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Fianna Fáil (, Irish: [ˌfʲiən̪ˠə ˈfˠaːlʲ] (listen); meaning 'Soldiers of Destiny' or 'Warriors of Fál'), officially Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party (Irish: Fianna Fáil – An Páirtí Poblachtánach), is a conservative and Christian-democratic political party registered in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
The party was founded as a republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin. De Valera and his followers were determined to take seats in the Oireachtas while Sinn Féin's policy was to refuse to recognise it. Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland's two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as centre-right parties, to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin. The party dominated Irish political life for most of the 20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government. Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right.
Fianna Fáil's vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael–led minority government. In 2020, after a number of months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste.
Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International. From February 2019 to September 2022, Fianna Fáil was in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland.
History
Fianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin. He and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin when a motion he proposed—which called for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed—failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in 1926. His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year. While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes. It largely pre-empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party (with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927. Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as "the real Labour Party."Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists. During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that "the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today – vote for the Government party." However, Fianna Fáil won the election. The party first entered government on 9 March 1932. It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011. Its longest continuous period in office has been 15 years and 11 months (March 1932 – February 1948). Its longest single period out of office in the 20th century was four years and four months (March 1973 – July 1977). All of the party's leaders have served as Taoiseach.The party's most dominant era was the 41-year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for six years that John A. Costello of Fine Gael briefly interrupted. De Valera's reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation. His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland's economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union.
Fianna Fáil's fortunes began to falter in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch after being accused of seeking to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army. Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the "moral issues" such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader. Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald's Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland's political and economic history. Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party's history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O'Malley. Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal.Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owing to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil. In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997. Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland's economy boom during the 2000s. However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden halt following two events. Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers. Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. The party's popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government's performance.In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state. This loss was described as "historic" in its proportions and "unthinkable". The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third-largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats. This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil. That election took place with Michael Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election. Cowen's premiership was sharply criticised in the media, with The Sunday Times describing Cowen's tenure as Taoiseach as "a dismal failure" and in 2011 the Irish Independent calling Cowen the "worst Taoiseach in the history of the State."
Recent history
Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin's Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl. In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year's referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbade abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote. Leader Michael Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil's TDs campaigned for a No vote. On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%.
After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach. That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the "Golfgate" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary. In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worst result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election. The result prompted Jim O'Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election. In February 2023, former leader Bertie Ahern rejoined the party, having left in 2012.
Organisation and structure
Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system. The basic unit was the cumann (branch); these were grouped into comhairlí ceantair (district branches) and a comhairle dáil ceantair (constituency branch) in every constituency. The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50,000 registered names, but only an estimated 10,000–15,000 members were considered active.However, from the early 1990s onward the cumann structure was weakened. Every cumann was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of cumainn had become in effect "paper cumainn", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes. Although this phenomenon was nothing new (the most famous example being Neil Blaney's "Donegal Mafia").Since the 2007 election, the party's structure has significantly weakened. This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run-up to the 2011 general election. The Irish Times estimated that half of its 3,000 cumainn were effectively moribund. This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr.
Ideology
In the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch-all party and has defined itself as such. In the 1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared "there are no isms or [ide]ologies in my party", while in the early 2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party's catch-all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that "looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle-ranking guy and assists the big guy". This contrasts with the more working-class orientation Fianna Fáil had in the early 20th century; In 1926 Seán Lemass described the party as "a progressive republican party based on the actual conditions of the moment" while upon winning the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil's win meant a victory of "the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class". The Fianna Fáil party of the 1930s has been described as an economically social democratic one that sought to create an economically independent state (autarky) via protectionist policies, based on its culturally nationalist thinking.During the leadership of Seán Lemass in the 1960s, Fianna Fáil began to utilise some corporatist policies (embracing the concept of ‘social partnership’), taking some influence from the Roman Catholic Church. It was also during Lemass' time that the party shifted heavily away from autarkic thinking and towards a firm belief in free trade and foreign direct investment in Ireland.In 1967 Jack Lynch described the party as "left of centre" while suggesting it was to the left of Fine Gael and Labour. However, during the 1969 Irish general election the party ran red scare tactics against Labour after it began using the slogan "the seventies will be socialist!". As Fine Gael became more and more socially liberal in the 1970s under Garret FitzGerald, the party reacted by embracing social conservatism and populism. In the same time period, the emergence of the Troubles and the Arms Crisis of 1971 tested the party's nationalism, but despite these events, Fianna Fáil maintained their moderate culturally nationalist stance.In the 1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party. It has presented itself as a "broad church" and attracted support from across disparate social classes. Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right. Fianna Fáil's platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland's tradition of military neutrality. While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival's support of the European Union. Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group's positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same-sex civil partnerships in 2010.The party's name and logo incorporates the words 'The Republican Party'. According to Fianna Fáil, "Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity". The party's main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South.R. Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were "heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels". Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties.
Leadership and president
The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach:
Deputy leader
Seanad leader
Electoral results
Dáil Éireann
European Parliament
Front bench
Ógra Fianna Fáil
Ógra Fianna Fáil serves as the party's official youth wing.
Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics
On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland. The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter: "In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures. We will act gradually and strategically. We are under no illusions. It will not be easy. It will challenge us all. But I am confident we will succeed".The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two 'Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil's youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Ard Fheis. On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil.Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission.
The party's Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties. In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party. Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA. In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’Hanlon and Margaret Conlon. Discussing the party's slow development towards all-Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed: "We have a very open and pragmatic approach. We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded. It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history. To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud".Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007. At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019.Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin. There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior. This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger. Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference that such a merger would not happen on her "watch". On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil.Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification.In September 2022, SDLP party leader Colum Eastwood announced the end of its partnership with Fianna Fáil, saying that the SDLP needed to move forward by "standing on its own two feet".
Representation in European institutions
Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party's Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) sat in the ALDE Group during the 7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014. The party is a full member of the Liberal International. Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009.Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform (ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) banner. On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy (resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights. In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch.eu site found that FF "do not seem to toe the political line" of the ALDE Group "when it comes to budget and civil liberties" issues.In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22.3% of first-preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term. This was due to a combination of the party's vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat "the Cope" Gallagher losing his seat. On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) rather than the ALDE group during the upcoming 8th term of the European parliament. The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn. He has since been re-added to Fianna Fáil's website.In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020–2025 mandate. Kate Feeney is third vice-president of the Group and Group Coordinator in the SEDEC commission. Gillian Coughlan is Deputy Coordinator in the SEDEC Commission.
See also
Fianna Fáil politicians
List of political parties in Northern Ireland
List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
'Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the Beef Processing Industry'
Report of the McCracken Tribunal
Final report of the Mahon Tribunal | applies to jurisdiction | {
"answer_start": [
281
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"text": [
"Republic of Ireland"
]
} |
Fianna Fáil (, Irish: [ˌfʲiən̪ˠə ˈfˠaːlʲ] (listen); meaning 'Soldiers of Destiny' or 'Warriors of Fál'), officially Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party (Irish: Fianna Fáil – An Páirtí Poblachtánach), is a conservative and Christian-democratic political party registered in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
The party was founded as a republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin. De Valera and his followers were determined to take seats in the Oireachtas while Sinn Féin's policy was to refuse to recognise it. Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland's two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as centre-right parties, to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin. The party dominated Irish political life for most of the 20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government. Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right.
Fianna Fáil's vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael–led minority government. In 2020, after a number of months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste.
Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International. From February 2019 to September 2022, Fianna Fáil was in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland.
History
Fianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin. He and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin when a motion he proposed—which called for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed—failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in 1926. His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year. While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes. It largely pre-empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party (with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927. Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as "the real Labour Party."Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists. During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that "the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today – vote for the Government party." However, Fianna Fáil won the election. The party first entered government on 9 March 1932. It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011. Its longest continuous period in office has been 15 years and 11 months (March 1932 – February 1948). Its longest single period out of office in the 20th century was four years and four months (March 1973 – July 1977). All of the party's leaders have served as Taoiseach.The party's most dominant era was the 41-year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for six years that John A. Costello of Fine Gael briefly interrupted. De Valera's reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation. His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland's economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union.
Fianna Fáil's fortunes began to falter in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch after being accused of seeking to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army. Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the "moral issues" such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader. Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald's Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland's political and economic history. Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party's history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O'Malley. Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal.Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owing to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil. In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997. Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland's economy boom during the 2000s. However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden halt following two events. Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers. Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. The party's popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government's performance.In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state. This loss was described as "historic" in its proportions and "unthinkable". The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third-largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats. This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil. That election took place with Michael Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election. Cowen's premiership was sharply criticised in the media, with The Sunday Times describing Cowen's tenure as Taoiseach as "a dismal failure" and in 2011 the Irish Independent calling Cowen the "worst Taoiseach in the history of the State."
Recent history
Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin's Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl. In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year's referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbade abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote. Leader Michael Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil's TDs campaigned for a No vote. On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%.
After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach. That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the "Golfgate" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary. In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worst result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election. The result prompted Jim O'Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election. In February 2023, former leader Bertie Ahern rejoined the party, having left in 2012.
Organisation and structure
Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system. The basic unit was the cumann (branch); these were grouped into comhairlí ceantair (district branches) and a comhairle dáil ceantair (constituency branch) in every constituency. The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50,000 registered names, but only an estimated 10,000–15,000 members were considered active.However, from the early 1990s onward the cumann structure was weakened. Every cumann was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of cumainn had become in effect "paper cumainn", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes. Although this phenomenon was nothing new (the most famous example being Neil Blaney's "Donegal Mafia").Since the 2007 election, the party's structure has significantly weakened. This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run-up to the 2011 general election. The Irish Times estimated that half of its 3,000 cumainn were effectively moribund. This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr.
Ideology
In the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch-all party and has defined itself as such. In the 1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared "there are no isms or [ide]ologies in my party", while in the early 2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party's catch-all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that "looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle-ranking guy and assists the big guy". This contrasts with the more working-class orientation Fianna Fáil had in the early 20th century; In 1926 Seán Lemass described the party as "a progressive republican party based on the actual conditions of the moment" while upon winning the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil's win meant a victory of "the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class". The Fianna Fáil party of the 1930s has been described as an economically social democratic one that sought to create an economically independent state (autarky) via protectionist policies, based on its culturally nationalist thinking.During the leadership of Seán Lemass in the 1960s, Fianna Fáil began to utilise some corporatist policies (embracing the concept of ‘social partnership’), taking some influence from the Roman Catholic Church. It was also during Lemass' time that the party shifted heavily away from autarkic thinking and towards a firm belief in free trade and foreign direct investment in Ireland.In 1967 Jack Lynch described the party as "left of centre" while suggesting it was to the left of Fine Gael and Labour. However, during the 1969 Irish general election the party ran red scare tactics against Labour after it began using the slogan "the seventies will be socialist!". As Fine Gael became more and more socially liberal in the 1970s under Garret FitzGerald, the party reacted by embracing social conservatism and populism. In the same time period, the emergence of the Troubles and the Arms Crisis of 1971 tested the party's nationalism, but despite these events, Fianna Fáil maintained their moderate culturally nationalist stance.In the 1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party. It has presented itself as a "broad church" and attracted support from across disparate social classes. Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right. Fianna Fáil's platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland's tradition of military neutrality. While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival's support of the European Union. Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group's positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same-sex civil partnerships in 2010.The party's name and logo incorporates the words 'The Republican Party'. According to Fianna Fáil, "Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity". The party's main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South.R. Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were "heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels". Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties.
Leadership and president
The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach:
Deputy leader
Seanad leader
Electoral results
Dáil Éireann
European Parliament
Front bench
Ógra Fianna Fáil
Ógra Fianna Fáil serves as the party's official youth wing.
Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics
On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland. The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter: "In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures. We will act gradually and strategically. We are under no illusions. It will not be easy. It will challenge us all. But I am confident we will succeed".The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two 'Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil's youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Ard Fheis. On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil.Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission.
The party's Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties. In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party. Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA. In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’Hanlon and Margaret Conlon. Discussing the party's slow development towards all-Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed: "We have a very open and pragmatic approach. We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded. It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history. To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud".Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007. At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019.Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin. There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior. This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger. Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference that such a merger would not happen on her "watch". On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil.Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification.In September 2022, SDLP party leader Colum Eastwood announced the end of its partnership with Fianna Fáil, saying that the SDLP needed to move forward by "standing on its own two feet".
Representation in European institutions
Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party's Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) sat in the ALDE Group during the 7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014. The party is a full member of the Liberal International. Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009.Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform (ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) banner. On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy (resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights. In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch.eu site found that FF "do not seem to toe the political line" of the ALDE Group "when it comes to budget and civil liberties" issues.In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22.3% of first-preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term. This was due to a combination of the party's vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat "the Cope" Gallagher losing his seat. On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) rather than the ALDE group during the upcoming 8th term of the European parliament. The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn. He has since been re-added to Fianna Fáil's website.In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020–2025 mandate. Kate Feeney is third vice-president of the Group and Group Coordinator in the SEDEC commission. Gillian Coughlan is Deputy Coordinator in the SEDEC Commission.
See also
Fianna Fáil politicians
List of political parties in Northern Ireland
List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
'Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the Beef Processing Industry'
Report of the McCracken Tribunal
Final report of the Mahon Tribunal | political alignment | {
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Fianna Fáil (, Irish: [ˌfʲiən̪ˠə ˈfˠaːlʲ] (listen); meaning 'Soldiers of Destiny' or 'Warriors of Fál'), officially Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party (Irish: Fianna Fáil – An Páirtí Poblachtánach), is a conservative and Christian-democratic political party registered in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
The party was founded as a republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin. De Valera and his followers were determined to take seats in the Oireachtas while Sinn Féin's policy was to refuse to recognise it. Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland's two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as centre-right parties, to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin. The party dominated Irish political life for most of the 20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government. Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right.
Fianna Fáil's vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael–led minority government. In 2020, after a number of months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste.
Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International. From February 2019 to September 2022, Fianna Fáil was in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland.
History
Fianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin. He and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin when a motion he proposed—which called for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed—failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in 1926. His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year. While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes. It largely pre-empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party (with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927. Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as "the real Labour Party."Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists. During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that "the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today – vote for the Government party." However, Fianna Fáil won the election. The party first entered government on 9 March 1932. It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011. Its longest continuous period in office has been 15 years and 11 months (March 1932 – February 1948). Its longest single period out of office in the 20th century was four years and four months (March 1973 – July 1977). All of the party's leaders have served as Taoiseach.The party's most dominant era was the 41-year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for six years that John A. Costello of Fine Gael briefly interrupted. De Valera's reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation. His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland's economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union.
Fianna Fáil's fortunes began to falter in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch after being accused of seeking to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army. Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the "moral issues" such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader. Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald's Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland's political and economic history. Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party's history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O'Malley. Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal.Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owing to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil. In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997. Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland's economy boom during the 2000s. However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden halt following two events. Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers. Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. The party's popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government's performance.In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state. This loss was described as "historic" in its proportions and "unthinkable". The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third-largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats. This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil. That election took place with Michael Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election. Cowen's premiership was sharply criticised in the media, with The Sunday Times describing Cowen's tenure as Taoiseach as "a dismal failure" and in 2011 the Irish Independent calling Cowen the "worst Taoiseach in the history of the State."
Recent history
Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin's Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl. In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year's referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbade abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote. Leader Michael Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil's TDs campaigned for a No vote. On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%.
After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach. That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the "Golfgate" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary. In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worst result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election. The result prompted Jim O'Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election. In February 2023, former leader Bertie Ahern rejoined the party, having left in 2012.
Organisation and structure
Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system. The basic unit was the cumann (branch); these were grouped into comhairlí ceantair (district branches) and a comhairle dáil ceantair (constituency branch) in every constituency. The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50,000 registered names, but only an estimated 10,000–15,000 members were considered active.However, from the early 1990s onward the cumann structure was weakened. Every cumann was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of cumainn had become in effect "paper cumainn", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes. Although this phenomenon was nothing new (the most famous example being Neil Blaney's "Donegal Mafia").Since the 2007 election, the party's structure has significantly weakened. This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run-up to the 2011 general election. The Irish Times estimated that half of its 3,000 cumainn were effectively moribund. This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr.
Ideology
In the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch-all party and has defined itself as such. In the 1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared "there are no isms or [ide]ologies in my party", while in the early 2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party's catch-all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that "looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle-ranking guy and assists the big guy". This contrasts with the more working-class orientation Fianna Fáil had in the early 20th century; In 1926 Seán Lemass described the party as "a progressive republican party based on the actual conditions of the moment" while upon winning the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil's win meant a victory of "the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class". The Fianna Fáil party of the 1930s has been described as an economically social democratic one that sought to create an economically independent state (autarky) via protectionist policies, based on its culturally nationalist thinking.During the leadership of Seán Lemass in the 1960s, Fianna Fáil began to utilise some corporatist policies (embracing the concept of ‘social partnership’), taking some influence from the Roman Catholic Church. It was also during Lemass' time that the party shifted heavily away from autarkic thinking and towards a firm belief in free trade and foreign direct investment in Ireland.In 1967 Jack Lynch described the party as "left of centre" while suggesting it was to the left of Fine Gael and Labour. However, during the 1969 Irish general election the party ran red scare tactics against Labour after it began using the slogan "the seventies will be socialist!". As Fine Gael became more and more socially liberal in the 1970s under Garret FitzGerald, the party reacted by embracing social conservatism and populism. In the same time period, the emergence of the Troubles and the Arms Crisis of 1971 tested the party's nationalism, but despite these events, Fianna Fáil maintained their moderate culturally nationalist stance.In the 1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party. It has presented itself as a "broad church" and attracted support from across disparate social classes. Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right. Fianna Fáil's platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland's tradition of military neutrality. While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival's support of the European Union. Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group's positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same-sex civil partnerships in 2010.The party's name and logo incorporates the words 'The Republican Party'. According to Fianna Fáil, "Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity". The party's main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South.R. Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were "heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels". Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties.
Leadership and president
The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach:
Deputy leader
Seanad leader
Electoral results
Dáil Éireann
European Parliament
Front bench
Ógra Fianna Fáil
Ógra Fianna Fáil serves as the party's official youth wing.
Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics
On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland. The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter: "In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures. We will act gradually and strategically. We are under no illusions. It will not be easy. It will challenge us all. But I am confident we will succeed".The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two 'Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil's youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Ard Fheis. On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil.Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission.
The party's Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties. In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party. Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA. In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’Hanlon and Margaret Conlon. Discussing the party's slow development towards all-Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed: "We have a very open and pragmatic approach. We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded. It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history. To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud".Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007. At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019.Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin. There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior. This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger. Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference that such a merger would not happen on her "watch". On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil.Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification.In September 2022, SDLP party leader Colum Eastwood announced the end of its partnership with Fianna Fáil, saying that the SDLP needed to move forward by "standing on its own two feet".
Representation in European institutions
Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party's Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) sat in the ALDE Group during the 7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014. The party is a full member of the Liberal International. Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009.Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform (ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) banner. On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy (resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights. In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch.eu site found that FF "do not seem to toe the political line" of the ALDE Group "when it comes to budget and civil liberties" issues.In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22.3% of first-preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term. This was due to a combination of the party's vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat "the Cope" Gallagher losing his seat. On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) rather than the ALDE group during the upcoming 8th term of the European parliament. The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn. He has since been re-added to Fianna Fáil's website.In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020–2025 mandate. Kate Feeney is third vice-president of the Group and Group Coordinator in the SEDEC commission. Gillian Coughlan is Deputy Coordinator in the SEDEC Commission.
See also
Fianna Fáil politicians
List of political parties in Northern Ireland
List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
'Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the Beef Processing Industry'
Report of the McCracken Tribunal
Final report of the Mahon Tribunal | native label | {
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Fianna Fáil (, Irish: [ˌfʲiən̪ˠə ˈfˠaːlʲ] (listen); meaning 'Soldiers of Destiny' or 'Warriors of Fál'), officially Fianna Fáil – The Republican Party (Irish: Fianna Fáil – An Páirtí Poblachtánach), is a conservative and Christian-democratic political party registered in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
The party was founded as a republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin. De Valera and his followers were determined to take seats in the Oireachtas while Sinn Féin's policy was to refuse to recognise it. Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland's two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as centre-right parties, to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin. The party dominated Irish political life for most of the 20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government. Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right.
Fianna Fáil's vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael–led minority government. In 2020, after a number of months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste.
Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International. From February 2019 to September 2022, Fianna Fáil was in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland.
History
Fianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin. He and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin when a motion he proposed—which called for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed—failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in 1926. His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year. While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil's platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working-class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes. It largely pre-empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party (with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927. Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as "the real Labour Party."Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists. During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that "the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today – vote for the Government party." However, Fianna Fáil won the election. The party first entered government on 9 March 1932. It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011. Its longest continuous period in office has been 15 years and 11 months (March 1932 – February 1948). Its longest single period out of office in the 20th century was four years and four months (March 1973 – July 1977). All of the party's leaders have served as Taoiseach.The party's most dominant era was the 41-year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for six years that John A. Costello of Fine Gael briefly interrupted. De Valera's reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation. His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland's economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union.
Fianna Fáil's fortunes began to falter in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch after being accused of seeking to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army. Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the "moral issues" such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader. Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald's Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland's political and economic history. Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party's history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O'Malley. Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal.Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owing to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil. In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997. Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland's economy boom during the 2000s. However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden halt following two events. Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers. Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. The party's popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government's performance.In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state. This loss was described as "historic" in its proportions and "unthinkable". The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third-largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats. This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil. That election took place with Michael Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election. Cowen's premiership was sharply criticised in the media, with The Sunday Times describing Cowen's tenure as Taoiseach as "a dismal failure" and in 2011 the Irish Independent calling Cowen the "worst Taoiseach in the history of the State."
Recent history
Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin's Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl. In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year's referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbade abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote. Leader Michael Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil's TDs campaigned for a No vote. On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%.
After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach. That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the "Golfgate" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary. In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worst result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by-election. The result prompted Jim O'Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election. In February 2023, former leader Bertie Ahern rejoined the party, having left in 2012.
Organisation and structure
Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system. The basic unit was the cumann (branch); these were grouped into comhairlí ceantair (district branches) and a comhairle dáil ceantair (constituency branch) in every constituency. The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50,000 registered names, but only an estimated 10,000–15,000 members were considered active.However, from the early 1990s onward the cumann structure was weakened. Every cumann was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of cumainn had become in effect "paper cumainn", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes. Although this phenomenon was nothing new (the most famous example being Neil Blaney's "Donegal Mafia").Since the 2007 election, the party's structure has significantly weakened. This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run-up to the 2011 general election. The Irish Times estimated that half of its 3,000 cumainn were effectively moribund. This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr.
Ideology
In the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch-all party and has defined itself as such. In the 1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared "there are no isms or [ide]ologies in my party", while in the early 2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party's catch-all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that "looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle-ranking guy and assists the big guy". This contrasts with the more working-class orientation Fianna Fáil had in the early 20th century; In 1926 Seán Lemass described the party as "a progressive republican party based on the actual conditions of the moment" while upon winning the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil's win meant a victory of "the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class". The Fianna Fáil party of the 1930s has been described as an economically social democratic one that sought to create an economically independent state (autarky) via protectionist policies, based on its culturally nationalist thinking.During the leadership of Seán Lemass in the 1960s, Fianna Fáil began to utilise some corporatist policies (embracing the concept of ‘social partnership’), taking some influence from the Roman Catholic Church. It was also during Lemass' time that the party shifted heavily away from autarkic thinking and towards a firm belief in free trade and foreign direct investment in Ireland.In 1967 Jack Lynch described the party as "left of centre" while suggesting it was to the left of Fine Gael and Labour. However, during the 1969 Irish general election the party ran red scare tactics against Labour after it began using the slogan "the seventies will be socialist!". As Fine Gael became more and more socially liberal in the 1970s under Garret FitzGerald, the party reacted by embracing social conservatism and populism. In the same time period, the emergence of the Troubles and the Arms Crisis of 1971 tested the party's nationalism, but despite these events, Fianna Fáil maintained their moderate culturally nationalist stance.In the 1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party. It has presented itself as a "broad church" and attracted support from across disparate social classes. Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right. Fianna Fáil's platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland's tradition of military neutrality. While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival's support of the European Union. Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group's positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same-sex civil partnerships in 2010.The party's name and logo incorporates the words 'The Republican Party'. According to Fianna Fáil, "Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity". The party's main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South.R. Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were "heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels". Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties.
Leadership and president
The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach:
Deputy leader
Seanad leader
Electoral results
Dáil Éireann
European Parliament
Front bench
Ógra Fianna Fáil
Ógra Fianna Fáil serves as the party's official youth wing.
Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics
On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland. The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter: "In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures. We will act gradually and strategically. We are under no illusions. It will not be easy. It will challenge us all. But I am confident we will succeed".The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two 'Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil's youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Ard Fheis. On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil.Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission.
The party's Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties. In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party. Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA. In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’Hanlon and Margaret Conlon. Discussing the party's slow development towards all-Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed: "We have a very open and pragmatic approach. We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded. It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history. To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud".Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007. At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019.Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin. There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior. This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger. Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference that such a merger would not happen on her "watch". On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil.Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification.In September 2022, SDLP party leader Colum Eastwood announced the end of its partnership with Fianna Fáil, saying that the SDLP needed to move forward by "standing on its own two feet".
Representation in European institutions
Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party's Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) sat in the ALDE Group during the 7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014. The party is a full member of the Liberal International. Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009.Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform (ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) banner. On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections.In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy (resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights. In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch.eu site found that FF "do not seem to toe the political line" of the ALDE Group "when it comes to budget and civil liberties" issues.In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22.3% of first-preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term. This was due to a combination of the party's vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat "the Cope" Gallagher losing his seat. On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) rather than the ALDE group during the upcoming 8th term of the European parliament. The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn. He has since been re-added to Fianna Fáil's website.In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020–2025 mandate. Kate Feeney is third vice-president of the Group and Group Coordinator in the SEDEC commission. Gillian Coughlan is Deputy Coordinator in the SEDEC Commission.
See also
Fianna Fáil politicians
List of political parties in Northern Ireland
List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
'Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the Beef Processing Industry'
Report of the McCracken Tribunal
Final report of the Mahon Tribunal | short name | {
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Toro Bravo was a Spanish restaurant in Portland, Oregon. The restaurant closed in 2020.
History
Toro Bravo opened in 2007.The restaurant had received funding for provide food for the homeless community.
Reception
Toro Bravo was named one of the city's best restaurants by Portland Monthly's Camas Davis in 2007 and by The Oregonian's Michael Russell in 2016. The restaurant ranked number 23 on Russell's 2019 list of "Portland's 40 best restaurants".
See also
Hispanics and Latinos in Portland, Oregon
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States
List of defunct restaurants of the United States
List of Spanish restaurants
References
External links
Media related to Toro Bravo at Wikimedia Commons
Official website | instance of | {
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25
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"text": [
"restaurant"
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Toro Bravo was a Spanish restaurant in Portland, Oregon. The restaurant closed in 2020.
History
Toro Bravo opened in 2007.The restaurant had received funding for provide food for the homeless community.
Reception
Toro Bravo was named one of the city's best restaurants by Portland Monthly's Camas Davis in 2007 and by The Oregonian's Michael Russell in 2016. The restaurant ranked number 23 on Russell's 2019 list of "Portland's 40 best restaurants".
See also
Hispanics and Latinos in Portland, Oregon
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States
List of defunct restaurants of the United States
List of Spanish restaurants
References
External links
Media related to Toro Bravo at Wikimedia Commons
Official website | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
"answer_start": [
39
],
"text": [
"Portland"
]
} |
Toro Bravo was a Spanish restaurant in Portland, Oregon. The restaurant closed in 2020.
History
Toro Bravo opened in 2007.The restaurant had received funding for provide food for the homeless community.
Reception
Toro Bravo was named one of the city's best restaurants by Portland Monthly's Camas Davis in 2007 and by The Oregonian's Michael Russell in 2016. The restaurant ranked number 23 on Russell's 2019 list of "Portland's 40 best restaurants".
See also
Hispanics and Latinos in Portland, Oregon
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States
List of defunct restaurants of the United States
List of Spanish restaurants
References
External links
Media related to Toro Bravo at Wikimedia Commons
Official website | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Toro Bravo"
]
} |
The Wheeler Shale (named by Charles Walcott) is a Cambrian (c. 507 Ma) fossil locality world-famous
for prolific agnostid and Elrathia kingii trilobite remains (even though many areas are barren of fossils)
and represents a Konzentrat-Lagerstätte. Varied soft bodied organisms are locally preserved, a fauna (including Naraoia, Wiwaxia and Hallucigenia) and preservation style (carbonaceous film) normally associated with the more famous Burgess Shale. As such, the Wheeler Shale also represents a Konservat-Lagerstätten.Together with the Marjum Formation and lower Weeks Formation, the Wheeler Shale forms 490 to 610 m (1,610 to 2,000 ft) of limestone and shale exposed in one of the thickest, most fossiliferous and best exposed sequences of Middle Cambrian rocks in North America.At the type locality of Wheeler Amphitheater, House Range, Millard County, western Utah, the Wheeler Shale consists of a heterogeneous succession of highly calcareous shale, shaley limestone, mudstone and thin, flaggy limestone. The Wheeler Formation (although the Marjum & Weeks Formations are missing) extends into the Drum Mountains, northwest of the House Range where similar fossils and preservation are found.
Taphonomy and sedimentology
Detailed work recognises a number of ~10 m thick lagerstätten sequences in the formation, each of which formed at a sea-level high stand in deep water. The lagerstätte were deposited by turbidities and mudslides onto an oxygenated sea floor.
The productive layers comprise mud and clay particles, with a tiny fraction of wind-blown quartz.
Stratigraphy
The Wheeler Shale spans the Ptychagnostus atavus and uppermost-Middle Cambrian Bolaspidella trilobite zones (See House Range for full stratigraphy).
Fauna
Incomplete list of the fauna of the Wheeler Shale:
(Note: the preservation of hard bodied trilobite remains and soft bodied animals seems to be mutually exclusive within particular horizons.)
Protista
Marpolia spissa - cyanobacteria or green algae
Morania fragmenta - cyanobacteria
Arthropoda
Branchiocaris pretiosa - hymenocarine
Branchiocaris sp.
Cambropodus gracilis - uniramian
Canadaspis perfecta - hymenocarine
Dicerocaris opisthoeces
Emeraldella brocki - vicissicaudatan
Isoxys
Perspicaris dilatus hymenocarine
Pseudoarctolepis sharpi - possible hymenocarine
Tuzoia? peterseni hymenocarine
Waptia fieldensis hymenocarine
Alalcomenaeus cambricus - megacheiran; or alalcomenaeid
Dicranocaris guntherorum - megacheiran; or alalcomenaeid
unnamed 'Molli Sonia symmetrica'
Leanchoilia superlata - megacheiran
Sidneyia inexpectans - vicissicaudatan
Dinocaridida
Amplectobelua cf. A. stephenensis – radiodont
Anomalocarididae gen. et sp. nov. - radiodont
Buccaspinea cooperi? - radiodont
Caryosyntrips durus - radiodont
Caryosyntrips serratus - radiodont
Peytoia nathorsti - radiodont
Pahvantia hastata - radiodont
Stanleycaris sp. - radiodont
Utaurora comosa - opabiniid
Trilobita
Naraoia compacta - naraoiid nectaspid
Hypagnostus parvifrons - agnostid
Peronopsis amplaxis - peronopsid agnostid
Peronopsis bidens
Peronopsis fallax
Peronopsis gaspensis
Peronopsis intermedius
Peronopsis interstrictus
Peronopsis montis
Peronopsis segmentis
Ptychagnostus atavus (= Acidusus atavus) - ptychagnostid agnostid
Ptychagnostus germanus
Ptychagnostus gibbus
Ptychagnostus intermedius
Ptychagnostus michaeli
Ptychagnostus occultatus
Ptychagnostus seminula
Glyphaspis concavus - asaphid
Bathyuriscus fimbriatus - dolichometopid corynexochid
Bathyuriscus sp.
Kootenia sp. - dorypygid corynexochid, perhaps a synonym of Olenoides
Olenoides expansus - dorypygid corynexochid
Olenoides nevadensis
Olenoides serratus
Tonkinella breviceps
Zacanthoides divergens - zacanthoidid corynexochid
Zacanthoides sp.
Altiocculus harrisi - ptychopariid (specific name may be confused with Alokistocare)
Alokistocare harrisi - alokistocarid ptychopariid
Asaphiscus wheeleri - ptychopariid; second-most common species in the formation
Bathyocos housensis - ptychopariid
Bolaspidella drumensis
Bolaspidella housensis
Bolaspidella sp.
Bolaspidella wellsvillensis
Brachyaspidion microps
Brachyaspidion sulcatum
Cedaria minor - known from the Warrior Formation
Elrathia kingii - alokistocarid ptychopariid
Elrathia sp.
Elrathina wheeleri = Ptychoparella wheeleri? - ptychopariid
Jenkinsonia varga
Modocia brevispina
Modocia laevinucha
Modocia typicalis
Ptychoparella sp. - ptychopariid
Ptychoparella wheeleri
Spencella sp. - ptychopariid
Brachiopoda
Acrothele subsidua
Chordata
Hertzina sp. - conodont
Cnidaria
Cambromedusa sp. - jellyfish
Mollusca
Pelagiella sp. - pelagiellid helcionelloid
Echinodermata
Castericystis sprinklei - carpoid
Castericystis sp.
Cothurnocystis sp. - stylophoran
Ctenocystis sp. - ctenocystoid
Gogia spiralis - eocrinoid
Eocrinoid holdfasts believed to belong to Gogia spiralis; may belong to other species
Porifera
Choia carteri - choiid monaxonid demosponge
Choia utahensis
Crumillospongia sp. - hazeliid monaxonid demosponge
Diagonella sp.
Priapulida
Ottoia prolifica - a stem group and it was an archaeopriapulid
Selkirkia sp. - archaeopriapulid
"Selkirkia willoughbyi" (Note: S. columbia is the only recognized species)
Unclassified
Hallucigenia sparsa - ?xenusiid lobopod
Utahnax vannieri - stem-arthropod lobopod, also possible that is from Marjum Formation
Allonnia cf. tintinopsis - a chancelloriid
Chancelloria pentacta - chancelloriid coeloscleritophoran, perhaps a sponge?
Eldonia sp. - eldoniid paropsonemid cambroernid
Skeemella clavula - Possible vetulicolian
Hylolithellus sp. - annelid?
Wiwaxia corrugata - halwaxiid? lophotrochozoan
Yuknessia simplex - pterobranch
Margaretia dorus - possibly organic tube associated with hemichordate
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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The Wheeler Shale (named by Charles Walcott) is a Cambrian (c. 507 Ma) fossil locality world-famous
for prolific agnostid and Elrathia kingii trilobite remains (even though many areas are barren of fossils)
and represents a Konzentrat-Lagerstätte. Varied soft bodied organisms are locally preserved, a fauna (including Naraoia, Wiwaxia and Hallucigenia) and preservation style (carbonaceous film) normally associated with the more famous Burgess Shale. As such, the Wheeler Shale also represents a Konservat-Lagerstätten.Together with the Marjum Formation and lower Weeks Formation, the Wheeler Shale forms 490 to 610 m (1,610 to 2,000 ft) of limestone and shale exposed in one of the thickest, most fossiliferous and best exposed sequences of Middle Cambrian rocks in North America.At the type locality of Wheeler Amphitheater, House Range, Millard County, western Utah, the Wheeler Shale consists of a heterogeneous succession of highly calcareous shale, shaley limestone, mudstone and thin, flaggy limestone. The Wheeler Formation (although the Marjum & Weeks Formations are missing) extends into the Drum Mountains, northwest of the House Range where similar fossils and preservation are found.
Taphonomy and sedimentology
Detailed work recognises a number of ~10 m thick lagerstätten sequences in the formation, each of which formed at a sea-level high stand in deep water. The lagerstätte were deposited by turbidities and mudslides onto an oxygenated sea floor.
The productive layers comprise mud and clay particles, with a tiny fraction of wind-blown quartz.
Stratigraphy
The Wheeler Shale spans the Ptychagnostus atavus and uppermost-Middle Cambrian Bolaspidella trilobite zones (See House Range for full stratigraphy).
Fauna
Incomplete list of the fauna of the Wheeler Shale:
(Note: the preservation of hard bodied trilobite remains and soft bodied animals seems to be mutually exclusive within particular horizons.)
Protista
Marpolia spissa - cyanobacteria or green algae
Morania fragmenta - cyanobacteria
Arthropoda
Branchiocaris pretiosa - hymenocarine
Branchiocaris sp.
Cambropodus gracilis - uniramian
Canadaspis perfecta - hymenocarine
Dicerocaris opisthoeces
Emeraldella brocki - vicissicaudatan
Isoxys
Perspicaris dilatus hymenocarine
Pseudoarctolepis sharpi - possible hymenocarine
Tuzoia? peterseni hymenocarine
Waptia fieldensis hymenocarine
Alalcomenaeus cambricus - megacheiran; or alalcomenaeid
Dicranocaris guntherorum - megacheiran; or alalcomenaeid
unnamed 'Molli Sonia symmetrica'
Leanchoilia superlata - megacheiran
Sidneyia inexpectans - vicissicaudatan
Dinocaridida
Amplectobelua cf. A. stephenensis – radiodont
Anomalocarididae gen. et sp. nov. - radiodont
Buccaspinea cooperi? - radiodont
Caryosyntrips durus - radiodont
Caryosyntrips serratus - radiodont
Peytoia nathorsti - radiodont
Pahvantia hastata - radiodont
Stanleycaris sp. - radiodont
Utaurora comosa - opabiniid
Trilobita
Naraoia compacta - naraoiid nectaspid
Hypagnostus parvifrons - agnostid
Peronopsis amplaxis - peronopsid agnostid
Peronopsis bidens
Peronopsis fallax
Peronopsis gaspensis
Peronopsis intermedius
Peronopsis interstrictus
Peronopsis montis
Peronopsis segmentis
Ptychagnostus atavus (= Acidusus atavus) - ptychagnostid agnostid
Ptychagnostus germanus
Ptychagnostus gibbus
Ptychagnostus intermedius
Ptychagnostus michaeli
Ptychagnostus occultatus
Ptychagnostus seminula
Glyphaspis concavus - asaphid
Bathyuriscus fimbriatus - dolichometopid corynexochid
Bathyuriscus sp.
Kootenia sp. - dorypygid corynexochid, perhaps a synonym of Olenoides
Olenoides expansus - dorypygid corynexochid
Olenoides nevadensis
Olenoides serratus
Tonkinella breviceps
Zacanthoides divergens - zacanthoidid corynexochid
Zacanthoides sp.
Altiocculus harrisi - ptychopariid (specific name may be confused with Alokistocare)
Alokistocare harrisi - alokistocarid ptychopariid
Asaphiscus wheeleri - ptychopariid; second-most common species in the formation
Bathyocos housensis - ptychopariid
Bolaspidella drumensis
Bolaspidella housensis
Bolaspidella sp.
Bolaspidella wellsvillensis
Brachyaspidion microps
Brachyaspidion sulcatum
Cedaria minor - known from the Warrior Formation
Elrathia kingii - alokistocarid ptychopariid
Elrathia sp.
Elrathina wheeleri = Ptychoparella wheeleri? - ptychopariid
Jenkinsonia varga
Modocia brevispina
Modocia laevinucha
Modocia typicalis
Ptychoparella sp. - ptychopariid
Ptychoparella wheeleri
Spencella sp. - ptychopariid
Brachiopoda
Acrothele subsidua
Chordata
Hertzina sp. - conodont
Cnidaria
Cambromedusa sp. - jellyfish
Mollusca
Pelagiella sp. - pelagiellid helcionelloid
Echinodermata
Castericystis sprinklei - carpoid
Castericystis sp.
Cothurnocystis sp. - stylophoran
Ctenocystis sp. - ctenocystoid
Gogia spiralis - eocrinoid
Eocrinoid holdfasts believed to belong to Gogia spiralis; may belong to other species
Porifera
Choia carteri - choiid monaxonid demosponge
Choia utahensis
Crumillospongia sp. - hazeliid monaxonid demosponge
Diagonella sp.
Priapulida
Ottoia prolifica - a stem group and it was an archaeopriapulid
Selkirkia sp. - archaeopriapulid
"Selkirkia willoughbyi" (Note: S. columbia is the only recognized species)
Unclassified
Hallucigenia sparsa - ?xenusiid lobopod
Utahnax vannieri - stem-arthropod lobopod, also possible that is from Marjum Formation
Allonnia cf. tintinopsis - a chancelloriid
Chancelloria pentacta - chancelloriid coeloscleritophoran, perhaps a sponge?
Eldonia sp. - eldoniid paropsonemid cambroernid
Skeemella clavula - Possible vetulicolian
Hylolithellus sp. - annelid?
Wiwaxia corrugata - halwaxiid? lophotrochozoan
Yuknessia simplex - pterobranch
Margaretia dorus - possibly organic tube associated with hemichordate
== References == | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
4
],
"text": [
"Wheeler Shale"
]
} |
Mick Cahill (born 1938 in Dublin) is an Irish former footballer who played as a centre half.
Biography
He joined Shamrock Rovers in 1962 from Bohemians. He captained Bohs in 1961/62 during his time at Dalymount Park, five years before his brother Paul would do so. They joined a prestigious list of brothers such as the Hoopers, O'Kanes and Kerrs who captained The Gypsies. Mick received two amateur international caps and captained his country against England in February 1961 in a 1-1 draw in Dalymount Park. He played twice in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup for Rovers before signing for Transport F.C. in 1965 and later playing for Drumcondra F.C.
Honours
League of Ireland
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
League of Ireland Shield: 3
Shamrock Rovers - 1962/63, 1963/64, 1964/65
Leinster Senior Cup (football)
Shamrock Rovers - 1964
Dublin City Cup
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
Personal life
Cahill was a successful greyhound racing owner during the 1980s, winning various open races.
Sources
The Hoops by Paul Doolan and Robert Goggins (ISBN 0-7171-2121-6)
Bohemian F.C. Match Programme, 29 January 1989
== References == | place of birth | {
"answer_start": [
26
],
"text": [
"Dublin"
]
} |
Mick Cahill (born 1938 in Dublin) is an Irish former footballer who played as a centre half.
Biography
He joined Shamrock Rovers in 1962 from Bohemians. He captained Bohs in 1961/62 during his time at Dalymount Park, five years before his brother Paul would do so. They joined a prestigious list of brothers such as the Hoopers, O'Kanes and Kerrs who captained The Gypsies. Mick received two amateur international caps and captained his country against England in February 1961 in a 1-1 draw in Dalymount Park. He played twice in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup for Rovers before signing for Transport F.C. in 1965 and later playing for Drumcondra F.C.
Honours
League of Ireland
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
League of Ireland Shield: 3
Shamrock Rovers - 1962/63, 1963/64, 1964/65
Leinster Senior Cup (football)
Shamrock Rovers - 1964
Dublin City Cup
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
Personal life
Cahill was a successful greyhound racing owner during the 1980s, winning various open races.
Sources
The Hoops by Paul Doolan and Robert Goggins (ISBN 0-7171-2121-6)
Bohemian F.C. Match Programme, 29 January 1989
== References == | member of sports team | {
"answer_start": [
1051
],
"text": [
"Bohemian F.C."
]
} |
Mick Cahill (born 1938 in Dublin) is an Irish former footballer who played as a centre half.
Biography
He joined Shamrock Rovers in 1962 from Bohemians. He captained Bohs in 1961/62 during his time at Dalymount Park, five years before his brother Paul would do so. They joined a prestigious list of brothers such as the Hoopers, O'Kanes and Kerrs who captained The Gypsies. Mick received two amateur international caps and captained his country against England in February 1961 in a 1-1 draw in Dalymount Park. He played twice in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup for Rovers before signing for Transport F.C. in 1965 and later playing for Drumcondra F.C.
Honours
League of Ireland
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
League of Ireland Shield: 3
Shamrock Rovers - 1962/63, 1963/64, 1964/65
Leinster Senior Cup (football)
Shamrock Rovers - 1964
Dublin City Cup
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
Personal life
Cahill was a successful greyhound racing owner during the 1980s, winning various open races.
Sources
The Hoops by Paul Doolan and Robert Goggins (ISBN 0-7171-2121-6)
Bohemian F.C. Match Programme, 29 January 1989
== References == | family name | {
"answer_start": [
5
],
"text": [
"Cahill"
]
} |
Mick Cahill (born 1938 in Dublin) is an Irish former footballer who played as a centre half.
Biography
He joined Shamrock Rovers in 1962 from Bohemians. He captained Bohs in 1961/62 during his time at Dalymount Park, five years before his brother Paul would do so. They joined a prestigious list of brothers such as the Hoopers, O'Kanes and Kerrs who captained The Gypsies. Mick received two amateur international caps and captained his country against England in February 1961 in a 1-1 draw in Dalymount Park. He played twice in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup for Rovers before signing for Transport F.C. in 1965 and later playing for Drumcondra F.C.
Honours
League of Ireland
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
League of Ireland Shield: 3
Shamrock Rovers - 1962/63, 1963/64, 1964/65
Leinster Senior Cup (football)
Shamrock Rovers - 1964
Dublin City Cup
Shamrock Rovers - 1963/64
Personal life
Cahill was a successful greyhound racing owner during the 1980s, winning various open races.
Sources
The Hoops by Paul Doolan and Robert Goggins (ISBN 0-7171-2121-6)
Bohemian F.C. Match Programme, 29 January 1989
== References == | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Mick"
]
} |
Rostania is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Collemataceae. These lichens are primarily found on tree bark, occasionally on wood, with one species known to inhabit soil. The genus is characterized morphologically by having minute thalli made of hyphal tissue without a separate cortex, and the more or less cuboid-shaped ascospores.
Taxonomy
The genus was originally circumscribed in 1880 by Italian botanist Vittore Benedetto Antonio Trevisan de Saint-Léon.In its new, restricted sense, following its revision using molecular phylogenetics and subsequent resurrection, Rostania is equivalent to the Collema occultatum group as defined by Gunnar Degelius in 1954. The taxonomy of the non-monophyletic taxon Rostania occultata is recently been clarified, and revised generic limitations of the genus proposed, such that some species have been excluded and transferred to other genera.
Description
Rostania features lichens with a somewhat crustose to minutely foliose thallus that is relatively small, measuring 0.3 to 2.5 cm (0.1 to 1.0 in) in diameter. These lichens exhibit dark olive green, black, or brownish colours and can either form a diffuse granular crust or have poorly developed lobes up to 1 or 2 mm wide. The lobes are smooth to ridged and lack a true cortex. The medulla consists of hyphal structures intermingled with chains of Nostoc photobiont cells; a tomentum is absent in Rostania species.
Isidia are not present in this genus; however, accessory teretiform lobules (i.e., small, cylindrical extensions) may develop from lobes. The apothecia are laminal, sessile, and urceolate, resembling perithecia in their early stages. The disc colour ranges from very pale brownish to dark red-brown. The thalline margin is distinct and smooth, either entire or lobulate, and may become excluded over time. The epithecium is colourless to reddish-brown and does not react with a solution of potassium hydroxide or ammonia. The hymenium is colourless and turns blue when exposed to iodine. The hypothecium is shallow, either colourless or pale yellowish.The hamathecium comprises numerous, conglutinate paraphyses that are mostly unbranched, with somewhat swollen apices. The asci are clavate and contain two, four, or eight spores, with the wall and apical dome turning blue in response to potassium hydroxide and iodine. The ascospores are broadly cylindrical to more or less spherical, often cuboid, and muriform. Conidiomata may be present in some species, embedded within the thallus. The conidia are bacilliform and hyaline. No lichen products have been detected in Rostania species using thin-layer chromatography.
Species
As of April 2023, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accepts 9 species of Rostania.
Rostania callibotrys (Tuck.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania ceranisca (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania coccophylla (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania effusa A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania laevispora (Swinscow & Krog) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania multipunctata (Degel.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania pallida A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania occultata (Bagl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania populina (Th.Fr.) A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)Because Rostania callibotrys does not group with Rostania in molecular phylogenetic analysis (instead forming an unsupported group with Enchylium), Košuthová and colleagues suggest that its placement in this genus is uncertain. Rostania laevispora is rarely collected and has not yet had its DNA analysed, but its morphology suggests a close relationship with R. callibotrys. Another seldom-collected species, R. coccophylla, may be better placed in the genus Collema.The taxon once known as Rostania quadrifida (D.F.Stone & McCune) McCune (2014) is now Scytinium quadrifidum. Rostania paramensis (P.M.Jørg. & Palice) P.M.Jørg. & Palice (2015) was transferred to Leptogium, as Leptogium paramense.
== References == | instance of | {
"answer_start": [
683
],
"text": [
"taxon"
]
} |
Rostania is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Collemataceae. These lichens are primarily found on tree bark, occasionally on wood, with one species known to inhabit soil. The genus is characterized morphologically by having minute thalli made of hyphal tissue without a separate cortex, and the more or less cuboid-shaped ascospores.
Taxonomy
The genus was originally circumscribed in 1880 by Italian botanist Vittore Benedetto Antonio Trevisan de Saint-Léon.In its new, restricted sense, following its revision using molecular phylogenetics and subsequent resurrection, Rostania is equivalent to the Collema occultatum group as defined by Gunnar Degelius in 1954. The taxonomy of the non-monophyletic taxon Rostania occultata is recently been clarified, and revised generic limitations of the genus proposed, such that some species have been excluded and transferred to other genera.
Description
Rostania features lichens with a somewhat crustose to minutely foliose thallus that is relatively small, measuring 0.3 to 2.5 cm (0.1 to 1.0 in) in diameter. These lichens exhibit dark olive green, black, or brownish colours and can either form a diffuse granular crust or have poorly developed lobes up to 1 or 2 mm wide. The lobes are smooth to ridged and lack a true cortex. The medulla consists of hyphal structures intermingled with chains of Nostoc photobiont cells; a tomentum is absent in Rostania species.
Isidia are not present in this genus; however, accessory teretiform lobules (i.e., small, cylindrical extensions) may develop from lobes. The apothecia are laminal, sessile, and urceolate, resembling perithecia in their early stages. The disc colour ranges from very pale brownish to dark red-brown. The thalline margin is distinct and smooth, either entire or lobulate, and may become excluded over time. The epithecium is colourless to reddish-brown and does not react with a solution of potassium hydroxide or ammonia. The hymenium is colourless and turns blue when exposed to iodine. The hypothecium is shallow, either colourless or pale yellowish.The hamathecium comprises numerous, conglutinate paraphyses that are mostly unbranched, with somewhat swollen apices. The asci are clavate and contain two, four, or eight spores, with the wall and apical dome turning blue in response to potassium hydroxide and iodine. The ascospores are broadly cylindrical to more or less spherical, often cuboid, and muriform. Conidiomata may be present in some species, embedded within the thallus. The conidia are bacilliform and hyaline. No lichen products have been detected in Rostania species using thin-layer chromatography.
Species
As of April 2023, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accepts 9 species of Rostania.
Rostania callibotrys (Tuck.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania ceranisca (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania coccophylla (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania effusa A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania laevispora (Swinscow & Krog) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania multipunctata (Degel.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania pallida A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania occultata (Bagl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania populina (Th.Fr.) A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)Because Rostania callibotrys does not group with Rostania in molecular phylogenetic analysis (instead forming an unsupported group with Enchylium), Košuthová and colleagues suggest that its placement in this genus is uncertain. Rostania laevispora is rarely collected and has not yet had its DNA analysed, but its morphology suggests a close relationship with R. callibotrys. Another seldom-collected species, R. coccophylla, may be better placed in the genus Collema.The taxon once known as Rostania quadrifida (D.F.Stone & McCune) McCune (2014) is now Scytinium quadrifidum. Rostania paramensis (P.M.Jørg. & Palice) P.M.Jørg. & Palice (2015) was transferred to Leptogium, as Leptogium paramense.
== References == | taxon rank | {
"answer_start": [
14
],
"text": [
"genus"
]
} |
Rostania is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Collemataceae. These lichens are primarily found on tree bark, occasionally on wood, with one species known to inhabit soil. The genus is characterized morphologically by having minute thalli made of hyphal tissue without a separate cortex, and the more or less cuboid-shaped ascospores.
Taxonomy
The genus was originally circumscribed in 1880 by Italian botanist Vittore Benedetto Antonio Trevisan de Saint-Léon.In its new, restricted sense, following its revision using molecular phylogenetics and subsequent resurrection, Rostania is equivalent to the Collema occultatum group as defined by Gunnar Degelius in 1954. The taxonomy of the non-monophyletic taxon Rostania occultata is recently been clarified, and revised generic limitations of the genus proposed, such that some species have been excluded and transferred to other genera.
Description
Rostania features lichens with a somewhat crustose to minutely foliose thallus that is relatively small, measuring 0.3 to 2.5 cm (0.1 to 1.0 in) in diameter. These lichens exhibit dark olive green, black, or brownish colours and can either form a diffuse granular crust or have poorly developed lobes up to 1 or 2 mm wide. The lobes are smooth to ridged and lack a true cortex. The medulla consists of hyphal structures intermingled with chains of Nostoc photobiont cells; a tomentum is absent in Rostania species.
Isidia are not present in this genus; however, accessory teretiform lobules (i.e., small, cylindrical extensions) may develop from lobes. The apothecia are laminal, sessile, and urceolate, resembling perithecia in their early stages. The disc colour ranges from very pale brownish to dark red-brown. The thalline margin is distinct and smooth, either entire or lobulate, and may become excluded over time. The epithecium is colourless to reddish-brown and does not react with a solution of potassium hydroxide or ammonia. The hymenium is colourless and turns blue when exposed to iodine. The hypothecium is shallow, either colourless or pale yellowish.The hamathecium comprises numerous, conglutinate paraphyses that are mostly unbranched, with somewhat swollen apices. The asci are clavate and contain two, four, or eight spores, with the wall and apical dome turning blue in response to potassium hydroxide and iodine. The ascospores are broadly cylindrical to more or less spherical, often cuboid, and muriform. Conidiomata may be present in some species, embedded within the thallus. The conidia are bacilliform and hyaline. No lichen products have been detected in Rostania species using thin-layer chromatography.
Species
As of April 2023, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accepts 9 species of Rostania.
Rostania callibotrys (Tuck.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania ceranisca (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania coccophylla (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania effusa A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania laevispora (Swinscow & Krog) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania multipunctata (Degel.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania pallida A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania occultata (Bagl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania populina (Th.Fr.) A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)Because Rostania callibotrys does not group with Rostania in molecular phylogenetic analysis (instead forming an unsupported group with Enchylium), Košuthová and colleagues suggest that its placement in this genus is uncertain. Rostania laevispora is rarely collected and has not yet had its DNA analysed, but its morphology suggests a close relationship with R. callibotrys. Another seldom-collected species, R. coccophylla, may be better placed in the genus Collema.The taxon once known as Rostania quadrifida (D.F.Stone & McCune) McCune (2014) is now Scytinium quadrifidum. Rostania paramensis (P.M.Jørg. & Palice) P.M.Jørg. & Palice (2015) was transferred to Leptogium, as Leptogium paramense.
== References == | parent taxon | {
"answer_start": [
58
],
"text": [
"Collemataceae"
]
} |
Rostania is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Collemataceae. These lichens are primarily found on tree bark, occasionally on wood, with one species known to inhabit soil. The genus is characterized morphologically by having minute thalli made of hyphal tissue without a separate cortex, and the more or less cuboid-shaped ascospores.
Taxonomy
The genus was originally circumscribed in 1880 by Italian botanist Vittore Benedetto Antonio Trevisan de Saint-Léon.In its new, restricted sense, following its revision using molecular phylogenetics and subsequent resurrection, Rostania is equivalent to the Collema occultatum group as defined by Gunnar Degelius in 1954. The taxonomy of the non-monophyletic taxon Rostania occultata is recently been clarified, and revised generic limitations of the genus proposed, such that some species have been excluded and transferred to other genera.
Description
Rostania features lichens with a somewhat crustose to minutely foliose thallus that is relatively small, measuring 0.3 to 2.5 cm (0.1 to 1.0 in) in diameter. These lichens exhibit dark olive green, black, or brownish colours and can either form a diffuse granular crust or have poorly developed lobes up to 1 or 2 mm wide. The lobes are smooth to ridged and lack a true cortex. The medulla consists of hyphal structures intermingled with chains of Nostoc photobiont cells; a tomentum is absent in Rostania species.
Isidia are not present in this genus; however, accessory teretiform lobules (i.e., small, cylindrical extensions) may develop from lobes. The apothecia are laminal, sessile, and urceolate, resembling perithecia in their early stages. The disc colour ranges from very pale brownish to dark red-brown. The thalline margin is distinct and smooth, either entire or lobulate, and may become excluded over time. The epithecium is colourless to reddish-brown and does not react with a solution of potassium hydroxide or ammonia. The hymenium is colourless and turns blue when exposed to iodine. The hypothecium is shallow, either colourless or pale yellowish.The hamathecium comprises numerous, conglutinate paraphyses that are mostly unbranched, with somewhat swollen apices. The asci are clavate and contain two, four, or eight spores, with the wall and apical dome turning blue in response to potassium hydroxide and iodine. The ascospores are broadly cylindrical to more or less spherical, often cuboid, and muriform. Conidiomata may be present in some species, embedded within the thallus. The conidia are bacilliform and hyaline. No lichen products have been detected in Rostania species using thin-layer chromatography.
Species
As of April 2023, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accepts 9 species of Rostania.
Rostania callibotrys (Tuck.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania ceranisca (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania coccophylla (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania effusa A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania laevispora (Swinscow & Krog) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania multipunctata (Degel.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania pallida A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania occultata (Bagl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania populina (Th.Fr.) A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)Because Rostania callibotrys does not group with Rostania in molecular phylogenetic analysis (instead forming an unsupported group with Enchylium), Košuthová and colleagues suggest that its placement in this genus is uncertain. Rostania laevispora is rarely collected and has not yet had its DNA analysed, but its morphology suggests a close relationship with R. callibotrys. Another seldom-collected species, R. coccophylla, may be better placed in the genus Collema.The taxon once known as Rostania quadrifida (D.F.Stone & McCune) McCune (2014) is now Scytinium quadrifidum. Rostania paramensis (P.M.Jørg. & Palice) P.M.Jørg. & Palice (2015) was transferred to Leptogium, as Leptogium paramense.
== References == | taxon name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Rostania"
]
} |
Rostania is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Collemataceae. These lichens are primarily found on tree bark, occasionally on wood, with one species known to inhabit soil. The genus is characterized morphologically by having minute thalli made of hyphal tissue without a separate cortex, and the more or less cuboid-shaped ascospores.
Taxonomy
The genus was originally circumscribed in 1880 by Italian botanist Vittore Benedetto Antonio Trevisan de Saint-Léon.In its new, restricted sense, following its revision using molecular phylogenetics and subsequent resurrection, Rostania is equivalent to the Collema occultatum group as defined by Gunnar Degelius in 1954. The taxonomy of the non-monophyletic taxon Rostania occultata is recently been clarified, and revised generic limitations of the genus proposed, such that some species have been excluded and transferred to other genera.
Description
Rostania features lichens with a somewhat crustose to minutely foliose thallus that is relatively small, measuring 0.3 to 2.5 cm (0.1 to 1.0 in) in diameter. These lichens exhibit dark olive green, black, or brownish colours and can either form a diffuse granular crust or have poorly developed lobes up to 1 or 2 mm wide. The lobes are smooth to ridged and lack a true cortex. The medulla consists of hyphal structures intermingled with chains of Nostoc photobiont cells; a tomentum is absent in Rostania species.
Isidia are not present in this genus; however, accessory teretiform lobules (i.e., small, cylindrical extensions) may develop from lobes. The apothecia are laminal, sessile, and urceolate, resembling perithecia in their early stages. The disc colour ranges from very pale brownish to dark red-brown. The thalline margin is distinct and smooth, either entire or lobulate, and may become excluded over time. The epithecium is colourless to reddish-brown and does not react with a solution of potassium hydroxide or ammonia. The hymenium is colourless and turns blue when exposed to iodine. The hypothecium is shallow, either colourless or pale yellowish.The hamathecium comprises numerous, conglutinate paraphyses that are mostly unbranched, with somewhat swollen apices. The asci are clavate and contain two, four, or eight spores, with the wall and apical dome turning blue in response to potassium hydroxide and iodine. The ascospores are broadly cylindrical to more or less spherical, often cuboid, and muriform. Conidiomata may be present in some species, embedded within the thallus. The conidia are bacilliform and hyaline. No lichen products have been detected in Rostania species using thin-layer chromatography.
Species
As of April 2023, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accepts 9 species of Rostania.
Rostania callibotrys (Tuck.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania ceranisca (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania coccophylla (Nyl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania effusa A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania laevispora (Swinscow & Krog) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania multipunctata (Degel.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania pallida A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)
Rostania occultata (Bagl.) Otálora, P.M.Jørg. & Wedin (2013)
Rostania populina (Th.Fr.) A.Košuth., M.Westb. & Wedin (2022)Because Rostania callibotrys does not group with Rostania in molecular phylogenetic analysis (instead forming an unsupported group with Enchylium), Košuthová and colleagues suggest that its placement in this genus is uncertain. Rostania laevispora is rarely collected and has not yet had its DNA analysed, but its morphology suggests a close relationship with R. callibotrys. Another seldom-collected species, R. coccophylla, may be better placed in the genus Collema.The taxon once known as Rostania quadrifida (D.F.Stone & McCune) McCune (2014) is now Scytinium quadrifidum. Rostania paramensis (P.M.Jørg. & Palice) P.M.Jørg. & Palice (2015) was transferred to Leptogium, as Leptogium paramense.
== References == | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Rostania"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | place of birth | {
"answer_start": [
115
],
"text": [
"Sedan"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | spouse | {
"answer_start": [
1169
],
"text": [
"Marie-France Tristan"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
132
],
"text": [
"France"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | native language | {
"answer_start": [
69
],
"text": [
"French"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
76
],
"text": [
"writer"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | award received | {
"answer_start": [
1300
],
"text": [
"Prix Goncourt"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | family name | {
"answer_start": [
19
],
"text": [
"Tristan"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | pseudonym | {
"answer_start": [
2183
],
"text": [
"Adrien Salvat"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
== References == | languages spoken, written or signed | {
"answer_start": [
69
],
"text": [
"French"
]
} |
Jean-Paul Frédéric Tristan Baron (11 June 1931 – 2 March 2022) was a French writer.
Biography
Tristan was born in Sedan, Ardennes, France, on 11 June 1931. He was sent on a mission to Laos, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and China (1964–1986).
In 2000, he explained his work in a series of interviews with the critic Jean-Luc Moreau.In 1952, he participated in research conducted by Joel Picton. From 1983 to 2001 he was professor of early Christian and Renaissance iconography at ICART (Paris). Tristan is one of the authors named in Jean-Luc Moreau's 1992 manifesto and anthology La Nouvelle Fiction, alongside Hubert Haddad, Georges-Olivier Châteaureynaud, François Coupry, Jean Levy, Patrick Carré, and Marc Petit. All seven founding members of this literary movement share a literary heritage of German Romanticism, the English Gothic novel, speculative philosophy, surrealism, spiritualism and the oriental tale to explore Romantic themes such as the soul, fate, the world of dreams, myth and invisible realms.All of his archives (manuscripts, books published and translated, audio and visual documentation, reviews) are available at IMEC.
Tristan was married to Marie-France Tristan, a specialist on poet Giambattista Marino. He died in France, on 2 March 2022, at the age of 90.
Awards
1983 Prix Goncourt, for Les Égarés
2000 Grand Prize for lifetime achievement Société des gens de lettres
Works
Les Égarés, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Naissance d'un spectre, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Singe égal du ciel, éditions Fayard (Paris)
La Geste serpentine, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Balthasar Kober, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Stéphanie Phanistée, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dieu, éditions Fayard (Paris)
l'Univers et Madame Berthe, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Les Obsèques prodigieuses d'Abraham Radjec, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Tao le haut voyage, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Énigme du Vatican, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Monsieur l'Enfant et le cercle des bavards, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Dernières nouvelles de l'Au-delà, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Le Chaudron chinois, éditions Fayard (Paris)
Christos, enquête sur l'impossible, éditions Fayard (Paris)
L'Infini singulier (qui décrit l’enfance de Adrien Salvat, personnage récurrent de l’auteur)
Poetry
L’Ostiaque
L’Anthrope, 1951-1953 (Nouveau Commerce)
Passage de l'ombre (Recherches graphiques)
Encres et écritures (2010). La Finestra
Essays
Les Premières Images chrétiennes: du symbole à l'icône
Les Sociétés secrètes chinoises
Le Monde à l'envers, l'Œil d'Hermès
Anagramme du vide
Don Juan le révolté
External links
"Author's website"
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The 1934 Howard Bulldogs football team was an American football team that represented Howard College—now known as Samford University—as a member of the Dixie Conference and the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) in the 1934 college football season. Led by Clyde Propst in his first and only season as head coach, the team compiled an overall record of 3–4–2 and with a mark of 0–1 in Dixie Conference play and 2–1–1 against SIAA competition.
Schedule
== References == | head coach | {
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The 1934 Howard Bulldogs football team was an American football team that represented Howard College—now known as Samford University—as a member of the Dixie Conference and the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) in the 1934 college football season. Led by Clyde Propst in his first and only season as head coach, the team compiled an overall record of 3–4–2 and with a mark of 0–1 in Dixie Conference play and 2–1–1 against SIAA competition.
Schedule
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Blepharomastix zethealis is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Schaus in 1912. It is found in Costa Rica.
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Blepharomastix zethealis is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Schaus in 1912. It is found in Costa Rica.
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Blepharomastix zethealis is a species of moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Schaus in 1912. It is found in Costa Rica.
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LSG2 is the second and final studio album by R&B group LSG. It was released on July 28, 2003 by Elektra Records.
Critical reception
David Jeffries from Allmusic found that "the sexier than expected LSG2 presents the singers as swashbuckling lords of the bedroom and shows little interest in crossing over to the pop world's more chaste framework. It's a good thing they allow themselves the freedom, since the album's highlights are the more racy numbers [...] Well-written and well-produced, "Yesterday"'s over the top emotion and meandering way bring reminders of Prince at his most lonely and lustful and give the album some needed substance. Elsewhere the songwriting lags, but the slick production and LSG's passionate vocals make this seduction hard to resist."
Track listing
Samples
"Just Friends" contains portions of "Friends" as written by Lawrence Smith and Jalil Hutchins.
Charts
== References == | instance of | {
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LSG2 is the second and final studio album by R&B group LSG. It was released on July 28, 2003 by Elektra Records.
Critical reception
David Jeffries from Allmusic found that "the sexier than expected LSG2 presents the singers as swashbuckling lords of the bedroom and shows little interest in crossing over to the pop world's more chaste framework. It's a good thing they allow themselves the freedom, since the album's highlights are the more racy numbers [...] Well-written and well-produced, "Yesterday"'s over the top emotion and meandering way bring reminders of Prince at his most lonely and lustful and give the album some needed substance. Elsewhere the songwriting lags, but the slick production and LSG's passionate vocals make this seduction hard to resist."
Track listing
Samples
"Just Friends" contains portions of "Friends" as written by Lawrence Smith and Jalil Hutchins.
Charts
== References == | performer | {
"answer_start": [
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LSG2 is the second and final studio album by R&B group LSG. It was released on July 28, 2003 by Elektra Records.
Critical reception
David Jeffries from Allmusic found that "the sexier than expected LSG2 presents the singers as swashbuckling lords of the bedroom and shows little interest in crossing over to the pop world's more chaste framework. It's a good thing they allow themselves the freedom, since the album's highlights are the more racy numbers [...] Well-written and well-produced, "Yesterday"'s over the top emotion and meandering way bring reminders of Prince at his most lonely and lustful and give the album some needed substance. Elsewhere the songwriting lags, but the slick production and LSG's passionate vocals make this seduction hard to resist."
Track listing
Samples
"Just Friends" contains portions of "Friends" as written by Lawrence Smith and Jalil Hutchins.
Charts
== References == | record label | {
"answer_start": [
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Anthony Tyrrell (1552 – c. 1610) was an English Roman Catholic renegade priest and spy.
Origins
Anthony Tyrrell, born in 1552, was son of George Tyrrell. His grandfather, Sir Thomas Tyrrell, who married Constance Blount, the daughter of Lord Mountjoy, was great-great-grandson of Sir John Tyrrell. The family was Catholic in Mary's reign and in favour with the Queen. After the accession of Elizabeth, George retired with his wife and children to the Netherlands, where they fell into extreme poverty.
Ordination
Anthony, after graduating BA in some university, and being unable to pursue his studies for want of money, came over to England to beg from his relatives. He was seized as a recusant, but after some months' imprisonment obtained his release through the favour apparently of Lord Burghley, and he again went abroad. He was one of the first students who entered the newly founded college at Rome, and at the age of twenty-seven he took the college oath, 23 April 1579. In less than two years he was ordained priest and sent upon the English mission, where on 29 April 1581 he was captured and thrown into the Gatehouse. He, however, broke prison and was again at large in January 1582. In 1584 he travelled abroad, and revisited Rome in company with the seminary priest John Ballard.
Political intrigue
On his return to England in 1585 Tyrrell became mixed up with the strange practices of Father Weston, SJ, Robert Dibdale, and others, in the alleged casting out of devils in the house of Lord Vaux at Hackney, and at Sir George Peckham's at Denham. Tyrrell, it seems, wrote some account of these prodigies, or at least had a hand in the so-called Book of Miracles attributed to Weston, extracts from which have been preserved by Samuel Harsnett. The chief actors in this affair were arrested or dispersed in the midsummer of 1586; and Tyrrell, described by Father Southwell as "a man that hath done much good", was taken prisoner for the third time and lodged in the counter in Wood Street, 4 July. For a moment he maintained the genuineness of the alleged supernatural phenomena in which he had taken part, and expressed his grief when the knives, rusty nails, and other objects which he declared had been extracted from the cheeks or stomachs of the possessed women and had been found in his trunk, were taken away from him by the pursuivants. He, however, presently opened communication with Burghley; and a few weeks later the arrest of his friend Ballard so alarmed him that, to secure his own safety and gain the favour of the Government, he made at several times (27, 30, 31 August, 2, 3 September) secret disclosures regarding the Babington conspirators, Mary Stuart, the Pope, and a number of his clerical brethren, mixing up with some genuine and valuable information much that was mere guesswork or absolute fiction. Before long he avowed himself to be a sincere convert to Protestantism, and professed a desire to make satisfaction for his former errors by giving information of Popish practices. He was accordingly in September removed to the Clink gaol, in order that he might have better scope for acting his chosen part of spy and informer among the many Catholic prisoners there, and shortly afterwards he was granted liberty abroad for the same purpose. Meanwhile, he was encouraged by Justice Young to continue saying Mass and hearing confessions, and Lord Burghley wrote to him: "Your dissimulation is to a good end". When at last the suspicions of the Catholics were aroused, Tyrrell asked permission to profess openly his conversion; and it was resolved that he should receive catechetical instruction and license to preach from the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Conversions
Tyrrell's conscience was meanwhile smitten by the exhortations of a priest who had detected his treacheries, and before encountering the Archbishop he obtained leave of absence for a few weeks on the plea of private business. He at once fled north to Leith, and there took ship to the continent, having previously written a long letter to the Queen, retracting all his former accusations against his brethren and renouncing his Protestantism. He also wrote a full and detailed confession, which came into the possession of Father Parsons, and was by him being prepared for the press, when Tyrrell, with no apparent reason, after a few months slipped back into England, and there fell or threw himself into the hands of his former masters. This retractation must evidently be received with as much caution as his former charges. The Government, however, now insisted on his making at St. Paul's Cross a public recantation of his late apostasy and a reaffirmation of his original statements. This he was apparently ready to do, but on the appointed day, Sunday, 31 January 1588, on mounting the pulpit in the presence of a large crowd of both Catholics and Protestants, he unexpectedly began a speech in the opposite sense. He was thereupon violently interrupted, rescued with difficulty from the angry mob, hurried to Newgate, and thence to close confinement in the Counter, but not before he had contrived to scatter among the people copies of his intended discourse, which was triumphantly published in the same year by John Bridgewater. Tyrrell again persevered as a penitent Catholic for about six months, being for part of that time fortified in his resolution by a fellow prisoner of the same faith with whom he held daily converse through a chink in the wall of his cell. But he then recurred to the Church of England, professed to Burghley his "true repentance" in October, and at last, on 8 December 1588, successfully delivered at Paul's Cross the sermon which should have been preached in the preceding January. It was printed with the title The recantation and abjuration of Anthony Tyrrell (some time priest of the English College in Rome, but now by the great mercy of God converted and become a true professor of His Word) pronounced by himself at Paul's Cross after the sermon made by Mr. Pownoll, preacher … At London 1588.Tyrrell now retired into private life as an Anglican clergyman, took a wife, and held the vicarage of Southminster and the parsonage of Dengie. In 1595 he was acting as chaplain to Lady Bindon, but in the autumn of that year he fell into disreputable company, and tried to escape abroad with his new friends under cover of a false passport. The Government were on the watch. He was caught, and underwent in the Marshalsea his sixth imprisonment. Here he remained for at least two months, but was probably soon afterwards released by means of his old patron, Justice Young, who, "moved by the pitiful request and suit of his [Tyrrell's] wife", and finding him "constant in God's true religion and desirous to continue his preaching", interceded on his behalf with Sir Robert Cecil. In 1602 Tyrrell, together with several other witnesses, appeared before the Bishop of London and the royal commissioners to give evidence regarding the exorcisms of 1585, which he did in the form of a written statement, more sober in style than most of his previous declarations. This Confession of M.A. Anthonie Tyrrell, Clerke, written with his owne hand and avouched upon his oath the 15 of June 1602, was printed in the following year, together with The copies of the severall examinations and confessions of the parties pretending to be possessed and dispossessed by Weston the jesuit and his adherents, in the Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures, published by Harsnett, then chaplain to the Bishop of London, and afterwards Archbishop of York. Tyrrell here remarks that the charges of treason which he had brought against Babington and afterwards retracted were in the event not only fully justified, "but a great more than ever I knew or dreamed of".
Death
Tyrrell passed through one more change. Father Weston, who died in 1615, relates in his Autobiography that in his old age Tyrrell was persuaded by his brother to retire into Belgium, where he died reconciled to the Roman Church. The exact date is not known.
Notes
References
Sources
Holmes, Peter (2004). "Tyrrell, Anthony (1552–1615), Roman Catholic priest and Church of England clergyman ". In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
Law, Thomas Graves (1899). "Tyrrell, Anthony" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 57. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 437–439. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
External links
Morris, John, ed. (1872). The Troubles of Our Catholic Forefathers Related by Themselves. 2nd series. London: Burnes & Oates. pp. 285–501.
Morris, John, ed. (1877). The Troubles of Our Catholic Forefathers Related by Themselves. 3rd series. London: Burnes & Oates. p. 280.
Ockerbloom, John Mark, ed. "Tyrrell, Anthony, 1552-1610?", The Online Books Page. Accessed 3 March 2022. | occupation | {
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"text": [
"Catholic priest"
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Anthony Tyrrell (1552 – c. 1610) was an English Roman Catholic renegade priest and spy.
Origins
Anthony Tyrrell, born in 1552, was son of George Tyrrell. His grandfather, Sir Thomas Tyrrell, who married Constance Blount, the daughter of Lord Mountjoy, was great-great-grandson of Sir John Tyrrell. The family was Catholic in Mary's reign and in favour with the Queen. After the accession of Elizabeth, George retired with his wife and children to the Netherlands, where they fell into extreme poverty.
Ordination
Anthony, after graduating BA in some university, and being unable to pursue his studies for want of money, came over to England to beg from his relatives. He was seized as a recusant, but after some months' imprisonment obtained his release through the favour apparently of Lord Burghley, and he again went abroad. He was one of the first students who entered the newly founded college at Rome, and at the age of twenty-seven he took the college oath, 23 April 1579. In less than two years he was ordained priest and sent upon the English mission, where on 29 April 1581 he was captured and thrown into the Gatehouse. He, however, broke prison and was again at large in January 1582. In 1584 he travelled abroad, and revisited Rome in company with the seminary priest John Ballard.
Political intrigue
On his return to England in 1585 Tyrrell became mixed up with the strange practices of Father Weston, SJ, Robert Dibdale, and others, in the alleged casting out of devils in the house of Lord Vaux at Hackney, and at Sir George Peckham's at Denham. Tyrrell, it seems, wrote some account of these prodigies, or at least had a hand in the so-called Book of Miracles attributed to Weston, extracts from which have been preserved by Samuel Harsnett. The chief actors in this affair were arrested or dispersed in the midsummer of 1586; and Tyrrell, described by Father Southwell as "a man that hath done much good", was taken prisoner for the third time and lodged in the counter in Wood Street, 4 July. For a moment he maintained the genuineness of the alleged supernatural phenomena in which he had taken part, and expressed his grief when the knives, rusty nails, and other objects which he declared had been extracted from the cheeks or stomachs of the possessed women and had been found in his trunk, were taken away from him by the pursuivants. He, however, presently opened communication with Burghley; and a few weeks later the arrest of his friend Ballard so alarmed him that, to secure his own safety and gain the favour of the Government, he made at several times (27, 30, 31 August, 2, 3 September) secret disclosures regarding the Babington conspirators, Mary Stuart, the Pope, and a number of his clerical brethren, mixing up with some genuine and valuable information much that was mere guesswork or absolute fiction. Before long he avowed himself to be a sincere convert to Protestantism, and professed a desire to make satisfaction for his former errors by giving information of Popish practices. He was accordingly in September removed to the Clink gaol, in order that he might have better scope for acting his chosen part of spy and informer among the many Catholic prisoners there, and shortly afterwards he was granted liberty abroad for the same purpose. Meanwhile, he was encouraged by Justice Young to continue saying Mass and hearing confessions, and Lord Burghley wrote to him: "Your dissimulation is to a good end". When at last the suspicions of the Catholics were aroused, Tyrrell asked permission to profess openly his conversion; and it was resolved that he should receive catechetical instruction and license to preach from the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Conversions
Tyrrell's conscience was meanwhile smitten by the exhortations of a priest who had detected his treacheries, and before encountering the Archbishop he obtained leave of absence for a few weeks on the plea of private business. He at once fled north to Leith, and there took ship to the continent, having previously written a long letter to the Queen, retracting all his former accusations against his brethren and renouncing his Protestantism. He also wrote a full and detailed confession, which came into the possession of Father Parsons, and was by him being prepared for the press, when Tyrrell, with no apparent reason, after a few months slipped back into England, and there fell or threw himself into the hands of his former masters. This retractation must evidently be received with as much caution as his former charges. The Government, however, now insisted on his making at St. Paul's Cross a public recantation of his late apostasy and a reaffirmation of his original statements. This he was apparently ready to do, but on the appointed day, Sunday, 31 January 1588, on mounting the pulpit in the presence of a large crowd of both Catholics and Protestants, he unexpectedly began a speech in the opposite sense. He was thereupon violently interrupted, rescued with difficulty from the angry mob, hurried to Newgate, and thence to close confinement in the Counter, but not before he had contrived to scatter among the people copies of his intended discourse, which was triumphantly published in the same year by John Bridgewater. Tyrrell again persevered as a penitent Catholic for about six months, being for part of that time fortified in his resolution by a fellow prisoner of the same faith with whom he held daily converse through a chink in the wall of his cell. But he then recurred to the Church of England, professed to Burghley his "true repentance" in October, and at last, on 8 December 1588, successfully delivered at Paul's Cross the sermon which should have been preached in the preceding January. It was printed with the title The recantation and abjuration of Anthony Tyrrell (some time priest of the English College in Rome, but now by the great mercy of God converted and become a true professor of His Word) pronounced by himself at Paul's Cross after the sermon made by Mr. Pownoll, preacher … At London 1588.Tyrrell now retired into private life as an Anglican clergyman, took a wife, and held the vicarage of Southminster and the parsonage of Dengie. In 1595 he was acting as chaplain to Lady Bindon, but in the autumn of that year he fell into disreputable company, and tried to escape abroad with his new friends under cover of a false passport. The Government were on the watch. He was caught, and underwent in the Marshalsea his sixth imprisonment. Here he remained for at least two months, but was probably soon afterwards released by means of his old patron, Justice Young, who, "moved by the pitiful request and suit of his [Tyrrell's] wife", and finding him "constant in God's true religion and desirous to continue his preaching", interceded on his behalf with Sir Robert Cecil. In 1602 Tyrrell, together with several other witnesses, appeared before the Bishop of London and the royal commissioners to give evidence regarding the exorcisms of 1585, which he did in the form of a written statement, more sober in style than most of his previous declarations. This Confession of M.A. Anthonie Tyrrell, Clerke, written with his owne hand and avouched upon his oath the 15 of June 1602, was printed in the following year, together with The copies of the severall examinations and confessions of the parties pretending to be possessed and dispossessed by Weston the jesuit and his adherents, in the Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures, published by Harsnett, then chaplain to the Bishop of London, and afterwards Archbishop of York. Tyrrell here remarks that the charges of treason which he had brought against Babington and afterwards retracted were in the event not only fully justified, "but a great more than ever I knew or dreamed of".
Death
Tyrrell passed through one more change. Father Weston, who died in 1615, relates in his Autobiography that in his old age Tyrrell was persuaded by his brother to retire into Belgium, where he died reconciled to the Roman Church. The exact date is not known.
Notes
References
Sources
Holmes, Peter (2004). "Tyrrell, Anthony (1552–1615), Roman Catholic priest and Church of England clergyman ". In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
Law, Thomas Graves (1899). "Tyrrell, Anthony" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 57. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 437–439. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
External links
Morris, John, ed. (1872). The Troubles of Our Catholic Forefathers Related by Themselves. 2nd series. London: Burnes & Oates. pp. 285–501.
Morris, John, ed. (1877). The Troubles of Our Catholic Forefathers Related by Themselves. 3rd series. London: Burnes & Oates. p. 280.
Ockerbloom, John Mark, ed. "Tyrrell, Anthony, 1552-1610?", The Online Books Page. Accessed 3 March 2022. | given name | {
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Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | place of birth | {
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244
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Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | country of citizenship | {
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} |
Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | occupation | {
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Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | award received | {
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Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | Commons category | {
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Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | family name | {
"answer_start": [
12
],
"text": [
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]
} |
Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Aminata"
]
} |
Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | languages spoken, written or signed | {
"answer_start": [
128
],
"text": [
"French"
]
} |
Aminata Sow Fall (born 27 April 1941) is a Senegalese-born author. While her native language is Wolof, her books are written in French. She is considered "the first published woman novelist from francophone Black Africa".
Life
She was born in Saint-Louis, Senegal, where she grew up before moving to Dakar to finish her secondary schooling. After this, she did a degree in Modern Languages at the Sorbonne in Paris, France and became a teacher upon returning to Senegal.
She was a member of the Commission for Educational Reform responsible for the introduction of African literature into the French syllabus in Senegal, before becoming director of La Propriété littéraire (The Literary Property) in Dakar (1979–88). She was the Director of the literature section of the Ministry of Culture then also became the Director of the Centre d'Etudes des Civilations, a centre which researches Senegal's culture and oral literatures. Her works are often concerned with social issues, power and corruption, and with her experience in both Paris and Senegal, she explores the many of traditions and cultures within both of these societies.
She was appointed the first woman president of Senegal's Writer's Association in 1985.
Two years later, in 1987, she founded the 'Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels', an organisation which promotes young writers through literature festivals, seminars and competitions, publishing them in the affiliated publishing house Éditions Khoudia which she founded in 1990.
She is a member of the Ordre de Mérite.
Senegal's Directorate of Books and Reading named their 'Aminata Sow Fall Prize for Creativity' after her, a manuscript prize which they set up in conjunction with the International Book Fair to support young literary creators.
She played the part of Aunt Oumy in Djibril Diop Mambéty's classic 1973 road movie Touki Bouki.Growing up in an education system designed and run by the French, Sow Fall was only exposed to a few names from African literature growing up, since this was a system which prioritised Western names and titles. With this experience of living and being educated in both non-Western Senegal and Western France, Sow Fall separated herself from other African writers, who, she expresses, often feel that they must situate themselves in relation to the West. She feels that African literature would gain from a sense of self-discovery through writing, an common experience for Western authors, and from leaving behind the self-consciousness with which she feels many African authors have historically carried into their literature.
Awards
1980 - Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Grève des bàttu.
1982 - Prix International Alioune Diop for L'Appel des arènes.
1997 - honorary doctorate from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
Writing
Her books include:
Le Revenant, Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1976. ISBN 2 7236 0109 9.
L'empire du mensonge (2018). ISBN 979-1035600068
Femmes d'Afrique (2001). ISBN 9782842612979
La Grève des bàttu (1979); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1980; Serpent à plumes (paperback 2001), ISBN 2-84261-250-7
The Beggars' Strike, trans. Dorothy Blair, Longman (1986), ISBN 0-582-00243-5
L'Appel des arènes (The Call of the Arena) (1982); Nouvelles éditions africaines, 1993. ISBN 2 7236 0837 9.
Ex-père de la nation: roman, Paris: L'Harmattan, 1987. ISBN 2 85802 875 3.
Douceurs du bercail, Nouvelles Editions ivoiriennes, 1998. ISBN 2 911725 46 8.
Le jujubier du patriarche: roman, Serpent à Plumes, 1998
Sur le flanc gauche du Belem. Arles: Actes Sud, 2002. ISBN 2 7427 4044 9.
Un grain de vie et d'espérance. Paris: Françoise Truffaut Editions, 2002. ISBN 2-951661-45-2.
Festins de la détresse: roman. Editions d'en bas. 2005. ISBN 978-2-8290-0318-9.The film Battu (2000) by director Cheick Oumar Sissoko is based on her novel La Grève des bàttu.
References
Further reading
Simon Gikandi, Encyclopedia of African Literature, Routledge (2002), pp. 518–9. ISBN 0-415-23019-5
Médoune Guèye, Aminata Sow Fall: Oralité et société dans l'oeuvre romanesque, Editions L'Harmattan (2005). ISBN 2-7475-8557-3
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Laïla Ibnlfassi; Nicki Hitchcott, eds. (1996). "Marxist Intertext, Islamic Reinscription?". African Francophone Writing: a critical introduction. Berg. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-85973-014-0. aminata sow fall.
Ada Uzoamaka Azodo, Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in her Novels, Africa World Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59221-557-7.
Udousoro, Irene (2013). "Aminata Sow Fall's Works: A Compendium of Development-Oriented Issues". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p67.
Sylvester N. Mutunda, 'Descriptions of masculinity in African women's creative writing', Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press, 2015.
Hawkins, Peter (1988). "An Interview with Aminata Sow Fall". African Affairs. 87 (348): 419–430. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098055. JSTOR 722441.
Bobia, Rosa; Staunton, Cheryl (1991). "Aminata Sow Fall and the Centre Africain d'Animation et d'Echanges Culturels in Senegal". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 29 (3): 529–532. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00000653. JSTOR 160887. S2CID 251050061.
Anna-Leena Toivanen, 'Failing cosmopolitanism: aborted transnational journeys in novels by Monique Ilboudo, Sefi Atta and Aminata Sow Fall', Journal of postcolonial writing, 2016.
Guèye, Médoune, 'Criticism, Écriture, and Orality in the African Novel: Oral Discourse in Aminata Sow Fall's Work', Research in African literatures, 2014. ProQuest 1535271923
Dieng, Mamadou, 'Kinship and Friendship in Hardship: A Comparative Analysis of Aminata Sow Fall's Le Revenant and John Francis Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby', The Jounrnal of Pan African studies, 2016. ProQuest 1813110318
Block, Marcelline (2008). "Emerging Perspectives on Aminata Sow Fall: The Real and the Imaginary in Her Novels ed. By Ada Uzoamaka Azodo". Women in French Studies. 16: 139–140. doi:10.1353/wfs.2008.0016. S2CID 192541407.
Mortimer, Mildred (2007). "Domestic matters: Representations of home in the writings of Mariama B, Calixthe Beyala and Aminata Sow Fall". International Journal of Francophone Studies. 10: 67–83. doi:10.1386/ijfs.10.1and2.67_1. | writing language | {
"answer_start": [
128
],
"text": [
"French"
]
} |
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias (born São Paulo, 15 August 1939) is a Brazilian Roman Catholic priest and religious writer. He is the founder of the Heralds of the Gospel and was their Superior General until his resignation on 2 June 2017. He has been a member of the Marian Congregations, of the Third Carmelite Order, since 23 May 1956, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on 15 June 2004, aged 64 years old.
Early life and studies
Clá Dias is the son of a Spanish father, António Clá Díaz, born in Ceuta, and Annita Scognamiglio, born in São Paulo to Italian immigrants parents. He studied law at the Faculty of the Largo de São Francisco, in São Paulo. He has degrees in philosophy and theology at the Italian-Brazilian Universitarian Center, of São Paulo. He also is licentiated in Humanities by the Pontifícia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, of the Dominican Republic, a Master in Canon Law by the Pontifício Instituto de Direito Canônico of Rio de Janeiro, and a Doctorate in Canon Law by the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, in Rome.
Heralds of the Gospel
He was member of the Tradition, Family and Property society, founded by Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, of which he was a longtime collaborator and personal secretary. While the TFP itself was a reactionary political organization, Clá Dias was apparently not interested in politics, preferring that the TFP distance itself from politics and become a religious congregation inside the Catholic hierarchy. After his death in 1995, Clá Dias disputed and won legally TFP's ownership, in 2004. He decided to replace it with the Heralds of the Gospel, already created on 21 September 1999 and recognized on 22 February 2001 as an International Association of Pontifical Right by the Holy See. He was Superior General from their inception until his resignation on 2 June 2017, announced on 12 June 2017.
Works
He already published several books, including O Inédito sobre os Evangelhos (2013-2016), in 7 volumes, translated into English as New Insights on the Gospels, and his biography of Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, O Dom de Sabedoria na Mente, Vida e Obra de Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira (2016), in 5 volumes.
References
External links
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias Biography (in english) | place of birth | {
"answer_start": [
33
],
"text": [
"São Paulo"
]
} |
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias (born São Paulo, 15 August 1939) is a Brazilian Roman Catholic priest and religious writer. He is the founder of the Heralds of the Gospel and was their Superior General until his resignation on 2 June 2017. He has been a member of the Marian Congregations, of the Third Carmelite Order, since 23 May 1956, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on 15 June 2004, aged 64 years old.
Early life and studies
Clá Dias is the son of a Spanish father, António Clá Díaz, born in Ceuta, and Annita Scognamiglio, born in São Paulo to Italian immigrants parents. He studied law at the Faculty of the Largo de São Francisco, in São Paulo. He has degrees in philosophy and theology at the Italian-Brazilian Universitarian Center, of São Paulo. He also is licentiated in Humanities by the Pontifícia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, of the Dominican Republic, a Master in Canon Law by the Pontifício Instituto de Direito Canônico of Rio de Janeiro, and a Doctorate in Canon Law by the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, in Rome.
Heralds of the Gospel
He was member of the Tradition, Family and Property society, founded by Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, of which he was a longtime collaborator and personal secretary. While the TFP itself was a reactionary political organization, Clá Dias was apparently not interested in politics, preferring that the TFP distance itself from politics and become a religious congregation inside the Catholic hierarchy. After his death in 1995, Clá Dias disputed and won legally TFP's ownership, in 2004. He decided to replace it with the Heralds of the Gospel, already created on 21 September 1999 and recognized on 22 February 2001 as an International Association of Pontifical Right by the Holy See. He was Superior General from their inception until his resignation on 2 June 2017, announced on 12 June 2017.
Works
He already published several books, including O Inédito sobre os Evangelhos (2013-2016), in 7 volumes, translated into English as New Insights on the Gospels, and his biography of Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, O Dom de Sabedoria na Mente, Vida e Obra de Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira (2016), in 5 volumes.
References
External links
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias Biography (in english) | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
65
],
"text": [
"Brazil"
]
} |
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias (born São Paulo, 15 August 1939) is a Brazilian Roman Catholic priest and religious writer. He is the founder of the Heralds of the Gospel and was their Superior General until his resignation on 2 June 2017. He has been a member of the Marian Congregations, of the Third Carmelite Order, since 23 May 1956, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on 15 June 2004, aged 64 years old.
Early life and studies
Clá Dias is the son of a Spanish father, António Clá Díaz, born in Ceuta, and Annita Scognamiglio, born in São Paulo to Italian immigrants parents. He studied law at the Faculty of the Largo de São Francisco, in São Paulo. He has degrees in philosophy and theology at the Italian-Brazilian Universitarian Center, of São Paulo. He also is licentiated in Humanities by the Pontifícia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, of the Dominican Republic, a Master in Canon Law by the Pontifício Instituto de Direito Canônico of Rio de Janeiro, and a Doctorate in Canon Law by the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, in Rome.
Heralds of the Gospel
He was member of the Tradition, Family and Property society, founded by Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, of which he was a longtime collaborator and personal secretary. While the TFP itself was a reactionary political organization, Clá Dias was apparently not interested in politics, preferring that the TFP distance itself from politics and become a religious congregation inside the Catholic hierarchy. After his death in 1995, Clá Dias disputed and won legally TFP's ownership, in 2004. He decided to replace it with the Heralds of the Gospel, already created on 21 September 1999 and recognized on 22 February 2001 as an International Association of Pontifical Right by the Holy See. He was Superior General from their inception until his resignation on 2 June 2017, announced on 12 June 2017.
Works
He already published several books, including O Inédito sobre os Evangelhos (2013-2016), in 7 volumes, translated into English as New Insights on the Gospels, and his biography of Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, O Dom de Sabedoria na Mente, Vida e Obra de Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira (2016), in 5 volumes.
References
External links
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias Biography (in english) | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
81
],
"text": [
"Catholic priest"
]
} |
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias (born São Paulo, 15 August 1939) is a Brazilian Roman Catholic priest and religious writer. He is the founder of the Heralds of the Gospel and was their Superior General until his resignation on 2 June 2017. He has been a member of the Marian Congregations, of the Third Carmelite Order, since 23 May 1956, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on 15 June 2004, aged 64 years old.
Early life and studies
Clá Dias is the son of a Spanish father, António Clá Díaz, born in Ceuta, and Annita Scognamiglio, born in São Paulo to Italian immigrants parents. He studied law at the Faculty of the Largo de São Francisco, in São Paulo. He has degrees in philosophy and theology at the Italian-Brazilian Universitarian Center, of São Paulo. He also is licentiated in Humanities by the Pontifícia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, of the Dominican Republic, a Master in Canon Law by the Pontifício Instituto de Direito Canônico of Rio de Janeiro, and a Doctorate in Canon Law by the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, in Rome.
Heralds of the Gospel
He was member of the Tradition, Family and Property society, founded by Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, of which he was a longtime collaborator and personal secretary. While the TFP itself was a reactionary political organization, Clá Dias was apparently not interested in politics, preferring that the TFP distance itself from politics and become a religious congregation inside the Catholic hierarchy. After his death in 1995, Clá Dias disputed and won legally TFP's ownership, in 2004. He decided to replace it with the Heralds of the Gospel, already created on 21 September 1999 and recognized on 22 February 2001 as an International Association of Pontifical Right by the Holy See. He was Superior General from their inception until his resignation on 2 June 2017, announced on 12 June 2017.
Works
He already published several books, including O Inédito sobre os Evangelhos (2013-2016), in 7 volumes, translated into English as New Insights on the Gospels, and his biography of Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, O Dom de Sabedoria na Mente, Vida e Obra de Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira (2016), in 5 volumes.
References
External links
João Scognamiglio Clá Dias Biography (in english) | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"João"
]
} |
A bumboat is a small boat used to ferry supplies to ships moored away from the shore. The name comes from the combination of the Dutch word for a canoe—"boomschuit" ("boom" meaning "tree"), and "boat".
In Tobias Smollett's 1748 novel, The Adventures of Roderick Random, a "bumboat woman" conducts business with sailors imprisoned on board a pressing tender moored near the Tower Wharf on the Thames River, London, England.
In HMS Pinafore, W. S. Gilbert describes Little Buttercup as a Bumboat Woman.
In Singapore, the term "bumboat" is applied to small water taxis and boats that take tourists on short tours.
See also
Ship's tender – Boat used to service larger ships
References
External links
"The Bumboat Woman's Story"—one of W. S. Gilbert's Bab Ballads (from the Gilbert & Sullivan Archive)
Singaporean bumboat Archived 2012-07-21 at the Wayback Machine—photo by Rajit Vijayan | subclass of | {
"answer_start": [
5
],
"text": [
"boat"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"Japan"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
96
],
"text": [
"cellist"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | family name | {
"answer_start": [
49
],
"text": [
"Itō"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | name in native language | {
"answer_start": [
42
],
"text": [
"伊藤 友樹"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | native language | {
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"Japanese"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | given name | {
"answer_start": [
53
],
"text": [
"Yūki"
]
} |
Yuki Ito may refer to:
Yuki Ito (actor) (伊藤 友樹, Itō Yūki, born 1985), Japanese actor
Yuki Ito (cellist) (伊藤 悠貴, Itō Yūki, born 1989), Japanese classical cellist
Yuki Ito (ski jumper) (伊藤 有希, Itō Yūki, born 1994), Japanese ski jumper
Yuuki Ito (motorcyclist) (伊藤 勇樹, Itō Yūki, born 1991), Japanese Grand Prix motorcycle racer | languages spoken, written or signed | {
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"Japanese"
]
} |
James Shapiro may refer to:
Jim Shapiro (attorney), American attorney
Jim Shapiro (drummer) (born 1965), American rock musician
James Shapiro (physician), British-born Canadian doctor who developed the Edmonton protocol
James A. Shapiro (born 1943), American professor of biochemistry and molecular biology
James S. Shapiro (born 1955), American professor of English and comparative literature, non-fiction author | family name | {
"answer_start": [
6
],
"text": [
"Shapiro"
]
} |
James Shapiro may refer to:
Jim Shapiro (attorney), American attorney
Jim Shapiro (drummer) (born 1965), American rock musician
James Shapiro (physician), British-born Canadian doctor who developed the Edmonton protocol
James A. Shapiro (born 1943), American professor of biochemistry and molecular biology
James S. Shapiro (born 1955), American professor of English and comparative literature, non-fiction author | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"James"
]
} |
James Shapiro may refer to:
Jim Shapiro (attorney), American attorney
Jim Shapiro (drummer) (born 1965), American rock musician
James Shapiro (physician), British-born Canadian doctor who developed the Edmonton protocol
James A. Shapiro (born 1943), American professor of biochemistry and molecular biology
James S. Shapiro (born 1955), American professor of English and comparative literature, non-fiction author | languages spoken, written or signed | {
"answer_start": [
360
],
"text": [
"English"
]
} |
Cape Hillsborough is a national park in Mackay Region, Queensland, Australia.
Geography
The park is 837 km northwest of Brisbane. The park is a peninsula of volcanic origin, covered largely by rainforest; the maximum elevation is 267 m. The cape at the tip of the peninsula was named by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770; the name is in honour of Wills Hill, Earl of Hillsborough who was President of the Board of Trade and Plantations from 1763 to 1765 and from 1768 to 1772. The nearest major town is Mackay, about 40 km to the southeast.
The park is located within the O'Connell River water catchment area and the Central Mackay Coast bioregion.On National Parks Day 2010 (Sunday, 28 March 2010) the Queensland State Government announced the addition of 204 hectares to the park.
Annual precipitation is 1106 mm.
Animals
Many species have been identified in the national park: including approximately 140 birds, 22 mammals, 25 reptiles and 8 amphibians.Sand bubbler crabs leave their drawings on the sand during low tide, and many creatures hide in the tidal rocky pools.
See also
Protected areas of Queensland
References
External links
Media related to Cape Hillsborough National Park at Wikimedia Commons | country | {
"answer_start": [
67
],
"text": [
"Australia"
]
} |
Cape Hillsborough is a national park in Mackay Region, Queensland, Australia.
Geography
The park is 837 km northwest of Brisbane. The park is a peninsula of volcanic origin, covered largely by rainforest; the maximum elevation is 267 m. The cape at the tip of the peninsula was named by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770; the name is in honour of Wills Hill, Earl of Hillsborough who was President of the Board of Trade and Plantations from 1763 to 1765 and from 1768 to 1772. The nearest major town is Mackay, about 40 km to the southeast.
The park is located within the O'Connell River water catchment area and the Central Mackay Coast bioregion.On National Parks Day 2010 (Sunday, 28 March 2010) the Queensland State Government announced the addition of 204 hectares to the park.
Annual precipitation is 1106 mm.
Animals
Many species have been identified in the national park: including approximately 140 birds, 22 mammals, 25 reptiles and 8 amphibians.Sand bubbler crabs leave their drawings on the sand during low tide, and many creatures hide in the tidal rocky pools.
See also
Protected areas of Queensland
References
External links
Media related to Cape Hillsborough National Park at Wikimedia Commons | instance of | {
"answer_start": [
23
],
"text": [
"national park"
]
} |
Cape Hillsborough is a national park in Mackay Region, Queensland, Australia.
Geography
The park is 837 km northwest of Brisbane. The park is a peninsula of volcanic origin, covered largely by rainforest; the maximum elevation is 267 m. The cape at the tip of the peninsula was named by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770; the name is in honour of Wills Hill, Earl of Hillsborough who was President of the Board of Trade and Plantations from 1763 to 1765 and from 1768 to 1772. The nearest major town is Mackay, about 40 km to the southeast.
The park is located within the O'Connell River water catchment area and the Central Mackay Coast bioregion.On National Parks Day 2010 (Sunday, 28 March 2010) the Queensland State Government announced the addition of 204 hectares to the park.
Annual precipitation is 1106 mm.
Animals
Many species have been identified in the national park: including approximately 140 birds, 22 mammals, 25 reptiles and 8 amphibians.Sand bubbler crabs leave their drawings on the sand during low tide, and many creatures hide in the tidal rocky pools.
See also
Protected areas of Queensland
References
External links
Media related to Cape Hillsborough National Park at Wikimedia Commons | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
"answer_start": [
55
],
"text": [
"Queensland"
]
} |
Cape Hillsborough is a national park in Mackay Region, Queensland, Australia.
Geography
The park is 837 km northwest of Brisbane. The park is a peninsula of volcanic origin, covered largely by rainforest; the maximum elevation is 267 m. The cape at the tip of the peninsula was named by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770; the name is in honour of Wills Hill, Earl of Hillsborough who was President of the Board of Trade and Plantations from 1763 to 1765 and from 1768 to 1772. The nearest major town is Mackay, about 40 km to the southeast.
The park is located within the O'Connell River water catchment area and the Central Mackay Coast bioregion.On National Parks Day 2010 (Sunday, 28 March 2010) the Queensland State Government announced the addition of 204 hectares to the park.
Annual precipitation is 1106 mm.
Animals
Many species have been identified in the national park: including approximately 140 birds, 22 mammals, 25 reptiles and 8 amphibians.Sand bubbler crabs leave their drawings on the sand during low tide, and many creatures hide in the tidal rocky pools.
See also
Protected areas of Queensland
References
External links
Media related to Cape Hillsborough National Park at Wikimedia Commons | Commons category | {
"answer_start": [
1199
],
"text": [
"Cape Hillsborough National Park"
]
} |
Mordella tadjikistanica is a species of beetle in the genus Mordella of the family Mordellidae, which is part of the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. It was discovered in 2002.
== References == | taxon rank | {
"answer_start": [
29
],
"text": [
"species"
]
} |
Mordella tadjikistanica is a species of beetle in the genus Mordella of the family Mordellidae, which is part of the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. It was discovered in 2002.
== References == | parent taxon | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Mordella"
]
} |
Mordella tadjikistanica is a species of beetle in the genus Mordella of the family Mordellidae, which is part of the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. It was discovered in 2002.
== References == | taxon name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Mordella tadjikistanica"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | place of birth | {
"answer_start": [
483
],
"text": [
"Damongo"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
31
],
"text": [
"Ghana"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | educated at | {
"answer_start": [
1040
],
"text": [
"University of Reading"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | member of political party | {
"answer_start": [
95
],
"text": [
"Convention People's Party"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
55
],
"text": [
"politician"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | family name | {
"answer_start": [
19
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"text": [
"Foster"
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Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Michael"
]
} |
Michael Abu Sakara Foster is a Ghanaian agronomist and politician. He was the candidate of the Convention People's Party for the Ghanaian presidential election in December 2012.Dr. Sakara in 2008 was the running mate to Dr. Paa Kwesi Nduom when he was flag-bearer of the Convention People's Party (CPP) but was elected as flag-bearer when Nduom left the CPP to found his own party, The Progressive People's Party(PPP).
Early life and education
Michael Abu Sakara Foster was born at Damongo in the Northern Region on 15 August 1958. He began school in Kpembe Primary school, East Gonja, at age six years and then moved to Sawla Primary school for a short period.
Thereafter he came back to school in Salaga until 1966, after which he was sent to study and live with friends of his father, Mr and Mrs Foster, evangelical missionaries. He entered Yendi Secondary school as a pioneer in 1972.
Under the stewardship of the his family he later went to study in the United Kingdom (UK) where he obtained his first degree in Soil Science from the University of Reading in 1982.
Foster obtained his MSc. in Applied Plant Sciences from Wye College, University of London in 1984 and received his Ph.D. in Applied Agricultural Botany from University of Reading in 1987.
Career
Foster's work experience as an Agronomist spans over 29 years of international agricultural development work in Africa and the Americas. He is a specialist in agriculture and rural development (Development Agronomist).
He is the executive director, Rural and Agricultural Development Associates.
Politics
2012 Presidential bid
Election 2012 performance
During the election 2012, Dr. Sakara received 20,323 votes out of the 11,246,982 votes cast, constituting 0.18% of the total.
In this election also CPP lost the only parliamentary seat they had when Samia Nkrumah the only member of parliament of the party lost her seat at Jomoro in the Western Region.
Notes
External links and sources
Abu Sakara's website | number of children | {
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1167
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"text": [
"4"
]
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Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | place of birth | {
"answer_start": [
139
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"text": [
"Jerusalem"
]
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Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | country of citizenship | {
"answer_start": [
57
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"text": [
"Israel"
]
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Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | occupation | {
"answer_start": [
77
],
"text": [
"actor"
]
} |
Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | given name | {
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Uri"
]
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Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | languages spoken, written or signed | {
"answer_start": [
12
],
"text": [
"Hebrew"
]
} |
Uri Kabiri (Hebrew: אורי כבירי; born June 3, 1970) is an Israeli songwriter, actor and musical producer.
Biography
Uri Kabiri was born in Jerusalem. After his parents divorced, he moved with his mother to Rechovot. He learned to play several musical instruments at an early age, but focused mainly on keyboard. In 1979, when Kabiri was nine, he began to take drum lessons. His mother married the drum teacher and in 1982, they opened a drum school in Tel Aviv. Kabiri helped to run the school's recording studio.
Acting career
In 1986, Kabiri played the part of Gadi Fishenzon in the cult film Alex Holeh Ahavah. In 1988, Kabiri appeared in Tel Aviv - Los Angeles by Dudu Topaz. In 1988-1991, he served in the Israel Defense Forces as a member of the Israel Air Force band.
Music career
In 1992 he began working as a dub artist for children's TV shows, including Video Power, Mr. Bogus and The Adventures of Tiny Toons. In the 1990s, Kabiri composed and arranged theme songs for children's shows and Israeli comedians. Between 1992 and 2009, Kabiri was one of the producers, instrumental players, musical arrangers, recording technicians and backup singers of Dana International, including the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest's winner "Diva". Kabiri worked with Maya Simantov and composed music for films, among them (Dawg, Kickin' It Old Skool) and TV (Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Malcolm in the Middle, MTV's MADE). In 2011, he announced that he was moving to Nashville, Tennessee to further his career.
References
External links
Uri Kabiri on Myspace
Uri Kabiri at IMDb | Ishim ID | {
"answer_start": [
20
],
"text": [
"אורי כבירי"
]
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A Physical Society is a professional organization or learned society of physicists, and may refer to:
American Physical Society
Austrian Physical Society
Belgian Physical Society
Brazilian Physical Society
Chinese Physical Society
Danish Physical Society
Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (German Physical Society)
Estonian Physical Society
European Physical Society
French Physical Society
Indian Physical Society
Italian Physical Society
Korean Physical Society
Nepal Physical Society
Netherlands' Physical Society
Polish Physical Society
Spanish Royal Physical Society
Swiss Physical Society
Physical Society of Edinburgh
Physical Society of Iran
Physical Society of Japan
Physical Society of London (now Institute of Physics)
See also
Medical Society (disambiguation)
Bar association
List of mathematical societies | title | {
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"Physical Society"
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Trigonoptera amboinica is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1968.
== References == | taxon rank | {
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"species"
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Trigonoptera amboinica is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1968.
== References == | parent taxon | {
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0
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"text": [
"Trigonoptera"
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Trigonoptera amboinica is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1968.
== References == | taxon name | {
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0
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"text": [
"Trigonoptera amboinica"
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Trigonoptera amboinica is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Stephan von Breuning in 1968.
== References == | Commons category | {
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Ab Darreh (Persian: اب دره, also Romanized as Āb Darreh; also known as Āb Darreh-ye Abūl Qāsem and Āb Darreh-ye Abū ol Qāsem) is a village in Qaleh-ye Khvajeh Rural District, in the Central District of Andika County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 257, in 32 families.
== References == | country | {
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237
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"text": [
"Iran"
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Ab Darreh (Persian: اب دره, also Romanized as Āb Darreh; also known as Āb Darreh-ye Abūl Qāsem and Āb Darreh-ye Abū ol Qāsem) is a village in Qaleh-ye Khvajeh Rural District, in the Central District of Andika County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 257, in 32 families.
== References == | instance of | {
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Ab Darreh (Persian: اب دره, also Romanized as Āb Darreh; also known as Āb Darreh-ye Abūl Qāsem and Āb Darreh-ye Abū ol Qāsem) is a village in Qaleh-ye Khvajeh Rural District, in the Central District of Andika County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 257, in 32 families.
== References == | located in the administrative territorial entity | {
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The Battle of Gaugamela ( GAW-gə-MEE-lə; Ancient Greek: Γαυγάμηλα, romanized: Gaugámēla, lit. 'the Camel's House'), also called the Battle of Arbela (Ἄρβηλα, Árbēla), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Erbil, Iraq, according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
Background
In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.
Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.
Negotiations between Darius and Alexander
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
Prelude
After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.
Alexander's march through Mesopotamia
After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.
Strategic analysis
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.
Location
Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (36.36°N 43.25°E / 36.36; 43.25), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938.
Size of Persian army
Modern estimates
It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.
Ancient sources
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
Size of Macedonian army
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000.
The battle
Initial dispositions
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left.
According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi.The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
Beginning of the battle
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.
Attack of the Persian scythed chariots
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
Alexander's decisive attack
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.
The left flank
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
Aftermath
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
See also
Military tactics of Alexander the Great
References
Sources
Further reading
Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). "Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela". Klio. 102 (2): 536–559. doi:10.1515/klio-2020-1005. S2CID 226279004.
Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". Iraq. 83: 87–103. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.11. S2CID 240824299.
Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". Studia Iranica. 50 (1): 7–68. doi:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169.
External links
Livius.org tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the Babylonian astronomical diaries.
Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela on YouTube History Channel
Livius.org provides a new scholarly edition of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle of Gaugamela and Alexander's entry into Babylon by R.J. van der Spek. | country | {
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The Battle of Gaugamela ( GAW-gə-MEE-lə; Ancient Greek: Γαυγάμηλα, romanized: Gaugámēla, lit. 'the Camel's House'), also called the Battle of Arbela (Ἄρβηλα, Árbēla), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Erbil, Iraq, according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
Background
In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.
Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.
Negotiations between Darius and Alexander
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
Prelude
After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.
Alexander's march through Mesopotamia
After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.
Strategic analysis
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.
Location
Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (36.36°N 43.25°E / 36.36; 43.25), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938.
Size of Persian army
Modern estimates
It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.
Ancient sources
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
Size of Macedonian army
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000.
The battle
Initial dispositions
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left.
According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi.The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
Beginning of the battle
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.
Attack of the Persian scythed chariots
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
Alexander's decisive attack
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.
The left flank
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
Aftermath
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
See also
Military tactics of Alexander the Great
References
Sources
Further reading
Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). "Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela". Klio. 102 (2): 536–559. doi:10.1515/klio-2020-1005. S2CID 226279004.
Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". Iraq. 83: 87–103. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.11. S2CID 240824299.
Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". Studia Iranica. 50 (1): 7–68. doi:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169.
External links
Livius.org tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the Babylonian astronomical diaries.
Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela on YouTube History Channel
Livius.org provides a new scholarly edition of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle of Gaugamela and Alexander's entry into Babylon by R.J. van der Spek. | instance of | {
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The Battle of Gaugamela ( GAW-gə-MEE-lə; Ancient Greek: Γαυγάμηλα, romanized: Gaugámēla, lit. 'the Camel's House'), also called the Battle of Arbela (Ἄρβηλα, Árbēla), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Erbil, Iraq, according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
Background
In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.
Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.
Negotiations between Darius and Alexander
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
Prelude
After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.
Alexander's march through Mesopotamia
After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.
Strategic analysis
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.
Location
Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (36.36°N 43.25°E / 36.36; 43.25), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938.
Size of Persian army
Modern estimates
It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.
Ancient sources
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
Size of Macedonian army
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000.
The battle
Initial dispositions
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left.
According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi.The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
Beginning of the battle
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.
Attack of the Persian scythed chariots
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
Alexander's decisive attack
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.
The left flank
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
Aftermath
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
See also
Military tactics of Alexander the Great
References
Sources
Further reading
Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). "Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela". Klio. 102 (2): 536–559. doi:10.1515/klio-2020-1005. S2CID 226279004.
Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". Iraq. 83: 87–103. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.11. S2CID 240824299.
Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". Studia Iranica. 50 (1): 7–68. doi:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169.
External links
Livius.org tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the Babylonian astronomical diaries.
Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela on YouTube History Channel
Livius.org provides a new scholarly edition of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle of Gaugamela and Alexander's entry into Babylon by R.J. van der Spek. | location | {
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The Battle of Gaugamela ( GAW-gə-MEE-lə; Ancient Greek: Γαυγάμηλα, romanized: Gaugámēla, lit. 'the Camel's House'), also called the Battle of Arbela (Ἄρβηλα, Árbēla), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Erbil, Iraq, according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
Background
In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.
Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.
Negotiations between Darius and Alexander
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
Prelude
After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.
Alexander's march through Mesopotamia
After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.
Strategic analysis
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.
Location
Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (36.36°N 43.25°E / 36.36; 43.25), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938.
Size of Persian army
Modern estimates
It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.
Ancient sources
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
Size of Macedonian army
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000.
The battle
Initial dispositions
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left.
According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi.The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
Beginning of the battle
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.
Attack of the Persian scythed chariots
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
Alexander's decisive attack
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.
The left flank
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
Aftermath
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
See also
Military tactics of Alexander the Great
References
Sources
Further reading
Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). "Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela". Klio. 102 (2): 536–559. doi:10.1515/klio-2020-1005. S2CID 226279004.
Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". Iraq. 83: 87–103. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.11. S2CID 240824299.
Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". Studia Iranica. 50 (1): 7–68. doi:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169.
External links
Livius.org tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the Babylonian astronomical diaries.
Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela on YouTube History Channel
Livius.org provides a new scholarly edition of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle of Gaugamela and Alexander's entry into Babylon by R.J. van der Spek. | Commons category | {
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The 1789 United States Senate election in New York was held in July 1789 to elect two U.S. senators to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate. It was the first such election, and before the actual election the New York State Legislature had to establish the proceedings how to elect the senators.
Background
The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, and then ratified by the States. On July 8, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation passed a resolution calling the first session of the First United States Congress for March 4, 1789, and the election of U.S. senators and U.S. representatives in the meanwhile by the States. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788.
Legislation
In February and March 1789, the 12th New York State Legislature (term 1788–89) debated at length "An act for prescribing the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators of the United States of America, to be chosen in this State", but the Anti-Federalist Assembly majority and the Federalist Senate majority could not agree, and they adjourned on March 3, without having elected U.S. senators. Both sides expected to win the State election in April.
On June 4, Governor George Clinton called an extra session of the State Legislature to convene on July 6 at City Hall in Albany, New York. At the state election in April 1789, for a term beginning on July 1, a large Federalist majority had been elected to the New York State Assembly (65 members), estimated by State Senator James Duane at 42 to 22. The New York State Senate (24 members) continued with a slim Federalist majority.
The 13th New York State Legislature (term 1789–90) convened on July 6, and on July 11 passed "An act directing the manner of electing Senators to represent this State in the Senate of the United States", which required the election to be made by "concurrent vote" of both houses of the Legislature. This meant, if only one U.S. senator was to be elected, that each house nominated a candidate, and if both houses nominated the same person ("concurred"), the nominee was elected. If the Assembly nominated one, the Senate another, then the Senate's nominee was voted upon in the Assembly and the Assembly's nominee in the Senate; if none of the nominees was accepted by the other house, the proceedings started at the beginning. If two U.S. senators were to be elected, and Assembly and Senate chose different nominees, then the Assembly should elect one of the two Senate nominees, and the Senate one of the two Assembly nominees, effectively leaving one seat to be filled by each house of the Legislature.On July 13, the law was submitted to the Council of Revision. On July 15, the Council objected to the law in two points:
The Council argued that the choice of U.S. senators by the State Legislature, under the U.S. Constitution, did not require a state law, since the State Legislature does not act in its legislative capacity, and the U.S. senators may be chosen simply by concurrent resolution. On the other side, if the U.S. senators were appointed by a state law passed by the State Legislature, the Council of Revision could object to the appointees, forcing to demand a two-thirds majority to overcome the Council's veto.
The Council also took exception to the splitting of the seats in the case of two vacancies which would lead to one or both of the U.S. senators being elected contrary to the wishes of one or both of the houses of the State Legislature.Thus the law was vetoed, and the State Legislature was left to fill the seats without written rules. In practice, the Assembly and the Senate separately took a vote, and if the winner in both houses was the same, he was declared elected. If Assembly and Senate chose different persons, the houses met for a joint ballot, which occurred for the first time in 1802.
Election and aftermath
On July 16, after the Council of Revision had vetoed the law, State Senator Philip Schuyler and Assemblyman Rufus King, two Federalists, were appointed to the U.S. Senate by a joint resolution of both houses of the State Legislature. King took his seat on July 25, and drew the lot for Class 3, his term expiring on March 3, 1795. Schuyler took his seat on July 27, and drew the lot for Class 1, his term expiring on March 3, 1791. The 1st United States Congress convened at New York City, as did the regular session of the New York State Legislature in January 1790. Schuyler retained his seat in the State Senate while serving concurrently in the U.S. Senate. Schuyler was also elected on January 15 a member of the State's Council of Appointments, which consisted of the governor of New York and four state senators elected annually by the State Assembly. On January 27, the New York State Legislature resolved that it was "incompatible with the U.S. Constitution for any person holding an office under the United States government at the same time to have a seat in the Legislature of this State", and that if a member of the State Legislature was elected or appointed to a federal office, the seat should be declared vacant upon acceptance. Thus U.S. Senator Schuyler, Federal Judge James Duane and Congressmen John Hathorn and John Laurance vacated their seats in the State Senate. On April 3, John Cantine, a member of the Council of Appointments, raised the question if Schuyler, after vacating his State Senate seat, was still a member of the Council. Philip Livingston, another member, held that once elected a member could not be expelled in any case. On April 5, Governor Clinton asked the State Assembly for a decision, but the latter refused to do so, arguing that it was a question of law, which could be pursued in the courts. Schuyler thus kept his seat in the Council of Appointments until the end of the term.
Notes
Sources
The New York Civil List compiled in 1858 (see: pg. 113 for state senators 1788–89; pg. 114 for state senators 1789–90; page 164 for Members of Assembly 1788–89; pg. 165 for Members of Assembly 1789–90)
The Documentary History of the First Federal elections 1788–1790 Vol. 3, by Gordon DenBoer (pages 514ff)
The First United States Congress
History of Political Parties in the State of New-York by Jabez Delano Hammond (pages 43f) | country | {
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The 1789 United States Senate election in New York was held in July 1789 to elect two U.S. senators to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate. It was the first such election, and before the actual election the New York State Legislature had to establish the proceedings how to elect the senators.
Background
The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, and then ratified by the States. On July 8, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation passed a resolution calling the first session of the First United States Congress for March 4, 1789, and the election of U.S. senators and U.S. representatives in the meanwhile by the States. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788.
Legislation
In February and March 1789, the 12th New York State Legislature (term 1788–89) debated at length "An act for prescribing the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators of the United States of America, to be chosen in this State", but the Anti-Federalist Assembly majority and the Federalist Senate majority could not agree, and they adjourned on March 3, without having elected U.S. senators. Both sides expected to win the State election in April.
On June 4, Governor George Clinton called an extra session of the State Legislature to convene on July 6 at City Hall in Albany, New York. At the state election in April 1789, for a term beginning on July 1, a large Federalist majority had been elected to the New York State Assembly (65 members), estimated by State Senator James Duane at 42 to 22. The New York State Senate (24 members) continued with a slim Federalist majority.
The 13th New York State Legislature (term 1789–90) convened on July 6, and on July 11 passed "An act directing the manner of electing Senators to represent this State in the Senate of the United States", which required the election to be made by "concurrent vote" of both houses of the Legislature. This meant, if only one U.S. senator was to be elected, that each house nominated a candidate, and if both houses nominated the same person ("concurred"), the nominee was elected. If the Assembly nominated one, the Senate another, then the Senate's nominee was voted upon in the Assembly and the Assembly's nominee in the Senate; if none of the nominees was accepted by the other house, the proceedings started at the beginning. If two U.S. senators were to be elected, and Assembly and Senate chose different nominees, then the Assembly should elect one of the two Senate nominees, and the Senate one of the two Assembly nominees, effectively leaving one seat to be filled by each house of the Legislature.On July 13, the law was submitted to the Council of Revision. On July 15, the Council objected to the law in two points:
The Council argued that the choice of U.S. senators by the State Legislature, under the U.S. Constitution, did not require a state law, since the State Legislature does not act in its legislative capacity, and the U.S. senators may be chosen simply by concurrent resolution. On the other side, if the U.S. senators were appointed by a state law passed by the State Legislature, the Council of Revision could object to the appointees, forcing to demand a two-thirds majority to overcome the Council's veto.
The Council also took exception to the splitting of the seats in the case of two vacancies which would lead to one or both of the U.S. senators being elected contrary to the wishes of one or both of the houses of the State Legislature.Thus the law was vetoed, and the State Legislature was left to fill the seats without written rules. In practice, the Assembly and the Senate separately took a vote, and if the winner in both houses was the same, he was declared elected. If Assembly and Senate chose different persons, the houses met for a joint ballot, which occurred for the first time in 1802.
Election and aftermath
On July 16, after the Council of Revision had vetoed the law, State Senator Philip Schuyler and Assemblyman Rufus King, two Federalists, were appointed to the U.S. Senate by a joint resolution of both houses of the State Legislature. King took his seat on July 25, and drew the lot for Class 3, his term expiring on March 3, 1795. Schuyler took his seat on July 27, and drew the lot for Class 1, his term expiring on March 3, 1791. The 1st United States Congress convened at New York City, as did the regular session of the New York State Legislature in January 1790. Schuyler retained his seat in the State Senate while serving concurrently in the U.S. Senate. Schuyler was also elected on January 15 a member of the State's Council of Appointments, which consisted of the governor of New York and four state senators elected annually by the State Assembly. On January 27, the New York State Legislature resolved that it was "incompatible with the U.S. Constitution for any person holding an office under the United States government at the same time to have a seat in the Legislature of this State", and that if a member of the State Legislature was elected or appointed to a federal office, the seat should be declared vacant upon acceptance. Thus U.S. Senator Schuyler, Federal Judge James Duane and Congressmen John Hathorn and John Laurance vacated their seats in the State Senate. On April 3, John Cantine, a member of the Council of Appointments, raised the question if Schuyler, after vacating his State Senate seat, was still a member of the Council. Philip Livingston, another member, held that once elected a member could not be expelled in any case. On April 5, Governor Clinton asked the State Assembly for a decision, but the latter refused to do so, arguing that it was a question of law, which could be pursued in the courts. Schuyler thus kept his seat in the Council of Appointments until the end of the term.
Notes
Sources
The New York Civil List compiled in 1858 (see: pg. 113 for state senators 1788–89; pg. 114 for state senators 1789–90; page 164 for Members of Assembly 1788–89; pg. 165 for Members of Assembly 1789–90)
The Documentary History of the First Federal elections 1788–1790 Vol. 3, by Gordon DenBoer (pages 514ff)
The First United States Congress
History of Political Parties in the State of New-York by Jabez Delano Hammond (pages 43f) | instance of | {
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The 1789 United States Senate election in New York was held in July 1789 to elect two U.S. senators to represent the State of New York in the United States Senate. It was the first such election, and before the actual election the New York State Legislature had to establish the proceedings how to elect the senators.
Background
The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, and then ratified by the States. On July 8, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation passed a resolution calling the first session of the First United States Congress for March 4, 1789, and the election of U.S. senators and U.S. representatives in the meanwhile by the States. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788.
Legislation
In February and March 1789, the 12th New York State Legislature (term 1788–89) debated at length "An act for prescribing the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators of the United States of America, to be chosen in this State", but the Anti-Federalist Assembly majority and the Federalist Senate majority could not agree, and they adjourned on March 3, without having elected U.S. senators. Both sides expected to win the State election in April.
On June 4, Governor George Clinton called an extra session of the State Legislature to convene on July 6 at City Hall in Albany, New York. At the state election in April 1789, for a term beginning on July 1, a large Federalist majority had been elected to the New York State Assembly (65 members), estimated by State Senator James Duane at 42 to 22. The New York State Senate (24 members) continued with a slim Federalist majority.
The 13th New York State Legislature (term 1789–90) convened on July 6, and on July 11 passed "An act directing the manner of electing Senators to represent this State in the Senate of the United States", which required the election to be made by "concurrent vote" of both houses of the Legislature. This meant, if only one U.S. senator was to be elected, that each house nominated a candidate, and if both houses nominated the same person ("concurred"), the nominee was elected. If the Assembly nominated one, the Senate another, then the Senate's nominee was voted upon in the Assembly and the Assembly's nominee in the Senate; if none of the nominees was accepted by the other house, the proceedings started at the beginning. If two U.S. senators were to be elected, and Assembly and Senate chose different nominees, then the Assembly should elect one of the two Senate nominees, and the Senate one of the two Assembly nominees, effectively leaving one seat to be filled by each house of the Legislature.On July 13, the law was submitted to the Council of Revision. On July 15, the Council objected to the law in two points:
The Council argued that the choice of U.S. senators by the State Legislature, under the U.S. Constitution, did not require a state law, since the State Legislature does not act in its legislative capacity, and the U.S. senators may be chosen simply by concurrent resolution. On the other side, if the U.S. senators were appointed by a state law passed by the State Legislature, the Council of Revision could object to the appointees, forcing to demand a two-thirds majority to overcome the Council's veto.
The Council also took exception to the splitting of the seats in the case of two vacancies which would lead to one or both of the U.S. senators being elected contrary to the wishes of one or both of the houses of the State Legislature.Thus the law was vetoed, and the State Legislature was left to fill the seats without written rules. In practice, the Assembly and the Senate separately took a vote, and if the winner in both houses was the same, he was declared elected. If Assembly and Senate chose different persons, the houses met for a joint ballot, which occurred for the first time in 1802.
Election and aftermath
On July 16, after the Council of Revision had vetoed the law, State Senator Philip Schuyler and Assemblyman Rufus King, two Federalists, were appointed to the U.S. Senate by a joint resolution of both houses of the State Legislature. King took his seat on July 25, and drew the lot for Class 3, his term expiring on March 3, 1795. Schuyler took his seat on July 27, and drew the lot for Class 1, his term expiring on March 3, 1791. The 1st United States Congress convened at New York City, as did the regular session of the New York State Legislature in January 1790. Schuyler retained his seat in the State Senate while serving concurrently in the U.S. Senate. Schuyler was also elected on January 15 a member of the State's Council of Appointments, which consisted of the governor of New York and four state senators elected annually by the State Assembly. On January 27, the New York State Legislature resolved that it was "incompatible with the U.S. Constitution for any person holding an office under the United States government at the same time to have a seat in the Legislature of this State", and that if a member of the State Legislature was elected or appointed to a federal office, the seat should be declared vacant upon acceptance. Thus U.S. Senator Schuyler, Federal Judge James Duane and Congressmen John Hathorn and John Laurance vacated their seats in the State Senate. On April 3, John Cantine, a member of the Council of Appointments, raised the question if Schuyler, after vacating his State Senate seat, was still a member of the Council. Philip Livingston, another member, held that once elected a member could not be expelled in any case. On April 5, Governor Clinton asked the State Assembly for a decision, but the latter refused to do so, arguing that it was a question of law, which could be pursued in the courts. Schuyler thus kept his seat in the Council of Appointments until the end of the term.
Notes
Sources
The New York Civil List compiled in 1858 (see: pg. 113 for state senators 1788–89; pg. 114 for state senators 1789–90; page 164 for Members of Assembly 1788–89; pg. 165 for Members of Assembly 1789–90)
The Documentary History of the First Federal elections 1788–1790 Vol. 3, by Gordon DenBoer (pages 514ff)
The First United States Congress
History of Political Parties in the State of New-York by Jabez Delano Hammond (pages 43f) | applies to jurisdiction | {
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Aberdeen Corporation Tramways formerly served the City of Aberdeen, Scotland.
The system
The city's tram system was the most northerly municipal tramway in the United Kingdom. It started on 26 August 1898 when the Aberdeen Corporation purchased the assets of Aberdeen District Tramways. The council paid the purchase price of £84,735 (equivalent to £10,040,000 in 2021), representing £15 per share, and they also took over the temporary loans amounting to £10,000 (equivalent to £1,190,000 in 2021)and the mortgages of £9,050 (equivalent to £1,070,000 in 2021).From 1906 to 1918 the system fell under the care of R. S, Pilcher who served as General Manager and Chief Engineer.The system was electrified, with trams using the standard trolley poles until 1935 when bow collectors were fitted to take power from the overhead wires. The trams were double deck and painted in a dark green and cream livery, often with the words "CORPORATION TRANSPORT" painted prominently on the sides.
In the late 1930s the city purchased 18 trams from Nottingham Corporation Tramways, which closed in 1936. Further secondhand trams were later obtained from Manchester. The last new trams for the city were built by R Y Pickering of Wishaw in 1949.
The city's best known service was route 1, from Bridge of Don to Bridge of Dee, the numbering of which is preserved by the current number 1 bus service serving the same areas. The city's last tram operated on 3 May 1958, being replaced by diesel buses.
A short stretch of track that served as a terminus for the Sea Beach route remains alongside the Beach Boulevard where, following their final day in service, the entire fleet was burned. This remainder formerly ran right across to the former Constitution Street depot (now Aberdeen Science Centre), however the western end is now occupied by a hotel.
Routes
The tram system was supported by 14 bus routes numbered No. 4, No. 8 and No. 11 through to No. 22, No. 4 being an extension of the No. 4 tram route.
Depot
There was a tram depot at Queen's Cross (grid reference NJ 92362 05887). The building was purchased by Grampian Television in 1960 and converted into their television studios and headquarters. In 2003 Grampian Television relocated their studios and offices to new premises; the former tram depot was subsequently demolished and new flats built on the site.
Officials
General Managers
Traffic Superintendents
Successors
Following the closure of the tram system, Aberdeen Corporation continued to operate buses. Following the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, the fleet passed to the new Grampian Regional Council in 1975, becoming Grampian Regional Transport. The dark green and cream livery was retained. Following the Transport Act 1985 the company was subsequently privatised, becoming the GRT Group, which later became FirstGroup. As of 2009, buses in Aberdeen are operated by First Aberdeen.
There were proposals for a new tramway system in 2013, but they were rejected in September 2014.
See also
History of Aberdeen
National Tramway Museum
Scottish Tramway and Transport Society
Aberdeen Suburban Tramways
References
External links
Aberdeen Corporation Tramways at the British Tramway Company Badges and Buttons website. | country | {
"answer_start": [
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Aberdeen Corporation Tramways formerly served the City of Aberdeen, Scotland.
The system
The city's tram system was the most northerly municipal tramway in the United Kingdom. It started on 26 August 1898 when the Aberdeen Corporation purchased the assets of Aberdeen District Tramways. The council paid the purchase price of £84,735 (equivalent to £10,040,000 in 2021), representing £15 per share, and they also took over the temporary loans amounting to £10,000 (equivalent to £1,190,000 in 2021)and the mortgages of £9,050 (equivalent to £1,070,000 in 2021).From 1906 to 1918 the system fell under the care of R. S, Pilcher who served as General Manager and Chief Engineer.The system was electrified, with trams using the standard trolley poles until 1935 when bow collectors were fitted to take power from the overhead wires. The trams were double deck and painted in a dark green and cream livery, often with the words "CORPORATION TRANSPORT" painted prominently on the sides.
In the late 1930s the city purchased 18 trams from Nottingham Corporation Tramways, which closed in 1936. Further secondhand trams were later obtained from Manchester. The last new trams for the city were built by R Y Pickering of Wishaw in 1949.
The city's best known service was route 1, from Bridge of Don to Bridge of Dee, the numbering of which is preserved by the current number 1 bus service serving the same areas. The city's last tram operated on 3 May 1958, being replaced by diesel buses.
A short stretch of track that served as a terminus for the Sea Beach route remains alongside the Beach Boulevard where, following their final day in service, the entire fleet was burned. This remainder formerly ran right across to the former Constitution Street depot (now Aberdeen Science Centre), however the western end is now occupied by a hotel.
Routes
The tram system was supported by 14 bus routes numbered No. 4, No. 8 and No. 11 through to No. 22, No. 4 being an extension of the No. 4 tram route.
Depot
There was a tram depot at Queen's Cross (grid reference NJ 92362 05887). The building was purchased by Grampian Television in 1960 and converted into their television studios and headquarters. In 2003 Grampian Television relocated their studios and offices to new premises; the former tram depot was subsequently demolished and new flats built on the site.
Officials
General Managers
Traffic Superintendents
Successors
Following the closure of the tram system, Aberdeen Corporation continued to operate buses. Following the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, the fleet passed to the new Grampian Regional Council in 1975, becoming Grampian Regional Transport. The dark green and cream livery was retained. Following the Transport Act 1985 the company was subsequently privatised, becoming the GRT Group, which later became FirstGroup. As of 2009, buses in Aberdeen are operated by First Aberdeen.
There were proposals for a new tramway system in 2013, but they were rejected in September 2014.
See also
History of Aberdeen
National Tramway Museum
Scottish Tramway and Transport Society
Aberdeen Suburban Tramways
References
External links
Aberdeen Corporation Tramways at the British Tramway Company Badges and Buttons website. | instance of | {
"answer_start": [
146
],
"text": [
"tramway"
]
} |
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