools continue to require that the parent of the student must still sign the form. Many adult students object to a continued requirement for parental signature, since there is no legal necessity for adults to obtain authorization from their parents to travel or participate in any activity.
School terminology | wiki |
Bassin de 50 mètres
Bassin de 25 mètres
Notes et références
Voir aussi
Natation sportive
Brasse
Europe | wiki |
King Karol was a New York City, New York-based record store chain founded by Ben Karol and Phil King in 1952.
Lasting through at least 1987, and defunct for some time by 1993, King Karol was one of New York's "largest [and most] comprehensive" music stores.
Locations
Aside from its main branch at 126 West 42nd Street in Manhattan, King Karol by mid-1971 had outlets at 460 West 42nd Street, at the corner of 10th Avenue; 940 Third Avenue, at East 57th Street; 609 Fifth Avenue, at 49th Street, in the KLM Building; and, in Flushing, Queens, at 40-46 Main Street. Later, the chain opened at least one other location, at 1521 Third Avenue, at East 86th Street, and, by mid-1975, at 1500 Broadway, at West 43rd Street.
During the early days of the firm, a store was located at 111 West 42nd Street, at 6th Avenue, from sometime before 1954 until 1976 when it was replaced by the 126 West 42nd Street location. During most of the 1950s, this was the sole store. In the 1960s and early 1970s, this was the flagship store of the chain.
After 1976, the 126 West 42nd Street location served as the flagship until it closed sometime around the beginning of 1985.
During the 1960s, stores were also located at 254 West 34th Street (1961–1966); 153 West 42nd Street (1961–1961); 48 West 48th Street (1965–1966); and 444 West 42nd Street (1966–1966).
During the 1970s, stores were also located at 940 Third Avenue, at 57th Street (1969–1980); 460 West 42nd Street, at 10th Avenue, in the West Side Airlines Terminal Building (1970.–1977); in Flushing, Queens, at 40-46 Main Street (1970–1980); 609 Fifth Avenue, at 49th Street, in the KLM Building (1971–1978); 1500 Broadway, at West 43rd Street in the National General Building, Times Square (1972–after 1987); 7 West 48th Street (1977–1981); and 1521 Third Avenue, at 86th Street (1979–after 1987).
Later years
In 1981, Ben Karol experimented with record album rentals, similar to the then-emerging market for videocassette rental, after having studied successful record rental systems in Canada. He told an interviewer, "The record industry isn't that great these days. You sit around and think of ways to stimulate it, try to come up with ideas based on what similar product is doing. ... [T]he whole video tape business is now going rental".
A year later, in 1982, the chain had four stores and began to include a video tape rental service that was provided by an outside vendor. Ben Karol said 1987 he subleases the video department to an outside vendor saying that he is "still a records man".
Toward the end of 1982, the chain was reduced to three stores and the owners King and Karol were considering the possible sale of the remaining. Around this time, Tower Records was building a 34,000-square foot superstore in Manhattan and locally owned Sam Goody had recently sold itself to the parent of Musicland which made it possible for Sam Goody to expand nationally. King died shortly afterward, in 1983. By late 1984, Tower made it very difficult for small independents to compete.
By 1987, the company was down to two stores, from seven at its height. Ben Karol died in 1993 after a long illness.
King Karol also operated a mail order record business through P.O. Box 629, Times Square Station, New York, New York 10036.
In the media
The King Karol branch at 460 West 42nd Street, with its lit sign in a nighttime scene, is visible during the bus-chase sequence in the 1973 New York City police film Badge 373, immediately before the bus crashes into an Army/Navy store. The name King Karol can be seen in the 2016 film Ghostbusters during the climactic scenes in Times Square when billboard advertisements revert to defunct brands.
References
External links
Link via ProQuest.
Link via ProQuest.
Defunct companies based in New York City
Music retailers of the United States
1952 establishments in New York City
Retail companies established in 1952 | wiki |
Dead Awake may refer to:
Dead Awake (2001 film)
Dead Awake (2010 film)
Dead Awake (2016 film), an American supernatural psychological horror film
See also
When We Dead Awaken, an 1899 play by Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen | wiki |
The third season of the animated sitcom Bob's Burgers began airing on Fox in the United States on September 30, 2012, and concluded on May 12, 2013.
Production
On May 14, 2012, Fox renewed Bob's Burgers for a third production cycle consisting of 13 episodes. On August 23, 2012, six additional scripts were ordered. The third season consisted of the 13 episodes from the second production cycle that did not air during the second season, and also included episodes from the third cycle.
This season featured guest stars such as Thomas Lennon, Jon Hamm, Zach Galifianakis, Jeffrey Tambor, Gary Cole, Bill Hader, and Aziz Ansari.
On May 13, 2014, Amazon.com released the season in a 3-disc-set "Burn-On-Demand" DVD-R.
Episodes
References
External links
Official website
2012 American television seasons
2013 American television seasons
Bob's Burgers seasons | wiki |
Rachel Nicol may refer to:
Rachel Nicol (physician) (1845–1881), founder of Pi Beta Phi and a physician
Rachel Nicol (swimmer) (born 1993), Canadian competitive swimmer
See also
Rachel Nichols (disambiguation)
Killing of Rachel Nickell (1968–1992), British murder victim | wiki |
Waterfall Bay is a bay in East New Britain Province, south-eastern New Britain, Papua New Guinea, at .
Bays of Papua New Guinea | wiki |
Beer distribution worldwide has several different steps, ranging from the production of supplies used in the making of beer to selling it in stores, with many separate interactions in between. In general, beer distribution can be shown by a three tiered or two tiered model of distribution, with most of the world partaking in the latter.
Even with a slow decrease in the sale of beer over the last five years., beer is still one of the most common beverages throughout the world, making its distribution very important worldwide, with approximately 202,200,000 barrels being sold in 2018, equal to 8.5 trillion gallons of beer. Beer sales are most common in areas throughout Europe as well as America.
American Beer Distribution
Before American prohibition in 1919, breweries created deals with bars where they would only sell their brand of beer at these certain bars, without the variety of beers that is common in today’s bars. Breweries took stake in bars and provided them with the things a bar needs to function, like equipment, furniture, and beer.
Breweries pushed bars to sell an excessive amount of their beer since they had so much investment in these bars and wanted to increase their profits with the sale of more beer being the only way to accomplish this. This excessive pushing of beer on the public was seen as a negative by the American government and was a leading cause for prohibition, a ban on any production, consumption, or sale of alcohol in the United States.
Prohibition in the United States lasted from 1919 to 1933 and caused major changes to the way beer was distributed and consumed.
Three Tier distribution in America'
In America, the end of prohibition in 1933 led to the required implementation of a three tiered process of alcohol sales in every state except for the State of Washington. This was put into place in an attempt to increase tax revenue from beer, make it easier to regulate, and create a safer environment for consumers. While it seemed like a simple solution to the process of beer sales, it did however face some backlash.
Beer distribution includes three tiers: the producers, distributors, and buyers. In this case, producers are the breweries, buyers are the bars or retailers, and the distributor is the middle man that moves the beer from the breweries to the bars. This system eliminates the ability for the breweries to directly sell their beer to anyone but the intermediaries.
The addition of the wholesale beer distributors meant more than one type of beer being sold in a single bar since the distributors were free to sell to whoever they wanted to, and had no stake in any bars they sold to. Breweries now had much less control over individual bars or pubs and therefore they were not capable of excessively pushing the sales of their own beer in specific bars. Also having distributors can make it easier to spread breweries brands outside of their local market reach to different buyers. It is beneficial for distributors to diversity their selection of beer along with how many buyers they are selling to, which is also beneficial for breweries as it is more likely that a distributor would be inclined to buy their product and sell it to many bars and retailers.
With three distinct levels to this system, it made regulating the sale of beer much easier. Trade from each tier to the next is tracked and every party involved is responsible for ensuring the quality and safety of the beer at each step.
Introducing private distributors into the beer distributing process meant for more mouths to be fed, since instead of two parties involved it is now three. This was accounted for in the rise of beer prices in the United States. In 2017 federal tax revenue from the sale of alcohol was 12% of the total excise receipts, equal to $9.9 billion dollars
Opposition to the Three Tier System
There is also opposition to this three tiered system. Some major distributors have grown into larger corporations and have much more power over smaller sized breweries. Price negotiations become up to the distributors and breweries have no choice but to accept it as there is no alternative. Small breweries rely solely on independent distributors as it is legally their only method of moving their beer to the consumer. Corruption has spawned from the three tier system with distributors also having the power to cut off supply to retailers if the want just from the buyers not buying the specific brands they want to be sold.
Another complaint is that the three tiered system disrupts trade between countries. The European Union (EU) complains that it is difficult for European breweries to enter the American beer market because it can problematic to go through distributors in America when they have much easier access to American brands. On the other hand, large American breweries can easily infiltrate European markets by simply selling directly to bars or retailers if they have the funds to be able to successfully trade internationally.
Worldwide distribution process
While countries like America have a system in place that allows only for a three tiered alcohol distribution system, many don’t and allow breweries to sell straight to retailers or go through a third-party distributor. For example, most of the rest of the world’s beer sales goes through the two tiered system still, with breweries supplying directly to bars or retailers (5).
Self-Distribution of beer can be seen as a positive by a few ways. Breweries selling to distributors costs money, coming from transportation and advertising costs that distributors force them to pay. When the distributor is cut out of the system breweries have the control over where their money is allocated and don’t have to be strong-armed by distributors, which is often the case. Self-distributing also allows more control on how the beer is advertised and how it gets to buyers.
Disadvantages can come straight from cutting out the distributors, as breweries need more capital to distribute directly to retailers and bars. Self-distributing breweries need warehouse space, equipment, transportation, and more workers to be able to move their beer independently, making it difficult to small sized breweries to afford all of this. Micro-breweries especially find it difficult to move the beer outside of local reach with limited fund .
References
Beer | wiki |
Abdul Latif Jameel is a family-owned diversified business founded in Saudi Arabia in 1945 by the late Sheikh Abdul Latif Jameel (1909–1993). Operating across 7 core business sectors, Abdul Latif Jameel has a presence in over 30 countries across 6 continents.
History
1940s-60s
Abdul Latif Jameel was founded in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, in 1945 by Sheikh Abdul Latif Jameel. It became a Toyota distributor in the Kingdom in 1955, a position it has retained till today.
1970s-80s
In 1979, Abdul Latif Jameel United Finance Company (ALJUF), a financial services company aimed at further supporting Toyota vehicle sales in Saudi Arabia, was established. In the same year, the company also set up a consumer product business which imports electronics and consumer durables. In 1981, it established an outdoor advertising company to support the marketing of Toyota products. It also began exporting and distributing Lexus passenger vehicles in 1989, opening the first dedicated Lexus centre in Saudi Arabia four years later.
1990s-2000s
In 1990, Abdul Latif Jameel established an automotive accessories and conversion business in Saudi Arabia. In 1993, after the death of his father, Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel assumed the leadership role in the company and, today, is the President and CEO. In the same year, the company started operating a Toyota distributorship in Algeria. Two years later, in 1995, another dealership was started in Morocco.
In 1996, Abdul Latif Jameel established a general trading company in Japan, which now has an experiential open business centre in Tokyo. Two years later, the company’s first Toyota dealership businesses in China and a Daihatsu distributorship in Turkey were launched. A Daihatsu distributorship in Morocco and a financial services company in Egypt were also established in 1999.
In 2001, Japan-based DENSO Corporation (DENSO International America's parent company) and Abdul Latif Jameel Co., Ltd. jointly established a company that produces car heating, ventilation and air conditioners (HVAC) in Jeddah. In 2003, Abdul Latif Jameel's accessories and conversion business in Saudi Arabia became an approved Toyota Development Base, and the company established an aftermarket parts business. In the same year, the company also established Abdul Latif Jameel Community Initiatives, its corporate social responsibility (CSR) arm.
On the 50th anniversary of its collaboration with Toyota Motor Company, Abdul Latif Jameel launched a Lexus dealership in Japan and a Daihatsu distributorship in Saudi Arabia in 2005. The next year, the company also established Toyota and Lexus dealerships in the UK (later sold in 2017), and a Daihatsu dealership in Egypt. It also launched a Hino distributorship in Algeria in 2007, and the DJ aftermarket vehicle parts in 2008. In 2009, it established a Toyota distributorship in Turkey and a Hino distributorship in Egypt.
2010s-Present Day
In 2010, Abdul Latif Jameel launched a Hino distributorship in Morocco. The next year, the company's aftermarket division acquired the Malaysian company FBK and expanded into China and Malaysia. In 2012, Abdul Latif Jameel established its Energy and Environmental Services division, launched a financial services division to support Toyota sales in Turkey, and opened the first Lexus dealership in China. That year, the company also relocated its international operations headquarters from Beirut to Dubai.
Abdul Latif Jameel and Sumitomo Corporation formed a JV (known presently as Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery) in 2013 for distributing Komatsu heavy equipment in Saudi Arabia. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel established a real estate development division, Abdul Latif Jameel Land. It also set up a Ford distributorship in Egypt and acquired a refrigerated vehicle conversion manufacturer in Turkey, in 2013.
In 2013, King Abdullah Economic City and Abdul Latif Jameel signed an agreement for the purchase of 1.5 million sqm land in KAEC-Industrial Valley. The company agreed to invest SR 1.2 billion to build a complex for the import, distribution, component manufacture and assembly of cars. The next year, Abdul Latif Jameel signed a joint venture MoA with the Dubai-based regional property developer, Emaar Properties, and also hosted a delegation from the Family Business Network (FBN) International (now known as the Family Business Council-Gulf) at its UAE regional headquarters.
Abdul Latif Jameel also began a joint venture with the Spain-based company Fotowatio Renewable Ventures (FRV) in 2014, and acquired FRV in 2015.
In May 2016, Abdul Latif Jameel opened launched the first Lexus brand distributorship in Turkey. In the same year, the company also announced its intention to invest US$2.2 billion in Saudi Arabia over the next 5 years as part of its long-term expansion plans. This includes an expansion of the Toyota outlet network, the opening a Lexus showroom in Riyadh Saudi Arabia, and the opening of a new flagship Komatsu facility in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In 2016, Abdul Latif Jameel Land began building J│ONE Residences, its first residential project in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
At the World Future Energy Summit 2017, in Abu Dhabi, Abdul Latif Jameel Energy announced the launch of Almar Water Solutions. Abdul Latif Jameel Energy also started construction on the two of the largest solar projects in Jordan. The projects, called Mafraq I &II, are scheduled to generate approximately 2% of Jordan's total generation capacity. In the same year, the company's electronics division was rebranded and re-launched as Redsea.
In April 2018, Abdul Latif Jameel Land launched J|ONE residencies. In October, it established the first Lexus showroom in Morocco, launching it at the Auto Expo 2018 in Casablanca. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel Energy also announced its first large-scale solar project in India: the 138-MW DC Solar Farm in Andhra Pradesh. Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery also announced a strategic partnership with Kanoo Machinery.
Abdul Latif Jameel Energy established a wind energy project in 2019 in Japan. Supported by the regional power companies Hokkaido Electric Power Company and Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc., Abdul Latif Jameel Energy launched its first micro wind turbines at Cape Erimo, Japan’s “Wind Town”. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel Land and the Al Muhaidib Group partnered to launch a new joint venture, Muheel, an Integrated Facilities Management company (IFM) in Saudi Arabia. Abdul Latif Jameel Logistics launched an express delivery service and e-commerce brand, S:mile.
In April 2019, Abdul Latif Jameel Motors was awarded the Gold Award for Business Transformation, for its JSAP program in the annual SAP Quality Awards, presented at a ceremony in Heidelberg, Germany. This was the first time a Saudi Arabian company had won the top SAP prize. In the same year, Almar Water Solutions, a part of Abdul Latif Jameel Energy, acquired a contract to develop a desalination plant in the city of Shuqaiq, on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia.
In November 2021, it was reported that Abdul Latif Jameel's investment unit had accumulated almost 114 million shares in Rivian, which was valued at almost $11.5 billion on the closing day of Rivian's IPO.
In September 2022, the company was listed by Forbes in the Middle East's Top 100 Arab Family Businesses, ranking seventh.
Management
The founder, Abdul Latif Jameel, ran the company from its formation until his death in 1993, when his son, Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel, became chairman and president. Mohammed's eldest son, Fady Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel, serves as deputy president and vice chairman of Abdul Latif Jameel. Mohammed's middle son, Hassan Jameel, serves as deputy president and vice chairman of domestic Saudi Arabia operations.
Operations
Abdul Latif Jameel has dual headquarters in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) and Dubai (United Arab Emirates), and affiliated corporate offices in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), Istanbul (Turkey) and Tokyo (Japan). Through various subsidiaries, it operates in six sectors:
Transportation – including the import, distribution, wholesale and retail of passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles, and equipment and logistics.
Engineering and Manufacturing – including automotive parts manufacturing.
Financial Services – including automotive, consumer products and real estate financing and insurance brokerage services.
Energy and Environmental Services – including renewable energy (particularly solar PV, but also wind), energy efficiency and environmental services.
Land and Real Estate – including residential and commercial property development and commercial property investments.
Advertising and Media – including out-of-home media and a full-service marketing and advertising agency.
Consumer Products – including import, distribution wholesale and retail of consumer durables and electronics (brown and white goods) and an ecommerce platform.
Subsidiaries
The company currently owns and operates the below subsidiaries:
Abdul Latif Jameel Motors: The passenger car division, which distributes Toyota and Lexus vehicles in Saudi Arabia and other markets across the Middle East, Europe and Asia. It also distributes Ford vehicles in Egypt.
Abdul Latif Jameel Enterprises: The diversification arm of the group in Saudi Arabia.
Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery: This division handles commercial vehicles, and heavy equipment and materials. It distributes Komatsu, Toyota, BT and Raymond fork-lift trucks, HINO trucks, Manitou telehandlers, Loxa cement equipment and Teksan generators in Saudi Arabia and North Africa.
Abdul Latif Jameel Finance: This division operates in Saudi Arabia, with affiliates in Turkey and Egypt.
Abdul Latif Jameel Energy: The renewable energy and environmental services division.
Abdul Latif Jameel Land: The real estate development division in Saudi Arabia.
Abdul Latif Jameel Electronics: The consumer products division in Saudi Arabia.
Abdul Latif Jameel also has an advertising and media division, consisting of the advertising agency DelphysME (a JV with Delphys of Japan) and the company’s captive outdoor advertising company in Saudi Arabia. It also has an engineering and manufacturing division that handles the aftermarket vehicles parts businesses.
Philanthropy
Abdul Latif Jameel Community Initiatives, the global philanthropy of Abdul Latif Jameel, was established in 2003. It was renamed 'Community Jameel' in 2016. It engages in socio-economic initiatives across six focus areas:
Job creation across the Middle East (through Bab Rizq Jameel)
Global poverty alleviation
Global water and food issues
Education and training
Health and social schemes
Promoting Arabic arts and culture through Art Jameel
In 2005, with support from Abdul Latif Jameel Community Initiatives, the Poverty Action Lab based at MIT was renamed the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), in honor of Sheikh Abdul Latif Jameel.
In 2006, Art Jameel (the sister organization of Community Jameel that engages with arts and culture), launched the first Jameel Prize, an international award for contemporary art and design inspired by Islamic tradition, at the V&A.
In 2007, Community Jameel created Bab Rizq Jameel (BRJ) which was to be dedicated entirely to the job creation programs, including training programs designed to end in employment. Between 2003 and 2015, BRJ helped approximately 490,000 people in Saudi Arabia and around 720,000 people across the region to find employment. In 2015, Bab Rizq Jameel generated 81,057 employment opportunities in Saudi Arabia. BRJ also set up the Jameel Bazaar, which is a commercial incubator space that allows female entrepreneurs to open their small shops and offices.
In 2011, Community Jameel inaugurated a new branch of Bab Rizq Jameel in Istanbul, Turkey.
In 2014, the Abdul Latif Jameel World Water and Food Systems Lab (J-WAFS) at MIT was created to conduct research aimed at preventing shortage of food and water due to climate change and population growth. In 2015, a program for the commercialization of this research was formed.
Saudi Aramco announced its partnership with Community Jameel for a traffic safety program in Saudi Arabia’s Western region in July 2014.
In March 2015, BRJ won an award in the CSR category of the Arab Social Media Influencers Awards.
See also
Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab
References
External links
1945 establishments in Saudi Arabia
Conglomerate companies of Saudi Arabia
Automotive companies
Automotive companies established in 1945 | wiki |
Rubbernecker is a reality television show that is hosted by Richard Alexander, currently broadcasting on Nuts TV, the Freeview/cable/satellite channel in the UK, operated by Turner Broadcasting.
It features a variety of genres of reality clips, such as extreme sports accidents, world record attempts, bizarre TV commercials, CCTV footage featuring employees caught on camera in the office, user generated content, and news-style reports of unusual events and people from around the world. With a somewhat left field and playful approach to its subjects or featured articles, it has two distinct versions : pre-Watershed (television) and an Uncut version for post-Watershed (television).
External links
Nuts TV website
British reality television series
2008 British television series debuts | wiki |
Deerfield – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie Lake.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Vanesa Restrepo (born April 13, 1987) is a Colombian actress and model. She is known for Como dice el dicho, Quiero amarte and Muchacha italiana viene a casarse.
Filmography
Film roles
Television roles
References
External links
1987 births
Colombian female models
Colombian telenovela actresses
Living people
People from Medellín
21st-century Colombian actresses | wiki |
Echinotriton is a genus of salamanders in the family Salamandridae.
Species
It contains the following species:
References
Newts
Amphibians of Asia
Amphibian genera
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
This is a list of cemeteries in Latvia.
Riga
Bikernieki Memorial
Brothers' Cemetery
Forest Cemetery
Great Cemetery
Martin Cemetery (Mārtiņa kapi), Riga
Pokrov Cemetery
References
Latvia
Cemeteries | wiki |
Server Monitor is Apple's IPMI-based tool for communicating with a remote baseboard management controller (BMC) that implements their lights-out management (LOM) system. It is available as part of the server admin tools package on a CD with the server software and as a download from their website. It can manage their Xserve line of servers which are currently their only product line that has such an LOM solution.
External links
Mac OS X server page
support.apple.com: TCP and UDP ports used by Apple software
MacOS Server | wiki |
Harpers Magazine may refer to:
Harper's Magazine (since 1850), American monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts
Harpers Wine & Spirit, formerly Harpers Magazine, British information service for the wine and spirit industry
See also
Harper's Bazaar (since 1867), an American women's fashion magazine
Harper's Weekly (1857–1916), an American political magazine
Harpers (disambiguation) | wiki |
Parliamentarian has two principal meanings.
First, it may refer to a member or supporter of a Parliament, as in:
Member of parliament
Roundhead, supporter of the parliamentary cause in the English Civil War
Second, in countries that do not refer to their legislative bodies as a parliament, parliamentarian may instead refer to an expert adviser on parliamentary procedure, as in:
Parliamentarian (consultant), an officer or outside consultant designated by an organization to serve as an expert in parliamentary procedure
Parliamentarian of the United States House of Representatives
Parliamentarian of the United States Senate
A member of the National Association of Parliamentarians
A member of the American Institute of Parliamentarians
An official of the National Forensic League, who regulates a chamber of Student Congress
See also
Parliament
Parliamentary system
Parliament of England
Parliamentary procedure
Councilor | wiki |
The bill (long title "Making further continuing appropriations for fiscal year 2014, and for other purposes.") is a continuing resolution that was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress and was signed into law on January 15, 2014 by President Barack Obama. The bill amended the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014 to extend the time-period of funding provided by that continuing resolution from January 15, 2014 to January 18, 2014. The extension was intended to give Congress the extra time it needed to pass the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547; 113th Congress), which would provide the rest of the appropriations for fiscal year 2014. The fiscal year in the United States is the 12-month period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year.
Background
The budget and spending process of the United States federal government is a complex one. The U.S. Constitution (Article I, section 9, clause 7) states that "No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time." Traditionally, after a federal budget has been agreed upon in the spring before the upcoming fiscal year, Congress spends the summer writing and passing 12 regular appropriations acts.
In 2013, Congress was unable to agree on a budget, but several attempts were made to carry on with the regular appropriations process. The House passed the Military Construction and Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2014 (, June 4, 2013), the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2014 (, June 6, 2013), the Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2014 (, July 10, 2013), the Department of State Operations and Embassy Security Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2014 (, September 29, 2013), and the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2014 (, July 24, 2103). None of these bills passed in the Senate. All twelve regular appropriations bills were introduced in the House and the Senate, but these five were the only ones to receive a vote. Congress makes appropriations on a yearly basis. If no appropriations were made by October 1, 2013, when Fiscal Year 2014 began, the federal government would have to shut down due to lack of funding.
As October 1, 2013 approached, Congress worked on the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2014 (H.J.Res 59) (), but was unable to pass the bill. The result was the United States federal government shutdown of 2013. After 16 days of a federal government shutdown, Congress was able to agree to a new continuing resolution, the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014 (;), which was passed, ending the shutdown. The bill funded the government until January 15, 2014, and suspended the U.S. debt ceiling until February 7, 2014.
As the January 15, 2014 deadline approached, Congress decided it would need extra time to prepare the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547; 113th Congress), which would fund the government for the remainder of fiscal year 2014. They turned to this continuing resolution to extend the deadline.
Provisions of the bill
This summary is based largely on the summary provided by the Congressional Research Service, a public domain source.
H.J.Res. 106 would amend the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014 () to extend through January 18, 2014, specified continuing appropriations for FY2014.
Procedural history
H.J.Res. 106 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on January 10, 2014 by Rep. Hal Rogers (R-KY). The House voted on January 14, 2014 to pass the bill in a voice vote. The Senate voted on January 15, 2014, the pass the bill in Recorded Vote 11 (2nd session) with a vote of 86-14. President Barack Obama signed the bill later that day, making it law.
Debate and discussion
Senator Barbara Mikulski (D-MD) urged fellow senators to vote for the bill "because it is a technical situation. This isn't the usual delay, drama, fiscal-cliff situation."
See also
List of bills in the 113th United States Congress
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547; 113th Congress)
Notes/References
External links
Library of Congress - Thomas H.J.Res. 106
beta.congress.gov H.J.Res. 106
GovTrack.us H.J.Res. 106
OpenCongress.org H.J.Res. 106
WashingtonWatch.com H.J.Res. 106
House Republican Conference's Legislative Digest on H.J.Res. 106
2014
Acts of the 113th United States Congress | wiki |
Setoclavine is an ergot alkaloid.
References
Ergot alkaloids | wiki |
Utah State Route 221 may refer to:
Utah State Route 221 (1941-1964)
Utah State Route 221 (1964-1969) | wiki |
CUTS may refer to
Computer Users' Tape Standard, a standard for storage of digital microcomputer data on consumer quality cassettes
CUTS International (Consumer Unity & Trust Society), a non-profit organisation committed to fulfilling the developmental aspirations of the poor
Compact utility tractors, tractors designed primarily for landscaping and estate management tasks
Central University for Tibetan Studies, in Sarnath, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Cuts, Oise, a commune in France
See also
Cut (disambiguation) | wiki |
Middle Irish, sometimes called Middle Gaelic (, ), is the Goidelic language which was spoken in Ireland, most of Scotland and the Isle of Man from AD; it is therefore a contemporary of late Old English and early Middle English. The modern Goidelic languages—Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx—are all descendants of Middle Irish.
Grammar
Middle Irish is a fusional, VSO, nominative-accusative language.
Nouns decline for two genders: masculine, feminine, though traces of neuter declension persist; three numbers: singular, dual, plural; and five cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, prepositional, vocative. Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, number, and case.
Verbs conjugate for three tenses: past, present, future; four moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; independent and dependent forms. Verbs conjugate for three persons and an impersonal, agentless form (agent). There are a number of preverbal particles marking the negative, interrogative, subjunctive, relative clauses, etc.
Prepositions inflect for person and number. Different prepositions govern different cases, depending on intended semantics.
Example
The following is a poem in Middle Irish about Eógan Bél, King of Connacht.
References
Further reading
See also
Dictionary of the Irish Language
Languages attested from the 10th century
History of the Irish language
Irish, 2
Scottish Gaelic language
Culture of medieval Scotland
Medieval Ireland
Manx language | wiki |
Alpha Delta Theta () may refer to:
Alpha Delta Theta (professional), a professional sorority in the field of medical technology
Alpha Delta Theta (social), a social sorority which operated from 1919 to 1939 | wiki |
Easy Cheese is the trademark for a processed cheese spread product distributed by Mondelēz International. It is also commonly referred to by generic terms such as "spray cheese" or "cheese in a can". Easy Cheese is packaged in a metal can filled with air covered with a plastic cap that reveals a straight, flexible nozzle where the cheese is extruded.
A similar product was released by Betty Lou Foods in 1963. Easy Cheese was first manufactured by Nabisco and sold under the name "Snack Mate" from 1965 until 1984. Advertisements often displayed the orange product adorned in flowy peaks atop several different types of appetizers. As a 1966 advertisement says, it was "instant cheese for instant parties." Easy Cheese is currently available in Cheddar, Sharp Cheddar, Cheddar 'n Bacon, and American flavors. Discontinued varieties include Pimento, French Onion, Cheddar Blue Cheese, Shrimp Cocktail, Nacho, and Pizza.
Ingredients
Easy Cheese contains milk, water, whey protein concentrate, canola oil, milk protein concentrate, sodium citrate, sodium phosphate, calcium phosphate, lactic acid, sorbic acid, sodium alginate, apocarotenal, annatto, cheese culture, and enzymes.
Physical-chemical properties
Molecular composition
Processed cheese spreads, like Easy Cheese, have a moisture content that ranges from 44 to 60%, while its milk fat content must be greater than 20%. Milk proteins are needed for processed cheese spread production, and contains two main types: casein, which accounts for at least 80%, and whey protein, which can further be classified into α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin. The manufacturing of processed cheese spreads uses natural cheese with a composition that ranges from 60 to 75% intact casein.
Water
Water plays a multitude of functions in Easy Cheese. First, it allows for more stable emulsion, serving as a medium for the hydrophilic moieties of chelating salts. More specially, chelating salts bind calcium ions to hydrate proteins and create a more uniform spread. Water also provides the moisture content needed in processed cheese spreads to achieve the desired texture. Excessive water, however, can result in a lack of viscosity resulting in a cheese spread that has more liquid than solid properties after passing through the plastic extruder. The addition of too much water may likewise increase the product's susceptibility to microbial growth.
Physical structure
Casein and emulsifying agents
Easy Cheese is an oil-in-water emulsion. Oil droplets typically have a diameter of no more than one micrometer. Emulsions with large droplets like this tend to have a low-medium viscosity in comparison to smaller droplets whose emulsions have a higher viscosity. Heating the cheese mixture causes separation of the fats and protein of the cheese emulsion from destabilization. Emulsifying agents are made up of amphiphilic molecules that act as an interface to reduce the surface tension between hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules of the product to result in a uniform cheese spread that does not separate during storage. Cheese proteins that have denatured during processing are reestablished using melting salts. Sodium citrate and sodium phosphate are the main emulsifiers used in Easy Cheese to sequester calcium in cheddar cheese. This occurrence hydrates and solubilizes the casein, causing it to swell with water. The addition of these salts contributes to the uniformly creamy consistency of Easy Cheese.
The key role of emulsifying agents in Easy Cheese is to create a uniform cheese spread by altering the structure of casein micelles in the cheese. Casein micelles have a diameter ranging from 15 to 20 nanometers and are composed of flexible aggregates alpha-, beta-, and kappa-casein. The alpha- and beta-casein are kept in place by “colloidal calcium phosphate-mediated cross links” covered with a kappa-casein outer layer. The outer layer on the casein's surface has glycosylated hydrophilic tails that are negatively charged and is stable in solution due to Van der Waals interactions. All of the negative charges causes the casein micelles to initially repel each other and provides stability to the matrix by protecting the alpha- and beta-caseins.
When the group of casein micelles are exposed to heat and shearing forces, kappa-casein is cleaved causing the displacement of the glycosylated hydrophilic tails. The casein micelle becomes destabilized as alpha and beta-casein are now exposed to the environment. Emulsifying agents such as sodium phosphate play an important role in stabilizing the newly destabilized structure. The hydrophilic portion of sodium phosphate removes calcium from the calcium paracaseinate from ion exchange reactions. This action causes “hydration and partial dispersion of the calcium-paracaseinate phosphate network." The hydration process increases the solubility of the protein. Sodium phosphate removes calcium from the Ca-paracaseinate cheese complex due to ion exchange interactions, where positive calcium ions bind to the negative phosphate groups. Phosphate and citrate anions can then bind to the protein structure, converting calcium-paracaseinate converts to water-soluble sodium-paracaseinate. Upon cooling, the partially dispersed matrix forms a gel-like network that gives rise to the textural properties of the final product.
Viscosity
The interactions between proteins and carbohydrates play an important role in the viscosity of processed spreads. More specifically, sodium alginate contributes to the integrity of the gel-like network formed by the casein and salts. The newly formed network is made possible through cation binding, which converts the hydrophilic sodium alginate into hydrophobic calcium alginate (Ma). Guluronic acid residues that are linked together demonstrate a high affinity for calcium ions. Sodium alginate works in conjunction with the destabilization of the casein micelle where calcium ions can interact with guluronic chains (Ma). Due to a mixture of these interactions, a gel-like structure is formed rather than a true gel structure.
Whey products in processed cheese spreads increases the viscosity of the overall product due to the “intermolecular interactions between adjacent protein molecules with the formation of weak transient networks” formed from the conglomerate cheese mass. The protein concentration within the cheese matrix is directly proportional to the viscosity of the solution due to their interactions with hydrated protein molecules. Therefore, the continuous phase of the oil-in-water emulsion has a greater contribution to the viscosity of the cheese product over than the discontinuous phase.
Flow properties
Easy Cheese exhibits pseudoplastic behaviors during extrusion of the product, which can be represented using the Herschel-Bulkley Model:
This power law model represents a type of non-Newtonian fluid relating shear rate and shear stress with viscosity. As cheese is pushed out of the can, shear rate increases causing a decrease in viscosity and higher flow rates of the material. In this case, the cheese behaves more as a fluid. After it is expelled, there is no more shear rate and the cheese retains its original higher viscosity. Here, the cheese behaves like a solid. Easy Cheese must provide a smooth uniform texture whilst maintaining its viscoelastic structure to maintain its shape after extrusion from the can.
Sodium alginate is the one of the main ingredients that is responsible for Easy Cheese's pseudoplastic characteristics. More specifically, it contributes to the integrity of the gel-like network formed by the casein and salts. The newly formed network is made possible through cation binding, which converts the hydrophilic sodium alginate into hydrophobic calcium alginate. Guluronic acid residues that are linked together demonstrate a high affinity for calcium ions. Sodium alginate works in conjunction with the destabilization of the casein micelle where calcium ions can interact with guluronic chains. Due to a mixture of these interactions, a gel-like structure is formed rather than a true gel structure. About 0.05–0.5% weight by volume of sodium alginate at a 5.4–5.7 range must be added to the cheese mixture to exhibit these properties during extrusion.
Can design
The can is not actually an aerosol spray, since it does not combine the cheese with a propellant to create a fine mist upon being sprayed. Rather, the can contains a piston and a barrier plastic cap which squeezes the cheese through the nozzle in a solid column when the nozzle is pressed and the propellant expands in volume. The propellant does not mix with the cheese. Normal aerosol cans are charged with all of their contents through the single opening at the top, but spray cheese cans are separately charged with the product through the top and propellant through the bottom. This explains why the can has a small rubber plug on its base. The can design also ensures that the cheese can be dispensed with the can upright or inverted.
See also
Cheese sauce
Cheez Whiz
Velveeta
American cheese
Government cheese
Cheese
References
External links
Mondelez International brands
American cheeses
Processed cheese
American inventions
Products introduced in 1965 | wiki |
Eidson may refer to:
Places
Eidson, Tennessee
Eidson Road, Texas
People
Chuck Eidson (born 1980), American basketball player
Jake Eidson (b. 1995), American-Australian race car driver
Jim Eidson (born 1949), American football player in the National Football League
Michael Eidson, founder of CamelBak
Thomas Eidson (born 1944), American writer
English-language surnames
Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists | wiki |
Cheese Nips (originally stylized as "Cheese-Nips") were a small cheese-flavored cracker manufactured by Mondelez International under its brand, Nabisco, they were originally used to compete against Sunshine Biscuit's (now Kellogg's) Cheez-It crackers.
Portion-controlled packages of Cheese Nips were also sold under the name Cheese Nips Thin Crisps 100 Calorie Packs (Thinsations in Canada).
History
Cheese Nips, originally stylized as "Cheese-Nips", were introduced in 1955. After the Kraft merger, they went by "Kraft Cheese Nips."
In November 2019, there was a recall on Cheese Nips due to a plastic contamination.
As of 2020, Cheese Nips have since been discontinued as said by a Nabisco representative. They are still sold in Canada by a brand named "Christie" as "Ritz Cheese Nibs" as of 2022.
Popular culture
Cheese Nips is the name of Act 1 Track 8 of the off-Broadway musical Kurt Vonnegut's God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. In this satire, Sylvia becomes deranged watching her guests prefer Cheese Nips to her other food preparation.
Statista calculates that in 2016, 1.5 million Americans consumed eight or more bags of Cheese Nips.
See also
Cheese cracker
Cheez-It
References
Brand name crackers
Mondelez International brands
Nabisco brands
Products introduced in 1955
Brand name snack foods | wiki |
Second Rome most commonly refers to Constantinople, which was the capital of the Roman Empire from 330 onwards, lasting as the capital for the subsequent Byzantine Empire until its fall in 1453. The term may also refer to:
Holy Roman Empire, as a "second Roman Empire" through translatio imperii.
Papal States, as the state governing Rome itself through most of the Middle Ages.
See also
Nova Roma (disambiguation)
New Rome (disambiguation)
Rome II (disambiguation)
Rome (disambiguation) | wiki |
La de la course cycliste Paris-Roubaix a eu lieu le et a été remportée par le Français Louis Trousselier. Il devient le premier coureur de l'histoire a réalisé le doublé Paris-Roubaix/Tour de France. L'épreuve comptait 268 kilomètres, 63 coureurs étaient engagés.
Classement final
Lien externe
Paris-Roubaix 1905 sur bikeraceinfo.com
1905
Cyclisme sur route en 1905
Sport en France en 1905 | wiki |
Hot oil may refer to:
Chili oil, a condiment made from vegetable oil
Boiling oil or hot oil, an early thermal weapon
Oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA, see National Industrial Recovery Act#Legacy
Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, the "Hot Oil case", a 1935 United States Supreme Court case
Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935
Hot oil manicure
See also
Oil (disambiguation) | wiki |
Chapman is an English surname derived from the Old English occupational name céapmann "marketman, monger, merchant", from the verb céapan, cypan "to buy or sell" and the noun form ceap "barter, business, purchase." Alternate spellings include Caepmon, Cepeman, Chepmon, Cypman(n), and Shapman. (By 1600, the occupational name chapman had come to be applied to an itinerant dealer in particular, but it remained in use for both "customer, buyer" and "merchant" in the 17th and 18th centuries. Modern chiefly British slang chap “man" arose from the use of the abbreviated word to mean a customer, one with whom to bargain.)
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) supplies four meanings for chapman, all of which pertain to buying and selling: 1) A man whose business was buying and selling; 2) an itinerant dealer who travels, also known as a hawker or peddler; 3) an agent in a commercial transaction; 4) a purchaser or customer. (N.B. A “petty chapman” was a retail dealer.) The OED includes a citation of an English ordinance or decree that dates from 1553, during the reign of Edward VI: "No Tinker, Peddler, or petit Chapman shall wander about from the Towne but such as shall be licensed by two Justices of Peace." According to a list of colonial occupations, a chapman is a peddler or dealer of goods, usually itinerant, going from village to village. The related word chapbook is a later coinage from the 19th century which appears to refer to the fact that chapbooks were very cheaply made. From Old English ceap is also derived cheap “inexpensive,” a shortening of good ceap “good buy,” and Cheapside “market place,” a street in London that both historically and in modern times has been the financial center of the city.
Both the compound “chapman” and its first element chap- have cognates in all the major Germanic languages: From the prehistoric West Germanic compound *kaup- are derived cognates Old Saxon cop, Old Frisian kap "trade, purchase," Middle Dutch coop, modern Dutch kopen “ to buy,” koop "trade, market, bargain and goedkoop “inexpensive." These are akin to Old High German choufman, German Kaufmann, a common modern German surname; and North Germanic forms leading to Old Norse kaup "bargain, pay,” modern Swedish köpa “buy,” and modern Danish kjøb "purchase, bargain" and Copenhagen (originally Køpmannæhafn "merchants' harbor, buyer's haven"). The common ancestor is Proto-Germanic *kaupoz-, which was probably an ancient Germanic borrowing of Latin caupo, caupon- "petty tradesman, huckster," of unknown ulterior etymology. From the German the word was borrowed into the Slavic languages (Old Slavic koupiti, modern Russian купить, etc.), the Baltic languages (Old Prussian kaupiskan “trade, commerce,” Lithuanian kὑpczus “merchant”) and Finnish kaupata “to sell cheaply.” In the Romance languages, however, the word has not survived.
People with the surname or nickname Chapman include:
A
Abel Chapman (1851–1929), British born hunter-naturalist
Adam Chapman (born 1989), Northern Irish footballer
Alfred Chapman (1829–1915), American real estate attorney and investor, best known as one of the founders of Orange, California
Alger Chapman (1904–1983), American attorney, businessman and New York State official
Alger Chapman Jr. (1931–2013), American chief executive
Allan Chapman (historian) (born 1946), British historian of science
Allan Chapman (politician) (1897–1966), Scottish Unionist Member of Parliament 1935–1945
Alvah Chapman Jr. (1921–2008), American newspaper publisher
Alvan Wentworth Chapman, American botanist
Amy Chapman (born 1987), Australian soccer player
Andrew Grant Chapman (1839–1892), American politician
Andy Chapman (born 1959), British indoor soccer player
Anna Kushchyenko-Chapman (born 1982), Russian entrepreneur, television host, and agent of the Russian Federation
Anne Chapman, Franco-American ethnologist
Annie Chapman (1841–1888), English victim of Jack the Ripper
Aroldis Chapman (born 1988), Cuban baseball player
Art Chapman, (1906–1962), Canadian Ice Hockey player and Olympian
Art Chapman (basketball) (1912–1986), Canadian basketball player
Arthur Chapman (poet) (1873–1935), American poet and newspaper columnist
Arthur B. Chapman (1908–2004), British-American animal genetic researcher
Augustus A. Chapman (1805–1876), American lawyer and Democratic Party politician
Augustus Chapman Allen (1806–1864), American founder of Houston, Texas
Austin Chapman (1864–1926), Australian Protectionist Party politician
B
Ben Chapman (politician) (born 1940), British Labour Party politician and former civil servant
Ben Chapman (actor) (1928–2008), American actor, best known for playing the Gill-man in the 1954 movie Creature from the Black Lagoon
Ben Chapman (baseball) (1908–1993), American baseball player
Ben Chapman (footballer, born 1979), English football player
Benjamin Chapman (1621–unknown), English soldier
Bert Chapman (born 1942), Australian footballer
Beth Chapman (bounty hunter), American bounty hunter and reality star
Beth Chapman (politician), American politician from Alabama
Beth Nielsen Chapman (born 1958), American singer and songwriter
Billy Chapman (1902–1967), English footballer
Bird Beers Chapman (1821–1871), American editor and Democratic Party politician
Bob Chapman (born 1946), English footballer, often known as 'Sammy'
Brenda Chapman, American animator and film director
Brian Chapman (born 1968), Canadian ice hockey player
Brian Chapman (businessman), British businessman
Bruce Chapman (born 1934), American director and founder of the Discovery Institute, and Republican Party politician
Bruce Chapman (Australian economist), architect of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme in Australia.
C
Candace Chapman (born 1983), Canadian soccer player
Carrie Chapman Catt (1859–1947), American woman's suffrage leader
C.C. Chapman, American prominent figure in the community of podcasting, podsafe music, and new media
C. H. Chapman (1879–1972), British illustrator and cartoonist, notable for his work on Billy Bunter cartoon strips
Charles Chapman (disambiguation), several people
Charles Chapman Grafton (1830–1912), American Bishop of the Diocese of Fond du Lac in The Episcopal Church
Chris Chapman (rugby league), English rugby league footballer who played in the 1990s and 2000s
Chris Chapman (rugby league, born 1966), rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990sCharles Chapman (disambiguation)
Christine Chapman (born 1956), Welsh Labour Party politician
Christopher Chapman (1927–2015), Canadian filmmaker
Chuck Chapman (1911–2002), Canadian basketball player and olympian
Clarence Chapman (born 1953), American football player
Colin Chapman (1928–1982), British automotive engineer, designer, and racing director
Cornelius Chapman, British poet, songwriter, author, and performer
D
Damien Chapman, British rugby league player
Dave Chapman (actor) (born 1973), British actor, television presenter, puppeteer and voice artist
David Chapman (journalist) (born 1976), American journalist
David Chapman (chemist) (1869–1958), English physical chemist
David Chapman (cricketer) (1855–1934), English cricketer
David Chapman (handballer), American handballer
Dean Roden Chapman (1922–1995), American mechanical engineer at NASA and Stanford University
Dick Chapman (1911–1978), American amateur golfer
Dinos Chapman, (born 1962), English conceptual artist
Donald Chapman, Baron Northfield (1923–2013), British Labour Party politician and life peer
Donovan Chapman, American country music artist
Doug Chapman (stuntman), American stunt performer, actor and stunt coordinator
Doug Chapman (American football) (born 1977), American football player
Duane Chapman (born 1953), American Hawaii-based bail bondsman and bounty hunter
E
Ed Chapman (artist), British artist
Eddie Chapman (1914–1997), British spy and double agent, aka Agent Zigzag
Eddie Chapman (footballer) (1923–2002), English footballer and chairman
Edgar Chapman (1838–1909), brewer and businessman, owner of Theatre Royal, Adelaide
Edmund Chapman (1695–1763), English cricketer
Edward Chapman (actor) (1901–1977), British comic actor
Edward Chapman (British Army officer) (1840-1926), British Army officer
Edward Chapman (politician) (1839–1906), British Conservative Party politician
Edward Thomas Chapman (1920–2002), Welsh corporal and recipient of the Victoria Cross
Edythe Chapman (1863–1948), American stage and silent film actress
Elizabeth Chapman, Children's author
Emmett Chapman, British jazz musician best known as the inventor of the musical instrument Chapman Stick
Ernest Chapman (1926–2013), Australian rower
Eugenia S. Chapman (1923–1994), American educator and politician
F
Fern Schumer Chapman, American author
Frank Chapman (ornithologist) (1864–1945), American ornithologist
Frank Chapman (baseball) (1861–1937), American baseball player once (incorrectly) thought to be the youngest player in professional history
Frank Chapman (businessman), Chief Executive of BG Group
Fred Chapman (baseball) (1916–1997), American baseball player
Freddie Spencer Chapman (1907–1971), British Army officer and World War II veteran
Frederick Chapman (palaeontologist) (1864–1943), Australia Commonwealth Palaeontologist
Frederick Chapman (footballer) (1883–1951), English footballer and Olympic Gold medalist
Frederick Chapman (sportsman) (1901–1964), Australian cricketer and Australian Rules footballer
Frederick Chapman (judge) (1849–1936), New Zealand Supreme Court Judge
Frederick Chapman Robbins (1916–2003), American pediatrician and virologist
Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (1721–1808), Swedish naval ship architect
G
Gareth Chapman (born 1981), Welsh rugby union player
Gary Chapman (author), American relationship counselor and author of The Five Love Languages series
Gary Chapman (swimmer) (1937–1978), Australian swimmer and Olympic bronze medalist
Gary Chapman (musician) (born 1957), American singer/songwriter and former television talk show host
George Chapman (1559–1634), English dramatist, translator, and poet
George Chapman (murderer) (1865–1903), Polish serial killer, suspected by some as being Jack the Ripper. Born Seweryn Antonowicz Kłosowski
George Chapman (healer) (1921–2006), British trance healer and medium
George Henry Chapman (1832–1882), American Civil War General in the Union Army
George W. Chapman (politician), American lawyer and Democratic Party politician
Georgina Chapman (born 1976), British fashion designer and actress
Gerald Chapman (1891–1926), American criminal and gang leader of the Prohibition-era
Gerald Chapman (director) (1949–1987), British theatre director
Glenn Chapman (1906–1988), American baseball player
Graham Chapman (1941–1989), British comedian and writer, member of Monty Python
Grant Chapman (born 1949), Australian Liberal Party politician
Grizz Chapman, American television actor, notable appearances in 30 Rock
Guy Chapman (1889–1972), British author, historian and distinguished World War II soldier
H
Hank Chapman, American golden age comic book writer
Harold Chapman (born 1927), English photographer, especially noted for pictures taken at the Beat Hotel
Harold Chapman (footballer), New Zealand International footballer
Harold Chapman (orthodontist) (1881–1965), England's first exclusive orthodontic practitioner
Harry Chapman (footballer, born 1880) (1879–1916), English footballer
Harry Chapman (footballer, born 1997)
Harry Chapman (news anchor), American television news anchor
H. E. Chapman (1871–1944), British soldier and police officer
Harry Chapman Pincher (born 1914), Indian-born British journalist and novelist
Hayley Chapman, Australian television presenter and producer
Henry Chapman (American politician) (1804–1891), American Democratic Party politician
Henry Samuel Chapman (1803–1881), British-born Australian and New Zealand judge
Henry Chapman Mercer (1856–1930), American archeologist, artifact collector, tile maker and designer
Herbert Chapman (1878–1934), English football player and manager, notably of Huddersfield Town and Arsenal
Hope Chapman (born 1990), American anime critic, best known for work with That Guy with the Glasses and Anime News Network
Horace Chapman (disambiguation)
Hugh Chapman (1853-1933), British Anglican priest and liberal politician
I
Ian Chapman (born 1970), English footballer
Isaac C. Bates (1779–1845), American politician
Ivan Chapman (1906–1976), English cricketer
J
Jake Chapman (born 1966), English conceptual artist
Jake Chapman (politician), member of the Iowa Senate
James Chapman (author) (born 1955), American novelist and publisher
James Chapman (explorer) (1831–1872), South African explorer, hunter, trader and photographer
James Chapman (bishop) (died 1879), first Bishop of Colombo (Anglican) in Sri Lanka
James A. Chapman (1881–1966), American businessman and philanthropist
James Chapman-Taylor (1878–1958), New Zealand domestic architect
Jan Chapman (born 1950), Australian film producer
Jane Chapman, British academic
Janice Chapman, Australian-born British singer and voice coach
Jay Chapman (physician) (fl.1977), American physician and forensic pathologist
Jay Chapman (soccer) (born 1994), Canadian soccer midfielder
J. B. Chapman (1884–1947), American minister and president of Arkansas Holiness and Peniel Colleges
Jeff Chapman (1973–2005); Canadian urban-explorer, fountaineer, author and editor. Also known as Ninjalicious
Jeff Chapman (politician), American politician
Jenny Chapman (born 1973), British Labour politician
Jessica Chapman (1991–2002), murder victim of Ian Huntley
Jim Chapman (disambiguation), several people
Johnny Appleseed or John Chapman (1774–1847), American pioneer orchardist and Swedenborgian Christian missionary
John Chapman (artist) (born 1946), British artist
John Chapman (screenwriter), (1927–2010), English playwright, screenwriter and scriptwriter
John Chapman (football manager), English manager of Manchester United football team
John Chapman (Pennsylvania politician) (1740–1800), American Federalist Party politician
John Chapman (priest) (1865–1933), British Roman Catholic priest
John Chapman (publisher) (1821–1894), British publisher and physician
John A. Chapman USAF MSgt, Combat Controller, posthumously awarded Medal of Honor
John David "J.D." Chapman (born 1983), American heavyweight boxer
John Gadsby Chapman (1808–1889), American artist
John Grant Chapman (1798–1856), American Whig Party politician
John Herbert Chapman (1921–1979), Canadian space researcher from London, Ontario
John Jay Chapman (1862–1933), American author and essayist
John Wilbur Chapman (1859–1918), American Presbyterian evangelist
Johnny Chapman (born 1967), American race car driver in the NASCAR Nationwide series
Jonathan Chapman (1807–1848), American politician and mayor of Boston
Jonathan Chapman (academic) (born 1975), British academic, consultant and writer
Joseph Chapman (actor), American film and television actor
Joseph A. Chapman, American President of North Dakota State University
Joseph John Chapman (1784–1849), California pioneer
Judith Chapman (born 1945), American actress
K
Katie Chapman (born 1982), English football player
Karen Chapman, English retired badminton player
Keith Chapman (born 1958), British children's author and creator of Bob the Builder
Keith Chapman (organist) (1945–1989), American organist
Kelvin Chapman (born 1956), American baseball player
Kevin Chapman, American actor
Kory Chapman (born 1980), American football player
Kyle Chapman (New Zealand activist) (born 1971), New Zealand director of the NZNF (New Zealand National Front)
Kyle Chapman (activist) (born 1975 or 1976), nicknamed "Based Stickman", American alt-right activist
L
Lamar Chapman (born 1976), American football player
Lanei Chapman (born 1973), American actress
Lee Chapman (born 1959), English football player
Leigh M. Chapman (born 1984), American voting rights activist and politician
Leland Chapman (born 1976), American Hawaii-based bail bondsman and bounty hunter
Leonard F. Chapman Jr. (1913–2000), American Commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps
Les Chapman (born 1948), English football player and manager
Lloyd Chapman (born 1949), American founder of the American Small Business League
Lonny Chapman (1920–2007), American television actor
Luke Chapman (born 1991), English footballer
Lyssa Chapman (born 1987), American bounty hunter
M
Marco Allen Chapman (1971–2008), American murderer executed in Kentucky
Margaret Chapman (1940–2000), British illustrator and painter
Marguerite Chapman (1918–1999), American actress
Maria Weston Chapman (1806–1885), American abolitionist
Mariana Wright Chapman (1843–1907), American social reformer, suffragist
Mark Chapman (broadcaster) (born 1973), British radio sports newsreader and DJ
Mark David Chapman (born 1955), American assassin of former Beatle John Lennon
Mark Lindsay Chapman (born 1954), English film and television actor
Marshall Chapman (born 1949), American country rock singer-songwriter
Mary Chapman, British Chief Executive of the Chartered Management Institute
Matt Chapman (The Brothers Chaps), duo responsible for the creation of the Homestar Runner series of animated cartoons
Matt Chapman, Professional baseball player for the Toronto Blue Jays
Matthew Chapman (author) (born 1950), British journalist, screenwriter and director; also great-great grandson of Charles Darwin
Meyrick Chapman, English Olympian
Michael Chapman (disambiguation), several people
Michelle Chapman (known as Tori Black, born 1988), American pornographic actress
Mike Chapman, Australian record producer and songwriter
Mike Chapman (The Brothers Chaps), duo responsible for the creation of the Homestar Runner series of animated cartoons
Minerva J. Chapman (1858–1947), American painter
Mitchell Chapman (born 1983), Australian Rugby Union player
N
Nathan Chapman (soldier) (died 2002), American soldier, was the first American killed during the invasion of Afghanistan
Nathan Chapman (footballer) (born 1975), Australian footballer and American Football player
Nathaniel Chapman (1780–1853), American physician and founder of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences
Nicki Chapman (born 1967), British television presenter
Nicky Chapman, Baroness Chapman (born 1961), British peer
Nigel Chapman (mayor), British Civic Mayor of Colchester
Nigel Chapman (cricketer) (born 1945), English cricketer
O
Orlow W. Chapman (1832–1890), American Solicitor General of the United States
Oscar L. Chapman (1896–1978), American Secretary of the Interior during the last three years of the Truman administration
Owl Chapman, Surfer
P
Pat Chapman, founder of The Curry Club, and author
Patsy Chapman (born 1948), British newspaper editor
Patrick Chapman, Irish writer and poet
Paul Chapman (Australian footballer), Australian Rules footballer
Paul Chapman (musician), Welsh rock guitarist (UFO, Skid Row)
Paul Chapman (actor), British television actor
Penny Chapman, Australian television producer
Percy Chapman (1900–1961), English cricketer
Percy Chapman Black (1878–1961), Canadian Progressive Conservative Party politician
Philip K. Chapman (1935–2021), Australian-born American astronaut and scientist
R
Ray Chapman (1891–1920), American shortstop for the Cleveland baseball team
Reginald Frederick Chapman (1930–2003), English-American entomologist
Reuben Chapman (1799–1882), American lawyer and politician
Rex Chapman (born 1967), American retired professional basketball player
Richard Chapman (disambiguation)
Robert Chapman (cricketer) (born 1972), English first-class cricketer in the 1990s
Robert Chapman (pastor) (1803–1902), English pastor, teacher and evangelist
Sir Robert Chapman, 1st Baronet (1880–1963), British soldier and Conservative Member of Parliament 1931–1935
Robert F. Chapman (born 1926), American U.S. court of appeals judge
Robert Hett Chapman (1771–1833), American, president of the University of North Carolina
Robert L. Chapman (1920–2002), American lexicographer
Robert William Chapman (scholar)
Robin Chapman (born 1933), British actor and writer
Roger Chapman (born 1942), British rock singer
Roger Chapman (golfer) (born 1959), English golfer
Roger Chapman (submariner) (born 1945), submariner rescued from sunken submersible Pisces III in 1973
Ronald Ivelaw-Chapman (1899–1978), British senior commander in the Royal Air Force, and Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Indian Air Force
Roosevelt Chapman, American college basketball player and University of Dayton Hall of Famer
Roy Chapman (1934–1983), English football player and manager
Roy H. Chapman (1883–1952), Justice of the Florida Supreme Court
Roy Chapman Andrews (1864–1960), American explorer, adventurer, naturalist and director of the American Museum of Natural History
Royal Norton Chapman (1889–1939), American entomologist and ecologist
Ryan Chapman (born 1987), South African soccer player
S
Sam Chapman (1916–2006), American college football player and professional baseball player
Sammy Chapman (1938–2019), Northern Irish footballer and football manager
Samuel Chapman (British politician) (1859–1947), Scottish Unionist Party politician
Samuel Chapman (philatelist) (1859–1943), British philatelist who was an expert on Mexican stamps
Samuel E. Chapman, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly in 1848 and 1861
Samuel Chapman Armstrong (1838–1893), American educator and officer in the Union Army
Sean Chapman (born 1961), British actor
Shane "Choppa" Chapman (born 1978), New Zealand middleweight kickboxer, boxer and martial artist
Simon Chapman (academic) (born 1951), Australian academic
Simon Chapman (author), British children's author
Stanley Chapman (born 1925), British architect, designer, translator and writer
Stepan Chapman (born 1951), American fiction author
Steve Chapman (ice hockey), ice hockey executive
Steven Chapman (cricketer) (born 1971), English cricketer
Steven Curtis Chapman (born 1962), American Christian musician
Stuart Chapman (born 1951), English footballer and football coach
Sydney Chapman (economist) (1871–1951), British economist and civil servant
Sydney Chapman (mathematician) (1888–1970), British astronomer and geophysicist
Sydney Chapman (politician) (born 1935), English Conservative Party politician and architect
T
Ted Chapman (1934–2005), Australian Liberal Party politician
Terry Magaoa Chapman (died 2014), Niuean politician and diplomat
Theodore S. Chapman (1849–1914), American lawyer, businessman, and politician
Thomas Algernon Chapman (1842–1921), British entomologist.
Thomas Chapman (Australian politician) (1815–1884), British premier of Tasmania
Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet (1846–1919), Anglo-Irish landowner and father of T. E. Lawrence aka Lawrence of Arabia
Thomas Alfred Chapman (1867–1949), British Anglican Bishop
Tim Chapman (born 1965), American bounty hunter
Timothy Granville-Chapman (born 1947), British Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff of the British Armed Forces
Tony Chapman, British musician, early member of The Rolling Stones
Tracy Chapman (born 1964), American singer-songwriter
V
Vernon Chapman (born 1921), English footballer and football manager
Vickie Chapman (born 1957), Australian Liberal Party politician
Victor Chapman (1890–1916), French-American pilot during World War I
Victor Chapman (racing driver), New Zealand motor-racing driver
Vince Chapman (born 1967), English footballer
Virgil Chapman (1895–1951), American Democratic Party politician
W
Wade Chapman (born 1976), Australian footballer
Wallace Chapman, New Zealand radio and television host
Wayne Chapman (basketball) (born 1945), American basketball player
William Chapman (cricketer), English cricketer
William Chapman (poet), Canadian poet
William W. Chapman (1808–1892), American politician in Iowa and Oregon
William Chapman Hewitson (1806–1878), British naturalist
William Chapman Nyaho (born 1958) Ghanaian-American concert pianist
William Chapman Ralston (1826–1875), American founder of the Bank of California
William Charles Chapman Mortimer, English writer
Y
Yvonne Chapman (born 1940), Australian National Party politician
Fictional characters
Union Jack (Joseph Chapman), in Marvel comics
William "Billy" Chapman, the antagonist of 1984 film Silent Night, Deadly Night
Richard "Ricky" Chapman/Caldwell, brother of Billy and antagonist of later Silent Night, Deadly Night films
Hedrick Chapman, minor antagonist in the Animorphs novel series
Melissa Chapman, Hedrick's daughter
References
Occupational surnames
English-language surnames
English-language occupational surnames | wiki |
Fanta cake is a cake made with a sponge base, the key ingredient of the sponge base is Fanta or sparkling mineral water, thus the cake base becomes fluffier than usual sponge based cakes. The Fanta as ingredient is also the name giving component.
The top can be either a simple lemon glaze or a creamy layer made of heavy sour cream, whipped cream, sugar and canned mandarins.
The traditional measurement is in cups, which is uncommon as it originates from Germany, where it is called Fantakuchen
Fantakuchen is a popular cake for birthday parties or bake sales.
References
German cakes | wiki |
The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake struck Vancouver Island on the coast of British Columbia, Canada, on June 23 at 10:15 a.m. with a magnitude estimated at 7.0 and 7.5 . The main shock epicenter occurred in the Forbidden Plateau area northwest of Courtenay. While most of the large earthquakes in the Vancouver area occur at tectonic plate boundaries, the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake was a crustal event. Shaking was felt from Portland, Oregon, to Prince Rupert, British Columbia. This is one of the most damaging earthquakes in the history of British Columbia, but damage was restricted because there were no heavily populated areas near the epicentre, where severe shaking occurred.
This earthquake is Canada's largest historic onshore earthquake. However, the greatest earthquake in Canadian history recorded by seismometers was the 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake, an interplate earthquake that occurred on the ocean bottom just off the rugged coast of Graham Island, which reached magnitude 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale.
Background and tectonics
The tectonics that caused the 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake are poorly known. No surface expression of the offset was noticed, most likely because the epicenter area is very remote and densely forested. A comprehensive examination and computer interpretation of seismic data from over 50 stations have shown that a possible explanation of the earthquake includes a strike-slip fault corresponding to the lengthy axis of Vancouver Island, known as the Beaufort Range Fault. A fault running across Vancouver Island, corresponding to the projection of the underwater Nootka Fault on the British Columbia Coast, is also a possibility but an unlikely one because the earthquake showed no evidence of offsets along with a series of highways that follows much of the eastern coastline of Vancouver Island, called Island Highway, and other roads between Courtenay and Campbell River. The estimated depth of the earthquake places it within the continental crust, not at the margin with the Cascadia subduction zone, and certainly not inside the subduction zone itself. Specifically, the earthquake's epicenter was positioned somewhere in the Forbidden Plateau region, in central Vancouver Island.
Damage and casualties
Though very destructive, the earthquake caused only two deaths: Jacob L. Kingston, aged 69, and Daniel Fidler, who was 50. Kingston suffered a heart attack in Seattle, while Fidler drowned when his dinghy was swamped by a wave.
In Vancouver, damage consisted of lofty buildings oscillating violently, and a piece of masonry fell from the local railway station. In addition, within the city, at least one gas line cracked and several power outages occurred. Fires broke out in several chimneys, and at least one swing-span bridge was fractured by the shaking. In the Hotel Vancouver, which housed the elderly and caught on fire, more than 500 war veterans' families fled the flames. One writer, George Finley, stated that the Lions' Gate Bridge "swayed like a leaf", coinciding with a "low, rumbling sound, like a deep growl."
The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake demolished 75% of the chimneys in the communities of Cumberland, Union Bay, and Courtenay and caused extensive damage in Comox, Port Alberni, and Powell River, on the eastern side of the Strait of Georgia. Some chimneys were fractured in Victoria, and people in Victoria and Vancouver experienced great fright, with some seen fleeing into the streets.
Landslides created by the earthquake were common throughout Vancouver Island. Land subsidence resulted from the earthquake, most commonly around shorelines on the Strait of Georgia. This included the bottom of Deep Bay which sank between and . These measurements were reported by the Canadian Hydrographic Service. Also, a ground shift occurred on Read Island. Ships throughout the region were affected, and those on board them during the earthquake described it as similar to having run over a sand bar or striking a rock. Undersea power lines were destroyed in the long narrow Alberni Inlet and near the city of Powell River. All lighthouse keepers in the surrounding area felt the earthquake, and experienced damage including shattered windows and smashed dishes. A tsunami struck the west coast of Texada Island with two waves, the first being high and the second high. The earthquake caused a landslide near Mount Colonel Foster. One fortunate occurrence allowed researchers afterward to review the effects of the earthquake: an aerial photographic survey of Vancouver Island had commenced in 1946, soon after the earthquake, and these photographs were eventually studied by a geoscientist in the late 1970s.
South of the Canada–United States border in Washington state, some chimneys fell at Eastsound on Orcas Island and a concrete mill was damaged at Port Angeles. In Seattle, some damage occurred on upper floors of tall buildings that had visibly swayed. The expansion joints on a bridge on U.S. Highway 10 near Mercer Island were also damaged by the earthquake. The shock was strongly felt at Bellingham, Everett, Olympia, Raymond, and Tacoma. A , crack in the glacier covering Big Four Mountain in Snohomish County, Washington, was created by the earthquake. The earthquake was powerful enough to knock the needle off a seismograph at the University of Washington, and was sustained for about a minute even in Seattle.
The earthquake caused significant movement among structures, moving one wall about and caused one home to shift for off its foundation. The total affected area in Canada and the United States was about .
See also
List of deadly earthquakes since 1900
List of earthquakes in 1946
List of earthquakes in Canada
List of earthquakes in the United States
References
External links
1946 in Canada
1946 natural disasters in the United States
1946 Vancouver
1946 earthquakes
History of Vancouver Island
1946 Vancouver
Alberni Valley
1946 in British Columbia
1946 in Washington (state)
1946 disasters in Canada | wiki |
Delta-v (more known as "change in velocity"), symbolized as ∆v and pronounced delta-vee, as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse per unit of spacecraft mass that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launching from or landing on a planet or moon, or an in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is not the same as the physical change in velocity of said spacecraft.
A simple example might be the case of a conventional rocket-propelled spacecraft, which achieves thrust by burning fuel. Such a spacecraft's delta-v, then, would be the change in velocity that spacecraft can achieve by burning its entire fuel load.
Delta-v is produced by reaction engines, such as rocket engines, and is proportional to the thrust per unit mass and the burn time. It is used to determine the mass of propellant required for the given maneuver through the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
For multiple maneuvers, delta-v sums linearly.
For interplanetary missions, delta-v is often plotted on a porkchop plot, which displays the required mission delta-v as a function of launch date.
Definition
where
is the instantaneous thrust at time .
is the instantaneous mass at time .
Specific cases
In the absence of external forces:
where is the coordinate acceleration.
When thrust is applied in a constant direction ( is constant) this simplifies to:
which is simply the magnitude of the change in velocity. However, this relation does not hold in the general case: if, for instance, a constant, unidirectional acceleration is reversed after then the velocity difference is 0, but delta-v is the same as for the non-reversed thrust.
For rockets, "absence of external forces" is taken to mean the absence of gravity and atmospheric drag, as well as the absence of aerostatic back pressure on the nozzle, and hence the vacuum I is used for calculating the vehicle's delta-v capacity via the rocket equation. In addition, the costs for atmospheric losses and gravity drag are added into the delta-v budget when dealing with launches from a planetary surface.
Orbital maneuvers
Orbit maneuvers are made by firing a thruster to produce a reaction force acting on the spacecraft. The size of this force will be
where
is the velocity of the exhaust gas in rocket frame
is the propellant flow rate to the combustion chamber
The acceleration of the spacecraft caused by this force will be
where is the mass of the spacecraft
During the burn the mass of the spacecraft will decrease due to use of fuel, the time derivative of the mass being
If now the direction of the force, i.e. the direction of the nozzle, is fixed during the burn one gets the velocity increase from the thruster force of a burn starting at time and ending at as
Changing the integration variable from time to the spacecraft mass one gets
Assuming to be a constant not depending on the amount of fuel left this relation is integrated to
which is the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
If for example 20% of the launch mass is fuel giving a constant of 2100 m/s (a typical value for a hydrazine thruster) the capacity of the reaction control system is
If is a non-constant function of the amount of fuel left
the capacity of the reaction control system is computed by the integral ().
The acceleration () caused by the thruster force is just an additional acceleration to be added to the other accelerations (force per unit mass) affecting the spacecraft and the orbit can easily be propagated with a numerical algorithm including also this thruster force. But for many purposes, typically for studies or for maneuver optimization, they are approximated by impulsive maneuvers as illustrated in figure 1 with a as given by (). Like this one can for example use a "patched conics" approach modeling the maneuver as a shift from one Kepler orbit to another by an instantaneous change of the velocity vector.
This approximation with impulsive maneuvers is in most cases very accurate, at least when chemical propulsion is used. For low thrust systems, typically electrical propulsion systems, this approximation is less accurate. But even for geostationary spacecraft using electrical propulsion for out-of-plane control with thruster burn periods extending over several hours around the nodes this approximation is fair.
Production
Delta-v is typically provided by the thrust of a rocket engine, but can be created by other engines. The time-rate of change of delta-v is the magnitude of the acceleration caused by the engines, i.e., the thrust per total vehicle mass. The actual acceleration vector would be found by adding thrust per mass on to the gravity vector and the vectors representing any other forces acting on the object.
The total delta-v needed is a good starting point for early design decisions since consideration of the added complexities are deferred to later times in the design process.
The rocket equation shows that the required amount of propellant dramatically increases with increasing delta-v. Therefore, in modern spacecraft propulsion systems considerable study is put into reducing the total delta-v needed for a given spaceflight, as well as designing spacecraft that are capable of producing larger delta-v.
Increasing the delta-v provided by a propulsion system can be achieved by:
staging
increasing specific impulse
improving propellant mass fraction
Multiple maneuvers
Because the mass ratios apply to any given burn, when multiple maneuvers are performed in sequence, the mass ratios multiply.
Thus it can be shown that, provided the exhaust velocity is fixed, this means that delta-v can be summed:
When are the mass ratios of the maneuvers, and are the delta-v of the first and second maneuvers
where and . This is just the rocket equation applied to the sum of the two maneuvers.
This is convenient since it means that delta-v can be calculated and simply added and the mass ratio calculated only for the overall vehicle for the entire mission. Thus delta-v is commonly quoted rather than mass ratios which would require multiplication.
Delta-v budgets
When designing a trajectory, delta-v budget is used as a good indicator of how much propellant will be required. Propellant usage is an exponential function of delta-v in accordance with the rocket equation, it will also depend on the exhaust velocity.
It is not possible to determine delta-v requirements from conservation of energy by considering only the total energy of the vehicle in the initial and final orbits since energy is carried away in the exhaust (see also below). For example, most spacecraft are launched in an orbit with inclination fairly near to the latitude at the launch site, to take advantage of the Earth's rotational surface speed. If it is necessary, for mission-based reasons, to put the spacecraft in an orbit of different inclination, a substantial delta-v is required, though the specific kinetic and potential energies in the final orbit and the initial orbit are equal.
When rocket thrust is applied in short bursts the other sources of acceleration may be negligible, and the magnitude of the velocity change of one burst may be simply approximated by the delta-v. The total delta-v to be applied can then simply be found by addition of each of the delta-v'''s needed at the discrete burns, even though between bursts the magnitude and direction of the velocity changes due to gravity, e.g. in an elliptic orbit.
For examples of calculating delta-v, see Hohmann transfer orbit, gravitational slingshot, and Interplanetary Transport Network. It is also notable that large thrust can reduce gravity drag.
Delta-v is also required to keep satellites in orbit and is expended in propulsive orbital stationkeeping maneuvers. Since the propellant load on most satellites cannot be replenished, the amount of propellant initially loaded on a satellite may well determine its useful lifetime.
Oberth effect
From power considerations, it turns out that when applying delta-v in the direction of the velocity the specific orbital energy gained per unit delta-v is equal to the instantaneous speed. This is called the Oberth effect.
For example, a satellite in an elliptical orbit is boosted more efficiently at high speed (that is, small altitude) than at low speed (that is, high altitude).
Another example is that when a vehicle is making a pass of a planet, burning the propellant at closest approach rather than further out gives significantly higher final speed, and this is even more so when the planet is a large one with a deep gravity field, such as Jupiter.
See also powered slingshots.
Porkchop plot
Due to the relative positions of planets changing over time, different delta-vs are required at different launch dates. A diagram that shows the required delta-v plotted against time is sometimes called a porkchop plot''. Such a diagram is useful since it enables calculation of a launch window, since launch should only occur when the mission is within the capabilities of the vehicle to be employed.
Around the Solar System
Delta-v needed for various orbital manoeuvers using conventional rockets; red arrows show where optional aerobraking can be performed in that particular direction, black numbers give delta-v in km/s that apply in either direction. Lower-delta-v transfers than shown can often be achieved, but involve rare transfer windows or take significantly longer, see: fuzzy orbital transfers.
C3 Escape orbit
GEO Geosynchronous orbit
GTO Geostationary transfer orbit
L4/5 Earth–Moon Lagrangian point
LEO Low Earth orbit
LEO reentry
For example the Soyuz spacecraft makes a de-orbit from the ISS in two steps. First, it needs a delta-v of 2.18 m/s for a safe separation from the space station. Then it needs another 128 m/s for reentry.
See also
Delta-v budget
Gravity drag
Orbital maneuver
Orbital stationkeeping
Spacecraft propulsion
Specific impulse
Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
Delta-v (physics)
References
Astrodynamics
Spacecraft propulsion | wiki |
A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used to thicken sauces, soups, and puddings without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in paints, inks, explosives, and cosmetics.
Thickeners may also improve the suspension of other ingredients or emulsions which increases the stability of the product. Thickening agents are often regulated as food additives and as cosmetics and personal hygiene product ingredients. Some thickening agents are gelling agents (gellants), forming a gel, dissolving in the liquid phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive internal structure. Others act as mechanical thixotropic additives with discrete particles adhering or interlocking to resist strain.
Thickening agents can also be used when a medical condition such as dysphagia causes difficulty in swallowing. Thickened liquids play a vital role in reducing risk of aspiration for dysphagia patients.
Many other food ingredients are used as thickeners, usually in the final stages of preparation of specific foods. These thickeners have a flavor and are not markedly stable, thus are not suitable for general use. However, they are very convenient and effective, and hence are widely used.
Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste, clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods, arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At (acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing its thickening capability. If the food is to be frozen, tapioca or arrowroot are preferable over cornstarch, which becomes spongy when frozen.
Types
Food thickeners frequently are based on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins.
Starches
This category includes starches as arrowroot, cornstarch, katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, wheat flour, almond flour, tapioca and their starch derivatives.
A flavorless powdered starch used for this purpose is a fecula (from the Latin faecula, diminutive of faex, "dregs").
Other polymers
Other sugar polymers include vegetable gums such as pectin from Citrus peel, guar gum from the guar bean, and locust bean gum from the carob bean.
Agar, alginin and carrageenan are polysaccharides extracted from algae. Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide secreted by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris and carboxymethyl cellulose is a synthetic gum derived from cellulose. Proteins used as food thickeners include collagen, egg whites, and gelatin. Other thickening agents act on the proteins already present in a food. One example is sodium pyrophosphate, which acts on casein in milk during the preparation of instant pudding.
Gelling agents
Gelling agents are food additives used to thicken and stabilize various foods, like jellies, desserts and candies. The agents provide the foods with texture through formation of a gel. Some stabilizers and thickening agents are gelling agents.
Typical gelling agents include natural gums, starches, pectins, agar-agar and gelatin. Often they are based on polysaccharides or proteins.
Examples are:
Alginic acid (E400), sodium alginate (E401), potassium alginate (E402), ammonium alginate (E403), calcium alginate (E404) - polysaccharides from brown algae
Agar (E406, a polysaccharide obtained from red algae)
Carrageenan (E407, a polysaccharide obtained from red seaweeds)
Locust bean gum (E410, a natural gum polysaccharide from the seeds of the carob tree)
Pectin (E440, a polysaccharide obtained from apple or citrus-fruit)
Gelatin (E441, made by partial hydrolysis of animal collagen)
Commercial jellies used in East Asian cuisines include the glucomannan polysaccharide gum used to make "lychee cups" from the konjac plants, and aiyu or ice jelly from the Ficus pumila climbing fig plant.
Agar-agar produces a very clear gel with light residual taste. Gelatin sheets disperse easily with no residual taste, but powdered form may have some taste. Kappa carragreenan may include potassium chloride to improve the gelling process and produces a clear product with very little aftertaste. Iota carrageenan contains sodium chloride which improves gel formation. Sodium alginate produces a medium viscosity gel but may have some aftertaste. High-methoxy pectin is one of the most widely used gelling agents in food processing. It reacts with some sugars and acids and sometimes includes minerals to improve gelling process. Low-methoxy pectin reacts with calcium, and is used for the preparation of low sugar jams.
Flours
Functional flours are produced from specific cereal variety (wheat, maize, rice or other) conjugated to specific heat treatment able to increase stability, consistency and general functionalities. These functional flours are resistant to industrial stresses such as acidic pH, sterilisation, freeze conditions, and can help food industries to formulate with natural ingredients. For the final consumer, these ingredients are more accepted because they are shown as "flour" in the ingredient list.
Flour is often used for thickening gravies, gumbos, and stews. The most basic type of thickening agent, flour blended with water to make a paste, is called whitewash. It must be cooked in thoroughly to avoid the taste of uncooked flour. Roux, a mixture of flour and fat (usually butter) cooked into a paste, is used for gravies, sauces and stews. Cereal grains (oatmeal, couscous, farina, etc.) are used to thicken soups. Yogurt is popular in Eastern Europe and Middle East for thickening soups. Soups can also be thickened by adding grated starchy vegetables before cooking, though these will add their own flavour. Tomato puree also adds thickness as well as flavour. Egg yolks are a traditional sauce thickener in professional cooking; they have rich flavor and offer a velvety smooth texture but achieve the desired thickening effect only in a narrow temperature range. Overheating easily ruins such a sauce, which can make egg yolk difficult to use as a thickener for amateur cooks. Other thickeners used by cooks are nuts (including rehan) or glaces made of meat or fish.
In cooking
Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some starches lose their thickening quality when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature; on the other hand, cooking starches too short or not hot enough might lead to an unpleasant starchy taste or cause water to seep out of the finished product after cooling. Also, higher viscosity causes foods to burn more easily during cooking. As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener cautiously; if over-thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result.
Food thickening can be important for people facing medical issues with chewing or swallowing, as foods with a thicker consistency can reduce the chances of choking, or of inhalation of liquids or food particles, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia.
Mechanical and thixotropic agents
Fumed silica and similar products form stiff microscopic chains or fibers which interlock or agglomerate into a mass, holding the associated liquid by surface tension, but which can separate or slide when sufficient force is applied. This causes the thixotropic or shear-thinning property (also frequently exhibited by gels), where the viscosity is non-Newtonian and becomes lower as the shearing force or time increases; their usefulness is primarily that the resulting increase in viscosity is large compared to the quantity of silica added. Fumed silica is generally accepted as safe as a food additive and is frequently used in cosmetics. Additives such as precipitated silica, fine talc, or chalk also meet the definition of thickening agent in that they increase viscosity and body while not affecting the target property of a mixture.
Cosmetics
Thickening agents used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products include viscous liquids such as polyethylene glycol, synthetic polymers such as carbomer (a trade name for polyacrylic acid) and vegetable gums. Some thickening agents may also function as stabilizers when they are used to maintain the stability of an emulsion. Some emollients, such as petroleum jelly and various waxes may also function as thickening agents in an emulsion.
Paint and printing thickeners
One of the main use of thickeners is in the paint and printing industries, which depend heavily on rheology modifiers, to prevent pigments settling to the bottom of the can, yielding inconsistent results. Water based formulas would be nearly impossible with the exception of India ink and the few other water-soluble pigments, but these would have very little coverage and at best would stain wood slightly. All modern paints and inks will have some pigment added at the factory for opacity and to control the specularity of the finish, from matte to high gloss, dependent on thickener used, but more so on the size of the particles added as opacity modifier. Particle sizes of 1 µm and below will be the limit of high gloss, probably confined to luxury automotive coatings, and about 100 µm particulates will make a bumpy surface on the microscopic scale, which scatters light and makes the surface appear matte.
Rheology modifiers in common use:
Polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, latex, styrene/butadiene,
PVA - polyvinyl alcohol, not polyvinylacetate which is used in adhesives such as wood glue. PVA monomers are dispersed in the paint or ink liquid at an early stage in the mix, as it does not affect rheology unless the pH is low. Boric acid is usually used to initiate polymerization after the pigment is added (the pigment "grind" stage) and dispersed, the mixture is thickened while stirring to maintain homogeneous consistency. Often this stage is problematic since air is entrained by all but the lowest shear impellers, which are inadequate for this purpose, instead antifoam additives are used to control air bubbles, which continue to be a benefit during paint application. Air entrainment during mixing is not unique to PVA—in fact hardly a formula for paint exists that doesn't at least require some care in mixing.
Clays - attapulgite which also disperses suspensions, bentonite (both flocculating and non-flocculating), and other montmorillonite clays. Usually clays, when dry, exist as a very fine powder, facilitating dispersion and compatibility with other ingredients. Clays generally make matte surfaces, in spite of their fine particulate nature. Not only paints and inks, but other industries such as pharmaceutical, construction, and cosmetics, especially hair styling aids and facial detoxifying masks increasingly favor bentonite and attapulgite clays over other rheology modifiers, dispersion aids, opacifying fillers, antifoam, and numerous niche uses which exploit the numerous inherent qualities which have drawn artisans to this material. Clays are sustainably sourced and do not involve any egregious environmental damage, which were among the cheapest bulk materials until recently, when the pricing went up steadily, following the upsurge in its use pattern.
Cellulosics - CMC, HMC, HPMC, and others, are chemically substituted cellulose macromolecules. The hydroxyl groups are substituted by other functional groups, such as methyl or propyl. The amount of substitution and molecular weight determine viscosity of the solution, assuming concentration stays the same; adding more also increases viscosity.
Sulfonates - Sodium or calcium salts, good water retention, versatile, and highly efficient.
Gums - guar, xanthan, cellulose, locust bean, and acacia are the main ones.
Saccharides - carrageenan, pullulan, konjac, and alginate, sometimes called hydrocolloids, these thickeners are extremely versatile and specific in function—each has a series of grades or types which behave differently, for example kappa carrageenan will form strong gels (potassium activated) but iota carrageenan will not form gels and only thickens.
Proteins - Casein, collagen, and sometimes albumin.
Modified castor oil - much like cellulose, castor oil has hydroxyl groups, unlike other oils which at most have double bonds, which castor oil also has, but most substitutions occur at the hydroxyl moieties, allowing exotic derivatives with myriad properties. The most recent advances in rheology modifiers have been in this category. The BASF corporation has a new line based on castor oil derivatives, for example.
Organosilicones - Silicone resins, dimethicones, and modified silicones simplify formulation somewhat, a borrowing from cosmetics.
All of the above rheology modifiers are used in the 0.2% to 2.0% range
Petrochemistry
In petrochemistry, gelling agents, also called solidifiers, are chemicals capable of reacting with oil spills and forming rubber-like solids. The gelled coagulated oil then can be removed from the water surface by skimming, suction devices, or nets. Calm or only moderately rough sea is required.
Flame fuel thickening compounds
Various materials are used to convert liquid explosives to a gel form. Nitrocellulose and other nitro esters are often used. Other possibilities include nitrated guar gum.
Many fuels used in incendiary devices require thickening for increased performance. Aluminium salts of fatty acids are frequently used. Some formulations (e.g. Napalm-B) use polymeric thickeners. Thickened pyrophoric agent, a pyrophoric replacement of napalm, is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene.
Fuel thickeners are mostly composed of the same thickeners as polar liquids (water), due to the fact that they are "bipolar", that is, they have a polar and an apolar group. The only change is in the orientation of these groups. In the non-polar medium reverse micelle formation occurs.
Because the hydrocarbon-hydrocarbon type intermolecular interactions are the weakest, the reverse micelle is much more unstable than the normal micelle. The main gelled fuel precursors are commonly derived from weak acids and strong or weak bases.
Calcium acetate
Soap
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Polystyrene
Paraffin wax
Silicon dioxide (some grades)
Natural Rubber
Sulfur (polysulfides)
Polybutadiene
Asphalt
Bentonite clay
Mettalic soaps
Cellulose derivatives
Carbomer
Alginate
See also
Mucilage
References
External links
Cook's Thesaurus: Thickeners
Food additives
Gels | wiki |
Matsumoto(松本市; -shi) er en by beliggende på øen Honshū i Japan. Byen har indbyggere.
Referencer
Ekstern henvisning
Matsumoto rådhus
Byer i Japan | wiki |
Annalisa is an Italian feminine given name. Notable people named Annalisa include:
Annalisa Bona (born 1982), Italian tennis player
Annalisa Bucci (born 1983), Italian kickboxer
Annalisa Buffa (born 1973), Italian mathematician
Annalisa Ceresa (born 1978), Italian alpine skier
Annalisa Cochrane (born 1996), American actress
Annalisa Coltorti (born 1963), Italian épée fencer
Annalisa Crannell, American mathematician
Annalisa Cucinotta (born 1986), Italian track cyclist
Annalisa Drew (born 1993), American freestyle skier
Annalisa Durante (1990–2004), 14-year-old girl shot by the Camorra
Annalisa Ericson (1913–2011), Swedish actress
Annalisa Insardà (born 1978), Italian actress
Annalisa Marzano (born 1969), Italian-American archaeologist and academic
Annalisa Minetti (born 1976), Italian blind singer and Paralympian
Annalisa Nisiro (born 1973), Italian swimmer
Annalisa Piras, Italian journalist and film director
Annalisa Scarrone (born 1985), Italian singer-songwriter
Annalisa Turci (born 1976), Italian softball player
See also
Annalise
Feminine given names
Italian feminine given names | wiki |
Zenkerella may refer to:
Zenkerella, a monotypic genus of rodents in the family Anomaluridae with the only species Zenkerella insignis
Zenkerella (plant), a legume genus | wiki |
Walkthrough steht für:
Komplettlösung, Anleitung zur Lösung eines Computerspiels
Code-Walkthrough, Verfahren bei Softwaretests
Cognitive Walkthrough, eine Usability-Inspektionsmethode | wiki |
Buckstitching is a technique used in leathercraft for securely joining two or more pieces of heavy leather along a seam. It is a simple, durable technique. Buckstitching is performed using a pronged metal tool that leatherworkers call a "buckstitch chisel" that has between one and five (or more) cutting tips. The chisel is held over the leather pieces to be joined, and is then struck with a mallet until the chisel penetrates all of the leather and produces what are called lacing slits. This is repeated along the entire seam. Next, a special leatherworker's needle is used to thread a wide sturdy lace back and forth through all of the slits.
Buckstitching is often found on items such as cowboy boots, western saddles, and other leather products associated with the American frontier. It is an alternative to the whipstitch, the running stitch, the saddle stitch, the round braid, loop lacing, and appliqué lacing.
References
Leather
Stitches (textile arts) | wiki |
A wild pig may be:
Suina, a suborder of even-toed mammals, including:
Suidae, a family of animals that are pigs or pig-like, including the Suinae and more distantly related extinct Old World tribes
Suinae, a subfamily which includes the Sus genus, all other existing pig genera, and closely related extinct genera
Sus (genus), a genus including domestic pig, wild boar, and many Southeast Asian wild pig species
Eurasian wild boar, Sus scrofa
Wild pigs of the Philippines, any of four species of the genus Sus in the Philippines
Feral pigs, domesticated pigs, Sus scrofa domestica, that have reverted to life as wild animals
Tayassuidae, another family of animals that are pigs or pig-like: the New World pigs or peccaries/javelinas
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
St. Michael's Tower can refer to:
St. Michael's Tower, Glastonbury, a landmark tower on Glastonbury Tor
St Michael's Tower, Gloucester, a preserved church tower in Gloucester, England
St Michael's Tower, Montacute, a folly tower in Montacute, Somerset | wiki |
The Losmina () is a river in Smolensk Oblast, Russia, a left tributary of the Vazuza. It is long, and has a drainage basin of .
References
Rivers of Smolensk Oblast | wiki |
The Marbaa dam is a dam in Saudi Arabia opened in 1984 and located in Baha region.
See also
List of dams in Saudi Arabia
References
Dams in Saudi Arabia | wiki |
The pyramid of Ahmose was built not as a tomb, but a cenotaph for pharaoh Ahmose I at the necropolis of Abydos, Egypt. It was the only royal pyramid built in this area. Today only a pile of rubble remains, reaching a height of about 10 m.
The pyramid was first examined by Arthur Mace and Charles Trick Currelly in 1899. In 1993 Stephen P. Harvey conducted intensive excavations on the area surrounding the pyramid.
The pyramid was constructed from sand and rubble and only the usual limestone casing kept the building in shape. It had a base length of and was about high. The inclination of the sides was 60°.
It did not feature any chambers for burial. Around the pyramid were a number of temples and also a small cenotaph pyramid for Ahmose's grandmother Tetisheri.
See also
List of Egyptian pyramids
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
References
External links
Stephen Harvey Abydos
Pyramids of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Abydos, Egypt sites
Ahmose I | wiki |
Ulvaria may refer to:
Ulvaria (fish), an animal genus in the family Stichaeidae
Ulvaria (alga), a plant genus in the family Ulvaceae | wiki |
A chain tool is a small mechanical device used to "break" a bicycle chain in such a way that it can be mended with the same tool. A bicycle chain has links and plates that are pinned together; these pins can be pushed out with the chain tool. Because the pins are pushed out gradually with a screw, they can be partially removed or fully removed, depending upon the intention of the user.
The chain tool has two positions where a chain can be inserted perpendicular to the tool, one close to the movable screw portion, and one lower down just above the fixed end. In each position, there are a pair of protruding tabs; one fits into the center of one link of the chain, the other fits into the center of the next link. With the chain properly in place, the pin is held in the center of the tool, so that the tip of the movable screw can press on the end of the pin. The end of the screw is slightly narrower than the pin, so that it can press the pin through the link. Often the end of the screw is a removable piece which can be replaced when worn.
Variations and alternatives
Most chain tools are designed for chains where the links have flat plates. For chains with complicated shaped plates designed to facilitate smooth shifting, specific chain tools are available which are identical in design and operation, but have the ears protruding into the chain shaped in cross section to fit the links of the particular chain in question precisely, so as to hold the pin in the all-important vertical alignment with the screw of the tool.
Some chain tools are better at removing pins than they are at inserting them. Once completely removed, chain pins are often very difficult to insert with a tool unless it has been specifically designed to do so. Users may overcome this limitation of some tools by never completely removing a pin that they intend to replace. They push the pin so that the chain can be broken, to shorten it for example, but so that it is firmly retained in the farthest plate. This way, even simple chain tools can press the pin back into place.
While a chain tool is required to shorten simple chains on a bicycle, and as described above, can often be used to reconnect them, there are fast-release chain links that allow repeated making and breaking of a chain. They are connected by hand pressure but often need a pair of needle-nosed pliers for removal. These links invariably replace a pair of outside plates on a chain, so joining two sets of inside plates. Bicycles with a single front chainring and rear sprocket (for example bicycles with hub gears or coaster brake hubs) may have a master link on the chain which holds the pin in place with an easily removable c-clip. Some master links are bevelled on top, and can interfere with the smooth operation of a derailleur system. Some derailleur suppliers have produced a chain with a fast-release link, made with straight plates to suit their derailleur products.
A chain tool is usually needed to shorten a chain, even when a fast-release link is being used, unless the combined number of links plus the connection link just happens to be the length required. Consider the following example.
Assume that an old derailleur chain is to be replaced with a new chain containing a suitable fast release link, supplied with it. The old chain is broken with a chain tool to remove it, and counting the links it is noted that there were 112 in total. The new chain should have the same length, but counting its links concludes that including the fast-release link there are 116 of them. (The chain link count on a new chain will not necessarily agree with the number given on its packaging.) A chain of this type is provided with inner plates at both ends for this purpose. Bearing in mind that the chain must end up with two sets of inner plate ends after the shortening, then the chain tool can be used to completely remove four links. The fast-release link plates are installed by hand as if they were a set of outer plates, and can be fixed in place by hand pressure alone. There are variations of the method in use, but in each case a chain tool will usually be needed.
Gallery
References
Mechanical hand tools
Bicycle tools | wiki |
Heads or Tails refers to coin flipping.
Heads or Tails may also refer to:
Film
Heads or Tails (1937 film), or Águila o sol, a Mexican film
Heads or Tails (1969 film), or Testa o croce, an Italian western film
Heads or Tails?, or Bomma Borusa, a 1971 Indian Telugu-language comedy film
Heads or Tails (1982 film), or Testa o croce, or Heads I Win, Tails You Lose, an Italian comedy film
Heads or Tails, or Pismo - Glava, a 1983 drama film by Bahrudin Čengić
Heads or Tails (1997 film), or J'en suis!, a Canadian film
Heads or Tails (2005 film), an American drama
Other uses
Heads or Tails, a 2010 British TV game show hosted by Justin Lee Collins
Heads or Tails?, a 2005 music album by Sowelu
See also
Heads and Tails (disambiguation)
Heads and Tales (disambiguation)
Obverse and reverse | wiki |
In academic publishing, an expression of concern is a notice issued by a publisher against a particular publication, warning that it may contain errors or be otherwise untrustworthy.
Definitions
Practice for issuing expressions of concern is not standardized across the publishing industry. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors says in its 2019 recommendations that a publisher may choose to issue an expression of concern while an investigation of alleged scientific misconduct is ongoing, and pending its outcome.
See also
Erratum
Post-publication peer review
Retractions in academic publishing
Notes
References
COPE Notes.
ICMJE.
Scientific misconduct
Academic publishing
Publishing
Error | wiki |
A Jésuite is a triangular, flaky pastry filled with frangipane cream and topped with sliced almonds and powdered sugar. The pastry originated in France and the name refers to the triangular shape of a Jesuit's hat.
See also
List of pastries
List of almond dishes
References
French pastries
Almond desserts | wiki |
For other cycling related terms (besides parts) see Glossary of cycling.
List of bicycle parts by alphabetic order:
Axle: as in the generic definition, a rod that serves to attach a wheel to a bicycle and provides support for bearings on which the wheel rotates. Also sometimes used to describe suspension components, for example a swing arm pivot axle
Bar ends: extensions at the end of straight handlebars to allow for multiple hand positions
Bar plugs or end caps: plugs for the ends of handlebars
Basket: it is an optional attachment on a bike and is used for carrying things
Bearing: a device that facilitates rotation by reducing friction
Bell: an audible device for warning pedestrians and other cyclists
Belt-drive: alternative to chain-drive
Bicycle brake cable: see Cable
Bottle cage: a holder for a water bottle
Bottom bracket: The bearing system that the pedals (and cranks) rotate around. Contains a spindle to which the crankset is attached and the bearings themselves. There is a bearing surface on the spindle, and on each of the cups that thread into the frame. The bottom bracket may be overhaulable (an adjustable bottom bracket) or not overhaulable (a cartridge bottom bracket). The bottom bracket fits inside the bottom bracket shell, which is part of the bicycle frame
Brake: devices used to stop or slow down a bicycle. Rim brakes and disc brakes are operated by brake levers, which are mounted on the handlebars. Band brake is an alternative to rim brakes but can only be installed at the rear wheel. Coaster brakes are operated by pedaling backward
Brake lever: a lever for actuating a bicycle brake
Brake shifter or colloquially, brifter (see also Shimano Total Integration, Campagnolo ErgoPower and SRAM Double Tap): combined shifter and brake lever control
Braze-on: a fitting protruding from a frame to provide attachment, typically for cable housings or tire pumps and similar accessories
Cable guide: a fitting below the bottom bracket which guides a piece of bare inner bowden cable around a corner
Cable: a metal cable enclosed in part by a metal and plastic housing that is used to connect a control, such as a brake or shifting lever, to the device it activates
Cartridge bearing: a type of bearing that is not user-serviceable, but must be replaced as a unit
Cassette: a group of stacked sprockets on the rear wheel of a bicycle with a rear derailleur
Coaster brake or backpedal brake
Chain: a system of interlinking pins, plates and rollers that transmits power from the front sprocket(s) to the rear sprocket(s)
Chainguard: Gear case cover for the entire chain either totally encasing (sometimes containing oil) or 'incomplete'. Either way, designed to keep clothing from fouling the chain. See also Skirtguard, Bashguard.
Chainring: (one of the) front gear(s), attached to a crank
Chainset: see Crankset
Chainstay: a pair of tubes on a bicycle frame that runs from the bottom bracket to the rear fork ends
Chain tensioner: a device to maintain proper chain tension
Chaintug: a device to aid in setting the proper chain tension
Cluster: a bicycle cogset, either a freewheel, or cassette
Cogset: the set of rear sprockets that attaches to the hub on the rear wheel
Cone: holds bearings in place, pressed against the cup
Cotter: pin for attaching cottered cranks
Coupler: to connect tubing together
Crankset or chainset: composed of cranks and at least one chainring
Cup: receives ball bearings which roll along its inner surface; integrated on most conventional hubs or can be pressed into older bottom bracket shells. See also Cone
Cyclocomputer: an electronic accessory that measures and displays instantaneous and cumulative speed and distance. Often provides other measurements such as heart rate
Derailleur hanger: a piece on the rear dropout that the derailleur attaches to.
Derailleur: an assembly of levers, usually cable actuated, that moves the chain between sprockets on a cassette or chainring assembly
Down tube: tube on the bicycle frame that runs from the head tube to the bottom bracket
Dropout: a bicycle rear fork end that allows the rear wheel to be removed without first derailing the chain. The term dropout is often incorrectly used to refer to any fork end, but not all fork ends are dropouts
Dustcap: any cap serving to keep dirt and contamination out of an assembly. Common over crank bolts, often plastic
Dynamo: bicycle lighting component, also known as generator
Eyelet:
1) attachment point on frame, fork, or dropout for fenders, racks, etc.
2) a hole through which a spoke nipple passes through the rim so it may attach to a spoke
Electronic Gear-Shifting System: not simply a type of shifter or a type of derailleur, a complete system with switches instead of levers, wires instead of Bowden cables, and motor-driven derailleurs that must all work together
Fairing: a full or partial covering for a bicycle to reduce aerodynamic drag or to protect the rider from the elements
Fender or mudguard: curved pieces of metal or plastic above the tires which catch and redirect road spray thrown up by the tires, allowing the rider to remain relatively clean. May come in pairs
Ferrule: a metal or plastic sleeve used to terminate the end of a cable housing
Fork: a mechanical assembly that integrates a bicycle's frame to its front wheel and handlebars, allowing steering by virtue of its steerer tube
Fork crown: the point at which the two blades of the fork meet below the steerer tube.
Fork end: paired slots on a fork or frame at which the axle of the wheel is attached. See also Dropout
Frame: the mechanical core of a bicycle, the frame provides points of attachment for the various components that make up the machine. The term is variously construed, and can refer to the base section, always including the bottom bracket, or to base frame, fork, and suspension components such as a shock absorber
Freehub: a ratcheting assembly onto which a cog or cassette is mounted that allows the bicycle to coast without the pedals turning
Freewheel: a ratcheting assembly that incorporates one or more cogs and allows the bicycle to coast without the pedals turning
Gusset: plates added to the outsides of frame tubes to strengthen joints. These are more commonly seen on BMX and mountain bikes
Hanger: part of frame or an attachment to the frame to which the derailleur is attached (see Derailleur hanger)
Handlebar: a lever attached, usually using an intermediary stem, to the steerer tube of the fork. Allows steering and provides a point of attachment for controls and accessories
Handlebar plug: see Bar plugs
Handlebar tape: a tape wound around dropped handlebars so as to provide padding and grip, usually cork or cloth, sometimes foam rubber
Head badge: manufacturer's or brand logo affixed to the head tube
Head tube: the tube of a bicycle frame that contains the headset
Headset: the bearings that form the interface between the frame and fork steerer tube
Hood: the rubber brake lever covering on bikes with drop style handle bars
Hub: the core of a wheel; contains bearings and, in a traditional wheel, has drilled flanges for attachment of spokes
Hub dynamo: a generator inside one of the hubs for powering lights or other accessories
Hub gear: a gearbox mounted inside the hub, 3-speed is common, 5, 7 are available ("Sturmey-Archer") and Rohloff make a 14-speed hub. Cable operated by one or two cables
Indicator: a turn signal
Inner tube: a bladder that contains air to inflate a tire. Has a Schrader, "Woods"/"Dunlop" or Presta valve for inflation and deflation
Jockey wheel or Pulley wheel: one of two small sprockets of the rear derailleur that guides the chain
Kickstand: a folding attachment used for assisting a bicycle to stand up on its own. Usually mounts to frame near bottom bracket, sometimes near rear dropouts
"Lawyer lips": also called a "lawyer tab", a retention device on the dropouts of the front fork to prevent inadvertent loss of the front wheel in the case it is not properly secured
Locknut: a nut designed not to loosen due to vibration
Lockring: a ring, usually metal, of varying design, that serves to retain a component in place
Lug: a metal connector used to align frame components where they join each other
Luggage carrier: any accessory equipment designed to carry tools, gear or cargo
Master link: a bicycle chain accessory that allows convenient removal and reconnection of an installed bicycle chain without the need for a chain tool
Nipple: a specialized nut that most commonly attaches a spoke to a wheel rim. In some systems, it provides attachment to the hub
Pannier: cloth zippered storage bags that mount to sides of luggage racks. Pronounced pan-ear, or pan-yer (an old English word, which is derived from an old French word)
Pedal: mechanical interface between foot and crank arm. There are two general types; one secures the foot with a mechanical clamp or cage and the other has no connection to lock the foot to the pedal.
Peg: short metal tube, about long and fastened to one or both ends of the wheel axles to either enable the rider perform certain tricks or provide a place for extra riders to stand or rest
Portage strap: a strap (usually made of leather) attached to the inside of the bike frame, designed to make carrying the bike over one's shoulder easier
Pulley wheel: see Jockey wheel
Power meter: a device on a bicycle that measures the power output of the rider
Quick release: a skewer with a lever on one end that loosens when the lever is flipped. Used for releasing wheels and seat posts
Rack: a rack that attaches behind the seat, usually with stays to the rear dropouts, that serves as a general carrier
Reflector: reflects light to make bicycle evident when the illuminated by headlights of other vehicles. Usually required by law but held in disdain by many cyclists
Removable training wheels: used for assisting balance. Comes in pair. Useful for first time bicyclists
Rim: that part of a wheel to which the tire is attached and often forms part of the braking mechanism
Rotor:
1) the disc component of a disc brake.
2) another name for a detangler - a device that allows the handlebars and fork to revolve indefinitely without tangling the rear brake cable.
Safety levers: extension levers, and interrupt brake levers. Used to apply brakes in order for the bicycle to slow down or suddenly stop
Saddle or Seat: what a bicyclist sits on
Seat rails: a metal framework over which saddle covering is stretched. The seat post attaches to the seat rails by means of a clamp
Seat lug: a frame lug on the top of the seat tube serving as a point of attachment for a clamp to secure the seat post
Seat tube: the roughly vertical tube in a bicycle frame running from the seat to the bottom bracket
Seat bag: a small storage accessory hung from the back of a seat
Seatpost: a post that the seat is mounted to. It slides into the frame's seat tube and is used to adjust ride height depending how far into the seat tube it is inserted
Seatstay: frame components, small diameter tubes running from top of seat tube to rear dropouts
Shaft-drive: alternate to chain-drive
Shifter: gear shifting control
Shock absorber: for bicycles with suspensions, a device that limits the rate at which suspension rebounds after absorbing an impact
Side view mirror: aids in looking at the sides prior to moving slowly or turning to the left or to the right
Skirt guard or coatguard: a device fitted over the rear wheel of a bicycle to prevent a long skirt, coat or other trailing clothes or luggage from catching in the wheel, or in the gap between the rim and the brakes
Spindle: an axle around which a pedal rotates; threaded at one end to screw into crank arms
Spoke: connects wheel rim to hub. Usually wire with one end swaged to form a head and one threaded end. A typical wheel has 36 spokes
Speakers: loudspeakers specifically made for bicycles and/or strollers for cyclists and pedestrians with children to listen music or answer phone calls on their mobile devices when bicycling or transporting children. Both wireless and wired speakers are available to mount on their handlebars or frames. Even though speakers specifically made for bicycles are available to purchase, but depending on the sizes and shapes and the cyclists' ingenuities, any speakers can be strapped on to them typically by using silicone strappings. These speakers meant to eliminate the risks of using headphones such as obliviousness of incoming cars and other warnings, and continuous playing of music from them would also alert other cyclists and pedestrians nearby
Sprocket or cog: wheel with teeth that meshes with the chain; one of the wheels in the cogset or crankset
Steerer tube: a tube on top of a fork that is inserted through frame and serves as an axle by means of which bicycle can be steered
Stem: a bracket used to attach handlebars to steerer tube of fork. Usually secured by pinch bolts
Tire: as in common usage. Usually pneumatic. A tubular tire is glued to the wheel rim; most tires use tubes, but tubeless tires and rims are increasingly common
Toe clips: a metal or plastic cage attached to a pedal. Usually has an adjustment strap. Secures foot to pedal for increased control and more effective transfer of power from foot to drive chain
Top tube: frame member leading from head tube to seat tube
Valve stem or simply valve: port for adding or releasing air from the inner tube. Two types are commonly used: Presta and Schrader. A third type, the Woods/Dunlop valve, can still be found in Europe and Asia.
Wheel: as in common usage. Traditionally and most commonly spoked
Wingnut: for attaching wheels before the development of the quick release skewer
See also
27.5 Mountain bike
29er (bicycle)
Bicycle
Bicycle suspension
Bicycle tools
Bicycle wheel
BMX bike
Cycling
Downhill bike
Downhill mountain biking
Glossary of cycling
Groupset
Mountain biking
Mountain bike
Outline of cycling
References
International Standard ISO 8090: Cycles — Terminology (same as: British Standard BS 6102-4)
External links
Multilingual Bicycle's Vocabulary BEMI
Parts
Lists of parts | wiki |
Round Lake – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie Lake.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used in baking bread and other bakery products, serving as a leavening agent which causes the bread to rise (expand and become lighter and softer) by converting the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol. Baker's yeast is of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and is the same species (but a different strain) as the kind commonly used in alcoholic fermentation, which is called brewer's yeast. Baker's yeast is also a single-cell microorganism found on and around the human body.
The use of steamed or boiled potatoes, water from potato boiling, or sugar in a bread dough provides food for the growth of yeasts; however, too much sugar will dehydrate them. Yeast growth is inhibited by both salt and sugar, but more so by salt than sugar. Some sources say fats, such as butter and eggs, slow down yeast growth; others say the effect of fat on dough remains unclear, presenting evidence that small amounts of fat are beneficial for baked bread volume.
Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor) is a wild yeast found on plants, grains, and fruits that is occasionally used for baking; however, in general, it is not used in a pure form but comes from being propagated in a sourdough starter.
History
It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread; the earliest definite records come from Ancient Egypt. Researchers speculate that a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the previous hard flatbreads. It is generally assumed that the earliest forms of leavening were likely very similar to modern sourdough; the leavening action of yeast would have been discovered from its action on flatbread doughs and would have been either cultivated separately or transferred from batch to batch by means of previously mixed ("old") dough. Also, the development of leavened bread seems to have developed in close proximity to the development of beer brewing, and barm from the beer fermentation process can also be used in bread making.
Without an understanding of microbiology, early bakers would have had little ability to directly control yeast cultures but still kept locally interesting cultures by reusing doughs and starters to leaven later batches. However, it became possible to isolate and propagate favored yeast strains in the same manner as was done in the beer industry, and it eventually became practical to propagate yeast in a slurry with a composition similar to beer wort, usually including malted barley and wheat flour. Such cultures (sometimes referred to in old American cookery as "emptins", from their origins as the dregs of beer or cider fermentation) became the ancestors of modern baker's yeast, as, in general, they were carefully maintained to avoid what was later discovered to be bacterial contamination, including using preservatives such as hops as well as boiling the growth medium.
In the 19th century, bread bakers obtained their yeast from beer brewers, and this led to sweet-fermented breads such as the Imperial "Kaiser-Semmel" roll, which in general lacked the sourness created by the acidification typical of Lactobacillus. However, beer brewers slowly switched from top-fermenting to bottom-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces pastorianus) and this created a shortage of yeast for making bread, so the Vienna Process was developed in 1846. While the innovation is often popularly credited for using steam in baking ovens, leading to a different crust characteristic, it is notable for including procedures for high milling of grains (see Vienna grits), cracking them incrementally instead of mashing them with one pass; as well as better processes for growing and harvesting top-fermenting yeasts, known as press-yeast.
Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains. In 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of S. cerevisiae, and in the United States around the turn of the century centrifuges were used for concentrating the yeast, making modern commercial yeast possible, and turning yeast production into a major industrial endeavor. The slurry yeast made by small bakers and grocery shops became cream yeast, a suspension of live yeast cells in growth medium, and then compressed yeast, the fresh cake yeast that became the standard leaven for bread bakers in much of the Westernized world during the early 20th century.
During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre later created instant yeast in 1973, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.
Modern baker's yeast is the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. One of its properties is that it is not inhibited by propionates, which are commonly added to baked goods like bread dough to inhibit mold development and bacterial growth. Conversely, sorbates do inhibit yeast fermentation activity, so are not added directly to yeast-leavened doughed but may be sprayed onto finished products or even incorporated into packing materials.
Types of baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is available in a number of different forms, the main differences being the moisture contents. Though each version has certain advantages over the others, the choice of which form to use is largely a question of the requirements of the recipe at hand and the training of the cook preparing it. Dry yeast forms are good choices for longer-term storage, often lasting more than a year at room temperatures without significant loss of viability. In general, with occasional allowances for liquid content and temperature, the different forms of commercial yeast are considered interchangeable.
Cream yeast is the closest form to the yeast slurries of the 19th century, in essence being a suspension of yeast cells in liquid, siphoned off from the growth medium. Its primary use is in industrial bakeries with special high-volume dispensing and mixing equipment, and it is not readily available to small bakeries or home cooks.
Compressed yeast is, in essence, cream yeast with most of the liquid removed. It is a soft solid, beige in color, and best known in the consumer form as small, foil-wrapped cubes of cake yeast. It is also available in a larger-block form for bulk usage. It is highly perishable; though formerly widely available for the consumer market, it has become less common in supermarkets in some countries due to its poor keeping properties, having been superseded in some such markets by active dry and instant yeast. It is still widely available for commercial use, and is somewhat more tolerant of low temperatures than other forms of commercial yeast; however, even there, instant yeast has made significant market inroads.
Active dry yeast is the form of yeast most commonly available to non-commercial bakers in the United States. It consists of coarse oblong granules of yeast, with live yeast cells encapsulated in a thick jacket of dry, dead cells with some growth medium. Under most conditions, active dry yeast must first be proofed or rehydrated. It can be stored at room temperature for a year, or frozen for more than a decade, which means that it has better keeping qualities than other forms, but it is generally considered more sensitive than other forms to thermal shock when actually used in recipes.
Instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has smaller granules with substantially higher percentages of live cells per comparable unit volumes. It is more perishable than active dry yeast but also does not require rehydration, and can usually be added directly to all but the driest doughs. In general, instant yeast has a small amount of ascorbic acid added as a preservative. Some producers provide specific variants for doughs with high sugar contents, and such yeasts are more generally known as osmotolerant yeasts.
Rapid-rise yeast is a variety of dried yeast (usually a form of instant yeast) that is of a smaller granular size, thus it dissolves faster in dough, and it provides greater carbon dioxide output to allow faster rising. There is considerable debate as to the value of such a product; while most baking experts believe it reduces the flavor potential of the finished product, Cook's Illustrated magazine, among others, feels that, at least for direct-rise recipes, it makes little difference. Rapid-rise yeast is often marketed specifically for use in bread machines.
Deactivated yeast is dead yeast which has no leavening value and is not interchangeable with other yeast types. Typically used for pizza and pan bread doughs, it is used at a rate of 0.1% of the flour weight, though manufacturer specifications may vary. It is a powerful reducing agent used to increase the extensibility of a dough.
Difference between instant and active dry yeast
Instant and active dry yeast are essentially the same ingredient, just in slightly different forms and applications. You should keep sealed packets of both yeast types at room temperature and store partially used packets in an airtight container in the refrigerator. The main differences between the two are:
Active yeast needs rehydration. Instant yeast can be mixed directly into dry ingredients, whereas active dry yeast must first be dissolved and rehydrated in warm water.
Instant yeast needs less time to rise. Since instant yeast has a finer texture than active dry yeast, it’s possible to skip the initial rise time and shape loaves immediately after kneading. Loaves made with active dry yeast require longer rising times for the yeast to work its way through the dough.
Commercial brands
For most commercial uses, yeast of any form is packaged in bulk (blocks or freezer bags for fresh yeast; vacuum-packed brick bags for dry or instant); however, yeast for home use is often packaged in pre-measured doses, either small squares for compressed yeast or sealed packets for dry or instant. For active dry and instant yeast, in general a single dose (reckoned for the average bread recipe of between 500 g and 1000 g of dough) is about 2.5 tsp (~12 mL) or about , though comparatively lesser amounts are used when the yeast is used in a pre-ferment. In general, a yeast flavor in the baked bread is not noticeable when the bakers' percent of added yeast is less than 2.5%.
Notable commercial brands of baker's yeast include Lesaffre's SAF red and SAF gold, Fleischmann's, and Red Star Yeast.
Use in research
Model organism
Because it is readily available and easy to culture, baker's yeast has long been used in chemical, biological, and genetic research as a model organism. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a facultative anaerobe and undergoes aerobic fermentation in the presences of oxygen and sugars. In 1996, after 6 years of work, S. cerevisiae became the first eukaryote to have its entire genome sequenced. It has over 12 million base pairs and around 6000 genes. Since then, it has remained in the forefront of genetic research. For example, most of our knowledge of the cell division cycle was worked out from experiments with yeast.
Organic synthesis
Baker's yeast contains enzymes that can reduce a carbonyl group into a hydroxyl group in fairly high yield, thus making it useful for biotransformations in organic syntheses. It is known to reduce organometallic carbonyl compounds in very high yield.
Psychoactive drugs
Baker's yeast can also be used to produce ethanol via fermentation for use in chemical synthesis, although doing so in some places requires permits.
A GMO strain of baker's yeast, YMC17, has been developed to produce the psychedelic compound psilocybin.
The precursor for LSD, lysergic acid, has been produced by GMO baker's yeast.
Industrial production
The baking industry relies on industrial production of its ingredients, including baking yeasts. Much effort has been put into developing and marketing yeasts that will perform reliably in mass production. Since the end of the nineteenth century, baker's yeast has been produced by companies that specialize in its production.
The main ingredients for industrial production are yeast cultures, sugar from cane and sugar beet; but a number of minerals, nitrogen and vitamins are also needed.
Fermentation happens in several phases, which vary depending on the manufacturer:
pure cultures in a laboratory flask for 2 to 4 days, then batch fermentations for 13 to 24 hours (anaerobic);
intermediate and stock fermentation with gradual feeding and constant aeration;
pitch and trade fermentation with large air supplies for up to 15 hours;
filtration, blending, extrusion, and cutting, drying.
The yeast grows from hundreds kg in the intermediate and stock fermentor to tens of thousands kg in the trade fermentor, where most yeast is produced. The earlier stages produce more ethanol and other alcohols, while in the final stages ethanol production is suppressed up to 95% by controlling the amount of oxygen and sugar, in order to increase the yeast production instead.
The industry is highly concentrated, with five companies holding up to 80% of the worldwide market for dry yeast as of 2006. While dry yeast is exported over long distances and mostly sold in the developing countries, industrial customers often prefer to supply fresh yeast from local facilities, with a single wholesaler having up to 90% of the liquid yeast market in the UK in 2006. In the US companies like Lesaffre Group, AB Vista, GB Plange and AB Mauri produced hundreds of thousands of metric tons of yeast in 2012.
See also
Dough
Bread
Further reading
Corriher, Shirley, Cookwise. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1997, .
Editors of Cook's Illustrated Magazine, Baking Illustrated. Brookline, MA:Boston Common Press, 2004, .
The King Arthur Flour Baker's Companion. Woodstock, Vermont: Countryman Press, 2003, .
Simmons, Amelia. American Cookery, Hartford, 1798. Text at Feeding America and Project Gutenberg.
Sloat, Caroline (ed.), Old Sturbridge Village Cookbook 2ed.. Old Saybrook: Globe Pequot Press, 1995, .
References
Leavening agents
Fermentation in food processing
Edible fungi
Yeasts
Breads | wiki |
Round Lake Beach – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie Lake.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Merion station is a SEPTA Regional Rail station on the Paoli/Thorndale Line, located in Merion, Pennsylvania just outside of Philadelphia. The station building, constructed in 1914 by the Pennsylvania Railroad, is a designated historic building. SEPTA completed renovations of the station building's slate tile roof and the westbound canopy in late 2007. In 2017, the average total weekday boardings at this station was 286, and the average total weekday alightings was 284.
Amtrak stopped some westbound Silverliner Service trains at Merion until 1979.
Station layout
Merion has two low-level side platforms with pathways connecting the platforms to the inner tracks.
References
External links
SEPTA – Merion Station
Station from Google Maps Street View
SEPTA Regional Rail stations
Former Pennsylvania Railroad stations
Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line
Railway stations opened in 1914
Lower Merion Township, Pennsylvania
Railway stations in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Former Amtrak stations in Pennsylvania | wiki |
Round Lake Park – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie Lake.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
In mathematics, the Heawood number of a surface is an upper bound for the number of colors that suffice to color any graph embedded in the surface.
In 1890 Heawood proved for all surfaces except the sphere that no more than
colors are needed to color any graph embedded in a surface of Euler characteristic , or genus for an orientable surface.
The number became known as Heawood number in 1976.
Franklin proved that the chromatic number of a graph embedded in the Klein bottle can be as large as , but never exceeds . Later it was proved in the works of Gerhard Ringel, J. W. T. Youngs, and other contributors that the complete graph with vertices can be embedded in the surface unless is the Klein bottle. This established that Heawood's bound could not be improved.
For example, the complete graph on vertices can be embedded in the torus as follows:
The case of the sphere is the four-color conjecture, which was settled by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken in 1976.
Notes
Béla Bollobás, Graph Theory: An Introductory Course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, volume 63, Springer-Verlag, 1979. .
Thomas L. Saaty and Paul Chester Kainen; The Four-Color Problem: Assaults and Conquest, Dover, 1986. .
References
Topological graph theory
Graph coloring | wiki |
Grand Comores is een luchtvaartmaatschappij uit de Comoren met thuisbasis in Moroni.
Geschiedenis
Grand Comores werd opgericht in 2006.
Vloot
De vloot van Grand Comores bestaat uit: (april 2007)
1 Boeing B-747-200B
Comorese luchtvaartmaatschappij | wiki |
Microsoft Explorer may refer to the following products by Microsoft:
Internet Explorer, a web browser included with Microsoft Windows operating systems
Windows Explorer, a file manager system in Microsoft Windows operating systems | wiki |
Myxodes is a genus of clinids found along the Pacific coast of South America from Peru to Chile.
Species
There are currently three recognized species in this genus:
Myxodes cristatus Valenciennes, 1836 (Sailfin clinid)
Myxodes ornatus J. S. Stephens & V. G. Springer, 1974
Myxodes viridis Valenciennes, 1836
References
Clinidae
Marine fish genera
Taxa named by Georges Cuvier | wiki |
This article is a catalog of actresses and models who have appeared on the cover of Elle Kazakhstan, the Kazakhstani edition of Elle magazine.
2015
2016
2017
External links
Elle Kazakhstan (archived)
Elle Kazakhstan at Models.com
Kazakhstan | wiki |
Party Crasher is a 2008 album by Per Gessle.
Party Crasher may also refer to:
Party crasher, a person who attends invite-only events without an invitation
Partycrasher, a 2013 album by A Wilhelm Scream
"Party Crasher" (Modern Family), an episode of Modern Family
"Party Crasher", a song by The Featherz from their 2017 album Five-Year-Itch
"Party Crasher", the main antagonist of The Hard Way (1991 film) | wiki |
The memory confusion protocol is a technique used by social psychologists to discover whether subjects are categorizing individuals into groups and, if so, what characteristics they are using to do so – without the knowledge of the subjects, in order to reduce the risk that subjects will try to conceal their reasons. The technique has three main steps:
Subjects are shown photographs of the individuals and are asked to form impressions of them.
The subjects then see a set of sentences, each of which is paired with a photograph of the individual who said it.
Subjects are not forewarned of the final step, a surprise recall task: the sentences are presented in random order, and the subjects must attribute each to the correct individual.
The subjects' mistakes in the recall task reveal how they categorize the individuals: the subjects are more likely to misattribute A's statement to B if they grouped A and B as members of the same category than if they considered them members of different categories.
References
Social psychology | wiki |
General Webster may refer to:
George D. Webster (USMC) (1919–1992), U.S. Marine Corps brigadier general
Joseph Dana Webster (1811–1876), Union Army brigadier general and brevet major general
Robert M. Webster (1892–1972), U.S. Air Force major general
William G. Webster (born 1951), U.S. Army lieutenant general
See also
Attorney General Webster (disambiguation) | wiki |
Finasteride/tadalafil, sold under the brand name Entadfi, is a fixed-dose combination medication used for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). It contains finasteride and tadalafil. It is taken by mouth.
It was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2021.
Medical uses
Finasteride/tadalafil is indicated to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in men.
References
External links
Combination drugs | wiki |
LaToya, Latoya, or La Toya may refer to:
Latoya (given name), list of people with the given name
La Toya Jackson (born 1956), American singer and member of the Jackson family
La Toya (album) (also titled You're Gonna Get Rocked!), the fifth studio album by La Toya Jackson
See also
LaToyia Figueroa (1981–2005), American murder victim from Philadelphia
LeToya Luckett (born 1981), American singer and former member of Destiny's Child
Nadja LaToya Benaissa (born 1982), German singer and former member of No Angels | wiki |
Palette may refer to:
Cosmetic palette, an archaeological form
Palette, another name for a color scheme
Palette (painting), a wooden board used for mixing colors for a painting
Palette knife, an implement for painting
Palette (company), a Japanese visual novel studio (video game company)
Palette (computing), in computer graphics, another name given to a color lookup table
Palette (freeware game), a Japanese-language freeware adventure game
Palette window, in computing, a window type often containing tools
Palette valve, the valve under an organ pipe which is connected to the keyboard(s), —as opposed to the stop valve
Palette, a village in the commune Le Tholonet, in the Provence region of southern France
Palette AOC, a wine Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée located in the aforementioned village
Palette Records, a record label
Palette (album), by IU, 2017
"Palette" (song), the title song
Palette (EP), by Nobuhiko Okamoto, 2012
Toyota Palette, a vehicle made by Toyota
Toyota e-Palette, a concept bus made by Toyota
See also
Palate, the roof of the mouth
Pallet, a holder for goods for use with a forklift
Pallet (disambiguation), for other uses | wiki |
This list of Crayon Shin-chan films features feature-length films based on the manga and anime series Crayon Shin-chan. Since 1993, all of these films to date have been released by Toho. Toho currently holds worldwide distribution and licensing rights for all of the films in the series.
Feature films
References
External links
Lists of films based on manga
Lists of anime films
Lists of films by franchise | wiki |
21st Century Girl may refer to:
21st Century Girl (album), by Brazzaville, or the title song, 2008
"21st Century Girl" (song), by Willow Smith, 2011
"21st Century Girls", a song by BTS from the 2016 album Wings
"21st Century Girl", a song by Joey Ramone from the 2012 album ...Ya Know?
See also
21st Century Girls, a 1990s British band | wiki |
Will Smith (born 1968) is an American rapper, actor and film producer.
Will Smith may also refer to:
Will Smith (comedian) (born 1971), British comedian, actor and writer
Will Smith (defensive end) (1981–2016), American football defensive end
Will Smith (journalist), American tech journalist
Will Smith (linebacker, born 1992), American football linebacker
Will Smith (footballer, born 1998), English footballer for Harrogate Town
Will Smith (pitcher) (born 1989), American pitcher in Major League Baseball
Will Smith (catcher) (born 1995), American baseball catcher
Will Smith (cricketer) (born 1982), English cricketer
Will Smith (rugby league) (born 1992), Australian rugby league player
Fictional characters
Will Smith (The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air), from American sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, based on the real-life rapper
Will Smith (Home and Away), from Australian soap opera Home and Away
Will Smith, child character in Wee Sing The Best Christmas Ever!
See also
Willard Smith (disambiguation)
William Smith (disambiguation)
Willi Smith (1948–1987), American fashion designer | wiki |
Bone grafting is a surgical procedure that replaces missing bone in order to repair bone fractures that are extremely complex, pose a significant health risk to the patient, or fail to heal properly. Some small or acute fractures can be cured without bone grafting, but the risk is greater for large fractures like compound fractures.
Bone generally has the ability to regenerate completely but requires a very small fracture space or some sort of scaffold to do so. Bone grafts may be autologous (bone harvested from the patient's own body, often from the iliac crest), allograft (cadaveric bone usually obtained from a bone bank), or synthetic (often made of hydroxyapatite or other naturally occurring and biocompatible substances) with similar mechanical properties to bone. Most bone grafts are expected to be resorbed and replaced as the natural bone heals over a few months' time.
The principles involved in successful bone grafts include osteoconduction (guiding the reparative growth of the natural bone), osteoinduction (encouraging undifferentiated cells to become active osteoblasts), and osteogenesis (living bone cells in the graft material contribute to bone remodeling). Osteogenesis only occurs with autograft tissue and allograft cellular bone matrices.
Biological mechanism
Bone grafting is possible because bone tissue, unlike most other tissues, has the ability to regenerate completely if provided the space into which to grow. As native bone grows, it will generally replace the graft material completely, resulting in a fully integrated region of new bone. The biologic mechanisms that provide a rationale for bone grafting are osteoconduction, osteoinduction and osteogenesis.
Osteoconduction
Osteoconduction is termed as "the property of a material to support tissue ingrowth, osteoprogenitor cell growth, and development for bone formation to occur". In the context of bone grafting it occurs when the bone graft material serves as a scaffold for new bone growth that is perpetuated by the native bone. Osteoblasts from the margin of the defect that is being grafted utilize the bone graft material as a framework upon which to spread and generate new bone. Osteoblasts do not originate from the donor tissue, but through the internal ingrowing of the host's cells. The proper bonding of bioactive chemicals (Beta-Tricalcium Phosphate) in implants used in bone grafting surgery allow the promotion of osteoconductivity in the area of a defect. In the very least, a bone graft material should be osteoconductive by being made up of these bioactive chemicals.
Osteoinduction
Osteoinduction involves the stimulation of osteoprogenitor cells to differentiate into osteoblasts that then begin new bone formation. The most widely studied type of osteoinductive cell mediators is bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). A bone graft material that is osteoconductive and osteoinductive will not only serve as a scaffold for currently existing osteoblasts but will also trigger the formation of new osteoblasts, theoretically promoting faster integration of the graft.
Osteopromotion
Osteopromotion involves the enhancement of osteoinduction without the possession of osteoinductive properties. For example, enamel matrix derivative has been shown to enhance the osteoinductive effect of demineralized freeze dried bone allograft (DFDBA), but will not stimulate new bone growth alone.
Osteogenesis
Osteogenesis occurs when vital osteoblasts originating from the bone graft material contribute to new bone growth along with bone growth generated via the other two mechanisms.
Method
Depending on where the bone graft is needed, a different doctor may be requested to do the surgery. Doctors and Physicians that perform bone graft procedures are commonly orthopedic surgeons, otolaryngology head and neck surgeon, neurosurgeons, craniofacial surgeons, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, podiatric surgeons and periodontists, dental surgeons, oral surgeons and implantologists.
Autograft
Autologous (or autogenous) bone grafting involves utilizing bone obtained from the same individual receiving the graft. Bone can be harvested from non-essential bones, such as from the iliac crest, or more commonly in oral and maxillofacial surgery, from the mandibular symphysis (chin area) or anterior mandibular ramus (the coronoid process); this is particularly true for block grafts, in which a small block of bone is placed whole in the area being grafted. When a block graft will be performed, autogenous bone is the most preferred because there is less risk of the graft rejection because the graft originated from the patient's own body. As indicated in the chart above, such a graft would be osteoinductive and osteogenic, as well as osteoconductive. A negative aspect of autologous grafts is that an additional surgical site is required, in effect adding another potential location for post-operative pain and complications.
Autologous bone is typically harvested from intra-oral sources as the chin or extra-oral sources as the iliac crest, the fibula, the ribs, the mandible and even parts of the skull.
All bone requires a blood supply in the transplanted site. Depending on where the transplant site is and the size of the graft, an additional blood supply may be required. For these types of grafts, extraction of the part of the periosteum and accompanying blood vessels along with donor bone is required. This kind of graft is known as a vital bone graft.
An autograft may also be performed without a solid bony structure, for example, using bone reamed from the anterior superior iliac spine. In this case, there is an osteoinductive and osteogenic action, however, there is no osteoconductive action, as there is no solid bony structure.
Chin offers a large amount of cortico-cancellous autograft and easy access among all the intraoral sites. It can be easily harvested in the office settings under local anaesthesia on an outpatient basis. Proximity of the donor and recipient sites reduce operative time and cost. Convenient surgical access, low morbidity, elimination of hospital stay, minimal donor site discomfort and avoidance of cutaneous scars are the added advantages.
Dentin graft
Dentin bone, made from extracted teeth, Dentin comprises more than 85% of tooth structure, the enamel consists of HA mineral and comprises 10% of tooth structure. Dentin is similar to bone in its chemical composition, by volume 70–75% is HA mineral and 20% organic matrix, mostly fibrous type I collagen. Dentin, like bone, may release growth and differentiating factors while being resorbed by osteoclasts.
In order to make the dentin graft usable and bacteria-free some companies have developed clinical procedures which include grinding, sorting and cleaning of the teeth for immediate or future use.
In Korea, the Korea Tooth Bank performed bio-recycling of 38 000 patients' own teeth from January 2009 until October 2012.
Allografts
Allograft bone, like autogenous bone, is derived from humans; the difference is that allograft is harvested from an individual other than the one receiving the graft. Allograft bone can be taken from cadavers that have donated their bone so that it can be used for living people who are in need of it; it is typically sourced from a bone bank. Bone banks also supply allograft bone sourced from living human bone donors (usually hospital inpatients) who are undergoing elective total hip arthroplasty (total hip replacement surgery). During total hip replacement, the orthopaedic surgeon removes the patient's femoral head, as a necessary part of the process of inserting the artificial hip prosthesis. The femoral head is a roughly spherical area of bone, located at the proximal end of the femur, with a diameter of 45 mm to 56 mm in adult humans. The patient's femoral head is most frequently discarded to hospital waste at the end of the surgical procedure. However, if a patient satisfies a number of stringent regulatory, medical and social history criteria, and provides informed consent, their femoral head may be deposited in the hospital's bone bank.
There are three types of bone allograft available:
Fresh or fresh-frozen bone
Freeze-dried bone allograft (FDBA)
Demineralized freeze-dried bone allograft (DFDBA)
Alloplastic grafts
Alloplastic grafts may be made from hydroxyapatite, a naturally occurring mineral that is also the main mineral component of bone. They may be made from bioactive glass.
Hydroxylapatite is a Synthetic Bone Graft, which is the most used now among other synthetic due to its osteoconduction, hardness and acceptability by bone. Tricalcium phosphate which is now used in combination with hydroxylapatite thus give both effect osteoconduction and resorbability. Polymers such as some microporous grades of PMMA and various other acrylates (such as polyhydroxylethylmethacrylate aka PHEMA), coated with calcium hydroxide for adhesion, are also used as alloplastic grafts for their inhibition of infection and their mechanical resilience and biocompatibility. Calcifying marine algae such as Corallina officinalis have a fluorohydroxyapatitic composition whose structure is similar to human bone and offers gradual resorption, thus it is treated and standardized as "FHA (Fluoro-hydroxy-apatitic) biomaterial" alloplastic bone grafts.
Synthetic variants
Artificial bone can be created from ceramics such as calcium phosphates (e.g. hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate), Bioglass and calcium sulfate; all of which are biologically active to different degrees depending on solubility in the physiological environment. These materials can be doped with growth factors, ions such as strontium or mixed with bone marrow aspirate to increase biological activity. Some authors believe this method is inferior to autogenous bone grafting however infection and rejection of the graft is much less of a risk, and the mechanical properties such as Young's modulus are comparable to bone. The presence of elements such as strontium can result in higher bone mineral density and enhanced osteoblast proliferation in vivo.
Temporary spacer
A synthetic material may be used as a temporary antibiotic spacer before being replaced by a more permanent material. For example, the Masquelet procedure consists of initially using PMMA mixed with an antibiotic (vancomycin or gentamicin) for 4–12 weeks, and then replacing the space with an autologous bone graft. It can be used to treat posttraumatic bone defects.
Xenografts
Xenograft bone substitute has its origin from a species other than human, such as bovine bone (or recently porcine bone) which can be freeze dried or demineralized and deproteinized. Xenografts are usually only distributed as a calcified matrix. Madrepore and or millepore type of corals are harvested and treated to become 'coral derived granules' (CDG) and other types of coralline xenografts. Coral based xenografts are mainly calcium carbonate (and an important proportion of fluorides, useful in the context of grafting to promote bone development) while natural human bone is made of hydroxyapatite along with calcium phosphate and carbonate: the coral material is thus either transformed industrially into hydroxyapatite through a hydrothermal process, yielding a non-resorbable xenograft, or simply the process is omitted and the coralline material remains in its calcium carbonate state for better resorption of the graft by the natural bone. The coral xenograft is then saturated with growth-enhancing gels and solutions.
Growth Factors
Growth Factor enhanced grafts are produced using recombinant DNA technology. They consist of either Human Growth Factors or Morphogens (Bone Morphogenic Proteins in conjunction with a carrier medium, such as collagen).
Recovery and aftercare
The time it takes for an individual to recover depends on the severity of the injury being treated and lasts anywhere from two weeks to two months, with a possibility of vigorous exercise being barred for up to six months. Distal femoral bone graft takes up to six months to heal.
Uses
Dental implants
The most common use of bone grafting is in the application of dental implants to restore the edentulous area of a missing tooth. Dental implants require bones underneath them for support and proper integration into the mouth. As mentioned earlier bone grafts come in various forms such as autologous (from the same person), Allograft, Xenograft (mainly bovine bone), and Alloplastic materials. Bone grafts can be used prior to implant placement or simultaneously. People who have been edentulous (without teeth) for a prolonged period may not have enough bone left in the necessary locations. In this case, autologous bone can be taken from the chin, from the pilot holes for the implants, or even from the iliac crest of the pelvis and inserted into the mouth underneath the new implant. Alternatively, exogenous bone can be used: xenograft is the most commonly used, because it offers the advantage of exceptional volume stability over time. Allograft offers the best regeneration quality but has lower volume stability. Often a mix of different kinds of bone grafts is used.
In general, bone graft is either used en bloc (such as from the chin or the ascending ramus area of the lower jaw) or particulated, in order to be able to adapt it better to a defect.
Dental bone grafting is a specialized oral surgical procedure that has been developed to reestablish lost jawbone. This loss can be a result of dental infection of abscess, periodontal disease, trauma, or the natural process of aging. There are various reasons for replacing lost bone tissue and encouraging natural bone growth, and each technique tackles jawbone defects differently. Reasons that bone grafting might be needed include sinus augmentation, socket preservation, ridge augmentation, or regeneration. There is currently some evidence supporting the use of autologous platelet concentrates (cell fragments containing growth factors to promote tissue regeneration) when bone grafting is used to treat gum disease.
Fibular shaft
Another common bone graft, which is more substantial than those used for dental implants, is of the fibular shaft. After the segment of the fibular shaft has been removed normal activities such as running and jumping are permitted on the leg with the bone deficit. The grafted, vascularized fibulas have been used to restore skeletal integrity to long bones of limbs in which congenital bone defects exist and to replace segments of bone after trauma or malignant tumor invasion. The periosteum and nutrient artery are generally removed with the piece of bone so that the graft will remain alive and grow when transplanted into the new host site. Once the transplanted bone is secured into its new location it generally restores blood supply to the bone in which it has been attached.
Other
Bone grafts are used in hopes that the defective bone will be healed or will regrow with little to no graft rejection. Besides the main use of bone grafting – dental implants – this procedure is used to fuse joints to prevent movement, repair broken bones that have bone loss, and repair broken bone that has not yet healed. Furthermore, bone grafts or substitutes are widely used for augmentation of spinal fusion procedures.
Risks
As with any procedure, there are risks involved; these include reactions to medicine, problems breathing, bleeding, and infection. Infection is reported to occur in less than 1% of cases and is curable with antibiotics. Overall, patients with a preexisting illness are at a higher risk of getting an infection as opposed to those who are overall healthy.
Risks for grafts from the iliac crest
Some of the potential risks and complications of bone grafts employing the iliac crest as a donor site include:
acquired bowel herniation (this becomes a risk for larger donor sites (>4 cm)). About 20 cases have been reported in the literature from 1945 until 1989 and only a few hundred cases have been reported worldwide
meralgia paresthetica (injury to the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve also called Bernhardt-Roth's syndrome)
pelvic instability
fracture (extremely rare and usually with other factors)
injury to the clunial nerves (this will cause posterior pelvic pain which is worsened by sitting)
injury to the ilioinguinal nerve
infection
minor hematoma (a common occurrence)
deep hematoma requiring surgical intervention
seroma
ureteral injury
pseudoaneurysm of iliac artery (rare)
tumor transplantation
cosmetic defects (chiefly caused by not preserving the superior pelvic brim)
chronic pain
Bone grafts harvested from the posterior iliac crest in general have less morbidity, but depending on the type of surgery, may require a flip while the patient is under general anesthesia.
Costs
Bone graft procedures consist of more than just the surgery itself. The complete three-month total cost of a complex posterolateral lumbar spine fusion bone graft supplemented with graft extenders ranges from a mean of approximately US$33,860 to US$37,227. This price includes all visits in and out of the hospital for three months. Besides the cost of the bone graft itself (ranging from US$250 to US$900) other expenses for the procedure include: outpatient rehabilitation fees (US$5,000 to US$7,000), screws and rods (US$7,500), room and board (US$5,000), operating room (US$3,500), sterile supplies (US$1,100), physical therapy (US$1,000), surgeon's fees (average US$3,500), anesthesiologist fees (approximately US$350 to US$400 per hour), medication charges (US$1,000), and additional fees for services such as medical supplies, diagnostic procedures, equipment use fees, etc.
See also
Bone healing
CNT Network Bio-Stress Sensors
Graft-versus-host disease
Hydroxyapatite
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
Orthopedic surgery
Osseointegration
Periodontics
References
Further reading
Transplantation medicine
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Orthopedic surgical procedures | wiki |
Olaszország
Varallo Pombia, település Olaszországban, Piemont régióban, Novara megyében
Varallo Sesia, település Olaszországban, Piemont régióban, Vercelli megyében | wiki |
Independent agencies of the United States federal government are agencies that exist outside the federal executive departments (those headed by a Cabinet secretary) and the Executive Office of the President. In a narrower sense, the term refers only to those independent agencies that, while considered part of the executive branch, have regulatory or rulemaking authority and are insulated from presidential control, usually because the president's power to dismiss the agency head or a member is limited.
Established through separate statutes passed by the Congress, each respective statutory grant of authority defines the goals the agency must work towards, as well as what substantive areas, if any, over which it may have the power of rulemaking. These agency rules (or regulations), when in force, have the power of federal law.
Executive and regulatory agencies
Independent agencies exist outside the federal executive departments (those headed by a Cabinet secretary) and the Executive Office of the President. There is a further distinction between independent executive agencies and independent regulatory agencies, which have been assigned rulemaking responsibilities or authorities by Congress. The Paperwork Reduction Act lists 19 enumerated "independent regulatory agencies", such as the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Federal Reserve, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Generally, the heads of independent regulatory agencies can only be removed for cause, but Cabinet members and heads of independent executive agencies, such as the head of the Environmental Protection Agency, serve "at the pleasure of the president" and can be removed without cause.
The degree to which the President has the power to use executive orders to set policy for independent executive agencies is disputed. Many orders specifically exempt independent agencies, but some do not. Executive Order 12866 has been a particular matter of controversy; it requires cost-benefit analysis for certain regulatory actions.
In a narrower sense, the term independent agency refers only to these independent regulatory agencies that, while considered part of the executive branch, have rulemaking authority and are insulated from presidential control, usually because the president's power to dismiss the agency head or a member is limited.
Structure of regulatory agencies
Independent agencies can be distinguished from the federal executive departments and other executive agencies by their structural and functional characteristics. Their officers can be protected from removal by the president, they can be controlled by a board that cannot be appointed all at once, and the board can be required to be bipartisan.
Presidential attempts to remove independent agency officials have generated most of the important Supreme Court legal opinions in this area. In 1935, the Supreme Court in the case of Humphrey's Executor v. United States decided that although the president had the power to remove officials from agencies that were "an arm or an eye of the executive", it upheld statutory limitations on the president's power to remove officers of administrative bodies that performed quasi-legislative or quasi-judicial functions, such as the Federal Trade Commission. Presidents normally do have the authority to remove regular executive agency heads at will, but they must meet the statutory requirements for removal of commissioners of independent agencies, such as demonstrating incapacity, neglect of duty, malfeasance, or other good cause.
While most executive agencies have a single director, administrator, or secretary appointed by the president of the United States, independent agencies (in the narrower sense of being outside presidential control) almost always have a commission, board, or similar collegial body consisting of five to seven members who share power over the agency. (This is why many independent agencies include the word "Commission" or "Board" in their name.) The president appoints the commissioners or board members, subject to Senate confirmation, but they often serve terms that are staggered and longer than a four-year presidential term, meaning that most presidents will not have the opportunity to appoint all the commissioners of a given independent agency. In addition, most independent agencies have a statutory requirement of bipartisan membership on the commission, so the president cannot simply fill vacancies with members of his own political party. The president can normally designate which commissioner will serve as the chairperson.
Congress can designate certain agencies explicitly as "independent" in the governing statute, but the functional differences have more legal significance. In reality, the high turnover rate among these commissioners or board members means that most presidents have the opportunity to fill enough vacancies to constitute a voting majority on each independent agency commission within the first two years of the first term as president. In some famous instances, presidents have found the independent agencies more loyal and in lockstep with the president's wishes and policy objectives than some dissenters among the executive agency political appointments.
Although Congress can pass statutes limiting the circumstances under which the president can remove commissioners of independent agencies, if the independent agency exercises any executive powers like enforcement, and most of them do, Congress cannot reserve removal power over executive officers to itself. Constitutionally, Congress can only remove officers through impeachment proceedings. Members of Congress cannot serve as commissioners on independent agencies that have executive powers, nor can Congress itself appoint the commissioners – the Appointments Clause of the Constitution vests that power in the president. The Senate does participate, however, in appointments through "advice and consent", which occurs through confirmation hearings and votes on the president's nominees.
Examples of independent agencies
These agencies are not represented in the cabinet and are not part of the Executive Office of the president:
Amtrak (National Railroad Passenger Corporation) is a passenger railroad service that provides intercity service throughout the contiguous United States and parts of Canada.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) gathers foreign intelligence and provides national security assessments to policymakers in the United States. It acts as the primary human intelligence provider for the federal government. It is one of the principal members of the Intelligence Community, which is overseen by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), which is itself an independent agency.
The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) regulates commodity futures and option markets in the United States. The agency protects market participants against manipulation, abusive trade practices, and fraud. Through oversight and regulation, the CFTC enables the markets to serve better their important functions in the US economy, providing a mechanism for price discovery and a means of offsetting price risk.
The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) is responsible for consumer protection in the financial sector. Its jurisdiction includes banks, credit unions, securities firms, payday lenders, mortgage-servicing operations, foreclosure relief services, debt collectors, other financial companies in the United States.
The Election Assistance Commission (EAC) was formed in 2002 to serve as a national clearinghouse and resource of information regarding election administration. It is charged with administering payments to states and developing guidance to meet the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) requirements, adopting voluntary voting system guidelines, and accrediting voting system test laboratories and certifying voting equipment. It is also charged with developing and maintaining a national mail voter registration form.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) works for state and local governments throughout the United States to control and abate environmental pollution and to address problems related to solid waste, pesticides, radiation, and toxic substances. The EPA sets and enforces standards for air, soil and water quality, evaluates the impact of pesticides and chemical substances, and manages the Superfund program for cleaning toxic waste sites.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is charged with regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. It licenses radio and television broadcast stations, assigns radio frequencies, and enforces regulations designed to ensure that cable rates are reasonable. The FCC regulates common carriers, such as telephone and telegraph companies, as well as wireless telecommunications service providers.
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) provides deposit insurance to depositors in U.S. commercial banks and savings banks. The FDIC was created by the 1933 Banking Act, enacted during the Great Depression to restore trust in the American banking system. Member banks' insurance dues are the primary source of funding.
The Federal Election Commission (FEC) oversees campaign financing for all federal elections. The commission oversees election rules as well as reporting of campaign contributions by the candidates.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the United States federal agency with jurisdiction over interstate electricity sales, wholesale electric rates, hydroelectric licensing, natural gas pricing, and oil pipeline rates. FERC also reviews and authorizes liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals, interstate natural gas pipelines, and non-federal hydropower projects.
The Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) regulates Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the 11 Federal Home Loan Banks.
The Federal Maritime Commission (FMC) regulates the international ocean transportation of the United States. It is charged with ensuring a competitive and efficient ocean transportation system.
The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) created in 1947, is an independent agency whose mission is to preserve and promote labor-management peace and cooperation. Headquartered in Washington, DC, with six Regions comprising more than 60 Field and Home Offices, the agency provides mediation and conflict resolution services to industry, government agencies and communities.
The Federal Reserve System (often called "the Fed"), is the central bank of the United States. It conducts the nation's monetary policy by influencing the volume of credit and money in circulation. The Federal Reserve regulates private banking institutions, works to contain systemic risk in financial markets, and provides certain financial services to the federal government, the public, and financial institutions.
The Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board (FRTIB) is one of the smaller Executive Branch agencies, with just over 100 employees. It was established to administer the Thrift Savings Plan (TSP), which provides federal employees the opportunity to save for additional retirement security. The Thrift Savings Plan is a tax-deferred defined contribution plan similar to a private sector 401(k) plan.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) enforces federal antitrust and consumer protection laws by investigating complaints against individual companies initiated by consumers, businesses, congressional inquiries, or reports in the media. The commission seeks to ensure that the nation's markets function competitively by eliminating unfair or deceptive practices.
The General Services Administration (GSA) is responsible for the purchase, supply, operation, and maintenance of federal property, buildings, and equipment, and for the sale of surplus items. GSA also manages the federal motor vehicle fleet and oversees remote work centers and civilian child care centers.
The United States International Trade Commission (ITC) provides trade expertise to both the legislative and executive branches of the federal government, determines the impact of imports on US industries, and directs actions against certain unfair trade practices, such as patent, trademark, and copyright infringement.
The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) preserves the nation's history by overseeing the management of all federal records. The holdings of the National Archives include original textual materials, motion picture films, sound and video recordings, maps, still pictures, and computer data. The Declaration of Independence, the US Constitution, and the Bill of Rights are preserved and displayed at the National Archives building in Washington, D.C.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the federal government's space agency. It is responsible for the civilian space program as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.
The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) administers the principal United States labor law, the National Labor Relations Act. The board is vested with the power to prevent or remedy unfair labor practices and to safeguard employees' rights to organize and determine through elections whether to have a union as their bargaining representative.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is responsible for civil transportation accident analysis in the US. The NTSB investigates and reports on aviation accidents and incidents, certain types of car accidents, ship and marine accidents, pipeline transport accidents, and rail transport accidents.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) was established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 from the United States Atomic Energy Commission, and opened January 19, 1975. The NRC oversees reactor safety and security, reactor licensing and renewal, radioactive material safety, and spent fuel management (storage, security, recycling, and disposal).
The Office of Special Counsel (OSC) is a permanent investigative and prosecutorial agency that operates a secure channel for federal whistleblower disclosures, protects federal employees from reprisal for whistleblowing, and enforces the restrictions of the Hatch Act on partisan political activity by government employees.
The Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) was created in 1971 as the Postal Rate Commission and strengthened under the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act enacted in December 2006. Provides regulatory oversight over the activities of the United States Postal Service.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was established to protect investors who buy stocks and bonds. Federal laws require companies that plan to raise money by selling their own securities to file reports about their operations with the SEC, so that investors have access to all material information. The commission has powers to prevent or punish fraud in the sale of securities and is authorized to regulate stock exchanges.
The Selective Service System (SSS) is an independent federal agency operating with permanent authorization under the Military Selective Service Act. It is not part of the Department of Defense; however, it exists to serve the emergency manpower needs of the military by conscripting untrained men, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the president. Its statutory missions also include being ready to administer an alternative service program, in lieu of military service for men classified as conscientious objectors.
The Small Business Administration (SBA) was created in 1953 to advise, assist, and protect the interests of small business concerns. The SBA guarantees loans to small businesses, aids victims of floods and other natural disasters, promotes the growth of minority-owned firms, and helps secure contracts for small businesses to supply goods and services to the federal government.
The Social Security Administration (SSA) is the United States federal agency that administers Social Security, a social insurance program consisting of retirement, disability, and survivors' benefits. To qualify for these benefits, most American workers pay Social Security taxes on their earnings; future benefits are based on employee contributions.
The Surface Transportation Board (STB) was created in the ICC Termination Act of 1995 and is the successor agency to the Interstate Commerce Commission. The STB is an economic regulatory agency that Congress charged with resolving railroad rate and service disputes and reviewing proposed railroad mergers. The STB is decisionally independent, although it is administratively affiliated with the Department of Transportation.
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), created in 1933, provides economic development to the Tennessee Valley, a region particularly affected by the Great Depression.
The United States Postal Service (USPS) is defined by statute as an "independent establishment" of the federal government, which replaced the Cabinet-level Post Office Department in 1971. The Postal Service is responsible for the collection, transportation, and delivery of the mails, and for the operation of thousands of local post offices across the country. It also provides international mail service through the Universal Postal Union and other agreements with foreign countries.
The National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), government backer of credit unions, equivalent to the FDIC.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) evaluates and promotes the safety of consumer products.
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which provides foreign aid and assists with international development.
The United States Trade and Development Agency (USTDA), which advances economic development and U.S. commercial interests in developing and middle income countries.
Former agencies
The Committee on Public Information was an agency created to influence US public opinion regarding American participation in World War I. Lasting from April 14, 1917, to June 30, 1919 it was directed by George Creel. The agency used propaganda available to achieve its goals.
The Interstate Commerce Commission regulated common carriers and was thus able to render far reaching orders, such as the desegregation of public transportation. After trucking and railroads were largely deregulated, the ICC was replaced with the independent Surface Transportation Board, with remaining functions transferred to the Department of Transportation.
The United States Maritime Commission was intended to formulate a merchant shipbuilding program to design and build five hundred modern merchant cargo ships for the US Merchant Marine. It also formed the United States Maritime Service. In 1950, its functions were transferred to the United States Maritime Administration, which later became part of the Department of Transportation.
The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was designed to help finance projects during the Great Depression. It later helped finance the nation's military buildup as World War II approached. Scandals led to its eventual dissolution in 1956.
The Atomic Energy Commission was established for peacetime development of atomic energy. In 1974 it was abolished, and two new agencies were created; the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for regulation of civilian uses of nuclear materials, such as nuclear power plants and medical uses, and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) for military development of nuclear materials. In 1977, the ERDA was merged with the Federal Energy Administration to form the United States Department of Energy.
The Office of the United States Nuclear Waste Negotiator was responsible for the placement and long term storage of radioactive waste. It was dissolved in 1995.
The United States Information Agency, which was partially merged into the Department of State in 1999.
Agencies outside of executive branch
Although not officially part of the executive branch, these agencies are required by federal statute to release certain information about their programs and activities into the Federal Register, the daily journal of government activities:
Fannie Mae, or the Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA)
Freddie Mac, or the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC)
The National Gallery of Art
The Smithsonian Institution (SI) is an independent establishment of the United States created by an act of Congress on August 10, 1846. The SI conducts scientific and scholarly research; publishes the results of studies, explorations, and investigations; organizes exhibits representative of the arts, the sciences, American history, and world culture; and engages in educational programming and national and international cooperative research. Most of the National Museums in Washington, D.C., are part of the Smithsonian.
Proposed independent agencies
Federal Elections Agency, proposed by Lee Drutman of New America, which would merge the roles of the Federal Election Commission and Election Assistance Commission, expand enforcement against election interference and gather election data
Weather Modification Operations and Research Board, proposed by Kay Bailey Hutchison to promote research into weather modification
See also
Federal executive departments
List of U.S. federal agencies
Regulatory agency
State-owned enterprises of the United States
Footnotes
External links
The United States Government Manual: information on the agencies of the legislative, judicial, and executive branches.
regulations.gov
Independent
United States administrative law | wiki |
Malika-i-Jahan ("Queen of the World") was a title bestowed upon the chief consort of Muslim rulers of South Asia. It may refer to:
Malika-i-Jahan (Alauddin Khalji) (13th-14th century) of Delhi Sultanate
Malika Jahan (16th century), wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir
Malekeh Jahan (1875–1947), was the queen consort and cousin of Mohammad Ali Shah, Qajar
Mumtaz Mahal (1593-1631), queen of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
Sahiba Mahal (died c. 1793), wife of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah | wiki |
An impasse is a breakdown in negotiations.
Impasse may also refer to:
Film
Impasse (film), a 1969 American film starring Burt Reynolds
Cliff Walkers, a 2021 Chinese historical spy thriller previously titled Impasse in English
Music
Impasse (album), a 2002 album by Richard Buckner
"Impasse" (Marília Mendonça song), a 2015 Brazilian single
"Impasse" (Angel Olsen song), from the 2019 album All Mirrors
"The Impasse" (Hookworms song), from their 2014 album The Hum
See also
Impasse des Deux Anges, a 1948 French comedy crime film directed by Maurice Tourneur
Impasse de la vignette, a 1990 French-Belgian-Canadian comedy-drama film | wiki |
Methade, or 6-(dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptane, is the parent compound of the methadone and methadol series of opioid analgesics:
Chemical derivatives
The methade series includes the following compounds:
Acetylmethadol
Alphacetylmethadol
Levacetylmethadol
Betacetylmethadol)
Dimepheptanol (or methadol)
Alphamethadol
Betamethadol
Methadone
Levomethadone
Noracymethadol
Normethadone
Related compounds
Some related compounds include:
Alimadol
Dextromoramide
Dextropropoxyphene
Dipipanone
Isomethadone
Normethadone
Norpipanone
Phenadoxone
References
Dimethylamino compounds
Phenyl compounds | wiki |
A. malayanus may refer to:
Acanthopanax malayanus, a plant species
Anthracoceros malayanus, a bird species
See also
Malayanus | wiki |
Nu Orionis (ν Orionis) is a binary star system in the northeastern part of the constellation Orion. It should not be confused with the variable star NU Orionis. Nu Orionis has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.42, which is bright enough to be seen with the naked eye. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 0.00632 arcseconds, the distance to this system is roughly 520 light years.
This is a single-lined spectroscopic binary system, which means that only the absorption line features of one of the components can be distinguished. The components orbit each other with a period of 131.2 days and an eccentricity of 0.64. Depending on the source, the primary is either a B-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of B3 V, or a more evolved B-type subgiant star of class B3 IV. It has an angular diameter of 0.251 mas, which, at the estimated distance of this system, yields a physical size of about 4.3 times the radius of the Sun. The mass is 6.7 times that of the Sun and it shines with 1,965 times the solar luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 17,880 K.
References
B-type main-sequence stars
Spectroscopic binaries
Orion (constellation)
Orionis, Nu
Orionis, 67
041753
029038
02159
Durchmusterung objects | wiki |
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers sponsors more than 1,600 annual conferences and meetings worldwide. IEEE is also highly involved in the technical program development of numerous events including trade events, training workshops, job fairs, and other programs.
List
References
Lists of conferences | wiki |
Play Harder is the second extended play by American electronic dance music band Krewella. Billboard magazine describes "Come & Get It" as "[melding] the worlds of complextro and drum and bass" and "[allowing] just enough time for a solid mosh, followed by a brief resting period before running back into the pit".
Track listing
"Come & Get It"
"Alive" (Cash Cash & Kalkutta Remix)
"Alive" (Pegboard Nerds Remix)
"Alive" (Jakob Liedholm Remix)
"Killin' It" (Mutrix Remix)
"Killin' It" (KillaGraham Remix)
"Killin' It" (Dirtyphonics Remix)
"Killin' It" (DJ Chuckie Vocal)
Singles
References
2012 EPs
Krewella EPs | wiki |
Garam masala [from Hindustani / (garm masala, "hot spices")] is a blend of ground spices originating from India. It is common in Indian, Pakistani, Nepalese, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan and Caribbean cuisines. It is used alone or with other seasonings.
Ingredients
The composition of garam masala differs regionally, with many recipes across the Indian subcontinent according to regional and personal taste, and none is considered more authentic than another. The components of the mix are roasted, then ground together or added to the dish for flavour just before finishing cooking.
A typical Indian version of garam masala contains (with Hindi/Urdu names in parenthesis):
Fennel (saunf)
Indian Bay leaves or Malabathrum (tej patta)
Black and white peppercorns (kali/safed mirch)
Cloves (laung)
Cinnamon or cassia bark (dālacini)
Mace (outer covering of nutmeg) (javitri)
Black and green cardamom pods (ilaici)
Cumin (jīra)
Coriander seeds (dhania)
Red chili powder (lāl mirch)
Some recipes call for the spices to be blended with herbs, while others call for the spices to be ground with water, vinegar, or other liquids to make a paste. Some recipes include nuts, onions or garlic, or small quantities of star anise, asafoetida, chili, stone flower (known as dagadphool, lichen), and kababchini (cubeb). The flavours may be blended to achieve a balanced effect, or a single flavour may be emphasized. A masala may be toasted before use to release its flavours and aromas. In the east of the Indian subcontinent, in West Bengal, Orissa, Assam and Bangladesh only cardamom, cinnamon and clove may be substituted for the assortment.
The Burmese masala () spice blend used in Burmese curries typically consists of ground cinnamon or cassia, cardamon, cloves, and black pepper.
See also
Baharat
Bangladeshi cuisine
Bengali cuisine
Chaat masala
Curry powder
Indian cuisine
Nepalese cuisine
Pakistani cuisine
Spice mix
Panch phoron - Indian five spice
Chinese five spice
South African Indian cuisine
References
External links
Spices Name in Hindi and English
Pakistani cuisine
Bengali cuisine
Bangladeshi cuisine
Herb and spice mixtures
Indian cuisine
Indian spices
Nepalese cuisine
Indo-Caribbean cuisine
Spices
Masalas | wiki |
Microlaemus is a genus of beetles in the family Laemophloeidae, containing the following species:
Microlaemus brightensis Blackburn
Microlaemus ferrugineus Lefkovitch
Microlaemus interceptus Grouvelle
Microlaemus mirificus Grouvelle
Microlaemus palpalis Waterhouse
Microlaemus piceicollis Lea
Microlaemus picipennis Grouvelle
Microlaemus slades Lefkovitch
Microlaemus strigiceps Lea
Microlaemus sulcifrons Grouvelle
Microlaemus sylvestris Grouvelle
Microlaemus turneri Lefkovitch
References
Laemophloeidae | wiki |
Joseph Dennison Norman (born October 15, 1956) is a former professional American football linebacker in the National Football League. He played five seasons for the Seattle Seahawks.
References
1956 births
Living people
People from Millersburg, Ohio
Players of American football from Ohio
American football linebackers
Indiana Hoosiers football players
Seattle Seahawks players | wiki |
Track and field is a sport that includes athletic contests based on running, jumping, and throwing skills. The name is derived from where the sport takes place, a running track and a grass field for the throwing and some of the jumping events. Track and field is categorized under the umbrella sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running and racewalking.
The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle- and long-distance events, racewalking, and hurdling, are won by the athlete who completes it in the least time. The jumping and throwing events are won by those who achieve the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump, and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus, and hammer. There are also "combined events" or "multi events", such as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlon consisting of seven events, and decathlon consisting of ten events. In these, athletes participate in a combination of track and field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a single victor; the most prominent team events are relay races, which typically feature teams of four. Events are almost exclusively divided by gender, although both the men's and women's competitions are usually held at the same venue. Recently, “mixed” relay events have been introduced into meets, whereby two men and two women make up the four-person team. If a race has too many people to run all at once, preliminary heats will be run to narrow down the field of participants.
Track and field is one of the oldest sports. In ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. In modern times, the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are the athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the World Athletics Championships. World Athletics, formerly known as the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), is the international governing body for the sport of athletics.
Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world, continental, and national levels, right down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event's rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased.
In the United States, the term track and field may refer to other athletics events, such as cross country, the marathon, and road running, rather than strictly track-based events.
History
The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace. The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized today—it comprised a five-event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, stadion footrace, and wrestling.
Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 201 BC. After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages. The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.
Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the 19th century. These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments. Competitions in the English public schools were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing, fox hunting and hare coursing, influenced by a Classics-rich curriculum. The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest running club in the world, with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819. The school organised Paper Chase races in which runners followed a trail of paper shreds left by two "foxes"; even today RSSH runners are called "hounds" and a race victory is a "kill". The first definite record of Shrewsbury's (cross-country) Annual Steeplechase is in 1834, making it the oldest running race of the modern era. The school also lays claim to the oldest track and field meeting still in existence, originating in the Second Spring Meeting first documented in 1840. This featured a series of throwing and jumping events with mock horse races including the Derby Stakes, the Hurdle Race and the Trial Stakes. Runners were entered by "owners" and named as though they were horses. away and a decade later, the first Wenlock Olympian Games were held at Much Wenlock racecourse. Events at the 1851 Wenlock Games included a "half-mile foot race" (805 m) and a "leaping in distance" competition.
In 1865, Dr William Penny Brookes of Wenlock helped set up the National Olympian Association, which held their first Olympian Games in 1866 at The Crystal Palace in London. This national event was a great success, attracting a crowd of over ten thousand people. In response, that same year the Amateur Athletic Club was formed and held a championship for "gentlemen amateurs" in an attempt to reclaim the sport for the educated elite. Ultimately the "allcomers" ethos of the NOA won through and the AAC was reconstituted as the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880, the first national body for the sport of athletics. The AAA Championships, the de facto British national championships despite being for England only, have been held annually since 3 July 1880 with breaks only during two world wars and 2006–2008. The AAA was effectively a global governing body in the early years of the sport, codifying its rules for the first time.
Meanwhile, the United States began holding an annual national competition—the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships—first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club. The establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889) put the sport on a formal footing and meant that international competitions became possible.
The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field. The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games' most prominent. The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field continued to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had taken expense money for playing baseball, violating Olympic amateurism rules, before the 1912 Games. His medals were reinstated 29 years after his death.
That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming the international governing body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923. The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934.
Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male-only pursuit. Alice Milliat argued for the inclusion of women at the Olympics, but the International Olympic Committee refused. She founded the International Women's Sports Federation in 1921 and, alongside a growing women's sports movement in Europe and North America, the group initiated of the Women's Olympiad (held annually from 1921 to 1923). Working in conjunction with the English Women's Amateur Athletic Association (WAAA), the Women's World Games was held four times between 1922 and 1934, as well as a Women's International and British Games in London in 1924. These events ultimately led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics. In China, women's track and field events were being held in the 1920s, but were subject to criticism and disrespect from audiences. National women's events were established in this period, with 1923 seeing the First British Track & Field championships for women and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) sponsoring the First American Track & Field championships for women. Also in 1923, physical education advocate Zhang Ruizhen called for greater equality and participation of women in Chinese track and field. The rise of Kinue Hitomi and her 1928 Olympic medal for Japan signified the growth of women's track and field in East Asia. More women's events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the century that the men's and women's programmes approached parity of events). Marking an increasingly inclusive approach to the sport, major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.
With the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic-style multi-sport events (such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread. From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations. After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s. As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field). The IAAF abandoned amateurism in 1982 and later removed all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations. While Western countries were limited to amateurs until the early 1980s, Soviet Bloc countries always fielded state-funded athletes who trained full-time, putting American and Western European athletes at a significant disadvantage. 1983 saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics—the first-ever global competition just for athletics—which, with the Olympics, became one of track and field's most prestigious competitions.
The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names (such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd and Florence Griffith Joyner). Many world records were broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport's popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete's diet regimes, training facilities, and sports equipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance-enhancing drugs. State-sponsored doping in 1970s and 1980s East Germany, China, the Soviet Union, and early 21st century Russia, as well as prominent individual cases such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.
From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997, and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League—an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe—provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US$1 million jackpot. In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative Diamond League, a fourteen-meeting series held in Europe, Asia, North America, and the Middle East—the first-ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.
Events
Track and field events are divided into three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of athletes tend to specialize in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over specified distances, and—in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events—obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team members at the end of a certain distance.
There are two types of field events: jumps and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose-built sticks in the pole vault.
The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavyweight, javelin, or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown. Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events. Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete and/or team with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner.
Track
Sprints
Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event, the stadion race, which was a race from one end of the stadium to the other. Sprinting events are focused on athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed. Three sprinting events are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements that later changed to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin to suffer oxygen deprivation. Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 metres.
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and indoor world championship event. Less-common events include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres, and 500 metres, which are run in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983, Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea's record in 2009.
Middle distance
The most common middle-distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance event. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear of the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.
Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starting pistol they head towards the innermost track to follow the quickest route to the finish. In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race. This rule was introduced to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race. Physiologically, these middle-distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong endurance.
The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s. The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long-elusive four-minute mile, and Jim Ryun's exploits served to popularise interval training. Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle-distance running in the 1980s. From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events.
Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete's reactions and top speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.
Long-distance
There are three common long-distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres, 5000 metres and 10,000 metres. The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships. The 5000 m and 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3-mile and 6-mile races. The 3000 m was historically used as a women's long-distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned in favour of a women's 5000 m event in 1995. Marathons, while long-distance races, are typically run on street courses, and often are run separately from other track and field events.
In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long-distance track races have much in common with middle-distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances. However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle- and long-distance events, including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m. The use of pace-setters in long-distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win.
The long-distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the "Flying Finns", such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi. The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke's world record-breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even-paced running. The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long-distance events. Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.
Relay races
Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams. Typically, a team is made up of four runners of the same sex. Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over a baton to a teammate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area where athletes must exchange the baton. Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the race. A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.
Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen, who would hand a red pennant on to teammates every 300 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 4×100 metres relay and the 4×400 metres relay. Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one-off men's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics. The 4 × 100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track. Teams in a 4 × 400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner-most part of the circuit. For the second and third baton change overs, teammates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while teammates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes.
The Shuttle Hurdle Relay per Hurdling web page: In a shuttle hurdle relay, each of four hurdlers on a team runs the opposite direction from the preceding runner. No batons are used for this particular relay.
The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays. As with 4×100 m and 4×400 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 4×200 m, 4×800 m and 4×1500 m relays. Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m, 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m), which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay, known as the Swedish medley relay, which is popular in Scandinavia and was held at the IAAF World Youth Championships in Athletics programme. Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events.
Hurdling
Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England. The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100-yard dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this, holding a 120-yard race (110 m) with ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish, respectively. French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the men's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged. The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.44 cm) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively. Women's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm (2 ft 9 in) for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6 in) for the 400 m event.
By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes. The men's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games. Women's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932. This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics, but it was not until 1984 that a women's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year). Other distances and heights of hurdles, such as the 200 metres hurdles and low hurdles, were once common but are now held infrequently. The 300 metres hurdles is run in some levels of American competition.
Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event with obstacles. Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England. However, this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing. A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races. The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event. The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m circuit that includes a water jump on each lap. Despite the long history of men's steeplechase in track and field, the women's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance in 2008.
Field
Jumping
Long jump
The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped farthest. Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance. The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit. The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete's body.
The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men's long jump competition and a women's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed. In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest exists which requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run-up. A men's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.
Triple jump
Similar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current "hop, step and jump" pattern from 1900 onwards. There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this is incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m). The Book of Leinster, a 12th-century Irish manuscript, records the existence of geal-ruith (triple jump) contests at the Tailteann Games.
The men's triple jump competition has been ever-present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later. The men's standing triple jump event featured at the Olympics in 1900 and 1904, but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a non-competitive exercise drill. The Current world record for the Men's triple jump is 18.29 meter (60 ft 0in) held by Jonathan Edwards. The current women's world record is 15.67 meters (51 ft 4 3/4in) held by Yulimar Rojas.
High jump
The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century. Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there. Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area. The men's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women's competition followed in 1928.
Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut-off or Western roll technique. The straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s – the Fosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards. The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.
Pole vault
In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s. One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843. The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States. The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar. Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard. Landing mattresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.
The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing mattress. While earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre. The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships. The first women's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000.
Throwing
Track and field contains some of the foremost kinds of throwing sports, and the four major disciplines are the only pure throwing events to feature at the Olympic Games.
Shot put
The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks: in the Middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport. The term "shot" originates from the use of round shot-style ammunition for the sport. The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven-foot diameter in 1906, and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876.
The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women's competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the "glide", breaking the world record 17 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the "spin" or rotational technique in 1976.
Discus throw
In the discus throw, athletes compete to throw a heavy disc the farthest. In standard competitions, athletes throw the disc from a set circular arc and take turns in a series of throw, with the singular best effort deciding the victor. As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics. This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard. The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907. The women's discus was among the first women's events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928. The first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the whole body was Czech athlete František Janda-Suk, who invented the technique when studying the position of the famous statue of Discobolus and won the 1900 Olympic silver medal.
Javelin throw
As an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in prehistoric times. Along with the discus, the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon. Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co-existing: throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event derives. In ancient competitions, athletes would wrap an ankyle (thin leather strip) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance. The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 19th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men's competitions. The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line. The runway measures at a minimum of 30m in length, and is covered with the same surface as the track.
The first Olympic men's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women's competition was introduced in 1932. The first javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 1950s, former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal javelin, both of which increased throwers performances. Another former athlete, Miklós Németh invented the rough-tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia. The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement. Rough-tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books. The women's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999. The current javelin specifications are 2.6 to 2.7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men, and 2.2 to 2.3 m and 600 g for women.
Hammer throw
The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games of ancient Ireland, which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle. Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle – the root of the term "hammer throw" due to their resemblance to the tools. In 16th century England, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith's Sledgehammers were recorded. The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds (7.26 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 1.175 m and 1.215 m.
The men's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women's event – using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) weight – was not widely competed until much later, finally featuring on the women's Olympic programme in 2000. The distances thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals, a switch to concrete throwing areas, and more advanced training techniques. Professional hammer throwers were historically large, strong, sturdy athletes. However, qualities such as refined technique, speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34.92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations.
Combined events
Combined (or multi-discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in each event, which adds to a total points score. Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men's decathlon (ten events) and the women's heptathlon (seven events). Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men's heptathlon and the women's pentathlon. Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.
The Ancient Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games). A men's all-around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, contested between five American and two British athletes.
Stadiums
Outdoor
The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums that first hosted such competitions. The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval-shaped running track and an area of turf within this track—the field. In earlier competitions, track lengths varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.45 m) at Francis Field. As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes. Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s. 3M's Tartan track (an all-weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport. Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field built for other sports, such as the various types of football.
The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40-metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends. Jumps are measured from a take off board—typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached—which ensures athletes jump from behind the measurement line. The pole vault area is also a 40-metre running track and has an indentation in the ground (the box) where vaulters plant their poles to propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto cushioned landing mats. The high jump is a stripped-down version of this, with an open area of track or field that leads to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.
The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage usually situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The throwing area is a sector. Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.
Indoor
Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events. Full-size indoor arenas (i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200-metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. Some have a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events, which are held almost exclusively indoors.
Another common adaptation in the United States is a 160-yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court-sized arena. This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden, and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.
All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track. Shot put and weight throw are the only throwing events held indoors due to size restrictions. The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.
In addition to hosting the World Indoor Championships, the IAAF has hosted the IAAF World Indoor Tour since 2016.
Starts use in race
Track rules
The rules of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009. Key rules of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing. Current World Athletics (WA) Rules are available on WA's website . Current USATF (USA) Competition Rules booklet is available on the USATF website . Prior USATF Competition Rules booklets are also available (2002, 2006 to 2020) .
Starting
The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish.
Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m) and may not be used for any other race. No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane.
All races must be started by the report of the starter's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after they have ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position. An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with their hands or feet when on their marks.
For sprint races up to 400 m, the starter gives two commands: "on your marks" to instruct athletes to approach the start line, followed by "set" to advise the athletes that the start of the race is imminent. The commands of the starter are typically given in the native language in national competitions, or in English or French in international competitions. Once all athletes are set in their starting position, the gun or an approved starting apparatus must be fired or activated. If the starter is not satisfied that all are ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over.
There are different types of starts for races of different distances. Middle- and long-distance races mainly use the waterfall start. This is when all athletes begin on a curved line that moves farther out at the outer edge of the track. Competitors are allowed to move towards the inside lane right away, as long as it is safe to do so. For some middle-distance races, such as 800 m, each athlete starts in their own lane. Once the gun fires, they must run in the lane they began in until markers on the track notify them it is time to move towards the inside lane. For sprint races, athletes begin in start blocks and must stay in their own lane for the entire race.
An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgment of the starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start. It is deemed a false start if, in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands "on your marks" or "set" as appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command "on your marks" disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise. If the runner is in the "set" position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified. , any athlete making a false start is disqualified.
In International elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes. If the athlete reacts in less than 0.1 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start. Since 2009, the offending athletes are immediately disqualified.
Running the race
For sprinting events (bar the 4 × 400 m relay and the indoor 400 metres), each athlete must run the race within their allocated lane from start to finish. If an athlete leaves their lane or steps on the line demarking each lane the athlete will be disqualified. Lane rules also apply for initial periods of other track races, for example, the beginning of the 800 m. Similar rules apply for longer distance races when a large field of athletes is present and separate starting points are designated, with the field merging into one group shortly after the starting phase.
Any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be disqualified from that event. However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.
The finish
The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. The finishing position of athletes is determined by the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle-eyed officials on the finish line. Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a sprint record is set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).
With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties are rare. Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second. If the judge decides that there has been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round. In the case of a tie for first place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again. If he decides it is not, the result stands. Ties in other placings remain.
Field rules
In general, most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition. Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the greatest distance.
Vertical Jumps
Vertical jumps (high jump and pole vault) set a bar at a particular height. The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat). Three failures in a row ends the competitor's participation in the event. The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses). A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings. After all competitors have either cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar goes up. The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts. A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor. After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event. Ties are broken by first, the number of attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole. The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position. If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the last height. If they still miss, the bar goes down one increment where they again jump. This process continues until the tie is broken.
Horizontal Jumps
Horizontal jumps (long jump and triple jump) and all throws must be initiated behind a line. In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway. In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle. Crossing the line while initiating the attempt invalidates the attempt—it becomes a foul. All landings must occur in a sector. For the jumps, that is a sand filled pit, for throws it is a defined sector. A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector). Assuming a proper attempt, officials measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line. The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line. To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws. The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation measure and record the length. Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) with a steel tape, and observed by at least three officials (plus usually the meet referee). Steel tapes are easily bent and damaged, so are not used to measure everyday competitions. For major competitions, each competitor gets three tries. The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition's rules or the number of lanes on the track) gets three more tries. At that level of competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set—so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round is last, while the last competitor to qualify goes first. Some meets rearrange the competition order again for the final round, so the final attempt is taken by the leader at that point. At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts. Whatever the format, all competitors get an equal number of attempts.
Equipment
Men and women have different weights for their throwing implements – men's javelin is 800 grams compared to 600 for women, men's weight throw is 35 pounds compared to 20 for women, men's discus is 2 kilograms to women's 1, men's shot put is 16 pounds compared to 8 pounds for women, and men's hammer throw is also 16 pounds to the women's 8. Additionally, men's high hurdles are at height of 42 inches compared to women's hurdles which are 33 inches. For the intermediate hurdles (400 meter hurdles), the men's hurdle height is 36 inches compared to 30 inches for women.
Organizations
The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations. World Athletics is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole. The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies. Some national federations are named after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies. These national federations regulate sub-national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.
Competitions
Olympics, Paralympics and world championships
The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic and Paralympic athletics programmes, which occur every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896, and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic or Paralympic sporting event.
The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF. The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.
Other championships
Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics, Paralympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships. The South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934. The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990.
There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics Championships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. Most countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions. Some countries hold many track and field championships at high school and college-level, which help develop younger athletes. Some of these have gained significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships. However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country.
Multi-sport events
Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events. Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic-style model were the World University Games in 1923, the Commonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932. The number of major multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.
After the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC-sanctioned continental games: the All-Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan American Games. Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.
Meetings
One-day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition. Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group or business that serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or institution. In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation-only basis.
The most basic type of meetings are all-comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete. As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport.
At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the Golden Four competition, comprising meetings in Zürich, Brussels, Berlin and Oslo. This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998, which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour. In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one-day track and field meetings.
World rankings
The IAAF World Rankings system was introduced for the 2018 season. An athlete's position within the ranking will be determined by points scored based on their performance and importance of the competition. The points will be considered for eligibility for the World Athletics Championships and Olympic Games. This system will affect athlete participation, which has typically been determined by national bodies, either through selection panels or national trials events.
Records
Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). A large variety of record types exist and men's and women's performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records organise athlete's performances by the region they represent—beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global or world record level. National governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective continental lists, and the IAAF ratifies world records.
The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914, initially for men's events only. There were 53 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 12 field records. World records in women's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 1970s. First, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976, with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand-timing stopwatch method). In 1981, electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field, with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second. Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old.
The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition. For example, the Olympic records represent the best performances by athletes at the Summer Olympics. All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records. Other record types include: stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by institution or organisation. Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions.
Doping
Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport, from the national to the international level. The IAAF's constitution incorporates the World Anti-Doping Code among other anti-doping measures. Practices such as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids, peptide hormones, stimulants, or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive advantage in track and field. The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds. Given that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes' performances, performance-enhancing substances create an uneven playing field — athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do. Medically, the use of banned substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes' health. However, some exemptions are made for athletes who take banned substances for therapeutic use, and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases, such as Kim Collins' failed drug test due to asthma medication.
Athletes have historically been willing to take legal and health risks to improve their performance, with some even stating their willingness to risk their lives, as exemplified by research by Mirkin, Goldman and Connor in researching attitudes to the so-called Goldman dilemma. To prevent use of performance-enhancing substances, athletes must submit to drug tests that are conducted both in and out of competition by anti-doping officials or accredited medical staff. Penalized athletes are susceptible to higher testing upon return to competition. Athletes found to have taken substances on the World Anti-Doping Agency's banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time that corresponds to the seriousness of the infraction. However, the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect. Athletes may also be sanctioned for missing tests, seeking to avoid testing or tampering with results, refusing to submit to testing, through circumstantial evidence, or confession of use.
Doping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field. State-sponsored doping in East Germany with hormones and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from East Germany in track and field from the late 1960s to the 1980s. A number of these women, such as Marita Koch, broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions. Some athletes, who were following a doping plan from their teenage years, suffered significant health problems as a result of the regime. A similar state-sponsored doping system was developed in the Soviet Union. According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to undermine doping tests and that Soviet competitors were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". Regarding the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said, "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games." In 2016, The New York Times published an article detailing the use of doping by the Soviets in preparation for the 1984 Olympics. Ben Johnson ran a new world record in the 100 metres at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but was later banned for using anabolic steroids. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, the BALCO Scandal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery, among others, through their usage of banned substances. The revelation state-sponsored doping in Russia led to an international ban on all its athletes in 2016, with Russians having to apply to the IAAF to compete as Authorised Neutral Athletes at events such as the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2017 World Championships in Athletics. Doping has affected countries on all continents and has occurred in individual, team and national settings.
Related sports
Track and field bears most similarity to the others categorised under the sport of athletics, specifically cross country running, and road forms of racewalking and running. All these forms of racing tend to record finishing times, have strictly defined start and finish points, and are generally individual in nature. Middle- and long-distance runners usually participate in cross country and road events, in addition to the track. Track racewalkers are most typically road specialists as well. It is unusual for track and field athletes outside of these two groups to compete in cross country or road events.
Varieties of strength athletics, such as the World's Strongest Man and highland games, often incorporate forms of footracing, carrying heavy objects, as well as throwing events such as the caber toss and keg toss, which bear similarities to track and field throwing events.
See also
Cross country running
List of track and field stadiums by capacity
Racewalking
Road running
References
External links
World Athletics official website
USA Track & Field official website
Track and field at About.com
Results and statistics for collegiate, high school, middle school, and club teams
Masters T&F World Rankings
Individual sports
Athletics by type
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
Heritage Bank may refer to:
Heritage Bank, an Australian mutual bank
Heritage Bank (Kentucky), an American bank with branches in Northern Kentucky
Heritage Bank Center
Heritage Banking Company Limited, a Nigerian commercial bank
See also
Key Bank Center, also known as the Heritage Bank Building | wiki |
Marwari Bhojnalaya is a popular name among Marwari-style purely vegetarian restaurants in many cities in India. They are all independently owned. The term "marwari" implies that it is intended for Marwari merchants, who are strictly vegetarian and prefer relatively simple (which can be eaten daily) and inexpensive food. They are however popular among all vegetarians. The term "bhojanalaya" practically always implies simple and inexpensive vegetarian cuisine. Restaurants named "Jain Bhojanalaya" or "Vaishanva Dhaba" are also vegetarian. Note that restaurants are often called "hotel" in India. Some of them used to offer traditional seating on wooden patiyas on the floor, but the custom is no longer popular and tables and chairs are now more common.
Cuisine
In spite of the name, the food served is not necessarily Rajasthan style. For example, Dal-bati meals and dishes such as gatte ki kadhi which are quite popular in Rajasthan, are often not served, or served only on special occasion. Rich and festive Rajasthani food can be found in special restaurants such as Chokhi-dhani chain. The food is generally served in stainless steel thalis (platters). Often onions are served only on request, because many Marwaris and Jains do not eat onions.
See also
Vaishnava
List of vegetarian restaurants
Vegetarianism in India
References
Rajasthani cuisine
Vegetarian restaurants in India
Marwar | wiki |
The Foreign Military Financing (FMF) program provides grants and loans to help countries purchase weapons and defense equipment produced in the United States as well as acquiring defense services and military training. FMF funds purchases are made through the Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program, which manages government-to-government sales. On a much less frequent basis, FMF also funds purchases made through the Direct Commercial Sales (DCS) program, which oversees sales between foreign governments and private U.S. companies. FMF does not provide cash grants to other countries; it generally pays for sales of specific goods or services through FMS or DCS.
The State Department's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs and the latter's Office of Security Assistance set policy for the FMF program, while the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA), within the Defense Department, manages it on a day-to-day basis. Security Assistance Organizations (SAOs), military personnel in U.S. embassies overseas, play a key role in managing FMF within recipient countries. Some FMF pays for SAO salaries and operational costs. Congress appropriates funds for FMF through the yearly Foreign Operations Appropriations Act.
FMF exists primarily to fund arms transfers, as military training is normally granted through the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program. However, FMF does support a good deal of training.
Allocation of Foreign Military Financing
By account, program area and program element
The allocation of FMF by account, program area and program element is:
By country
From 2003 to 2007 Iraq was the largest beneficiary of FMF, since then it is Afghanistan. Until 2003 it was Israel. Other countries in the Middle East and Greater Middle East (including Pakistan, Jordan, and especially Egypt) are among the other major recipients of FMF funds.
The allocation of FMF by country is:
See also
United States military aid
References
External links
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Department of State
U.S. Department of State Foreign Military Financing Account Summary
Defense Security Cooperation Agency
"Report: U.S. Routinely Sends Arms to Undemocratic Nations", on Democracy Now!, May 27, 2005 (video, audio, and print transcript).
Military industry
Foreign Military Sales
United States foreign policy
United States military policies
FMF
FMF
United States military aid | wiki |
RPM, a Red Hat Package Manager (Red Hat csomagkezelő) rövidítése
RPM, megszűnt kanadai zeneipari heti magazin
rpm, angol nyelvterületen a fordulatszám/perc rövidítése | wiki |
#ICanHazPDF is a hashtag used on Twitter to request access to academic journal articles which are behind paywalls. It began in 2011 by scientist Andrea Kuszewski. The name is derived from the meme I Can Has Cheezburger?
Process
Users request articles by tweeting an article's title, DOI or other linked information like a publisher's link, their email address, and the hashtag "#ICanHazPDF". Someone who has access to the article might then email it to them. The user then deletes the original tweet. Alternatively, users who do not wish to post their email address in the clear can use direct messaging to exchange contact information with a volunteer who has offered to share the article of interest.
Use and popularity
The practice amounts to copyright infringement in numerous countries, and so is arguably part of the 'black open access' trend. The majority of requests are for articles published in the last five years, and most users are from English-speaking countries. Requests for biology papers are more common than papers in other fields, despite subscription prices for chemistry, physics, and astronomy being, on average, higher than for biology. Possible reasons for people to use the hashtag include the reluctance of readers to pay for article access and the speed of the process compared to most university interlibrary loans.
See also
Academic journal publishing reform
Anna's Archive
Open Access Button
Library Genesis
Sci-Hub
Shadow library
Z-Library
References
External links
Hashtags
Copyright campaigns
Academic publishing
2011 introductions | wiki |
"Al Khamsa" is a designation applied to specific desert-bred bloodlines of the Arabian horse considered particularly "pure" by Arabian horse breeders, who sometimes also describe such lines with by use of the Arabic word asil, meaning "pure".
Al Khamsa roughly translates as 'The Five'. It refers to a mythical group of foundation mares that were the legendary founders of the Arabian breed. While some breeders claim these mares really existed, there is no objective, historical way to verify such a claim. The modern definition of an Arabian as Al Khamsa usually refers to a horse that can be verified in every line of its pedigree to trace to specific named desert-bred Arabians with documentation that their breeding was attested to by a Bedouin seller who had sworn a formal oath (generally invoking Allah) that the animal was asil or pure of blood. This standard is only met by approximately two percent of all registered Arabians today. Such horses included the desert-bred imports of the Crabbet Arabian Stud, the imports from Syria of Homer Davenport, many of the horses imported from Egypt that were originally bred by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Abbas Pasha, Ali Pasha Sherif, or the Royal Agricultural Society and its successor organizations, and other desert-bred horses obtained throughout the Middle East by buyers such as Carl Raswan who were familiar with bloodlines and the formal sales procedures of the Bedouin to properly document animals of Asil bloodlines.
The Legend
The legend of Al Khamsa refers to the five favorite horses of Muhammad. While there are several variants on the tale, a common version states that after a long journey through the desert, Muhammad turned his herd of horses loose at an oasis for a desperately needed drink of water. Before the herd reached the water, Muhammad blew his battle horn for the horses to return to him. Only five mares responded. Because they faithfully returned to their master, though desperate with thirst, these mares became his favorites and were called Al Khamsa, and became the legendary founders of the five "strains" of the Arabian horse. Although the Al Khamsa are generally considered fictional horses of legend, some breeders today claim the modern Bedouin Arabian actually descended from these mares. Modern horses that can trace all of their bloodlines to documented Bedouin strains are collectively known as "Al Khamsa Arabians".
Strains
Over time, the Bedouin developed several sub-types or strains of Arabian horse, each with unique characteristics, and traced through the maternal line only. The five primary strains, attributed to have descended from the Al Khamsa were known as the Keheilan, Seglawi, Abeyan or Obeyan, Hamdani, and Hadban or Hedban. Carl Raswan, a promoter and writer about Arabian horses from the middle of the 20th century, held the belief that there were only three strains, Kehilan, Seglawi and Muniqi or Maanagi. Raswan felt that these strains represented body "types" of the breed, with the Kehilan being "masculine", the Seglawi being "feminine" and the Muniqi being "speedy". There were also lesser strains, sub-strains, and regional variations in strain names. Purity of bloodline was very important to the Bedouin, and they also believed in telegony, believing if a mare was ever bred to a stallion of "impure" blood, the mare herself and all future offspring would be "contaminated" by the stallion and hence no longer Asil.
References
External links
Al Khamsa organization
Arabian and part-Arabian horses | wiki |
Timberjack was a brand of forestry machinery.
Timberjack may also refer to:
Timberjack, archaic term for a lumberjack
Timberjack, a tool similar to a peavey
Timberjack (film), a 1955 film starring Sterling Hayden | wiki |
Jim Kelly is an American sportscaster who has worked for ESPN and CBS Sports.
Early career
A native of Toledo, Ohio, Kelly attended the University of Toledo, where he played ice hockey and was named Rookie of the Year in 1965. That same year he began calling hockey games for WMHE-FM. He worked at various stations throughout Ohio from 1965 to 1970 and from 1970 to 1974 he covered golf tournaments for Golf Network, Inc., which was heard on the Mutual and the NBC Radio networks.
CBS
Kelly worked for CBS and CBS Radio from 1974 to 1985. His assignments included calling golf for the PGA Tour on CBS and PGA Tour on CBS Radio, football for the NFL on CBS and NFL on CBS Radio, and basketball for the NBA on CBS, as well as golf, track and field, bowling, and horse racing. He hosted the Sports World Roundup on CBS Radio, CBS Sports Saturday and CBS Sports Sunday on CBS Television, served as sports anchor for the CBS Morning News.
From 1978 to 1982 Kelly also worked as a sports anchor for WCAU, where he won an Eclipse Award in 1980 for local horse racing coverage. In July 1983, he became a sports anchor at WNEV-TV in Boston. He left the station that October in a "mutual decision" between him and WNEV management.
ESPN
From 1985 to 2002, Kelly worked at ESPN. Here he covered golf, college football, Thoroughbred racing, the NHL, college basketball, the America's Cup, tennis, and bowling. He won a CableAce Award for his coverage of the 1987 America's Cup.
Later career
After leaving ESPN, Kelly moved to CNBC, where he called the Senior PGA Tour.
References
American horse racing announcers
American television sports anchors
American television sports announcers
Bowling broadcasters
College basketball announcers in the United States
College football announcers
Golf writers and broadcasters
National Basketball Association broadcasters
National Football League announcers
National Hockey League broadcasters
New England Patriots announcers
People from Toledo, Ohio
Tampa Bay Buccaneers announcers
Tennis commentators
University of Toledo alumni
Track and field broadcasters
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
Governor Owen may refer to:
John Owen (North Carolina politician) (1787–1841), 24th Governor of North Carolina
Roger Carmichael Robert Owen (1866–1941), Governor of Mongalla Province in South Sudan from 1908 to 1918
See also
Bill Owens (Colorado politician) (born 1950), 40th Governor of Colorado | wiki |
Merle "Mike" H. Walker (December 5, 1911 - March 6, 2013) was a designer of firearms and cartridges, an engineer employed with Remington Arms for 37 years, and a leader in promoting the sport of benchrest shooting.
Design and engineering
He is noted as the designer of the Remington Model 721, Model 722 and Model 700. The Model 700 has been called "the world's most popular bolt-action rifle."
Walker developed various cartridges while at Remington including .222 Remington, .244 Remington (later renamed 6mm Remington), and 6mm BR.
Walker also held patents, including one in 1950 for the trigger which went into the Remington Model 700. That trigger has been associated with misfiring for which he proposed a solution. He was also involved in inventing button rifling.
Benchrest
Walker played a role in founding the International Bench Shooters and was its first president.
References
1911 births
2013 deaths
American centenarians
Men centenarians | wiki |
Carriera
Nel 2013 ha esordito in Série A con il Corinthians.
Note
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Tri-cell is one of several location-based services technologies that are used to locate or track the location of a mobile phone. Other technologies include TDOA and AGPS. Tri-cell makes a number of measurements within the phone and sends these measurements to a central server that uses a hybrid of methods to calculate the location of the phone on a continuous basis. Tri-cell was invented by the company Trisent Communication Ltd.
Mobile technology | wiki |
Carriera
Nel 2013 ha esordito in Série A con il Corinthians.
Note
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
A tablespace is a storage location where the actual data underlying database objects can be kept. It provides a layer of abstraction between physical and logical data, and serves to allocate storage for all DBMS managed segments. (A database segment is a database object which occupies physical space such as table data and indexes.) Once created, a tablespace can be referred to by name when creating database segments.
Tablespaces specify only the database storage locations, not the logical database structure, or database schema. For instance, different objects in the same schema may have different underlying tablespaces. Similarly, a tablespace may service segments for more than one schema. Sometimes it can be used to specify schema so as to form a bond between logical and physical data.
By using tablespaces, an administrator also can control the disk layout of an installation. A common use of tablespaces is to optimize performance. For example, a heavily used index can be placed on a fast SSD. On the other hand, a database table which contains archived data that is rarely accessed could be stored on a less expensive but slower magnetic hard drive.
While it is common for tablespaces to store their data in a filesystem file, a single file must be part of a single tablespace. Some database management systems allow tablespaces to be configured directly over operating-system device entries, called raw devices, providing better performance by avoiding the OS filesystem overheads.
Oracle stores data logically in tablespaces and physically in datafiles associated with the corresponding tablespace.
References
Database management systems | wiki |
SciFi-Universe (ou SFU) est un site traitant de science-fiction, dans le sens anglais général du terme (Sci-Fi).
Historique
Lancé en 1996, le site SciFi-Universe évolue au fil du temps pour devenir à partir de 2003, un portail dédié à la SF.
Positionnement
Le site traite de la science-fiction sous ses différentes formes (ciné, télévision, littérature, jeux, jeux vidéo, bande dessinée, etc.).
Notes et références
Liens externes
Site officiel
SciFi-Universe sur le site Ulule
Site web français
Site web en français
Site web sur la science-fiction | wiki |
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