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milder than would otherwise be the case . The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north by up to 30 °C ( 54 °F ) .Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about −110 °C (−166 °F) to highs of up to 35 °C (95 °F) in equatorial summer. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure (about 1% that of the atmosphere of Earth), and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight. Mars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System, reaching speeds of over 160 km/h (100 mph). These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase global temperature. Seasons also produce dry ice covering polar ice caps. Hydrology
While Mars contains water in larger amounts, most of it is dust covered water ice at the Martian polar ice caps. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be enough to cover most of the surface of the planet with a depth of 11 metres (36 ft). Water in its liquid form cannot persist on the surface due to Mars's low atmospheric pressure, which is less than 1% that of Earth. Only at the lowest of elevations are the pressure and temperature high enough for liquid water to exist for short periods.
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atmospheric pressure , which is less than 1 % that of Earth . Only at the lowest of elevations are the pressure and temperature high enough for liquid water to exist for short periods .Although little water is present in the atmosphere, there is enough to produce clouds of water ice and different cases of snow and frost, often mixed with snow of carbon dioxide dry ice. Past hydrosphere
Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava. One of the larger examples, Ma'adim Vallis, is 700 kilometres (430 mi) long, much greater than the Grand Canyon, with a width of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and a depth of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) in places. It is thought to have been carved by flowing water early in Mars's history. The youngest of these channels is thought to have formed only a few million years ago. Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian surface, finer-scale, dendritic networks of valleys are spread across significant proportions of the landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from precipitation in early Mars history. Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks, but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases. Along craters and canyon walls, there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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202
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networks , but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases . Along craters and canyon walls , there are thousands of features that appear similar to terrestrial gullies .The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the Southern Hemisphere and face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude. A number of authors have suggested that their formation process involves liquid water, probably from melting ice, although others have argued for formation mechanisms involving carbon dioxide frost or the movement of dry dust. No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that these are young features, possibly still active. Other geological features, such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters, are further evidence for warmer, wetter conditions at an interval or intervals in earlier Mars history. Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface, for which there is independent mineralogical, sedimentological and geomorphological evidence. Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water. History of observations and findings of water evidence
In 2004, Opportunity detected the mineral jarosite. This forms only in the presence of acidic water, showing that water once existed on Mars. The Spirit rover found concentrated deposits of silica in 2007 that indicated wet conditions in the past, and in December 2011, the mineral gypsum, which also forms in the presence of water, was found on the surface by NASA's Mars rover Opportunity.
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Mars
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conditions in the past , and in December 2011 , the mineral gypsum , which also forms in the presence of water , was found on the surface by NASA 's Mars rover Opportunity .It is estimated that the amount of water in the upper mantle of Mars, represented by hydroxyl ions contained within Martian minerals, is equal to or greater than that of Earth at 50–300 parts per million of water, which is enough to cover the entire planet to a depth of 200–1,000 metres (660–3,280 ft). On 18 March 2013, NASA reported evidence from instruments on the Curiosity rover of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of "Tintina" rock and "Sutton Inlier" rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like "Knorr" rock and "Wernicke" rock. Analysis using the rover's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of 60 centimetres (24 in), during the rover's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain. In September 2015, NASA announced that they had found strong evidence of hydrated brine flows in recurring slope lineae, based on spectrometer readings of the darkened areas of slopes. These streaks flow downhill in Martian summer, when the temperature is above −23 °C, and freeze at lower temperatures. These observations supported earlier hypotheses, based on timing of formation and their rate of growth, that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing just below the surface. However, later work suggested that the lineae may be dry, granular flows instead, with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process. A definitive conclusion about the presence, extent, and role of liquid water on the Martian surface remains elusive.
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Mars
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, with at most a limited role for water in initiating the process . A definitive conclusion about the presence , extent , and role of liquid water on the Martian surface remains elusive .Researchers suspect much of the low northern plains of the planet were covered with an ocean hundreds of meters deep, though this theory remains controversial. In March 2015, scientists stated that such an ocean might have been the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of protium to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium (D/H = 9.3 ± 1.7 10−4) is five to seven times the amount on Earth (D/H = 1.56 10−4), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water. Near the northern polar cap is the 81.4 kilometres (50.6 mi) wide Korolev Crater, which the Mars Express orbiter found to be filled with approximately 2,200 cubic kilometres (530 cu mi) of water ice. In November 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior (which is 12,100 cubic kilometers). During observations from 2018 through 2021, the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter spotted indications of water, probably subsurface ice, in the Valles Marineris canyon system.
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Mars
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205
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which is 12,100 cubic kilometers ) . During observations from 2018 through 2021 , the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter spotted indications of water , probably subsurface ice , in the Valles Marineris canyon system .Orbital motion
Mars's average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (143 million mi), and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours. The gravitational potential difference and thus the delta-v needed to transfer between Mars and Earth is the second lowest for Earth. The axial tilt of Mars is 25.19° relative to its orbital plane, which is similar to the axial tilt of Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like Earth, though on Mars they are nearly twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer. In the present day, the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb. Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System, only Mercury has a larger orbital eccentricity. It is known that in the past, Mars has had a much more circular orbit. At one point, 1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth today. Mars's cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to Earth's cycle of 100,000 years. Mars has its closest approach to Earth (opposition) in a synodic period of 779.94 days. It should not be confused with Mars conjunction, where the Earth and Mars are at opposite sides of the Solar System and form a straight line crossing the Sun.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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of 779.94 days . It should not be confused with Mars conjunction , where the Earth and Mars are at opposite sides of the Solar System and form a straight line crossing the Sun .The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars, its synodic period, is 780 days; but the number of days between successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812. The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and 103 million km (34 and 64 million mi) due to the planets' elliptical orbits, which causes comparable variation in angular size. At their furthest Mars and Earth can be as far as 401 million km (249 million mi) apart. Mars comes into opposition from Earth every 2.1 years. The planets come into opposition near Mars's perihelion in 2003, 2018 and 2035, with the 2020 and 2033 events being particularly close to perihelic opposition. The mean apparent magnitude of Mars is +0.71 with a standard deviation of 1.05. Because the orbit of Mars is eccentric, the magnitude at opposition from the Sun can range from about −3.0 to −1.4. The minimum brightness is magnitude +1.86 when the planet is near aphelion and in conjunction with the Sun. At its brightest, Mars (along with Jupiter) is second only to Venus in apparent brightness. Mars usually appears distinctly yellow, orange, or red. When farthest away from Earth, it is more than seven times farther away than when it is closest. Mars is usually close enough for particularly good viewing once or twice at 15-year or 17-year intervals. Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 kilometres (190 mi) across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth's atmosphere. As Mars approaches opposition, it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping curve with respect to the background stars.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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's atmosphere . As Mars approaches opposition , it begins a period of retrograde motion , which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping curve with respect to the background stars .This retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days, and Mars reaches its peak apparent brightness in the middle of this interval. Moons
Mars has two relatively small (compared to Earth's) natural moons, Phobos (about 22 km (14 mi) in diameter) and Deimos (about 12 km (7.5 mi) in diameter), which orbit at 9,376 km (5,826 mi) and 23,460 km (14,580 mi) around the planet. The origin of both moons is unclear, although a popular theory states that they were asteroids captured into Martian orbit. Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall and were named after the characters Phobos (the deity of panic and fear) and Deimos (the deity of terror and dread), twins from Greek mythology who accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Mars was the Roman equivalent to Ares. In modern Greek, the planet retains its ancient name Ares (Aris: Άρης). From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear different from that of the Earth's satellite, the Moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit – where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation – rises as expected in the east, but slowly. Because the orbit of Phobos is below a synchronous altitude, tidal forces from Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years, it could either crash into Mars's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.
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Mars
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208
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tidal forces from Mars are gradually lowering its orbit . In about 50 million years , it could either crash into Mars 's surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet .The origin of the two satellites is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids, supporting a capture theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point toward a relatively recent capture. But both have circular orbits near the equator, which is unusual for captured objects, and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion early in the history of Mars is plausible, but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself, if that is confirmed. Mars may have yet-undiscovered moons, smaller than 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft) in diameter, and a dust ring is predicted to exist between Phobos and Deimos. A third possibility for their origin as satellites of Mars is the involvement of a third body or a type of impact disruption. More-recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior, and suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known from Mars, point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit, similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's satellite. Although the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer-belt asteroids, the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent with chondrites of any class. It is also possible that Phobos and Deimos were fragments of an older moon, formed by debris from a large impact on Mars, and then destroyed by a more recent impact upon the satellite.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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209
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also possible that Phobos and Deimos were fragments of an older moon , formed by debris from a large impact on Mars , and then destroyed by a more recent impact upon the satellite .Human observations and exploration
The history of observations of Mars is marked by oppositions of Mars when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars, which are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth. Ancient observations
The ancient Sumerians named Mars Nergal, the god of war and plague. During Sumerian times, Nergal was a minor deity of little significance, but, during later times, his main cult center was the city of Nineveh. In Mesopotamian texts, Mars is referred to as the "star of judgement of the fate of the dead". The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was also recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and, by 1534 BCE, they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet. By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods, or 42 circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. They invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. In Ancient Greece, the planet was known as Πυρόεις. Commonly, the Greek name for the planet now referred to as Mars, was Ares. It was the Romans who named the planet Mars, for their god of war, often represented by the sword and shield of the planet's namesake.
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as Mars , was Ares . It was the Romans who named the planet Mars , for their god of war , often represented by the sword and shield of the planet 's namesake .In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating that the planet was farther away. Ptolemy, a Greek living in Alexandria, attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection later called the Almagest (from the Arabic for "greatest"), which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries. Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE. In the East Asian cultures, Mars is traditionally referred to as the "fire star" (火星) based on the Wuxing system. Early modern observations
In 1609 Johannes Kepler published a 10 year study of Martian orbit, using the diurnal parallax of Mars, measured by Tycho Brahe, to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet. From Brahe's observations of Mars, Kepler deduced that the planet orbited the Sun not in a circle, but in an ellipse. Moreover, Kepler showed that Mars sped up as it approached the Sun and slowed down as it moved farther away, in a manner that later physicists would explain as a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum. In 1610 the first use of a telescope for astronomical observation, including Mars, was performed by Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. With the telescope the diurnal parallax of Mars was again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance. This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments.
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Mars
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again measured in an effort to determine the Sun-Earth distance . This was first performed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672 . The early parallax measurements were hampered by the quality of the instruments .The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of 13 October 1590, seen by Michael Maestlin at Heidelberg. Martian "canals"
By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. On 5 September 1877, a perihelic opposition to Mars occurred. The Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22-centimetre (8.7 in) telescope in Milan to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which, with the possible exception of the natural canyon Valles Marineris, were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long, straight lines on the surface of Mars, to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means "channels" or "grooves", was popularly mistranslated in English as "canals". Influenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatory which had 30- and 45-centimetre (12- and 18-in) telescopes. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894, and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. The canali were independently observed by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time. The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summers) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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212
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the dark areas formed during Martian summers ) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars , and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation .As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During observations in 1909 by Antoniadi with an 84-centimetre (33 in) telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen. First exploration
The first spacecraft from Earth to visit Mars was Mars 1 of the Soviet Union, which flew by in 1963, but contact was lost en route. NASA's Mariner 4 followed and became the first spacecraft to successfully transmitted from Mars; launched on 28 November 1964, it made its closest approach to the planet on 15 July 1965. Mariner 4 detected the weak Martian radiation belt, measured at about 0.1% that of Earth, and captured the first images of another planet from deep space. Once spacecraft visited the planet during the 1960s and 1970s, many previous concepts of Mars were radically broken. After the results of the Viking life-detection experiments, the hypothesis of a dead planet was generally accepted. The data from Mariner 9 and Viking allowed better maps of Mars to be made. Renewed exploration
Until 1997 and after Viking 1 shut down in 1982, Mars was only visited by three unsuccessful probes, two flying past without contact (Phobos 1, 1988; Mars Observer, 1993), and one (Phobos 2 1989) malfunctioning in orbit before reaching its destination Phobos. In 1997 Mars Pathfinder became the first successful rover mission beyond the Moon and started together with Mars Global Surveyor (operated until late 2006) an uninterrupted active robotic presence at Mars that has lasted until today. It produced complete, extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography, magnetic field and surface minerals.
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Mars
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until late 2006 ) an uninterrupted active robotic presence at Mars that has lasted until today . It produced complete , extremely detailed maps of the Martian topography , magnetic field and surface minerals .Starting with these missions a range of new improved crewless spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars, with successful missions by the NASA (United States), Jaxa (Japan), ESA, United Kingdom, ISRO (India), Roscosmos (Russia), the United Arab Emirates, and CNSA (China) to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology, uncovering the different elements of the history and dynamic of the hydrosphere of Mars and possible traces of ancient life. Current missions
As of 2023, Mars is host to ten functioning spacecraft. Eight are in orbit: 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, the Hope orbiter, and the Tianwen-1 orbiter. Another two are on the surface: the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover and the Perseverance rover. Collected maps are available online at websites including Google Mars. NASA provides two online tools: Mars Trek, which provides visualizations of the planet using data from 50 years of exploration, and Experience Curiosity, which simulates traveling on Mars in 3-D with Curiosity. Future
Planned missions to Mars include:
NASA's EscaPADE spacecraft, planned to launch in 2025. The Rosalind Franklin rover mission, designed to search for evidence of past life, which was intended to be launched in 2018 but has been repeatedly delayed, with a launch date pushed to 2028 at the earliest. The project was restarted in 2024 with additional funding. A current concept for a joint NASA-ESA mission to return samples from Mars would launch in 2026.
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pushed to 2028 at the earliest . The project was restarted in 2024 with additional funding . A current concept for a joint NASA-ESA mission to return samples from Mars would launch in 2026 .China's Tianwen-3, a sample return mission, scheduled to launch in either 2028 or 2030. As of February 2024, debris from these types of missions has reached over seven tons. Most of it consists of crashed and inactive spacecraft as well as discarded components. In April 2024, NASA selected several companies to begin studies on providing commercial services to further enable robotic science on Mars. Key areas include establishing telecommunications, payload delivery and surface imaging. Habitability and habitation
During the late 19th century, it was widely accepted in the astronomical community that Mars had life-supporting qualities, including the presence of oxygen and water. However, in 1894 W. W. Campbell at Lick Observatory observed the planet and found that "if water vapor or oxygen occur in the atmosphere of Mars it is in quantities too small to be detected by spectroscopes then available". That observation contradicted many of the measurements of the time and was not widely accepted. Campbell and V. M. Slipher repeated the study in 1909 using better instruments, but with the same results. It was not until the findings were confirmed by W. S. Adams in 1925 that the myth of the Earth-like habitability of Mars was finally broken. However, even in the 1960s, articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. The current understanding of planetary habitability – the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life – favors planets that have liquid water on their surface.
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Mars
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Mars . The current understanding of planetary habitability – the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life – favors planets that have liquid water on their surface .Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun is estimated to extend from within the orbit of Earth to about that of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life. The environmental conditions on Mars are a challenge to sustaining organic life: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, it has poor insulation against bombardment by the solar wind due to the absence of a magnetosphere and has insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimes to a gaseous state). Mars is nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet. Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase in CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed by scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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exposure to water and nutrients . This sign of life was later disputed by scientists , resulting in a continuing debate , with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life .A 2014 analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found chlorate, perchlorate, and nitrate ions in sufficiently high concentrations to suggest that they are widespread on Mars. UV and X-ray radiation would turn chlorate and perchlorate ions into other, highly reactive oxychlorines, indicating that any organic molecules would have to be buried under the surface to survive. Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be possible evidence for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere. Alternatively, these compounds may instead be replenished by volcanic or other geological means, such as serpentinite. Impact glass, formed by the impact of meteors, which on Earth can preserve signs of life, has also been found on the surface of the impact craters on Mars. Likewise, the glass in impact craters on Mars could have preserved signs of life, if life existed at the site. The Cheyava Falls rock discovered on Mars in June 2024 has been designated by NASA as a "potential biosignature" and was core sampled by the Perseverance rover for possible return to Earth and further examination. Although highly intriguing, no definitive final determination on a biological or abiotic origin of this rock can be made with the data currently available. Human mission proposals
Several plans for a human mission to Mars have been proposed, but none have come to fruition. The NASA Authorization Act of 2017 directed NASA to study the feasibility of a crewed Mars mission in the early 2030s; the resulting report concluded that this would be unfeasible. In addition, in 2021, China was planning to send a crewed Mars mission in 2033.
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Mars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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Mars mission in the early 2030s ; the resulting report concluded that this would be unfeasible . In addition , in 2021 , China was planning to send a crewed Mars mission in 2033 .Privately held companies such as SpaceX have also proposed plans to send humans to Mars, with the eventual goal to settle on the planet. As of 2024, SpaceX has proceeded with the development of the Starship launch vehicle with the goal of Mars colonization. In plans shared with the company in April 2024, Elon Musk envisions the beginning of a Mars colony within the next twenty years. This would be enabled by the planned mass manufacturing of Starship and initially sustained by resupply from Earth, and in situ resource utilization on Mars, until the Mars colony reaches full self sustainability. Any future human mission to Mars will likely take place within the optimal Mars launch window, which occurs every 26 months. The moon Phobos has been proposed as an anchor point for a space elevator. Besides national space agencies and space companies, groups such as the Mars Society and The Planetary Society advocate for human missions to Mars. In culture
Mars is named after the Roman god of war (Greek Ares), but was also associated with the demi-god Heracles (Roman Hercules) by ancient Greek astronomers, as detailed by Aristotle. This association between Mars and war dates back at least to Babylonian astronomy, in which the planet was named for the god Nergal, deity of war and destruction. It persisted into modern times, as exemplified by Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, whose famous first movement labels Mars "the bringer of war". The planet's symbol, a circle with a spear pointing out to the upper right, is also used as a symbol for the male gender.
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`` the bringer of war '' . The planet 's symbol , a circle with a spear pointing out to the upper right , is also used as a symbol for the male gender .The symbol dates from at least the 11th century, though a possible predecessor has been found in the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians became widespread in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works. Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed "Mars Fever". In the present day, high-resolution mapping of the surface of Mars has revealed no artifacts of habitation, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars still continues. Reminiscent of the canali observations, these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as "pyramids" and the "Face on Mars". In his book Cosmos, planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote: "Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears." The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by nineteenth-century scientific speculations that its surface conditions might support not just life but intelligent life. This gave way to many science fiction stories involving these concepts, such as H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth; Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization; as well as Edgar Rice Burroughs's series Barsoom, C. S. Lewis's novel Out of the Silent Planet (1938), and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars.
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well as Edgar Rice Burroughs 's series Barsoom , C. S. Lewis 's novel Out of the Silent Planet ( 1938 ) , and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties .Since then, depictions of Martians have also extended to animation. A comic figure of an intelligent Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared in Haredevil Hare (1948) as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of popular culture to the present. After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as a lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars were abandoned; for many science-fiction authors, the new discoveries initially seemed like a constraint, but eventually the post-Viking knowledge of Mars became itself a source of inspiration for works like Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. See also
Astronomy on Mars
Outline of Mars – Overview of and topical guide to Mars
List of missions to Mars
Magnetic field of Mars – Past magnetic field of the planet Mars
Mineralogy of Mars
Notes
References
Further reading
Weinersmith K, Weinersmith Z (2023). A city on Mars: can we settle space, should we settle space, and have we really thought this through?. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-9848-8172-4. Shindell M (2023). For the love of Mars: a human history of the red planet. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-82189-4. External links
Mars Trek, an integrated map browser of maps and datasets for Mars
Google Mars and Google Mars 3D, interactive maps of the planet
First TV image of Mars (15 July 1965), CNN News; 15 July 2023
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The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the Solar System, centered on the Sun and roughly spanning the space between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars. It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The identified objects are of many sizes, but much smaller than planets, and, on average, are about one million kilometers (or six hundred thousand miles) apart. This asteroid belt is also called the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System. The asteroid belt is the smallest and innermost circumstellar disc in the Solar System. Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near-Earth objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids, and the Oort cloud objects. About 60% of the main belt mass is contained in the four largest asteroids: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 3% that of the Moon. Ceres, the only object in the asteroid belt large enough to be a dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea have mean diameters less than 600 km. The remaining mineralogically classified bodies range in size down to a few metres. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous uncrewed spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids occur and can produce an asteroid family, whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the belt are categorized by their spectra, with most falling into three basic groups: carbonaceous (C-type), silicate (S-type), and metal-rich (M-type). The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals, the smaller precursors of the protoplanets.
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Asteroid belt
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) , silicate ( S-type ) , and metal-rich ( M-type ) . The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals , the smaller precursors of the protoplanets .However, between Mars and Jupiter gravitational perturbations from Jupiter disrupted their accretion into a planet, imparting excess kinetic energy which shattered colliding planetesimals and most of the incipient protoplanets. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits. History of observation
In 1596, Johannes Kepler wrote, "Between Mars and Jupiter, I place a planet," in his Mysterium Cosmographicum, stating his prediction that a planet would be found there. While analyzing Tycho Brahe's data, Kepler thought that too large a gap existed between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter to fit his own model of where planetary orbits should be found. In an anonymous footnote to his 1766 translation of Charles Bonnet's Contemplation de la Nature, the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets, now known as the Titius-Bode Law.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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translation of Charles Bonnet 's Contemplation de la Nature , the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets , now known as the Titius-Bode Law .If one began a numerical sequence at 0, then included 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, etc., doubling each time, and added four to each number and divided by 10, this produced a remarkably close approximation to the radii of the orbits of the known planets as measured in astronomical units, provided one allowed for a "missing planet" (equivalent to 24 in the sequence) between the orbits of Mars (12) and Jupiter (48). In his footnote, Titius declared, "But should the Lord Architect have left that space empty? Not at all." When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, the planet's orbit closely matched the law, leading some astronomers to conclude that a planet had to be between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi, chairman of astronomy at the University of Palermo, Sicily, found a tiny moving object in an orbit with exactly the radius predicted by this pattern. He dubbed it "Ceres", after the Roman goddess of the harvest and patron of Sicily. Piazzi initially believed it to be a comet, but its lack of a coma suggested it was a planet. Thus, the aforementioned pattern predicted the semimajor axes of all eight planets of the time (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus).
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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Thus , the aforementioned pattern predicted the semimajor axes of all eight planets of the time ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Ceres , Jupiter , Saturn , and Uranus ) .Concurrent with the discovery of Ceres, an informal group of 24 astronomers dubbed the "celestial police" was formed under the invitation of Franz Xaver von Zach with the express purpose of finding additional planets; they focused their search for them in the region between Mars and Jupiter where the Titius–Bode law predicted there should be a planet. About 15 months later, Heinrich Olbers, a member of the celestial police, discovered a second object in the same region, Pallas. Unlike the other known planets, Ceres and Pallas remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs. Apart from their rapid movement, they appeared indistinguishable from stars. Accordingly, in 1802, William Herschel suggested they be placed into a separate category, named "asteroids", after the Greek asteroeides, meaning "star-like". Upon completing a series of observations of Ceres and Pallas, he concluded,
Neither the appellation of planets nor that of comets can with any propriety of language be given to these two stars ... They resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them. From this, their asteroidal appearance, if I take my name, and call them Asteroids; reserving for myself, however, the liberty of changing that name, if another, more expressive of their nature, should occur. By 1807, further investigation revealed two new objects in the region: Juno and Vesta. The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic Wars, where the main body of work had been done, brought this first period of discovery to a close.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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224
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region : Juno and Vesta . The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic Wars , where the main body of work had been done , brought this first period of discovery to a close .Despite Herschel's coinage, for several decades it remained common practice to refer to these objects as planets and to prefix their names with numbers representing their sequence of discovery: 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta. In 1845, though, the astronomer Karl Ludwig Hencke detected a fifth object (5 Astraea) and, shortly thereafter, new objects were found at an accelerating rate. Counting them among the planets became increasingly cumbersome. Eventually, they were dropped from the planet list (as first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 1850s) and Herschel's coinage, "asteroids", gradually came into common use. The discovery of Neptune in 1846 led to the discrediting of the Titius–Bode law in the eyes of scientists because its orbit was nowhere near the predicted position. To date, no scientific explanation for the law has been given, and astronomers' consensus regards it as a coincidence. The expression "asteroid belt" came into use in the early 1850s, although pinpointing who coined the term is difficult. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by Elise Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt's Cosmos: "[...] and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth's orbit and moving with planetary velocity". Another early appearance occurred in Robert James Mann's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens: "The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of [...]".
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens : `` The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space , extending between the extremes of [ ... ] '' .The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters. Over 100 asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891, the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever-increasing numbers. On 22 January 2014, European Space Agency (ESA) scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding was unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes". According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids". Origin
Formation
In 1802, shortly after discovering Pallas, Olbers suggested to Herschel and Carl Gauss that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars–Jupiter region, with this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before, while Odesan astronomer K. N. Savchenko suggested that Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were escaped moons rather than fragments of the exploded planet. The large amount of energy required to destroy a planet, combined with the belt's low combined mass, which is only about 4% of the mass of Earth's Moon, does not support these hypotheses.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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required to destroy a planet , combined with the belt 's low combined mass , which is only about 4 % of the mass of Earth 's Moon , does not support these hypotheses .Further, the significant chemical differences between the asteroids become difficult to explain if they come from the same planet. A modern hypothesis for the asteroid belt's creation relates to how, in general for the Solar System, planetary formation is thought to have occurred via a process comparable to the long-standing nebular hypothesis; a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form a rotating disc of material that then conglomerated to form the Sun and planets. During the first few million years of the Solar System's history, an accretion process of sticky collisions caused the clumping of small particles, which gradually increased in size. Once the clumps reached sufficient mass, they could draw in other bodies through gravitational attraction and become planetesimals. This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the planets. Planetesimals within the region that would become the asteroid belt were strongly perturbed by Jupiter's gravity. Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of a planet. Instead, they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding.
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Asteroid belt
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was too high , the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion , preventing the formation of a planet . Instead , they continued to orbit the Sun as before , occasionally colliding .During the early history of the Solar System, the asteroids melted to some degree, allowing elements within them to be differentiated by mass. Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans. Because of the relatively small size of the bodies, though, the period of melting was necessarily brief compared to the much larger planets, and had generally ended about 4.5 billion years ago, in the first tens of millions of years of formation. In August 2007, a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from Vesta suggested that it, and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt, had formed rather quickly, within 10 million years of the Solar System's origin. Evolution
The asteroids are not pristine samples of the primordial Solar System. They have undergone considerable evolution since their formation, including internal heating (in the first few tens of millions of years), surface melting from impacts, space weathering from radiation, and bombardment by micrometeorites. Although some scientists refer to the asteroids as residual planetesimals, other scientists consider them distinct. The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt. Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained mass equivalent to the Earth's. Primarily because of gravitational perturbations, most of the material was ejected from the belt within about 1 million years of formation, leaving behind less than 0.1% of the original mass. Since its formation, the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable; no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main-belt asteroids has occurred.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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original mass . Since its formation , the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable ; no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main-belt asteroids has occurred .The 4:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter, at a radius 2.06 astronomical units (AUs), can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt. Perturbations by Jupiter send bodies straying there into unstable orbits. Most bodies formed within the radius of this gap were swept up by Mars (which has an aphelion at 1.67 AU) or ejected by its gravitational perturbations in the early history of the Solar System. The Hungaria asteroids lie closer to the Sun than the 4:1 resonance, but are protected from disruption by their high inclination. When the asteroid belt was first formed, the temperatures at a distance of 2.7 AU from the Sun formed a "snow line" below the freezing point of water. Planetesimals formed beyond this radius were able to accumulate ice. In 2006, a population of comets had been discovered within the asteroid belt beyond the snow line, which may have provided a source of water for Earth's oceans. According to some models, outgassing of water during the Earth's formative period was insufficient to form the oceans, requiring an external source such as a cometary bombardment. The outer asteroid belt includes a few icy objects that may have been implanted there during the last few hundred years. One of these objects is the quasi-Hilda comet 362P/(457175) 2008 GO98, which is thought to be a possible former centaur that was sent to the outer asteroid belt via a close encounter with Jupiter. Characteristics
Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable.
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Asteroid belt
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Jupiter . Characteristics Contrary to popular imagery , the asteroid belt is mostly empty . The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable .Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has between 700,000 and 1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The number of asteroids in the main belt steadily increases with decreasing size. Although the size distribution generally follows a power law, there are 'bumps' in the curve at about 5 km and 100 km, where more asteroids than expected from such a curve are found. Most asteroids larger than approximately 120 km in diameter are primordial, having survived from the accretion epoch, whereas most smaller asteroids are products of fragmentation of primordial asteroids. The primordial population of the main belt was probably 200 times what it is today. On average the distance between the asteroids is about 965,600 km (600,000 miles), although this varies among asteroid families and smaller undetected asteroids might be even closer. The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 2.39×1021 kg, which is 3% of the mass of the Moon. The four largest objects, Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea, contain an estimated 62% of the belt's total mass, with 39% accounted for by Ceres alone. Composition
The present day belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids: C-type carbonaceous asteroids, S-type silicate asteroids, and a hybrid group of X-type asteroids.
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Asteroid belt
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accounted for by Ceres alone . Composition The present day belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids : C-type carbonaceous asteroids , S-type silicate asteroids , and a hybrid group of X-type asteroids .The hybrid group have featureless spectra, but they can be divided into three groups based on reflectivity, yielding the M-type metallic, P-type primitive, and E-type enstatite asteroids. Additional types have been found that do not fit within these primary classes. There is a compositional trend of asteroid types by increasing distance from the Sun, in the order of S, C, P, and the spectrally-featureless D-types. Carbonaceous asteroids, as their name suggests, are carbon-rich. They dominate the asteroid belt's outer regions, and are rare in the inner belt. Together they comprise over 75% of the visible asteroids. They are redder in hue than the other asteroids and have a low albedo. Their surface compositions are similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Chemically, their spectra match the primordial composition of the early Solar System, with hydrogen, helium, and volatiles removed. S-type (silicate-rich) asteroids are more common toward the inner region of the belt, within 2.5 AU of the Sun. The spectra of their surfaces reveal the presence of silicates and some metal, but no significant carbonaceous compounds. This indicates that their materials have been significantly modified from their primordial composition, probably through melting and reformation. They have a relatively high albedo and form about 17% of the total asteroid population. M-type (metal-rich) asteroids are typically found in the middle of the main belt, and they make up much of the remainder of the total population. Their spectra resemble that of iron-nickel. Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision. However, some silicate compounds also can produce a similar appearance.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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of iron-nickel . Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision . However , some silicate compounds also can produce a similar appearance .For example, the large M-type asteroid 22 Kalliope does not appear to be primarily composed of metal. Within the asteroid belt, the number distribution of M-type asteroids peaks at a semimajor axis of about 2.7 AU. Whether all M-types are compositionally similar, or whether it is a label for several varieties which do not fit neatly into the main C and S classes is not yet clear. One mystery is the relative rarity of V-type (Vestoid) or basaltic asteroids in the asteroid belt. Theories of asteroid formation predict that objects the size of Vesta or larger should form crusts and mantles, which would be composed mainly of basaltic rock, resulting in more than half of all asteroids being composed either of basalt or of olivine. However, observations suggest that 99% of the predicted basaltic material is missing. Until 2001, most basaltic bodies discovered in the asteroid belt were believed to originate from the asteroid Vesta (hence their name V-type), but the discovery of the asteroid 1459 Magnya revealed a slightly different chemical composition from the other basaltic asteroids discovered until then, suggesting a different origin. This hypothesis was reinforced by the further discovery in 2007 of two asteroids in the outer belt, 7472 Kumakiri and (10537) 1991 RY16, with a differing basaltic composition that could not have originated from Vesta. These two are the only V-type asteroids discovered in the outer belt to date. The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (−73 °C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (−108 °C) at 3.2 AU.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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the Sun . For dust particles within the belt , typical temperatures range from 200 K ( −73 °C ) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K ( −108 °C ) at 3.2 AU .However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation then to the stellar background. Main-belt comets
Several otherwise unremarkable bodies in the outer belt show cometary activity. Because their orbits cannot be explained through the capture of classical comets, many of the outer asteroids are thought to be icy, with the ice occasionally exposed to sublimation through small impacts. Main-belt comets may have been a major source of the Earth's oceans because the deuterium-hydrogen ratio is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source. Orbits
Most asteroids within the asteroid belt have orbital eccentricities of less than 0.4, and an inclination of less than 30°. The orbital distribution of the asteroids reaches a maximum at an eccentricity around 0.07 and an inclination below 4°. Thus, although a typical asteroid has a relatively circular orbit and lies near the plane of the ecliptic, some asteroid orbits can be highly eccentric or travel well outside the ecliptic plane. Sometimes, the term "main belt" is used to refer only to the more compact "core" region where the greatest concentration of bodies is found. This lies between the strong 4:1 and 2:1 Kirkwood gaps at 2.06 and 3.27 AU, and at orbital eccentricities less than roughly 0.33, along with orbital inclinations below about 20°. As of 2006, this "core" region contained 93% of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System. The JPL Small-Body Database lists over 1 million known main-belt asteroids.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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of 2006 , this `` core '' region contained 93 % of all discovered and numbered minor planets within the Solar System . The JPL Small-Body Database lists over 1 million known main-belt asteroids .Kirkwood gaps
The semimajor axis of an asteroid is used to describe the dimensions of its orbit around the Sun, and its value determines the minor planet's orbital period. In 1866, Daniel Kirkwood announced the discovery of gaps in the distances of these bodies' orbits from the Sun. They were located in positions where their period of revolution about the Sun was an integer fraction of Jupiter's orbital period. Kirkwood proposed that the gravitational perturbations of the planet led to the removal of asteroids from these orbits. When the mean orbital period of an asteroid is an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, a mean-motion resonance with the gas giant is created that is sufficient to perturb an asteroid to new orbital elements. Primordial asteroids entered these gaps because of the migration of Jupiter's orbit. Subsequently, asteroids primarily migrate into these gap orbits due to the Yarkovsky effect, but may also enter because of perturbations or collisions. After entering, an asteroid is gradually nudged into a different, random orbit with a larger or smaller semimajor axis. Collisions
The high population of the asteroid belt makes for an active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on deep time scales). Impact events between main-belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new asteroid family). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids . After more than 4 billion years of such processes , the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population .Evidence suggests that most main belt asteroids between 200 m and 10 km in diameter are rubble piles formed by collisions. These bodies consist of a multitude of irregular objects that are mostly bound together by self-gravity, resulting in significant amounts of internal porosity. Along with the asteroid bodies, the asteroid belt also contains bands of dust with particle radii of up to a few hundred micrometres. This fine material is produced, at least in part, from collisions between asteroids, and by the impact of micrometeorites upon the asteroids. Due to the Poynting–Robertson effect, the pressure of solar radiation causes this dust to slowly spiral inward toward the Sun. The combination of this fine asteroid dust, as well as ejected cometary material, produces the zodiacal light. This faint auroral glow can be viewed at night extending from the direction of the Sun along the plane of the ecliptic. Asteroid particles that produce visible zodiacal light average about 40 μm in radius. The typical lifetimes of main-belt zodiacal cloud particles are about 700,000 years. Thus, to maintain the bands of dust, new particles must be steadily produced within the asteroid belt. It was once thought that collisions of asteroids form a major component of the zodiacal light. However, computer simulations by Nesvorný and colleagues attributed 85 percent of the zodiacal-light dust to fragmentations of Jupiter-family comets, rather than to comets and collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt. At most 10 percent of the dust is attributed to the asteroid belt. Meteorites
Some of the debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth's atmosphere. Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date, 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth 's atmosphere . Of the 50,000 meteorites found on Earth to date , 99.8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt .Families and groups
In 1918, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama noticed that the orbits of some of the asteroids had similar parameters, forming families or groups. Approximately one-third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family. These share similar orbital elements, such as semi-major axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features, which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body. Graphical displays of these element pairs, for members of the asteroid belt, show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family. There are about 20 to 30 associations that are likely asteroid families. Additional groupings have been found that are less certain. Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display similar spectral features. Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters. Some of the most prominent families in the asteroid belt (in order of increasing semi-major axes) are the Flora, Eunomia, Koronis, Eos, and Themis families. The Flora family, one of the largest with more than 800 known members, may have formed from a collision less than 1 billion years ago. The largest asteroid to be a true member of a family is 4 Vesta. (This is in contrast to an interloper, in the case of Ceres with the Gefion family.) The Vesta family is believed to have formed as the result of a crater-forming impact on Vesta. Likewise, the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision. Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt.
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Asteroid belt
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impact on Vesta . Likewise , the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision . Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt .These have similar orbital inclinations as the Eos, Koronis, and Themis asteroid families, and so are possibly associated with those groupings. The main belt evolution after the Late Heavy Bombardment was likely affected by the passages of large centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). Centaurs and TNOs that reach the inner Solar System can modify the orbits of main belt asteroids, though only if their mass is of the order of 1×10−9 M☉ (2.0×1021 kg) for single encounters or, one order less in case of multiple close encounters. However, centaurs and TNOs are unlikely to have significantly dispersed young asteroid families in the main belt, although they can have perturbed some old asteroid families. Current main belt asteroids that originated as centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects may lie in the outer belt with short lifetime of less than 4 million years, most likely orbiting between 2.8 and 3.2 AU at larger eccentricities than typical of main belt asteroids. Periphery
Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the Hungaria family of minor planets. They are named after the main member, 434 Hungaria; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4:1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars-crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group. Another high-inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family. These are composed primarily of S-type asteroids, whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types.
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Asteroid belt
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group . Another high-inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family . These are composed primarily of S-type asteroids , whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E-types .The Phocaea family orbit between 2.25 and 2.5 AU from the Sun. Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group, orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. The Hilda family orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU with relatively circular orbits and a stable 3:2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter's orbit. At the latter the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt. New families
Some asteroid families have formed recently, in astronomical terms. The Karin family apparently formed about 5.7 million years ago from a collision with a progenitor asteroid 33 km in radius. The Veritas family formed about 8.3 million years ago; evidence includes interplanetary dust recovered from ocean sediment. More recently, the Datura cluster appears to have formed about 530,000 years ago from a collision with a main-belt asteroid. The age estimate is based on the probability of the members having their current orbits, rather than from any physical evidence. However, this cluster may have been a source for some zodiacal dust material. Other recent cluster formations, such as the Iannini cluster (c. 1–5 million years ago), may have provided additional sources of this asteroid dust. Exploration
The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10, which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time, there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by multiple spacecraft without incident.
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Asteroid belt
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At the time , there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft , but it has since been safely traversed by multiple spacecraft without incident .Pioneer 11, Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids. Cassini measured plasma and fine dust grains while traversing the belt in 2000. On its way to Jupiter, Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are estimated at less than 1 in 1 billion. Most main belt asteroids imaged to date have come from brief flyby opportunities by probes headed for other targets. Only the Dawn mission has studied main belt asteroids for a protracted period in orbit. The Galileo spacecraft imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993, then NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997 and landed on near–Earth asteroid 433 Eros in February 2001. Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000, Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002, New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006, and Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010. Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015. The Lucy space probe made a flyby of 152830 Dinkinesh in 2023, on its way to the Jupiter Trojans. ESA's JUICE mission will pass through the asteroid belt twice, with a proposed flyby of the asteroid 223 Rosa in 2029. The Psyche spacecraft is a NASA mission to the large M-type asteroid 16 Psyche. See also
References
External links
Arnett, William A. (February 26, 2006). "Asteroids". The Nine Planets. Archived from the original on April 18, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. Asteroids Page at NASA's Solar System Exploration
Cain, Fraser.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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Asteroids '' . The Nine Planets . Archived from the original on April 18 , 2007 . Retrieved April 20 , 2007 . Asteroids Page at NASA 's Solar System Exploration Cain , Fraser ."The Asteroid Belt". Universe Today. Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved April 1, 2008. "Main Asteroid Belt". Sol Company. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. Munsell, Kirk (September 16, 2005). "Asteroids: Overview". NASA's Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007. Plots of eccentricity vs. semi-major axis and inclination vs. semi-major axis at Asteroid Dynamic Site
"Asteroids". NASA. October 31, 2006. Archived from the original on April 11, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007. "Space Topics: Asteroids and Comets". The Planetary Society. 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2007.
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Asteroid belt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt.
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Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass nearly 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined and slightly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Its diameter is 11 times that of Earth and a tenth that of the Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm), with an orbital period of 11.86 years. It is the third-brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky, after the Moon and Venus, and has been observed since prehistoric times. Its name derives from that of Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion. Jupiter was the first of the Sun's planets to form, and its inward migration during the primordial phase of the Solar System affected much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with a denser interior. It contains traces of the elements carbon, oxygen, sulfur, neon, and compounds such as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons. Jupiter's helium abundance is 80% of the Sun's, similar to Saturn's composition. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries; the most obvious result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that has been recorded since 1831. Because of its rapid rotation rate, one turn in ten hours, Jupiter is an oblate spheroid; it has a slight but noticeable 6.5% bulge around the equator compared to its poles. Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material.
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Jupiter
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6.5 % bulge around the equator compared to its poles . Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material .The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest and second-largest contiguous structure in the Solar System, generated by eddy currents within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. The solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere, extending it outward and affecting Jupiter's orbit. At least 97 moons orbit the planet; the four largest moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—orbit within the magnetosphere and are visible with common binoculars. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury. Jupiter is surrounded by a faint system of planetary rings. The rings of Jupiter consist mainly of dust and have three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. The rings have a reddish colour in visible and near-infrared light. The age of the ring system is unknown, possibly dating back to Jupiter's formation. Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes: seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters (with two more en route). Jupiter-like exoplanets have also been found in other planetary systems. Name and symbol
In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans. The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants. The planetary symbol for Jupiter, , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.
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the god 's lovers , favourites , and descendants . The planetary symbol for Jupiter , , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke , ⟨Ƶ⟩ , as an abbreviation for Zeus .In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter, i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century. Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology. The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenography. Formation and migration
Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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heavy-element constituents . When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula . Thereafter , the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years .According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from Saturn caused it to migrate inwards. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from the inner Solar System eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble. There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition. Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula. Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet. Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).
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Jupiter
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that are close to those of the present-day planet . Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out , such as 18 AU ( 2.7 billion km ; 1.7 billion mi ) .According to the Nice model, the infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment. According to the Jumping-Jupiter scenario, Jupiter's migration through the early Solar System could have led to the ejection of a fifth gas giant. This hypothesis suggests that during its orbital migration, Jupiter's gravitational influence disrupted the orbits of other gas giants, potentially casting one planet out of the Solar System entirely. The dynamics of such an event would have dramatically altered the formation and configuration of the Solar System, leaving behind only the four gas giants humans observe today. Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N2) snow line, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards. Physical characteristics
Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium.
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Jupiter
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would have formed even further out than Jupiter , and Saturn would also have migrated inwards . Physical characteristics Jupiter is a gas giant , meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium .These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3, is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets. Composition
The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and neon, as well as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and benzene. Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The planet's interior is denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by mass. The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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. Jupiter 's helium abundance is about 80 % that of the Sun due to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets , a process that happens deep in the planet 's interior .Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice. Size and mass
Jupiter is about eleven times wider than the Earth (11.209 R🜨); while its mass is 318 times that of Earth which is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun (0.10276 R☉), and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun, of which the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of 60.4 MJ. Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.
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Jupiter
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This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm ( 0.039 in ) per year . At the time of its formation , Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter .Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved. Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn. Internal structure
Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth. This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.
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, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth . This mixing process could have arisen during formation , while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula .Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core. Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F). In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km [6,800 mi] below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km [14,000 mi] beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is about one standard Earth atmosphere (about 0.10 MPa (1 bar)), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F).
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where the atmospheric pressure level is about one standard Earth atmosphere ( about 0.10 MPa ( 1 bar ) ) , the temperature is around 165 K ( −108 °C ; −163 °F ) .The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa. Atmosphere
The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 kilometres (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers. Cloud layers
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams. The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them. The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.
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underlying the ammonia clouds , as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter . These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth .The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior. The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere. Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen. The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view. Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer. Great Red Spot and other vortices
A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831, and possibly as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.
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Jupiter
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It was first observed in 1831 , and possibly as early as 1665 . Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more `` red spots '' adjacent to the Great Red Spot .The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The storm rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 kilometres (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops. The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation. The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 kilometres (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi). Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of seven storms. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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but smaller . This was created when smaller , white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940 . The merged feature was named Oval BA .It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot". In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow. Magnetosphere
Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock.
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Jupiter
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the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock . Surrounding Jupiter 's magnetosphere is a magnetopause , located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock .The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun. Planetary rings
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice.
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Jupiter
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known as the halo , a relatively bright main ring , and an outer gossamer ring . These rings appear to be made of dust , whereas Saturn 's rings are made of ice .The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit. Orbit and rotation
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7% of the Sun's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.20 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance. The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion, which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being two giant planets in the Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities. The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities . The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13° , which is relatively small , so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars .Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about five minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter. Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation. Observation
Jupiter is usually the fourth-brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds.
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Jupiter
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to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun . The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33 . The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds .Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth. Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement. Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth. History
Pre-telescopic research
Observations of Jupiter are attested with the Babylonian astronomers during the 7th–8th centuries BC. The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the 'sui star' (Suìxīng 歲星) and established their cycle of twelve earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to revolve around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name (歲; simplified as 岁) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac, and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals.
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Jupiter
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controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter 's position in the night sky . These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac 's twelve animals .The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet, which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia. A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic. In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. Ground-based telescope research
In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition. In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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condemned by the Inquisition . In the autumn of 1639 , the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet 's atmosphere .During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period. In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation. The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831. The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century. Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light. In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea. It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope. An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979. In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.
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An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979 . In 1932 , Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter .Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades, they remained as separate features in the atmosphere that approach each other but never merge. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA. Radiotelescope research
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz. The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second. Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:
Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field. Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959. The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field. Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter. Exploration
Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.
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Jupiter
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of Jupiter . Exploration Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973 , when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena .Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter. Flyby missions
Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within the observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening. Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere. The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun.
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the night side atmosphere . The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe . In February 1992 , it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun .During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance. In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images. The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto. The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail. Galileo mission
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995. It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileos high-gain antenna. A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1,600 mph) and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbour life. Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.
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possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa , which may harbour life . Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 % of Jupiter 's atmosphere .The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (572 °F), and the wind speed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized. Juno mission
NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months. During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause the failure of certain instruments. On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first flyby of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole. Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending in July 2018. In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io. When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid the risk of colliding and contaminating Jupiter's moons. Cancelled missions and future plans
There is an interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans. Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005. A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020.
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Jupiter
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's JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) to be cancelled in 2005 . A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace , with a provisional launch date around 2020 .EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection. These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023, followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission, launched on October 14, 2024. Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035, and CNSA's Interstellar Express and NASA's Interstellar Probe, which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere. Moons
Jupiter has 97 known natural satellites, and it is likely that this number will go up due to increasing telescopic observations. Of these, only 16 are larger than 10 km in diameter. The four largest moons, known as the Galilean moons, are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (in order of decreasing size), and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night. Galilean moons
The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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, Europa , and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance ; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter , Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one .This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits. The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons. This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior. Classification
Jupiter's moons were classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements. This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are divided into several different groups, although there are two known moons which are not part of any group (Themisto and Valetudo). The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, while the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.
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Jupiter
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thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids . The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin , perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up .Interaction with the Solar System
As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System's history. In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor. The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter. Impacts
Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System. For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.
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Jupiter
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more impacts on Jupiter , such as comets , than on any other planet in the Solar System . For example , Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth .Scientists used to believe that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them. This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud. In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter. The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft. The event was widely covered by the media. Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar. In culture
The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low. To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk, chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period. They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac. The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.
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Jupiter
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zodiac . The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus ( Ζεύς ) , also referred to as Dias ( Δίας ) , the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek .The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon (Φαέθων), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star". The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk. The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC, as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries. The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" (Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God"). As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was called the god of light and sky. In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and called it "Guru", which means the "Teacher". In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star"). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements in the sky.
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Jupiter
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. The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days . They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz 's movements in the sky .The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the "wood star" (Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five Elements. In China, it became known as the "year star" （Chinese: 歲星; pinyin: suìxīng）, as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings, the years were, in principle, named in correlation with the Jovian zodiac signs. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (2006). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-103545-3 – via Google Books. Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1". A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. External links
Jupiter overview by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
How NASA's Juno probe changed everything we know about Jupiter. Scientific American, August 19, 2025
Simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter from Tony Dunn's Gravity Simulator website. Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, at the University of California, Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections. Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system. Video on YouTube of the 2010 Jupiter impact event by an amateur astronomer. "Jupiter" – In Our Time, BBC Radio 4
Animation on YouTube of the Juno spacecraft's flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter by NASA.
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Jupiter
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter.
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269
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Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant, with an average radius of about 9 times that of Earth. It has an eighth of the average density of Earth, but is over 95 times more massive. Even though Saturn is almost as big as Jupiter, Saturn has less than a third of its mass. Saturn orbits the Sun at a distance of 9.59 AU (1,434 million km), with an orbital period of 29.45 years. Saturn's interior is thought to be composed of a rocky core, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and an outer layer of gas. Saturn has a pale yellow hue, due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. An electrical current in the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth because of Saturn's greater size. Saturn's magnetic field strength is about a twentieth that of Jupiter. The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 kilometres per hour (1,100 miles per hour). The planet has a bright and extensive system of rings, composed mainly of ice particles, with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. At least 274 moons orbit the planet, of which 63 are officially named; these do not include the hundreds of moonlets in the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon and the second largest in the Solar System, is larger (but less massive) than the planet Mercury and is the only moon in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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and the second largest in the Solar System , is larger ( but less massive ) than the planet Mercury and is the only moon in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere .Name and symbol
Saturn is named after the Roman god of wealth and agriculture, who was the father of the god Jupiter. Its astronomical symbol () has been traced back to the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri, where it can be seen to be a Greek kappa-rho ligature with a horizontal stroke, as an abbreviation for Κρονος (Cronus), the Greek name for the planet (). It later came to look like a lower-case Greek eta, with the cross added at the top in the 16th century to Christianize this pagan symbol. The Romans named the seventh day of the week Saturday, Sāturni diēs, "Saturn's Day", for the planet Saturn. Physical characteristics
Saturn is a gas giant, composed predominantly of hydrogen and helium. It lacks a definite surface, though it is likely to have a solid core. The planet's rotation makes it an oblate spheroid—a ball flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Its equatorial radius is more than 10% larger than the polar radius: 60,268 km versus 54,364 km (37,449 mi versus 33,780 mi). Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant planets in the Solar System, are less oblate. The combination of the bulge and the rotation rate means that the effective surface gravity along the equator, 8.96 m/s2, is 74% of what it is at the poles and is lower than the surface gravity of Earth. However, the equatorial escape velocity, nearly 36 km/s, is much higher than that of Earth. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30% less.
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Saturn
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equatorial escape velocity , nearly 36 km/s , is much higher than that of Earth . Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30 % less .Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3, because of the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times Earth's mass, and Saturn is 95 times Earth's mass. Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System. Internal structure
Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers. Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of various volatiles. Analysis of the distortion shows that Saturn is substantially more centrally condensed than Jupiter and therefore contains much more material denser than hydrogen near its center. Saturn's central regions are about 50% hydrogen by mass, and Jupiter's are about 67% hydrogen. This core is similar in composition to Earth, but is more dense. The examination of Saturn's gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, has allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth, which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km (16,000 mi).
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Saturn
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Saturn 's core . In 2004 , scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth , which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km ( 16,000 mi ) .Measurements of Saturn's rings suggest a much more diffuse core, with a mass equal to about 17 Earths and a radius equal to about 60% of Saturn's entire radius. This is surrounded by a thicker, liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen, which gradually transitions to a gas as altitude increases. The outermost layer spans about 1,000 km (620 mi) and consists of gas. Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C (21,100 °F) at its core, and radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression; but such a process alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be the generation of heat through the "raining out" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by friction and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium. These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core. Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur within Saturn, as well as in Jupiter and ice giants Uranus and Neptune. Atmosphere
The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume. The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun. The quantity of elements heavier than helium (metallicity) is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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273
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Sun . The quantity of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) is not known precisely , but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System .The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of Earth, with a significant fraction located in Saturn's core region. Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine, and methane have been detected in Saturn's atmosphere. The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion. This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual seasonal cycle. Cassini observed a series of cloud features found in northern latitudes, nicknamed the "String of Pearls". These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers. Cloud layers
Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made. The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with temperatures in the range of 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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274
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varies with depth and increasing pressure . In the upper cloud layers , with temperatures in the range of 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar , the clouds consist of ammonia ice .Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures range from 185 to 270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 190–235 K. The lower layers, where pressures are between 10 and 20 bar and temperatures are 270–330 K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution. Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during the Voyager encounters, and in 1994 another smaller storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of a Great White Spot, a short-lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the northern hemisphere's summer solstice. Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the best observed. The latest giant storm was observed in 2010. In 2015, researchers used Very Large Array telescope to study Saturnian atmosphere, and reported that they found "long-lasting signatures of all mid-latitude giant storms, a mixture of equatorial storms up to hundreds of years old, and potentially an unreported older storm at 70°N". The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after Neptune's. Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1,800 km/h). In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus.
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Saturn
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275
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indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s ( 1,800 km/h ) . In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007 , Saturn 's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue , similar to Uranus .The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh scattering. Thermography has shown that Saturn's south pole has a warm polar vortex, the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System. Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn. Hexagonal cloud patterns
A persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the Voyager images. The sides of the hexagon are each about 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth. The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn's interior. The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere. The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation. Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids. HST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream, but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave. NASA reported in November 2006 that Cassini had observed a "hurricane-like" storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined eyewall. Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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. For example , images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter . The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years .This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550 km/h. Magnetosphere
Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple, symmetric shape—a magnetic dipole. Its strength at the equator—0.2 gauss (20 μT)—is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field. As a result, Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter's. When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere, the solar wind pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km (684,000 mi), although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days. Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter—by currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo. This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun. The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere. Saturn's magnetosphere, like Earth's, produces aurorae. Orbit and rotation
The average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4 billion kilometers (9 AU). With an average orbital speed of 9.68 km/s, it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or about 29+1⁄2 years) to finish one revolution around the Sun. As a consequence, it forms a near 5:2 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter. The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth. The perihelion and aphelion distances are, respectively, 9.195 and 9.957 AU, on average.
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Saturn
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. The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth . The perihelion and aphelion distances are , respectively , 9.195 and 9.957 AU , on average .The visible features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude, and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to various regions (as in Jupiter's case). Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of Saturn. System I has a period of 10h 14m 00s (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone, the South Equatorial Belt, and the North Equatorial Belt. The polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes, excluding the north and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have been assigned a rotation period of 10h 38m 25.4s (810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's internal rotation rate. Based on radio emissions from the planet detected by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, System III has a rotation period of 10h 39m 22.4s (810.8°/d). System III has largely superseded System II. A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive. While approaching Saturn in 2004, Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased appreciably, to approximately 10h 45m 45s ± 36s. An estimate of Saturn's rotation (as an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a compilation of various measurements from the Cassini, Voyager, and Pioneer probes is 10h 32m 35s. Studies of the planet's C Ring yield a rotation period of 10h 33m 38s + 1m 52s− 1m 19s . In March 2007, it was found that the variation in radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn's rotation rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn's moon Enceladus.
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, it was found that the variation in radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn 's rotation rate . This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn 's moon Enceladus .The water vapor emitted into Saturn's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation slightly relative to the rotation of the planet. Saturn only has one known trojan asteroid, designated 2019 UO14, whose trojan configuration was announced in September 2024, orbiting the Sun at the stable L4 Lagrange point 60° ahead of the planet along its orbit. This discovery leaves only Mercury without any known trojans at all. Orbital resonance mechanisms, including secular resonance, are believed to be the cause of the low number of known Saturnian trojans. Natural satellites
Saturn has 274 known moons, 63 of which have formal names. There is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings, which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own, along with a tenuous atmosphere. Many of the other moons are small: 131 are less than 50 km in diameter. Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere, in which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes. On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, a possible precursor for life.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes . On 6 June 2013 , scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan , a possible precursor for life .On 23 June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times. Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets, has often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life. Evidence of this possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having an "ocean-like" composition that indicates most of Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt water. A 2015 flyby by Cassini through a plume on Enceladus found most of the ingredients to sustain life forms that live by methanogenesis. In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon within the A Ring, which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013. Planetary rings
Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique. The rings extend from 6,630 to 120,700 kilometres (4,120 to 75,000 mi) outward from Saturn's equator and average approximately 20 metres (66 ft) in thickness. They are composed predominantly of water ice, with trace amounts of tholin impurities and a peppered coating of approximately 7% amorphous carbon. The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible. There is a debate on the age of the rings.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems , Saturn 's is the largest and most visible . There is a debate on the age of the rings .One side supports that they are ancient, and were created simultaneously with Saturn from the original nebular material (around 4.6 billion years ago), or shortly after the LHB (around 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago). The other side supports that they are much younger, created around 100 million years ago. An MIT research team, supporting the latter theory, proposed that the rings are remnant of a destroyed moon of Saturn, named ″Chrysalis″. Beyond the main rings, at a distance of 12 million km (7.5 million mi) from the planet is the sparse Phoebe ring. It is tilted at an angle of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits in retrograde fashion. Some of the moons of Saturn, including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out. Pan and Atlas cause weak, linear density waves in Saturn's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of their masses. History of observation and exploration
The observation and exploration of Saturn can be divided into three phases: (1) pre-modern observations with the naked eye, (2) telescopic observations from Earth beginning in the 17th century, and (3) visitation by space probes, in orbit or on flyby. In the 21st century, telescopic observations continue from Earth (including Earth-orbiting observatories like the Hubble Space Telescope) and, until its 2017 retirement, from the Cassini orbiter around Saturn. Pre-telescopic observation
Saturn has been known since prehistoric times, and in early recorded history it was a major character in various mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.
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Saturn
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Pre-telescopic observation Saturn has been known since prehistoric times , and in early recorded history it was a major character in various mythologies . Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn .In ancient Greek, the planet was known as Φαίνων Phainon, and in Roman times it was known as the "star of Saturn" or the "star of the Sun (i.e. Helios)". In ancient Roman mythology, the planet Phainon was sacred to this agricultural god, from which the planet takes its modern name. The Romans considered the god Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus. In modern Greek, the planet retains the name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos. The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn's orbit on observations he made while it was in opposition. In Hindu astrology, there are nine astrological objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn is known as "Shani" and judges everyone based on the good and bad deeds performed in life. Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the "earth star" or "soil star" (土星). This was based on Five Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements. In Hebrew, Saturn is called Shabbathai. Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is 'Agȋȇl (Hebrew: אגיאל, romanized: ʿAgyal), and its darker spirit (demon) is Zȃzȇl (Hebrew: זאזל, romanized: Zazl). Zazel has been described as a great angel, invoked in Solomonic magic, who is "effective in love conjurations". In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu, and Malay, the name of Zazel is 'Zuhal', derived from the Arabic language (Arabic: زحل, romanized: Zuhal).
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Saturn
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conjurations '' . In Ottoman Turkish , Urdu , and Malay , the name of Zazel is 'Zuhal ' , derived from the Arabic language ( Arabic : زحل , romanized : Zuhal ) .Telescopic pre-spaceflight observations
Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-diameter telescope to resolve and were not known to exist until Christiaan Huygens saw them in 1655 and published his observations in 1659. Galileo, with his primitive telescope in 1610, incorrectly thought of Saturn's appearing not quite round as two moons on Saturn's sides. When Huygens used greater telescopic magnification this notion was refuted, and the rings were truly seen for the first time. Huygens discovered Saturn's moon Titan. Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys, and Dione. In 1675, Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division. No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William Herschel discovered two further moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was discovered in 1848 by a British team. In 1899, William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do. Phoebe was the first such satellite found and it took more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde orbit. During the early 20th century, research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a thick atmosphere—a feature unique among the Solar System's moons. Spaceflight missions
Pioneer 11 flyby
Pioneer 11 made the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of the planet's cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail.
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Saturn
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( 12,000 mi ) of the planet 's cloud tops . Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons , although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail .The spacecraft also studied Saturn's rings, revealing the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are bright when viewed at a high phase angle (towards the Sun), meaning that they contain fine light-scattering material. In addition, Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan. Voyager flybys
In November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere is impenetrable at visible wavelengths; therefore no surface details were seen. The flyby changed the spacecraft's trajectory out of the plane of the Solar System. Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn system. More close-up images of Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of changes in the atmosphere and the rings. During the flyby, the probe's turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost. Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory towards Uranus. The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the planet's rings, as well as the small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler gap (a 42 km-wide gap in the A Ring). Cassini–Huygens spacecraft
The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004. In June 2004, it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and data.
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. Cassini–Huygens spacecraft The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004 . In June 2004 , it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe , sending back high-resolution images and data .Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005. Starting in early 2005, scientists used Cassini to track lightning on Saturn. The power of the lightning is approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth. In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs no more than tens of meters below the surface that erupt in geysers on Saturn's moon Enceladus. These jets of icy particles are emitted into orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon's south polar region. Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus. In May 2011, NASA scientists reported that Enceladus "is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it". Cassini photographs have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring, outside the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus. In July 2006, images were returned of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the presence of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March 2007, hydrocarbon seas were found near the North pole, the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea. In October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km (5,000 mi) diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn's south pole. From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites.
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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an 8,000 km ( 5,000 mi ) diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn 's south pole . From 2004 to 2 November 2009 , the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites .In April 2013, Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet's north pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster than 530 km/h (330 mph). On 15 September 2017, the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft performed the "Grand Finale" of its mission: a number of passes through gaps between Saturn and Saturn's inner rings. The atmospheric entry of Cassini ended the mission. Possible future missions
The continued exploration of Saturn is still considered to be a viable option for NASA as part of their ongoing New Frontiers program of missions. NASA previously requested for plans to be put forward for a mission to Saturn that included the Saturn Atmospheric Entry Probe, and possible investigations into the habitability and possible discovery of life on Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus by Dragonfly. Observation
Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth, the other four being Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. (Uranus, and occasionally 4 Vesta, are visible to the naked eye in dark skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a bright, yellowish point of light. The mean apparent magnitude of Saturn is 0.46 with a standard deviation of 0.34. Most of the magnitude variation is due to the inclination of the ring system relative to the Sun and Earth. The brightest magnitude, −0.55, occurs near the time when the plane of the rings is inclined most highly, and the faintest magnitude, 1.17, occurs around the time when they are least inclined.
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Saturn
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, −0.55 , occurs near the time when the plane of the rings is inclined most highly , and the faintest magnitude , 1.17 , occurs around the time when they are least inclined .It takes approximately 29.4 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac. Most people will require an optical aid (very large binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least 30 times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings in which a clear resolution is present. When Earth passes through the ring plane, which occurs twice every Saturnian year (roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear from view because they are so thin. Such a "disappearance" most recently occurred in 2025, but Saturn was too close to the Sun for observations. Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or near, opposition, the configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite the Sun in the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—approximately every 378 days—and results in the planet appearing at its brightest. Both the Earth and Saturn orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from the Sun vary over time, and therefore so do their distances from each other, hence varying the brightness of Saturn from one opposition to the next. Saturn also appears brighter when the rings are angled such that they are more visible. For example, during the opposition of 17 December 2002, Saturn appeared at its brightest due to the favorable orientation of its rings relative to the Earth, even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003. From time to time, Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky).
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Saturn
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closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003 . From time to time , Saturn is occulted by the Moon ( that is , the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky ) .As with all the planets in the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in "seasons". Saturnian occultations will take place monthly for about a 12-month period, followed by about a five-year period in which no such activity is registered. The Moon's orbit is inclined by several degrees relative to Saturn's, so occultations will only occur when Saturn is near one of the points in the sky where the two planes intersect (both the length of Saturn's year and the 18.6-Earth-year nodal precession period of the Moon's orbit influence the periodicity). In fiction
Saturn has frequently appeared in fiction since at least 1752, when Voltaire published his novel Micromégas. Early works generally depicted it as solid, whereas Saturn is later correctly described as a gaseous planet. Saturn's moons are also featured in fiction, especially Titan. See also
Moons of Saturn
Statistics of planets in the Solar System
Outline of Saturn
Notes
References
Further reading
Alexander, Arthur Francis O'Donel (1980) [1962]. The Planet Saturn – A History of Observation, Theory and Discovery. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-23927-9. Gore, Rick (July 1981). "Voyager 1 at Saturn: Riddles of the Rings". National Geographic. Vol. 160, no. 1. pp. 3–31. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Lovett, L.; et al. (2006). Saturn: A New View. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3090-2. Karttunen, H.; et al. (2007). Fundamental Astronomy (5th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7. Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; et al. (2007).
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Saturn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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Karttunen , H. ; et al . ( 2007 ) . Fundamental Astronomy ( 5th ed. ) . Springer . ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7 . Seidelmann , P. Kenneth ; et al . ( 2007 ) ."Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. de Pater, Imke; Lissauer, Jack J. (2015). Planetary Sciences (2nd updated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-521-85371-2. External links
Saturn overview by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
Saturn fact sheet Archived 29 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine at the NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
Saturnian System terminology by the IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Cassini-Huygens legacy website by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Cronian system Archived 17 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn.
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Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is a gaseous cyan-coloured ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which astronomy calls "ice" or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature (49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F)) of all the Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 82.23° with a retrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-year orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness. Uranus has the third-largest diameter and fourth-largest mass among the Solar System's planets. Based on current models, inside its volatile mantle layer is a rocky core, and a thick hydrogen and helium atmosphere surrounds it. Trace amounts of hydrocarbons (thought to be produced via hydrolysis) and carbon monoxide along with carbon dioxide (thought to have originated from comets) have been detected in the upper atmosphere. There are many unexplained climate phenomena in Uranus's atmosphere, such as its peak wind speed of 900 km/h (560 mph), variations in its polar cap, and its erratic cloud formation. The planet also has very low internal heat compared to other giant planets, the cause of which remains unclear. Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and many natural satellites. The extremely dark ring system reflects only about 2% of the incoming light. Uranus's 29 natural satellites include 19 known regular moons, of which 14 are small inner moons. Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.
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Uranus
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known regular moons , of which 14 are small inner moons . Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet : Miranda , Ariel , Umbriel , Titania , and Oberon .Orbiting at a much greater distance from Uranus are the ten known irregular moons. The planet's magnetosphere is highly asymmetric and has many charged particles, which may be the cause of the darkening of its rings and moons. Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it is very dim and was not classified as a planet until 1781, when it was first observed by William Herschel. About seven decades after its discovery, consensus was reached that the planet be named after the Greek god Uranus (Ouranos), one of the Greek primordial deities. As of 2025, it has been visited only once when in 1986 the Voyager 2 probe flew by the planet. Though nowadays it can be resolved and observed by telescopes, there is much desire to revisit the planet, as shown by Planetary Science Decadal Survey's decision to make the proposed Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission a top priority in the 2023–2032 survey, and the CNSA's proposal to fly by the planet with a subprobe of Tianwen-4. History
Like the classical planets, Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it was never recognised as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit. William Herschel first observed Uranus on 13 March 1781, leading to its discovery as a planet, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in history and making Uranus the first planet classified as such with the aid of a telescope. The discovery of Uranus also effectively doubled the size of the known Solar System because Uranus is around twice as far from the Sun as the planet Saturn.
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Uranus
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291
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the aid of a telescope . The discovery of Uranus also effectively doubled the size of the known Solar System because Uranus is around twice as far from the Sun as the planet Saturn .Discovery
Before its recognition as a planet, Uranus had been observed many times, but was generally misidentified as a star. It was apparently observed by Hipparchus, who measured the positions of stars in 128 BC for his catalog that was later incorporated into Ptolemy's Almagest. The catalog gives the positions of four stars forming a quadrilateral in Virgo. One of the four stars does not exist, but Uranus was at that position in April of 128 BC. The earliest definite sighting was in 1690, when John Flamsteed observed it at least six times, cataloguing it as 34 Tauri. James Bradley observed it 3 times, in 1748, 1750, and 1753. Tobias Mayer, observed it once in 1756. The French astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier observed Uranus at least twelve times between 1750 and 1769, including on four consecutive nights. William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy), and initially reported it (on 26 April 1781) as a comet. With a homemade 6.2-inch reflecting telescope, Herschel "engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars." Herschel recorded in his journal: "In the quartile near ζ Tauri ... either [a] Nebulous star or perhaps a comet." On 17 March he noted: "I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet, for it has changed its place."
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Uranus
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a comet . '' On 17 March he noted : `` I looked for the Comet or Nebulous Star and found that it is a Comet , for it has changed its place . ''When he presented his discovery to the Royal Society, he continued to assert that he had found a comet, but also implicitly compared it to a planet:
The power I had on when I first saw the comet was 227. From experience I know that the diameters of the fixed stars are not proportionally magnified with higher powers, as planets are; therefore I now put the powers at 460 and 932, and found that the diameter of the comet increased in proportion to the power, as it ought to be, on the supposition of its not being a fixed star, while the diameters of the stars to which I compared it were not increased in the same ratio. Moreover, the comet being magnified much beyond what its light would admit of, appeared hazy and ill-defined with these great powers, while the stars preserved that lustre and distinctness which from many thousand observations I knew they would retain. The sequel has shown that my surmises were well-founded, this proving to be the Comet we have lately observed. Herschel notified the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne of his discovery and received this flummoxed reply from him on 23 April 1781: "I don't know what to call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it." Although Herschel continued to describe his new object as a comet, other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise. Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell, working in Russia, was the first to compute the orbit of the new object.
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Uranus
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as a comet , other astronomers had already begun to suspect otherwise . Finnish-Swedish astronomer Anders Johan Lexell , working in Russia , was the first to compute the orbit of the new object .Its nearly circular orbit suggested that it was a planet rather than a comet. Berlin astronomer Johann Elert Bode described Herschel's discovery as "a moving star that can be deemed a hitherto unknown planet-like object circulating beyond the orbit of Saturn". Bode concluded that its near-circular orbit was more like a planet's than a comet's. The object was soon accepted as a new planet. By 1783, Herschel acknowledged this to Royal Society president Joseph Banks: "By the observation of the most eminent Astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a Primary Planet of our Solar System." In recognition of his achievement, King George III gave Herschel an annual stipend of £200 (equivalent to £30,000 in 2023) on condition that he moved to Windsor so that the Royal Family could look through his telescopes. Name
The name Uranus references the ancient Greek deity of the sky Uranus (Ancient Greek: Οὐρανός), known as Caelus in Roman mythology, the father of Cronus (Saturn), grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter) and the great-grandfather of Ares (Mars), which was rendered as Uranus in Latin (IPA: [ˈuːranʊs]). It is the only one of the eight planets whose English name derives from a figure of Greek mythology. The pronunciation of the name Uranus preferred among astronomers is YOOR-ə-nəs, with the long "u" of English and stress on the first syllable as in Latin Uranus, in contrast to yoo-RAY-nəs, with stress on the second syllable and a long a, though both are considered acceptable.
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Uranus
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of English and stress on the first syllable as in Latin Uranus , in contrast to yoo-RAY-nəs , with stress on the second syllable and a long a , though both are considered acceptable .Consensus on the name was not reached until almost 70 years after the planet's discovery. During the original discussions following discovery, Maskelyne asked Herschel to "do the astronomical world the faver [sic] to give a name to your planet, which is entirely your own, [and] which we are so much obliged to you for the discovery of". In response to Maskelyne's request, Herschel decided to name the object Georgium Sidus (George's Star), or the "Georgian Planet", in honour of his new patron, King George III. He explained this decision in a letter to Joseph Banks:
In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the reign of King George the Third'. Herschel's proposed name was not popular outside Britain and Hanover, and alternatives were soon proposed. Astronomer Jérôme Lalande proposed that it be named Herschel in honour of its discoverer. Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the names Astraea, Cybele (now the names of asteroids), and Neptune, which later became the name of the next planet to be discovered.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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295
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. Swedish astronomer Erik Prosperin proposed the names Astraea , Cybele ( now the names of asteroids ) , and Neptune , which later became the name of the next planet to be discovered .Georg Lichtenberg from Göttingen also supported Astraea (as Austräa), but she is traditionally associated with Virgo instead of Taurus. Neptune was supported by other astronomers who liked the idea of commemorating the victories of the British Royal Naval fleet in the course of the American Revolutionary War by calling the new planet either Neptune George III or Neptune Great Britain, a compromise Lexell suggested as well. Daniel Bernoulli suggested Hypercronius and Transaturnis. Minerva was also proposed. In a March 1782 treatise, Johann Elert Bode proposed Uranus, the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky, Ouranos. Bode argued that the name should follow the mythology so as not to stand out as different from the other planets, and that Uranus was an appropriate name as the father of the first generation of the Titans. He also noted the elegance of the name in that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn. However, he was apparently unaware that Uranus was only the Latinised form of the deity's name, and the Roman equivalent was Caelus. In 1789, Bode's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth named his newly discovered element uranium in support of Bode's choice. Ultimately, Bode's suggestion became the most widely used, and became universal in 1850 when HM Nautical Almanac Office, the final holdout, switched from using Georgium Sidus to Uranus. Uranus has two astronomical symbols. The first to be proposed, ⛢, was proposed by Johann Gottfried Köhler at Bode's request in 1782. Köhler suggested that the new planet be given the symbol for platinum, which had been described scientifically only 30 years before.
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Uranus
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proposed by Johann Gottfried Köhler at Bode 's request in 1782 . Köhler suggested that the new planet be given the symbol for platinum , which had been described scientifically only 30 years before .As there was no alchemical symbol for platinum, he suggested ⛢ or ⛢, a combination of the planetary-metal symbols ☉ (gold) and ♂ (iron), as platinum (or 'white gold') is found mixed with iron. Bode thought that an upright orientation, ⛢, fit better with the symbols for the other planets while remaining distinct. This symbol predominates in modern astronomical use in the rare cases that symbols are used at all. The second symbol, ♅, was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as "un globe surmonté par la première lettre de votre nom" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your surname"). The second symbol is nearly universal in astrology. In English-language popular culture, humour is often derived from the common pronunciation of Uranus's name, which resembles that of the phrase "your anus". Uranus is called by a variety of names in other languages. Uranus's name is literally translated as the "Heavenly King star" in Chinese (天王星; Tiānwángxīng), Japanese (天王星 Tennōsei), Korean (천왕성 Cheonwangseong), and Vietnamese (sao Thiên Vương). In Thai, its official name is Dao Yurenat (ดาวยูเรนัส), as in English. Its other name in Thai is Dao Maruettayu (ดาวมฤตยู, Star of Mṛtyu), after the Sanskrit word for 'death', Mrtyu (मृत्यु). In Mongolian, its name is Tengeriin Van (Тэнгэрийн ван), translated as 'King of the Sky', reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the heavens.
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Uranus
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. In Mongolian , its name is Tengeriin Van ( Тэнгэрийн ван ) , translated as 'King of the Sky ' , reflecting its namesake god 's role as the ruler of the heavens .In Hawaiian, its name is Heleʻekala, the Hawaiian rendering of the name 'Herschel'. Formation
It is argued that the differences between the ice giants and the gas giants arise from their formation history. The Solar System is hypothesised to have formed from a rotating disk of gas and dust known as the presolar nebula. Much of the nebula's gas, primarily hydrogen and helium, formed the Sun, and the dust grains collected together to form the first protoplanets. As the planets grew, some of them eventually accreted enough matter for their gravity to hold on to the nebula's leftover gas. The more gas they held onto, the larger they became; the larger they became, the more gas they held onto until a critical point was reached, and their size began to increase exponentially. The ice giants, with only a few Earth masses of nebular gas, never reached that critical point. Recent simulations of planetary migration have suggested that both ice giants formed closer to the Sun than their present positions, and moved outwards after formation (the Nice model). Orbit and rotation
Uranus orbits the Sun once every 84 years. As viewed against the background of stars, since being discovered in 1781, the planet has returned to the point of its discovery northeast of the binary star Zeta Tauri twice—in March 1865 and March 1949—and will return to this location again in April 2033. Because the period is very close to 84 years, its apparent position in the stars is very close to what it was exactly 84 years earlier (see graph).
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Uranus
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April 2033 . Because the period is very close to 84 years , its apparent position in the stars is very close to what it was exactly 84 years earlier ( see graph ) .The retrograde motion of Uranus brings it back each year to approximately the most easterly position it had the previous year. Its average distance from the Sun is roughly 20 AU (3 billion km; 2 billion mi). The difference between its minimum and maximum distance from the Sun is 1.8 AU, larger than that of any other planet, though not as large as that of dwarf planet Pluto. The intensity of sunlight varies inversely with the square of the distance—on Uranus (at about 20 times the distance from the Sun compared to Earth), it is about 1/400 the intensity of light on Earth. The orbital elements of Uranus were first calculated in 1783 by Pierre-Simon Laplace. With time, discrepancies began to appear between predicted and observed orbits, and in 1841, John Couch Adams first proposed that the differences might be due to the gravitational tug of an unseen planet. In 1845, Urbain Le Verrier began his own independent research into Uranus's orbit. On 23 September 1846, Johann Gottfried Galle located a new planet, later named Neptune, at nearly the position predicted by Le Verrier. The rotational period of the interior of Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes, and 52 seconds which was determined by tracking the rotational motion of Uranus's aurorae. As on all giant planets, its upper atmosphere experiences strong winds in the direction of rotation. At some latitudes, such as about 60 degrees south, visible features of the atmosphere move much faster, making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours.
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Uranus
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direction of rotation . At some latitudes , such as about 60 degrees south , visible features of the atmosphere move much faster , making a full rotation in as little as 14 hours .Axial tilt
The Uranian axis of rotation is approximately parallel to the plane of the Solar System, with an axial tilt that can be described either as 82.23° or as 97.77°, depending on which pole is considered north. The former follows the International Astronomical Union definition that the north pole is the pole which lies on Earth's North's side of the invariable plane of the Solar System. Uranus has retrograde rotation when defined this way. Alternatively, the convention in which a body's north and south poles are defined according to the right-hand rule in relation to the direction of rotation, Uranus's axial tilt may be given instead as 97.77°, which reverses which pole is considered north and which is considered south and giving the planet prograde rotation. This gives it seasonal changes completely unlike those of the other planets. Pluto and asteroid 2 Pallas also have extreme axial tilts. Near the solstice, one pole faces the Sun continuously and the other faces away, with only a narrow strip around the equator experiencing a rapid day–night cycle, with the Sun low over the horizon. On the other side of Uranus's orbit, the orientation of the poles towards the Sun is reversed. Each pole gets around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of darkness. Near the time of the equinoxes, the Sun faces the equator of Uranus, giving a period of day–night cycles similar to those seen on most of the other planets. One result of this axis orientation is that, averaged over the Uranian year, the near-polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions.
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Uranus
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