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[] | '''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''''') is a high-precision [[Atomic clock|atomic]] [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]]. It is the principal realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (with a fixed offset of... | 334 | International Atomic Time | [
"Time scales"
] | [
"Network Time Protocol",
"Precision Time Protocol",
"Time and frequency transfer",
"Clock synchronization"
] |
[
"Operation"
] | TAI is a [[weighted average]] of the time kept by over 400 [[atomic clock]] in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are [[caesium clock]]; the [[International System of Units]] (SI) definition of the [[second]] is based on [[caesium]]. The clocks are compared using [[Global Posit... | 334 | International Atomic Time | [
"Time scales"
] | [
"Network Time Protocol",
"Precision Time Protocol",
"Time and frequency transfer",
"Clock synchronization"
] |
[
"History"
] | Early atomic time scales consisted of [[quartz clock]] with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National ... | 334 | International Atomic Time | [
"Time scales"
] | [
"Network Time Protocol",
"Precision Time Protocol",
"Time and frequency transfer",
"Clock synchronization"
] |
[
"Relation to UTC"
] | UTC is a [[discontinuous]] time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments, it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971, the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated [[UT2]]. Aft... | 334 | International Atomic Time | [
"Time scales"
] | [
"Network Time Protocol",
"Precision Time Protocol",
"Time and frequency transfer",
"Clock synchronization"
] |
[] | '''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral courage|moral practice]] of concern for [[happiness]] of other [[human kind|human beings]] or other animals, resulting in a [[quality of life]] both [[material]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]]. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core asp... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Auguste Comte",
"Defence mechanisms",
"Evolutionary psychology",
"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
"Philanthropy",
"Social philosophy",
"Interpersonal relationships",
"Virtue"
] | [
"Non nobis solum",
"Random act of kindness",
"Social preferences",
"Gene-centered view of evolution",
"Spite (game theory)",
"Egotism",
"Humanity (virtue)",
"Charitable organization",
"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"The notion of altruism"
] | The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Misanthropy",
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"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Anthropology"
] | [[Marcel Mauss]]'s essay ''[[The Gift (essay)|The Gift]]'' contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, an... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Evolutionary explanations"
] | In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In [[evolutiona... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Evolutionary explanations"
] | (-) A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to rec... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Evolutionary explanations"
] | Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Evolutionary explanations"
] | Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on o... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Evolutionary explanations"
] | The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]], such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These pr... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Neurobiology"
] | Jorge Moll and [[Jordan Grafman]], neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Pro... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Auguste Comte",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Psychology"
] | The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare. There has been some debate o... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Psychology"
] | Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction an... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
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"Comedy of the commons",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Sociology"
] | "Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the [[common good]] is ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Auguste Comte",
"Defence mechanisms",
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"Morality",
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
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[
"Scientific viewpoints",
"Pathological altruism"
] | Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''. Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and burnou... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Evolutionary psychology",
"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
"Solid... |
[
"Religious viewpoints"
] | Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Misanthropy",
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[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Buddhism"
] | Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compass... | 336 | Altruism | [
"Altruism",
"Auguste Comte",
"Defence mechanisms",
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"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Misanthropy",
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"Comedy of the commons",
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[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Jainism"
] | The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to b... | 336 | Altruism | [
"Altruism",
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"Defence mechanisms",
"Evolutionary psychology",
"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
"Solid... |
[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Christianity"
] | Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Defence mechanisms",
"Evolutionary psychology",
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"Moral psychology",
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"Misanthropy",
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[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Christianity"
] | German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence". Another way is merely "one of the ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Auguste Comte",
"Defence mechanisms",
"Evolutionary psychology",
"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
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"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Islam"
] | In [[Islam]], the concept "''īthār''" (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of "preferring others to oneself". For [[Sufism|Sufis]], this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[Allah]] (i.e. God) on the human body, considered to... | 336 | Altruism | [
"Altruism",
"Auguste Comte",
"Defence mechanisms",
"Evolutionary psychology",
"Morality",
"Moral psychology",
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"Social philosophy",
"Interpersonal relationships",
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"Spite (game theory)",
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
"Solid... |
[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Judaism"
] | Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards th... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
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[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Sikhism"
] | Altruism is essential to the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The concept of ''seva'', or [[selfless service]] to the community for its own sake, is... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
"Comedy of the commons",
"Altruria, California",
"Solid... |
[
"Religious viewpoints",
"Hinduism"
] | In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "Manushyattva". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or "Punya" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "Paapa" and will led ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Philosophy"
] | There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should alwa... | 336 | Altruism | [
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[
"Philosophy",
"Effective altruism"
] | [[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their ... | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Charitable organization",
"Mutual aid",
"Misanthropy",
"Prisoner's dilemma",
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"Altruria, California",
"Solid... |
[
"Genetics"
] | The genes [[OXTR]], [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[GABRB2]] have been found to be candidate genes for altruism. | 336 | Altruism | [
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"Morality",
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[] | '''Ayn Rand''' (; born '''Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum'''; – March 6, 1982) was a [[Russian-American]] writer and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named [[Objectivism]]. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play that opened ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
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"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"Early life"
] | Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian-Jewish]] bourgeois family living in [[Saint Petersburg]]. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing sc... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
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"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"Arrival in the United States"
] | In late 1925, Rand was granted a [[Travel visa|visa]] to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor". Intent on staying in the United ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"Early fiction"
] | Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E. E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadwa... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"''The Fountainhead'' and political activism"
] | During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had view... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"''The Fountainhead'' and political activism"
] | Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the anti-Communist [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]] and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Assoc... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism"
] | Following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future [... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism"
] | In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that Rand edited. She later published some of these articles in bo... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Life",
"Later years"
] | Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[Harvard]], and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. She ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Philosophy"
] | Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute". She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out p... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Philosophy"
] | Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, ethics, and discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force". She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most s... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Philosophy",
"Relationship to other philosophers"
] | Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]]. She acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Critical reception"
] | During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]], her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success, and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by ''[[The New York Times]]'... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Critical reception"
] | Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'', with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union", and au... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Popular interest"
] | Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 30 million copies sold (including 3.6 million purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]). In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Political influence"
] | Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian", Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism. [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Academic reaction",
"Scholarly reception during Rand's lifetime"
] | During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ide... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Academic reaction",
"Posthumous overall assessments"
] | Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased. In 2009, historian [[Jennifer Burns (writer)|Jennifer Burns]] identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, including "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000. However, as of that same year, few universities included Rand o... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Academic reaction",
"Rand-specific scholarship"
] | Some scholars focus specifically on Rand's work. Rand scholars [[Douglas Den Uyl]] and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought in a 1984 collection of academic articles about her ideas, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional". In that same volume, polit... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
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"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Reception and legacy",
"Objectivist movement"
] | In 1985, Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]]. In 2001, historian Joh... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[
"Selected works"
] | '''Fiction and drama:''' (-) ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (performed 1934, published 1968) (-) ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936, revised 1959) (-) ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938, revised 1946) (-) ''[[The Unconquered (play)|The Unconquered]]'' (performed 1940, published 2014) (-) ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) (-) ... | 339 | Ayn Rand | [
"Ayn Rand",
"1905 births",
"1982 deaths",
"Writers from Saint Petersburg",
"Writers from New York City",
"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights",
"20th-century American novelists",
"20th-century American philosophers",
"20th-century American women writers",
"20th-century atheists",
"2... | [
"Murder of Marion Parker",
"A Theory of Justice: The Musical!"
] |
[] | '''Alain Connes''' (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, and a theoretical physicist, known for his contributions to the study of [[operator algebra]] and [[noncommutative geometry]]. He is a Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. He was awa... | 340 | Alain Connes | [
"1947 births",
"Living people",
"20th-century French mathematicians",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"21st-century French mathematicians",
"Collège de France faculty",
"Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars",
"Fields Medalists",
"Mathematical analysts",
"Differe... | [
"Cyclic homology",
"M-theory",
"Criticism of non-standard analysis",
"Higgs boson",
"Bost–Connes system",
"C*-algebra",
"Factor (functional analysis)",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Groupoid"
] |
[
"Career"
] | Connes was an Invited Professor at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] (2000). | 340 | Alain Connes | [
"1947 births",
"Living people",
"20th-century French mathematicians",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"21st-century French mathematicians",
"Collège de France faculty",
"Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars",
"Fields Medalists",
"Mathematical analysts",
"Differe... | [
"Cyclic homology",
"M-theory",
"Criticism of non-standard analysis",
"Higgs boson",
"Bost–Connes system",
"C*-algebra",
"Factor (functional analysis)",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Groupoid"
] |
[
"Career",
"Research"
] | Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebra]] in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]. He also formulated the [[Connes embedding problem]]. Following this, he made contributions in [[K-theory... | 340 | Alain Connes | [
"1947 births",
"Living people",
"20th-century French mathematicians",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"21st-century French mathematicians",
"Collège de France faculty",
"Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars",
"Fields Medalists",
"Mathematical analysts",
"Differe... | [
"Cyclic homology",
"M-theory",
"Criticism of non-standard analysis",
"Higgs boson",
"Bost–Connes system",
"C*-algebra",
"Factor (functional analysis)",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Groupoid"
] |
[
"Awards and honours"
] | Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He was an [[invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|invited speaker at the ICM]] in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a [[plenary speaker at the International C... | 340 | Alain Connes | [
"1947 births",
"Living people",
"20th-century French mathematicians",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"21st-century French mathematicians",
"Collège de France faculty",
"Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars",
"Fields Medalists",
"Mathematical analysts",
"Differe... | [
"Cyclic homology",
"M-theory",
"Criticism of non-standard analysis",
"Higgs boson",
"Bost–Connes system",
"C*-algebra",
"Factor (functional analysis)",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Groupoid"
] |
[
"Books"
] | (-) Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]], ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, (-) Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, ''Triangle of Thought'', translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 200... | 340 | Alain Connes | [
"1947 births",
"Living people",
"20th-century French mathematicians",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"21st-century French mathematicians",
"Collège de France faculty",
"Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars",
"Fields Medalists",
"Mathematical analysts",
"Differe... | [
"Cyclic homology",
"M-theory",
"Criticism of non-standard analysis",
"Higgs boson",
"Bost–Connes system",
"C*-algebra",
"Factor (functional analysis)",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Groupoid"
] |
[] | '''Allan Dwan''' (born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan'''; 3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter. | 344 | Allan Dwan | [
"1885 births",
"1981 deaths",
"American film directors",
"American film producers",
"American male screenwriters",
"Western (genre) film directors",
"Canadian emigrants to the United States",
"Film directors from Toronto",
"Writers from Toronto",
"Disease-related deaths in California",
"Burials ... | [
"Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"
] |
[
"Early life"
] | Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, acc... | 344 | Allan Dwan | [
"1885 births",
"1981 deaths",
"American film directors",
"American film producers",
"American male screenwriters",
"Western (genre) film directors",
"Canadian emigrants to the United States",
"Film directors from Toronto",
"Writers from Toronto",
"Disease-related deaths in California",
"Burials ... | [
"Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"
] |
[
"Career"
] | Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 1911, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] o... | 344 | Allan Dwan | [
"1885 births",
"1981 deaths",
"American film directors",
"American film producers",
"American male screenwriters",
"Western (genre) film directors",
"Canadian emigrants to the United States",
"Film directors from Toronto",
"Writers from Toronto",
"Disease-related deaths in California",
"Burials ... | [
"Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"
] |
[
"Partial filmography as director"
] | (-) ''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) (-) ''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Unwelcom... | 344 | Allan Dwan | [
"1885 births",
"1981 deaths",
"American film directors",
"American film producers",
"American male screenwriters",
"Western (genre) film directors",
"Canadian emigrants to the United States",
"Film directors from Toronto",
"Writers from Toronto",
"Disease-related deaths in California",
"Burials ... | [
"Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"
] |
[
"Partial filmography as director"
] | (-) ''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) (-) ''[[One Mile from Heaven]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 ... | 344 | Allan Dwan | [
"1885 births",
"1981 deaths",
"American film directors",
"American film producers",
"American male screenwriters",
"Western (genre) film directors",
"Canadian emigrants to the United States",
"Film directors from Toronto",
"Writers from Toronto",
"Disease-related deaths in California",
"Burials ... | [
"Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood"
] |
[] | '''Algeria''', officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]]. It is the [[List of African countries by area|largest country]] in [[Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], and is bordered to [[Algeria–Tunisia border|the northeast]] by [[Tunisia]]; to [[... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Name"
] | Other forms of the name are: , ; ; ; ; . It is officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' (; , , ; , abbreviated as RADP). | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Name",
"Etymology"
] | The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]] which in turn derives from the Arabic (, "The Islands"), a truncated form of the older (, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"), employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]]. | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Prehistory and ancient history"
] | In the region of Ain Hanech ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in [[North Africa]] were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]]. Algeria was the site of the... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Prehistory and ancient history"
] | After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Middle Ages"
] | After negligible resistance from the locals, [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th ce... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Middle Ages"
] | Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid]], [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammad... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Middle Ages"
] | The flood was still rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they gradually choked [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]], as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains. Some wer... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Ottoman era"
] | The region of Algeria was partially ruled by [[Ottomans]] for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Ottoman era"
] | The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]]. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"French colonization (1830–1962)"
] | Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830. Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830." French... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"French colonization (1830–1962)"
] | Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now know... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)"
] | The number of European ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. Algeria's first president was the... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath"
] | In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"History",
"Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath"
] | A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]]. The government enacted legislation dealing with political par... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Geography"
] | Since the 2011 breakup of [[Sudan]], and the creation of [[South Sudan]], Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel set... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Climate and hydrology"
] | In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from annually, the ... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Fauna and flora"
] | The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]], [[jackal]], and ... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Government and politics"
] | Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been [[Mohamed Mediène]], the head of milita... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Government and politics",
"Foreign relations"
] | Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood ... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Government and politics",
"Military"
] | The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]]. It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nation... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Government and politics",
"Human rights"
] | Algeria has been categorised by [[Freedom House]] as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled "partly free." In December 2016, the ''Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor'' issued a report regarding violation of [[media freedo... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Government and politics",
"Administrative divisions"
] | Algeria is divided into 58 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital city|seat]], which is usually the larg... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy"
] | Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halt... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy",
"Oil and natural resources"
] | Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60%... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy",
"Research and alternative energy sources"
] | Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the go... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy",
"Labour market"
] | Despite a decline in total [[unemployment]], youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group. The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy",
"Tourism"
] | The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria including [[Al ... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Economy",
"Transport"
] | The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, high... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics"
] | Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the vast majority are [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[o... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Ethnic groups"
] | Indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and [[French people|French]] have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Languages"
] | [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Berber language|Berber]] are the official languages. [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognised as a "national la... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Religion"
] | [[Islam]] is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA ''[[World Factbook]]'' estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020. There are about 290,000 [[Ibadi]] in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]]. Estimates o... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Health"
] | In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban ... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Education"
] | Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built si... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Cities"
] | Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities: | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Culture"
] | Modern Algerian literature, split between [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and [[French Language|French]], has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Culture",
"Art"
] | Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also retu... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Culture",
"Literature"
] | The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the [[Numidia]] and [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]] era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
[
"Culture",
"Music"
] | [[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[... | 358 | Algeria | [
"Algeria",
"North African countries",
"Maghrebi countries",
"Saharan countries",
"Arab republics",
"Republics",
"Arabic-speaking countries and territories",
"Berber-speaking countries and territories",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"G15 nations",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member... | [
"Outline of Algeria",
"Index of Algeria-related articles"
] |
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