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The Solar System consists of the Sun and the objects that orbit it. The name comes from Sōl, the Latin name for the Sun. It formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, creating the Sun and a protoplanetary disc from which the orbiting bodies assembled. The fusion of hydrogen into helium inside the Sun's core releases energy, which is primarily emitted through its outer photosphere. This creates a decreasing temperature gradient across the system. Over 99.86% of the Solar System's mass is located within the Sun. The most massive objects that orbit the Sun are the eight planets. Closest to the Sun in order of increasing distance are the four terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These are the planets of the inner Solar System. Earth and Mars are the only planets in the Solar System which orbit within the Sun's habitable zone, where liquid water can exist on the surface. Beyond the frost line at about five astronomical units (AU), are two gas giants – Jupiter and Saturn – and two ice giants – Uranus and Neptune. These are the planets of the outer Solar System. Jupiter and Saturn possess nearly 90% of the non-stellar mass of the Solar System. There are a vast number of less massive objects. There is a strong consensus among astronomers that the Solar System has at least nine dwarf planets: Ceres, Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, Makemake, Gonggong, Eris, and Sedna. Six planets, seven dwarf planets, and other bodies have orbiting natural satellites, which are commonly called 'moons', and range from sizes of dwarf planets, like Earth's Moon, at their largest, to much less massive moonlets at their smallest.
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Solar System
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satellites , which are commonly called 'moons ' , and range from sizes of dwarf planets , like Earth 's Moon , at their largest , to much less massive moonlets at their smallest .There are small Solar System bodies, such as asteroids, comets, centaurs, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust clouds. Some of these bodies are in the asteroid belt (between Mars's and Jupiter's orbit) and the Kuiper belt (just outside Neptune's orbit). Between the bodies of the Solar System is an interplanetary medium of dust and particles. The Solar System is constantly flooded by outflowing charged particles from the solar wind, forming the heliosphere. At around 70–90 AU from the Sun, the solar wind is halted by the interstellar medium, resulting in the heliopause. This is the boundary to interstellar space. Further out somewhere beyond 2,000 AU from the Sun extends the outermost region of the Solar System, the theorized Oort cloud, the source for long-period comets, stretching to the edge of the Solar System, the edge of its Hill sphere, at 178,000–227,000 AU (2.81–3.59 ly), where its gravitational potential becomes equal to the galactic potential. The Solar System currently moves through a cloud of interstellar medium called the Local Cloud. The closest star to the Solar System, Proxima Centauri, is 269,000 AU (4.25 ly) away. Both are within the Local Bubble, a relatively small 1,000 light-years (ly) wide region of the Milky Way. Definition
The Solar System includes the Sun and all objects that are bound to it by gravity and orbit it. The International Astronomical Union describes the Solar System as all objects that are bound by the gravity of the Sun, the Sun itself, its eight planets, and the other celestial bodies which orbit it.
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Solar System
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2
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Union describes the Solar System as all objects that are bound by the gravity of the Sun , the Sun itself , its eight planets , and the other celestial bodies which orbit it .NASA describes the Solar System as a planetary system, including the Sun and all objects that orbit it. When not used as a proper noun and written without capitalization, "solar system" may refer to either the Solar System itself or any system reminiscent of the Solar System. Formation and evolution
Past
The Solar System formed at least 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars. As is typical of molecular clouds, this one consisted mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars. As the pre-solar nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surroundings. As the contracting nebula spun faster, it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the center. The planets formed by accretion from this disc, in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other, coalescing to form ever larger bodies. Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System, but they either merged or were destroyed or ejected, leaving the planets, dwarf planets, and leftover minor bodies. In the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun, within the frost line and even further within the soot line, material other than metals and silicates, due to their higher boiling points, could not persist in solid form. Here planets formed that are mainly rocky, which are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
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Solar System
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3
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silicates , due to their higher boiling points , could not persist in solid form . Here planets formed that are mainly rocky , which are Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars .Because these refractory materials only comprised a small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud. Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the center of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion. As helium accumulates at its core, the Sun is growing brighter; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure counterbalancing the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star. Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space. Following the dissipation of the protoplanetary disk, the Nice model proposes that gravitational encounters between planetesimals and the gas giants caused each to migrate into different orbits. This led to dynamical instability of the entire system, which scattered the planetesimals and ultimately placed the gas giants in their current positions.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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4
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gas giants caused each to migrate into different orbits . This led to dynamical instability of the entire system , which scattered the planetesimals and ultimately placed the gas giants in their current positions .During this period, the grand tack hypothesis suggests that a final inward migration of Jupiter dispersed much of the asteroid belt, leading to the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets. Present and future
The Solar System remains in a relatively stable, slowly evolving state by following isolated, gravitationally bound orbits around the Sun. Although the Solar System has been fairly stable for billions of years, it is technically chaotic, and may eventually be disrupted. There is a small chance that another star will pass through the Solar System in the next few billion years. Although this could destabilize the system and eventually lead millions of years later to expulsion of planets, collisions of planets, or planets hitting the Sun, it would most likely leave the Solar System much as it is today. The Sun's main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other subsequent phases of the Sun's pre-remnant life combined. The Solar System will remain roughly as it is known today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium, which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now. This will mark the end of the Sun's main-sequence life. At that time, the core of the Sun will contract with hydrogen fusion occurring along a shell surrounding the inert helium, and the energy output will be greater than at present. The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter, and the Sun will become a red giant.
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Solar System
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5
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the energy output will be greater than at present . The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter , and the Sun will become a red giant .Because of its increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be cooler (2,600 K (4,220 °F) at its coolest) than it is on the main sequence. The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury as well as Venus, and render Earth and Mars uninhabitable (possibly destroying Earth as well). Eventually, the core will be hot enough for helium fusion; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core. The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements, and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle. Its outer layers will be ejected into space, leaving behind a dense white dwarf, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth. The ejected outer layers may form a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun – but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon – to the interstellar medium. General characteristics
Astronomers sometimes divide the Solar System structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the bodies in the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the bodies in the Kuiper belt. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune. Composition
The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G-type main-sequence star that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally.
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Solar System
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6
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objects beyond Neptune . Composition The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun , a G-type main-sequence star that contains 99.86 % of the system 's known mass and dominates it gravitationally .The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four terrestrial planets, the dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass. The Sun is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium, as are Jupiter and Saturn. A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the early Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points. The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could coalesce is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly five times the Earth's distance from the Sun. Orbits
The planets and other large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the invariable plane of the Solar System, as does Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic, and most closely the orbit of Jupiter, with an inclination to it of 0.3219°. Smaller icy objects such as comets frequently orbit at significantly greater angles to this plane. Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own, being orbited by natural satellites called moons. All of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. The four giant planets have planetary rings, thin discs of tiny particles that orbit them in unison.
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Solar System
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natural satellites are in synchronous rotation , with one face permanently turned toward their parent . The four giant planets have planetary rings , thin discs of tiny particles that orbit them in unison .As a result of the formation of the Solar System, planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating. That is, counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth's north pole. There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet. Most of the larger moons orbit their planets in prograde direction, matching the direction of planetary rotation; Neptune's moon Triton is the largest to orbit in the opposite, retrograde manner. Most larger objects rotate around their own axes in the prograde direction relative to their orbit, though the rotation of Venus is retrograde. To a good first approximation, Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects around the Sun. These laws stipulate that each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus, which causes the body's distance from the Sun to vary over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. Kepler's laws only account for the influence of the Sun's gravity upon an orbiting body, not the gravitational pulls of different bodies upon each other. On a human time scale, these perturbations can be accounted for using numerical models, but the planetary system can change chaotically over billions of years. The angular momentum of the Solar System is a measure of the total amount of orbital and rotational momentum possessed by all its moving components.
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Solar System
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system can change chaotically over billions of years . The angular momentum of the Solar System is a measure of the total amount of orbital and rotational momentum possessed by all its moving components .Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of the angular momentum. The planets, dominated by Jupiter, account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass, orbit, and distance from the Sun, with a possibly significant contribution from comets. Distances and scales
The radius of the Sun is 0.0047 AU (700,000 km; 400,000 mi). Thus, the Sun occupies 0.00001% (1 part in 107) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth's orbit, whereas Earth's volume is roughly 1 millionth (10−6) that of the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is 5.2 AU from the Sun and has a radius of 71,000 km (0.00047 AU; 44,000 mi), whereas the most distant planet, Neptune, is 30 AU from the Sun. With a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearest object to the Sun. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury, whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances, like the Titius–Bode law and Johannes Kepler's model based on the Platonic solids, but ongoing discoveries have invalidated these hypotheses. Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System in human terms.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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9
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's model based on the Platonic solids , but ongoing discoveries have invalidated these hypotheses . Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System in human terms .Some are small in scale (and may be mechanical – called orreries) – whereas others extend across cities or regional areas. The largest such scale model, the Sweden Solar System, uses the 110-meter (361-foot) Avicii Arena in Stockholm as its substitute Sun, and, following the scale, Jupiter is a 7.5-meter (25-foot) sphere at Stockholm Arlanda Airport, 40 km (25 mi) away, whereas the farthest current object, Sedna, is a 10 cm (4 in) sphere in Luleå, 912 km (567 mi) away. At that scale, the distance to Proxima Centauri would be roughly 8 times further than the Moon is from Earth. If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres (330 ft), then the Sun would be about 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter (roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball), the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm (0.12 in), and Earth's diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea (0.3 mm or 0.012 in) at this scale. Habitability
The zone of habitability of the Solar System is conventionally located in the inner Solar System around Earth, where atmospheric liquid water is enabled by the Sun. Besides solar energy, the primary characteristic of the Solar System enabling the presence of life is the heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that have them). These magnetic fields partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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10
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presence of life is the heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields ( for those planets that have them ) . These magnetic fields partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays .The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun's magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of cosmic-ray penetration in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown. Habitability in the Solar System is though not solely dependent on surface conditions, and furthermore the Solar environment, since there might be habitablity in potential subsurface oceans of various Solar System bodies, or cloud layers of some planets, particularly Venus. Comparison with extrasolar systems
Analysis of Kepler data suggests that observed planetary systems in the Milky Way fall into three groups: "similar", which comprise planets of similar sizes similar distances apart and with highly circular orbits; "ordered", in which the masses of planets tend to increase with distance from their star, and "mixed", which show no pattern in masses whatsoever. The Solar System is an ordered system, as are 37% of observed systems. Similar systems however are the majority, comprising 59% of observed systems, while mixed systems comprise just 4%. Compared to many extrasolar systems, the Solar System stands out in lacking planets interior to the orbit of Mercury. The known Solar System lacks super-Earths, planets between one and ten times as massive as the Earth, although the hypothetical Planet Nine, if it does exist, could be a super-Earth orbiting in the edge of the Solar System. Uncommonly, it has only small terrestrial and large gas giants; elsewhere planets of intermediate size are typical – both rocky and gas – so there is no "gap" as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune (with a radius 3.8 times as large).
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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are typical – both rocky and gas – so there is no `` gap '' as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune ( with a radius 3.8 times as large ) .As many of these super-Earths are closer to their respective stars than Mercury is to the Sun, a hypothesis has arisen that all planetary systems start with many close-in planets, and that typically a sequence of their collisions causes consolidation of mass into few larger planets, but in case of the Solar System the collisions caused their destruction and ejection. The orbits of Solar System planets are nearly circular. Compared to many other systems, they have smaller orbital eccentricity. Although there are attempts to explain it partly with a bias in the radial-velocity detection method and partly with long interactions of a quite high number of planets, the exact causes remain undetermined. Sun
The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses), which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System, produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light. Because the Sun fuses hydrogen at its core, it is a main-sequence star. More specifically, it is a G2-type main-sequence star, where the type designation refers to its effective temperature. Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous but shorter lived. The Sun's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, make up about 75% of the fusor stars in the Milky Way.
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Solar System
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12
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brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare , whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars , known as red dwarfs , make up about 75 % of the fusor stars in the Milky Way .The Sun is a population I star, having formed in the spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. It has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ("metals" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars in the galactic bulge and halo. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This higher metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets formed from the accretion of "metals". The region of space dominated by the Solar magnetosphere is the heliosphere, which spans much of the Solar System. Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) called the solar wind. This stream spreads outwards at speeds from 900,000 kilometres per hour (560,000 mph) to 2,880,000 kilometres per hour (1,790,000 mph), filling the vacuum between the bodies of the Solar System. The result is a thin, dusty atmosphere, called the interplanetary medium, which extends to at least 100 AU. Activity on the Sun's surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturbs the heliosphere, creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms. Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun.
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Solar System
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, disturbs the heliosphere , creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms . Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun .The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth's upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles. The largest stable structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium. Inner Solar System
The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU from the Sun. Inner planets
The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals such as silicates—which form their crusts and mantles—and metals such as iron and nickel which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. Mercury (0.31–0.59 AU from the Sun) is the smallest planet in the Solar System. Its surface is grayish, with an expansive rupes (cliff) system generated from thrust faults and bright ray systems formed by impact event remnants. The surface has widely varying temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight.
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Solar System
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impact event remnants . The surface has widely varying temperature , with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C ( −270 °F ) at night to 420 °C ( 790 °F ) during sunlight .In the past, Mercury was volcanically active, producing smooth basaltic plains similar to the Moon. It is likely that Mercury has a silicate crust and a large iron core. Mercury has a very tenuous atmosphere, consisting of solar-wind particles and ejected atoms. Mercury has no natural satellites. Venus (0.72–0.73 AU) has a reflective, whitish atmosphere that is mainly composed of carbon dioxide. At the surface, the atmospheric pressure is ninety times as dense as on Earth's sea level. Venus has a surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), mainly due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The planet lacks a protective magnetic field to protect against stripping by the solar wind, which suggests that its atmosphere is sustained by volcanic activity. Its surface displays extensive evidence of volcanic activity with stagnant lid tectonics. Venus has no natural satellites. Earth (0.98–1.02 AU) is the only place in the universe where life and surface liquid water are known to exist. Earth's atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, which is the result of the presence of life. The planet has a complex climate and weather system, with conditions differing drastically between climate regions. The solid surface of Earth is dominated by green vegetation, deserts and white ice sheets. Earth's surface is shaped by plate tectonics that formed the continental masses. Earth's planetary magnetosphere shields the surface from radiation, limiting atmospheric stripping and maintaining life habitability. The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. Its diameter is one-quarter the size of Earth's. Its surface is covered in very fine regolith and dominated by impact craters.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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15
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habitability . The Moon is Earth 's only natural satellite . Its diameter is one-quarter the size of Earth 's . Its surface is covered in very fine regolith and dominated by impact craters .Large dark patches on the Moon, maria, are formed from past volcanic activity. The Moon's atmosphere is extremely thin, consisting of a partial vacuum with particle densities of under 107 per cm−3. Mars (1.38–1.67 AU) has a radius about half of that of Earth. Most of the planet is red due to iron oxide in Martian soil, and the polar regions are covered in white ice caps made of water and carbon dioxide. Mars has an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide, with surface pressure 0.6% of that of Earth, which is sufficient to support some weather phenomena. During the Mars year (687 Earth days), there are large surface temperature swings on the surface between −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) to 5.7 °C (42.3 °F). The surface is peppered with volcanoes and rift valleys, and has a rich collection of minerals. Mars has a highly differentiated internal structure, and lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago. Mars has two tiny moons:
Phobos is Mars's inner moon. It is a small, irregularly shaped object with a mean radius of 11 km (7 mi). Its surface is very unreflective and dominated by impact craters. In particular, Phobos's surface has a very large Stickney impact crater that is roughly 4.5 km (2.8 mi) in radius. Deimos is Mars's outer moon. Like Phobos, it is irregularly shaped, with a mean radius of 6 km (4 mi) and its surface reflects little light. However, the surface of Deimos is noticeably smoother than Phobos because the regolith partially covers the impact craters.
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Solar System
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radius of 6 km ( 4 mi ) and its surface reflects little light . However , the surface of Deimos is noticeably smoother than Phobos because the regolith partially covers the impact craters .Asteroids
Asteroids, except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of carbonaceous, refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice. They range from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. Many asteroids are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Some asteroids have natural satellites that orbit them, that is, asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. Mercury-crossing asteroids are those with perihelia within the orbit of Mercury. At least 362 are known to date, and include the closest objects to the Sun known in the Solar System. No vulcanoids, asteroids between the orbit of Mercury and the Sun, have been discovered. As of 2024, one asteroid has been discovered to orbit completely within Venus's orbit, 594913 ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim. Venus-crossing asteroids are those that cross the orbit of Venus. There are 2,809 as of 2015. Near-Earth asteroids have orbits that approach relatively close to Earth's orbit, and some of them are potentially hazardous objects because they might collide with Earth in the future. There are over 37,000 known as of 2024. A number of solar-orbiting meteoroids were large enough to be tracked in space before striking Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of Earth. Mars-crossing asteroids are those with perhihelia above 1.3 AU which cross the orbit of Mars. As of 2024, NASA lists 26,182 confirmed Mars-crossing asteroids. Asteroid belt
The asteroid belt occupies a torus-shaped region between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
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NASA lists 26,182 confirmed Mars-crossing asteroids . Asteroid belt The asteroid belt occupies a torus-shaped region between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter. The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometer in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth. The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident. Below are the descriptions of the three largest bodies in the asteroid belt. They are all considered to be relatively intact protoplanets, a precursor stage before becoming a fully-formed planet (see List of exceptional asteroids):
Ceres (2.55–2.98 AU) is the only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt. It is the largest object in the belt, with a diameter of 940 km (580 mi). Its surface contains a mixture of carbon, frozen water and hydrated minerals. There are signs of past cryovolcanic activity, where volatile material such as water are erupted onto the surface, as seen in surface bright spots. Ceres has a very thin water vapor atmosphere, but practically speaking it is indistinguishable from a vacuum. Vesta (2.13–3.41 AU) is the second-largest object in the asteroid belt. Its fragments survive as the Vesta asteroid family and numerous HED meteorites found on Earth. Vesta's surface, dominated by basaltic and metamorphic material, has a denser composition than Ceres's. Its surface is marked by two giant craters: Rheasilvia and Veneneia. Pallas (2.15–2.57 AU) is the third-largest object in the asteroid belt. It has its own Pallas asteroid family.
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Solar System
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18
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Its surface is marked by two giant craters : Rheasilvia and Veneneia . Pallas ( 2.15–2.57 AU ) is the third-largest object in the asteroid belt . It has its own Pallas asteroid family .Not much is known about Pallas because it has never been visited by a spacecraft, though its surface is predicted to be composed of silicates. Hilda asteroids are in a 3:2 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jovian orbits. They lie in three linked clusters between Jupiter and the main asteroid belt. Trojans are bodies located within another body's gravitationally stable Lagrange points: L4, 60° ahead in its orbit, or L5, 60° behind in its orbit. Every planet except Mercury is known to possess at least one trojan. The Jupiter trojan population is roughly equal to that of the asteroid belt. After Jupiter, Neptune possesses the most confirmed trojans, at 28. Outer Solar System
The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles such as water, ammonia, and methane, than planets of the inner Solar System because their lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid, without significant sublimation. Outer planets
The four outer planets, called giant planets or Jovian planets, collectively make up 99% of the mass orbiting the Sun. All four giant planets have multiple moons and a ring system, although only Saturn's rings are easily observed from Earth. Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases with extremely low melting points, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon, hence their designation as gas giants.
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Solar System
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19
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easily observed from Earth . Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases with extremely low melting points , such as hydrogen , helium , and neon , hence their designation as gas giants .Uranus and Neptune are ice giants, meaning they are largely composed of 'ice' in the astronomical sense (chemical compounds with melting points of up to a few hundred kelvins such as water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide.) Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets and small objects that lie beyond Neptune's orbit. Jupiter (4.95–5.46 AU) is the biggest and most massive planet in the Solar System. On its surface, there are orange-brown and white cloud bands moving via the principles of atmospheric circulation, with giant storms swirling on the surface such as the Great Red Spot and white 'ovals'. Jupiter possesses a strong enough magnetosphere to redirect ionizing radiation and cause auroras on its poles. As of 2025, Jupiter has 97 confirmed satellites, which can roughly be sorted into three groups:
The Amalthea group, consisting of Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. They orbit substantially closer to Jupiter than other satellites. Materials from these natural satellites are the source of Jupiter's faint ring. The Galilean moons, consisting of Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. They are the largest moons of Jupiter and exhibit planetary properties. Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects. Saturn (9.08–10.12 AU) has a distinctive visible ring system orbiting around its equator composed of small ice and rock particles. Like Jupiter, it is mostly made of hydrogen and helium. At its north and south poles, Saturn has peculiar hexagon-shaped storms larger than the diameter of Earth. Saturn has a magnetosphere capable of producing weak auroras.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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20
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made of hydrogen and helium . At its north and south poles , Saturn has peculiar hexagon-shaped storms larger than the diameter of Earth . Saturn has a magnetosphere capable of producing weak auroras .As of 2025, Saturn has 274 confirmed satellites, grouped into:
Ring moonlets and shepherds, which orbit inside or close to Saturn's rings. A moonlet can only partially clear out dust in its orbit, while the ring shepherds are able to completely clear out dust, forming visible gaps in the rings. Inner large satellites Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione. These satellites orbit within Saturn's E ring. They are composed mostly of water ice and are believed to have differentiated internal structures. Trojan moons Calypso and Telesto (trojans of Tethys), and Helene and Polydeuces (trojans of Dione). These small moons share their orbits with Tethys and Dione, leading or trailing either. Outer large satellites Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, and Iapetus. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere. Irregular satellites, consisting of substantially smaller natural satellites. They have more distant orbits than the other objects. Phoebe is the largest irregular satellite of Saturn. Uranus (18.3–20.1 AU), uniquely among the planets, orbits the Sun on its side with an axial tilt >90°. This gives the planet extreme seasonal variation as each pole points alternately toward and then away from the Sun. Uranus's outer layer has a muted cyan color, but underneath these clouds are many mysteries about its climate, such as unusually low internal heat and erratic cloud formation. As of 2025, Uranus has 28 confirmed satellites, divided into three groups:
Inner satellites, which orbit inside Uranus's ring system. They are very close to each other, which suggests that their orbits are chaotic.
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Solar System
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confirmed satellites , divided into three groups : Inner satellites , which orbit inside Uranus 's ring system . They are very close to each other , which suggests that their orbits are chaotic .Large satellites, consisting of Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda. Most of them have roughly equal amounts of rock and ice, except Miranda, which is made primarily of ice. Irregular satellites, having more distant and eccentric orbits than the other objects. Neptune (29.9–30.5 AU) is the furthest planet known in the Solar System. Its outer atmosphere has a slightly muted cyan color, with occasional storms on the surface that look like dark spots. Like Uranus, many atmospheric phenomena of Neptune are unexplained, such as the thermosphere's abnormally high temperature or the strong tilt (47°) of its magnetosphere. As of 2025, Neptune has 16 confirmed satellites, divided into two groups:
Regular satellites, which have circular orbits that lie near Neptune's equator. Irregular satellites, which as the name implies, have less regular orbits. One of them, Triton, is Neptune's largest moon. It is geologically active, with erupting geysers of nitrogen gas, and possesses a thin, cloudy nitrogen atmosphere. Centaurs
The centaurs are icy, comet-like bodies whose semi-major axes are longer than Jupiter's and shorter than Neptune's (between 5.5 and 30 AU). These are former Kuiper belt and scattered disc objects (SDOs) that were gravitationally perturbed closer to the Sun by the outer planets, and are expected to become comets or be ejected out of the Solar System. While most centaurs are inactive and asteroid-like, some exhibit cometary activity, such as the first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron, which has been classified as a comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun.
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Solar System
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such as the first centaur discovered , 2060 Chiron , which has been classified as a comet ( 95P ) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun .The largest known centaur, 10199 Chariklo, has a diameter of about 250 km (160 mi) and is one of the few minor planets possessing a ring system. Trans-Neptunian region
Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the "trans-Neptunian region", with the doughnut-shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of scattered objects, which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds – the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon – composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes described as the "third zone of the Solar System", enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System. Kuiper belt
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies, although the largest few are probably large enough to be dwarf planets. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km (30 mi), but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects have satellites, and most have orbits that are substantially inclined (~10°) to the plane of the ecliptic.
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Solar System
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tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth . Many Kuiper belt objects have satellites , and most have orbits that are substantially inclined ( ~10° ) to the plane of the ecliptic .The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the "classical" belt and the resonant trans-Neptunian objects. The latter have orbits whose periods are in a simple ratio to that of Neptune: for example, going around the Sun twice for every three times that Neptune does, or once for every two. The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 to 47.7 AU. Members of the classical Kuiper belt are sometimes called "cubewanos", after the first of their kind to be discovered, originally designated 1992 QB1, (and has since been named Albion); they are still in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits. There is strong consensus among astronomers that five members of the Kuiper belt are dwarf planets. Many dwarf planet candidates are being considered, pending further data for verification. Pluto (29.7–49.3 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit, inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane. Pluto has a 2:3 resonance with Neptune, meaning that Pluto orbits twice around the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits. Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos. Pluto has five moons: Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Charon, the largest of Pluto's moons, is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto, as the two bodies orbit a barycenter of gravity above their surfaces (i.e. they appear to "orbit each other"). Orcus (30.3–48.1 AU), is in the same 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune as Pluto, and is the largest such object after Pluto itself.
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Solar System
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`` orbit each other '' ) . Orcus ( 30.3–48.1 AU ) , is in the same 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune as Pluto , and is the largest such object after Pluto itself .Its eccentricity and inclination are similar to Pluto's, but its perihelion lies about 120° from that of Pluto. Thus, the phase of Orcus's orbit is opposite to Pluto's: Orcus is at aphelion (most recently in 2019) around when Pluto is at perihelion (most recently in 1989) and vice versa. For this reason, it has been called the anti-Pluto. It has one known moon, Vanth. Haumea (34.6–51.6 AU) was discovered in 2005. It is in a temporary 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune. Haumea possesses a ring system, two known moons named Hiʻiaka and Namaka, and rotates so quickly (once every 3.9 hours) that it is stretched into an ellipsoid. It is part of a collisional family of Kuiper belt objects that share similar orbits, which suggests a giant impact on Haumea ejected fragments into space billions of years ago. Makemake (38.1–52.8 AU), although smaller than Pluto, is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt (that is, a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune). Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto. Discovered in 2005, it was officially named in 2009. Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto's, at 29°. It has one known moon, S/2015 (136472) 1. Quaoar (41.9–45.5 AU) is the second-largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt, after Makemake. Its orbit is significantly less eccentric and inclined than those of Makemake or Haumea. It possesses a ring system and one known moon, Weywot.
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Solar System
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the classical Kuiper belt , after Makemake . Its orbit is significantly less eccentric and inclined than those of Makemake or Haumea . It possesses a ring system and one known moon , Weywot .Scattered disc
The scattered disc, which overlaps the Kuiper belt but extends out to near 500 AU, is thought to be the source of short-period comets. Scattered-disc objects are believed to have been perturbed into erratic orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune's early outward migration. Most scattered disc objects have perihelia within the Kuiper belt but aphelia far beyond it (some more than 150 AU from the Sun). SDOs' orbits can be inclined up to 46.8° from the ecliptic plane. Some astronomers consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt and describe scattered-disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects". Some astronomers classify centaurs as inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects along with the outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc. Currently, there is strong consensus among astronomers that two of the bodies in the scattered disc are dwarf planets:
Eris (38.3–97.5 AU) is the largest known scattered disc object and the most massive known dwarf planet. Eris's discovery contributed to a debate about the definition of a planet because it is 25% more massive than Pluto and about the same diameter. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. Like Pluto, its orbit is highly eccentric, with a perihelion of 38.2 AU (roughly Pluto's distance from the Sun) and an aphelion of 97.6 AU, and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane at an angle of 44°. Gonggong (33.8–101.2 AU) is a dwarf planet in a comparable orbit to Eris, except that it is in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune. It has one known moon, Xiangliu.
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Gonggong ( 33.8–101.2 AU ) is a dwarf planet in a comparable orbit to Eris , except that it is in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune . It has one known moon , Xiangliu .Extreme trans-Neptunian objects
Some objects in the Solar System have a very large orbit, and therefore are much less affected by the known giant planets than other minor planet populations. These bodies are called extreme trans-Neptunian objects, or ETNOs for short. Generally, ETNOs' semi-major axes are at least 150–250 AU wide. For example, 541132 Leleākūhonua orbits the Sun once every ~32,000 years, with a distance of 65–2000 AU from the Sun. This population is divided into three subgroups by astronomers. The scattered ETNOs have perihelia around 38–45 AU and an exceptionally high eccentricity of more than 0.85. As with the regular scattered disc objects, they were likely formed as result of gravitational scattering by Neptune and still interact with the giant planets. The detached ETNOs, with perihelia approximately between 40–45 and 50–60 AU, are less affected by Neptune than the scattered ETNOs, but are still relatively close to Neptune. The sednoids or inner Oort cloud objects, with perihelia beyond 50–60 AU, are too far from Neptune to be strongly influenced by it. Currently, there is one ETNO that is classified as a dwarf planet:
Sedna (76.2–937 AU) was the first extreme trans-Neptunian object to be discovered. It is a large, reddish object, and takes ~11,400 years to complete one orbit. Mike Brown, who discovered the object in 2003, asserts that it cannot be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune's migration. The sednoid population is named after Sedna.
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can not be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune 's migration . The sednoid population is named after Sedna .Statistical variance has been observed in the orbits of some extreme trans-Neptunian objects, whose closest approaches to the Sun are mostly clustered around one sector and who display a similar orbital tilt to each other. Some astronomers have suggested that this may be the result of the influence of a large planet beyond Neptune; this hypothetical planet has been termed Planet Nine. Others credit this statistical variance to observational biases or sheer coincidence. Oort cloud
The Oort cloud is a theorized spherical shell of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long-period comets, which were originally ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way. No direct observation of the Oort cloud is possible with present imaging technology. The Oort cloud is theorized to surround the Solar System from potentially ~2,000 AU from the Sun to up to ~200,000 AU. Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU. Most of the mass is orbiting in the region between 3,000 and 100,000 AU. The furthest known objects, such as Comet West, have aphelia around 70,000 AU from the Sun. Gravitationally unstable populations
Meteoroids, meteors and dust
Solid objects smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids (grain-sized), with the exact division between the two categories being debated over the years.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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Meteoroids , meteors and dust Solid objects smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids ( grain-sized ) , with the exact division between the two categories being debated over the years .By 2017, the IAU designated any solid object having a diameter between ~30 micrometers and 1 meter as meteoroids, and depreciated the micrometeoroid categorization, instead terms smaller particles simply as 'dust particles'. Some meteoroids formed via disintegration of comets and asteroids, while a few formed via impact debris ejected from planetary bodies. Most meteoroids are made of silicates and heavier metals like nickel and iron. When passing through the Solar System, comets produce a trail of meteoroids; it is hypothesized that this is caused either by vaporization of the comet's material or by simple breakup of dormant comets. When crossing an atmosphere, these meteoroids will produce bright streaks in the sky due to atmospheric entry, called meteors. If a stream of meteoroids enter the atmosphere on parallel trajectories, the meteors will seemingly 'radiate' from a point in the sky, hence the phenomenon's name: meteor shower. The inner Solar System is home to the zodiacal dust cloud, which is visible as the hazy zodiacal light in dark, unpolluted skies. It may be generated by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets; a more recent proposed origin is materials from planet Mars. The outer Solar System hosts a cosmic dust cloud. It extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably created by collisions within the Kuiper belt. Comets
Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometers across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto.
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Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.
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only a few kilometers across , composed largely of volatile ices . They have highly eccentric orbits , generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto .When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye. Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent. Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. Old comets whose volatiles have mostly been driven out by solar warming are often categorized as asteroids. Boundary region and uncertainties
Much of the outer reaches of the Solar System is still unknown. The region beyond 100 AU away is virtually unexplored and learning about this region of space is difficult. Study of this region depends upon inferences from those few objects whose orbits happen to be perturbed such that they fall closer to the Sun, and even then, detecting these objects has often been possible only when they happened to become bright enough to register as comets. Many objects are yet to be discovered in the Solar System's outer region. The Sun's gravitational sphere of influence is estimated to dominate over the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years (125,000 AU).
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Solar System
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the Solar System 's outer region . The Sun 's gravitational sphere of influence is estimated to dominate over the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years ( 125,000 AU ) .The Sun's Hill sphere, its gravitational potential reaching the galactic potential, the potential of the galactic nucleus, the effective range of its gravitational influence, is thought to encompass the Oort cloud, and extend to up to 230,000 AU from the Sun. The boundaries of the heliosphere and of the Hill sphere, the Sun's gravitational potential in respect to the interstellar medium and the galactic gravitational potential, at the edge of the Oort cloud, represent the boundaries of the Solar System with the galactic environment it is in. Edge of the heliosphere
The Sun's stellar-wind bubble, the heliosphere, a region of space dominated by the Sun, has its boundary at the termination shock. Based on the Sun's peculiar motion relative to the local standard of rest, this boundary is roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind. Here the solar wind collides with the interstellar medium and dramatically slows, condenses and becomes more turbulent, forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath. The heliosheath has been theorized to look and behave very much like a comet's tail, extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind to possibly several thousands of AU. Evidence from the Cassini and Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is forced into a bubble shape by the constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field, but the actual shape remains unknown. The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south, e.g.
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Solar System
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and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south , e.g .it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU farther than the southern hemisphere. The heliopause is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium. Beyond the heliopause, at around 230 AU, lies the bow shock: a plasma "wake" left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way. Large objects outside the heliopause remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, but the flow of matter in the interstellar medium homogenizes the distribution of micro-scale objects. Celestial neighborhood
Within 10 light-years of the Sun there are relatively few stars, the closest being the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away and may be in the Local Bubble's G-Cloud. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the closest star to the Sun, the small red dwarf Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-years. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was found to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The Solar System is surrounded by the Local Interstellar Cloud, although it is not clear if it is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or if it lies just outside the cloud's edge. Multiple other interstellar clouds exist in the region within 300 light-years of the Sun, known as the Local Bubble. The latter feature is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae.
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Solar System
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is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across . The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma , suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae .The Local Bubble is a small superbubble compared to the neighboring wider Radcliffe Wave and Split linear structures (formerly Gould Belt), each of which are some thousands of light-years in length. All these structures are part of the Orion Arm, which contains most of the stars in the Milky Way that are visible to the unaided eye. Groups of stars form together in star clusters, before dissolving into co-moving associations. A prominent grouping that is visible to the naked eye is the Ursa Major moving group, which is around 80 light-years away within the Local Bubble. The nearest star cluster is Hyades, which lies at the edge of the Local Bubble. The closest star-forming regions are the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex and the Taurus molecular cloud; the latter lies just beyond the Local Bubble and is part of the Radcliffe wave. Stellar flybys that pass within 0.8 light-years of the Sun occur roughly once every 100,000 years. The closest well-measured approach was Scholz's Star, which approached to ~50,000 AU of the Sun some ~70 thousands years ago, likely passing through the outer Oort cloud. There is a 1% chance every billion years that a star will pass within 100 AU of the Sun, potentially disrupting the Solar System. Galactic position
The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing more than 100 billion stars. The Sun is part of one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur. It is a member of the thin disk population of stars orbiting close to the galactic plane.
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Solar System
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the Milky Way 's outer spiral arms , known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur . It is a member of the thin disk population of stars orbiting close to the galactic plane .Its speed around the center of the Milky Way is about 220 km/s, so that it completes one revolution every 240 million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year. The solar apex, the direction of the Sun's path through interstellar space, is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega. The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60° to the galactic plane. The Sun follows a nearly circular orbit around the Galactic Center (where the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* resides) at a distance of 26,660 light-years, orbiting at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms. If it orbited close to the center, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. In this scenario, the intense radiation of the Galactic Center could interfere with the development of complex life. The Solar System's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, but since Earth stays in the Local Spur and therefore does not pass frequently through spiral arms, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve. However, according to the controversial Shiva hypothesis, the changing position of the Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth. Discovery and exploration
Humanity's knowledge of the Solar System has grown incrementally over the centuries.
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Solar System
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Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth . Discovery and exploration Humanity 's knowledge of the Solar System has grown incrementally over the centuries .Up to the Late Middle Ages–Renaissance, astronomers from Europe to India believed Earth to be stationary at the center of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky. Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos, Nicolaus Copernicus was the first person known to have developed a mathematically predictive heliocentric system. Heliocentrism did not triumph immediately over geocentrism, but the work of Copernicus had its champions, notably Johannes Kepler. Using a heliocentric model that improved upon Copernicus by allowing orbits to be elliptical, and the precise observational data of Tycho Brahe, Kepler produced the Rudolphine Tables, which enabled accurate computations of the positions of the then-known planets. Pierre Gassendi used them to predict a transit of Mercury in 1631, and Jeremiah Horrocks did the same for a transit of Venus in 1639. This provided a strong vindication of heliocentrism and Kepler's elliptical orbits. In the 17th century, Galileo publicized the use of the telescope in astronomy; he and Simon Marius independently discovered that Jupiter had four satellites in orbit around it. Christiaan Huygens followed on from these observations by discovering Saturn's moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn. In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realize that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun.
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Solar System
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that observations of the solar parallax of a planet ( more ideally using the transit of Venus ) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth , Venus , and the Sun .Halley's friend Isaac Newton, in his magisterial Principia Mathematica of 1687, demonstrated that celestial bodies are not quintessentially different from Earthly ones: the same laws of motion and of gravity apply on Earth and in the skies. The term "Solar System" entered the English language by 1704, when John Locke used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets. In 1705, Halley realized that repeated sightings of a comet were of the same object, returning regularly once every 75–76 years. This was the first evidence that anything other than the planets repeatedly orbited the Sun, though Seneca had theorized this about comets in the 1st century. Careful observations of the 1769 transit of Venus allowed astronomers to calculate the average Earth–Sun distance as 93,726,900 miles (150,838,800 km), only 0.8% greater than the modern value. Uranus, having occasionally been observed since 1690 and possibly from antiquity, was recognized to be a planet orbiting beyond Saturn by 1783. In 1838, Friedrich Bessel successfully measured a stellar parallax, an apparent shift in the position of a star created by Earth's motion around the Sun, providing the first direct, experimental proof of heliocentrism. Neptune was identified as a planet some years later, in 1846, thanks to its gravitational pull causing a slight but detectable variation in the orbit of Uranus. Mercury's orbital anomaly observations led to searches for Vulcan, a planet interior of Mercury, but these attempts were quashed with Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity in 1915. In the 20th century, humans began their space exploration around the Solar System, starting with placing telescopes in space since the 1960s.
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Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity in 1915 . In the 20th century , humans began their space exploration around the Solar System , starting with placing telescopes in space since the 1960s .By 1989, all eight planets have been visited by space probes. Probes have returned samples from comets and asteroids, as well as flown through the Sun's corona and visited two dwarf planets (Pluto and Ceres). To save on fuel, some space missions make use of gravity assist maneuvers, such as the two Voyager probes accelerating when flying by planets in the outer Solar System and the Parker Solar Probe decelerating closer towards the Sun after its flyby of Venus. Humans have landed on the Moon during the Apollo program in the 1960s and 1970s and will return to the Moon in the 2020s with the Artemis program. Discoveries in the 20th and 21st century has prompted the redefinition of the term planet in 2006, hence the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet, and further interest in trans-Neptunian objects. See also
Interplanetary spaceflight – Crewed or uncrewed travel between stars or planets
List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System
List of Solar System extremes
List of Solar System objects by size – Largest objects of the Solar System
Lists of geological features of the Solar System – Directory of lists of geological features on asteroids, moons and planets other than Earth
Outline of the Solar System – Overview of and topical guide to the Solar System
Planetary mnemonic – Phrase used to remember the planets of the Solar System
Solar System in fiction
Notes
References
Data sources
Other sources
External links
"Solar System" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 157–158.
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Solar System Solar System in fiction Notes References Data sources Other sources External links '' Solar System '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol . 25 ( 11th ed. ) . 1911. pp . 157–158 .If the Moon were only 1 Pixel: A Tediously Accurate Map of the Solar System (web based scroll map scaled to the Moon being 1 pixel)
NASA's Eyes on the Solar System
NASA's Solar System Exploration
NASA's Solar System Simulator
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Solar System
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The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light and infrared radiation with 10% at ultraviolet energies. It is the main source of energy for life on Earth. The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures and a central subject for astronomical research since antiquity. The Sun orbits the Galactic Center at a distance of 24,000 to 28,000 light-years. Its mean distance from Earth is about 1.496×108 kilometres or about 8 light-minutes. The distance between the Sun and the Earth was used to define a unit of length called the astronomical unit, now defined to be 149.5978707×106 kilometres. Its diameter is about 1,391,400 km (864,600 mi), 109 times that of Earth. The Sun's mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, making up about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. The mass of the Sun's surface layer, its photosphere, consists mostly of hydrogen (~73%) and helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V), informally called a yellow dwarf, though its light is actually white. It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the centre; the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. Every second, the Sun's core fuses about 600 billion kilograms (kg) of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kilograms of matter into energy.
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Sun
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nuclear fusion in its core . Every second , the Sun 's core fuses about 600 billion kilograms ( kg ) of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kilograms of matter into energy .About 4 to 7 billion years from now, when hydrogen fusion in the Sun's core diminishes to the point where the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase in density and temperature which will cause its outer layers to expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant. After the red giant phase, models suggest the Sun will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star (a white dwarf), and no longer produce energy by fusion, but will still glow and give off heat from its previous fusion for perhaps trillions of years. After that, it is theorised to become a super dense black dwarf, giving off negligible energy. Etymology
The English word sun developed from Old English sunne. Cognates appear in other Germanic languages, including West Frisian sinne, Dutch zon, Low German Sünn, Standard German Sonne, Bavarian Sunna, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All these words stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn. This is ultimately related to the word for sun in other branches of the Indo-European language family, though in most cases a nominative stem with an l is found, rather than the genitive stem in n, as for example in Latin sōl, ancient Greek ἥλιος (hēlios), Welsh haul and Czech slunce, as well as (with *l > r) Sanskrit स्वर् (svár) and Persian خور (xvar).
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ancient Greek ἥλιος ( hēlios ) , Welsh haul and Czech slunce , as well as ( with * l > r ) Sanskrit स्वर् ( svár ) and Persian خور ( xvar ) .Indeed, the l-stem survived in Proto-Germanic as well, as *sōwelan, which gave rise to Gothic sauil (alongside sunnō) and Old Norse prosaic sól (alongside poetic sunna), and through it the words for sun in the modern Scandinavian languages: Swedish and Danish sol, Icelandic sól, etc. The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are sunny for sunlight and, in technical contexts, solar (), from Latin sol. From the Greek helios comes the rare adjective heliac (). In English, the Greek and Latin words occur in poetry as personifications of the Sun, Helios () and Sol (), while in science fiction Sol may be used to distinguish the Sun from other stars. The term sol with a lowercase s is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars. The astronomical symbol for the Sun is a circle with a central dot: ☉. It is used for such units as M☉ (Solar mass), R☉ (Solar radius) and L☉ (Solar luminosity). The scientific study of the Sun is called heliology. General characteristics
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. It has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs. It is more massive than 95% of the stars within 7 pc (23 ly). The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich, star.
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Sun
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which are red dwarfs . It is more massive than 95 % of the stars within 7 pc ( 23 ly ) . The Sun is a Population I , or heavy-element-rich , star .Its formation approximately 4.6 billion years ago may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star. The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is just less than 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. One astronomical unit (about 150 million kilometres; 93 million miles) (au) was originally defined as the mean distance between the centres of the Sun and the Earth. The instantaneous distance varies by about ±2.5 million kilometres (1.6 million miles) as Earth moves from perihelion around 3 January to aphelion around 4 July. At its average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 20 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. In 2012 the au was defined to be 149,597,870,700 m.
The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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life on Earth by photosynthesis , and drives Earth 's climate and weather . The Sun does not have a definite boundary , but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere .For the purpose of measurement, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its centre to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun. The roundness of the Sun is the relative difference between its radius at its equator,
R
eq
{\displaystyle R_{\textrm {eq}}}
, and at its pole,
R
pol
{\displaystyle R_{\textrm {pol}}}
, called the oblateness,
Δ
⊙
=
(
R
eq
−
R
pol
)
/
R
pol
. {\displaystyle \Delta _{\odot }=(R_{\textrm {eq}}-R_{\textrm {pol}})/R_{\textrm {pol}}.} The value is difficult to measure. Atmospheric distortion means the measurement must be done on satellites; the value is very small meaning very precise technique is needed. The oblateness was once proposed to be sufficient to explain the perihelion precession of Mercury but Einstein proposed that general relativity could explain the precession using a spherical Sun. When high precision measurements of the oblateness became available via the Solar Dynamics Observatory and the
Picard satellite the measured value was even smaller than expected, 8.2×10−6, or 8 parts per million. These measurements determined the Sun to be the natural object closest to a perfect sphere ever observed. The oblateness value remains constant independent of solar irradiation changes. The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. Rotation
The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles . This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun 's rotation .In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days. Viewed from a vantage point above its north pole, the Sun rotates counterclockwise around its axis of spin. A survey of solar analogues suggests the early Sun was rotating up to ten times faster than it does today. This would have made the surface much more active, with greater X-ray and UV emission. Sunspots would have covered 5%–30% of the surface. The rotation rate was gradually slowed by magnetic braking, as the Sun's magnetic field interacted with the outflowing solar wind. A vestige of this rapid primordial rotation still survives at the Sun's core, which rotates at a rate of once per week; four times the mean surface rotation rate. Composition
The Sun consists mainly of the elements hydrogen and helium. At this time in the Sun's life, they account for 74.9% and 23.8%, respectively, of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant. The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have been about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements.
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Sun
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original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed . Originally it would have been about 71.1 % hydrogen , 27.4 % helium , and 1.5 % heavier elements .The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae. Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. The proportion of helium within the core has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere toward the centre of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of heavier elements are unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core, and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere, the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.
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Sun
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45
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, helium will continue to accumulate in the core , and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant .The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System. Typically, the solar heavy-element abundances described above are measured both by using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well. Structure
Core
The core of the Sun extends from the centre to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3 (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvin (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is about 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favours the idea that the core is rotating faster than the radiative zone outside it. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through the proton–proton chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Currently, 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle; the proportion coming from the CNO cycle is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older and more luminous. The core is the only region of the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the Sun's power is generated in the innermost 24% of its radius, and almost no fusion occurs beyond 30% of the radius.
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Sun
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thermal energy through fusion ; 99 % of the Sun 's power is generated in the innermost 24 % of its radius , and almost no fusion occurs beyond 30 % of the radius .The rest of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outward through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles). The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7×1038 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg/s. However, each proton (on average) takes around 9 billion years to fuse with another using the PP chain. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 billion kg/s (which requires 600 billion kg of hydrogen), for 384.6 yottawatts (3.846×1026 W), or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power being generated per cubic metre. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the centre of the core, which, according to Karl Kruszelnicki, is about the same power density inside a compost pile.
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Sun
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energy production , of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the centre of the core , which , according to Karl Kruszelnicki , is about the same power density inside a compost pile .The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate. Radiative zone
The radiative zone is the thickest layer of the Sun, at 0.45 solar radii. From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer. The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core. This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection. Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20,000 kg/m3 to 200 kg/m3) between 0.25 solar radii and 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone. Tachocline
The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. Presently, it is hypothesised that a magnetic dynamo, or solar dynamo, within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field.
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Sun
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two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another . Presently , it is hypothesised that a magnetic dynamo , or solar dynamo , within this layer generates the Sun 's magnetic field .Convective zone
The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry most of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped 350-fold to 5,700 K (9,800 °F) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone). The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small-scale" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun. The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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of the solar interior sustains `` small-scale '' dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun . The Sun 's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms .Atmosphere
The solar atmosphere is the region of the Sun that extends from the top of the convection zone to the inner boundary of the heliosphere. It is often divided into three primary layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. The chromosphere and corona are separated by a thin transition region that is frequently considered as an additional distinct layer. Some sources consider the heliosphere to be the outer or extended solar atmosphere. Photosphere
The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light perceived is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions. The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometres thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the centre than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,772 K (9,930 °F), interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionised—the extent of ionisation is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.
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per volume of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level ) . The photosphere is not fully ionised—the extent of ionisation is about 3 % , leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form .The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water. Chromosphere
Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning colour, because the chromosphere is visible as a coloured flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses. The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionised. The chromosphere and overlying corona are separated by a thin (about 200 km) transition region where the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionisation of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude, but forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to extreme ultraviolet. Corona
The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3.
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Sun
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ultraviolet . Corona The corona is the next layer of the Sun . The low corona , near the surface of the Sun , has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3 .The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The outer boundary of the corona is located where the radially increasing, large-scale solar wind speed is equal to the radially decreasing Alfvén wave phase speed. This defines a closed, nonspherical surface, referred to as the Alfvén critical surface, below which coronal flows are sub-Alfvénic and above which the solar wind is super-Alfvénic. The height at which this transition occurs varies across space and with solar activity, reaching its lowest near solar minimum and its highest near solar maximum. In April 2021 the surface was crossed for the first time at heliocentric distances ranging from 16 to 20 solar radii by the Parker Solar Probe. Predictions of its full possible extent have placed its full range within 8 to 30 solar radii. Heliosphere
The heliosphere is defined as the region of space where the solar wind dominates over the interstellar medium. Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun . In December 2004 , the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause .In late 2012, Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium, and indeed did so on 25 August 2012, at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun. The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's peculiar motion through the galaxy. Solar radiation
The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum. Its colour is white, with a CIE colour-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. The Solar radiance per wavelength peaks in the green portion of the spectrum when viewed from space. When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue. Some cultures mentally picture the Sun as yellow and some even red; the cultural reasons for this are debated. The Sun is classed as a G2 star, meaning it is a G-type star, with 2 indicating its surface temperature is in the second range of the G class. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square metre) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, at or near Earth's orbit).
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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to approximately 1,368 W/m2 ( watts per square metre ) at a distance of one astronomical unit ( AU ) from the Sun ( that is , at or near Earth 's orbit ) .Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionises Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating its electrically conducting ionosphere. Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitise tools and water. This radiation causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. It is the main cause of skin cancer. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin colour. High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after travelling only a few millimetres. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface.
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Sun
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and 170,000 years . In contrast , it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos , which account for about 2 % of the total energy production of the Sun , to reach the surface .Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed. Electron neutrinos are released by fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. However, measurements of the number of these neutrinos produced in the Sun are lower than theories predict by a factor of 3. In 2001, the discovery of neutrino oscillation resolved the discrepancy: the Sun emits the number of electron neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected. Magnetic activity
The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface. Its polar field is 1–2 gauss (0.0001–0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10–100 gauss (0.001–0.01 T) in solar prominences. The magnetic field varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes. The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma only moves along magnetic field lines.
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Sun
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plasma carries the Sun 's magnetic field into space , forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field . In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics , plasma only moves along magnetic field lines .As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind. At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral. Sunspots
Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, so they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses toward its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometres across. An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength; but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities.
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Sun
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buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere , giving rise to pairs of sunspots , roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities .The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon described by Hale's law. During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealised, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. Solar activity
The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Changes in solar irradiance over the 11-year solar cycle have been correlated with changes in sunspot number. The solar cycle influences space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth.
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the Solar System . Changes in solar irradiance over the 11-year solar cycle have been correlated with changes in sunspot number . The solar cycle influences space weather conditions , including those surrounding Earth .For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures. Coronal heating
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere. It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares. Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. The current research focus has therefore shifted toward flare heating mechanisms. Life phases
The Sun today is roughly halfway through the main-sequence portion of its life.
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not easily dissipate in the corona . The current research focus has therefore shifted toward flare heating mechanisms . Life phases The Sun today is roughly halfway through the main-sequence portion of its life .It has not changed dramatically in over four billion years and will remain fairly stable for about five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally. Formation
The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the centre, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accumulated more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion. The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are hypothesised to be its stellar siblings, formed in the same molecular cloud.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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disk , eventually triggering nuclear fusion . The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are hypothesised to be its stellar siblings , formed in the same molecular cloud .Main sequence
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four billion kilograms of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 to 11 billion years as a main-sequence star before the red giant phase of the Sun. At the 8 billion year mark, the Sun will be at its hottest point according to the ESA's Gaia space observatory mission in 2022. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter in its core, hotter at the surface, larger in radius, and more luminous during its time on the main sequence: since the beginning of its main sequence life, it has expanded in radius by 15% and the surface has increased in temperature from 5,620 K (9,660 °F) to 5,772 K (9,930 °F), resulting in a 48% increase in luminosity from 0.677 solar luminosities to its present-day 1.0 solar luminosity. This occurs because the helium atoms in the core have a higher mean molecular weight than the hydrogen atoms that were fused, resulting in less thermal pressure. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre, releasing gravitational potential energy. According to the virial theorem, half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating, which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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the virial theorem , half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating , which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity .This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years. It will take at least 1 billion years from now to deplete liquid water from the Earth from such increase. After that, the Earth will cease to be able to support complex, multicellular life and the last remaining multicellular organisms on the planet will suffer a final, complete mass extinction. After core hydrogen exhaustion
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, when it runs out of hydrogen in the core in approximately 5 billion years, core hydrogen fusion will stop, and there will be nothing to prevent the core from contracting. The release of gravitational potential energy will cause the luminosity of the Sun to increase, ending the main sequence phase and leading the Sun to expand over the next billion years: first into a subgiant, and then into a red giant. The heating due to gravitational contraction will also lead to expansion of the Sun and hydrogen fusion in a shell just outside the core, where unfused hydrogen remains, contributing to the increased luminosity, which will eventually reach more than 1,000 times its present luminosity. When the Sun enters its red-giant branch (RGB) phase, it will engulf (and destroy) Mercury and Venus. According to a 2008 article, Earth's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) due to the Sun's loss of mass.
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Sun
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to a 2008 article , Earth 's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU ( 220 million km ; 140 million mi ) due to the Sun 's loss of mass .However, Earth's orbit will then start shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere) so that it is engulfed by the Sun during the tip of the red-giant branch phase 7.59 billion years from now, 3.8 and 1 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. By the time the Sun reaches the tip of the red-giant branch, it will be about 256 times larger than it is today, with a radius of 1.19 AU (178 million km; 111 million mi). The Sun will spend around a billion years in the RGB and lose around a third of its mass. After the red-giant branch, the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core (full of degenerate helium) ignites violently in the helium flash; it is estimated that 6% of the core—itself 40% of the Sun's mass—will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha process. The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun's metallicity does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to react helium in the core. When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted. This time, however, it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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62
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Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted . This time , however , it all happens faster , and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous .This is the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately reacting hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level. Despite this, the Sun's maximum AGB radius will not be as large as its tip-RGB maximum: 179 R☉, or about 0.832 AU (124.5 million km; 77.3 million mi). Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius. For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K (53,500 °F), as if it is in a sort of blue loop. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K (180,000 °F) and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present-day mass. Simulations indicate that the Sun may be among the least massive stars capable of forming a planetary nebula.
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Sun
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180,000 °F ) and contain an estimated 54.05 % of the Sun 's present-day mass . Simulations indicate that the Sun may be among the least massive stars capable of forming a planetary nebula .The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical super-dense black dwarf. As such, it would give off no more energy. Location
Solar System
The Sun has eight known planets orbiting it. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has nine bodies generally considered as dwarf planets and some more candidates, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Six of the planets and many smaller bodies also have their own natural satellites: in particular, the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are in some ways like miniature versions of the Sun's system. The Sun is moved by the gravitational pull of the planets. The centre of the Sun moves around the Solar System barycentre, within a range from 0.1 to 2.2 solar radii. The Sun's motion around the barycentre approximately repeats every 179 years, rotated by about 30° due primarily to the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn. This motion is mainly due to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. For some periods of several decades (when Neptune and Uranus are in opposition) the motion is rather regular, forming a trefoil pattern, whereas between these periods it appears more chaotic. After 179 years (nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn), the pattern more or less repeats, but rotated by about 24°.
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Sun
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these periods it appears more chaotic . After 179 years ( nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn ) , the pattern more or less repeats , but rotated by about 24° .The orbits of the inner planets, including of the Earth, are similarly displaced by the same gravitational forces, so the movement of the Sun has little effect on the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun or on solar irradiance on the Earth as a function of time. The Sun's gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light-years (125,000 AU). Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU. Most of the mass is orbiting in the region between 3,000 and 100,000 AU. The furthest known objects, such as Comet West, have aphelia around 70,000 AU from the Sun. The Sun's Hill sphere with respect to the galactic nucleus, the effective range of its gravitational influence, was calculated by G. A. Chebotarev to be 230,000 AU. Celestial neighbourhood
Motion
The Sun, taking along the whole Solar System, orbits the galaxy's centre of mass at an average speed of 230 km/s (828,000 km/h), taking about 220–250 million Earth years to complete a revolution (a galactic year), having done so about 20 times since the Sun's formation. The direction of the Sun's motion, the Solar apex, is roughly in the direction of the star Vega. In the past the Sun likely moved through the Orion–Eridanus Superbubble, before entering the Local Bubble. As the sun goes around the galaxy it also moves with respect to the average motion of the other stars around it.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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65
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moved through the Orion–Eridanus Superbubble , before entering the Local Bubble . As the sun goes around the galaxy it also moves with respect to the average motion of the other stars around it .A simple model predicts that in a frame of reference rotating with the galaxy, the sun moves in an ellipse, circulating around a point that is itself going around the galaxy. The period of the Sun's circulation around the point is about 166 million years, shorter than the time it takes for the point to go around the galaxy. The length of the ellipse is around 1760 parsecs and its width around 1170 parsecs. (Compare this to the distance of the Sun from the centre of the galaxy, around 7 or 8 kiloparsecs.) At the same time, the sun moves "north" and "south" of the galactic plane with a different period, around 83 million years, moving about 99 parsecs away from the plane. The point around which the Sun circulates takes around 240 million years to go once around the galaxy. (See Stellar kinematics for more details.) The Sun's orbit around the Milky Way is perturbed due to the non-uniform mass distribution in Milky Way, such as that in and between the galactic spiral arms. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way (a galactic year), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the centre of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s (156 mi/s).
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Sun
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to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun . The orbital speed of the Solar System about the centre of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s ( 156 mi/s ) .At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU. The Milky Way is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, but since the Sun is moving with respect to the Galactic Centre in the direction of Cygnus (galactic longitude 90°; latitude 0°) at more than 200 km/sec, the resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of Crater or Leo (galactic latitude 264°, latitude 48°). This is 132° away from Cygnus. Observational history
Early understanding
In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. In the early 1st millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit, moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion. One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun.
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the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras . He reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun .Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometres or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few per cent. In the 1st century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometres (0.0515 AU). The theory that the Sun is the centre around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. Development of scientific understanding
Observations of sunspots were recorded by Chinese astronomers during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220), with records of their observations being maintained for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century. The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun. Medieval Islamic astronomical contributions include al-Battani's discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing. In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth's orbit.
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the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest ) is changing . In modern heliocentric terms , this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth 's orbit .Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe. The first reasonably accurate distance to the Sun was determined in 1684 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini. Knowing that direct measurements of the solar parallax were difficult, he chose to measure the Martian parallax. Having sent Jean Richer to Cayenne, part of French Guiana, for simultaneous measurements, Cassini in Paris determined the parallax of Mars when Mars was at its closest to Earth in 1672. Using the circumference distance between the two observations, Cassini calculated the Earth–Mars distance, then used Kepler's laws to determine the Earth–Sun distance. His value, about 10% smaller than modern values, was much larger than all previous estimates. From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Ibn Sina concluded that Venus was closer to Earth than the Sun. In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realise that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. Careful observations of the 1769 transit of Venus allowed astronomers to calculate the average Earth–Sun distance as 93,726,900 miles (150,838,800 km), only 0.8% greater than the modern value. In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colours. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.
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Sun
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69
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light using a prism , and showed that it is made up of light of many colours . In 1800 , William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum .The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. The 20th century brought about several specialised systems for observing the Sun, especially at different narrowband wavelengths, such as those using Calcium-H (396.9 nm), Calcium-K (393.37 nm) and Hydrogen-alpha (656.46 nm) filtering. During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesised that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890, Lockyer proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun. Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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70
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Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered . Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun 's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat , and suggested radioactive decay as the source .However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass–energy equivalence relation E = mc2. In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionisation theory developed by Meghnad Saha. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesised by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun. Solar space missions
The first satellites designed for long term observation of the Sun from interplanetary space were Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9, which were launched by NASA between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983. In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion.
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Sun
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on solar wind and the solar corona . The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury 's orbit at perihelion .The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind. In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission probes were launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984, Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989. Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA, was launched on 2 December 1995.
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Sun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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the Sun . It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005 . The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory , jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA , was launched on 2 December 1995 .Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, SOHO remains in operation as of 2024. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun. All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first travelled to Jupiter, to "slingshot" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays. Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. Observation by eyes
Exposure to the eye
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes.
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Sun
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to the eye The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye ; however , doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes .Looking directly at the Sun, known as sungazing, causes phosphene visual artefacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. Viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina beginning after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused. Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels. Brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage. During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation. Phenomena
An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer.
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Sun
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be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise . The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent ( usually through a temperature inversion ) towards the observer .Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green. Religious aspects
Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies. Worship of the Sun was central to civilisations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god, known as Surya. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (for example in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta; and Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Sun was Utu, the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven. Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash. Utu was regarded as a helper-deity, who aided those in distress. From at least the Fourth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle.
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Sun
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75
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the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra , portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk . In the New Empire period , the Sun became identified with the dung beetle .In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaten. The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally 'Unconquered Sun') soon after the winter solstice. The Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorised it as one of the seven planets (from Greek planetes, 'wanderer'); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era. In Proto-Indo-European religion, the Sun was personified as the goddess *Seh2ul. Derivatives of this goddess in Indo-European languages include the Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solntse. In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios, who in later times was syncretised with Apollo. In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the sun god. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life. It was the centre of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of Sol Invictus. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians.
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Sun
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as they prayed . The celebration of the winter solstice ( which influenced Christmas ) was part of the Roman cult of Sol Invictus . It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians .The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. Christian churches were built so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise. In the Bible, the Book of Malachi mentions the "Sun of Righteousness", which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ). Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun, was closely associated with human sacrifice. The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion, and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Cohen, Richard (2010). Chasing the sun: the epic story of the star that gives us life. New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6875-3. Hudson, Hugh (2008). "Solar activity". Scholarpedia. Vol. 3. p. 3967. Bibcode:2008SchpJ...3.3967H. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967. ISSN 1941-6016. Archived from the original on 3 October 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015. Thompson, Michael J (August 2004). "Helioseismology and the Sun's interior". Astronomy & Geophysics. 45 (4): 4.21 – 4.25. Bibcode:2004A&G....45d..21T. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x. ISSN 1366-8781.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun.
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`` Helioseismology and the Sun 's interior '' . Astronomy & Geophysics . 45 ( 4 ) : 4.21 – 4.25 . Bibcode:2004A & G .... 45d .. 21T . doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x . ISSN 1366-8781 .External links
Astronomy Cast: The Sun Archived 12 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Satellite observations of solar luminosity Archived 11 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Animation – The Future of the Sun
"Thermonuclear Art – The Sun In Ultra-HD" Archived 4 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine | Goddard Space Flight Center
"A Decade of Sun" Archived 3 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine | Goddard Space Flight Center
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Mercury is the first planet from the Sun and the smallest in the Solar System. It is a rocky planet with a trace atmosphere and a surface gravity slightly higher than that of Mars. The surface of Mercury is similar to Earth's Moon, being heavily cratered, with an expansive rupes system generated from thrust faults, and bright ray systems, formed by ejecta. Its largest crater, Caloris Planitia, has a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi), which is about one-third the diameter of the planet (4,880 km or 3,030 mi). Being the most inferior orbiting planet, it always appears close to the sun in Earth's sky, either as a "morning star" or an "evening star". It is the planet with the highest delta-v required for travel from Earth, as well as to and from the other planets in the Solar System. Mercury's sidereal year (88.0 Earth days) and sidereal day (58.65 Earth days) are in a 3:2 ratio, in a spin–orbit resonance. Consequently, one solar day (sunrise to sunrise) on Mercury lasts for around 176 Earth days: twice the planet's sidereal year. This means that one side of Mercury will remain in sunlight for one Mercurian year of 88 Earth days; while during the next orbit, that side will be in darkness all the time until the next sunrise after another 88 Earth days. Above the planet's surface is an extremely tenuous exosphere and a faint magnetic field that is strong enough to deflect solar winds. Combined with its high orbital eccentricity, the planet's surface has widely varying sunlight intensity and temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from −170 °C (−270 °F) at night to 420 °C (790 °F) during sunlight. Due to its very small axial tilt, the planet's poles are permanently shadowed.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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79
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from −170 °C ( −270 °F ) at night to 420 °C ( 790 °F ) during sunlight . Due to its very small axial tilt , the planet 's poles are permanently shadowed .This strongly suggests that water ice could be present in the craters. Like the other planets in the Solar System, Mercury formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. There are many competing hypotheses about Mercury's origins and development, some of which incorporate collision with planetesimals and rock vaporization; as of the early 2020s, many broad details of Mercury's geological history are still under investigation or pending data from space probes. Its mantle is highly homogeneous, which suggests that Mercury had a magma ocean early in its history, like the Moon. According to current models, Mercury may have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlaying a solid outer core, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. Mercury is expected to be destroyed, along with Venus, and possibly the Earth and the Moon, when the Sun becomes a Red Giant in approximately seven or eight billion years. Mercury is a classical planet that has been observed and recognized throughout history as a planet (or wandering star). In English, it is named after the ancient Roman god Mercurius (Mercury), god of commerce and communication, and the messenger of the gods. The first successful flyby of Mercury was conducted by Mariner 10 in 1974, and it has since been visited and explored by the MESSENGER and BepiColombo orbiters. Nomenclature
Historically, humans knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star. By about 350 BC, the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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80
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humans knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star . By about 350 BC , the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one .They knew the planet as Στίλβων Stilbōn, meaning "twinkling", and Ἑρμής Hermēs, for its fleeting motion, a name that is retained in modern Greek (Ερμής Ermis). The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), whom they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet, though some associated the planet with Apollo instead, as detailed by Pliny the Elder. The astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus; a Christian cross was added in the 16th century:. Physical characteristics
Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, which means it is a rocky body like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 kilometres (1,516.0 mi). Mercury is also smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. Internal structure
Mercury appears to have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid, metallic outer core layer, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core. The composition of the iron-rich core remains uncertain, but it likely contains nickel, silicon and perhaps sulfur and carbon, plus trace amounts of other elements. The planet's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3, only slightly less than Earth's density of 5.515 g/cm3.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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81
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, plus trace amounts of other elements . The planet 's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3 , only slightly less than Earth 's density of 5.515 g/cm3 .If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out from both planets, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm3 versus Earth's 4.4 g/cm3. Mercury's density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. Although Earth's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not as compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron. The radius of Mercury's core is estimated to be 2,020 ± 30 km (1,255 ± 19 mi), based on interior models constrained to be consistent with a moment of inertia factor of 0.346±0.014. Hence, Mercury's core occupies about 57% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%. Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core. The mantle-crust layer is in total 420 km (260 mi) thick. Projections differ as to the size of the crust specifically; data from the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER probes suggests a thickness of 35 km (22 mi), whereas an Airy isostacy model suggests a thickness of 26 ± 11 km (16.2 ± 6.8 mi). One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, extending up to several hundred kilometers in length. It is thought that these were formed as Mercury's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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extending up to several hundred kilometers in length . It is thought that these were formed as Mercury 's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified .Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1⁄6 Mercury's mass and several thousand kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth's Moon. Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. It would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even as high as 10,000 K. Much of Mercury's surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of "rock vapor" that could have been carried away by the solar wind. A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury. Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury . Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition , and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition .The first MESSENGER, which ended in 2015, found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because said potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events. BepiColombo, which will arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses. The findings so far would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed. Surface geology
Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. It is more heterogeneous than the surface of Mars or the Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus. Albedo features are areas of markedly different reflectivity, which include impact craters, the resulting ejecta, and ray systems. Larger albedo features correspond to higher reflectivity plains. Mercury has "wrinkle-ridges" (dorsa), Moon-like highlands, mountains (montes), plains (planitiae), escarpments (rupes), and valleys (valles). The planet's mantle is chemically heterogeneous, suggesting the planet went through a magma ocean phase early in its history. Crystallization of minerals and convective overturn resulted in a layered, chemically heterogeneous crust with large-scale variations in chemical composition observed on the surface. The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur, resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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in chemical composition observed on the surface . The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur , resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets .The surface is dominated by iron-poor pyroxene and olivine, as represented by enstatite and forsterite, respectively, along with sodium-rich plagioclase and minerals of mixed magnesium, calcium, and iron-sulfide. The less reflective regions of the crust are high in carbon, most likely in the form of graphite. Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of sources and are set according to the IAU planetary nomenclature system. Names coming from people are limited to the deceased. Craters are named for artists, musicians, painters, and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field. Ridges, or dorsa, are named for scientists who have contributed to the study of Mercury. Depressions or fossae are named for works of architecture. Montes are named for the word "hot" in a variety of languages. Plains or planitiae are named for Mercury in various languages. Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of scientific expeditions. Valleys or valles are named for abandoned cities, towns, or settlements of antiquity. Impact basins and craters
Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended 3.8 billion years ago. Mercury received impacts over its entire surface during this period of intense crater formation, facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down. During this time Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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85
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lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down . During this time Mercury was volcanically active ; basins were filled by magma , producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon .One of the most unusual craters is Apollodorus, or "the Spider", which hosts a series of radiating troughs extending outwards from its impact site. Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity. According to International Astronomical Union rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is named. The largest known crater is Caloris Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km (960 mi). The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric mountainous ring ~2 km (1.2 mi) tall surrounding the impact crater. The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they were volcanic lava flows induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury , converging at the basin 's antipode ( 180 degrees away ) . The resulting high stresses fractured the surface .Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode. Overall, 46 impact basins have been identified. A notable basin is the 400 km (250 mi)-wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km (310 mi) from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km (388 mi)-diameter rim. Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts. Plains
There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury. Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km (19 mi) in diameter. Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to lunar maria. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localization and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins. All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket. Compressional features
An unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains. These exist on the Moon, but are much more prominent on Mercury.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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An unusual feature of Mercury 's surface is the numerous compression folds , or rupes , that crisscross the plains . These exist on the Moon , but are much more prominent on Mercury .As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults. The scarps can reach lengths of 1,000 km (620 mi) and heights of 3 km (1.9 mi). These compressional features can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent. Mapping of the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~1–7 km (0.62–4.35 mi). Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6–3.7 billion years ago. Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the range of a few kilometers, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present. Volcanism
There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes. Fifty-one pyroclastic deposits have been identified, where 90% of them are found within impact craters. A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval. A "rimless depression" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km (5.0 mi) in diameter. It is thus a "compound volcano". The vent floors are at least 1 km (0.62 mi) below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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mi ) below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit .Scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system but reported that it could be on the order of a billion years. Surface conditions and exosphere
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F). It never rises above 180 K at the poles, due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. At perihelion, the equatorial subsolar point is located at longitude 0°W or 180°W, and it climbs to a temperature of about 700 K. During aphelion, this occurs at 90° or 270°W and reaches only 550 K. On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m−2). Although daylight temperatures at the surface of Mercury are generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the global average. This creates a cold trap where ice can accumulate. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles. Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers thought it to be the most likely explanation. The presence of water ice was confirmed using MESSENGER images of craters at the north pole.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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89
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only possible cause of these reflective regions , astronomers thought it to be the most likely explanation . The presence of water ice was confirmed using MESSENGER images of craters at the north pole .The icy crater regions are estimated to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4×1018 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior and deposition by impacts of comets. Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). It includes hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, silicon, and hydroxide, among others. This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. The radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH−, and H3O+ was a surprise.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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90
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rock , and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters . The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+ , OH− , and H3O+ was a surprise .Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind. Sodium, potassium, and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s–1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke. In 2008, magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface. According to NASA, Mercury is not a suitable planet for Earth-like life. It has a surface boundary exosphere instead of a layered atmosphere, extreme temperatures, and high solar radiation. It is unlikely that any living beings can withstand those conditions. Some parts of the subsurface of Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet. Magnetic field and magnetosphere
Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's. The magnetic-field strength at Mercury's equator is about 300 nT. Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar and nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis (10° dipolar tilt, compared to 11° for Earth). Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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91
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10° dipolar tilt , compared to 11° for Earth ) . Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable .It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal heating effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect. Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface. Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere. During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's magnetic field can be extremely "leaky". The spacecraft encountered magnetic "tornadoes"—twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space—that were up to 800 km wide or a third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic flux tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection. This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury , but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER .Orbit, rotation, and longitude
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi). It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete an orbit. The diagram illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. In the diagram, the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun. This varying distance to the Sun leads to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger than the Moon's on Earth. Combined with a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance of the planet's rotation around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature. The resonance makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days. Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all eight known solar planets. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun, which is in May or November. This occurs about every seven years on average.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun , which is in May or November . This occurs about every seven years on average .Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees. This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon. By comparison, the angular size of the Sun as seen from Mercury ranges from 1+1⁄4 to 2 degrees across. At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun's apparent motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four Earth days after perihelion, the Sun's normal apparent motion resumes. A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation: the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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. A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation : the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude .For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at either of which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years (once a Mercurian day), the Sun passes overhead, then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again, then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire process. In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same thing happens at the other of these two points. The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall effect is that, for two or three weeks, the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury. Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and 0.8 Mercury years past sunrise. Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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95
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equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph , receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above .Mercury attains an inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as near as 82,200,000 km (0.549 astronomical units; 51.1 million miles) to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within 82,100,000 km (51 million mi) is in 2679, and to within 82,000,000 km (51 million mi) in 4487, but it will not be closer to Earth than 80,000,000 km (50 million mi) until 28,622. Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of an inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity. Essentially, because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is most often the closest planet to the Earth, and—in that measure—it is the closest planet to each of the other planets in the Solar System. Longitude convention
The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, as described above. However, when this area was first visited, by Mariner 10, this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian. Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude. The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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96
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point for measuring longitude . The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian . A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury .The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the MESSENGER project uses an east-positive convention. Spin-orbit resonance
For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly stationary in Mercury's sky. The 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit, acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass distribution. In a circular orbit there is no such variance, so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g., Earth–Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along the "center-body" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the "longest" axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to always point at the center. However, with noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances , like 3:2 , ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion .The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days. A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days. Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets. This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity. However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20 (more likely, 10) million years after its formation. Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant interaction with the perihelion of Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1% chance that the orbit will be destabilized in the next five billion years. If this happens, Mercury may fall into the Sun, collide with Venus, be ejected from the Solar System, or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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98
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years . If this happens , Mercury may fall into the Sun , collide with Venus , be ejected from the Solar System , or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System .Advance of perihelion
In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller "corpuscules") might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation. Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun. The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever found. The observed perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth, or 574.10±0.65 arcseconds per century relative to the inertial ICRF. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets and including 0.0254 arcseconds per century due to the oblateness of the Sun, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds (1.5436°) per century relative to Earth, or 531.63±0.69 arcseconds per century relative to ICRF. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being mediated by the curvature of spacetime. The effect is small: just 42.980±0.001 arcseconds per century (or 0.43 arcsecond per year, or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period) for Mercury; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits, or 3 million years, for a full excess turn.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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99
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arcsecond per year , or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period ) for Mercury ; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits , or 3 million years , for a full excess turn .Similar, but much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.6247 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.8387 for Earth, 1.351 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus. Observation
Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between −2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and +7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior conjunction. The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet. The mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89 while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight. Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun. Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions of Earth in a Mercurian year makes up a seven-Mercurian-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the seventh Mercurian year, Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven Mercurian years before. Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth. It is "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun, except at its new phase during a transit. Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase.
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Mercury (planet)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet).
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