url stringlengths 33 435 | title stringlengths 3 72 | page stringlengths 102 132k |
|---|---|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henryk_Rolirad | Henryk Rolirad | Henryk Rolirad (11 April 1909 – 4 January 1984) was a Polish food–systems engineer who was recognized as a Righteous among the Nations for saving Jews during World War II.
== Early life ==
Henryk Rolirad was born in Poznań, Poland, and was adopted at age two by Stanisław and Stefania Rolirad. He graduated from Poznań's University of Economics. He first worked at a local Crafts Chamber, then as director of the Poznań branch of the Polish travel agency Orbis. In 1938 Rolirad formed an Orbis bureau in Zbąszyń.
== World War II ==
In 1938 Nazi Germany deported many Polish–Jewish emigres back to their native Poland. Even before World War II had begun, Henryk Rolirad was assisting these emigres arriving in the transit town of Zbąszyń.
During the German occupation of Poland, Rolirad was a member of the Polish Home Army's Security Corps and, in that capacity, worked with the Jewish Military Union (Żydowski Związek Wojskowy) active in the Warsaw Ghetto. Rolirad supplied the Jews with food, medicines, and forged documents, inside as well as outside the Ghetto, and made his own home available as a temporary refuge for Jews escaping the Ghetto. He also rented at least three other houses in which to hide Jews.
On 23 April 1943, as he sheltered Jews in one of his houses, Rolirad was captured by the German Gestapo. In German-occupied Poland, the penalty for helping Jews was death. The Gestapo placed Rolirad and two Jewish women into a truck. During transit, the truck stopped at an intersection, and the Gestapo man left the truck to enter a nearby house, leaving behind only two guards. A member of the Polish underground resistance, unable to see who was inside the truck, tossed in a hand grenade. Rolirad was seriously injured and remained disabled to the end of his life.
In 1944 Rolirad met Maria Einstein, both originally from Poznań. They had become acquainted earlier while helping Jews in Zbąszyń. Rolirad looked after Maria Einstein, saving her life.
== Postwar ==
After the war, Rolirad married Maria Einstein. In 1965 they emigrated with their daughters to Israel, living at Ramat Gan.
Rolirad died on 4 January 1984, of a malignant illness. He was interred at the Jaffa Catholic Cemetery in Tel Aviv.
== Recognition ==
On 18 October 1966 Yad Vashem, in Jerusalem, recognized Henryk Rolirad as a Righteous among the Nations.
== See also ==
Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust
Home Army
List of Righteous among the Nations by country
== References ==
== External links ==
Rolirads page in Yad Vashem site. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonestown | Jonestown | The Peoples Temple Agricultural Project, better known by its informal name Jonestown, was a remote settlement in Guyana established by the Peoples Temple, an American religious movement under the leadership of Jim Jones. Jonestown became internationally infamous when, on November 18, 1978, a total of 918 people died at the settlement, at the nearby airstrip in Port Kaituma, and at a Temple-run building in Georgetown, Guyana's capital city. The name of the settlement became synonymous with the incidents at those locations.
A total of 909 individuals died in Jonestown itself, all but two from apparent cyanide poisoning, a significant number of whom were injected against their will. Jones and some Peoples Temple members referred to the act as a "revolutionary suicide" on an audio tape of the event, and in prior recorded discussions. The poisonings in Jonestown followed the murder of five others, including U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan, by Temple members at Port Kaituma, an act that Jones ordered. Four other Temple members committed murder-suicide in Georgetown at Jones' command.
Terms used to describe the deaths in Jonestown and Georgetown have evolved over time. Many contemporary media accounts after the events called the deaths a mass suicide. In contrast, later sources refer to the deaths with terms such as mass murder-suicide, a massacre, or simply mass murder. Seventy or more individuals at Jonestown were injected with poison, a third of the victims were minors, and armed guards had been ordered to shoot anyone who attempted to flee the settlement as Jones lobbied for suicide.
== Origins ==
The Peoples Temple was formed by Jim Jones in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1955. The movement purported to practice what it called "apostolic socialism." In doing so, the Temple preached that "those who remained drugged with the opiate of religion had to be brought to enlightenment – socialism." Jones had held an interest in Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong and Adolf Hitler from a young age, and would later frequently praise Stalin and Vladimir Lenin as heroes. He was also upset with persecution against the Communist Party USA. In the early 1960s, Jones visited Guyana – then a British colony – while on his way to establishing a short-lived Temple mission in Brazil.
After Jones received considerable criticism in Indiana for his integrationist views, the Temple moved to Redwood Valley, California, in 1965. In the early 1970s, the Temple opened other branches in Los Angeles and San Francisco, and would eventually move its headquarters to San Francisco.
With the move to San Francisco came increasing political involvement by the Temple and the high levels of approval they received from the local government. After the group's participation proved instrumental in the mayoral election victory of George Moscone in 1975, Moscone appointed Jones as the Chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority. Increasing public support in California gave Jones access to several high-ranking political figures, including vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale and First Lady Rosalynn Carter. Guests at a large 1976 testimonial dinner for Jones included Governor Jerry Brown, Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally and California Assemblyman Willie Brown, among others.
== Jonestown established ==
=== Selection and establishment of Guyanese land ===
In the fall of 1973, after critical newspaper articles by Lester Kinsolving and the defection of eight Temple members, Jones and Temple attorney Timothy Stoen prepared an "immediate action" contingency plan for responding to a police or media crackdown. The plan listed various options, including fleeing to Canada or to a "Caribbean missionary post" such as Barbados or Trinidad. For its Caribbean missionary post, the Temple quickly chose Guyana, conducting research on its economy and extradition treaties with the United States. In October 1973, the directors of the Temple passed a resolution to establish an agricultural mission there.
The Temple chose Guyana, in part, because of the group's own socialist politics, which were moving further to the left during the selection process. Former Temple member Tim Carter stated that the reasons for choosing Guyana were the Temple's view of a perceived dominance of racism and multinational corporations in the U.S. government. According to Carter, the Temple concluded that Guyana, an English-speaking, socialist country with a government including prominent black leaders, would afford black Temple members a peaceful place to live.
Later, Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham stated that Jones may have "wanted to use cooperatives as the basis for the establishment of socialism, and maybe his idea of setting up a commune meshed with that." Jones thought that Guyana was small, poor and independent enough for him to easily obtain influence and official protection. He proved skillful in presenting the Guyanese government the benefits of allowing the Temple to establish a settlement in the country. One of the main tactics was to speak of the advantages of their American presence near Guyana's disputed border with Venezuela; this idea seemed promising to the Burnham government, who feared a military incursion by Venezuela.
In 1974, after traveling to an area of northwestern Guyana with Guyanese officials, Jones and the Temple negotiated a lease of over 3,800 acres (1,500 ha) of land in the jungle located 150 miles (240 km) west of the Guyanese capital of Georgetown. In 1976, Guyana approved the lease (retroactive to April 1974). The site, located near the disputed border with Venezuela, was isolated and had soil of low fertility. The nearest body of water was seven miles (eleven kilometres) away by muddy roads.
=== Jonestown before mass migration ===
As five hundred members began the construction of Jonestown, the Temple encouraged more to relocate to the settlement. Jones saw Jonestown as both a "socialist paradise" and a "sanctuary" from media scrutiny. Jones reached an agreement to guarantee that Guyana would permit Temple members' mass migration. To do so, he stated that they were "skilled and progressive," showed off an envelope he claimed contained $500,000 and stated that he would invest most of the group's assets in Guyana. The relatively large number of immigrants to Guyana overwhelmed the government's small but stringent immigration infrastructure in a country where immigrants had outweighed locals. Guyanese immigration procedures were compromised to inhibit the departure of Temple defectors and curtail the visas of Temple opponents.
Jonestown was held up as a benevolent communist community, with Jones stating: "I believe we're the purest communists there are." Jones' wife, Marceline, described Jonestown as "dedicated to live for socialism, total economic and racial and social equality. We are here living communally." Jones wanted to construct a model community and claimed that Burnham "couldn't rave enough about us, the wonderful things we do, the project, the model of socialism." He did not permit members to leave Jonestown without his express prior permission.
The Temple established offices in Georgetown and conducted numerous meetings with Burnham and other Guyanese officials. In 1976, Temple member Michael Prokes requested that Burnham receive Jones as a foreign dignitary along with other "high ranking U.S. officials." Jones traveled to Guyana with Dymally to meet with Burnham and Guyanese Foreign Affairs Minister Fred Willis. In that meeting, Dymally agreed to pass on the message to the U.S. State Department that Guyana wanted to keep an open door to cooperation with the U.S. He followed up that meeting with a letter to Burnham stating that Jones was "one of the finest human beings" and that Dymally was "tremendously impressed" by his visit to Jonestown.
Temple members took pains to stress their loyalty to Burnham's People's National Congress Party. One Temple member, Paula Adams, became romantically involved with Laurence "Bonny" Mann, Guyana's ambassador to the U.S. Jones bragged about other female Temple members he referred to as "public relations women" giving all for the cause in Jonestown. Burnham's wife Viola was also a strong advocate of the Temple.
Later, Burnham stated that Guyana allowed the Temple to operate in the manner it did on the references of Moscone, Mondale and Rosalynn Carter. He also said that, when Deputy Minister Ptolemy Reid traveled to Washington, D.C. in September 1977 to sign the Panama Canal Treaties, Mondale, by this point the U.S. Vice President, asked him, "How's Jim?", which indicated to Reid that Mondale had a personal interest in Jones' well-being.
=== Investigation and mass migration ===
In the summer of 1977, Jones and several hundred Temple members moved to Jonestown to escape building pressure from San Francisco media investigations. Jones left the same night that an editor at New West magazine read to him an article to be published by Marshall Kilduff detailing allegations of abuse by former Temple members. After the mass migration, Jonestown became overcrowded. Jonestown's population was slightly under 900 at its peak in 1978.
=== Jonestown life after mass migration ===
Many members of the Temple believed that Guyana would be, as Jones promised, a paradise or utopia. After Jones arrived, however, Jonestown life significantly changed. Entertaining movies from Georgetown that the settlers had watched were mostly canceled in favor of Soviet propaganda shorts and documentaries on American social problems.
Bureaucratic requirements after Jones' arrival sapped labor resources for other needs. Buildings fell into disrepair and weeds encroached on fields. School study and nighttime lectures for adults turned to Jones' discussions about revolution and enemies, with lessons focusing on Soviet alliances, Jones' crises and the purported "mercenaries" sent by Stoen, who had defected from the Temple and turned against the group.
For the first several months, Temple members worked six days a week, from approximately 6:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., with an hour for lunch. In mid-1978, after Jones' health deteriorated and his wife began managing more of Jonestown's operations, the work week was reduced to eight hours a day for five days a week. After the day's work ended, Temple members would attend several hours of activities in the settlement's central pavilion, including classes on socialism.
Jones compared Jonestown's work schedule to the North Korean system of eight hours of daily work followed by eight hours of study. This also comported with the Temple's practice of gradually subjecting its followers to sophisticated mind control and behavior modification techniques borrowed from Mao Zedong and Kim Il-sung. Jones would often read news and commentary, including items from Radio Moscow and Radio Havana, and was known to side with the Soviets over the Chinese during the Sino-Soviet split.
"Discussion" about current events often took the form of Jones interrogating individual followers about the implications and subtexts of a given news item, or delivering lengthy and often confused monologues on how to "read" certain events. In addition to Soviet documentaries, political thrillers such as The Parallax View (1974), The Day of the Jackal (1973), State of Siege (1972) and Z (1969) were repeatedly screened and minutely analyzed by Jones. Recordings of commune meetings show how livid and frustrated Jones would get when anyone did not find the films interesting or did not understand the message Jones was placing upon them.
Jonestown had a closed-circuit television system, but no one could view anything in the way of film or recorded TV, no matter how innocuous or seemingly politically neutral, without a Temple staffer present to "interpret" the material for the viewers. This invariably meant damning criticisms of perceived capitalist propaganda in Western material, and glowing praise for and highlighting of Marxist–Leninist messages in material from communist nations.
Jones's recorded readings of the news were part of the constant broadcasts over Jonestown's tower speakers, such that all members could hear them throughout the day and night. His news readings usually portrayed the U.S. as a "capitalist" and "imperialist" villain, while casting "socialist" leaders, such as Kim, Stalin and Robert Mugabe in a positive light.
Jonestown's primary means of communication with the outside world was a shortwave radio. All voice communications with San Francisco and Georgetown were transmitted using this radio, from mundane supply orders to confidential Temple business. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) cited the Temple for technical violations and for using amateur frequencies for commercial purposes. Because shortwave radio was Jonestown's only effective means of non-postal communication, the Temple felt that the FCC's threats to revoke its operators' licenses threatened Jonestown's existence.
Because it stood on poor soil, Jonestown was not self-sufficient and had to import large quantities of commodities such as wheat. Temple members lived in small communal houses, some with walls woven from Troolie palm, and ate meals that reportedly consisted of nothing more on some days than rice, beans, greens and occasionally meat, sauce and eggs. Despite having access to an estimated $26 million by late 1978, Jones also lived in a tiny communal house, though fewer people lived there than in other communal houses. His house reportedly held a small refrigerator containing, at times, eggs, meat, fruit, salads and soft drinks. Medical problems, such as severe diarrhea and high fevers, struck half the community in February 1978.
Although Jonestown contained no dedicated prison and no form of capital punishment, various forms of punishment were used against members considered to have disciplinary problems. Methods included imprisonment in a 6-by-4-by-3-foot (1.8 m × 1.2 m × 0.9 m) plywood box and forcing children to spend a night at the bottom of a well, sometimes upside-down. This "torture hole", along with beatings, became the subject of rumor among local Guyanese. For some members who attempted to escape, drugs such as Thorazine, sodium pentathol, chloral hydrate, Demerol and Valium were administered in an "extended care unit." Armed guards patrolled the area day and night to enforce Jonestown's rules.
Children were generally surrendered to communal care, and at times were only allowed to see their biological parents briefly at night. Jones was called "Father" or "Dad" by both adults and children. The community had a nursery at which thirty-three infants were born.
For a year, it appears the commune was run primarily through Social Security checks received by members. Up to $65,000 in monthly welfare payments from U.S. government agencies to Jonestown residents were signed over to the Temple. In 1978, officials from the U.S. embassy in Georgetown interviewed Social Security recipients on multiple occasions to make sure they were not being held against their will. None of the seventy-five people interviewed by the embassy stated that they were being held captive, were forced to sign over welfare checks or wanted to leave Jonestown.
=== Demographics ===
African Americans made up approximately 70% of Jonestown's population. 45% of Jonestown residents were black women.
== Events in Jonestown before the arrival of Leo Ryan ==
=== White Night and the Six-Day Siege ===
Jones' paranoia and drug abuse increased in Jonestown as he became fearful of a government raid on the commune, citing concerns that the community would not be able to resist an attack. He made frequent addresses to Temple members regarding Jonestown's safety, including statements that U.S. intelligence agencies were conspiring with "capitalist pigs" to destroy the settlement and harm its inhabitants.
Jones was known to regularly study Adolf Hitler and Father Divine to learn how to manipulate members of the cult. Divine told Jones personally to "find an enemy" and "to make sure they know who the enemy is" as it would unify those in the group and make them subservient to him.
After work, when purported emergencies arose, the Temple sometimes conducted what Jones referred to as "White Nights." During such events, Jones would call, "Alert, Alert, Alert" over Jonestown's tower speakers to call the community together in the pavilion, which was then surrounded by guards armed with guns and crossbows. On several occasions, Jones then gave his followers four options: attempt to flee to the Soviet Union, commit "revolutionary suicide", stay in Jonestown and fight the purported attackers or flee into the jungle.
On at least two occasions during White Nights, after a "revolutionary suicide" vote was reached, a simulated mass suicide was rehearsed. Temple defector Deborah Layton described the event in an affidavit:
Everyone, including the children, was told to line up. As we passed through the line, we were given a small glass of red liquid to drink. We were told that the liquid contained poison and that we would die within 45 minutes. We all did as we were told. When the time came when we should have dropped dead, Rev. Jones explained that the poison was not real and that we had just been through a loyalty test. He warned us that the time was not far off when it would become necessary for us to die by our own hands.
One drill lasted for six days. Known as the "Six-Day Siege," this ordeal was used thereafter by Jones as a symbol of the community's indomitable spirit. For days on end, frightened settlers ringed the commune, armed with machetes and whatever crude tools would serve as weapons. Surrounding them, Jones claimed, were mercenaries bent on murder, as well as the abduction of Jones' son John Victor Stoen and others. Marceline and others outside of the commune engaged in interminable shortwave radio conversations with Jones, seeking to dissuade him from ordering a mass suicide. The panic reached such a point that an ad hoc evacuation was ordered by Jones, with dozens of settlers hastily loaded onto boats on the George River for a purported exodus to Cuba. Several people fell into the river, suffering injuries. At last, Jones bowed to pressure, and the drill ended. Veterans of the "Siege" were held in high regard in Jonestown, and in numerous addresses Jones tearfully recalled their stoic courage on the "front line."
The Temple had received monthly half-pound shipments of cyanide since 1976 after Jones obtained a jeweler's license to buy the chemical, purportedly to clean gold. In May 1978, a Temple doctor wrote a memo to Jones asking permission to test cyanide on Jonestown's pigs, as their metabolism was close to that of human beings.
=== Stoen custody dispute ===
In September 1977, former Temple members Tim and Grace Stoen battled in a Georgetown court to produce an order for the Temple to show cause why a final order should not be issued returning their five-year-old son, John. A few days later, a second order was issued for John to be taken into protective custody by authorities. The fear of being held in contempt of the orders caused Jones to set up a false sniper attack upon himself and begin the "Six-Day Siege."
Jonestown rallies began to take an almost surreal tone as black activists Angela Davis and Huey Newton communicated via radio-telephone to the settlers, urging them to hold strong against the "conspiracy." Jones made radio broadcasts stating "we will die unless we are granted freedom from harassment and asylum." Reid finally assured Marceline that the Guyana Defence Force would not invade Jonestown.
=== Exploring another potential exodus ===
Following the "Six-Day Siege," despite Reid's assurances, Jones no longer believed the Guyanese could be trusted. He directed Temple members to write to over a dozen foreign governments inquiring about immigration policies relevant to another exodus by the Temple. He also wrote to the State Department, inquiring about North Korea and Albania, then enduring the Sino-Albanian split. In Georgetown, the Temple conducted frequent meetings with the embassies of the Soviet Union, Cuba, North Korea and Yugoslavia. Negotiations with the Soviet embassy included extensive discussions of possible resettlement there. The Temple produced memoranda discussing potential places within the Soviet Union in which they might settle.
Sharon Amos, Michael Prokes, Matthew Blunt, Timothy Regan and other Temple members took active roles in the "Guyana-Korea Friendship Society," which sponsored two seminars on the revolutionary concepts of Kim Il-sung. In April 1978, a high-ranking correspondent of the Soviet news agency TASS and his wife visited Jones. On 2 October 1978, Feodor Timofeyev, the Soviet consul in Georgetown, visited Jonestown for two days and gave a speech. Jones stated before the speech, "For many years, we have let our sympathies be quite publicly known, that the United States government was not our mother, but that the Soviet Union was our spiritual motherland." Timofeyev opened the speech stating that the Soviet Union would like to send "our deepest and the most sincere greetings to the people of this first socialist and communist community of the United States of America, in Guyana and in the world". Both speeches were met by cheers and applause from the crowd in Jonestown.
Following the visit, Temple members met almost weekly with Timofeyev to discuss a potential Soviet exodus. However, Jones eventually had a change of heart, stating that he preferred to stay within the Guyanese borders because of the sovereignty it afforded them.
=== Concerned relatives ===
Meanwhile, in late 1977 and early 1978, the Stoens participated in meetings with other relatives of Jonestown residents at the home of Jeannie Mills, another Temple defector. Together, they called themselves the "Concerned Relatives." Tim Stoen engaged in letter-writing campaigns to the U.S. Secretary of State and the Guyanese government, and traveled to Washington, D.C. to lobby for an official investigation. In January 1978, Stoen wrote a white paper to Congress detailing his grievances and requesting that congressmen write to Burnham; ninety-one congressmen, including Leo Ryan, wrote such letters.
On 17 February 1978, Jones submitted to an interview with San Francisco Examiner reporter Tim Reiterman. Reiterman's subsequent story about the Stoen custody battle prompted the immediate threat of a lawsuit by the Temple. The repercussions were devastating for the Temple's reputation, and made most former supporters more suspicious of the Temple's claims that it was the victim of a "rightist vendetta." Still, others remained loyal. On the day after Reiterman's article was published, Harvey Milk – a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors who was supported by the Temple – wrote a letter to President Jimmy Carter defending Jones "as a man of the highest character" and stating that Temple defectors were trying to "damage Rev. Jones' reputation" with "apparent bold-faced lies."
On 11 April 1978, the Concerned Relatives distributed a packet of documents, including letters and affidavits, that they titled an "Accusation of Human Rights Violations by Rev. James Warren Jones" to the Peoples Temple, members of the press and members of Congress. In June 1978, Layton provided the group with a further affidavit detailing alleged crimes by the Temple and substandard living conditions in Jonestown.
Tim Stoen represented three members of the Concerned Relatives in lawsuits filed in May and June 1978 against Jones and other Temple members, seeking in excess of $56 million in damages. The Temple, represented by Charles Garry, filed a suit against Stoen on 10 July 1978, seeking $150 million in damages.
=== Conspiracism ===
During July and August of 1978, Jones sought the legal services of Mark Lane and Donald Freed, both Kennedy assassination conspiracy theorists, to help make the case of a "grand conspiracy" by U.S. intelligence agencies against the Temple. Jones told Lane he wanted to "pull an Eldridge Cleaver" and return to the U.S. after repairing his reputation. In September, Lane spoke to the residents of Jonestown, providing support for Jones' theories and comparing him to Martin Luther King Jr. Lane then held press conferences stating that "none of the charges" against the Temple "are accurate or true" and that there was a "massive conspiracy" against the Temple by "intelligence organizations," naming the CIA, the FBI, and even the U.S. Postal Service. Though Lane presented himself as a disinterested party, Jones was actually paying him $6,000 per month to generate such theories.
=== Jones' declining physical and mental health ===
Jones' health significantly declined in Jonestown. In 1978, he was informed of a possible lung infection, upon which he announced to his followers that he had lung cancer – a ploy to foster sympathy and strengthen support within the community.
Jones was said to be abusing injectable Valium, Quaaludes, stimulants and barbiturates. Audio tapes of 1978 meetings exhibit Jones complaining of high blood pressure, small strokes, weight loss of thirty to forty pounds within the span of two weeks, temporary blindness, convulsions and, in his final month, grotesque swelling of the extremities. During meetings and public addresses, Jones' once-sharp speaking voice often sounded slurred; words ran together or were tripped over. He would occasionally not finish sentences even when reading typed reports over the commune's speaker system.
Reiterman was surprised by the severe deterioration of Jones' health when he saw him in Jonestown on November 17, 1978. After covering Jones for eighteen months for the Examiner, he thought it was "shocking to see his glazed eyes and festering paranoia face to face, to realize that nearly a thousand lives, ours included, were in his hands."
== Leo Ryan visit ==
=== Initial investigation ===
Leo Ryan, who represented California's 11th congressional district, was friends with the father of Bob Houston, a Temple member in California whose mutilated body was found near train tracks on October 5, 1976, three days after a taped telephone conversation with Houston's ex-wife in which leaving the Temple was discussed. Over the following months, Ryan's interest was further aroused by the allegations put forth by Stoen, Layton and the Concerned Relatives.
On November 14, 1978, Ryan flew to Georgetown, along with a delegation that included:
Jackie Speier, Ryan's then-legal adviser;
Neville Annibourne, representing Guyana's Ministry of Information;
Richard Dwyer, Deputy Chief of Mission of the U.S. embassy to Guyana;
Tim Reiterman, San Francisco Examiner reporter;
Greg Robinson, Examiner photographer;
Don Harris, NBC reporter;
Bob Brown, NBC camera operator;
Steve Sung, NBC audio technician;
Bob Flick, NBC producer;
Charles Krause, Washington Post reporter;
Ron Javers, San Francisco Chronicle reporter;
and Concerned Relatives representatives, including:
Tim and Grace Stoen,
Steve and Anthony Katsaris,
Beverly Oliver,
Jim Cobb,
Sherwin Harris, and
Carol Houston Boyd.
=== Visits to Jonestown ===
==== November 17, 1978 ====
When the Ryan delegation arrived in Guyana, Jones' attorneys Lane and Garry initially refused to allow them access to Jonestown. However, by the morning of November 17, they informed Jones that Ryan would likely leave for Jonestown that afternoon regardless of his willingness. Ryan's party, accompanied by Lane and Garry, came to an airstrip at Port Kaituma, six miles (10 km) from Jonestown, some hours later. Because of lack of room on the plane, only four of the Concerned Relatives – Anthony Katsaris, Beverly Oliver, Jim Cobb and Carol Boyd – accompanied Ryan, Speier and the journalists to Port Kaituma and ultimately to Jonestown. It was felt that the presence of the Stoens would unnecessarily antagonize Jones, and Harris wanted to remain in Georgetown because he hoped to spend time with his daughter Liane, who was staying at the Temple's headquarters there.
Only Ryan, Speier, Lane and Garry were initially accepted into Jonestown, while the rest of Ryan's party was allowed in after sunset. That night, they attended a musical reception in the pavilion. While the party was received warmly, Jones said he felt like a dying man and ranted about government conspiracies and martyrdom as he decried attacks by the press and his enemies. It was later reported – and verified by audio tapes recovered by investigators – that Jones had run rehearsals on how to convince Ryan's delegation that everyone was happy and in good spirits.
Two Temple members, Vernon Gosney and Monica Bagby, made the first move for defection that night. In the pavilion, Gosney mistook NBC reporter Don Harris for Ryan and passed him a note, reading, "Dear Congressman, Vernon Gosney and Monica Bagby. Please help us get out of Jonestown." A child nearby witnessed Gosney's act and verbally alerted other Temple members. Harris brought two notes, one of the Gosney's, to Ryan and Speier. According to Speier in 2006, reading the notes caused her and the congressman to realize that "something was very, very wrong."
Ryan, Speier, Dwyer and Annibourne stayed the night in Jonestown while other members of their party, including the press corps and members of Concerned Relatives, were told that they had to find other accommodations. They went back to Port Kaituma and stayed at a small café.
==== November 18, 1978 ====
In the early morning of November 18, eleven Temple members sensed danger enough to walk out of Jonestown and all the way to the town of Matthew's Ridge, in the opposite direction from the Port Kaituma airstrip. Those defectors included the wife and son of Joe Wilson, Jonestown's head of security. When journalists and members of the Concerned Relatives arrived in Jonestown later that day, Jones' wife Marceline gave them a tour of the settlement.
That afternoon, the Parks and the Bogue families, along with Christopher O'Neal (who was the boyfriend of one of the Parks' daughters) and Harold Cordell (who was living with Mrs. Bogue), stepped forward and asked to be escorted out of Jonestown by the Ryan delegation. When Jones' adopted son Johnny attempted to talk Jerry Parks out of leaving, Parks told him, "No way, it's nothing but a communist prison camp." Jones gave the two families, along with Gosney and Bagby, permission to leave. Before leaving, Gosney was forced to sign a statement stating that he was leaving his four-year-old son behind of his own free will. When Harris handed Gosney's note to Jones during an interview in the pavilion, Jones stated that the defectors were lying and wanted to destroy Jonestown.
After a sudden violent rainstorm started, emotional scenes developed between family members. Al Simon, a Native American Temple member, attempted to take two of his children to Ryan to process the requisite paperwork for transfer back to the U.S. Simon's wife, Bonnie, summoned over the speakers by Temple staff, loudly denounced her husband. Simon pleaded with Bonnie to return to the U.S., but Bonnie rejected his suggestions.
=== Port Kaituma airstrip shootings ===
While most of Ryan's party began to depart on a large dump truck to the Port Kaituma airstrip, Ryan and Dwyer stayed behind in Jonestown to process any additional defectors. Shortly before the dump truck left, Temple loyalist Larry Layton, the brother of Deborah Layton, demanded to join the group. Several defectors voiced their suspicions about Larry's motives.
Shortly after the dump truck initially departed, Temple member Don "Ujara" Sly grabbed Ryan while wielding a knife. While Ryan was unhurt after others wrestled Sly to the ground, Dwyer strongly suggested that the congressman leave Jonestown while he filed a criminal complaint against Sly. Ryan did so, promising to return later to address the dispute. The truck departing to the airstrip had stopped after the passengers heard of the attack on Ryan, and took him as a passenger before continuing its journey towards the airstrip.
The entourage had originally scheduled a nineteen-passenger Twin Otter from Guyana Airways to fly them back to Georgetown. Because of the defectors departing Jonestown, the group grew in number and now an additional aircraft was required. Accordingly, the U.S. embassy arranged for a second plane, a six-passenger Cessna. When the entourage reached the airstrip between 4:30 p.m. and 4:45 p.m., the planes had not appeared as scheduled. The group had to wait until the aircraft landed at approximately 5:10 p.m. Then the boarding process began.
Larry was a passenger on the Cessna, the first aircraft to set up for takeoff. After the Cessna had taxied to the far end of the airstrip, he produced a handgun and started shooting at the passengers. He wounded Bagby and Gosney, and tried to kill Dale Parks, who disarmed him after the gun misfired.
Meanwhile, some passengers had boarded the larger Twin Otter. A tractor with a trailer attached, driven by members of the Temple's Red Brigade security squad, arrived at the airstrip and approached the aircraft. When the tractor neared within approximately 30 feet (9 m) of Ryan's party, at a time roughly concurrent with the shootings on the Cessna, the Red Brigade opened fire with handguns, shotguns and rifles while at least two shooters circled the plane on foot. There were perhaps nine shooters whose identities are not all certainly known, but most sources agree that Wilson, Stanley Gieg, Thomas Kice Sr. and Ronnie Dennis were among them. Jones had instructed Larry Layton, as well as those aboard the tractor, to ensure that none of the members of Ryan's party, nor the defectors, were to leave Jonestown.
The first few seconds of the shooting were captured on U-Matic ENG videotape by NBC cameraman Bob Brown, who was killed along with Robinson, Harris and Temple defector Patricia Parks in the few minutes of shooting. Ryan was killed after being shot more than twenty times. Speier, Reiterman, Katsaris, Steve Sung, Richard Dwyer, Charles Krause, Ron Javers, Carolyn Houston Boyd and Beverly Oliver were the nine injured in and around the Twin Otter. After the shootings, the Cessna's pilot, Tom Fernandez, along with the pilot and co-pilot of the Twin Otter, Captain Guy Spence and First officer Astil Rodwell Paul, as well as the injured Bagby, fled in the Cessna to Georgetown. The damaged Twin Otter and the injured Ryan delegation members were left behind on the airstrip.
== Deaths in Jonestown ==
Before leaving Jonestown for the airstrip, Ryan had told Garry that he would issue a report that would describe Jonestown "in basically good terms." Ryan stated that none of the sixty relatives he had targeted for interviews wanted to leave, the fourteen defectors constituted a very small portion of Jonestown's residents, that any sense of imprisonment the defectors had was likely because of peer pressure and a lack of physical transportation and even if 200 of the 900+ wanted to leave, "I'd still say you have a beautiful place here." Despite Garry's report, Jones told him, "I have failed." Garry reiterated that Ryan would be making a positive report, but Jones maintained that "all is lost."
After Ryan's departure from Jonestown towards Port Kaituma, Marceline made a broadcast on Jonestown's speaker system, giving assurances and asking settlers to return to their homes. During this time, aides prepared a large metal tub with grape Flavor Aid (which was misidentified as Kool-Aid), poisoned with diphenhydramine, promethazine, chlorpromazine, chloroquine, diazepam, chloral hydrate and cyanide.
The concoction was prepared with the help of Jonestown's in-house doctor, Larry Schacht, a former methamphetamine addict who got sober with the help of Jones, who subsequently paid for his college education to become a doctor. Schacht had been researching the best ways for a person to die in advance of the foreseen mass suicide. About thirty minutes after Marceline's announcement, Jones made his own, calling all members immediately to the pavilion.
A forty-four-minute cassette tape, known as the "death tape," records part of the meeting Jones called inside the pavilion in the early evening of November 18. When the assembly gathered, referring to the Ryan delegation's journey back to Georgetown, Jones told the gathering:
One of those people on that plane is gonna shoot the pilot, I know that. I didn't plan it but I know it's gonna happen. They're gonna shoot that pilot and down comes the plane into the jungle and we had better not have any of our children left when it's over, because they'll parachute in here on us.
Jones urged Temple members to commit "revolutionary suicide." Such an act had been hypothesized by Jones as far back as the Temple's existence in San Francisco and, according to Jonestown defectors, its theory was "you can go down in history, saying you chose your own way to go, and it is your commitment to refuse capitalism and in support of socialism."
Temple member Christine Miller argued that the Temple should alternatively attempt an airlift to the Soviet Union. Jim McElvane, a former therapist who had arrived in Jonestown only two days earlier, assisted Jones by arguing against Miller's resistance to suicide, stating, "Let's make it a beautiful day" and later citing possible reincarnation. After several exchanges in which Jones argued that a Soviet exodus would not be possible, along with reactions by other Temple members hostile to Miller, she backed down. However, Miller may have ceased dissenting when Jones confirmed at one point that "the congressman has been murdered" after the airstrip shooters returned.
When the Red Brigade members came back to Jonestown after Ryan's murder, Tim Carter, a Vietnam War veteran, recalled them having the "thousand-yard stare" of weary soldiers. After Jones confirmed that "the congressman's dead," no dissent is heard on the death tape. By this point, armed guards had taken up positions surrounding the pavilion. Directly after this, Jones stated that "the Red Brigade's the only one that made any sense anyway," and, "the Red Brigade showed them justice." In addition to McElvane, several other Temple members gave speeches praising Jones and his decision for the community to commit suicide, even after Jones stopped appreciating this praise and begged for the process to go faster.
According to escaped Temple member Odell Rhodes, the first to take the poison were Ruletta Paul and her one-year-old infant. A syringe without a needle fitted was used to squirt poison into the infant's mouth, after which Paul squirted another syringe into her own mouth. Stanley Clayton also witnessed mothers with their babies first approach the tub containing the poison. Clayton said that Jones approached people to encourage them to drink the poison and that, after adults saw the poison begin to take effect, "they showed a reluctance to die."
The poison caused death within five minutes for children, less for babies and an estimated twenty to thirty minutes for adults. After consuming the poison, according to Rhodes, people were then escorted away down a wooden walkway leading outside the pavilion. It is not clear if some initially thought the exercise was another White Night rehearsal. Rhodes reported being in close contact with dying children.
In response to reactions of seeing the poison take effect on others, Jones counseled, "Die with a degree of dignity. Lay down your life with dignity; don't lay down with tears and agony." He also said,
I tell you, I don't care how many screams you hear, I don't care how many anguished cries ... death is a million times preferable to 10 more days of this life. If you knew what was ahead of you – if you knew what was ahead of you, you'd be glad to be stepping over tonight.
Rhodes described a scene of both hysteria and confusion as parents watched their children die from the poison. He also stated that most present "quietly waited their own turn to die" and that many of the assembled Temple members "walked around like they were in a trance." Survivor Tim Carter later suggested that, like a previous practice, that day's lunch of grilled cheese sandwiches may have been tainted with sedatives. The crowd was surrounded by armed guards, offering members the basic dilemma of death by poison or death by a guard's hand. Cries and screams of children and adults are audibly heard on the death tape. As more Temple members died, eventually the guards themselves were called in to die by poison.
Jones was found dead lying next to his chair in the pavilion between two other bodies, his head cushioned by a pillow. His death was caused by a gunshot wound to his left temple that Guyanese Chief Medical Examiner Leslie Mootoo stated was consistent with being self-inflicted.
=== Survivors and eyewitnesses ===
Three high-ranking Temple survivors claimed they were given an assignment and thereby escaped death. Carter and his brother Mike, aged 30 and 20 respectively, and Mike Prokes, aged 31, were given luggage containing $550,000 in U.S. currency, $130,000 in Guyanese currency and an envelope, which they were told to deliver to the Soviet embassy in Georgetown. The envelope contained two passports and three instructional letters, the first of which was to Timofeyev, stating:
Dear Comrade Timofeyev,
The following is a letter of instructions regarding all of our assets that we want to leave to the Communist Party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Enclosed in this letter are letters which instruct the banks to send the cashiers checks to you. I am doing this on behalf of Peoples Temple because we, as communists, want our money to be of benefit for help to oppressed peoples all over the world, or in any way that your decision-making body sees fit.
The letters included listed accounts with balances totaling in excess of $7.3 million to be transferred to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Prokes and the Carter brothers soon ditched most of the money and were apprehended heading for a Temple boat at Port Kaituma. It is unknown how they reached Georgetown, 150 miles (240 km) away, since the boat had been sent away earlier that day. The brothers were given the task before the suicides began, and soon abandoned it when they realized what was about to happen; Tim Carter desperately tried to search for his wife and son, discovering his son in time to witness him being poisoned, and his wife killing herself in despair. At this point, Carter had a nervous breakdown and was pulled away from the village by his equally distraught brother.
Jones' sons, Stephan, Jim Jr. and Tim, were in Georgetown with Jonestown's basketball team to play in a tournament with the Guyanese national team. In the moments before the suicide, Jones contacted Stephan with orders to "get revenge" on enemies of the Temple in Georgetown before committing suicide themselves. Stephan not only refused to do so but then contacted the Temple's headquarters in San Francisco and told them not to do anything without his permission.
Just before the start of the final meeting in the pavilion, Garry and Lane were told that the community was angry with them and were escorted to a house used to accommodate visitors. According to them, they talked their way past two armed guards and made it to the jungle, before eventually arriving in Port Kaituma. While in the jungle near the settlement, they heard gunshots. This observation concurs with the testimony of Clayton, who, having previously fled into the jungle, heard the same sounds as he was sneaking back into Jonestown to retrieve his passport. Rhodes volunteered to fetch a stethoscope and hid under a building.
Two more people who were intended to be poisoned managed to survive. Grover Davis, aged 79, who was hard-of-hearing, missed the announcement to assemble on the loudspeaker, laid down in a ditch and pretended to be dead. Hyacinth Thrash, aged 76, realized what was happening and crawled under her bed, only to walk out after the poisonings were completed.
=== Medical examinations ===
The only medical doctor to initially examine the scene at Jonestown was Mootoo, who visually examined over 200 bodies and later told a Guyanese coroner's jury of having seen needle marks on at least seventy. However, no determination was made as to whether those injections initiated the introduction of poison or whether they were so-called "relief" injections to quicken death and reduce suffering from convulsions from those who had previously taken poison orally. Mootoo and U.S. pathologist Lynn Crook determined that cyanide was present in some bodies, while analysis of the contents of the vat revealed several tranquilizers as well as potassium cyanide and potassium chloride.
Plastic cups, Flavor Aid packets and syringes, some with needles and some without, littered the area where the bodies were found. Mootoo concluded that a gunshot wound to Annie Moore could not have been self-inflicted, though Moore had also ingested a lethal dose of cyanide.
Guyanese authorities waived their requirement for autopsies in the case of unnatural death. Doctors in the U.S. performed autopsies on only seven bodies, including those of Jones, Moore, Schacht and Carolyn Layton. Moore and Layton were selected among those autopsied, in part, because of the urging of the Moore family, including Rebecca Moore, the sister of the two victims, who was not a Temple member herself.
=== Notes from deceased residents ===
Found near Marceline Jones' body was a typewritten note, dated November 18, 1978, signed by Marceline and witnessed by Moore and Maria Katsaris, stating:
I, Marceline Jones, leave all bank assets in my name to the Communist Party of the USSR. The above bank accounts are located in the Bank of Nova Scotia in Nassau, Bahamas.
Please be sure that these assets do get to the USSR. I especially request that none of these are allowed to get into the hands of my adopted daughter, Suzanne Jones Cartmell.
For anyone who finds this letter, please honor this request as it is most important to myself and my husband James W. Jones.
Moore also left a note, which in part stated: "I am at a point right now so embittered against the world that I don't know why I am writing this. Someone who finds it will believe I am crazy or believe in the barbed wire that does NOT exist in Jonestown." The last line, "We died because you would not let us live in peace," is written in different color ink. No other specific reference is made to the events of the day. Moore also wrote, "JONESTOWN – the most peaceful, loving community that ever existed."
In addition, she stated, "JIM JONES – the one who made this paradise possible – much to the contrary of the lies stated about Jim Jones being a power-hungry sadistic, mean person who thought he was God – of all things." And "His hatred of racism, sexism, elitism, and mainly classism, is what prompted him to make a new world for the people – a paradise in the jungle. The children loved it. So did everyone else."
Found near Carolyn Layton's body was a handwritten note signed by Layton, witnessed by Katsaris and Moore, dated November 18, 1978, stating, "This is my last will and testament. I hereby leave all assets in any bank account to which I am a signatory to the Communist Party of the USSR."
== Deaths in Georgetown ==
In the early evening of November 18, at the Temple's headquarters in Georgetown, Temple member Sharon Amos received a radio communication from Jonestown instructing the members in Georgetown to take revenge on the Temple's enemies and then commit revolutionary suicide. Later, after police arrived at the Georgetown premises, Amos escorted her children, Liane (21), Christa (11) and Martin (10), into a bathroom. Wielding a kitchen knife, Amos first killed Christa and then Martin. Then Liane assisted Amos in cutting her own throat, after which Liane killed herself. Jones' sons Stephan, Tim and Jim Jr. later found the bodies.
== Aftermath ==
At Port Kaituma, Reiterman photographed the aftermath of the airstrip shootings. Dwyer assumed leadership at the scene and, at his recommendation, Larry Layton was arrested by Guyanese police. Dwyer had been grazed by a bullet in his buttock during the shootings. It took several hours before the eleven wounded and others in their party gathered themselves together. Most of them spent the night in the Port Kaituma café. The more seriously wounded slept in a small tent at the airstrip. A Guyanese government plane arrived the following morning to evacuate the wounded.
Five teenage members of the Parks and Bogue families, with one boyfriend, followed the instructions of defector Gerald Parks to hide in the adjacent jungle until help arrived and their safety was assured. Thereafter, that group was lost for three days in the jungle and nearly died. One of them, Thom Bogue, had been wounded in the leg. Guyanese soldiers eventually rescued them.
After escaping Jonestown, Rhodes arrived in Port Kaituma on the night of November 18. That night, Clayton stayed with a local Guyanese family and travelled to Port Kaituma the next morning. Prokes and the Carter brothers were put into protective custody in Port Kaituma; they were later released in Georgetown. Rhodes, Clayton, Garry and Lane were also brought to Georgetown. Prokes died by suicide on March 14, 1979, during a press conference, four months after the Jonestown incident.
914 of the 918 dead, including Jones himself, were collected by the U.S. military in Guyana, then transported by military cargo plane to Dover Air Force Base in Delaware, a location that had been used previously for mass processing of the dead from the Tenerife airport disaster. The last shipment of bodies arrived early on the morning of November 27. The base's mortuary was tasked with fingerprinting, identifying and processing the bodies. The base's resources were overwhelmed, and numerous individuals tasked with moving or identifying the bodies suffered symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. In many cases, responsibility for cremation of the remains was distributed to Dover area funeral homes.
In August 2014, the never-claimed cremated remains of nine people from Jonestown were found in a former funeral home in Dover. As of September 2014, four of their remains had been returned to next-of-kin, and the remaining five had not. Those five were publicly identified in the hope that family would claim their remains; all five remain unclaimed by family and have been interred at the Jonestown Memorial at Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland, California, along with the remains of approximately half of those who perished on November 18, 1978.
Larry Layton, who had fired a gun at several people aboard the Cessna, was initially found not guilty of attempted murder in a Guyanese court, employing the defense that he was "brainwashed." Acquittal in a Guyanese court did not free Layton, however, who was promptly deported back to the U.S. and arrested by the U.S. Marshals Service upon arrival in San Francisco. Layton could not be tried in the U.S. for the attempted murders of Gosney, Bagby, Dale Parks and the Cessna pilot on Guyanese soil and was, instead, tried under a federal statute against assassinating members of Congress and internationally protected people (Ryan and Dwyer). He was convicted of conspiracy and of aiding and abetting the murder of Ryan and of the attempted murder of Dwyer. Paroled in 2002, Layton is the only person ever to have been held criminally responsible for the events at Jonestown.
The events at Jonestown were covered heavily by the media, and photographs pertaining to it adorned newspaper and magazine covers for months after its occurrence. The Peoples Temple was labeled a "cult of death" by both Time and Newsweek magazines. In February 1979, 98% of Americans polled said that they had heard of the tragedy. George Gallup stated that "few events, in fact, in the entire history of the Gallup Poll have been known to such a high percentage of the U.S. public."
After the deaths, both the House Committee on Foreign Affairs and the State Department itself criticized the latter's handling of the Temple. Guyanese political opposition seized the opportunity to embarrass Burnham by establishing an inquest which concluded that the prime minister was responsible for the deaths at Jonestown.
The Cult Awareness Network (CAN), a group aimed at deprogramming members of cults, was formed soon after the deaths at Jonestown. The group, which included Ryan's daughter Patricia, was involved in various personal, social and legal battles with a range of religious organizations, from The Family International and Scientology to David Koresh's Branch Davidians, where they were found to be influential on law enforcement's concerns for children in the eventual Waco siege in 1993. After a slew of legal and fiscal issues, CAN went bankrupt in 1996.
In late February 1980, Al and Jeannie Mills (co-founders of the Concerned Relatives) and their daughter Daphene were shot and killed execution style in their Berkeley, California, home. Eddie Mills, their son, was believed to be involved to the extent that he was arrested in 2005, but charges were not filed against him. The case has not been solved. In 1984, former Temple member Tyrone Mitchell, who had lost both of his parents and five siblings at Jonestown, fired upon students at a Los Angeles elementary school from his second-story window, killing two people and injuring twelve; Mitchell then turned his weapon on himself and committed suicide.
The sheer scale of the event, as well as Jones' socialism, purported inconsistencies in the reported number of deaths, allegedly poor explanation of events related to said deaths and existence of classified documents led some conspiracy theorists to suggest CIA involvement, including a Soviet-published book a decade later. The House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence investigated the event and announced that there was no evidence of CIA involvement at Jonestown. Others suggested KGB involvement, beyond the attested visits of Soviet diplomatic personnel to Jonestown and the overtures made by Jim Jones to the USSR.
The bodies of over 400 of those who died are buried in a mass grave at Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland, California. In 2011, a memorial to them was erected at the cemetery.
Although Jones used poisoned Flavor Aid, the drink mix was also commonly (mistakenly) referred to as Kool-Aid. This has led to the phrase "drinking the Kool-Aid", referring to a person or group holding an unquestioned belief, argument, or philosophy without critical examination.
=== Conspiracy theories ===
According to religious studies scholar Rebecca Moore, "In the twenty-three years since the deaths in Jonestown, conspiracy theories have blossomed in number and sophistication."
In 1979, Joseph Hollinger, a former aide to Ryan, claimed that Jonestown was a "mass mind control experiment" conducted by the CIA. A 1980 newspaper column by Jack Anderson also claimed that the CIA was involved in the massacre, and speculated that Dwyer had ties to the agency. In 1980, an investigation by the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence found no evidence of CIA activity in Jonestown.
In 1987, The Jonestown Carnage: A CIA Crime (1978) (Russian: Гибель Джонстауна – преступление ЦРУ) was published in the Soviet Union, claiming that group members were assassinated by CIA agents and mercenaries to prevent further political emigration from the U.S. as well as suppress opposition to the U.S. regime. Political scientist Janos Radvanyi cites the book as an example of Soviet active measures during the 1980s that "spread both disinformation stories and enemy propaganda against the United States," adding, "It's hard to imagine that anyone could believe so ridiculous a story."
== Former site ==
Now deserted, the compound at Jonestown was initially tended by the Guyanese government following the deaths. The government then allowed its re-occupation by Hmong refugees from Laos for a few years in the early 1980s. The buildings and grounds were looted by local Guyanese but were not taken over because of their association with the mass killing. The buildings were mostly destroyed by a fire in the mid-1980s, after which the ruins were left to decay and be reclaimed by the jungle.
During a visit to tape a segment for the ABC news show 20/20 in 1998, Jim Jones Jr. discovered the rusting remains of an oil drum near the former entrance to the pavilion. Jones recognized the drum, originally adapted for use during meal times, as the drum used for drink mixtures during the White Night exercises, and which he believed was used to hold the beverage mix of poison and grape-flavored punch during the massacre.
In 2003, with the help of Gerry Gouveia, a pilot involved with the Jonestown cleanup, a television crew recording a special for the 25th anniversary of the event returned to the site to uncover any remaining artifacts. Although the site was covered with dense vegetation, the team uncovered a standing cassava mill (possibly the largest remaining structure), the remains of a tractor (speculated to be the same tractor used by the airstrip shooters), a generator, a filing cabinet, a truck near the site of Jones' house, a fuel pump, and other smaller miscellaneous items. Gouveia also led the team to the former site of the pavilion, where they found the remains of a steel drum, an organ, and a bed of daisies growing where the bodies once lay.
In December 2024, it was announced that there were plans to open the old site as a tourist attraction, with the first tourists scheduled to arrive in January 2025, paying $650 per person. The scheme is supported by the Guyanese government. The move to open the Jonestown site for tourism was opposed by several Guyanese figures, including University of Guyana lecturer Neville Bissember and former spokesperson of the Government of Guyana during the Jonestown massacre Kit Nascimento.
== See also ==
Media depictions:
Jonestown: Paradise Lost, a 2007 documentary broadcast on The History Channel
Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple, a 2006 documentary film
Guyana: Cult of the Damned, a 1979 exploitation film based on the Jonestown tragedy
Guyana Tragedy: The Story of Jim Jones, a 1980 television movie based on the life of Jim Jones and the Peoples Temple
Seconds from Disaster, a documentary television series that covered the events at Jonestown in Season 6, Episode 2 ("Jonestown Cult Suicide")
The Sacrament, a thriller whose plot borrows heavily from the events of Jonestown
Mass suicides:
Heaven's Gate in San Diego, California
Order of the Solar Temple in Canada and Switzerland
Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God in Uganda
Puputan, mass ritual suicide in Bali, Indonesia
Malindi cult in Kilifi County, Kenya
Sinasa massacre, mass poisoning and massacre in Davao City, Philippines
Suicide in Guyana
Additional:
List of members of the United States Congress killed or wounded in office
== Citations ==
== General and cited references ==
Hall, John R (1987). Gone from the Promised Land: Jonestown in American Cultural History. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0887381249.
Layton, Deborah (1998). Seductive Poison. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0385489843.
Moore, Rebecca (1985). A Sympathetic History of Jonestown: the Moore Family Involvement in Peoples Temple. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0889468603.
Reiterman, Tim; Jacobs, John (1982). Raven: The Untold Story of Rev. Jim Jones and His People. Dutton. ISBN 978-0525241362.
== Further reading ==
Brailey, Jeffrey (1998). The Ghosts of November: Memoirs of an Outsider Who Witnessed the Carnage at Jonestown, Guyana. San Antonio, Texas: J & J Publishers. ISBN 978-0966786804.
Chidester, David (1988). Salvation and Suicide. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253350565.
Dolan, Sean (2000). Everything You Need to Know About Cults. New York: Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 978-0823932306.
Feinsod, Ethan (1981). Awake in a Nightmare: Jonestown: The Only Eyewitness Account. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0393014310. Based on interviews with Odell Rhodes.
Fondakowski, Leigh (2013). Stories from Jonestown. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816678082. Based on interviews with survivors and family members.
Galanter, M (1999). Cults: Faith, Healing, and Coercion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kahalas, Laurie Efrein (1998). Snake Dance: Unravelling the Mysteries of Jonestown. New York: Red Robin Press. ISBN 978-1552122075.
Kerns, Phil (1978). People's Temple, People's Tomb. Logos Associates. ISBN 978-0882703633.
Kilduff, Marshall; Ron Javers (1978). The Suicide Cult: The Inside Story of the Peoples Temple Sect and the Massacre in Guyana. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553129205.
Klineman, George; Sherman Butler (1980). The Cult That Died. G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0399125409.
Kohl, Laura Johnston. Jonestown Survivor: An Insider's Look. New York: IUniverse, 2010.
koq (2014). Recordead: The Jonestown Tapes. Kindle Direct Publishing.
Krause, Charles A; Stern, Laurence M; Harwood, Richard (1978). Guyana Massacre: The Eyewitness Account. New York: Berkley Pub. Corp. ISBN 978-0425042342.
Lane, Mark (1980). The Strongest Poison. New York: Hawthorn Books. ISBN 978-0801532061.
Maaga, Mary McCormick (1998). Hearing the Voices of Jonestown. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0815605157.
Mills, Jeannie (1979). Six Years with God: Life Inside Rev. Jim Jones's People's Temple. New York: A&W Publishers. ISBN 978-0894790461.
Moore, Rebecca (1988). In Defense of Peoples Temple. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.
Naipaul, Shiva (1982). Journey to Nowhere: A New World Tragedy. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. ISBN 978-0140061895. (published in the UK as Black & White)
Reston, James Jr (1981). Our Father Who Art in Hell: The Life and Death of Jim Jones. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0812909630.
Scheeres, Julia (2011). A Thousand Lives: The Untold Story of Hope, Deception, and Survival at Jonestown. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1416596394.
Stephenson, Denice (2005). Dear People: Remembering Jonestown. Heyday Books. ISBN 978-1597140027.
Thielmann, Bonnie (1979). The Broken God. Elgin, Ill.: D. C. Cook Pub. Co. ISBN 9780891911807.
Thrash, Catherine; Towne, Marian Kleinsasser (1995). The Onliest One Alive: Surviving Jonestown, Guyana. Indianapolis, Ind: M.K. Towne. ISBN 9780964266612.
Wagner-Wilson, Leslie (2009). Slavery of Faith. New York: Universe.
Wooden, Kenneth. The Children of Jonestown. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Wright, Lawrence. The Sons of Jim Jones. The New Yorker 69, no. 39 (November 22, 1993): 66–89.
Layton, Thomas N; Yee, Min S. In My Father's House. New-York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981.
== External links ==
List of Jonestown massacre victims
Jonestown: Rebuilding my life after surviving the massacre. By Georgina Rannard & Kelly-Leigh Cooper. BBC News. The story of Laura Johnson Kohl. Includes pre-event information & photos.
Alternative considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple, an extensive resource on the topics, sponsored by the Department of Religious Studies at San Diego State University
"Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple" Archived 26 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, website for the film broadcast on PBS includes video interviews with survivors from 2006.
"The Jonestown Death Tape (FBI No. Q 042) (November 18 1978)", an unofficial web-publishing (digital) of the death tape seemingly made just before and during the mass slaying
"Nightmare in Jonestown". Time. December 4, 1978. Archived from the original on November 14, 2007. Retrieved August 5, 2008., Time magazine cover story, Monday, December 4, 1978
Father Cares: The Last of Jonestown, a 1981 audio documentary produced by NPR (90 minutes)
Jonestown Legacy website run by David Wise, once a pastor of the Los Angeles Branch of the Peoples Temple, but latterly an opponent of Jim Jones.
"The Jonestown, Guyana Tragedy: Primary Source Materials from the U.S. Department of State". Archived from the original on April 28, 1999., the contents of U.S. Government archives on the subject obtained through the Freedom of Information Act. (web-archived copy of the original website, no longer extant; unfortunately the scanned pages are missing)
"The Assassination of Representative Leo J Ryan and the Jonestown, Guyana Tragedy". Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. Retrieved July 13, 2011., excerpt from: Report of a Staff Investigative Group to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, May 15, 1979
"Davisville, 8/4/14: Listening to a survivor, and the story, of Jonestown". Radio interview with Julia Scheeres, author of A Thousand Lives: The Untold Story of Jonestown and Thom Bogue, one of the survivors, KDRT, August 2014.
"Jonestown FBI Files" at Internet Archive
The Downfall of Jim Jones by Larry Lee Litke. Published at The Jonestown Institute. Originally published 1980.
The Black Hole of Guyana:The Untold Story of the Jonestown Massacre by John Judge, 1985
605 Adults 304 Children – 2019 Documentary about Jonestown filmed entirely by The Peoples Temple |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Morgan_Smith_Medal | Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal | The Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal is awarded by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences "in recognition of excellence in published research on marine or freshwater algae." It has been awarded every three years since 1979.
== List of Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal winners ==
Source: NAS
Mark E. Hay (2018)
For developing algae as the major model for marine chemical ecology, and for elucidating how chemical cues and signals from algae structure marine and aquatic populations, communities, and ecosystems.
Takao Kondo (2015)
For demonstrating the occurrence of circadian clocks in prokaryotes, leading through genetic dissection to the discovery of the central bacterial clock genes, kaiABC, and to a new way of thinking about algal ecology.
John B. Waterbury (2012)
For the discovery and characterization of planktonic marine cyanobacteria, and viruses that infect them, setting in motion a paradigm shift in our understanding of ocean productivity, ecology, and biogeochemical cycles.
Arthur R. Grossman (2009)
For pioneering creative and comprehensive research on algae and cyanobacteria, elucidating molecular mechanisms by which they adapt to changes in light color and to nutrient stress.
Sabeeha Merchant (2006)
For her pioneering discoveries in the assembly of metalloenzymes and the regulated biogenesis of major complexes of the photosynthetic apparatus in green algae.
Sarah P. Gibbs (2003)
For her revolutionary concepts and evidence that constitute the foundation for the current theory of chloroplast evolution and the phylogenetic relationships of algae and plants.
Shirley W. Jeffrey (2000)
For her discovery and characterization of major algal pigments, their quantitative application in oceanography, and for providing phytoplankton cultures for international research.
Isabella A. Abbott (1997)
For her comprehensive investigations of the biogeography and systematics of marine algae in the eastern and central Pacific, with emphasis on Rhodophyta, the red algae.
Elisabeth Gantt (1994)
For her pioneering work in elucidating the supramolecular structure of the light-harvesting complexes and energy transfer in the photosynthetic apparatus of red and blue-green algae.
Jean-David Rochaix (1991)
For his elegant, inventive studies in Chlamydomonas using genetics along with cell and molecular biology to explain molecular mechanisms of chloroplast biogenesis, photosynthesis, and nuclear-chloroplast interactions.
Ruth Sager (1988)
For her key role in the developing our understanding of genetic systems in organelles though her studies of chloroplast inheritance in the green alga Chlamydomonas
Richard C. Starr (1985)
For his important work, which explained the sexuality of desmids and green algae. This was the first time the details of meiosis had been set forth for these groups.
Luigi Provasoli (1982)
For his excellence in phycology, especially for his work on the culture and nutrition of algae, and the influence of bacteria and organic substances on the morphology of larger algae.
William R. Taylor (1979)
For his outstanding contributions to the knowledge of the marine algae of Florida, the Caribbean Sea, the Northwestern Atlantic, and the tropical Pacific Oceans.
== See also ==
Gilbert Morgan Smith
List of biology awards
Prizes named after people
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motonori_Matuyama | Motonori Matuyama | Motonori Matsuyama (松山 基範, Matsuyama Motonori; October 25, 1884 – January 27, 1958) was a Japanese geophysicist who was (in the late 1920s) the first to provide systematic evidence that the Earth's magnetic field had been reversed in the early Pleistocene and to suggest that long periods existed in the past in which the polarity was reversed. He remarked that the Earth's field had later changed to the present polarity. The era of reversed polarity preceding the current Brunhes Chron of normal polarity is now called the Matuyama Reversed Chron; and the transition between them is called the Brunhes–Matuyama or Matuyama-Brunhes reversal.
== Life ==
Matuyama Motonori was born at Uyeda (now Usa) in Oita prefecture Japan on October 25, 1884, a son of a Zen abbot, Sumie (Sumiye) Tengai. His name was at first registered as Suehara Motonori after his mother’s family name, Suehara Kou, and was later changed to Sumie Motonori when his father became the chief priest at an eminent Zen Buddhist temple in Yamaguchi. In 1910 he was adopted by the Matsuyama (松山) family, when he married their daughter, Matsuyama Matsuye, and was known as Matsuyama Motonori. About 1926, in conformity with a then new convention of transliteration, he altered the romanization of his adoptive family name to Matuyama.
Matuyama was educated at the University of Hiroshima and Kyoto Imperial University, where he was appointed to a lectureship in 1913. After spending the period 1919–21 at the University of Chicago working with Thomas C. Chamberlin studying ice, he returned to Japan and was made professor of theoretical geology at Kyoto Imperial University in 1922. He conducted a gravity survey of Japan during the period 1927–32, extending this to also cover Korea and Manchuria, and studied marine gravity using the Vening–Meinesz pendulum apparatus in a submarine.
While rocks had earlier been found with polarities opposite to the present field and the hypothesis advanced that the field had reversed in the past, Matuyama was the first to conduct a disciplined study of the hypothesis. In 1926 he began collecting basalt specimens in Manchuria and Japan, and in 1929 published a paper showing that there was a clear correlation between the polarity and the stratigraphic position. He remarked that the Earth's field had been reversed in the early Pleistocene age and older, and that it had later changed to the present polarity.
This reversed polarity, particularly as shown by the rocks of the ocean floor, provided crucial evidence for the sea floor spreading hypothesis of Harry H. Hess.
Matuyama served the Kyoto Imperial University as dean of the Faculty of Science from June 1936 until December 1937; he retired from teaching in 1944 and was made professor emeritus in 1946. In May 1949, Matuyama was appointed the founding president of Yamaguchi University (N.B. the University transliterated his family name as Matsuyama). In 1950 he was elected a fellow of the Japan Academy.
== Legacy ==
"The Japanese geophysicist Motonori Matsuyama (1884–1958, as spelled and pronounced but mistransliterated in his own publications and others as Matuyama) was the first to document clearly from basalts in the Genbudō (basalt caves), Japan, the reversed magnetic polarity interval from 2.58 to 0.773 Ma that we now call the Matuyama Reversed Polarity Chron." --Martin J. Head
The transition, about 0.78 Ma, to normal polarity (i.e., that of the present Earth's field) is the Brunhes-Matuyama or Matuyama-Brunhes reversal. At the 1973 Burg Wartenstein Symposium, it was recommended that “The beginning of the Middle Pleistocene should be so defined as to either coincide with or be closely linked to the boundary between the Matuyama Reversed Epoch and the Brunhes Normal Epoch of paleomagnetic chronology”. This was finalized in 2020, when the Executive Committee of the International Union of Geological Sciences officially ratified the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) defining the base of the Chibanian Stage and Middle Pleistocene Subseries at the Chiba section, Japan, using the Matuyama-Brunhes reversal as a marker.
The boundary, about 2.58 Ma, between the Gauss Normal Chron and the Matuyama Reversed Chron is known as the Gauss-Matuyama reversal.
Matsuyama Rocks, in Crystal Sound, Antarctica, are named in his honour and his work on ice crystals.
== References ==
== Further reading == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risen_Christ_%28Michelangelo,_Santa_Maria_sopra_Minerva%29 | Risen Christ (Michelangelo, Santa Maria sopra Minerva) | The Risen Christ (Cristo della Minerva in Italian, also known as Christ the Redeemer or Christ Carrying the Cross) is a marble sculpture by the Italy High Renaissance master Michelangelo, finished in 1521. It is in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, to the left of the main altar.
== History ==
The work was commissioned in June 1514, by the Roman patrician Metello Vari, who stipulated only that the nude standing figure would have the Cross in his arms, but left the composition entirely to Michelangelo. Michelangelo was working on a first version of this statue in his studio in Macello dei Corvi around 1515, but abandoned it in roughed-out condition when he discovered a black vein in the white marble, remarked upon by Vari in a letter, and later by Ulisse Aldrovandi. A new version was hurriedly substituted in 1519–1520 to fulfil the terms of the contract. Michelangelo worked on it in Florence, and the move to Rome and final touches were entrusted to an apprentice, Pietro Urbano; the latter, however, damaged the work and had to be quickly replaced by Federico Frizzi at the suggestion of Sebastiano del Piombo.
The first version, rough as it was, was asked for by Metello Vari, and given him in January 1522, for the little garden courtyard of his palazzetto near Santa Maria sopra Minerva, come suo grandissimo onore, come fosse d'oro translated as "As his greatest honor, as if it were of gold", a mark of the esteem in which Michelangelo was held". There it remained, described by Aldrovandi in 1556, and noted in some contemporary letters as apparently for sale in 1607, following which it was utterly lost to sight. In 2000 Irene Baldriga recognized the lost first version, finished in the early seventeenth century, in the sacristy of the church of San Vincenzo Martire, at Bassano Romano near Viterbo; the black vein is clearly distinguishable on Christ's left cheek. It is now often called the Giustiniani Christ. The parts finished later are the "right hand, parts of the face and the back".
Despite all these problems, the second version impressed the contemporaries. Sebastiano del Piombo declared that the knees alone were worthy of more than the whole Rome, which William Wallace has called "one of the most curious praises ever sung about a work of art" Christ is shown by Michelangelo unclothed in a standing pose. Christ's sexual organs are exposed in order to show that his sexuality is uncorrupted by lust and completely controlled by his will, so that in his resurrected body he shows his triumph over both sin and death. A floating bronze loincloth was added in 1546 which shields the genitals from view.
A leg is flexed and the head turned back, according to the principle of contrapposto. Compared to the first version, the more active pose allows more varied impressions when the statue is seen from different angles, "not only activating the space around him, but also suggesting an unfolding story". The first version was exhibited in the National Gallery, London in 2017, in the same room as a cast of the second version, drawings for it, and letter relating to it.
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
List of statues of Jesus
== Notes and references ==
== External links ==
Media related to Cristo Redentore by Michelangelo (Rome) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hall_(Victorian_politician)#:~:text=John%20Joseph%20Hall%20(18%20February,1949)%20was%20an%20Australian%20politician. | John Hall (Victorian politician) | John Joseph Hall (18 February 1884 – 30 June 1949) was an Australian politician and journalist.
He was born in Eaglehawk to miner and tea merchant Joseph Hall and Isabella, née Gray. He attended state school before becoming a booking clerk with Victorian Railways and a journalist with the Bendigo Advertiser; he was also mining correspondent for The Argus. He married Clarissa Jessamine Snell on 26 December 1907, with whom he had six children. Active in the Kyabram Reform Movement, he was a founder of the Victorian Farmers' Union (VFU) in 1916 and served as its general secretary from 1916 to 1918. In 1917 he was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly as the member for Kara Kara, but he was defeated on a recount in February 1918. He was subsequently the VFU's candidate for the 1918 federal Flinders by-election, but withdrew after extracting a promise from the Nationalist Party to introduce preferential voting. Despite several attempts, Hall never re-entered parliament. He remained a journalist, editing the Farmer's Advocate (1917–1924), the Morning Post (1924–1927) and the Leader (1946–1949). Hall died in 1949 in Richmond.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors | List of Crayola crayon colors | Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than 200 colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the colors found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the standard colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments, represented in subsequent tables.
== Standard colors ==
== Specialty crayons ==
Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite Crayons, Metallic FX Crayons, Magic Scent Crayons, Silly Scents, and more.
=== Fluorescent crayons ===
In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, designed to fluoresce under black light. The following year, they were added to the 72-count box, which had previously contained two of the eight most-used colors, in place of the duplicate crayons. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, and eight more were added, for a total of 16 fluorescent crayons. One of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some reason, two of the original eight fluorescent crayons have the same color as two of the newer crayons. In 1992, the fluorescent colors were added to the new No. 96 box, becoming part of the standard lineup. When four new crayons were added to the No. 96 assortment in 2003, four existing colors were discontinued, including two of the fluorescents. Also beginning in 1993, packs of fluorescent crayons were regularly labeled "neon" or "neons".
=== Fabric Crayons ===
In 1976, Crayola released a pack of eight Fabric Crayons. Each crayon was named after a standard color. In 1980, "Light Blue" was discontinued and replaced with Black. In 1981, "Magenta" was renamed to "Red". The colors' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
=== Metallic Crayons (Canada) ===
In 1987, Crayola released a pack of 16 Metallic Crayons in Canada. Four of the colors are named after four of the standard colors. Also, one of the colors is named before a Metallic FX color. The colors' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
Aged Copper
Aztec Gold
Bluetonium
Brass
Bronze
Cadmium Red
Cast Iron
Cobalt Blue
Copper
Gold
Kryptonite
Rust
Silver
Steel Blue
Tarnished Gold
Titanium
=== Silver Swirls ===
In 1990, Crayola released Silver Swirls, a pack of 24 silvery colors. The colors' hexadecimal values are approximated below.
=== Multicultural Crayons ===
In 1992, Crayola released a set of eight Multicultural Crayons which "come in an assortment of skin hues that give a child a realistic palette for coloring their world." The eight colors used came from their standard list of colors (none of these colors are exclusive to this set), and the set was, for the most part, well received, though there has also been some criticism.
=== Magic Scent Crayons ===
In 1994, Crayola produced a 16-pack of crayons that released fragrances when used. In 1995, Crayola changed some of the scents because of complaints received from parents that some of the crayons smelled good enough to eat, like the Cherry, Chocolate, and Blueberry scented crayons. Crayons with food scents were retired in favor of non-food scents. The 30 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
=== Gem Tones ===
In 1994, Crayola released Gem Tones, a pack of 16 crayons modeled after the colors of gemstones. The colors' hexadecimal values are approximated below:
=== Glow in the Dark Crayons ===
In 1994, Crayola released Glow in the Dark Crayons, a pack of eight crayons. However, it did not contain any color names in North America. Only four of the colors were available in the U.K.
=== Crayola Changeables ===
The Crayola Changeables crayons were introduced in 1995. The chart includes the color changer, an off-white crayon that goes on clear and initiates the color changes in the other crayons from the "From color" to the "To color".
=== Color 'n Smell Crayons ===
Following previous issues with scented crayons in 1994 and 1995, Binney & Smith released a new line, known as "Magic Scent" crayons in 1997. None of the crayons were named after or given the scent of foods. The 16 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
=== Star Brite Crayons ===
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Star Brite Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
=== Color Mix-Up Crayons ===
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Color Mix-Up Crayons, each of which contains a solid color with flecks of two other colors in it. Colors in the chart below are approximated. The hex RGB values are in the order of the predominant color and then the flecks. Colors for crayons other than Mixed Veggies and Star Spangled Banner come from information on the crayon wrapper.
=== Pearl Brite Crayons ===
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Pearl Brite Crayons. These were designed to give soft pearlescent colors. These had a new wrapper design, black with a white oval Crayola logo and white text.
=== Crayons with Glitter ===
In 1997, Crayola released Crayons with Glitter as part of a Special Effects crayons package. Starting as late as 1999, their crayon names do not appear on the crayon wrappers.
In 2019, Crayola released an updated version of Crayons with Glitter in a 24-count pack featuring new names:
=== Construction Paper Crayons ===
In 1998, Crayola introduced Construction Paper Crayons. The specialty line remained one of the longest running specialty lines they ever put out. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
=== Metallic FX Crayons ===
In 2001, Crayola produced Metallic FX Crayons, a set of 16 metallic crayons whose names were chosen through a contest open to residents of the U.S. and Canada. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. In 2019, an updated version was released under its original name of Metallic Crayons, adding eight more metallic colors for a total of 24. The original 16 colors are included in the special 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection pack alongside 120 standard and 16 Crayons with Glitter. Four of the colors are included in the regular 96-count crayon box.
=== Gel FX Crayons ===
In 2001, Crayola produced Gel FX Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. Four of the colors are included in the 96-count crayon box alongside four Metallic FX colors and are not included in the 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection set. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
=== Pearl Crayons ===
In 2019, a 24-count box of Pearl Crayons was released alongside the updated versions of the Metallic Crayons, Neon Crayons, and Crayons with Glitter.
=== Neon Crayons ===
In 2019, a new 24 count of Neon Crayons was released. It includes eight fluorescent colors, eight pearl versions of the same colors, and the same eight colors with silver glitter.
=== Colors of the World Crayons ===
On May 21, 2020, the Colors of the World Crayons were announced. They were released in 32 and 24-count boxes in July 2020. The additional eight colors are standard colors with new names to fit the theme.
=== Silly Scents Crayons ===
The Silly Scents Crayons are produced by Crayola in a 16-pack. The 16 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
=== Heads 'n Tails Crayons ===
The eight Heads 'n Tails Crayons are double-sided and encased in plastic tubes that function much like the ones on Crayola Twistables. Each crayon has two shades of color, for a total of 16 colors, which are approximated by the background colors and hex RGB values below.
=== The 100,000,000,000th Crayon ===
In 1996, Crayola celebrated the creation of their 100 billionth crayon by publishing a Crayon called Blue Ribbon. This crayon was only present in certain crayon 96-packs.
== Twistables ==
=== 24-pack Mini Twistables ===
In 2004, Crayola released a set of 24 Mini Twistables crayons. They are nearly half the size of large twistable crayons. The colors' hexadecimal values are shown below. The colors are from the standard list of crayon colors.
=== Fun Effects Mini Twistables ===
In 2004, Crayola released a 24 pack of Fun Effects Mini Twistables crayons. It contains eight eXtreme colors, eight metallic colors, and eight rainbow colors.
=== True to Life Crayons ===
In 2007, Crayola released a set of eight True to Life Crayons. Each crayon is extra-long and contained within a plastic casing similar to that of Crayola Twistables crayons. In the table, the background approximates the primary color and the text is in the two supporting colors. The approximate RGB hex values for each are given as well.
=== Confetti Crayon ===
Crayola released a set of 24 Confetti Crayons in 2020. They each contain three colors: one main color, which is displayed outwardly, and two other colors, which are speckled in small bubbles throughout the crayon.
== See also ==
History of Crayola crayons
Timeline of Crayola
Lists of colors
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hawk_of_Lebanon | The Hawk of Lebanon | "The Hawk of Lebanon" (Arabic: هلا يا صقر لبنان) is a popular song in the Arab world about Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah. The song was written by little known Palestinian boy band Firkat al-Shamal (Band of the North) at the height of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.
The lyrics consist of constant repetition of a few simple rhymes: "Hey, you, hawk of Lebanon. Hey, you, Nasrallah. Your men are from Hezbollah and victory is yours with God's help." Lead singer and manager Alaa Abu al-Haija, 28, said he gives the audiences what they want to hear. "I see people turning toward Islam, so I have to sing to that," said Alaa.
Palestinian fever for the song brought together supporters of Hamas and Fatah who are usually divided in the Palestinian society.
== See also ==
Yalla Ya Nasrallah, another song about Nasrallah, by an Israeli group. However, this song has an alternate view of Hassan Nasrallah, calling him an orangutan with lice in his beard.
== References ==
== External links ==
The Hawk Of Lebanon only copy available on YouTube
Police confiscates CDs with “inflammatory song” Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine Freemuse article |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Logie_Baird | John Logie Baird | John Logie Baird (; 13 August 1888 – 14 June 1946) was a Scottish inventor, electrical engineer, and innovator who demonstrated the world's first mechanical television system on 26 January 1926. He went on to invent the first publicly demonstrated colour television system and the first viable purely electronic colour television picture tube.
In 1928, the Baird Television Development Company achieved the first transatlantic television transmission. Baird's early technological successes and his role in the practical introduction of broadcast television for home entertainment have earned him a prominent place in television's history.
In 2006, Baird was named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history, having been listed in the National Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'. In 2015, he was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. In 2017, IEEE unveiled a bronze street plaque at 22 Frith Street (Bar Italia), London, dedicated to Baird and the invention of television. In 2021, the Royal Mint unveiled a John Logie Baird 50p coin commemorating the 75th anniversary of his death.
== Early years ==
Baird was born on 13 August 1888 in Helensburgh, Dunbartonshire, and was the youngest of four children of the Reverend John Baird, the Church of Scotland's minister for the local St Bride's Church, and Jessie Morrison Inglis, the orphaned niece of the wealthy Inglis family of shipbuilders from Glasgow.
He was educated at Larchfield Academy (now part of Lomond School) in Helensburgh; the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College; and the University of Glasgow. While at college, Baird undertook a series of engineering apprentice jobs as part of his course. The conditions in industrial Glasgow at the time helped form his socialist convictions but also contributed to his ill health. He became an agnostic, though this did not strain his relationship with his father. His degree course was interrupted by the First World War and he never returned to graduate.
At the beginning of 1915 he volunteered for service in the British Army but was classified as unfit for active duty. Unable to go to the front, he took a job with the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Company, which was engaged in munitions work.
== Television experiments ==
In early 1923, and in poor health, Baird moved to 21 Linton Crescent, Hastings, on the south coast of England. He later rented a workshop in the Queen's Arcade in the town. Baird built what was to become the world's first working television set using items that included an old hatbox and a pair of scissors, some darning needles, a few bicycle light lenses, a used tea chest, and sealing wax and glue that he purchased. In February 1924, he demonstrated to the Radio Times that a semi-mechanical analogue television system was possible by transmitting moving silhouette images. In July of the same year he received a 1000-volt electric shock, surviving with only a burnt hand, and was asked by his landlord to vacate the premises. Soon after arriving in London, looking for publicity, Baird visited the Daily Express newspaper to promote his invention. The news editor was terrified and he was quoted by one of his staff as saying: "For God's sake, go down to reception and get rid of a lunatic who's down there. He says he's got a machine for seeing by wireless! Watch him—he may have a razor on him."
In these attempts to develop a working television system, Baird experimented using the Nipkow disk. Paul Gottlieb Nipkow had invented this scanning system in 1884. Television historian Albert Abramson calls Nipkow's patent "the master television patent". Nipkow's work is important because Baird, followed by many others, chose to develop it into a broadcast medium.
In his laboratory on 2 October 1925, Baird successfully transmitted the first television picture with a greyscale image: the head of a ventriloquist's dummy nicknamed "Stooky Bill" in a 32-line vertically scanned image, at five pictures per second. Baird went downstairs and fetched an office worker, 20-year-old William Edward Taynton, to see what a human face would look like, and Taynton became the first person to be televised in a full tonal range.
In June 1924, Baird purchased thallium sulfide (developed by Theodore Case in the US) from Cyril Frank Elwell. The chemical became an important part in the development of "talking pictures." Baird's implementation of the thallium sulfide resulted in the first live-animated image on lens from reflected light. He improved the signal conditioning from the thallium sulfide "cell" via temperature optimisation (cooling) and his own custom-designed video amplifier, pioneering the technology we now use today.
=== First public demonstrations ===
Baird gave the first public demonstration of moving silhouette images by television at Selfridges department store in London in a three-week period beginning on 25 March 1925.
On 26 January 1926, Baird gave the first public demonstration of true television images for members of the Royal Institution and a reporter from The Times in his laboratory at 22 Frith Street in the Soho district of London, where Bar Italia is now located. Baird initially used a scan rate of 5 pictures per second, improving this to 12.5 pictures per second c.1927. It was the first demonstration of a television system that could scan and display live moving images with tonal graduation.
He demonstrated the world's first colour transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with a filter of a different primary colour; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. In the same year he also demonstrated stereoscopic television.
=== Broadcasting ===
In 1927, Baird transmitted the world's first long-distance television pictures over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London and the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central station.
This transmission was Baird's response to a 225-mile, long-distance telecast between stations of AT&T Bell Labs. The Bell stations were in New York and Washington, DC. The earlier telecast took place in April 1927, a month before Baird's demonstration.
Baird set up the Baird Television Development Company Ltd, which in 1928 made the first transatlantic television transmission, from London to Hartsdale, New York, and in 1929 the first television programmes officially transmitted by the BBC. In November 1929, Baird and Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. Broadcast on the BBC on 14 July 1930, The Man with the Flower in His Mouth was the first drama shown on UK television. The BBC transmitted Baird's first live outside broadcast with the televising of The Derby in 1931. He demonstrated a theatre television system, with a screen two feet by five feet (60 cm by 150 cm), in 1930 at the London Coliseum, Berlin, Paris, and Stockholm. By 1939 he had improved his theatre projection to televise a boxing match on a screen 15 ft (4.6 m) by 12 ft (3.7 m).
From 1929 to 1935, the BBC transmitters were used to broadcast television programmes using the 30-line Baird system, and from 1932 to 1935 the BBC also produced the programmes in their own studio, first at Broadcasting House and then later at 16 Portland Place. In addition, from 1933 Baird and the Baird Company were producing and broadcasting a small number of television programmes independent of the BBC from Baird's studios and transmitter at the Crystal Palace in south London.
On 2 November 1936, from Alexandra Palace located on the high ground of the north London ridge, the BBC began alternating Baird 240-line transmissions with EMI's electronic scanning system, which had recently been improved to 405-lines after a merger with Marconi. The Baird system at the time involved an intermediate film process, where footage was shot on cinefilm, which was rapidly developed and scanned. The trial was due to last for 6 months but the BBC ceased broadcasts with the Baird system in February 1937, due in part to a disastrous fire in the Baird facilities at Crystal Palace. It was becoming apparent to the BBC that the Baird system would ultimately fail due in large part to the lack of mobility of the Baird system's cameras, with their developer tanks, hoses, and cables. Commercially Baird's contemporaries, such as George William Walton and William Stephenson, were ultimately more successful as their patents underpinned the early television system used by Scophony Limited who operated in Britain up to WWII and then in the US. "Of all the electro-mechanical television techniques invented and developed by the mid 1930s, the technology known as Scophony had no rival in terms of technical performance." In 1948 Scophony acquired John Logie Baird Ltd.
Baird's television systems were replaced by the first fully electronic television system developed by the newly formed company EMI-Marconi under Sir Isaac Shoenberg, who headed a research group that developed an advanced camera tube (the Emitron) and a relatively efficient hard-vacuum cathode-ray tube for the television receiver. Philo T. Farnsworth's electronic "Image Dissector" camera was available to Baird's company via a patent-sharing agreement. However, the Image Dissector camera was found to be lacking in light sensitivity, requiring excessive levels of illumination. The Baird company used the Farnsworth tubes instead to scan cinefilm, in which capacity they proved serviceable though prone to drop-outs and other problems. Farnsworth himself came to London to the Baird Crystal Palace laboratories in 1936 but was unable to fully solve the problem; the fire that burned Crystal Palace to the ground later that year further hampered the Baird company's ability to compete.
=== Fully electronic ===
Baird made many contributions to the field of electronic television after mechanical systems became obsolete. In 1939, he showed a system known today as hybrid colour using a cathode-ray tube in front of which revolved a disc fitted with colour filters, a method taken up by CBS and RCA in the United States.
As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "Telechrome". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-colour image could be obtained.
In 1941, he patented and demonstrated this system of three-dimensional television at a definition of 500 lines. On 16 August 1944, he gave the world's first demonstration of a practical fully electronic colour television display. His 600-line colour system used triple interlacing, using six scans to build each picture.
In 1943, the Hankey Committee was appointed to oversee the resumption of television broadcasts after the war. Baird persuaded them to make plans to adopt his proposed 1000-line Telechrome electronic colour system as the new post-war broadcast standard. The picture resolution on this system would have been comparable to today's HDTV (High Definition Television). The Hankey Committee's plan lost all momentum partly due to the challenges of postwar reconstruction. The monochrome 405-line standard remained in place until 1985 in some areas, and the 625-line system was introduced in 1964 and (PAL) colour in 1967. A demonstration of large screen three-dimensional television by the BBC was reported in March 2008, over 60 years after Baird's demonstration.
== Other inventions ==
Some of Baird's early inventions were not fully successful. In his twenties he tried to create diamonds by heating graphite. Later Baird invented a glass razor, which was rust-resistant, but shattered. Inspired by pneumatic tyres he attempted to make pneumatic shoes, but his prototype contained semi-inflated balloons, which burst (years later this same idea was successfully adopted for Dr. Martens boots). He also invented a thermal undersock (the Baird undersock), which was moderately successful. Baird suffered from cold feet, and after several trials, he found that an extra layer of cotton inside the sock provided warmth.
Between 1926 and 1928, he attempted to develop an early video recording device, which he dubbed Phonovision. The system consisted of a large Nipkow scanning disk attached by a mechanical linkage to a record-cutting lathe. The result was a disc that could record a 30-line video signal. Technical difficulties with the system prevented its further development, but some of the original Phonovision discs have been preserved.
Baird's other developments were in fibre-optics, radio direction finding, infrared night viewing and radar. There is discussion about his exact contribution to the development of radar, for his wartime defence projects have never been officially acknowledged by the UK government. According to Malcolm Baird, his son, what is known is that in 1926 Baird filed a patent for a device that formed images from reflected radio waves, a device remarkably similar to radar, and that he was in correspondence with the British government at the time. The radar contribution is in dispute. According to some experts, Baird's "Noctovision" is not radar. Unlike radar (except continuous wave radar), Noctovision is incapable of determining the distance to the scanned subject. Noctovision also cannot determine the coordinates of the subject in three-dimensional space.
== Death ==
From December 1944, Logie Baird lived at 1 Station Road, Bexhill-on-Sea, East Sussex, he later died there on 14 June 1946 after suffering a stroke in February. The house was demolished in 2007 and the site is now occupied by apartments named Baird Court. Logie Baird is buried beside his parents in Helensburgh Cemetery, Argyll, Scotland.
== Honours and portrayals ==
Australian television's Logie Awards were named in honour of John Logie Baird's contribution to the invention of the television.
Baird became the only posthumous subject of This Is Your Life when he was honoured by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre in 1957.
In 2014, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) inducted Logie Baird into The Honor Roll, which "posthumously recognizes individuals who were not awarded Honorary Membership during their lifetimes but whose contributions would have been sufficient to warrant such an honor".
In 2023, John MacKay portrayed John Logie Baird in both the ITV series Nolly and the Doctor Who episode "The Giggle".
== Legacy ==
In 2013, Historic Environment Scotland awarded a plaque to commemorate Logie Baird. It can be found in Helensburgh.
== See also ==
History of television
== References ==
This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "John Logie Baird", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.
== Further reading ==
Books
Baird, John Logie, Television and Me: The Memoirs of John Logie Baird. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 2004. ISBN 1-84183-063-1
Burns, Russell, John Logie Baird, television pioneer. London: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000. ISBN 0-85296-797-7
Kamm, Antony, and Malcolm Baird, John Logie Baird: A Life. Edinburgh: NMS Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1-901663-76-0
McArthur, Tom, and Peter Waddell, The Secret Life of John Logie Baird. London: Hutchinson, 1986. ISBN 0-09-158720-4.
McLean, Donald F., Restoring Baird's Image. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, 2000. ISBN 0-85296-795-0.
Rowland, John, The Television Man: The Story of John Logie Baird. New York: Roy Publishers, 1967.
Tiltman, Ronald Frank, Baird of Television. New York: Arno Press, 1974. (Reprint of 1933 ed.) ISBN 0-405-06061-0.
Patents
U.S. patent 1,699,270
Television Apparatus, US patent, filed 1926.
Method of and Means for Transmitting Signals, US patent for Baird's "Noctovision" infrared television system, filed 1927.
Television Apparatus and the Like, US patent for Baird's colour television system, filed 1929 (in UK, 1928).
== External links ==
John Logie Baird official website (the Baird family)
John Logie Baird biography at BFI Screenonline
John Logie Baird's entry on Helensburgh Heroes web site Archived 26 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
John Logie Baird's colour television Archived 14 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine at National Museum of Scotland
"Television for Millions" Popular Mechanics, September 1935
"Electron Camera Shoots Television Images" Popular Mechanics, June 1935
"London Station To Serve Ten Million People" Popular Mechanics, June 1935
Documents and clippings about Baird Television Ltd (London) in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnham#:~:text=The%20estimated%20population%20taken%20at%20the%202011%20Census%20was%20around%20245.&text=There%20is%20evidence%20of%20human,found%20in%20the%20village%20today. | Alnham | Alnham (, ) is a hamlet and civil parish in Northumberland, England. It is about 14 miles (23 km) west of Alnwick, and is about 6 miles (10 km) from the Scottish border, on the south of a small tributary of the River Aln. The village stands on uneven ground, sloping from south to north, at the foot of the southern outliers of the Cheviot Hills. The River Aln flows eastward through the village from its source in the Cheviot Hills down to the coast. The layout of the village appears to have been dictated by the river. The estimated population taken at the 2011 Census was around 245.
There is evidence of human occupation in Alnham and the surrounding areas dating from prehistoric times. The remains of a medieval settlement, hillforts, and other historic buildings can still be found in the village today. Due to its location, Alnham often suffered in the Anglo-Scottish border conflict during its history. The economy of Alnham has been focused on agriculture throughout its existence as a settlement.
== Toponymy ==
The name "Alnham" derives from the Old English hām (homestead) and the Celtic river-name Aln or Alaunos, meaning "homestead on the River Aln". Variations of the name have been recorded over time, including: Alneham (1331), Elnam (1509), Ayneham (1557), and Ailnham (1663). Alnham has also historically been called "Yeldom", and in the Magna Brittannia of 1724 it is mentioned as being usually called "Yarwell".
== History ==
There is no direct evidence of Paleolithic or Mesolithic human occupation within Alnham, although it is possible that the Cheviot slopes to the west of Alnham provided a wooded area perfect for seasonal foraging parties. The only evidence of Neolithic habitation is a cup-marked stone found at Alnham Northfield. Bronze Age occupation of Alnham is more evident. A rare bronze spearhead has been found at High Bleakhope to the north-west of Alnham, possibly indicating occupation by an elite social class. The remote and elevated location of High Bleakhope suggests that the spearhead was placed there as an offering to a deity. A number of cairns have been discovered in the surrounding area which may have been constructed in the Bronze Age. Unenclosed settlements, common in the Cheviots through the Iron Age and Bronze Age, have also been found in the surrounding area. Two Iron Age palisaded enclosures have been discovered on High Knowes to the north-west of Alnham. Castle Hill in Alnham is an example of a Cheviot multivallate hillfort and is likely to have existed by the Iron Age. Remains of hut circles within the inner closure suggest that Castle Hill was a settlement with a small population. Evidence of the Romans in the Cheviots, which is situated beyond the Roman frontier, is difficult to detect and distinguish from the Iron Age due to their limited cultural influence. The closest settlement to Alnham which is considered to be Roman can be found on Castle Hill.
During the Middle Ages Alnham was an important location, as indicated by its ancient buildings, castle mound, and pele tower. There is evidence that it was a populous village and reached its peak of prosperity in the late 13th century. The Church of St Michaels was first recorded in an 1184 charter in which William de Vesci granted Alnham and its tithes to Alnwick Abbey. During the reigns of Henry III and Edward I, Alnham was part of the lordship and estate of William de Vesci (in 1242) and John de Vesci (in 1289). In 1293 William de Vesci claimed free Chase in Alnham, but with no male heirs, his property was passed to Antony Bek (Bishop of Durham) after his death. Bishop Bek sold the Barony of Alnwick, which included Alnham, to Henry de Percy, 1st Baron Percy. From that point onwards, Alnham remained in the same descent as the rest of the Percy estates.
The history of Alnham was often troubled, including by climatic deterioration and harvest failure in the early 14th century, and the Black Death. These events caused the population to reduce significantly. In 1352, after the Black Death, there were 34 holdings, half of which were unoccupied. The surviving residents of Alnham, however, may have benefitted somewhat from this reduction in population and secured better rights: the Inquisition for Henry de Percy in 1368 reveals that the bondages and cottages were held by "tenants-at-will", in comparison to earlier non-contractual tenancies which owed labour services to a lord. Being situated in a precarious position between the English and Scottish borders, Anglo-Scottish combat also caused disruption in Alnham. Alnham suffered at the hand of Scottish raids during the reign of Henry VIII. Two letters from the Earl of Northumberland to the King, dating from October and November 1532, describe how the Scots came across the borders and rampaged Alnham and surrounding towns. The tower at Alnham appears to have suffered damage from the Scottish raids as it was reported to have been in a bad condition by 1541. The dangerous position of Alnham between the English and Scottish borders is again revealed in a survey of the manor from 1615, which reads:
the toune and manor of Alneham is parcell of the Barony of Alnewicke. The soyle thereof is good and fertile but the tenants have been greatly impoverished and disabled by the Scots and often English thieves by reason that the said toune lieth open to the great wastes between the two realmes.
Alnham was a significant agricultural centre in the early 17th century. Robert Norton's map of the Duke of Northumberland's Alnham Estate from 1619 reveals Alnham's meadowland consisted of four large common fields, 70 acres of arable land, and 168 acres of "Alnham oxe pasture". From the 18th century onwards, Alnham underwent a period of decay and transformation. In 1724, the Magna Brittannia described Alnham as being "pretty large". However, an undated map from pre-1750 shows a dwindling number of cottages, Seymour's Survey of c. 1756 records five cottages, and in the Enclosure Award of 1776 the village is recorded as having only two farms and three cottages. This decay can be attributed to the 17th and 18th century policy of leasing tenement lands to a single tenant, resulting in the amalgamation of land formerly owned by tenants-at-will into larger farmholdings. Transformation came about later in the 18th century: Alnham Common was first recorded in a survey of 1702 and was divided and apportioned in 1776. The grounds were divided up into holdings along the east and southeast sides of the township and a new road was built through the village. The Duke of Northumberland secured the largest share of the land: 1,379 acres of infield ground and 6590 acres of common. Further divisions of the land were granted to Alexander Collingwood, Charles Byrne, Percival Clennel, and the Vicar of Alnham.
In the 19th century, the village of Alnham consisted of three farms, a church, a vicarage, a Church of England school (constructed in 1870), and six cottages. Farming continued to be the focus of economic activity. By the late 19th century, Alnham Parish covered around 12,000 acres with the township of Alnham being by far the largest at 9535 acres. The population of Alnham in 1801 was 233 and remained relatively stable throughout the century, dropping to 205 by 1891. The 1831 census revealed that the majority of male residents aged over 20 in Alnham Parish was labourers or servants (45 men). A smaller proportion were employers and professionals (8 men), or "middling sorts" (15 men), which included small farmers and skilled workers.
The village did not develop much during the 20th century. The only new building to be constructed in this period was the War Memorial Hall erected in 1921. The population gradually declined owing to mechanisation and reduction in farming incomes.
== Demography ==
Alnham falls within the North Core Strategy Delivery Area of Northumberland – one of the least populated areas of England with 26 residents per square km, compared to the county average of 63. In 2001, the parish of Whittingham and Alnham had a total usual population of 505. In 2011, Alnham Parish had an estimated population of 245. 20.4% of residents were aged 0–15 and 10.2% of residents were aged 65+. 100% of residents identified as white. The majority of residents (68.6%) were Christian with the remaining population either having an 'other' religion, no religion, or did not state religion. 81.3% of residents aged 16–74 were economically active with agriculture, forestry and fishing being the most common industry (25.7%).
== Governance ==
Throughout its history, Alnham has been incorporated in various territorial units. In the medieval period, Alnham formed one of the manors of the Barony of Alnwick held by the Vesci lineage beginning in the early 12th century and ending in 1310. The Barony was then sold to Henry de Percy and remains in the hands of the Percy family today. The Parish of Alnham in the 19th century contained the townships of Alnham, Prendwick, Scrainwood and Unthank. These townships were recorded as separate localities in the feudal aid of 1242.
In the UK Parliament, Alnham is part of the Berwick-upon-Tweed Parliament constituency which has been represented by Anne-Marie Trevelyan (Conservative) since May 2015. Prior to May 2015, the seat was represented by Alan Beith (Liberal Democrats). In local government, Alnham is part of the Rothbury Ward and is represented by Steven Christopher Bridgett (Independent). At the Parish council level, Alnham is part of Whittingham Parish Council which comprises the former three separate parishes of Alnham, Callaly and Whittingham.
== Landmarks ==
There are seven listed structures in Alnham, including old buildings, the Church, and a medieval settlement.
=== Church of St Michael and All Angels ===
The Church of St Michael and All Angels is a Grade I listed building and part of the Diocese of Newcastle. It is a Parish Church of Saxon foundation located to the west of the village centre. The Church was first recorded in an 1184 charter. After William de Vesci gave the Church to Alnwick Abbey, a new west front, south chapel, north aisle, and chancel arch were constructed. It is likely that the Church was damaged in the Anglo-Scottish border wars in the 13th century. By the mid-13th century, the north arcade was replaced by pointed arches and the north aisle was widened. There is evidence that the Church was in a state of ruin at least once by the later medieval period. It was restored with a rebuilt chancel and a new transept arch. A further restoration was recorded in 1664.
By the mid-19th century, the Church had again fallen into a poor state. The Builder described the state of Alnham Church in 1862:
Open the rickety church-door. The eye is met by a green flash from the damp, mildewed walls, and by streaks of sky seen through the unceiled slates. The western end, with its Early Traditional single light, has not been much disturbed; but the rest of the window opening have been modernized and filled with common sashes, which are rotten, and let in wind and rain. The east end has a small square sash, such as is ordinarily provided for a scullery or any inferior office. Three of the worm-eaten, mousy pews are square, with a table fixed in the centre of each: a fourth forms three sides of a quadrangle that is occupied by a stove. Fungi abound, and the pavement is sodden with damp. Ruin is imminent, unless precautions are taken to avert it.
F. R. Wilson, an architect from Alnwick, was responsible for the restoration of the building in 1870. All of the extant windows of the Church, other than those in the west end, are Wilson's. Further restoration work was carried out on the Church in 1953 by Gustav Adolph Renwick.
Around 20 yards (18 m) to the south of the Church is a medieval cross base which is a Grade II listed structure. It is a large stone, 2 feet (61 cm) high, with a socket cut into it to hold the shaft of a cross.
=== Tower House ===
Tower House, located near to the Church, is a Grade II listed building. It is also known as the vicar's pele and served as the vicarage of the Church for much of its existence. It was first recorded in Bowes and Ellerker's survey of 1541 and is listed as a "lytle toure". It was most likely constructed in the 15th or early 16th century. By the time of the 1541 survey, the Tower was in need of repairs, but there is no evidence to suggest it received the reparations required. The Tower collapsed in 1651 and a record of the building in 1715 reveals that its condition had still not improved. In 1828, Archdeacon Singleton noted that the Tower was uninhabited and uninhabitable. However, by 1844 the building was in use again. New battlements, corner turrets, window openings and a residential wing were constructed. Tower House was later used as a youth hostel and is now a private residence.
=== Medieval settlement ===
The medieval settlement at Alnham is a scheduled monument and is located to the south of St Michaels Church. The remains of this village exist as a series of earthworks between 0.3 metres (12 in) and 0.5 metres (20 in) high, a toft with an enclosure and two houses, a small hill, and a group of three houses and an enclosure. The settlement lies on two artificially-levelled sites. It is likely that the original medieval settlement was larger and more focussed on the Church.
=== Alnham Castle ===
Alnham Castle is a scheduled monument that includes the remains of a medieval tower house. It is located to the south of site of the medieval village. The tower has a rectangular plan, measuring 22 metres (72 ft) by 18 metres (59 ft) and standing up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The tower was first mentioned in 1405 when it is recorded as one of Harry Hotspur's strongholds which was surrendered to Henry IV. It is in a good defensive position on the summit of a low ridge. The remains of a small, triangular annex can be found to the east and south. An outer enclosure which surrounded the tower is represented by a well-defined lynchet bank to the north. This enclosure most likely consisted of a garden and meadow associated with the manor as recorded in the Inquisition of Henry de Percy in 1368.
=== Farm buildings ===
The former farmhouses of Alnham castle, previously known as Castle Farm, can be found in the village today as the Pennywells – two Grade II listed cottages. Dating from around the early 18th century, they are built out of roughly-dressed stone. The garden wall attached to the front of the Pennywells, also built out of roughly-dressed stone, is another Grade II listed structure. There are adjacent farm buildings, around 9 metres (10 yd) from the Pennywells, consisting of byres, a stable and shelter sheds which were built around a courtyard between around 1830 and 1840. The farm buildings have a separate Grade II listing.
=== Castle Hill ===
Castle Hill is a rare example of an Iron Age multivallate hillfort. The hillfort has been designated as a scheduled monument and is located to the west of Alnham. It stands at a height of 289 metres (948 ft) above Ordnance Datum. It consists of a sub-circular enclosure within concentric ditches with ramparts which are built from earth and stone excavated from the site of the hillfort. The site also contains the remains of a Romano-British settlement. There are at least five hut circles within the interior of the hillfort. Three unenclosed huts on the north-west flanks of the hillfort, defined by a curving out bank, constitute the earliest of the remains, possibly dating from the Bronze Age. There were four possible phases of development of earthwork defences of the hillfort during the Iron Age. The first phase consisted of a univallate stone-walled enclosure, followed by the construction of the ramparts and ditches resulting in a bivallate hillfort (phase 2). Phases 3 and 4 saw Castle Hill become a multivallate hillfort.
Several trackways near Castle Hill potentially date from the prehistoric or Romano-British eras. There is also evidence of Bronze Age, Iron Age and Romano-British agricultural activity on the hill. Prehistoric cord rig was discovered on the north-west of the hilltop, and prehistoric or Romano-British ploughing has resulted in lynchets on the north-east side. There is evidence that medieval cultivation stretched from Alnham village and stopped at a boundary bank to the south-east face of the hill.
=== War Memorial Hall ===
The most significant structure to be built in Alnham in the 20th century is the War Memorial Hall, erected in 1920 as a testament to the impact of World War I on small rural communities like Alnham. It is a stone-built village hall with a stone incision above the porch door. There are no names inscribed on the memorial as there were no deaths in the village during the war.
== Transport ==
Alnham is an isolated rural community. The nearest main road is the A697, around 7.5 miles (12 km) away. The village is situated on a local road running north-south from Prendwick to Scrainwood; from a junction near the village centre another road heads northwest from Alnham, past Castle Hill, for about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to Ewartly Shank, where it ends.
There were plans in the mid-to-late 19th century for a Northumberland Central Railway line to run through Alnham. The proposed railway would have been located to the east of Pennylaws Cottage, but it was never built.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Where an abbreviation is used in the references this is indicated below in (brackets) at the end of the source name. When a source is available online, a link has been included.
Dixon, David Dippe (1895). Whittingham Vale, Northumberland: its history, traditions, and folk lore. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Robert Redpath.
Dodds, Madeleine Hope, ed. (1935). A history of Northumberland. Vol. XIV. Newcastle upon Tyne: Andrew Reid & Company, Limited; Simpkin Marshall, Limited. Retrieved 29 December 2021 – via Google Books.
Alnham Northumberland. An archaeological and historical study of a border township (PDF) (Report). The Archaeological Practice Ltd. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2021. (AN)
Ryder, Peter F. (2018). St Michael the Archangel, Alnham. Archaeological Assessment, including report on 2018 works (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 31 December 2021.
Pearson, Trevor; Lax, Amy; Ainsworth, Stewart (2001). An Iron Age hillfort and its environs on Castle Hill, Alnham, Northumberland (PDF) (Report). English Heritage. ISSN 1478-7008. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
== External links ==
Map sources for Alnham
GENUKI (accessed: 22 November 2008) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relojes_Centenario#:~:text=It%20was%20founded%20by%20Alberto,still%20functions%20to%20this%20day. | Relojes Centenario | Relojes Centenario (or Centenario Clocks) is the first manufacturer of monumental clocks in Latin America. It was founded by Alberto Olvera Hernández in the municipality of Zacatlán, Puebla, Mexico as a workshop on the family farm when he was a teenager. His first clock was for the family farm but the next one went to the main church in Chignahuapan, which still functions to this day. The name Centenario was adopted in 1921 to mark the centennial of the end of the Mexican War of Independence. To date, the company has built over 2,000 monumental clocks for churches, government buildings and more as well as repaired Mexican and European built clocks. There are Centenario clocks in most part of Mexico and the company sells abroad as well. In 1993, the company opened a Clock Museum in the upper level of the factory, with both the museum and factory open to the public free of charge.
== Alberto Olvera Hernández ==
Alberto Olvera Hernández was born on March 2, 1892, at the Coyotepec farm outside the town of Zacatlán, Puebla. He showed a mechanical aptitude early fixing and inventing machines, receiving a patent in 1920 a track changer for electric trains. His interest in clocks came when a clock on the chimney of his home broke down and he took it apart to try and fix it. In 1912, at 17 years of age, he began to construct his first monumental clock using junk and wood from the family farm. He then built a clock workshop at the farm where he would work until 1929, with the business of building clocks already successful enough to have a helper and various apprentices.
He moved his workshop to the town of Zacatlán to establish “Relojes Centenario” (Centenario Clocks) which remains in the same place to this day. His work earned him several honors including an “Honor al Mérito” and the “Medalla Xiutec” from the government Zacatlán in 1966. He died in the town in 1980.
== History of the company ==
From 1918 to the present, Olvera Hernández and Centenario has manufactured more than 2,000 which have been installed in churches, municipal palaces, other government buildings, towers, shopping centers, hotels and other places. They have restored and automated more than 600 monumental clocks of European origin. They service clocks in various parts of Mexico, and train locals in the care and maintenance of clocks they install.
The first clock installed outside of the family farm was the clock for the Santiago Apostol Church in Chignahuapan in 1919, which took a year to build. This clock is still working. The next clock was installed in Libres in 1921. The name Relojes Centenario was adopted that same year, the centennial of the end of the Mexican War of Independence. It is the first maker of monumental clocks in Latin America. In 1930, Olvera Hernandez founded his own homestead called La Quinta María where he installed the second workshop of Centenario. The current location in the center of Zacatlán was acquired in 1966, allowing the company to increase production. In 1975, the business became a legal corporation.
The company is currently run by the sons and grandsons of Olvera Hernandez. The current general manager is José Luis Olvera Charolet. Each year, they install between seventy and eighty in locations in Mexico and abroad. There are over 1,500 Centenario clocks in Mexico alone.}
In 1982, the business opened an office in Mexico City in Colonia Tepeyac Insurgentes. In 1986, the company construction the floral clock located in the main square of Zacatlán. It has two faces five meters in diameter controlled by the same mechanism and nine mechanical carillons. This clocks chimes a variety of tunes. The clock is the first of its type and has become a symbol for the town.
In 1993, the clock museum was inaugurated, named after Olvera Hernandez. The gift shop, called the “La Casa del Tiempo” was opened in 2003. In the 2000s, the company experimented with digital chimes including those programmed for funeral songs and “Ave Maria.”
According to general manager José Luis Olvera Charolet, each clock is unique with no two quite the same. One of the most notable clocks by the company is the flower clock in the Parque Hundido in Mexico City, one of the largest in the world, which occupies a space of 78 m2 and has a ten meter wide face. Another clock is that in the Nuestra Señora del Roble basilica in Monterrey, which has four faces of four meters in diameter each. The floral clock in Zacatlán was installed in 1986. It has nine different melodies and which get played depend on the time of year and time of day, playing four times each 24-hour period. The hours of this clock are 6am, 10am, 2pm and 9pm in order not to interfere with the hours of mass. Another clock is in Tulantepec, Hidalgo (near Tulancingo), which chimes the national anthem at 6am and 6pm along with the “Himno Guadalupano” dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe. It also has different chimes for each quarter-hour. The clock is completely automated through a system of counterweights. Good monumental clocks have carillons to sound out their chimes. Tunes are chosen by customers usually based on the area's musical traditions as well as personal preferences. One of the clocks installed in Torreón plays La Filomena each hour. The floral clock in Tuxtla Gutiérrez plays the Tuxtla waltz and La Chiapanecas. The clock in Santa Bárbara, a small mining town in Chihuahua, plays Amor Perdido. The company also repairs many of the country's German and French clocks which were installed in the late 19th and early 20th century.
== Clock museum ==
The Museo de Relojería Alberto Olvera Hernández or Alberto Olvera Hernández Clock Museum was founded in 1993 and named after the founder of Centenario Clocks. It contains replica and original timepieces to demonstrate methods of measuring time over history. These include sundials used 2000 BCE, candle “clocks” with markings for hours, and similar timepieces but with oil lamps. There are numerous examples of mechanical clocks. One unique piece is a clock statue of Merlin the magician, whose arms point to the time but only for twelve hours a day. During the night hours, his arms “rest.” Entrance to the factory and museum is free. The museum is reached by walking through the factory, which is open to visitors, who can see all the processes from the smelting of metal to the final test of the completed piece. The museum is connected to the factory floor by a stairwell which has a mural. This mural depicts the relevant life events of Alberto Olvera Hernandez. Olvera Hernandez appears in the center of a ring of icons related to time, and books related to his self training as well as a profile of his wife, Maria Charolet. Below are twelve figures representing his twelve children and well as the violin and mandolin which he played.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakshi_Ghulam_Mohammad | Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad | Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad (20 July 1907 – 15 July 1972) was an Indian politician who served as the prime minister of Jammu and Kashmir from 1953 to 1964. Bakshi was a founding member of the National Conference and rose to be the second in command to the principal leader Sheikh Abdullah. He served as the deputy prime minister of the State of Jammu and Kashmir between 1947 and 1953, but disagreed with Abdullah's advocacy of independence for the state in 1953. He staged a 'coup' with the help of the head of state Karan Singh, resulting in the dismissal and imprisonment of Sheikh Abdullah. Bakshi was the longest serving prime minister, whose rule saw the formulation of the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir and a normalisation of relations of Jammu and Kashmir with the Indian government.
== Early life ==
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was born in 1907 in a lower middle class family in the Safakadal area of Srinagar (in the then princely state of Jammu and Kashmir). His father, Abdul Ghaffar Bakshi, was said to have been unemployed. Bakshi had six siblings, four brothers and two sisters.
He was educated at C.M.S Tyndale Biscoe School upto eighth grade, which was considered a reasonable qualification at that time. He started his career as a school teacher in Christian missionary schools in Skardu and Leh. Due to family pressure, he returned to Srinagar and got married.
In 1925, he served in the Kashmir branch of the All India Spinners’ Association and worked as a karyakarta at Gandhi Ashram in Srinagar, which was founded and based on Mahatma Gandhi’s principles for appropriate technology to tackle rural poverty. He was exposed to the ideas of Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi during this time. He earned the epithet of "Kashmiri Gandhi" for his calls to boycott British goods.
== Politics in the princely state ==
In 1927 Bakshi joined Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah in the agitation for securing civic and political rights for the state's Muslim population, which culminated in the formation of the Muslim Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad displayed talent for organisation during this period. He organised the students and workers and set up their unions. He was arrested several times during the freedom struggle including a sixteen-month term in Reasi sub-jail. Within the Muslim Conference party he earned the sobriquet "Khalid-e-Kashmir" after Khalid bin Walid, the great Muslim general.
By 1938, people of all communities had joined the demand for responsible government, which had spread all over the state and the Muslim Conference's name was altered to National Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad worked underground during this period, keeping a step ahead of the state police. In 1946, during the "Quit Kashmir" movement, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad escaped to British India when a warrant was issued for his arrest. He visited many places, mobilizing public opinion in favour of the Kashmir agitation. After Mahatma Gandhi's visit to Kashmir in August 1947 the warrant against him was withdrawn and he returned home after seventeen months.
== Politics ==
On 30 October 1947, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was appointed as the Head of Emergency Administration, while Kashmir was under attack from Pakistani raiders. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became his deputy head. In March 1948, the administration was upgraded to a popular interim government. Bakshi was entrusted with the Home portfolio. After the constituency assembly election in 1951, Abdullah was elected prime minister of the state and Bakshi appointed as the deputy prime minister.
=== Prime minister (1953–1964) ===
In August 1953, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was dismissed and arrested, and Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became prime minister of the state, winning unanimous a vote of confidence at the beginning of October, and also president of the National Conference by majority vote of the State Cabinet. The famous Kashmir Conspiracy Case against Abdullah and others was started during his tenure.
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad proved to be an able administrator and is remembered as the "Architect of Modern Kashmir" because of his constructive work in the state. He set Kashmir on the road to progress, gave a practical shape to the ideal of "Naya Kashmir", and earned fame and goodwill at home and outside Kashmir. He had a unique knack of establishing a direct rapport with people at grass-root level land gained tremendous popularity among people of all regions.
On the political front, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had to face a stiff challenge from the Plebiscite Front which was formed by the loyalists of Sheikh Abdullah in 1955.
In May 1963, after the loss of three Parliamentary by-elections, the Congress party, under the Kamaraj plan, decided that some ministers should resign and give all their time to party work. The final selection was left to Jawaharlal Nehru. Many central ministers resigned in Delhi and Nehru also suggested that Bakshi resign in Jammu and Kashmir. Upon Bakshi's recommendation, Khwaja Shamsuddin, a Bakshi loyalist, was appointed to succeed him. But Shamsuddin headed the state only for a very brief period.
The eleven years of the Bakshi's tenure have been the longest continuous stint by any prime minister or chief minister and are generally acknowledged as a period of stability in the state's post-independence history. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had steadfastly resisted any attempt to undermine Jammu and Kashmir's special status within the Union of India.
=== In the opposition (1964–1965) ===
In 1964 Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad headed the opposition to the government of Chief Minister Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq. In the late summer of the same year the majority of the legislators compelled him to move a vote of no-confidence against the government but he was arrested and detained under the Defence of India Rules despite the support of the majority of MLA's in the State Assembly which was prorogued by the governor. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was released on health grounds in December. In June 1965 he made an announcement that he had decided to retire from politics.
=== Indian Parliament (1967–1971) ===
In 1967 Indian general election Bakshi was elected to the Lok Sabha from Srinagar Lok Sabha constituency on a National Conference ticket defeating the ruling Congress nominee, Ali Mohammed Tariq, by a large margin. He remained a member of the Lok Sabha till 1971.
== Death ==
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad died on 9 July 1972.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Das Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan (1968), Jammu and Kashmir, Springer, ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6
Kanjwal, Hafsa (2017), Building a New Kashmir: Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad and the Politics of State-Formation in a Disputed Territory (1953-1963) (Thesis), The University of Michigan, hdl:2027.42/138699
Hussain, Shahla (2021), Kashmir in the Aftermath of the Partition, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108901130
Puri, Balraj (2015), "Jammu and Kashmir", in Myron Wiener (ed.), State Politics in India, Princeton University Press, pp. 215–246, ISBN 978-1-4008-7914-4
Wani, Aijaz Ashraf (2019), What Happened to Governance in Kashmir?, Oxford University Press India, ISBN 978-0-19-909715-9
== External links ==
"Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed- A Life Sketch". www.kashmirnetwork.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed: Biography, Kashmirnetwork.com, retrieved 26 March 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/259_Aletheia | 259 Aletheia | 259 Aletheia is a very large main-belt asteroid that was discovered by German–American astronomer Christian Peters on June 28, 1886, at Litchfield Observatory, Clinton, New York. The dark and heterogeneously composed X-type (Tholen: CP-type) asteroid contains primitive carbonaceous materials, responsible for its low albedo of 0.04. Aletheia measures about 185 kilometers in diameter and belongs to the largest asteroids of the main-belt. It has a semi-major axis of 3.1 AU and an orbit inclined by 11 degrees with a period of 5.55 years.
Richard P. Binzel and Schelte Bus further added to the knowledge about this asteroid in a lightwave survey published in 2003. This project was known as Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey, Phase II or SMASSII, which built on a previous survey of the main-belt asteroids. The visible-wavelength (0.435-0.925 micrometre) spectra data was gathered between August 1993 and March 1999.
Lightcurve data has also been recorded by observers at the Antelope Hill Observatory, which has been designated as an official observatory by the Minor Planet Center.
It is named after the Greek goddess of truth, Aletheia, the daughter of Zeus and one of the nurses of Apollo.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lightcurve plot of (259) Aletheia Archived 13 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Antelope Hills Observatory
The Asteroid Orbital Elements Database
Minor Planet Discovery Circumstances
Asteroid Lightcurve Data File
259 Aletheia at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
259 Aletheia at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Relief_Administration#:~:text=In%20addition%2C%20the%20Vatican%20created,Walsh%2C%20SJ.&text=The%20ARA's%20operations%20in%20Russia,renewed%20the%20export%20of%20grain. | American Relief Administration | American Relief Administration (ARA) was an American relief mission to Europe and later post-revolutionary Russia after World War I. Herbert Hoover, future president of the United States, was the program director.
The ARA's immediate predecessor was the important United States Food Administration, also headed by Hoover. He and some of his collaborators had already gained useful experience by running the Commission for Relief in Belgium which fed seven million Belgians and two million northern French during World War I.
ARA was formed by United States Congress on February 24, 1919, with a budget of 100 million dollars ($1,814,000,000 in 2024). Its budget was boosted by private donations, which resulted in another 100 million dollars. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the ARA delivered more than four million tons of relief supplies to 23 war-torn European countries. Between 1919 and 1921, Arthur Cuming Ringland was chief of mission in Europe. ARA ended its operations outside Russia in 1922; it operated in Russia until 1923.
== American relief and Poland ==
About 20% of the organization's resources were directed to the newly established Second Polish Republic. Much of its resources were helping Polish children, who expressed their appreciation by sending illustrated letters to Hoover. ARA however has been criticized by Russian sympathizers for aiding Polish soldiers amidst the Soviet invasion of Poland. Polish leader Józef Piłsudski has written a note of personal thanks to Hoover; one of the streets in Warsaw has been named after him; he also received honorary degrees from the Jagiellonian University, Warsaw University and Lwów University, among other honors (such as several honorary citizenships of various Polish towns). A monument dedicated to American helpers has been constructed in Warsaw.
Colonel Alvin B. Barber headed the group from 1919 to 1922. Specific areas had directors as well, such as William N. Haskell, who was Director of the ARA in Romania as of 1919.
== American relief and the Russian famine of 1921 ==
Under Herbert Hoover, very large scale food relief was distributed to Europe after the war through the American Relief Administration. In 1921, to ease the devastating famine in the Russian SFSR that was triggered by the Soviet government's war communism policies, the ARA's director in Europe, Walter Lyman Brown, began negotiating with the Russian People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, Maxim Litvinov, in Riga, Latvia (at that time not yet annexed by the USSR). An agreement was reached on August 21, 1921, and an additional implementation agreement was signed by Brown and People's Commissar for Foreign Trade Leonid Krasin on December 30, 1921. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20,000,000 for relief under the Russian Famine Relief Act of late 1921. Hoover strongly detested Bolshevism, and felt the American aid would demonstrate the superiority of Western capitalism and thus help contain the spread of communism.
At its peak, the ARA employed 300 Americans, more than 120,000 Russians and fed 10.5 million people daily. Its Russian operations were headed by Col. William N. Haskell. The Medical Division of the ARA functioned from November 1921 to June 1923 and helped overcome the typhus epidemic then ravaging Russia. The ARA's famine relief operations ran in parallel with much smaller Mennonite, Jewish and Quaker famine relief operations in Russia. In addition, the Vatican created a Papal Relief Mission under the ARA, headed by Father Edmund A. Walsh, SJ.
The ARA's operations in Russia were shut down on June 15, 1923, after it was discovered that Russia under Lenin renewed the export of grain.
== See also ==
Foreign policy of Herbert Hoover
American Committee for Relief in the Near East
The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria
Hoover Institution Library and Archives
GARIOA: Government Aid and Relief in Occupied Areas
UNRRA: United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
Marshall Plan: European Recovery Program (ERP)
People
James Stuart McKnight, worked with the agency
Theodore Whitmarsh, worked with the agency
== Notes ==
== Further reading ==
Bruno Cabanes. "The hungry and the sick: Herbert Hoover, the Russian famine, and the professionalization of humanitarian aid" in Bruno Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918-1924 (Cambridge UP, 2014) 189–247.
A.C. Freeman, "Is Hoover Bringing Russia Food or Reaction?" New York Call Magazine, Aug 7, 1921, pp. 1, 11.
H.H. Fisher, The Famine in Soviet Russia, 1919–1923: The Operations of the American Relief Administration. New York: Macmillan, 1927.
Frank Golder, War, Revolution, and Peace in Russia: The Passages of Frank Golder, 1914–1927. Terence Emmons and Bertrand M. Patenaude (eds.). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1992.
George H. Nash. The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917 (1988)
Nash, George H. "An American Epic’: Herbert Hoover and Belgian Relief in World War I." Prologue 21 (1989). online
Bertrand M. Patenaude. The Big Show in Bololand. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
Bertrand M. Patenaude, "A Race against Anarchy: Even after the Great War ended, famine and chaos threatened Europe. Herbert Hoover rescued the continent, reviving trade, rebuilding infrastructure, and restoring economic order, holding a budding Bolshevism in check." Hoover Digest 2 (2020): 183-200 online
NN, "Vastness of Hoover’s Work Realized as He Returns," The New York Times, September 14, 1919, pg. 47.
NN, "Bankers to Handle 'Food Draft' Sales," New York Times, January 22, 1920, pg. 27.
NN, "$8,000,000 Distributed In Food Drafts for Germany," New York Times, September 7, 1920, pg. 1.
Frank M. Surface and Raymond L. Bland, American Food in the World War and Reconstruction Period. Operations of the Organizations Under the Direction of Herbert Hoover 1914 to 1924, Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1931. online; 1034 detailed pages
Smith, Douglas (2019). The Russian job : the forgotten story of how America saved the Soviet Union from ruin (1st ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-374-71838-1. OCLC 1127566378.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Усманов Н.В. Деятельность Американской администрации помощи в Башкирии во время голода 1921—1923 гг. Бирск, 2004; |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanduk_Ruit#Awards_and_honors | Sanduk Ruit | Sanduk Ruit (Nepali: सन्दुक रूइत; pronounced [ˈsʌnduk rui̯t]) is an ophthalmologist from Nepal who was involved in restoring the sight of over 180,000 people across Africa and Asia using small-incision cataract surgery.
Ruit is the founder and the executive director of the Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, which manufactures intraocular lenses for surgical implantation at a fraction of the previous manufacturing cost. The low cost has made cataract surgeries slightly cheaper in Nepal.
Ruit has been referred to as the "God of Sight". He was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Peace and International Understanding, considered to be the Asian equivalent of the Nobel Prize, for "placing Nepal at the forefront of developing safe, effective, and economical procedures for cataract surgery, enabling the needlessly blind in even the poorest countries to see again." He was awarded with the ISA award, the highest civilian award in Bahrain by the king of Bahrain for developing highly affordable and sustainable ways to cure cataracts throughout the developing world with a cash prize of 1 million dollars.
== Early life and education ==
Ruit was born on September 4, 1954, to rural, illiterate parents, father Sonam Ruit and mother Kesang Ruit, in the remote mountainous village Olangchunggola near the border with Tibet in northeast Nepal. His village of 200 people was located 11,000 feet above sea level on the lap of the world's third-highest peak, Mt. Kanchenjunga. It is one of the most remote regions of Nepal with no electricity, school, health facilities or modern means of communication, and lies blanketed under snow for six to nine months a year. Ruit's family made a subsistence living from small agriculture, petty trading and livestock farming.
Ruit was the second of his parents’ six children. He lost three siblings – an elder brother to diarrhoea at age three and younger sister Chundak to fever at age eight. In many interviews, Ruit has mentioned that for him, the most painful was his younger sister Yangla's death. Yangla was his childhood companion, and he developed a special bond with her over the years. She died at 15 of tuberculosis as the family was too poor to afford treatment that could have saved her life. In many interviews, Ruit has said that this loss made a strong mark on him and instilled in him a resolve to become a doctor and work for the poor who would not otherwise have access to healthcare.
The nearest school from his village was fifteen days' walk away in Darjeeling. His father, a small-time businessman, sent Ruit to St Robert's School in Darjeeling at the age of seven, and provided financial support for his early medical career. Ruit's life in Darjeeling was hard as he was away from his parents and home for about four to five years. After a few years, he returned to Nepal and continued his study. In 1969, Ruit graduated from Siddhartha Vanasthali School in Kathmandu, Nepal, and later was further educated in India. He studied a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery from King George's Medical College, Lucknow, with a scholarship from 1972 to 1976. Ruit then returned to Nepal and worked as a General Physician in Bir Hospital, Kathmandu for three years. Later he wanted to specialize in ophthalmology, so he continued his studies from 1981 at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi with a scholarship and achieved his Master's Degree. After three years in 1984 he returned to Nepal and worked in an eye hospital in Tripureshwor for eight years. Meanwhile Australian ophthalmologist Fred Hollows was in Nepal as a mentor, selected by WHO. He noticed Ruit's work and determination and offered him further study about cataract surgery in Australia in 1986. Ruit further studied in Australia, the Netherlands and the United States.
== Early career and marriage ==
While in Australia, Ruit gained further deep specialization in eye surgery. Ruit and Hollows created the Small Incision Cataract Surgery (SICS), which used intraocular lenses, and Ruit became the first Nepali doctor to use intraocular lenses. To gain donations to make eye surgeries more affordable and accessible in Nepal, he established Nepal Eye Program Australia, later renamed The Fred Hollows Foundation. He was offered to stay and work in Australia, but he returned to Nepal and continued to work at Tripureshwor Eye Hospital.
Ruit married Nanda Shrestha, an ophthalmic nurse, in 1987. He has one son and two daughters.
== Accomplishments ==
Working in Australia in 1986, Ruit and Fred Hollows developed a strategy for using inexpensive intraocular lenses to bring small-incision cataract surgery to the developing world. However, the lenses remained too expensive for many cataract patients. In 1995, Ruit developed a new intraocular lens that could be produced far more cheaply and which, as of 2010, is used in over 60 countries. Ruit's method is now taught in U.S. medical schools. Despite being far cheaper, Ruit's method has the same success rate as Western techniques: 98% at six months.
In 1994, Dr. Ruit founded the Tilganga Eye Center, now called the Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, in Kathmandu. It aims to provide eye care at an affordable price. The institute works closely with the Himalayan Cataract Project, which Ruit Co-founded with his colleague Geoff Tabin, and other organizations to give cataract surgery to people in some of the world's most perilous and inaccessible locations, frequently for free. Tilganga has performed over 100,000 operations, trained over 500 medical personnel from around the world, and produces Ruit's intraocular lenses at a cost of less than US $5 each. It also produces prosthetic eyes for US $3, compared to imports that cost $150. For those unable to reach the centre or who live in otherwise isolated rural areas, Ruit and his team set up mobile eye camps, often using tents, classrooms, and even animal stables as makeshift operating rooms.
After treating a North Korean diplomat in Kathmandu, Ruit persuaded North Korean authorities to let him visit in 2006. There he conducted surgery on 1000 patients and trained many local surgeons.
In April 2021, Ruit launched the Tej Kohli & Ruit Foundation with a mission to screen 1,000,000 people and cure 300,000 of cataract blindness by 2026. In March 2021, the foundation conducted its first microsurgical outreach camp in the Lumbini region of Nepal, where it screened 1,387 patients and cured 312 of blindness. Another camp in the Solukhumbu region screened 1,214 patients and cured 178 of blindness in April 2021.
== Media coverage ==
"Surgeon Dr Sanduk Ruit revolutionizing cataract surgery gives sight to thousands", 2018 feature story by Miranda Wood on The Daily Telegraph
A 2006 National Geographic documentary Inside North Korea documented not only Ruit's surgery in the highly controlled country but also the resulting overt adulation by the patients given to the then-Supreme Leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Kim Jong-il.
Ruit's work in Nepal featured in Episode 5 (Mountains – Life in Thin Air) of the 2010 BBC documentary series Human Planet.
Out of the Darkness, a 2011 film by Italian director Stefano Levi, documents Ruit's work in remote Northern Nepal.
In 2015, Ruit and his work were featured in a New York Times op-ed by Nicholas Kristof: "In 5 Minutes, He Lets the Blind See". The article was based on reporting in Nepal by Kristof and Austin Meyer, a graduate journalism student at Stanford University, during the trip with the winner of the 2015 New York Times Win a Trip with Nick Kristof contest.
ABC Radio interview for ABC Conversations, "The doctor known as the ‘God of Sight’", by Richard Fidler (2018)"
CBS News article by Bill Whitaker, "Restoring eyesight with a simple, inexpensive surgery" (2017)
CNN article "Sight for sore eyes: 'Maverick' doctor who restored the vision of 100,000 people" by Sophie Brown (2014)
CNN photos "Nepal Miracle Eye Doctor heals 100,000" (2014)
National Geographic documentary "Miracle Doctors: Curing Blindness"
Al Jazeera documentary "The Gift of Sight" (2014)
Reuters feature "Nepal's 'magic' surgeon brings light back to poor" (2012)
Mini documentary by Great Big Story "This Surgeon Has Restored Sight to 130,000 of Nepal's Blind" (2019)
Daily US Times feature "Nas Daily Discovers Dr. Sanduk Ruit: He Is The God Of Sight" (2020)
Ruit's biography, The Barefoot Surgeon by Australian writer Ali Gripper, was published in June 2018. A Nepali translation Sanduk Ruit was published by Fine Print Books in 2019.
== Awards and honors ==
In May 2007, Ruit was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia "for service to humanity by establishing eye care services in Nepal and surrounding countries, and for his work in teaching and training surgeons and technical innovation".
In June 2006, he was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding.
On March 5, 2007, he was awarded the Asian of the Year 2007 by the Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare, Dr. Anbumani Ramadoss, in New Delhi.
He was also awarded with Prince Mahidol Award of Thailand.
Asteroid 83362 Sandukruit, discovered by Bill Yeung in 2001, was named in his honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 30 March 2010 (M.P.C. 69494).
On December 17, 2015, he was conferred with the National Order of Merit of Bhutan [in Gold].
On October 27, 2016, he received an Asia Game Changer Award from the Asia Society "for bringing the gifts of sight and productive life to those most in need."
In 2018, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Shri, its fourth highest civilian award, for “[his] innovation in the 1980s [that] led to a 90 per cent reduction in the cost of cataract eye surgery, provides low-cost cataract surgery lenses to over thirty countries.”
In 2019, the Government of Nepal honoured him with Prime Minister National Talent Award for his contribution to the field of ophthalmology.
In September 2020, the Nepal Government announced that Dr. Sanduk Ruit will be honoured with Suprasiddha Prabal Janasewashree (first).Govt announces list of 594 persons for state honours
On February 21, 2023, Dr Sanduk Ruit was awarded the prestigious ISA award for service to humanity amid a programme held at the ISA Cultural Centre in Manama, Bahrain. The King of Bahrain, His Majesty Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa handed Dr. Ruit $1 million during the royal ceremony."
A species of groundhopper (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae) discovered from Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park by a team led by Nepali researcher Madan Subedi has been named after Dr. Sanduk Ruit as Hebarditettix sanduki Subedi, Kasalo, & Skejo, 2024.
In 2023 Ruit was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Science by the United Kingdom's Anglia Ruskin University.
== Further reading ==
Ali Gripper (2019), "The Barefoot Surgeon: The Inspirational Story of Dr. Sanduk Ruit, the Eye Surgeon Giving Sight and Hope to the World's Poor", India: Penguin Random House India. ISBN 9780143447429.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_cuisine#List_of_dishes | Kashmiri cuisine | Kashmiri cuisine refers to the traditional culinary practices of the Kashmiri people. Rice has been a staple food in Kashmir since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase "bread and butter" in Kashmiri is haakh-batte (greens and rice).
Kashmiri cuisine is generally meat-heavy. The region has, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the subcontinent. In a majority of Kashmiri cooking, bread is not part of the meal. Bread is generally only eaten with tea in the morning, afternoon and evening.
The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese (paneer), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of asafoetida. Lamb or sheep is more preferred in kashmir although beef is also popular. Cockscomb flower, called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes mostly in Wazwan. Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent Kashmiri red chili powder as a spice, as well as ratanjot to impart colour to certain dishes like rogan josh. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity, and avoid hot dishes at large meals. In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Wazwan dishes apart from in wedding along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared also on special occasions like Eids.
== Global Popularity and Urban Expansion ==
Kashmiri cuisine has witnessed a notable rise in global appreciation, with iconic dishes such as Rogan Josh, Gushtaba, Yakhni, and Kahwa being featured in gourmet menus worldwide. From food festivals in London and Dubai to fine-dining experiences in New York and Toronto, the rich, aromatic flavours of Kashmir are being embraced by international audiences.
Within India, Kashmiri culinary offerings are increasingly making their mark in major metropolitan cities. Upscale Kashmiri restaurants have opened in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad, catering to both the diaspora and curious food lovers seeking authentic regional cuisine. These establishments, often run by members of the Kashmiri community or curated by chefs specialising in Wazwan, are helping preserve and promote the unique gastronomic heritage of the region.
This growth is further supported by food influencers, YouTube chefs, and curated pop-up events that showcase the intricate preparation and cultural significance of Kashmiri dishes.
== History of Kashmiri cuisine ==
From the Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Kushan Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to South Asia, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients. The term kabab is Arabic in origin, korma has Turkish roots, and rogan josh, yakhaen, ab gosht, riste and goshtabh stem from Persian sources.
=== Early history ===
There is a legend that aeons ago Kashmir valley was a vast mountain lake. The soil contains remains of fresh-water fish and fossil-oysters and the black shells of water chestnut may be found in layers embedded in the earth at a height of 457 metres above the level of the valley.
=== Paleolithic age ===
The process of Kashmir's amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since Paleolithic times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals. Bommai Sopore archaeological site, discovered by Dr Mamtaz Yatoo in 2005, has a prehistoric rock engraving, the first of its kind found in Kashmir. This Upper Paleolithic engraving depicts chase and game engagements of the prehistoric population. Recent investigations by archaeologists at Overa valley of Pahalgam have revealed stone tools of Paleolithic ages, including single-edged stone blades used for preying of animals.
=== Neolithic culture ===
Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.
The range of tools recovered at the Neolithic site of Burzahom, in the district of Srinagar shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II (Ceramic Neolithic) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. Presence of harpoons indicates fishing. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia. Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.
At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (sus scrofa) and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (lepus), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.
On the basis of the presence of the Emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccum) crop at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contacts of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of vayuk is again near to the Iranian style of Farvadin. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.
=== Indo-Greek and Kushana period ===
Earthen thalis (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD). Handis (metal pots), flat plates, pedestalled cups and edged bowls have been reported in large numbers from the excavated sites of Harwan, Kanispur and Semthan. At Kanispur, cooking pots have been found. Kushan coins have been recovered in large numbers from the Kashmir valley with those of Kanishka continuing to emulate Vima's motif of king sacrificing at an altar.
The Kushan period is characterised by a double-cropping pattern, suggesting a change in agricultural practices associated with a population recovery following a post-Neolithic decline. Finds of Vitis vinifera (Common Grape Vine), Emblica officinalis (Indian Gooseberry), Ziziphus nummularia (Wild Jujube), Juglans regia (English Walnut) and Prunus amygdalus (Almond) suggest that horticulture and foraging played an important role in the diet of the occupants. The Kushan remains from Kanispur are dominated by barley, in contrast to Semthan where wheat is more common.
The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and dolomiaea costus (kutha). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.
=== Hindu dynasties ===
There were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.
=== Kashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s) ===
Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Similarly, the Kashmiri Hindus were doing things which would have frightened orthodox Hindus from India. They drank water brought by a Muslim, ate food that was cooked in a Muslim boat and even Muslim foster-mothers were allowed to feed their children. Hence, the rishi cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. Nund Rishi, according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and Lal Ded preached and practised strict vegetarianism.
Moreover, when Yusuf Shah Chak, the last sovereign king of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.
=== Mughals (1580s – 1750s) ===
In Srinagar, poor people's meals were made of ghee, milk, beef, onions, wine, pickles, and vinegar. Rice, fish, and numerous vegetables were staple foods during the Mughal era. Butter and fats were not widely used in cooking since they were believed to be dangerous owing to the cold environment. The river water was not drunk by the people of South Kashmir. They drank Dal Lake water, which was warm, pleasant, and easily digestible.
In 1635–36, during Shahjahan's reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the subedar Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.
=== Sikh Rule (1819–1846) ===
Cow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicly hanged. Owing to the shortsighted policy of the rulers Kashmír witnessed an acute agrarian crisis. Sikh rulers imposed one half of the paddy production as a share of the government. The population of Kashmir decreased from 800,000 in 1822–1823 to 120,000 in 1835.
=== Dogra Rule (1846–1947) ===
Coarse rice and haakh constituted the main food. Where paddy cultivation was restricted due to uneven terrain and lack of irrigation facilities, wheat and maize constituted the main items of food. In certain parts of Kashmir they lived on aquatic products such as singhara (water nuts).
Kashmiri apples were carried by coolies on their backs over 12 days to Rawalpindi in British India.
The famine of 1878–79 was deadly. Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from gujjars (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials.
=== Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts ===
Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri scriptures/chronicles/travellers' accounts include:
Rice, which could be imported from other countries in times of famine. Patañjali's Mahabhashya reveals that rice was already being cultivated in the valley c.150 BC. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin diverted the waters of the Dal Lake into the Mar canal which he extended up to Shadipur where it emptied itself at the confluence of Jhelum and Indus. Owing to these irrigation works, and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in rice production. The natives considered the hot water at Dewsur sacred, and said that when one wished to know if any undertaking will prosper, they must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth, so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font. If on coming up the rice was boiled, it was deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise.
Pilau, yellow pilau, black pilau, shola pilau etc.
Bikabatta, a dish consisting of rice, goat's fat and water.
Rice mixed with sugar and sugarcane.
Bread, it was not custom to eat naan/tsoet until the early 17th century.
Milk, of cows and probably of buffaloes was consumed.
Butter.
Strawberries, which could vie with the best in England.
Yellow raspberries.
Musk-Melons, by the permission of Akbar, the crop was imported from Kashmir in the later season.
Guavas, of Kashmir were considered to be 'middling' by Jahangir.
Peaches, ripened in July.
Other diverse fruits, (apple, crabapple, pear, peach, apricot, cherry, mulberry, melon, water melon, greengage, gooseberry, currants, raspberry, sour cherry).
Diverse vegetables, (red beet, water parsnips, radishes)
Rhubarb (pambahak), grew on the mountains surrounding Kashmir. Both Hindus and Muslims were fond of the stalks.
Turnips, The turnips (gogjee) of Haripur were said to be the best in the valley.
Carrots. The carrots (gazar) were eaten by the Muslim inhabitants but not by the Hindus.
New potatoes.
Leeks. Leeks (gaudapraan) were not eaten by the Hindus of the valley.
Artichokes.
Asparagus, in great stalks.
Lettuce.
Tomatoes, scarlet in colour.
Dimb. A vegetable found only in the Dal and Anchar lakes in Kashmir.
Raw Flesh, there was an animal sacrifice in connection with the marriage ceremony.
Ram. Meat (mesa) was generally fried and sometimes highly spiced. The mutton of Nandipur was said to be the finest of Kashmir.
Meat cooked in yoghurt.
Ducks
Pigeons.
Beef, Kashmiri mystic Nund Reshi or Sheikh Noor ud-Din Wali expressed his disdain for a preacher who ate beef (moshi) and then complained it was the ogre's greed in one of his shruks. Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Zain-ul-Abidin had banned cow slaughter in the state in deference to the religious sentiment of his Hindu subjects.
Horse meat, was taken with relish in Kashmir.
Pork, domestic pigs (gramya sukara) were eaten in Kashmir without any adverse notice in the 11th century AD. The fragmentary jaw of a pig was found at the trial excavations at Burzahom.
Poultry, the valley of Lolab was famous for the best quality of poultry. The practice of capon was known to the Kashmiris.
Chicken Soup (shurba literally meaning saltish water, ba is the reverse of aab meaning water).
Other edible birds.
Dog's flesh, cooked by people of Dom origin.
Handu sheep, delicate and sweet in flavour and wholesome.
Stags, chased down the Wular lake.
Caul fat, oblations of animal fat were offered in the sacrificial fire in place of ghee (clarified butter) in other parts of India.
Carp, mentioned in the Samaya Matrika of Ksemendra.
Fish Soup, eaten to keep up aphrodisiacal vigour by men addicted to women.
Trout
Danube Salmon.
Fowls (kukkuta). A favourite dish of the Kashmiris was to cook fowl and aubergines together.
Honey.
Boiled Eggs, the eggs were brought from Gilgit and Little Tibet (Ladakh) where they were procured in greater abundance.
Pircham, an omelette-like preparation.
Masura, a sort of lentil.
Samudga, moong dal. Feeding only on rice and samudga was known to be miserly.
Other Pulses (including Peas and Broad Beans).
Parpata or papara, modern papad. Another kind of food made from pulses.
Ksira (kheer), rice boiled in milk.
Machhama, a dish eaten by the Kashmiris consisting of rice, vegetables, raisins, colouring matter and sugar.
Walnuts, which were eaten during famine as shali rice became dear.
Pistachios.
Sugar-cane., the country around Martand was planted with the crop.
Grapes, grown only in Kashmir in India, according to Hiuen Tsang and which were rare even in Heaven, according to Kalhana. The Persian writer Abul Fazl considered them to be in plenty, but the finer qualities were rare. Walter R. Lawrence praised the white and red grapes of the state vineyard at Raipur. Of the foreign varieties, husaini and fakhri varieties were from Khorasan, supposed to be the best in Persia.
Unripe grapes (kur), the Kashmiris made excellent vinegar of it.
Garlic, several Brahmanas who used to eat it were expelled, according to Kalhana. Both garlic and onion were considered as aphrodisiacs in ancient Kashmir.
Pomegranates, already in abundance in the late part of the 19th century.
Holy Basil.
Salt, a precious article and according to Ksemendra, consumed by the rich alone. Two varieties were found in the bazaars of Kashmir: rock salt from the Punjab, and powder salt, called bota nun from Ladakh.
Saffron, historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his Travels in India (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the Ratnavali of Harsha. Buddhist tradition claims Mādhyandina, a disciple or companion of the Buddha's disciple Ānanda, introduced the saffron crocus in Kashmir. Kashmiri poet Bilhana in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the vaidya of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation. Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire Samayamatrka. In the Kaula tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.
Clarified Butter, lamps were prepared with ghee. It was sold by itinerant sellers who went from door to door.
Oil. Wooden oil presses constructed more than 200 years ago have been operating in Kashmir. Till the mid-1940s there were sixteen oil mills operating in Srinagar. Large quantities of dried apricots called Bote Chire were imported to Kashmir from Ladakh in the bygone days, and oil was pressed from their kernels at Kashmiri oil presses. The rapeseed oil was considered best for eating while walnut and almond oil were also used. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the cultivation of mustard plants grew considerably in Kashmir, and the use of walnut oil fell considerably.
Gold Dust.
Curd.
Half ripe Barley.
Bread (apupa) and cake (pistaka) made from barley. A particular day of the year was observed as a festival, when barely became ripe in the fields.
Spring Water, of Kokar Nag was said to appease hunger and renew appetite. A fountain in the neighbourhood of Achh Bal was scarcely equalled for its coldness, limpidity and refreshing qualities. Malakhnag in Anantnag was cherished for its mineral-rich waters.
Tea, came to Kashmir by caravans across Chinese Tartary and Tibet.
Beer. For Kashmiri polymath Abhinavagupta, alcohol was the external essence of Shiva. Without alcohol, there was neither enjoyment nor liberation. The use of drink is admitted during the sautramani sacrifice of the brahmans, during a great battle in case of warriors, during farming in case of peasants, at great family celebrations, at the birth of a son, on the occasion of marriage or gathering of friends, and at the conclusion of the cremation ritual in case of slaves. For his commentator Jayaratha, the practitioner should drink because of a sort of bhairavic greatness, but not like a bonded animal, because of greed. The finest drink is on every occasion, the drink of average value is at the junctures, the worst is only once a month, and beyond a month he becomes a bonded animal. Hops, too, grew in Kashmir and factories were close by in which raw produce was transferred into excellent liquids.
Wheat Beer.
Mead.
Rum, from treacle.
Wine, called mas in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. A wine culture inflected by Hellenism thrived in Kashmir in the early centuries AD. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines. In the Mulasarvastivada vinaya, a Buddhist text from the first half of the 2nd century AD, some monks travel in the Northwest and a yakṣa presents them with some grapes, which are said to be from Kashmir and apparently a great novelty. The Buddha explains that they can be eaten after purifying them with a burning ember, and that people can also make juice/syrup from them. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as mahabhairava (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited. Lalitaditya was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn Pravarapura, the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the Alchon Huns and his orders could not be disobeyed. There are many references which show that making and drinking wine was not prohibited during the early Sultanate period even though it was strongly disapproved of by the orthodox section of the society. It was a common sight to see laymen and Brahman priests alike in a state of drunkenness during Hindu festivals. Despite the Islamic ban on alcohol, the Muslims, who participated in these festivals, also freely partook of wine. Zainul Abidin took it in moderation, but Haider Shah was a confirmed drunkard. Sikandar Butshikan, or the destroyer of idols (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir. During the Sikh and Dogra periods, thousands of acres were covered with vines in full bearing. The indigenous vines were generally planted at the foot of poplar and ran up to the height of fifty or sixty feet, bearing an abundance of fruit. After harvesting grapes in October, they were kept in shallow earthen vessels till spring, then they were applied to the fabrication of wine, vinegar and brandy. In 1815, the early wine writer André Jullien compared Kashmiri wine to madeira. Maharaja Ranbir Singh introduced vines from Bordeaux in France and Marion Doughty, a woman who visited Kashmir in 1900 wrote that the Medoc and Barsac were both strengthening and pleasant to taste. Anguri and qandi were the cherished drinks of singers.
Maireya Wine, a spicy wine perfumed by camphor, and made out of fruits and flowers with a natural sugar base.
Asava Wine, decocted extracts or cold infusion extracts of different herbs fermented with flowers of dhataki (woodfordia fruticosa).
New Wine. The Hindus pressed the juice of the grape, strained it, placed it in the sun for four or five days and then drank it.
Sweet wine, like Madeira. It would be found to improve greatly in quality with age.
Fruit wine (madapan), made out of pears, apples or mulberry.
Brandy, distilled from wine.
Vinegar, Kashmiris made various pickles with it, the best of which was garlic, according to Jehangir.
Flour cakes, fine flour could become expensive.
Spirit from Grapes, liquor (mrdvika) was drunk with incantation and blessing.
Spirit from Datura (Thorn-Apple).
Sesame. Oil was extracted from it.
Ginger., Jonaraja compares his words (as meagre) to water in dried ginger.
Coarse sugar.
Meat cakes.
Fish.
Dried food.
Ira-flowers(drink).
Green vegetables
== Ingredients and seasoning ==
=== Meat ===
Apart from chicken, fish and game, Kashmiris use only mutton (meat of mature sheep) or goat's meat. More than 75% of sheep population are cross breeds and are generally called Kashmir Merino that provides the dual purpose of meat and wool. The Bakkarwal (nomadic herders) goats belong to the rare Kaghani breed, prized as one of the world's best in terms of meat.
Beef is consumed in towns and villages of Kashmir more so for its affordability. In some villages, beef-eaters are huddled separately from those supposed to be served mutton during wazwan feasts. There is a class divide between people who eat kat maaz ("small meat", mutton) considered elite and more sophisticated, and those who eat bad maaz ("big meat", beef), considered lower-class. The biggest rabbit breeding farm in North India sprawls on six hectares of land in Wussan village of Baramulla district of Kashmir. The consumption of rabbit meat as a substitute for sheep and goat meat among the general masses is becoming popular. People with cardiac problems eat rabbits as the meat is considered lean and white with high nutritious value.
The local geese of Kashmir (Kashmir Aenz) is the first and only recognised domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city. In affluent families, geese pickles would also be made and kept aside for winter use.
=== Fish ===
The Duke of Bedford helped to send 10,000 trout eggs from the UK in 1899 but they perished on the way. A second consignment arrived from Scotland the next year. The rainbow and brown trout adapted well to the Kashmir valley, while the indigenous snow trout continues to flourish. Locally known as alegaad, it can be found in both standing and flowing water bodies throughout the valley. There were 137 private fish farms in just Anantnag district, which was declared as the 'Trout District of India'.
=== Eggs ===
Poultry farms are set on European standards, as Kashmir has similar geo-climatic conditions. Using permaculture and no-dig gardening technique, free-range eggs are being sold every day. People collect chick varieties like Kalinga brown, Vanraja, Kashmir Commercial Layer, etc. to dish out a regular supply of organic brown eggs. The Kashmir Duck (batook) is reared for its eggs in all districts of the valley with highest population in Bandipora district, followed by Kupwara, Barmulla, Srinagar and others. Eggs of Kashmir duck are either white or green-shelled and weigh 66.20 g on average.
Kalij pheasant (wan kokur) lays between 6 and 10 eggs per clutch, and are perfect served soft-boiled in their olive-green shells with a mere sprinkle of celery salt and buttered soldiers.
=== Cereals ===
People in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant Mushk Budji, grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. In February 2022, Mushk Budji rice got the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. This cooked rice is unique and possesses a harmonious blend of taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties. Kashmiri red rice, locally called Zaag Batt, is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.
=== Vegetables ===
The most important and frequently used Kashmiri vegetables are: haakh (collard greens or kale), monj Haak ( kohlrabi), tsochael(mallow), bamchoont (quince), kral mound (shepherds purse), saze posh (holly hock), nadur (lotus stem), praan (shallots), aubuj (sorrel), mawal (cockscomb), wushkofur (camphor), tila gogul (mustard) and gor (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous nadur. A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, nadur has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar. Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of nadur for eternity.
Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as hokh syun, are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter. The various varieties of hokh syun include dried tomatoes (ruwangun haech), dried fenugreek leaves (meeth), dried lotus stem (nadir haech), dried Iberian knapweed (kretch), dried shallot leaves (praan), dried mint (pudna), dried bottle gourd (al haech), dried turnip slices (gogji haech), dried quince (bamchount haech), dried collard greens (hoech haak) and dried spinach (hoech palak). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as tang haech are considered a delicacy.
Shallots, known as praan, stand out, lending its unique flavour to a multitude of Kashmiri dishes, from soups and stews, to curries and kebabs. Many of Mughal Emperor Akbar's feasts in the 16th century featured shallots. Buthoo village has earned renown for producing prized organic shallots. Snow Mountain garlic, also known as Kashmiri garlic, is a rare single-clove variety of Allium sativum. The clove beneath is bright white to creamy-white color and offers a strong, pungent garlic flavour without the acidity present in other varieties.
Kashmir valley is the only place in India where asparagus grows. Until the 1960s, it was grown widely in Kashmir at Pulwama, Budgam, Rajbagh, Tangmarg and Gulmarg. As of now the area of asparagus cultivation is restricted to Tangmarg and Gulmarg.
=== Sugar and sweeteners ===
Sugarcane does not grow in Kashmir. Sugar was exclusively imported from erstwhile united Punjab up to 1947 but was among the costliest imports to Kashmir. The then Dogra government suggested cultivating sugar maple and beetroot sugar but it could not materialise. In the past, when sugar was not imported, people used honey. Delicate nectar of the acacia flowers makes for honey in Tral, Verinag and other locations. Sidr honey considered one of the most distinguished types of honey in the world, is obtained from Sidr (jujube) trees in the Kashmir Valley.
=== Fruits ===
Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe. Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.
Muhammad Quli Afshar brought cherries from Kabul and planted them during Akbar's time. Mishri variety of cherry is famous in Kashmir and sweeter than other varieties. They are loaded with minerals, vitamins and plant compounds. The exotic berries from Kashmir are sweet and sour mulberry (tuell and shah-tuell), raspberry (chhanchh), barberry (kaawducchh) and red berry (haapat maewaa). Gassu area on the Srinagar outskirts is known for strawberry (istaber) harvesting.
Orange cultivation for commercial purposes was introduced a few decades before in the Urossa village in Uri. The climate and soil is relatively warmer than the rest of Kashmir and conducive for the crop. In this mountainous region, the micro-climate is good for Mediterranean crops like lemons and olives. The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons. A sub-species of wild olives that doesn't bear much fruit but grows even in hardy, rough conditions is used for grafting with fruit varieties, producing about 1,000 litres of extra virgin olive oil each year.
According to official estimates, Kashmiri grapes are cultivated on almost 500 to 600 hectares of land with production up to 1100 to 1500 MT per year.
=== Dairy products ===
Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jersey cows were introduced in Kashmir several decades ago, producing 4 million litres of milk per day. Organic Kashmiri butter wrapped in Chinar leaves was common in the yesteryears, but is now sold only by a few. A traditionally ripened Himalayan cheese is called the milk chapati or maish krej in Kashmiri.
=== Spices ===
Kashmiri saffron is known for its aroma, colour, and medicinal value. The saffron of Pampore town is considered to be of superior quality with 8.72% crocin content as compared to the Iranian variety which contains 6.82%. In May 2020, Kashmiri saffron was given a geographical indication tag. The spice shahi zeera or imperial cumin or black cumin belongs to Apiaceae (parsley) family and was initially available in the jungles of Gurez Valley. These darker seeds unlike the regular brown zeera are of superior quality because of their smell, relative rarity and shape.
Among the spices used:
Kashmiri chilli pepper (martswangun) — chilies are grown locally in Kashmir. When they turn red, they are dried and ground into powder form. Powdered red chilies are moderately hot colouring agents that are used for most meat and some vegetarian dishes. The taste varies with the region they are being cultivated, from areas such as Bugam, Tangmarg, Bandipora, Dangerpora, Anantnag and Noorbagh. Chillies of Bugam are the most bitter in taste, while Noorbagh chillies have less seeds and are spicier than the ones grown in other areas. The local government has sought a geographical indication tag for chillies cultivated in Srinagar and Budgam districts.
Shimla, Punjabi & Pepsi chilli pepper (martswangun) — Shimla variety is used for making spicy qormas, while Pepsi is usually imported from Rajasthan in India, and resembles a Pepsi bottle.
asafoetida (yangu) — used in much of Kashmiri Pandit cuisine, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. Red asafoetida, is considered superior due to its rich aroma and unique flavor and used in special Kashmiri recipes often in its pure, unadulterated form. Kashmiri Poet Agha Shahid Ali was a connoisseur when it came to this spice, and was known to emerge from behind the clouds of yangu in his Brooklyn apartment.
cardamom (nich auleh) — the seeds, derived after crushing the pods, can be used in curries such as yakhean, qaliya, and also in teas such as kahwah and sheer/noon chai.
bay leaf (tej pata) — most commonly used for rice polav and biryani dishes in Kashmir.
black pepper (marts) — both fruit and seed are used.
cinnamon (dalcyn) — typically used in most of the dishes in Kashmir and is also an important ingredient in kahwah chai.
cloves (rong) — an essential ingredient in many dishes such as rogan josh, dum olav and is also used in making pickles.
fennel (bodiyana) — often used in making breads such as kulcha and is served by itself after food. Ground aniseed is used in almost all Kashmiri stews.
ginger (shaunth) — in its dried, powdered form, it is used in almost all Kashmiri cuisine.
tamarind (tambar)
turmeric powder (lader) — among the most widely used spice in Indian cooking and in Kashmiri cuisine in particular. It imparts a yellow color to curries but should never be substituted for saffron for this purpose because the two have little in common.
saffron (kong posh) — a pinch of the crumpled stigmas is enough to give the color and bittersweet taste to a dish.
cumin seeds (safed ziur) — an important spice for almost all dishes, vegetarian or non-vegetarian, except bhat haakh.
caraway seeds (krihun ziur/zureh)
coriander seeds (danival) — in Kashmir, it is used in dried form as well as whole seed. It is essential for making pickles and vari (Kashmiri Garam Masala).
nigella seeds (siyah dana)
fenugreek seeds (bresta) — used for fish dishes, making vari, and for making pickles.
dry fenugreek leaves (hoechh mith)
nutmeg (zafal)
mace (jalvatier)
soda bi-carb (phul)
shelled seeds of cucumber, musk melon, water melon and pumpkin (char magz)
dry crushed mint leaves (hoekh pudana)
dry garlic (rohan)
dry shallots (pran)
vari masala cakes — a quick flavouring agent for many dishes such as haakh, gogjee nadur, spinach, kohlrabi, razmah gogjee, fish and shikaar (game).
silver leaf (varak) — tissue-thin edible silver sheets used for garnishing pulao and meat dishes.
Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called Namak Route. After partition, its supply was barred. Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.
== Specialties by season ==
Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (badaam), peach (tsunun) and cherry (gilaas) blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (tang) blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers. Apricot (Tser) blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer. Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer. Coriander (danival) is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (rohan) is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (kharbooz) are a fruit grown in spring and summer. Tender spring-time haakh (collard greens) are called kaanul.The season of harvesting lotus stem (nadur) starts in September. The samovar bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped kandi kulchas made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area. Dandelion leaves, also known as haand in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested. Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.
During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives. On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried. There is ample time and the daan (Kashmiri traditional stove) with its twin stoves (Chaer in Kashmiri) ignited by fire wood placed in one inlet) is always ready to oblige long hours of cooking despite the shortages of electricity. When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight shab deg fills the entire space. Kohlrabi (monje) is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.
== List of dishes ==
Some noted Kashmiri dishes include:
=== Barbecue ===
One version of the origin of kababs is the one in which Turkish soldiers were first known to grill chunks of meat on open fires. Kashmir's kababs are cooked with local spices and accompanied with dips:
Kabab, condimented minced meat, roasted or fried, on skewers. According to chef Ghulam Nabi Dar (aka Bitte Waaze), the meat for the kabab is first minced with a very sharp knife (haché au couteau), then it requires an egg, cumin, cardamom and garlic, then it needs to be minced some more until it becomes a paste, then it is mounted on 1 m long skewers to be reheated the day after.
Kokur kabab, chicken kebab.
Lahradar kabab, also known as lahabi/moachi kabab. Minced mutton classically shaped like a boat with a depression in the centre, cooked in curd based mild spicy gravy. Once softened, the meat is soaked overnight in egg and at least nine different seasonings and spices, including onions, red chili powder, nutmeg, garam masala, ginger, garlic and coriander. It is typically served with yoghurt.
Kokur lahabdar kabab ruwangan, chicken kebabs in rich tomato gravy.
Shammi kabab, wazwan style mutton patties with ground chickpeas, egg and mild Kashmiri spices.
Champ, lamb chops.
Nadur maund, Kashmir's answer to hash browns, lotus root ginger and mint patties with a dash of eclectic Kashmiri spices.
Buzith tschaman, grilled paneer marinated in yoghurt, cream and aniseed. It is said a poet wandering in the lovely forests of Kashmir, cooked this dish out in the open.
Buzith gaad, charcoal grilled fish marinated with Kashmiri spices.
Buzith olav, thool, maaz etc., the round oven-baked clay-pot kangir works as an oven for baking food-items such as eggs, potatoes, pea beans, chunks of meat etc.
Talith gaad, fish marinated in black pepper, cumin and Kashmiri chilli and then shallow-fried.
Gaad talith ta badaam, fried fish with almonds.
Talith kokur, Fried chicken.
Tujji, meat marinated in Kashmiri red chillies and aniseed powder, barbequed to perfection.
Gaad tujji, fish kababs.
Tschaman tujji, Kashmiri style marinated cottage cheese chunks barbecued on a skewer and served with a side of chutney.
Tchaap maaz, sausages.
Kaleeng, thick membrane that covers sheep's head, skull and all, chopped coarsely and set to cook with spices and minimal liquid over a low fire for hours.
=== Breakfast ===
For the average Kashmiri, breakfast normally means fresh bread from the local bakery and a cup of noon chai (salt tea). While the bread is there in all the seasons for the breakfast, its accompaniments change. Some affordable luxuries include:
Harisa. Made by specialised cooks called harisaguyr, Harisa is a popular meat preparation made for breakfast, it is slow cooked with spices in a special underground oven for a 24-hour period and hand stirred. A good harisa entails a meticulous mincing of deboned mutton, mixed with local rice, fennel seeds, cinnamon, cardamom and salt. Cooked on sim fire for at least 6 to 8 hours, boiling smoky mustard oil and some milk is poured while the wooden masher continues to stir. Small kebabs are made to be served along with and also a small serving of Methi (lamb's intestines cooked in fenugreek) and tempered onion rings. The dish is so tasty that one 18th century Afghan governor, who came here during the Afghan Rule, is believed to have over-eaten himself to death.
Harisa zafrani, sprinkled with Kashmiri saffron. A maker in Aali Kadal was known for this peculiar dish.
Luchi & halwa, by luchi makers outside Kheer Bhawani shrine.
Makai vath, cooked granular maize meal. Used to be a staple food in the unirrigated highland villages, where rice could not be grown.
Gaer vugra, water chestnut flour porridge. These water chestnuts or buffalo nuts are called gaer in Kashmiri. They grow in shallow waters at many places, especially near the shore of the famous Wular lake. In India, these water chestnuts also grow but are generally bigger in size and have more water content. Generally eaten with churned yoghurt diluted with water (gurus).
Vushki vath, barley meal porridge. Cooked as a staple food in some hilly villages of Kashmir, where rice or maize is not easily available or grown.
=== Wazwan dishes ===
Unlike most dishes of the Indian subcontinent where the flavour is added to the food while cooking on the flames, the wazwan flavours are added while the dish is still uncooked by adding flavoured water to the preparation or soaking in flavoured water (osmosis):
Tabakhmaaz, rib racks in ghee with sweet fat lodged between lacquered slips of meat Kashmiri Hindus commonly refer to this dish as Qabargah. It seems to have travelled from Kazakhstan where it is known by its Pandit name, Qabargah. While Qabargah is simmered on a low heat for a longer duration and then fried very quickly, Tabakhmaaz is boiled with salt and garlic and characterised by a slightly elastic texture.
Tang ta lahabi kabab, whole Kashmiri pears and mutton kababs that often go with a tomato-yoghurt gravy.
Waaza kokur, whole chicken cooked in saffron gravy with mild Kashmiri spices.
Safed kokur, chicken with white sauce.
Dani phoul, mutton shank.
Aab gosh, also known as dodhe maaz. A famous milk-based curry cooked in spices and ghee over a low flame. Ten litres of pure cow milk is reduced to one and then mixed with the mutton.
Methi maaz, mutton intestines flavoured with a spice mixture containing dried fenugreek (methi) leaves.
Waazeh hedar, Kashmiri wazwan-style mushrooms.
Marchwangan kormeh, meat cooked with spices and yogurt and mostly using Kashmiri red chillies and hot in taste.
Kokur marchawangan kormeh, Chicken cooked in red hot chilly gravy.
Aloobukhar kormeh, mince cooked with dried plums.
Badam kormeh, tender mutton pieces cooked in creamy almond gravy.
Danival kormeh lamb cooked with coriander or parsley.
Kokur danival kormeh, chicken cooked in curd based gravy, flavoured with saffron and fresh coriander.
Monje kael, knol-khol prepared in onion gravy.
=== Soups ===
Tsatt/maaz rass, mutton stock with mutton pieces flavoured with aromatic spices and salt.
Channa rass, easily made chickpea soup.
=== Domestic meat stews ===
Qaliya, a mutton delicacy in which all flavours are included, excluding red chilly powder.
Kokur qaliya, chicken qaliya.
Shab Deg: dish cooked with turnip and meat/duck/chicken/beef and balls of ground meat, left to simmer overnight.
Dani, marrow-bone in gravy.
Matschgand, lamb meatballs in a gravy tempered with red chillies. A lot of emphasis is put on the shape of the meat (oblong and not round) and the colour of the gravy.
Methi matsch, muttonballs with fenugreek leaves that have been boiled, crushed or liquidised into a paste.
Matsch ta tser, lamb fingers with apricot. The dish looks beautiful when laid on the table as the apricots remain yellow and the minced meat red making it very colourful.
Olav bokhara barith matsch, minced meat balls stuffed with plums.
Mith ta golemach, minced meat balls with fenugreek.
Matsch ta phul gupi, minced lamb fingers with cauliflower.
Matsch ta olav, lamb fingers cooked with potatoes.
Tser kofta, minced mutton balls with an apricot inside.
Nadir ta maaz, lotus stems and mutton.
Nadir, oluv ta maaz, lotus stems, potatoes and mutton cooked on low heat and gravy thickened with garam masala and caraway seeds.
Maaz vangun, aubergine with meat.
Kokur aloobukhar korma, chicken cooked with dried plums with Kashmiri ingredients.
Palak ta kokur, spinach with country chicken.
Gand ta kokur, chicken and onion curry.
Kokur ta torreil, chicken with snake gourd.
Bam chunth ta maaz, quince with lamb.
Gogjee-aare ta maaz, sundried Turnips with Lamb.
Gaazar ta maaz, carrots and mutton.
Bote-tser maaz, lamb and dried apricots.
Haand ta kokur, dandelion greens and chicken.
Haand ta maaz, dry dandelion and meat curry. Old age Kashmiri recipe for lactating mothers.
Haakh maaz, Kashmiri saag cooked with mutton.
Woste haakh ta maaz, green/red leaves with lamb.
Monje ta maaz, Kashmiri style knol khol and mutton. Kashmiris don't only eat knol khol, its leaves are mandatory.
Gole al syun, pumpkin cooked with lamb.
Torreil ta maaz, ridged gourd with mutton.
Monje qaliya, kohlrabi with mutton.
Rogan josh, a lamb based dish, cooked in a gravy seasoned with liberal amounts of Kashmiri chillies (in the form of a dry powder), ginger (also powdered), garlic, onions or asafoetida, gravy is mainly Kashmiri spices and mustard oil based. The Persian and central Asian influence is evident in the large quantities of saffron, and asafoetida, favourite Persian flavourings, and the Mughals cultivated these plants in the subcontinent to provide their cooks with a ready supply. Kashmiri Muslims use praan (a type of shallot), plus garlic and cockscomb flower for colouring. Columnist Vir Sanghvi has nominated it as world's most famous Indian curry.
Kokur roghan josh, fried chicken cooked in cock's comb flower gravy with Kashmiri condiments.
Hindi roghan josh, Roghan Josh with tamarind.
Vunth roghan josh, for the past two decades, camel meat is sold on the occasion of Eid-ul-Azha in keeping with the tradition of Muhammad who mostly used to sacrifice camels on holy occasions.
Pachi roghan josh, trotter in red gravy.
Yakhean, a yoghurt-based mutton gravy without turmeric or chilli powder. The dish is primarily flavoured with bay leaves, cloves and cardamom seeds. This is a mild, subtle dish eaten with rice often accompanied with a more spicy side dish. Yakhean came to be known in Kashmir during Akbar's rule. Yoghurt-based meat curries were part of Persian cuisine, and the emperor introduced this style of cooking to his new state when he annexed it in 1586.
Kokur yakhean, succulent pieces of chicken cooked in curd flavoured in Kashmiri herbs.
Shyaem, minced mutton cutlets cooked with curd.
Kokur shyaem, chicken cutlets in yoghurt.
=== Innards and offal ===
Chuste, spicy dry curry of goat's intestines.
Naihkala ta phendeir yakhean, certain parts of innards of sheep or goat, cooked with curd.
Chhagael yakhean, testes of sheep or goat cooked in curd etc.
Damin yakhean, tripe yakhni (curd curry).
Bokavachi chhagael, kidneys and testes of goat or sheep.
Charvan, cooked diced liver of sheep or goat.
Choek charvan, sour diced liver of goat or sheep.
Charvan oluv, curried liver and potatoes.
Kalle maaz, goat's head meat.
Pachi ta heri rass, cooked legs with hoofs, and head of sheep or goat.
=== Meatballs ===
The wazas are trained for years to learn the art of making the right cuts and grounding the meat to perfection. Traditionally, the lamb is mashed with walnut wood:
Goshtabeh minced mutton balls with spices in yogurt gravy. Also known as 'The Dish of Kings' in Kashmir region and the last dish of the banquet. Jawaharlal Nehru once named it 'the cashmere of meats'. Legendary Bollywood actor Yusuf Khan aka Dilip Kumar was said to love goshtabeh the most. In December 1955, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and Nikita S. Khurschev, the first secretary of the Soviet Communist party were captured in an iconic photograph feeding each other goshtabeh.
Beef riste.
Beef goshtabeh. Pulverised beef with 25 per cent fat is pounded into a pulpy mass and seasoned before being shaped into meatballs. It is then immersed in a seasoned hot water bath, before being placed in a bubbling-hot broth of well-churned yoghurt, laced with milk and some beef stock and cooked to a semi-thick consistency. The original recipe calls for very fatty buffalo meat, which can pose quite a challenge for the unprepared palate.
Palak riste, usually four small 'rista' pieces, along with some spinach Leaves, are ladled on a 'Traem' for four guests.
Safed riste, Goshtabeh meatballs are the biggest, next rista and palak rista meatballs are the tiniest.
=== Vegetarian sides ===
Kashmir produces tons of vegetables and forest produce. The traditional dishes are:
Dum olav/Dum aloo, potato cooked with ginger powder, fennel and other hot spices. The most skilful part is to prick potatoes after frying them so that the gravy or the sauce gets absorbed in the potato, making them spongy and enhancing the flavour profile of the multiple potato-folds.
Wazel aelwa, forgotten aloo recipe mostly cooked in the villages.
Matar olav, potatoes peas curry. A classic side dish that is regularly paired with white rice (batta).
Olav dude legit, potatoes in yoghurt.
Gande te matar, onions and peas.
Gande te hemb, green beans and onions gravy.
Boda razmaah ta olav, green beans and potatoes.
Razmah hemb ta nadir, spicy French beans with lotus stems.
Razmah hemb ta vangan, French beans with aubergine.
Band gupi ta tamatar, cabbage cooked with tomatoes.
Nadir palak, lotus roots and spinach. This is a side dish served in big feasts and dinners.
Ranith bam chunth khanji, cooked quince. Quince is a very popular fruit with Kashmiri people. In olden days, it was baked in daans (clay ovens). The simmering heat of the leftover embers would turn them yummy.
Bam chunth vangun, quince and eggplants.
Bam chunth nadir, quince with lotus stem.
Dued vangan, eggplants with yoghurt.
Karel ta vangun, Kashmiri karela baingan (bitter gourd and eggplants).
Al lanej ta vangan, pumpkin greens with aubergine.
Tsounth vangan, green apple curry. Apples and aubergines, both are sliced long and fried. The oil is tempered with asafoetida (yangu) and the usual spices. If apples are on the sweeter side, a few drops of lemon juice are added. This sweet and tangy creation made from sour apple and aubergines is a popular one once autumn arrives in the valley.
Choek vangan-hachi, sundried eggplant instead of the fresh vegetable.
Gole al doon gooje, pumpkin with walnuts.
Gande dued, fried onions mixed with milk.
Hoch haand, dried dandelion greens, boiled and ground to a pasty texture.
Ruwangun hachi, dried tomatoes.
Monje Haakh, kholrabi being a delicacy.
Dum Monje, knol khol (karam/gaanth gobhi/kohlrabi/ German turnip) in Yoghurt.
Dum Phul Gupi, cauliflowers cooked in their own moisture.
Phul Gupi Olav, cauliflower with potatoes.
Haakh, wosteh haakh (red orach), heanz haakh, sotchal (mallow), kretch (knapweed), haand (dandelion), obuj (sorrel), lissa (amaranth), among others. Collard greens is enjoyed by Kashmiri people and they have their own versions of cooking the same with cottage cheese, mutton or chicken.
Nunnar, purslane.
Bhat haakh, also known as Sabz Haakh. Bhat is Kashmiri for Pandit. Haakh is eaten by everyone in Kashmir, but is a Kashmiri Pandit speciality.
Dagith haakh, mashed collard greens.
Gogjee haakh, turnip greens with a pinch of asafoetida. The hardy leafy green, thrives in winter conditions and becomes a crucial ingredient in the local cuisine. By using mustard oil, cumin seeds, and a medley of aromatic spices, the dish infuses the flavours of its distinctive blend.
Wapal haakh, teasel leaves (Dipsacus Inermis).
Wosteh haakh ta zombre thool, orach paired with hard-boiled eggs.
Haakh nadir, collards or kales cooked with lotus roots.
Haakh ta olav, potatoes and greens.
Haakh vangan, collard greens with brinjal.
Sotchal nadur, mallow (Malva Parviflora) is a wild vegetable found anywhere on the roadsides, parks, playgrounds, grazing lands, etc. The earliest account of this plant appears to have been written by a Greek author named Pedamus Dioscorides in the first century AD. The dish is liked by all, young and old particularly because of its limited availability in foreign markets.
Sotchal vangan, mallow leaves and baigan. The dish is made from sotchal and thool-vangan. Thool-Vangan is a small eggplant that has not grown into its full size. It is soft and fleshy with a minimal amount of seeds.
Mujji mulivian, mashed radish leaves curry.
Mujje patar ta vangan, radish leaves with aubergine.
Zamutdodh cuar, yoghurt curry stirred continuously on low heat.
Olav bum, a delicious dry dish prepared with potatoes and water lily plant commonly found in ponds and lakes of Kashmir.
Bandh roghan josh, cabbage simmered in a fusion of authentic spices, and yoghurt to create the signature vegetarian 'sibling' of Roghan Josh.
Nadir roghan josh, lotus root cooked on low heat until the nadur is tender.
Cshte gogjee, turnips.
Cshte mujji, boiled and mildly spiced radishes.
Cshte band gupi, boiled and mildly spiced cabbage (with asafoetida).
Choek nadir, lotus-root with tartaric acid (tatri).
Choek mujji/mujji kalaa, long radishes with tamarind paste.
Choek al, gourd with tamarind.
Al yakhean, bottle-gourd cooked in yoghurt based gravy and flavoured with Kashmiri condiments.
Hedar yakhean, mushrooms yakhni.
Nadir yakhean, lotus root cooked with yoghurt.
Nutree yakhean, soya chunks yakhni.
Karel yakhean, prepared bitter gourds cooked until gravy thickens with yogurt.
Vangan yakhean, fried aubergine in yoghurt.
Pudna al, pumpkin with mint.
Torreil ta vangan, ridged gourd with eggplant. This vegetable is available in the summer and is sweet in taste and very easy to cook.
Torreil ta tamatar, ridged gourd with tomatoes.
Variphali olav, potato curry with hot lentil dumplings. This dish is a Punjabi preparation but very much enjoyed by Kashmiris.
=== Mushrooms ===
Native to the Himalayan foothills, Guchhi or kanaguchhi mushrooms (species in the genus Morchella, commonly known as morels elsewhere) are highly prized not only in Kashmir but internationally, particularly in European gastronomy. With the exception of a few very limited and experimental successes, efforts to cultivate (kana)guchhi or morels at a large scale have been unsuccessful and consumption relies on the harvest of wild mushrooms. As a result, these mushrooms rank among the most expensive of all fungi, with a kilogram of such mushrooms costing up to 30,000 INR in India (as of 2023; approximately €330/kg, or US$350/kg).
Traditional or well known dishes include:
Kanaguchhi yakhean, morels cooked in rich yoghurt gravy.
Kanaguchhi matar masala, an absolute flavour bomb of delicious morels picked by locals.
Guchhi Ver, kanaguchhi (Morchella esculenta) mushroom with traditional Kashmiri spice mix, an uncommon dish cooked by Suman Kaul, a self-trained masterchef.
Shajkaan, aka Kanpapar (Geopora arenicola) mushroom, fried with onions and tomatoes, or even prepared with milk.
=== Tschaman ===
Paneer is called tschaman in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander. The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple. Paneer recipes are:
Tschaman Kanti, cubes of cottage cheese that are fried, tossed in select spices and stir fried with onions and tomatoes.
Lyader Tschaman. lyadur means yellow which is due to the presence of turmeric, and tschaman is cottage cheese. The term 'yellow gravy' might not do justice to the complexity of flavor you get from layering nine spices, some of them whole, with green chilies and simmering them in water before thickening the sauce with milk. British Indian chef Romy Gill called it 'a bowl of golden yellow deliciousness'.
Veth Tschaman, also known as Vozij Tschaman. This is the rogan josh equivalent.
Ruwangan Tschaman, cottage cheese in tomato gravy.
Palak/Haakh Tschaman, cottage cheese prepared in spinach based gravy peppered with Kashmiri ingredients.
Mith Tschaman, panir with fenugreek.
Mith Tschaman Ta Niul Kara, panir and fenugreek with green peas.
Matar Tschaman, turmeric matar paneer. Traditionally, the paneer is meant to be deep fried.
Torreil Ta Tschaman, ridged gourd with paneer.
Tschaman Monje Qaliya, kohlrabi with paneer. Used to be made in big degchis on mehendiraat.
Kanaguchhi Tschaman, Kashmiri morels with paneer in a tangy gravy.
Gogjee-aare Ta Tschaman, dried turnips with cottage cheese.
Tschaman Vangan, panir and brinjals.
=== Chutneys and raitas ===
Called the shadowy underbelly of the Kashmiri wazwan, they add real colour to the dishes. They are expected to be served free, when Kashmiris go out to eat or pack food. The varieties of spicy spreads are:
Zamut Dodh, plain homemade yoghurt.
Muj Chetein, translates to radish in yoghurt. A unique blend of grated radish and yoghurt, seasoned with a pinch of roasted cumin. The Kashmiri version of the quintessential raita.
Doon muj chetein, walnut-radish raita.
Zeresht Chetein, Barberry.
Anardan Chetein, prepared with dried pomegranate seeds (called anardana) along with coriander and mint leaves.
Zirish Chetein. Blackcurrants.
Aelchi Chetein, sour cherries with a bit of salt.
Gordoul Chetein, sour plum chutney.
Pudna Chetein/Buran, a light chutney made out of green chillies and fresh mint.
Ruwangun Chetein, tomatoes sautéed with green chillies and oil, until most of their juices evaporate.
Ruwangun Haech Chetein, sun-dried tomato chutney.
Martswangun Chetein, green chilli chutney ground in a mortar.
Rohani Chetin, garlic chutney with red chilies.
Kishmish Chetein, condimented sauce of raisins.
Chounth Ta Danival Chetein, apple and coriander chutney.
Aloo Bukhar Chetein, made with fresh plums, onions, sugar, lime juice and spices.
Muj Chetein (variation), sautéed grated radish in mustard oil.
Buzith Nadir Chetein, roasted lotus stem chutney.
Buza/Foata Vangan, roasted/boiled and mashed brinjals mixed with curd.
Dodh Al/Al Raita, bottle Gourd in yoghurt.
=== Meat stir-fries ===
Mutton/Chicken Kanti, small boneless mutton/chicken pieces, marinated, shallow fried in fresh onions, tomatoes and green chillies.
Matsch Barith Karel, bitter gourd stuffed with minced lamb.
Matar Machh, green Peas and Minced Mutton.
Sotchal Charvan, mallow leaves and liver.
Hedar, Chhagael, Bokavachi, Ta Krehnamaz, mushrooms with testes, kidneys and liver of sheep or goat.
Talith Kaed, fried brains of goat or sheep.
Kaed Pakora, brain fritters.
=== Fish ===
The age-old practice of shadow fishing is locally known as Tchaayi Gaad in Anchar lake in the Soura vicinity of Srinagar city. Fishermen row their boats early in the morning, breaking the frozen part of the lake to catch fish with a harpoon. They create a shadow on the nook of their boat by hiding themselves under a blanket or a makeshift umbrella made of straw to attract the fish and later strike the approaching fish with the harpoon. The banks of the lake of yore used to be dotted with thickets of willow trees under whose shadow the fish would take refuge during summers, thereby easing the task for the local fishermen to catch them. Common fish dishes are:
Nader ti Gaad, fish (Bilose, Zob, Indian Major Carp, Catla, Rohu, Margarita, Mahseer, Snow Trout, Niger, Chush, Khront, Churu etc.) cooked with lotus stem, a delicacy cooked on festival days like Eid, Navroze and Gaadi Batti (Festival of Kashmiri Pandits).
Mujh Gaad, a dish of radishes with a choice of fish.
Haak Gaad, Fish curry cooked with kashmiri spinach.
Gada Ta Gogjee/Monjje/Band Gupi, Fish cooked with Turnips, or Knol Khol, or Cabbage.
Gaad Ta Chounth, fish cooked with green apples.
Gaad Qaliya, fish in yellow gravy.
Ruwangan/Tamatar Gaad, white river fish cooked delicately in a tomato gravy.
Kong Gaad, fish with saffron flowers.
Gaad Leij, trout fish cooked in traditional Kashmiri style and served with vegetables such as nadur, etc.
Gaad Ta Obuj, wild obuj(rumex obtusifolius) with fish.
Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum, dried fish (bolinao and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.
Hogada Tscchuar, roasted dried small fish.
Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran, fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink sadre kaenz. In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make kaenz it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.
Fari/Phari, smoked fish. A winter delicacy prepared in a particular method by only a few remaining households in Srinagar's Tiploo Mohalla. The fish used is a variety of trout belonging to the genus Schizothorax.
Phari Ta Haakh, smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top. Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.
=== Salads ===
Salaad, a plate of sliced vegetables precisely cucumber, tomatoes and carrots, decorated in concentric circles on a plate. A side with lemon squeezed on top.
Razmah Salaad/Chat, kidney beans salad.
=== Rice ===
Kashmiris eat much more rice than the people of the Jammu region:
Batta, steamed white rice.
Buzz Batta, fried rice.
Wazul Batta, a high-nutrition red rice snack for pregnant ladies.
Taayi Batta, Kashmiri-style pan-fried rice.
Gucchi Polav, Kashmiri pulao with black morels.
Matar Polav, a variation of plain rice with peas, fresh or frozen added.
Tahaer, yellow rice. Prepared by Pandits on auspicious occasions, Muslims also prepare it on certain occasions.
Khetchar, made with rice and chilke wali moong dal, it is best enjoyed with monje aanchar.
Neni Moonge Khetchar, mutton and whole green lentils cooked in mustard oil and finished on dum with Basmati rice.
Vaer, Salted Rice Pudding with kernels of walnuts or intestines of sheep or goat. Always cooked by Kashmiri Pandits at the beginning of Weddings or 'Yagneopavit' ceremony.
Mayir, saltish pudding of rice cooked with diluted curd from which generally butter has been separated. Mostly prepared in rural areas particularly after a week or so on the happy occasion of the delivery of a cow.
Yaji, boiled and steam-cooked salty rice-flour cakes.
Batta Laaye/Mur-murei/Chewrei, rice munchies.
Byael Tomul, leftover fermented newly sprouted paddy seeds yield this delicious snack. It is sun-dried and baked in an earthen vessel placed upon a choola (oven), cooled and pounded in a wooden mortar. After cleaning the husk, it is eaten with dry walnut kernels and salt tea.
=== Breads ===
Kinke Tschut, a whole wheat unleavened flatbread cooked on a griddle.
Parott, a buttery flatbread. A one-kilo paratha is served outside a Sufi shrine in Kashmir. Celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor has stated he used to make rumali roti but not such a big paratha.
Puer, small round of deep fried and puffed wheaten cake. Served hot, these are relished with vegetable preparations or sweet dishes.
Tschur Tschut, Spicy rice crêpes typically eaten with breakfast chai.
Zyur Tschut, this savoury pancake is prepared from rice flour, cumin and green chillies.
Tomul Tschut, rotis made with rice flour.
Dranna, rice bread crumbs.
Makai Tschut, corn flour chapatti.
Gyav Tschut, as the name suggests, made with generous amounts of ghee, served with rogan josh.
Makai Woer, afternoon bread prepared with corn flour that is relished with tea.
Gari Tschut, bread made from water chestnut flour.
Gari Puer, deep fried small rounds of water chestnut flour.
Vushki Tschut, baked rounds of barley flour.
=== Eggs ===
In certain rural areas, the tradition of putting an egg or two in kanger (fire pot) is known to each individual. The fragrance of an egg cooking in the kanger would trigger the enzymes signalling the egg is ready:
Thool Mond, omelette.
Haak Ta Thool, collard greens and Eggs together.
Prezdar Ta Thool, Foxtail lilies with eggs, eaten locally in Kupwara.
Wosteh Haakh Ta Thool, red spinach with eggs.
Zombre Thool Ta Dal, a Kashmiri traditional dish of red lentils (masoor) and hard-boiled eggs.
Thool Zambur, Kashmiri egg curry.
Gogjee-aare Ta Zombre Thool, dried turnip and boiled egg.
Zombre Thool Ta Ruwangan Hachi, fried eggs in a tomato reduction with ginger, garlic and green chillies.
Thool Ta Obuj, kashmiri obuj, a wild growing plant with a sour taste, with eggs.
=== Game (shikaar) ===
Going by estimates, on an average 50-60 birds are killed every day in wetlands across Kashmir: Hunted game (shikaar) is not generally cooked immediately. It has to be hung for some days (faisander) before dressing it for cooking. Hanging makes the meat suppler and less fibrous, making it tastier to eat.
In British India, markhor (screw horn goat) was considered to be among the most challenging game species. It is the largest wild goat in the world. It is locally regarded as the tastiest wild meat.
Indian wild boar was introduced in the Himalayan region by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra military general. Its meat was a great delicacy for the Dogras and Sikhs, but after 1947 its population started dwindling in the Muslim-majority region.
Game dishes are:
Pacchin Dumpokhta, pintail. Called the king of the winter cuisine in Kashmir, it is a delicacy enjoyed by Kashmiri Pandits who would not normally eat chicken. The migratory bird looks like a duck but can fly with great speed. It comes to wetlands of Kashmir during winter. It is deep fried and cooked with hot spices. The meat under the shining bluish golden feathers is tough but delicious and has a warming effect.
Batook Palak, duck with spinach.
Batook Ta Zamut Dodh, duck in a curd curry.
Gogji Ta Batook, duck with turnip. Autumn (harud) duck has a lot of flavor in it. This combination of tender duck meat with the earthy sweetness of turnips reflects the region's culinary prowess, emblematic in the sublime slow-cooked method known as dum. It is winter comfort food in Kashmir.
Shikar Rogan Josh, Roghan Josh of hunted game birds and animals such as mallard, geese, plover, snipe, rail, teal, quail, pintail, Wigeon, grouse, partridge, pheasant, spotted deer, hangal, antelope, wild goat etc.
Shikar Ta Nadeir, meat of game birds cooked with lotus roots.
Shikar Ta Haand, ducks and mallards prepared with dried dandelion.
=== Dals ===
Kashmiri Pandits who were vegetarian and did not even eat onions and tomatoes were known as Dal Battas (Dal Pandits):
Dal Nadur, Lotus stem boiled with green beans to make a dal.
Vaari Muth Dal, Black Turtle Beans (Kashmiri Vaari Muth).
Vaari Muth Gogjee, black turtle beans cooked with turnips.
Razmah Shab Deg, vegetarian variant of the traditional pot preparation, with kidney beans added instead of meat.
Razmah Dal, a red kidney bean stew with classic Kashmiri spice flavours of powdered ginger and fennel.
Razmah Gogjee, Kidney beans cooked with turnips.
Gogji aare ta Razmah, turnip circles are slow simmered with creamy rajma dal flavoured with ground ginger and fennel seeds over a gentle flame.
Razmah Hemb, Various green beans cooked with tender pods.
Dal Dabbi, Traditional lentil preparation cooked in milk with spices.
Channe Baegle, Native to the valley of Kashmir, the dried baegle dal is loved more in winters.
Razmah Nadur
Thool Razmah Yakhean, green kidney beans in yoghurt.
Vangun Hachi Ta Moonge Dal, Dried brinjals with moong.
=== Fermented foods ===
Various varieties of Kashmiri pickles are:
Aanchar, pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose, mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes).
=== Street food ===
Makai Waet, roasted corn.
Buzith Gaer, roasted water chestnuts. Excursionists sit around a hot roasted small heap of nuts and with the help of two stones, one big and the other small, pound these one by one and extract the kernels.
Monje Guel, fritters of water chestnut kernels. Also called mesa or gaer guel in Kashmiri.
Nadur Maunj, sliced lotus stems marinated in spicy paste and deep fried.
Tandoori Chicken, Afghani Chicken, Chicken Lemon, varieties of street food at Khayam, Srinagar.
Deep-fried Kababs.
Mutton Keema Samosas, Chicken Keema Samosas etc.
Alla Posh Mond, pumpkin flower fritters.
Olav Mond/Monjivor, potato patty with ginger.
Doel Chetin, chutney in an earthen pot with different vegetables cabbage, onion, mint, etc.
Tillae Karrae, chickpeas or dried green peas, coated in a batter of flour and deep fried.
Mongh Masale, steamed black beans are mixed with salt and red chilli powder and served hot.
Matar, Kashmiri street food.
Chunth Pakori, crisp slices of batter-coated and fried green apple.
Vangan Pakori, fried aubergine coated with gram flour.
Olav Churma, fries.
Gand ta Palak Pakori, onions and spinach dipped in spiced batter and then deep-fried.
Kruhun Masale/Dub Maha, a poor man's shawarma, a thin lavas is made of refined flour in which boiled chickpeas are rolled and then dipped in tomato chutney.
Razmah Masale, rajma with corn.
Masale Tschot, chickpea masala spread over a lavas (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making masaal begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared. Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.
Egg Roll
Dastar Katlam, famous halwai food.
Tobruk Halweh Parothe, deep fried poori with halwa.
Jalgoz, peanuts.
=== Cheese ===
The nomadic shepherds of the Kashmir valley, Gujjars and Bakerwals move their herd of dairy cattle and their own settlements up and down the mountains based on changing seasons:
Maesh Crari., described as the mozzarella of Kashmir. The discs are first coated with chilli, turmeric and salt, and then fried in mustard oil until they form a crisp, golden outer layer and the inside stays soft and creamy.
Kudan, a rare Gujjar goat cheese that looks like paneer but is more crumbly and akin to feta. Kudan is prepared in Bakerwal tents by heating some mustard oil in a pot on fire and then mixing some salt, turmeric and chilli along with the kudan cheese curds. Everything melts together into a golden liquid flecked with red chilli and small nuggets of kudan.
=== Desserts ===
Kashmiris are fond of sugar. Common sweetmeats are:
Halwa, sweetmeat originally made of honey, camel's milk, cashew nuts, and many other ingredients and brought from the Persian Gulf, via Bombay, in saucers to United India in the nineteenth century. Halwa tradition reached Kashmir towards the end of the nineteenth century.
Chounth Halwa.
Barfi, a milk-based sweet dish.
Khatai, a Kashmiri sweet biscuit that crumbles on each bite.
Khir, rice pudding.
Phirin, a sweet pudding of condensed milk with soji mixed with dry fruit like raisins, almonds, cashews, and pistachios, sprinkled with rose-water.
Kong Phirin, saffron flavoured rice pudding garnished with nuts.
Seemni, vermicelli kheer.
Shufta, a traditional dessert made with chopped dry fruits, spices like pepper powder, cardamom and more, in sugar syrup, garnished with rose petals.
Mitha Kanagucchi, morels in syrup.
Kofta Khumani, mince apricots.
Roth, something between a cake and a bread, these sweet rotis made with flour, ghee, yoghurt, poppy seeds, eggs (on special occasions) and sugar are a domestic favourite. The art of baking a perfect roth is as much an acquired skill as it is a relearned discipline passed down from generations.
Basrakh, A sweet delicacy made from flour with a touch of ghee.
Tosha, an age-old Kashmiri dessert.
Lyde, kashmiri dessert made with whole wheat flour.
Nabad, sugar crystallised in an earthen pot or a copper container like Naat and then carved out as a solid sugar ball in a semi-round shape, bigger than a football.
Gulkand, indigenous rose (koshur gulaab) preserved in a sugar base. Non-Kashmiri roses are not used in this formulation. In place of sugar, honey can also be mixed with rose petals.
Matka Kulfi, kulfi topped with cold noodles.
Kesar Kulfi.
Dry Fruit Kulfi.
=== English pastry ===
Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu. Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:
Chicken or Mutton Patty, meat seasoned with salt, pepper and garlic, encased in layered puff pastry.
Puffs.
Cream Rolls.
Cream Buns.
Coconut Macaroons.
Walnut Macaroons.
Walnut Tart, made possible by the easy availability of walnut kernels in Kashmir.
Walnut Fudge, an exclusivity of Kashmir's Moonlight Bakery, the recipe contains 'snow-white walnuts' from Uri and honey and dates from local market.
=== Qandarwan ===
The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition, that of the qandarwan. Nowhere else in the Indian subcontinent can be found such a huge variety of leavened breads, another pointer to the Central Asian influence on Kashmiris' food habits. On the Dal Lake in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds.
Different kinds of traditional Kashmiri breads include:
Tsoet and Tsoechvor/Tilvor are crisp and flaky small round breads topped with khaskhash (poppy) and til (sesame) seeds. A local bagel of about three inches diameter and six inches circumference, the upper half is soft and the lower crust is crispy. It is the evening/afternoon bread.
Sheermal, a saffron flavoured traditional flatbread said to have originated in Iran. It is offered in both sweet and flavourful versions. The sheermal bread is usually dented with multiple patterns bordering on corresponding lines.
Baqerkhayn (puff pastry), Kashmiri bakerkhani has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.
Lavasa, thin unleavened flat bread, white in colour, made of maida (finely-milled wheat flour). It is a paper-thin blistered naan. Some lavasas are soft while others are crispy.
Girda, made with dough that has been fermented overnight, rolls of dough are flattened out by hand and finger impressions are pressed into it to give you lines that run down its length. Girda and lavas are served with butter.
Kulcha, baked exclusively with ghee, this small, hard, dry, crumbly bread, is usually round in shape. It is decorated by placing a peanut in the centre of the upper face.
Roth khabar, a cake-like sweet bread made in traditional tandoor and covered with dry fruits.
=== Wazwan ===
== Beverages ==
=== Noon Chai or Sheer Chai ===
Kashmiris are heavy tea drinkers. Kashmiris don't use the word "Kashmiri Chai". The word "Noon" in Kashmiri means salt. The most popular drink is a pinkish coloured salted tea called "noon chai." It is made with black tea, milk, salt and bicarbonate of soda. The particular color of the tea is a result of its unique method of preparation and the addition of soda. The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as "Sheer Chai." The Kashmiri Muslims refer to it as "Noon Chai" or "Namkeen Chai", both meaning salty tea.
Noon Chai or Sheer Chai is a common breakfast tea in Kashmiri households and is taken with breads like baqerkhani brought fresh from Qandur (Kashmiri : کاندر ) or bakers. It is one of the most basic and essential food items in a Kashmiri household. Tea was as served in large samavars. Now, the use of Samavars is limited to special occasions and normally kettles are used.
Nuts like almonds and pistachios and edible rose petals can also be added before serving and sometimes malai or fresh cream is added to give the tea viscosity and richness.
=== Natural mineral water ===
According to a 2022 study by the University of Kashmir, 87% of springs in Kashmir valley have excellent to good water quality. A large part of the society, particularly those living in rural and backward areas, depends on spring water. Most villagers believe spring water is the purest form of water due to a spiritual connection with the shrines.
From one of the oldest and purest spring waters of Kashmir, the Kokernag Spring, Bringi Spring Water has high alkalinity and is well balanced with minerals.
=== Babribyol ===
The Babribyol sharbat is a concoction of sweetened milk, rose water or Rooh Afza syrup, and soaked sweet basil seeds that are grown locally.
=== Lyaess ===
Made from yoghurt or kefir, Kashmiri lassi (lyaess) is a liquid, salty way to drink up yoghurt. The process of churning the buttermilk with a wooden choomph or churner is rhythmic and there is an art involved. The yoghurt has to be churned the right way, the buttery fats have to float to the top in a nice froth, the spices and dried mint leaves have to be just right.
=== Sadr-e-kaenz ===
This fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.
=== Shahi Sheera ===
Made by extracting the juice of different berries, it is prepared at home during Ramadan. It features in 1977 Kashmiri film Arnimaal where guests are sipping on the beverage during wedding festivities.
== Food and beverage pairings ==
The traditional Kashmiri wazwan, which comprises slow-cooked meat dishes is a wonderful pairing that enhances the spicy notes of whisky. The Loire Valley wine Sancerre goes well with Kashmiri goshtabeh. A ripe fruity red works well with the full bodied roghan josh. A recommended wine to try with is Montepulciano.
== Special occasions and festivals ==
=== Eid-ul-Fitr ===
While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes khajur ka laddoo (date balls), babribyol (basil seeds), kulfi, phirin, seemni, fruit chaat, fruit custard, kateer (a drink loaded with health benefits) and noon chai. The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of Eid Mubarak.
Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of 30 days of Ramadan. After attending Eid prayers at a mosque or Eidgah, families return home to welcome guests. A common tradition on Eid morning is serving Kehwa (saffron tea) and chai (milk tea), accompanied by an assortment of bakery items such as cakes, cookies, ghee tchot (a tandoor-baked flatbread), pastries, and savoury snacks like chicken and mutton patties.
Well-to-do families often prepare select Wazwan dishes, including kebabs, rista (meatballs in gravy), shami kebabs, and chicken pieces. Other delicacies like kanti (stir-fried meat), mutton or chicken tikki are served with sauces and green chutney (dhaniya chutney), especially when entertaining special guests like sons-in-law.
For lunch, rice is the staple, served with a variety of homemade dishes, almost all featuring meat. A notable preparation is yakhni, a traditional dish made with fresh curd and mild spices, offering a rich yet subtle flavor.
=== Eid-ul-Adha ===
The day begins with the Fajr (dawn) prayer and a breakfast of bakery goods with dodh kehwa (milky green tea). As the festival draws to a close, most well-to-do families start placing orders with the wazas for the feast, which is cooked by chefs at their own places and then sold to the customers for serving at their homes. Sacrificial animals include Delhi Walla, Merino Cross, Bakerwal and Kashmiri varieties of sheep.
=== Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood ===
Only vegetarian food is supplied to devotees. Majority of people in Batmaloo and adjoining areas turn vegetarian and do not eat meat or chicken. They widely consume dried turnips (gogji aare) because it is believed, during Dawood's time, sundried turnips helped Kashmir survive a famine.
=== Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali ===
The people of Pampore cook dried vegetables, eggs, cheese and other food stuff except meat and invite their relatives, friends on lunch or dinner to keep the tradition of the saint alive.
=== Urs of Dastageer Sahab ===
In Khanyar and Sarai Bala areas of Srinagar, the devotees are seen outside the shrines where local and non-local business establishments install their carts and are seen selling the Kashmiri traditional food stuff. Pious men sing hearty hymns over offerings of dates and sweets.
=== Urs of Raeshmol Saheb ===
People in Anantnag district in southern Kashmir quit eating meat as a mark of respect for the 16th century mystic. Rarely is a butcher shop open during these seven days. For three-and-a-half days each before and after the saint's Urs, people eat radish braised in tamarind.
=== Herath ===
For Kashmiri Pandits, the prasad offering at Shivratri puja is a charger piled high with rice, cooked lamb and fish, and a luscious raw fish in its entirety atop the pile.
=== Har Navum ===
On the 9th day of the month of ashad, Pandits in Kashmir offer the deity Sharika yellow rice cooked with turmeric, a little oil and salt along with tsarvan (goat's liver).
=== Navreh ===
The festival of Navreh, the Kashmiri New Year, is incomplete without nadur. A celebration often confused with the Nowruz of the Persians and Persianate cultures, Navreh is the welcoming of spring in the Northern hemisphere, and its date fluctuate, but always around to the March equinox.
== Diaspora and fusion cuisines ==
Tibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular momo (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children. Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and kumloo wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.
Kashmiri Sikh cuisine has a bit of influence from Punjab with onions and tomatoes, but the flavouring goes the Kashmiri way with elements such as badyaan (saunf). A large number of Indian tourists depend entirely on Vaishno Dhabas, the Valley's generic non-A/C restaurants that serve all-vegetarian North Indian fare.
== Cooking methods ==
Some Kashmiri cooking techniques are:
=== Blanching ===
The stalks of dandelion (haand) with their spiky-edged leaves have to blanched four times so that they bear no bitterness.
=== Convection ===
The traditional Kashmir food receives heat on two sides, top and bottom and the best results are obtained by slow heat using charcoal.
=== Braising ===
The leaves of Kashmiri haakh are braised in lots of water. It is very important to ensure that the haakh stays submerged underwater during the initial cooking process using a wooden spatula or large spoon to continuously push the greens down. Mustard oil, which is used extensively in Kashmiri cuisine, imparts an extra flavour to the dish.
=== Court-bouillon ===
Much of Kashmiri cooking relies on a fragrant meat stock. The main skill of a wazwan lies in the preparation of this stock made of onions and shallots. Freshly shaped meatballs (rista and goshtabeh) are poached in this lamb stock flavoured with cinnamon and black cardamom, and simmered.
=== Tempering ===
Whole spices must be fried in oil – clove, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves. Fried too little, and the dish will be lifeless, without fragrance. A second too much, and one will be left with nothing but bitterness. Hot ghee or mustard oil is poured on top and garnished with fried praan (shallots) paste & saffron extract.
=== Caramelisation ===
Sliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.
=== Emulsification ===
The yoghurt must be fatty, thick. Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.
=== Food colouring ===
Relevant dishes are further enhanced in colour by saffron extract (rogan josh and rista) or mawal (dried cockscomb flower). Kashmiri chilli is also added in excess sometimes to produce a red colour. Tomato is incorrectly used as a substitute when mawal and rattanjot are not available. No authentic version cooked in Kashmir has tomatoes.
=== Simmering ===
The food gets its flavours and textures from the spices being slow cooked with ingredients until they let out their inherent juices and fats and melt together.
=== Smoke point ===
Smoking mustard oil is a treatment known as durust, and gets it ready to use after cooling off.
=== Dum cooking ===
The cooking vessel in the shab deg is sealed with dough before being cooked over a simmering fire through the long winter night. Dum cooking was made popular by the Mughal courts around the 16th century.
=== Tenderising ===
Goshtabeh and rista, the two meatball dishes are rarely found outside the valley because their unique texture is enormously challenging. The sheep has to be freshly slaughtered and the meat pounded before rigor mortis sets. To incorporate air to make them light and fluffy, the meat undergoes a process of being folded while beaten.
=== Cooking material ===
The quality of pots is important, according to wosta (ustad) or chef Nazir Ahmed Aram. He says they must have the right content of copper. Using wood (walnut and apple are the best) is important too. Cooking on gas is not the same.
== Similarities with other cuisines ==
Much like Kashmir, its people, and its narrative traditions, Kashmiri cuisine too is an amalgam of influences from Central Asia, Persia, China, and the Indian subcontinent. Food recipes passed down from one culture to another are:
Aab Gosh (Kashmiri). Abgoosht or Abgusht is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries. There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.
Batte (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called bata in Afghanistan.
Harise (Kashmiri). Al Harees is a traditional Emirati dish consisting of wheat, meat(chicken) and salt. A simple, traditional Saudi dish using crushed wheat is called jareesh. Harissa, also known as herisseh, harisa or keshkeg in Armenia is a wheat berry and meat porridge. The wheat, usually known as korkot, is shelled making them quicker to cook. In Oman, it is made with beaten rice instead of wheat. Boko Boko Harees in Burundian cuisine is a delicacy prepared with chicken, turmeric and bulgur wheat. Amritsari Hareesa is a famous dish of the winter season in Lahore, Pakistan and made with wheat and meat. It is seasoned with desi ghee and served with hot naan.
Kabab (Kashmiri). The Turkish word kebap derives from Arabic kabaab meaning roasted meat. A likely East Semitic root means to burn, to char or to roast. The Babylonian Talmud even teaches that offerings in the temple should not be kabbaba (burnt). Kysaa-ı Yusuf was the first to refer to meat on skewers as a kebab in 1377. Ibn Battuta, the famous Moroccan traveller mentioned that kebab was an integral part of the daily diet of Indian royalty as early as 1200 AD. Some of the world's best and most flavourful kebabs such as Adana Kebab, Urfa kebab, Iskender kebab come from Turkey's southeastern provinces. The Döner kebab was invented by İskender Efendi, who lived in Bursa and hung meats vertically to grill. One of the most popular kabobs you can find on the streets of Iran is kabob koobideh, ground lamb or beef or a combination of the two. The traditional method of cooking Afghan chapli kebab is frying.
Kahwe (Kashmiri). A staple Afghan tea, kahwah is mild and fragrant, and recipes tend to differ from family to family.
Katlam (Kashmiri). Qatlama in traditional Turkish means folded which comes from the verb qatlamaq (to fold). Plain katmer is eaten with Turkish white cheese and Turkish tea. In Turkmenistan, a type of bread in baked from flour which is mixed with milk and egg. This is called katlama. It is also cooked in Azerbaijan, and various herbs are added to it. The fried Kazakh bread Kattama is very popular in Central Asia. Katama is an onion-filled swirled flatbread from Kyrgyzstan. In Uzbekistan, katlama is a traditional bread of Sunday mornings served with homemade butter. Qatlama is an Afghan fried sweet pastry topped with sugar or sugar syrups. Qator Gambir or Gambir are Mongolian pancakes which may often be a byproduct, when there is leftover dough from making some other dish. Kutluma is a layered Pakistani flatbread with a crispy, buttery texture.
Kulche (Kashmiri). In Afghanistan and Northeast Iran, these dried bread biscuits are called kulcha-e-khataye. Koloocheh in Iranian cuisine is a cookie stuffed with cinnamon, sugar and crushed walnuts.
Lavas (Kashmiri). The word lavash is repeatedly found in early Turkic written sources. Lavash is a Turkish bread made with flour, water and salt. It can be eaten hot or cold. This paper-thin, blanket-sized bread is one of Armenia's most ancient breads and is still being made today. In Azerbaijan, lavash is baked not only in traditional ovens (tandir) but also in saj, a large convex pan under which fire is made. In Azerbaijan and Iran, it is put on the bride's shoulders or crumbled over her head to wish the couple prosperity.
Luchi (Kashmiri). Very similar, Bengali luchai is a deep fried puffed bread.
Nabad (Kashmiri). Nabat in Persian is a type of confectionary mineral composed of relatively large sugar crystals, with bits of saffron in it.
Nadur (Kashmiri). In Afghan cuisine, Qormah e Nadroo is an onion-and-tomato-based stew using lamb meat or veal, yogurt, lotus roots and coriander.
Polav (Kashmiri). It looks as if pilaf was invented in Iran some time after the 10th century. The Turks call plain rice sade pilav. Turkey sees pilav primarily as a side dish rather than a main course. Iran is famous for its polos made with aromatic domsiyah rice. The most characteristic ones are based on fruits such as cherries, quinces, or apricots. In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots. The extravagant court traditions of the Moghul school of cookery makes India home to some very elaborate pulaos. Laborers from western India brought pilaf to the Caribbean, where it is garnished with butter, almonds and pimiento-stuffed green olives.
Roth(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called rot. In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.
Sheer Chai (Kashmiri). Qaimak or Sheer chai is often served at celebrations in Afghanistan to toast good health.
Yakhein (Kashmiri). Patates Yahni or Greek potato stew is a traditional Greek recipe which falls under the category of ladera, meaning dishes prepared only with olive oil with no addition of other fat. Turkish Yahni is a beef stew that is great in cold weather. A 19th century cookbook by Mehmet Kamil listed a total of 14 classic yakhnis. Yakhni nokhod is a traditional Shirazi dish that uses meat, peas, potatoes, onions, salt and turmeric.
Dam Olav (Kashmiri). Bengali alur dom is lightly spiced and slightly sweet potato curry made with onions, tomatoes and spices.
== Etiquette of Kashmiri dining ==
Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share. Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making roti together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked. Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the waza (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest. Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his Rogan Josh by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.
In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good. Its aroma must be appetising. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals. Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.
Giant dastarkhaans (white sheets) are spread on the floor on which the meal is served. However humble or lofty the fare on it, the dastarkhaan has always been the center of warm hospitality and conviviality. In big Kashmiri dinners, a hundred to five hundred people are usually invited. Since insurgency and the resultant violence and bloodshed, food has come to hold even greater meaning as each meal signifies a celebration of life itself. It is worth mentioning that wazas (the descendants of Samarkandi cooks), whose shops are located in particular areas of the city of Srinagar, form a significant political group in Kashmir.
All dishes are eaten by hand as Kashmiris believe in an intimate relationship with food. Even spiritual and religious old biddies feel no qualms in chomping on ear cartilage or marrow bones long after the meal is done, pulverising everything into a heap on the thali. No one bats an eyelid. Kashmiris consider it disrespectful if one refuses food varieties or an extra helping. They can go great lengths to persuade, swearing to die if you refuse an extra serving!
== Food-related proverbs ==
Kashmiri language is rich in proverbs and idioms. Food-related idioms include:
Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.
Akh chhiwyov masah byak hakah rasah — one man is intoxicated with the juice of the grape, another with juice of vegetables. Pride dwells in everyone, whether he be rich or poor.
Akh duda biyi maji kyut toak — an uninvited guest wants a (toak) plateful for his mother, in addition to himself. Toak was an earthen plate, in general use in Kashmir in the past. Beggars and some uninvited people pushed themselves in among the guests because of their poverty, or their desire for tasting the delicacies. It is applied where a person is not content with what is willingly offered to him, and demands more.
Apih hund gyav — a foolish woman's ghee. A foppish person. Kashmiri people, both wealthy and others, rubbed their hair with fresh ghee.
Batah gajih ruhun — as garlic upon the hearth of a Pandit, so your presence is to me. The ancestors of the Hindus would not eat garlic because of their aphrodisiac effects, having devoted themselves to religion.
Batook Poth — to have eaten batook poth (duck's backside) is an expression in Kashmiri for someone who talks a lot.
Chaanis haakhas chha paakuk haajat — does your haakh require hard cooking? A sort of ironic flattery with the sense that your haakh is so delicate, it takes hardly any time to cook.
Chaantis animu mathun — to grease one's mouth with gruel. To cover up starvation for mere shame.
Chayi tani ya gani magar tech gachi cheyn — tea, whether weak or strong, should be taken hot.
Dali Baate ti Khoji thool — dal for a Pandit and an egg for a Khoja, the kind of food they like.
Doori doori marts meethan, nishi nishi naabad tyathaan — pepper tastes sweet from afar, sugar tastes bitter when too near.
Hardas gurus metras, sontah gurus shetras — autumn butter-milk for the friend, and spring butter-milk for the enemy. Consequently, the milk is better in the autumn.
Hari tang tah zulahnai, muhuri tsont tah zulit — if the pear cost only a cowrie it should not be peeled, but if the apple cost a sovereign it should be peeled. Natives of Kashmir seldom skin a pear, but always skin an apple. Apple-skin, they say, is not easily digested.
Haruch gugaj tah Laruch gunas chhih barabar — a June turnip and a Lar serpent are equal. A native would not eat June turnip on any account, while Gunas is a round-headed serpent met with principally in Lar parganah, whose bite is generally fatal.
Majji bhatee — food served by mother is the best food.
Phata Wangun — a burst eggplant, literally, a sly young man often too clever for his own good.
Rogan o zafaran az Pampur, sag az Latapur brinj az Nupur; barrah az Nandapur. Puttu o mahi az Sopur; mong az Kralapur. Arad az Khampur. Shir az Shadipur. Angur az Repur — Pampore (the place) for ghee and saffron, Letapur for vegetables. Nipur for rice. Nandapur for lamb. Sopore for pattu and fish. Kralapur for dal. Khampur for flour. Shadipur for milk. And grapes from Repur.
Talwe peyi na tangah — wishing a pear falls from ceiling is a vain hope.
Chaki pechni ras, yath poshi tas — When someone keeps bragging about this which they usually don't have..
Khar kya zani zaffran kya gow — a donkey won't understand the taste of saffron.
badhshah saab khar ne khewan zab, yeli poras teli kheyi zab — usually said for unthankful people who don't accept food.
== Sustainable consumption ==
Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their traem (wazwan copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food. Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).
In Kashmir, a now-abandoned practice would use green Chinar leaves in packaging delicate things like mulberry, butter, mutton and cheese. This would help these easily contaminable items to stay nontoxic till consumption.
== See also ==
Kanger
List of topics on the land and the people of Jammu and Kashmir
Wazwan
Dogra cuisine, from the Jammu region of Kashmir
Balti (food), associated with the Baltistan region of Kashmir
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"Chor Bizarre". Wazwan. Archived from the original on 23 December 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2005.
"Kashmiri Cuisine". Kashmiri Cuisine- food and recipes:Mumbai/Bombay pages. 9 September 2000. Retrieved 16 December 2005. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Kumaraswamy | H. D. Kumaraswamy | Haradanahalli Devegowda Kumaraswamy (born 16 December 1959) is an Indian politician and film producer who is serving as the 5th Minister of Heavy Industries and 14th Minister of Steel of India since 2024. He also served as the 18th Chief Minister of Karnataka from 2018 to 2019 and previously from 2006 to 2007. He was also the leader of the opposition in the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from 2013 to 2014. He is currently the president of the Karnataka State Janata Dal (Secular). He is a member of Lok Sabha, having been elected from Mandya and the former member of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from Channapatna from 2018 to 2024, Ramanagara from 2004 to 2009 and from 2013 to 2018. He is the son of former prime minister of India & former Chief Minister of Karnataka H. D. Deve Gowda.
== Early life and education ==
Kumaraswamy was born in Haradanahalli, Holenarasipura taluk of Hassan district, Karnataka to H. D. Deve Gowda and Chennamma.
He completed primary education in a government school in Hassan district. He finished his high school studies in Bangalore's MES Educational Institution in Jayanagar and Bachelor of Science degree from National College Basavanagudi, Bangalore.
== Personal life ==
On 13 March 1985, Kumaraswamy married Anitha Kumaraswamy. They have a son, Nikhil Gowda.
In November 2010, Radhika revealed that she was married to Kumaraswamy and that they have a daughter named Shamika. They separated in 2015.
== Political career ==
Kumaraswamy entered politics by winning from Kanakapura (in Ramanagara District) in the 1996 general elections. He sought re-election from Kanakapura in 1998 and lost to M. V. Chandrashekara Murthy. This was Kumaraswamy's worst defeat ever where he lost by such a margin that he even forfeited his deposit.
He again contested unsuccessfully for a Sathanur assembly seat in 1999 when he was defeated by congress heavyweight D. K. Shivakumar. In 2004, he was elected to represent the Ramanagara assembly segment. When the 2004 state elections resulted in a hung assembly with no party getting enough seats to form a government, the Indian National Congress and Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)) parties decided to come together and form a coalition government. Known for his adaptability and friendly nature, Dharam Singh of the Congress was the unanimous choice of both parties to head the government. He was sworn in as chief minister on 28 May 2004. Forty-two MLAs of Janata Dal (Secular) under Kumaraswamy's leadership left the coalition and the government collapsed. On 28 January 2006, Karnataka Governor T. N. Chaturvedi invited Kumaraswamy to form the government in the state after the resignation of the Congress Government led by Dharam Singh.
== Chief Minister ==
He was Chief Minister of Karnataka from 4 February 2006 to 9 October 2007.
On 27 September 2007, Kumaraswamy said that he would leave office on 3 October as part of a power-sharing agreement between the Janata Dal (Secular) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), despite the calls of some legislators in the JD(S) for him to remain in office for the time being, due to complications in arranging the transfer of power. However, on 4 October 2007, he refused to transfer power to the BJP. Finally, on 8 October 2007, he tendered his resignation to Governor Rameshwar Thakur, and the state was put under President's rule two days later. However, he reconciled later and decided to offer support to the BJP. BJP's B. S. Yeddyurappa was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Karnataka on 12 November 2007.
But, again refused to support BJP government over a disagreement on sharing of ministries which resulted in Yeddyurappa resignation as Chief Minister on 19 November 2007.
After the untimely demise of Karnataka state JD(S) President Merajuddin Patel, he was elected unopposed as President of the state unit.
However, after the by-election results of Bangalore Rural Lok Sabha constituency and Mandya in which his party candidates lost, he resigned from the post of President of the Janata Dal (Secular) State unit, and as leader of the opposition.
However, party cadres succeeded in convincing him not to quit as leader of opposition in the Karnataka Assembly. In September 2013, A. Krishnappa was selected as Janata Dal-Secular's president for Karnataka, filling the vacancy left by Kumaraswamy.
In November 2014 Kumaraswamy was elected as Karnataka state Janata Dal (Secular) President. Kumaraswamy is also known for accusing political rivals of corruption.
In 2018 elections in Karnataka state, JD(S) was the third-largest party but after a post-poll alliance with the Rahul Gandhi led Indian National Congress, he was sworn in as the Chief Minister on 23 May 2018.
In the 2019 parliament elections, his son Nikhil Gowda contested in the Mandya (Lok Sabha constituency) against an independent candidate Sumalatha, wife of film actor Late Ambareesh. Kumaraswamy took this contest as a prestige and campaigned all across the constituency. In vain his son lost the election by a margin of 1,30,000 odd votes. This was a major setback and abashment to Kumaraswamy in his political career. He also shed tears in a party convention in Mandya, recalling the election loss faced by his son.
On the month of July 2019, his government lost its majority when 13 MLAs of Congress and 3 MLAs of his own party resigned to their MLA Posts. BSP MLA Mahesh N & 2 Independent MLAs withdrew their support for H.D.Kumaraswamy led coalition Government in Karnataka. On 23 July Kumaraswamy lost his majority in Karnataka floor test.
Kumaraswamy resigned to the Chief Minister post, by submitting his resignation letter to governor Vajubhai Vala on 23 July 2019. Then BJP was invited to form the government as the single largest party, by the governor and B. S.Yediyurappa took oath as the Chief Minister of Karnataka by succeeding him.
In the 2023 Karnataka Assembly Elections, he won from Channapatna against BJP's C. P. Yogeshwar by a margin of 20,000 votes, while his son Nikhil lost in his previous constituency, Ramanagara to the Congress candidate. His party JD(S) managed to win 19 seats of the contested 204 seats in the same elections.
== positions held ==
=== Positions held ===
Source :
== Electoral performance ==
=== Lok Sabha ===
=== Karnataka Legislative Assembly ===
== Film and television ==
Kumaraswamy is into film production and distribution. He has produced several Kannada films including Chandra Chakori, a huge hit, credited with 365 day-run in theaters. Surya Vamsha which was directed by S. Narayan was the debut movie produced by Kumaraswamy under Chennambika films, named after his mother. In 2016 his banner also produced his son's debut movie Jaguar (2016 film) and his 2nd movie Seetharama Kalyana in 2019.
Premotsava (1999)
Surya Vamsha (2000)
Galate Aliyandru (2001)
Jithendra (2002)
Chandra Chakori (2003)
Jaguar (2016)
Seetharama Kalyana (2019)
In September 2007, Kumaraswamy started the Kannada television channel Kasturi. The channel is now owned and managed by his wife Anitha.
== Controversies ==
=== Bigamy charges ===
Kumaraswamy was accused of bigamy which is illegal according to Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 of India. A public interest litigation was filed after media reports of his marriage to Kannada cinema actress Radhika Kumaraswamy surfaced. Since Kumaraswamy is married to his first wife Anitha, his second marriage with Radhika is a violation of law. However a division bench of Karnataka High Court headed by Chief Justice Vikramajit Sen dismissed the case citing "lack of proof".
=== Janthakal mining scam ===
Kumaraswamy and his wife Anitha are facing charges in the Janthakal mining scam. He is accused of pressuring a senior bureaucrat to renew Janthakal Enterprise's lease of iron ore mining for 40 years on the basis of forged documents and violating several rules. The bureaucrat, Ganga Ram Baderiya, was allegedly given kickbacks by Janthakal Enterprise. The owner of Janthakal Enterprises, mining baron Vinod Goel, was arrested in 2015 on charges of forgery. A Special Investigation Team (SIT) is probing this scam on the direction of Supreme Court of India.
=== Vishwabharati case ===
Kumaraswamy and his wife Anitha are accused of misuse of official position in allotment of 80 acres of land to Vishwabharati House Building Cooperative Society Ltd, a private cooperative society, which later made a quid pro quo site allotment to Anitha, during Kumaraswamy's tenure as Chief Minister in 2006.
=== Release of CD on Mangalore protests ===
Kumaraswamy called for a press meet and released a CD containing 35 video clips of the violence during the Mangalore protests against the CAA. The video presented the policemen acting violently against the protesters and beating up the civilians of the city, leading to riots in the city. He accused that the police directly followed the government orders inhumanly and were the main reason for the shoot out that killed 2 people during the protests.
The BJP in return accused that these video clips are all edited versions of older footages of some other circumstances. They also said that Kumaraswamy is misleading the people by producing inappropriate footages in public that provokes confusion and violence among the people. The BJP included saying that Kumaraswamy, being a senior politician in the state is directly accusing the government officials and the police, which is unacceptable.
=== Statements on RSS ===
In February 2023, Kumarswamy said that a secret meet of RSS in Delhi, has decide to make a Brahmin, Pralhad Joshi, the next chief minister of Karnataka. This led to vast opposition from the BJP and also the Brahmin's Mahasabha, asking for an apology for these statements.
=== Stealing electricity from BESCOM ===
In November 2023, Kumaraswamy was accused of stealing electricity from BESCOM to light his home in J P Nagar, Bengaluru during Deepavali festival. Kumaraswamy was fined ₹ 68,526 for stealing electric power. Kumaraswamy was also booked under Section 135 of Indian Electricity Act.
== See also ==
Third Modi ministry
== References ==
== External links ==
H. D. Kumaraswamy affidavit |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator | Myers–Briggs Type Indicator | The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report questionnaire that makes pseudoscientific claims to categorize individuals into 16 distinct "personality types" based on psychology. The test assigns a binary letter value to each of four dichotomous categories: introversion or extraversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving. This produces a four-letter test result such as "INTJ" or "ESFP", representing one of 16 possible types.
The MBTI was constructed during World War II by Americans Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, inspired by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung's 1921 book Psychological Types. Isabel Myers was particularly fascinated by the concept of "introversion", and she typed herself as an "INFP". However, she felt the book was too complex for the general public, and therefore she tried to organize the Jungian cognitive functions to make it more accessible.
The perceived accuracy of test results relies on the Barnum effect, flattery, and confirmation bias, leading participants to personally identify with descriptions that are somewhat desirable, vague, and widely applicable. As a psychometric indicator, the test exhibits significant deficiencies, including poor validity, poor reliability, measuring supposedly dichotomous categories that are not independent, and not being comprehensive. Most of the research supporting the MBTI's validity has been produced by the Center for Applications of Psychological Type, an organization run by the Myers–Briggs Foundation, and published in the center's own journal, the Journal of Psychological Type (JPT), raising questions of independence, bias and conflict of interest.
The MBTI is widely-regarded as "totally meaningless" by the scientific community. According to University of Pennsylvania professor Adam Grant, "There is no evidence behind it. The traits measured by the test have almost no predictive power when it comes to how happy you'll be in a given situation, how well you'll perform at your job, or how satisfied you'll be in your marriage." Despite controversies over validity, the instrument has demonstrated widespread influence since its adoption by the Educational Testing Service in 1962. It is estimated that 50 million people have taken the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator and that 10,000 businesses, 2,500 colleges and universities, and 200 government agencies in the United States use the MBTI.
== History ==
Briggs began her research into personality in 1917. Upon meeting her future son-in-law, she observed marked differences between his personality and that of other family members. Briggs embarked on a project of reading biographies and subsequently developed a typology wherein she proposed four temperaments: meditative (or thoughtful), spontaneous, executive, and social.
After the publication in 1923 of an English translation of Carl Jung's book Psychological Types (first published in German as Psychologische Typen in 1921), Briggs recognized that Jung's theory resembled, but went far beyond, her own. Briggs's four types were later identified as corresponding to the IXXXs (Introverts: "meditative"), EXXPs (Extraverts & Prospectors: "spontaneous"), EXTJs (Extraverts, Thinkers & Judgers: "executive") and EXFJs (Extraverts, Feelers & Judgers: "social"). Her first publications were two articles describing Jung's theory, in The New Republic, "Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box" (1926) and "Up From Barbarism" (1928). After extensively studying the work of Jung, Briggs and her daughter extended their interest in human behavior into efforts to turn the theory of psychological types to practical use.
Although Myers graduated from Swarthmore College in political science in 1919, neither Myers nor Briggs were formally educated in the discipline of psychology, and both were self-taught in the field of psychometric testing. Myers therefore apprenticed herself to Edward N. Hay (1891–1958), the head personnel officer for a large Philadelphia bank. From Hay, Myers learned rudimentary test construction, scoring, validation, and statistical methods.
Briggs and Myers began creating their indicator during World War II (1939–1945) in the belief that a knowledge of personality preferences would help women entering the industrial workforce for the first time to identify the sorts of war-time jobs that would be the "most comfortable and effective" for them. The Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook, published in 1944, was re-published as "Myers–Briggs Type Indicator" in 1956.
Myers' work attracted the attention of Henry Chauncey, head of the Educational Testing Service, a private assessment organization. Under these auspices, the first MBTI "manual" was published, in 1962. The MBTI received further support from Donald W. MacKinnon, head of the Institute of Personality and Social Research at the University of California, Berkeley; W. Harold Grant, a professor at Michigan State University and Auburn University; and Mary H. McCaulley of the University of Florida. The publication of the MBTI was transferred to Consulting Psychologists Press in 1975, and the Center for Applications of Psychological Type was founded as a research laboratory.
After Myers' death in May 1980, Mary McCaulley updated the MBTI manual, and the second edition was published in 1985. The third edition appeared in 1998.
=== Format and administration ===
In 1987, an advanced scoring-system was developed for the MBTI. From this was developed the Type Differentiation Indicator (TDI), which is a scoring system for the longer MBTI, Form J, which includes the 290 items written by Myers that had survived her previous item analyses. It yields 20 subscales (five under each of the four dichotomous preference scales), plus seven additional subscales for a new "comfort-discomfort" factor (which parallels, though not perfectly measuring, the NEO-PI factor of neuroticism). This factor's scales indicate a sense of overall comfort and confidence versus discomfort and anxiety. They also load onto one of the four type-dimensions:
guarded-optimistic (T/F),
defiant-compliant (T/F),
carefree-worried (T/F),
decisive-ambivalent (J/P),
intrepid-inhibited (E/I),
leader-follower (E/I), and
proactive-distractible (J/P).
Also included is a composite of these called "strain". There are also scales for type-scale consistency and comfort-scale consistency. Reliability of 23 of the 27 TDI subscales is greater than 0.50, "an acceptable result given the brevity of the subscales".
In 1989, a scoring system was developed for only the 20 subscales for the original four dichotomies. This was initially known as "Form K" or "the Expanded Analysis Report". This tool is now called the MBTI Step II.
Form J or the TDI included the items (derived from Myers' and McCaulley's earlier work) necessary to score what became known as Step III. (The 1998 MBTI Manual reported that the two instruments were one and the same) Step III was developed in a joint project involving the following organizations: the Myers–Briggs Company, the publisher of all the MBTI works; the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), which holds all of Myers' and McCaulley's original work; and the MBTI Trust headed by Katharine and Peter Myers. CAPT advertised Step III as addressing type development and the use of "perception and judgment" by respondents.
== Concepts ==
The MBTI is based on the theory of psychological types proposed by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung in 1921, which was partially based on the four elements of classical cosmology. Jung speculated that people experience the world using four principal psychological functions—sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking—and that one of these four functions is dominant in an individual, a majority of the time. In MBTI theory, the four categories are introversion/extraversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. According to the MBTI, each person is said to have one preferred quality from each category, producing 16 unique types.
The MBTI Manual states that the indicator "is designed to implement a theory; therefore, the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI". Fundamental to the MBTI is the hypothesis of psychological types as originally developed by Carl Jung. Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:
The "rational" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling.
The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensation and intuition.
Jung believed that for every person, each of the functions is expressed primarily in either an introverted or extraverted form. Based on Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based. According to psychologist Hans Eysenck writing in 1995 the 16 personality types used in MBTI are incomplete, as Jung's theory used 32 types, 16 of which could not be measured by questionnaire. Per Eysenck, it was unfair to Jung to claim the scale accurately measured Jungian concepts. Both Jung's original model and the simplified MBTI remain hypothetical, with no controlled scientific studies supporting either.
=== Differences from Jung ===
Jung did not see the type preferences (such as introversion and extraversion) as dualistic, but rather as tendencies: both are innate and have the potential to balance.
Jung's typology theories postulated a sequence of four cognitive functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition), each having one of two polar tendencies (extraversion or introversion), giving a total of eight dominant functions. The MBTI is based on these eight hypothetical functions. While the Jungian model proposes the first three dichotomies, Myers and Briggs added the judgment-perception preference. According to Myers' and Briggs', J or P indicates a person's most preferred extraverted function, which is the dominant function for extraverted types and the auxiliary function for introverted types.
=== Type dynamics and development ===
The MBTI sorts some psychological differences into four sets of opposite pairs, or "dichotomies", with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these are considered to be "better" or "worse"; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that people innately "prefer" one overall combination of type differences.
The 16 types are typically referred to by an abbreviation of four letters – the initial letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of intuition, which uses the abbreviation "N" to distinguish it from introversion). For instance:
ENTJ: extraversion (E), intuition (N), thinking (T), judgment (J)
ISFP: introversion (I), sensing (S), feeling (F), perception (P)
These abbreviations are applied to all 16 types.
The interaction of two, three, or four preferences is known as "type dynamics". Type dynamics has received little or no empirical support to substantiate its viability as a scientific theory. Myers and Briggs asserted that for each of the 16 four-preference types, one function is the most dominant and is likely to be evident earliest in life. A secondary or auxiliary function typically becomes more evident (differentiated) during teenage years and provides balance to the dominant. In normal development, individuals tend to become more fluent with a third, tertiary function during mid-life, while the fourth, inferior function remains least consciously developed. The inferior function is purportedly associated with the unconscious, and is most evident in situations such as high stress (sometimes referred to as being "in the grip" of the inferior function).
The use of type dynamics is disputed: in the conclusion of various studies on the subject of type dynamics, psychologist James H. Reynierse writes, "Type dynamics has persistent logical problems and is fundamentally based on a series of category mistakes; it provides, at best, a limited and incomplete account of type related phenomena"; and "type dynamics relies on anecdotal evidence, fails most efficacy tests, and does not fit the empirical facts". His studies gave the clear result that the descriptions and workings of type dynamics do not fit the real behavior of people. He suggests getting completely rid of type dynamics, because it does not help, but hinders understanding of personality. The presumed order of functions 1 to 4 did only occur in one out of 540 test results.
=== Four dichotomies ===
The four pairs of preferences or "dichotomies" proposed by Briggs and Myers are shown in the adjacent table.
The terms as used in the MBTI may differ from their everyday usage. For example, people who prefer judgment over perception are not necessarily more "judgmental" or less "perceptive", nor does the MBTI instrument attempt to measure aptitude, instead it attempts to indicates personal preference. Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degree of the preference (for example, very clear vs. slight).
=== Attitudes: extraversion/introversion ===
Myers–Briggs literature uses the terms extraversion and introversion as Jung first used them. Extraversion means literally outward-turning and introversion, inward-turning. These specific definitions differ somewhat from the popular usage of the words. Extraversion is the spelling used in MBTI publications.
=== Functions: sensing/intuition and thinking/feeling ===
Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:
Two perceiving functions: sensation (usually called sensing in MBTI writings) and intuition
Two judging functions: thinking and feeling
According to Jung's typology model, each person uses one of these four functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances. Each of these proposed function can manifest in either an extraverted or an introverted attitude, so Jung's model includes eight combinations of functions and attitudes, four of which are largely conscious and four unconscious. John Beebe created a model that combines ideas of archetypes and the dialogical self with functions, each function viewed as performing the role of an archetype within an internal dialog.
According to Briggs and Myers, people who prefer sensing are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible, and concrete. They tend to distrust hunches. Those who prefer intuition tend to trust information that is associated with other information, either remembered or discovered from context.
Thinking and feeling are described as the decision-making (judging) functions by Briggs and Myers. These functions are used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions. Those who prefer thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint. Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation.
People who prefer thinking do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, "think better" than their feeling counterparts, as the MBTI attempts to measure of preference, not ability or skill. Similarly, those who prefer feeling do not necessarily have "better" emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.
==== Dominant function ====
According to Jung, people use all four cognitive functions. However, one function is generally used in a more conscious and confident way. This dominant function is supported by the secondary (auxiliary) function, and to a lesser degree the tertiary function. The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Myers called this inferior function the "shadow."
The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (extraversion and introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or introverted way.
=== Lifestyle preferences: judging/perception ===
Myers and Briggs added a dimension to Jung's typological model, claiming that people have a preference for using either the judging function (thinking or feeling) or their perceiving function (sensing or intuition) when relating to the outside world (extraversion). According to Myers, judging types like to "have matters settled", while perceptive types prefer to "keep decisions open".
== Accuracy and validity ==
Despite its popularity, the MBTI has been widely regarded as pseudoscience by the scientific community. The validity (statistical validity and test validity) of the MBTI as a psychometric instrument has been the subject of much criticism. Media reports have called the test "pretty much meaningless", and "one of the worst personality tests in existence". The psychologist Adam Grant is especially vocal against MBTI. He called it "the fad that won't die" in a Psychology Today article. Psychometric specialist Robert Hogan wrote: "Most personality psychologists regard the MBTI as little more than an elaborate Chinese fortune cookie". Nicholas Campion comments that this is "a fascinating example of 'disguised astrology', masquerading as science in order to claim respectability."
It has been estimated that between a third and a half of the published material on the MBTI has been produced for the special conferences of the Center for the Application of Psychological Type (which provide the training in the MBTI, and are funded by sales of the MBTI) or as papers in the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited and supported by Myers–Briggs advocates and by sales of the indicator). It has been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny. Many of the studies that endorse MBTI are methodologically weak or unscientific. A 1996 review by Gardner and Martinko concluded: "It is clear that efforts to detect simplistic linkages between type preferences and managerial effectiveness have been disappointing. Indeed, given the mixed quality of research and the inconsistent findings, no definitive conclusion regarding these relationships can be drawn."
The test has been likened to horoscopes, as both rely on the Barnum effect, flattery, and confirmation bias, leading participants to personally identify with descriptions that are somewhat desirable, vague, and widely applicable. MBTI is not recommended in counseling.
=== Little evidence for dichotomies ===
As previously stated in the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator § Four dichotomies section, Isabel Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than its degree. This would mean that scores on each MBTI scale would show a bimodal distribution with most people scoring near the ends of the scales, thus dividing people into either, e.g., an extraverted or an introverted psychological type. However, most studies have found that scores on the individual scales were actually distributed in a centrally peaked manner, similar to a normal distribution, indicating that the majority of people were actually in the middle of the scale and were thus neither clearly introverted nor extraverted. But in order for the MBTI to be scored, a cut-off line is used at the middle of each scale and all those scoring below the line are classified as a low type and those scoring above the line are given the opposite type. Thus, psychometric assessment research fails to support the concept of type, but rather shows that most people lie near the middle of a continuous curve.
Although we do not conclude that the absence of bimodality necessarily proves that the MBTI developers' theory-based assumption of categorical "types" of personality is invalid, the absence of empirical bimodality in IRT-based research of MBTI scores does indeed remove a potentially powerful line of evidence that was previously available to "type" advocates to cite in defense of their position.
=== Little evidence for "dynamic" type stack ===
Some MBTI supporters argue that the application of type dynamics to MBTI (e.g., where inferred "dominant" or "auxiliary" functions like Se / "Extraverted Sensing" or Ni / "Introverted Intuition" are presumed to exist) is a logical category error that has little empirical evidence backing it. Instead, they argue that Myers–Briggs validity as a psychometric tool is highest when each type of category is viewed independently as a dichotomy.
=== Validity and utility ===
The content of the MBTI scales is problematic. In 1991, a National Academy of Sciences committee reviewed data from MBTI research studies and concluded that only the I-E scale has high correlations with comparable scales of other instruments and low correlations with instruments designed to assess different concepts, showing strong validity. In contrast, the S-N and T-F scales show relatively weak validity. The 1991 review committee concluded at the time there was "not sufficient, well-designed research to justify the use of the MBTI in career counseling programs". This study based its measurement of validity on "criterion-related validity (i.e. does the MBTI predict specific outcomes related to interpersonal relations or career success/job performance?)." The committee stressed the discrepancy between popularity of the MBTI and research results stating, "the popularity of this instrument in the absence of proven scientific worth is troublesome." There is insufficient evidence to make claims about utility, particularly of the four letter type derived from a person's responses to the MBTI items.
=== Lack of objectivity ===
The accuracy of the MBTI depends on honest self-reporting. Unlike some personality questionnaires, such as the 16PF Questionnaire, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, or the Personality Assessment Inventory, the MBTI does not use validity scales to assess exaggerated or socially desirable responses. As a result, individuals motivated to do so can fake their responses. One study found a weak but statistically significant correlation between the MBTI judging scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire lie scale, suggesting that more socially conformant individuals are more likely to be considered judging according to the MBTI. If respondents "fear they have something to lose, they may answer as they assume they should." However, the MBTI ethical guidelines state, "It is unethical and in many cases illegal to require job applicants to take the Indicator if the results will be used to screen out applicants." The intent of the MBTI is to provide "a framework for understanding individual differences, and... a dynamic model of individual development".
=== Terminology ===
The terminology of the MBTI has been criticized as being very "vague and general", so as to allow any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, which may result in the Barnum effect, where people give a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them. Others argue that while the MBTI type descriptions are brief, they are also distinctive and precise. Some authors, such as David Keirsey, have created their own systems that claim to provide more detail. For instance, Keirsey's descriptions of his four temperaments, which he correlated with the 16 MBTI personality types, claims to show how the temperaments differ in terms of language use, intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self-image, personal values, social roles, and characteristic hand gestures.
=== Factor analysis ===
Researchers have reported that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another. One factor-analytic study based on (N=1291) college-aged students found six different factors instead of the four purported dimensions, thereby raising doubts as to the construct validity of the MBTI.
=== Correlates ===
According to Hans Eysenck:
The main dimension in the MBTI is called E-I, or extraversion-introversion; this is mostly a sociability scale, correlating quite well with the MMPI social introversion scale (negatively) and the Eysenck Extraversion scale (positively). Unfortunately, the scale also has a loading on neuroticism, which correlates with the introverted end. Thus introversion correlates roughly (i.e., averaging values for males and females) −.44 with dominance, +.37 with abasement, +.46 with counselling readiness, −.52 with self-confidence, −.36 with personal adjustment, and −.45 with empathy. The failure of the scale to disentangle Introversion and Neuroticism (there is no scale for neurotic and other psychopathological attributes in the MBTI) is its worst feature, only equalled by the failure to use factor analysis in order to test the arrangement of items in the scale.
=== Reliability ===
The test-retest reliability of the MBTI tends to be low. Large numbers of people (between 39% and 76% of respondents) obtain different type classifications when retaking the indicator after only five weeks. In a 2013 Fortune Magazine article titled "Have we all been duped by the Myers-Briggs Test?", Roman Krznaric wrote:
The interesting – and somewhat alarming – fact about the MBTI is that, despite its popularity, it has been subject to sustained criticism by professional psychologists for over three decades. One problem is that it displays what statisticians call low "test-retest reliability." So if you retake the test after only a five-week gap, there's around a 50% chance that you will fall into a different personality category compared to the first time you took the test.
A second criticism is that the MBTI mistakenly assumes that personality falls into mutually exclusive categories. ... The consequence is that the scores of two people labelled "introverted" and "extraverted" may be almost exactly the same, but they could be placed into different categories since they fall on either side of an imaginary dividing line.
Within each dichotomy scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorizations remain the same when people are retested within nine months and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people re-administered the MBTI within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% the same type after more than nine months. For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI instrument), the MBTI Manual reports that these scores are higher.
In one study, when people were asked to compare their preferred type to that assigned by the MBTI assessment, only half of people chose the same profile.
Robert and Mary Capraro in 2002 meta-analysis published in the journal Educational and Psychological Measurement found out that "In general, the MBTI and its scales yielded scores with strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates, although variation was observed." The analysis found that of 210 studies from 1998 to 2001, 14 (7%) reported directly on the reliability of the data, 26% reported reliability via prior studies or the test manual, and 56% did not mention reliability at all.
It has been argued that criticisms regarding the MBTI mostly come down to questions regarding the validity of its origins, not questions regarding the validity of the MBTI's usefulness. Others argue that the MBTI can be a reliable measurement of personality, and "like all measures, the MBTI yields scores that are dependent on sample characteristics and testing conditions".
== Statistics ==
A 1973 study of university students in the United States found the INFP type was the most common type among students studying the fine arts and art education subjects, with 36% of fine arts students and 26% of art education students being INFPs. A 1973 study of the personality types of teachers in the United States found Intuitive-Perceptive types (ENFP, INFP, ENTP, INTP) were over-represented in teachers of subjects such as English, social studies and art, as opposed to science and mathematics, which featured more sensing (S) and judging (J) types. A questionnaire of 27,787 high school students suggested INFP students among them showed a significant preference for art, English, and music subjects.
== Utility ==
Isabel Myers claimed that the proportion of different personality types varied by choice of career or course of study. However, researchers examining the proportions of each type within varying professions report that the proportion of MBTI types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population. Some researchers have expressed reservations about the relevance of type to job satisfaction, as well as concerns about the potential misuse of the instrument in labeling people.
The Myers–Briggs Company, then known as Consulting Psychologists Press (and later CPP), became the exclusive publisher of the MBTI in 1975. They call it "the world's most widely used personality assessment", with as many as two million assessments administered annually. The Myers-Briggs Company and other proponents state that the indicator meets or exceeds the reliability of other psychological instruments.
The MBTI has poor predictive validity of employees' job performance ratings. As noted above under Precepts and ethics, the MBTI measures preferences, not ability. The use of the MBTI as a predictor of job success is expressly discouraged in the Manual. It is argued that the MBTI only continues to be popular because many people are qualified to administer it, it is not difficult to understand, and there are many supporting books, websites and other sources which are readily available to the general public.
== Correlations with other instruments ==
=== Keirsey temperaments ===
David Keirsey developed the Keirsey Temperament Sorter after learning about the MBTI system, though he traces four "temperaments" back to Ancient Greek traditions. He maps these temperaments to the Myers–Briggs groupings SP, SJ, NF, and NT. He also gives each of the 16 MBTI types a name, as shown in the below table.
=== Big Five ===
McCrae and Costa based their Five Factor Model (FFM) on Goldberg's Big Five theory. McCrae and Costa present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five personality constructs measured, for example, by the NEO-PI-R. The five purported personality constructs have been labeled: extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism (emotional instability), although there is not universal agreement on the Big Five theory and the related Five-Factor Model (FFM). The following correlations are based on the results from 267 men and 201 women as part of a longitudinal study of aging.
These correlations refer to the second letter shown, i.e., the table shows that I and P have negative correlations with extraversion and conscientiousness, respectively, while F and N have positive correlations with agreeableness and openness, respectively. These results suggest that the four MBTI scales can be incorporated within the Big Five personality trait constructs, but that the MBTI lacks a measure for emotional stability dimension of the Big Five (though the TDI, discussed above, has addressed that dimension). Emotional stability (or neuroticism) is a predictor of depression and anxiety disorders.
These findings led McCrae and Costa to conclude that, "correlational analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did measure aspects of four of the five major dimensions of normal personality. The five-factor model provides an alternative basis for interpreting MBTI findings within a broader, more commonly shared conceptual framework." However, "there was no support for the view that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences or qualitatively distinct types, instead, the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."
== Popularity ==
=== South Korea ===
At the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, MBTI testing became a fad among young South Koreans who were using it in an attempt to find compatible dating partners. The fad originated with a website called 16Personalities.com, which offers a free approximation of the official paid test. Both independent experts and a representative of the MBTI publishing company have cautioned against using the MBTI test for dating, as the test was not designed for this purpose. South Korea experienced a similar trend in the early 2000s with the blood type personality theory.
One survey reported that by December 2021, nearly half of the population had taken the MBTI personality test. The MBTI personality test also became an issue in 2022 presidential election. In March 2022, Korea JoongAng Daily reported that "A growing number of Korean companies are asking job candidates to reveal their MBTI personality test results, angering job hunters who argue that the test is an unreasonable standard to screen and evaluate their capabilities." A survey of South Korean job-seekers in their twenties found that 60% opposed the use of the test for such purposes.
=== China ===
16Personalities.com also influenced an MBTI fad in China, where some employers and job recruiters have asked applicants about their MBTI or 16Personalities results. The trend in China also led to MBTI-related products, paid services, and social media such as podcasts and memes.
=== Misuse ===
In 2021, director Tim Travers Hawkins's film Persona: The Dark Truth Behind Personality Tests premiered on HBO. The company which owns the test condemns its misuse, writing the test "is not, and was never intended to be predictive, and should never be used for hiring, screening or to dictate life decisions".
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Works cited ===
Bess, Tammy L.; Harvey, Robert J. (February 2002). "Bimodal Score Distributions and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: Fact or Artifact?". Journal of Personality Assessment. 78 (1): 176–186. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA7801_11. PMID 11936208.
Bess, Tammy L.; Harvey, R.; Swartz, D. (2003). Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. doi:10.1037/E518712013-042. S2CID 5900294.
Boyle, Gregory J. (March 1995). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some Psychometric Limitations". Australian Psychologist. 30 (1): 71–74. doi:10.1111/j.1742-9544.1995.tb01750.x.
Boyle, Gregory J.; Stankov, Lazar; Cattell, Raymond B. (1995). "Measurement and Statistical Models in the Study of Personality and Intelligence". International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence. pp. 417–446. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-5571-8_20. ISBN 978-1-4419-3239-6.
Coffield, Frank; Moseley, David; Hall, Elaine; Ecclestone, Kathryn (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review (PDF). Learning and Skills Research Centre. ISBN 978-1-85338-918-4.
Carroll, Robert T. (2004-01-09). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-The Skeptic's Dictionary". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2003-12-02. Retrieved 2004-01-08.
Gardner, William L.; Martinko, Mark J. (February 1996). "Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to Study Managers: A Literature Review and Research Agenda". Journal of Management. 22 (1): 45–83. doi:10.1177/014920639602200103.
Grant, Adam (2013). "Goodbye to MBTI, the Fad That Won't Die". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
Huber, Daniel; Kaufmann, Heiner; Steinmann, Martin (2017). "The Missing Link: The Innovation Gap". Bridging the Innovation Gap. Management for Professionals. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 21–41. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55498-3_3. ISBN 978-3-319-55497-6.
Hunsley, John; Lee, Catherine M.; Wood, James M. (2003). "Controversial and questionable assessment techniques". Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press. pp. 39–76. ISBN 978-1-59385-070-8.
Johnson, Donald A.; Saunders, David R. (September 1990). "Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-Expanded Analysis Report". Educational and Psychological Measurement. 50 (3): 561–571. doi:10.1177/0013164490503010.
Jung, C. G. (1971) [1921]. Psychological Types. Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Vol. 6 (3rd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09770-4.
Keirsey, David (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis Book Company. ISBN 978-1-885705-02-0.
Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Lynn, Steven Jay; Lohr, Jeffrey M. (2014). Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Second Edition. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1-4625-1751-0.
McCrae, Robert R.; Costa, Paul T. (March 1989). "Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality". Journal of Personality. 57 (1): 17–40. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x. PMID 2709300.
Myers, Isabel B.; McCaulley, Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator) (3rd ed.). Consulting Psychologists Press. ISBN 978-0-89106-130-4.
Myers, Isabel B.; Myers, Peter B. (1995) [1980]. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89106-074-1.
Nowack, K. (1996). "Is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator the Right Tool to Use?". Performance in Practice, American Society of Training and Development. 6. Archived from the original on 2010-06-27. Retrieved 2010-08-03.
Pearman, Roger R.; Albritton, Sarah C. (1997). I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You. Davies-Black. ISBN 978-0-89106-096-3.
Pittenger, David J. (1993). "Measuring the MBTI... And Coming Up Short" (PDF). Journal of Career Planning and Employment. 54 (1): 48–52. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-12-06.
Reynierse, James H. (2009). "The Case Against Type Dynamics" (PDF). Journal of Psychological Type. 69 (1): 1–20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-12-30. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
Schuwirth, L (2004). "What the educators are saying". BMJ. 328 (7450): 1244. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7450.1244. PMC 416604.
Stein, Randy; Swan, Alexander B. (February 2019). "Evaluating the validity of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator theory: A teaching tool and window into intuitive psychology". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 13 (2) e12434. doi:10.1111/spc3.12434.
Thyer, Bruce A.; Pignotti, Monica (2015). Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-7768-1.
== Further reading ==
Dunning, Brian (August 31, 2010). "Skeptoid #221: The Myers-Briggs Personality Test". Skeptoid.
Falt, Jack. Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author Archived 2004-10-11 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles Archived 2004-11-20 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
Jung, Carl Gustav (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207
Krauskopf, Charles J. and Saunders, David R. (1994) Personality and Ability: The Personality Assessment System. Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-9282-1
Long, Thomas G. (October 1992). "Myers-Briggs and Other Modern Astrologies". Theology Today. 49 (3): 291–295. doi:10.1177/004057369204900301.
Pearman, R.; Lombardo, M.; and Eichinger, R. (2005). YOU: Being More Effective In Your MBTI Type. Minn.:Lominger International, Inc.
Wicklein, Robert C; Rojewski, Jay W (1995). "The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers". Journal of Technology Education. 7 (1). doi:10.21061/jte.v7i1.a.5. hdl:10919/8594.
== External links ==
Media related to Myers-Briggs Type Indicator at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Psychological Type at Wikiquote
"Meet Yourself: How to Use the Personality Paint Box". findingaids.lib.msu.edu. December 22, 1926. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
Patrick Vermeren, The (uncomfortable) truth of HR and leadership development, TEDxKMA |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Fawkes | Wally Fawkes | Walter Ernest Fawkes (né Pearsall; 21 June 1924 – 1 March 2023), also known as Trog when signing cartoons, was a Canadian-British jazz clarinettist and satirical cartoonist.
After emigrating with his family to Britain from Canada when he was 7 years old, he taught himself the clarinet, and first joined a revivalist jazz band with George Webb in 1944. He later created a new, more mainstream band with friend Humphrey Lyttelton, and it soon became one of the leading British jazz bands of the 1950s.
Fawkes also achieved success illustrating cartoons under the pen name "Trog". His most notable work in this business was Flook, a comic strip which ran in The Daily Mail newspaper from 1949 to 1984. Initially aimed at children, the strip evolved over time into a gentle satire of British politics. When Flook ended he continued to illustrate until failing eyesight forced him to retire in 2005 at age 81, leaving him to concentrate solely on his clarinet playing.
== Early life ==
Fawkes was born on 21 June 1924, as Walter Ernest Pearsall in Vancouver, British Columbia. His father, Douglas Pearsall, was a Canadian railway clerk whom his mother, Mabel (née Ainsley), later left for Charles Fawkes, a British printer. Mabel took her children with Charles to Britain in 1931.
Enthused by comic books from a young age, Fawkes left school at 14 with a scholarship to study at Sidcup Art School, although he later left after 18 months due to financial restraints. On the outbreak of the Second World War, Fawkes was first employed painting camouflage on factory roofs to hide them from enemy bombing. A bout of pleurisy made Fawkes unfit for service and he was instead employed by the Coal Commission to work on maps of coal seams.
== Career ==
=== As a jazz musician ===
It was during the war years that Fawkes began playing in jazz bands.
In 1947, he took a weekly course at the Camberwell School of Art in London where he met future friends Humphrey Lyttelton and Francis Wilford-Smith. Lyttelton would become a long-lasting close friend. Fawkes later joined George Webb's Dixielanders, a semi-professional revivalist jazz band that featured Lyttelton on trumpet, in 1944. When Lyttelton left the Dixielanders in January 1948 to form his own jazz band, Fawkes went with him and stayed there until 1956, by which time it had evolved past revivalism and became more mainstream. This suited Fawkes, as his own bands from then on could be broadly described as mainstream. He re-united with Lyttelton periodically thereafter, and, though highly talented on his instrument, remained (in the broadest sense of the term) an "amateur". He based his style on that of American jazz composer Sidney Bechet and once recorded with him and Louis Armstrong, as part of Lyttelton's band, in 1949. He played with George Melly and John Chilton in the Feetwarmers band in the early 1970s. After giving up illustrating in 2005, Fawkes continued to play in various bands, with one of his last performances being held in 2011.
=== As a cartoonist ===
In 1942, he entered an art competition that was judged by the Daily Mail's chief cartoonist Leslie Illingworth, who found him work with the Clement Davies advertising agency. On Fawkes' 21st birthday in 1945, Illingworth found Fawkes work at the Daily Mail drawing column-breaks and decorative illustrations. He signed the drawings as Trog, which was short for Troglodyte which came from his days from World War II. He once joked that due to the amount of time spent in underground air-raid shelters people in London were becoming troglodytes. Fawkes was later inspired by this to adopt "Trog" as his pen-name.
In 1949, Fawkes's comic strip Flook first appeared in the Daily Mail, and was a success. It featured the unlikely and satirical adventures of its small and furry eponymous hero. Fawkes's role on the Mail was chiefly as illustrator, and he had a strong team of collaborators on the scripts for Flook over the years, including George Melly, Barry Norman, Humphrey Lyttelton and Barry Took. Flook ran for 35 years in the Daily Mail until its sudden cancellation in 1984. Margaret Thatcher once said that it was "quite the best commentary of the politics of the day". When the news broke that Fawkes was leaving the Mail he was signed up by Robert Maxwell, who in July 1984 had bought the Daily Mirror, from where Fawkes took Flook. It then transferred briefly to the Sunday Mirror before being dropped completely.
Fawkes also produced political cartoons for The Spectator with George Melly as his author. The two also contributed occasionally to Private Eye and, beginning in 1962, to the New Statesman. Despite producing larger political cartoons for the Daily Mail, his future role as Illingworth's successor as lead cartoonist was threatened by the paper's preference for the work of Gerald Scarfe. Fawkes therefore began submitting work to other publications, and he began contributing political cartoons to The Observer. At The Observer he fell foul of the readership when readers complained that some of his cartoons about the British royalty were "grossly discourteous to the Queen". In 1967 Scarfe left the Mail and Fawkes' position at the paper became more secure, and in 1968 he stopped writing for The Observer to focus solely on the Mail.
Fawkes became the Daily Mail's political cartoonist when Illingworth retired in 1969. That year he also replaced Illingworth as political cartoonist of Punch. In 1971, the Daily Mail absorbed the Daily Sketch, and the role of transforming the old paper from a broadsheet into a tabloid fell to the old Sketch editor Sir David English, who gave the role of political cartoonist to Stan McMurtry and Fawkes was dropped from his old role. Fawkes returned to The Observer in 1971 and continued to work for Punch. After Flook was cancelled in 1985, Fawkes worked briefly for Today and then served a short stint at the London Daily News. During the 1980s he continued to contribute to Punch and Private Eye, and for The Observer he drew a pocket cartoon named "mini-Trog". In 1996 he left The Observer and joined The Sunday Telegraph, where he remained until failing eyesight forced him to retire in 2005.
In 2013 his work was celebrated with an exhibition at the Cartoon Museum of London.
== Personal life ==
In 1949 Fawkes married the journalist Sandy Fawkes, who later became known for surviving an affair with the American serial killer Paul John Knowles. They had four children together, one of whom died of SIDS (cot death). In 1965, he married Susan Clifford – daughter of the Australian composer Hubert Clifford – and they had two children.
Fawkes died in London on 1 March 2023, at age 98, following a short illness.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lambiek Comiclopedia biography
Wally Fawkes discography at Discogs
Wally Fawkes at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorne_Warneke | Lorne Warneke | Lorne Baird Warneke (November 16, 1942 – August 28, 2020) was an Alberta-based psychiatrist and advocate for 2SLGBTQ+ people in Canada. He founded the first Canadian gender identity clinic at Grey Nuns Community Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta.
== Life ==
Warneke was born in Alberta, Canada on November 16, 1942 to John and Ester Warneke. The family moved to Leedale, a hamlet in central Alberta, and settled on a farm there for the duration of Warneke's childhood. Warneke had one sibling, his sister, Diane Lorna Warneke.
After graduating high school, Warneke attended the University of Alberta and obtained a Bachelor of Science, majoring in Zoology in 1963. He then attended medical school at the same university, graduating in 1967. Warneke was introduced to psychiatry in his final two years of medical school.
Although he grew up knowing he was gay, Warneke did not come out until he was in his 40's. Warneke went on to marry John Chan. The two remained partners for 24 years until Warneke's death in 2020.
== Career ==
Warneke began his career as a psychiatrist at the Grey Nuns Community Hospital, a Catholic hospital in Edmonton, Alberta. He went on to become a Clinical Professor at the University of Alberta in the Department of Psychiatry.
Warneke specialized in working with patients who had Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). His interest in OCD began while spending an extra year training at Maudsley Hospital, a psychiatric hospital in London, England. After returning to Canada, Warneke treated many patients with severe OCD and continued to use his expertise of OCD for the duration of his career, writing literature reviews, case studies, book reviews, and letters to the editor on the topic.
=== 2SLGBTQ+ activism ===
Throughout his career, Warneke focused on working with and advocating for 2SLGBTQ+, especially transgender, patients. In 1984, Alberta Health Services agreed to cover sex reassignment surgery for three patients after lobbying by Warneke and others. Later, in 1996, Warneke founded a gender identity clinic at Gray Nuns Community Hospital. The gender clinic was the first of its kind in Canada. Due to the hospital's policies and pervasive attitudes at the time, Warneke was unable to advertise the existence of the gender clinic and he faced hostility from many within the organization. Additionally, Warneke trained Psychiatry Residents while a Clinical Professor at the University of Alberta, ensuring future generations of psychiatrists were aware of the nuances of providing gender-affirming care to transgender patients.
Warneke and Dr. Ian T. Kroll, a psychiatrist based in Calgary who also advocated for 2SLGBTQ+ rights, chastised the Alberta government for neglecting to enshrine gay rights in legislation in a 1995 article. Around the same time, Warneke gave testimony as an expert witness for Vriend v Alberta, a landmark legal case for 2SLGBTQ+ rights in Canada.
For the second National Trans Awareness Week in May 2005, Warneke delivered a presentation on trans issues to attendees of the associated film festival and symposium.
In 2009, the Alberta government made the decision to stop covering sex reassignment surgery as a cost-saving measure for the province. Warneke lobbied against this decision but this caught the ire of the Covenant Health Board, the governing body of Catholic health institutions in Alberta like the Grey Nuns Hospital where Warneke worked. The Board attempted to prevent him from seeing transgender patients as helping them change their bodies went against the Catholic values of the Board. In spite of administrative disapproval, Warneke continued to see transgender patients. A "phase-out program" for sex reassignment surgery was announced in 2010 as a transitional measure but the procedure was fully relisted as a provincially funded healthcare service in 2012.
== Retirement and legacy ==
After a career spanning 50 years, Warneke retired in 2017. John Chan, Warneke's husband, noted how difficult the decision to retire was for the psychiatrist as "he really struggled leaving behind all the people who still needed his help." Soon after retiring, the University of Alberta presented Warneke with the Distinguished Alumni Award. Although Warneke spent much of his retirement enjoying his hobbies, he never stopped advocating for the 2SLGBTQ+ community, contributing various letters and op-eds about topics like conversion therapy to the Edmonton Journal.
On August 28, 2020, Warneke died after complications related to a fall in his home. In honour of Warneke's life and career, John Chan donated a money to memorialize a bench at the Grey Nuns Hospital. The bench was dedicated on October 5, 2022. In July 2023, Chan established the Dr. Lorne Baird Warneke LGBTQ2S+ Resident Endowment to financially support residents in the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Alberta "dedicated to continuing Warneke's legacy of care and advocacy".
== Bibliography ==
Warneke, Lorne B. (1978). Human sexuality and sexual dysfunction. Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 15840747
Warneke, Lorne B, Otto, William, Gill, David M. (1980). Notes in clinical psychiatry. Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 15893520
Warneke, Lorne B, Otto, William, Gill, David M, Knowles, Alan. (1984). Clinical notes in psychiatry (2nd ed.). Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 70463772
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Supreme_Federal_Court#:~:text=The%20Brazilian%20Presidents%20who%20appointed,position%20since%2028%20September%202023 | President of the Supreme Federal Court | The President of the Supreme Federal Court is the highest-ranking officer of the Brazilian judiciary branch. The holder is also president of the National Council of Justice (CNJ). Among their responsibilities are representing both the Court and the council before other branches of government and authorities, presiding over plenary sessions of both institutions, enforcing the bylaws of the Court and Council, deciding points of order in their respective sessions, making decisions on injunctions during recess or vacation, and swearing in justices of the Supreme Court and councillors of the CNJ. The President of the Supreme Federal Court is fourth in the Brazilian presidential line of succession and presides all impeachment trials at the federal level.
The President and Vice President of the Supreme Court are elected by their peers through a secret ballot, requiring a minimum quorum of eight justices. The election follows a two-round system, and the offices are held for a single, non-renewable two-year term. For most of Brazil’s republican history, the process has followed a tradition of rotation: the most senior justice who has not yet served becomes President, and the second-most senior is elected Vice President. This practice is not established by law but upheld as a long-standing custom of the Court.
The self-governance and self-determination of the Supreme Federal Court regarding the choice of its president did not exist in two historical periods. During the monarchy, the Emperor of Brazil appointed the President of the Supreme Court of Justice for a renewable three-year term. Under the Constitution of 1937, the President of Brazil appointed the President of the Court from among the justices of the current composition for an indefinite term.
The longest presidency was held by Hermínio do Espírito Santo for 13 years and 312 days, while the shortest was held by Leoni Ramos for 23 days. The current President is Justice Edson Fachin, who has held the position since 29 September 2025.
== Presidents of the Supreme Court of Justice (1829–1891) ==
== Presidents of the Supreme Federal Court (1891–present) ==
== Timeline ==
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon | Annie Jump Cannon | Annie Jump Cannon (; December 11, 1863 – April 13, 1941) was an American astronomer whose cataloging work was instrumental in the development of contemporary stellar classification. With Edward C. Pickering, she is credited with the creation of the Harvard Classification Scheme, which was the first serious attempt to organize and classify stars based on their temperatures and spectral types. She was nearly deaf throughout her career after 1893, as a result of scarlet fever. She was a suffragist and a member of the National Women's Party.
== Personal life ==
Cannon was born on December 11, 1863, in Dover, Delaware. She was the eldest of three daughters born to Wilson Cannon, a Delaware shipbuilder and state senator, and his second wife, Mary Jump. Cannon's mother was the first person to teach her the constellations and she encouraged her to follow her own interests, suggesting that she pursue studies in mathematics, chemistry, and biology at Wellesley College. Cannon and her mother used an old astronomy textbook to identify stars seen from their attic. Cannon's mother also taught her daughter household economics, which Cannon would later use to organize her research.
Cannon took her mother's advice and pursued her love of astronomy. She lost most of her hearing sometime during her early adult years. Sources vary on the time frame and actual cause, although it is often attributed to scarlet fever. Cannon's personality has been described as "ebullient". She chose not to marry or have children.
== Education, 1880–1896 ==
At Wilmington Conference Academy (later known as Wesley College), Cannon was a promising student, particularly in mathematics. In 1880, Cannon was sent to Wellesley College in Massachusetts, one of the top academic schools for women in the US, where she studied physics and astronomy.
Cannon studied under Sarah Frances Whiting, one of the few women physicists in the United States at the time, and went on to become the valedictorian at Wellesley College. She graduated with a degree in physics in 1884 and returned home to Delaware for a decade.
During these years, Cannon developed her skills in the new art of photography. In 1892, she traveled through Europe taking photographs with her Blair box camera. After she returned home her prose and photos from Spain were published in a pamphlet called "In the Footsteps of Columbus", published by the Blair Company and distributed as a souvenir at the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.
Soon afterward, Cannon was stricken with scarlet fever that rendered her nearly deaf. This hearing loss made it difficult for Cannon to socialize. As a result, she immersed herself in her work. In 1894, Cannon's mother died and life at home grew more difficult. She wrote to her former instructor at Wellesley, professor Sarah Frances Whiting, to see if there was a job opening. Whiting hired her as a junior physics teacher at the college. This opportunity allowed Cannon to take graduate courses at the college in physics and astronomy. Whiting also inspired Cannon to learn about spectroscopy.
In order to gain access to a better telescope, Cannon enrolled at Radcliffe College in 1894 as a "special student", continuing her studies of astronomy. Radcliffe was set up near Harvard College for Harvard professors to repeat their lectures to the young Radcliffe women. This relationship gave Cannon access to the Harvard College Observatory. In 1896, Edward C. Pickering hired her as his assistant at the Observatory. In 1907, Cannon finished her studies and received her master's degree from Wellesley College.
== Career, 1896–1940 ==
In 1896, Cannon became a member of the Harvard Computers, a group of women hired by Harvard Observatory director Edward C. Pickering to complete the Henry Draper Catalogue, with the goal of mapping and defining every star in the sky to a photographic magnitude of about 9. In her notes, she referred to brightness as "Int" which was short for "intensity". In 1927, Pickering said that she was able to classify stars very quickly, "Miss Cannon is the only person in the world—man or woman—who can do this work so quickly." Mary Anna Draper, the widow of wealthy physician and amateur astronomer Henry Draper, had set up a fund to support the work. Men at the laboratory did the labor of operating the telescopes and taking photographs while the women examined the data, carried out astronomical calculations, and cataloged those photographs during the day. Pickering made the Catalogue a long-term project to obtain the optical spectra of as many stars as possible and to index and classify stars by spectra.
When Cannon first started cataloging the stars, she was able to classify 1,000 stars in three years, but by 1913, she was able to work on 200 stars an hour. Cannon could classify three stars a minute just by looking at their spectral patterns and, if using a magnifying glass, could classify stars down to the ninth magnitude, around 16 times fainter than the human eye can see. Her work was also highly accurate.
Not long after work began on the Draper Catalogue, a disagreement developed as to how to classify the stars. The analysis was first started by Nettie Farrar, who left a few months later to be married. This left the problem to the ideas of Henry Draper's niece Antonia Maury (who insisted on a complex classification system) and Williamina Fleming (who was overseeing the project for Pickering, and wanted a much more simple, straightforward approach). Cannon negotiated a compromise: she started by examining the bright southern hemisphere stars. To these stars, she applied a third system, a division of stars into the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M. Her scheme was based on the strength of the Balmer absorption lines. After absorption lines were understood in terms of stellar temperatures, her initial classification system was rearranged to avoid having to update star catalogs.
In 1901, Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra.
Cannon and the other women at the observatory, including Henrietta Swan Leavitt, Antonia Maury, and Florence Cushman, were criticized at first for being "out of their place" and not being housewives. Women did not commonly rise beyond the level of assistant in this line of work at the time and many were paid only 25 cents an hour to work seven hours a day, six days a week. Leavitt, another woman in the observatory who made significant contributions, shared with Cannon the experience of being deaf. Cannon dominated this field because of her "tidiness" and patience for the tedious work and even helped the men in the observatory gain popularity. Cannon helped broker partnerships and exchanges of equipment between men in the international community and assumed an ambassador-like role outside of it.
In 1911 she was made the Curator of Astronomical Photographs at Harvard. In 1914, she was admitted as an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1921, she became one of the first women to receive an honorary doctorate from a European university when she was awarded an honorary doctor's degree in math and astronomy from Groningen University.
On May 9, 1922, the International Astronomical Union passed the resolution to formally adopt Cannon's stellar classification system; with only minor changes, it is still being used for classification today. Also in 1922, Cannon spent six months in Arequipa, Peru, to photograph stars in the Southern hemisphere.
In 1925, she became the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate of science from Oxford University.
In 1933, she represented professional women at the World's Fair in Chicago (Century of Progress).In 1935, she created the Annie J. Cannon Prize for "the woman of any country, whose contributions to the science of astronomy are the most distinguished."
In 1938, she became the William C. Bond Astronomer at Harvard University.
The astronomer Cecilia Payne collaborated with Cannon and used Cannon's data to show that the stars were composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.
== Later life and death, 1940–1941 ==
Annie Jump Cannon's career in astronomy lasted for more than 40 years, until her retirement in 1940. After retirement she continued to actively work on astronomy in the observatory up until a few weeks before she died. During her career, Cannon helped women gain acceptance and respect within the scientific community. Her calm and hardworking attitude and demeanor helped her gain respect throughout her lifetime and paved the path for future women astronomers.
Cannon died on April 13, 1941, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, at the age of 77. She died in a hospital after being ill for more than a month. The American Astronomical Society presents the Annie Jump Cannon Award annually to female astronomers for distinguished work in astronomy.
== Work ==
Cannon manually classified more stars in a lifetime than anyone else, with a total of around 350,000 stars. She discovered 300 variable stars, five novas, and one spectroscopic binary, creating a bibliography that included about 200,000 references.
== Awards and honors ==
1921, honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen, the Netherlands
1925, first woman recipient of an honorary doctorate from Oxford University
1925, elected to the American Philosophical Society
1929, chosen as one of the "greatest living American women" by the League of Women Voters.
1931, first woman to receive the Henry Draper Medal
1932, won the Ellen Richards prize from the Association to Aid Scientific Research by Woman
1935, received an honorary degree from Oglethorpe University
First woman elected as officer of the American Astronomical Society
The lunar crater Cannon is named after her.
The asteroid 1120 Cannonia is named after her.
Nicknamed "Census Taker of the Sky" for classifying 300,000 stellar bodies, more than any other person
The Annie J. Cannon Award in Astronomy named in her honor; awarded since 1934 (now annually) to a woman astronomer in North America.
Cannon Hall, a residence dormitory at the University of Delaware, named in her honor.
The Annie Jump Cannon House, was the residence of the President of Wesley College in Dover, Delaware, before the college's acquisition by Delaware State University in July 2021.
Named Curator of Astronomical Photographs at Harvard.
Member of the Royal Astronomical Society in Europe.
Honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa at Wellesley College
Charter member of the Maria Mitchell Association
She is among the list of women in the Heritage Floor as part of Judy Chicago's art installation The Dinner Party.
1994, Cannon is inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame
In 2014, a Google Doodle honoring her and her work appeared.
In 2019, she was depicted on Delaware's American Innovation $1 Coin.
== Bibliography ==
Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). Henry Draper Catalogue. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. LCCN 18018382. OCLC 809461762.
Available in an "updated, corrected, and extended machine-readable version" at "Henry Draper Catalogue and Extension (Cannon+ 1918–1924; ADC 1989)". VizieR archives. Strasbourg, France: Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg [Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center]. Retrieved January 8, 2015.
Online from Harvard University at "The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System".; abstracts link to GIF and PDF formats.
Cannon, Annie J.; Pickering, Edward C. (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue 0h, 1h, 2h, and 3h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 91: 1. Bibcode:1918AnHar..91....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 4h, 5h and 6h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 92: 1. Bibcode:1918AnHar..92....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 7h and 8h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 93: 1. Bibcode:1919AnHar..93....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 9h, 10h, and 11h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 94: 1. Bibcode:1919AnHar..94....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 12h, 13h, and 14h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 95: 1. Bibcode:1920AnHar..95....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 15h and 16h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 96: 1. Bibcode:1921AnHar..96....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 17h and 18h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 97: 1. Bibcode:1922AnHar..97....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 19h and 20h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 98: 1. Bibcode:1923AnHar..98....1C.
Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1918). "The Henry Draper catalogue : 21h, 22h, and 23h". Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 99: 1. Bibcode:1924AnHar..99....1C.
—— (1923). "The spectrum of Nova Aquilae". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 81 (3): 179. Bibcode:1923AnHar..81..179C. OCLC 786374390.
—— (1916). "Spectra having bright lines". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 76 (3): 19. Bibcode:1916AnHar..76...19C. OCLC 786374401.
—— (1912). "Comparison of objective prism and slit spectrograms". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 56 (8): 251. Bibcode:1912AnHar..56..251C. OCLC 786374385.
—— (1912). "The spectra of 745 double stars". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 56 (7): 227. Bibcode:1912AnHar..56..227C. OCLC 786374368.
—— (1912). "Classification of 1,688 southern stars by means of their spectra". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 56 (5): 115. Bibcode:1912AnHar..56..115C. OCLC 786363259.
—— (1912). "Classification of 1,477 stars by means of their photographic spectra". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 56 (4): 65. Bibcode:1912AnHar..56...65C. OCLC 786374355.
——; Pickering, Edward Charles (1909). "Maxima and minima of variable stars of long period". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 55 (pt. 2): 95. Bibcode:1909AnHar..55...95C. OCLC 786370272.
——; Pickering, Edward Charles (1907). "Second catalogue of variable stars". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 55 (pt. 1): 1. Bibcode:1907AnHar..55....1C. OCLC 603459862.
—— (1903). "A provisional catalogue of variable stars". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 48 (3): 91. Bibcode:1903AnHar..48...91P. OCLC 786370792.
——; Pickering, Edward Charles (1901). "Spectra of bright southern stars photographed with the 13-inch Boyden telescope as a part of the Henry Draper Memorial". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. 28 (pt. 2): 129. Bibcode:1901AnHar..28..129C. OCLC 786363059.
== See also ==
Harvard Computers
Henry Draper Catalogue
"Sisters of the Sun", eighth episode of Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, 2014 American science documentary television series
Deaf in STEM fields
== References ==
== Sources ==
Des Jardins, Julie (2010). The Madame Curie Complex—The Hidden History of Women in Science. New York, NY, US: Feminist Press. ISBN 9781558616554. OCLC 618891417.
Dvorak, John (August 1, 2013). "The Women Who Created Modern Astronomy". Sky and Telescope. 126 (2): 28–33. Bibcode:2013S&T...126b..28D. ISSN 0037-6604. OCLC 907890766.
Mack, Pamela (1990). "Straying from their orbits: Women in astronomy in America". In Kass-Simon, G.; Farnes, Patricia; Nash, Deborah (eds.). Women of Science: Righting the Record. Bloomington, IN, US: Indiana University Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780253208132. OCLC 28112853. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
Reynolds, Moira Davison (2004). American Women Scientists: 23 Inspiring Biographies, 1900–2000. Jefferson, NC, US: McFarland. ISBN 9780786421619. OCLC 60686608.
Sobel, Dava (2016). The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars. Penguin. ISBN 9780670016952.
Welther, Barbara L. (October 1978). "Highlights of an Exhibit to Honor Annie Jump Cannon". The Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. 7 (2): 85–87. Bibcode:1978JAVSO...7...85W.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Annie Jump Cannon audio talk with colleagues from 365DaysOfAstronomy.Org
Wellesley College Astronomy Department: Annie Jump Cannon Archived December 12, 2012, at archive.today from Wellesley College
Bibliography on Women in Astronomy from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Annie Jump Cannon: Theorist of Star Spectra, from the San Diego Supercomputer Center
"In the footsteps of Columbus" by Annie Jump Cannon (souvenir photo book handed out at the 1893 Worlds Fair by the Blair Camera Company)
Google Doodle celebrating Annie Jump Cannon's 151st Birthday
Project Continua: Biography of Annie Jump Cannon Project Continua is a web-based multimedia resource dedicated to the creation and preservation of women's intellectual history from the earliest surviving evidence into the 21st Century.
Papers of Annie Jump Cannon, 1863–1978 at Harvard University.
Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy at American Astronomical Society
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Annie Jump Cannon", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Annie Jump Cannon – Delaware Almanac on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embraer_EMB_110_Bandeirante | Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante | The Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (English: pioneer) is a Brazilian twin-turboprop light transport aircraft designed by Embraer for military and civil use.
The EMB 110 was designed by the French engineer Max Holste; it had been designed in line with specifications issued by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965. The goal was to create a general purpose aircraft, suitable for both civilian and military roles with a low operational cost and high reliability. On 26 October 1968, the YV-95 prototype performed its maiden flight; an additional two EMB 110 development aircraft would follow along with an initial order for 80 transport aircraft for the Brazilian Air Force in the following year. Type certification was received from the Brazilian aviation authorities in late 1972, permitting its entry to service in April 1973 with the Brazilian airline company Transbrasil.
Various customers in both the military and civilian sectors opted to procure the EMB 110 during its 22-year production run. Over one hundred examples would serve with the Brazilian Air Force, who would modernise numerous examples during the twenty-first century to permit their continued operation. The EMB 110, being customisable to suit various roles and operator requirements, was adapted for various specialist roles, including aerial observation, maritime patrol, and search and rescue missions. During the 1970s, Embraer opted to design an enlarged derivative of the EMB 110, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; being faster, outfitted with a pressurized cabin, and able to accommodate up to 30 passengers, Embraer opted to concentrate its resources on the new aircraft. As a result, production of the EMB 110 was terminated in 1990.
== Design and development ==
=== Background ===
The origins of the EMB 110 Bandeirante can be traced back to the issuing of a directive by the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics in 1965; this called for the production of a transport aircraft for both civilian and military operations that would be reliable and possess low operating costs. It was to be equipped with turboprop engines, a low-mounted wing, and have sufficient capacity to accommodate eight personnel; these stipulations had been drawn from a study of Brazilian commercial air traffic, and aimed to produce an aircraft that would be well suited to the existing airport infrastructure of the country at that time. The resulting specification that had been generated under the IPD-6504 programme would greatly shape the future aircraft.
Early work on what would become the EMB 110 actually predates the establishment of its manufacturer, Embraer, which was founded in August 1969. The lead designer was the French engineer Max Holste. Construction of the prototype was supervised by the Brazilian aeronautical engineer Ozires Silva, who would also play a key role in founding and running of Embraer. The company was created to undertake the aircraft's commercialisation and serial production.
On 26 October 1968, the first prototype, carrying the military designation YC-95, performed its maiden flight from São José dos Campos Airport. Piloted by José Mariotto Ferreira and accompanied by flight engineer Michel Cury, it landed after roughly 50 minutes. Prior to this point, a total of 110,000 project hours had been worked, producing 12,000 manufacturing drawings, supported by 22,000 hours of structural and aerodynamic calculations; an estimated 282,000 hours of aircraft manufacturing and tooling has also been expended. The prototype was officially presented before various civil and military officials along with members of the press at an event held four days later, during which its maiden flight was repeated. The positive performance of the prototype led to production of the aircraft, and thus the establishment of Embraer, being approved in mid-1969; the newly created company would assume responsibility for its production on 2 January 1970.
=== Redesign and quantity production ===
An additional pair of prototypes were constructed, which were designated EMB 100. On 19 October 1969, the second prototype performed its first flight, while the third prototype followed on 29 June 1970. While these prototypes yielded positive test results, it was recognised that market conditions had shifted to the point where an eight-seat aircraft appeared to be less viable than it had previously appeared; thus, it was decided to quickly redesign the EMB 100 into the EMB 110 Bandeirante, which featured several technological advances along with greater capacity.
In May 1970, the programme was bolstered by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB) deciding to issue Embraer with an initial order for 80 production aircraft. Near the end of 1972, the Bandeirante received its Brazilian airworthiness certificate. On 9 February 1973, the first delivery was made to FAB.
In a typical configuration, the EMB 110 seated between 15 and 21 passengers, and was flown by a pair of pilots. Various configurations and customisations were possible in order to suit customers' diverse requirements and operating conditions. The EMB 110P1A/41 model, which was furnished with seats for 18 passengers, had a length of 15.1 metres (50 ft), a height of 4.92 metres (16.1 ft), and a wingspan of 15.33 metres (50.3 ft). It has a maximum cruising speed of 411 km/h (222 kn), while its more economical cruising speed was 341 km/h (184 kn), at which speed an effective range of 1,964 km (1,060 nmi) can be achieved even while retaining reserve fuels for another 45 minutes of flight. The EMB 110 has a service ceiling of 21,500 feet (6,600 m).
During the 1970s, Embraer opted to build on the success of the EMB 110 by designing an enlarged derivative of the aircraft, designated as the EMB 120 Brasilia; beyond being large enough to accommodate up to 30 passengers, it was also faster and furnished with a pressurized cabin. All further development of the EMB 110 was halted by Embraer during the 1980s in order to concentrate its resources on the further development and production of the newer EMB 120 instead.
== Operational history ==
Between 1968 and 1990, Embraer constructed a total of 494 aircraft in numerous configurations for a variety of roles. The passenger model first flew on 9 August 1972 and entered commercial service on 16 April 1973 with the now defunct Brazilian airline company Transbrasil. On 8 July 1985, the first aircraft to be operated by the Irish budget airline Ryanair in 1985 was 15-seat EMB 110; the airline continued to operate the type up until 1989. By October 2018, 50 years after its first flight and 498 deliveries, about 150 EMB 110s were still operating at airlines, air taxis, government entities, and air forces around the world. Production of the type came to an end in 1990, the EMB 110 having been superseded by the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, a derived successor.
During February 1973, deliveries of the type commenced to the Brazilian Air Force. A pair of EMB 111A Patrulha maritime patrol aircraft were leased to the Argentine Navy during the Falklands War, acting as a stop-gap measure between the retirement of the service's last Lockheed SP-2H Neptune and the introduction of modified Lockheed L-188 Electras. On 15 December 2010, the Brazilian Air Force flew its first upgraded EMB 110, which had been equipped with modern avionics equipment. Designated as C/P-95, the aircraft has had several new systems installed by Israeli firm Elbit Systems' Brazilian subsidiary, Aeroeletronica. At the time, the Brazilian Air Force had an active fleet of 96 EMB 110s. In 2017, the Brazilian Air Force was reportedly operating 48 EMB 110s.
== Variants ==
YC-95 or EMB 100 – Prototype, powered by two 550 shp (410 kW) Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-20 turboprop engines. Three built.
EMB 110 Initial production version, powered by 680 shp (510 kW) PT6A-27 engines – Twelve seat military transport for the Brazilian Air Force, who designate it the C-95. 60 built.
EMB 110A – Radio calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force (EC-95). Three built.
EC-95B – Calibration version for the Brazilian Air Force.
EMB 110B – Aerial survey, aerial photography version. Seven built, six as R-95 for the Brazilian Air Force.
EMB 110C – The first commercial model, similar to C-95, a 15-seat passenger version.
EMB 110C(N) – Three navalised EMB 110Cs sold to the Chilean Navy.
EMB 110E Executive version of EMB 110C. Six to eight seats.
EMB 110E(J) Modified version of EMB 110E.
EMB 110K Stretched version with 0.85 m (2 ft 9 in) fuselage plug and 750 shp (560 kW) PT6A-34 engines and fitted with ventral fin.
EMB 110K1 – Cargo transport version for the Brazilian Air Force, with cargo door in rear fuselage. 20 built, designated C-95A.
EMB 110P Dedicated commuter version of EMB 110C for Brazilian airlines, powered by PT6A-27 or -34 engines.
EMB 110P1 – Quick change civil cargo/passenger transport version based on EMB 110K1, with same rear cargo door.
EMB 110P2 – Dedicated civil passenger version of EMB 110P1, without cargo door.
EMB 111A Patrulha – Maritime patrol version for the Brazilian Air Force. The aircraft also has the Brazilian Air Force designation P-95 Bandeirulha.
P-95B – Improved EMB 111, with more advanced avionics and strengthened structure. Ten built for Brazilian Air Force.
EMB 111AN – Six maritime patrol aircraft sold to the Chilean Navy.
C-95B – Quick change cargo/passenger version for the Brazilian Air Force.
EMB 110P1 SAR – Search and rescue version.
EMB 110P/A – 18 seat passenger version, intended for export.
EMB 110P1/A – Mixed passenger/freight version with enlarged cargo door.
EMB 110P1/41 – Cargo/passenger transport aircraft.
EMB 110P1K/110K – Military version.
C-95C – The Brazilian Air Force version of the EMB 110P2.
EMB 110P2
EMB 110P2/A – Modifications for airline commuter role, seating up to 21 passengers.
EMB 110P2/41 – 21-seat pressurised commuter airliner.
EMB 110S1 – Geophysical survey version.
SC-95 – Search and rescue version for the Brazilian Air Force.
XC-95 – Rain research version for the Brazilian Air Force.
C/P-95 – Updated version with modernised avionics.
== Operators ==
In 2020, 39 Bandeirantes were still in airline service with 15 operators, 31 in North/South America, 1 in Africa and 7 in Asia Pacific & Middle East.
The main operators are:
7: Wiggins Airways
5: Royal Air Freight
4: Transportes Aereos Guatemaltecos
== Specifications (EMB 110P1A/41) ==
Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89General characteristics
Crew: 2
Capacity: 18 passengers
Length: 15.1 m (49 ft 6 in)
Wingspan: 15.33 m (50 ft 4 in)
Height: 4.92 m (16 ft 2 in)
Wing area: 29.1 m2 (313 sq ft)
Airfoil: root: NACA 23016 mod.; tip: NACA 23012
Empty weight: 3,590 kg (7,915 lb) empty equipped - passengers
3,393 kg (7,480 lb) empty equipped - cargo
Max takeoff weight: 5,900 kg (13,007 lb)
Fuel capacity: 1,308 kg (2,884 lb) / 1,720 L (450 US gal; 380 imp gal) in four integral wing tanks
Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-34 turboprop engines, 560 kW (750 shp) each
Propellers: 3-bladed Hartzell HC-B3TN-3C/T10178H-8R, 2.36 m (7 ft 9 in) diameter fully-feathering reversible-pitch constant-speed propellers
Performance
Cruise speed: 411 km/h (255 mph, 222 kn) maximum at 2,440 m (8,000 ft)
Economical cruise speed: 341 km/h (212 mph; 184 kn) at 3,050 m (10,000 ft)
Range: 1,964 km (1,220 mi, 1,060 nmi) econ. cruise + 45 min reserve
Service ceiling: 6,550 m (21,490 ft)
Rate of climb: 8.3 m/s (1,630 ft/min)
1.9 m/s (6.2 ft/s) on single engine
Take-off run: 807 m (2,648 ft) (FAR23.135 / SFAR 41A)
Landing run: 868 m (2,848 ft) at MLW
== Incidents and accidents ==
27 February 1975: a VASP EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PP-SBE operating flight 640 from São Paulo-Congonhas to Bauru crashed after take-off from Congonhas. All 13 passengers and two crew members died.
22 January 1976: a Transbrasil Embraer EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PT-TBD operating flight 107 from Chapecó to Erechim, crashed upon take-off from Chapecó. Seven of the nine passengers and crew on board died.
23 April 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2169 crashed upon landing at Natal Air Force Base.
3 June 1977: Brazilian Air Force, a C-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-2157 crashed after take-off from Natal Air Force Base. All 18 occupants died.
20 June 1977: a Transporte Aéreo Militar Uruguayo EMB110C Bandeirante registration CX-BJE/T584 flying from Montevideo to Salto crashed after striking trees in an orange grove during approach to Salto. The crew of two, as well as three of the 13 passengers died.
31 January 1978: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GKW crashed upon take-off from Eirunepé. The crew of two died but all 14 passengers survived.
8 February 1979: a TAM Airlines EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-SBB operating a flight from Bauru to São Paulo-Congonhas, while on initial climb from Bauru, struck trees and crashed into flames. All two crew and 16 passengers died.
24 February 1981: a VOTEC EMB110P Bandeirante registration PT-GLB flying from Tucuruí to Belém-Val de Cans collided with a ship in dry dock while approaching Belém in rain and high winds. The aircraft subsequently struck two barges and broke in two. The front part crashed onto a tug, and the tail section sank. Only 3 passengers of a total of 14 passengers and crew survived.
2 September 1981: a Taxi Aéreo El Venado Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante registration HK-2651 crashed after taking off from Juan José Rondón Airport in Paipa. The aircraft, overloaded, entered a stall, went down and caught fire, killing both pilots and 19 of the 20 passengers.
6 November 1982: an Air Ecosse EMB110PI Bandeirante registration G-OAIR flying from Prestwick to Aberdeen lost left engine and shortly thereafter right generator. The pilot and sole occupant made a landing in a field north east of Hatton, Scotland. Aircraft sustained substantial damage.
7 October 1983: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBH flying from Campo Grande and Urubupungá to Araçatuba struck the ground just short of the runway threshold after missing the approach at Araçatuba Airport twice. Seven crew and passengers died.
18 April 1984: two VOTEC EMB 110 Bandeirante registrations PT-GJZ and PT-GKL collided on air, while on approach to land at Imperatriz. PT-GJZ was flying from São Luís to Imperatriz and crashed on ground killing all its 18 passengers and crew. PT-GKL was flying from Belém-Val de Cans to Imperatriz and its pilot was able to make an emergency landing on Tocantins river. One passenger of its 17-passenger and crew died.
28 June 1984: a TAM Airlines EMB 110C Bandeirante registration PP-SBC operating a chartered flight by Petrobras from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão to Macaé flew into São João Hill while descending through rain and clouds over the Municipality of São Pedro da Aldeia. All 16 passengers and 2 crew died. The passengers were journalists of well-known Brazilian networks who were preparing a special report about the Campos Basin oil fields.
19 November 1984: EuroAir EMB 110 Bandeirante G-HGGS crashed into the side of a hill 6.5 mi (10.5 km) south of Inverness Airport shortly after take-off. The pilot was killed in the crash and the aircraft damaged beyond repair.
6 December 1984: PBA Flight 1039, using an EMB 110 Bandeirante (registration N96PB) crashed shortly after taking off from Jacksonville International Airport in Jacksonville, Florida, United States. All 11 passengers and both pilots died.
23 June 1985: a TABA – Transportes Aéreos da Bacia Amazônica EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-GJN flying from Juara to Cuiabá, while on approach to land at Cuiabá, had technical problems on engine number 1. An emergency landing was attempted but the aircraft stalled and crashed 1 km short of the runway. All 17 occupants died.
9 October 1985: a Nordeste EMB110C Bandeirante registration PT-GKA operating a cargo flight from Vitória da Conquista to Salvador da Bahia crashed during initial climb from Vitória da Conquista after flying unusually low. The two crew members died.
6 February 1987: A Talair MB 110P2 registration P2-RDM ditched into the sea in poor weather short of Hoskins Airport en route from Rabaul on the Island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. Three of the 17 on board survived.
1 March 1988: Comair Flight 206, using an EMB 110, crashed in Johannesburg, killing all 17 occupants. One source suggests that this incident was caused by an explosive device, carried by a passenger employed as a mineworker who had recently taken out a substantial insurance policy.
24 May 1988: Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2366, an Embraer 110 departing Lawton–Fort Sill Regional Airport, Oklahoma, crashed during takeoff from runway 35 due to failure of no. 1 engine. After climbing to 50–100 feet the aircraft lost altitude, struck the ground, and part of the aircraft caught fire. It appeared that the compressor turbine blade of no. 1 engine had separated. No fatalities.
14 November 1988: Oy Wasawings Ab flight to Seinäjoki crashed during landing in Ilmajoki, Finland. Resulted in six deaths and six injuries.
20 September 1990: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-FAW belonging to the Government of Pernambuco, flying from Fernando de Noronha to Recife, crashed into the sea shortly after take-off. All 12 crew and passengers died.
8 October 1991: an EMB110P1 Bandeirante, registration N731A, being ferried from Springfield, Missouri, to Southend, England, descended due to icing conditions and struck an ice sheet at a height of 5125 feet near Narsarsuaq, Greenland. All three crew members survived and were rescued by a helicopter of the Danish Navy.
11 November 1991: a Nordeste EMB110P1 Bandeirante registration PT-SCU operating flight 115 from Recife to Maceió, during an initial climb had an engine failure followed by fire. The aircraft crashed on populated area. All 13 occupants of the aircraft and 2 persons on the ground died.
3 February 1992: a Nordeste EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-TBB en route from Salvador da Bahia to Guanambi descended below minimum levels in bad weather and crashed on a hill hidden by clouds near Caetité. All 12 passengers and crew aboard died.
13 January 1993: A Titan Airways cargo flight crashed into a hill near Sellafield, en route from London Southend Airport to Glasgow International Airport. The flight used G-ZAPE, a 110P, and both pilots were killed in the crash.
26 October 1993: A Brazilian Air Force patrol P-95 (EMB 111 Bandeirante Patrulha) registration FAB-2290 that departed from Canoas Air Force Base crashed into the ocean near Angra dos Reis while flying in bad weather conditions. All crew of 3 died.
19 July 1994: Alas Chiricanas Flight 00901 Panamanian domestic airline ALAS, registration HP-1202AC using an EMB 110P1, crashed after a bomb exploded in the cabin killing 21, twelve Jewish businessmen were among the passengers.
24 May 1995: G-OEAA, an EMB-110-P1 operated by UK domestic airline Knight Air Flight 816 between Leeds and Aberdeen entered a steeply descending spiral dive, broke up in flight and crashed into farmland at Dunkeswick Moor near Leeds. All 12 occupants were killed. The probable cause of the accident was the failure of one or both artificial horizon instruments. There was no standby artificial horizon installed (as there was no airworthiness requirement for one on this aircraft) and the accident report concluded that this left the crew without a single instrument available for assured attitude reference or simple means of determining which flight instruments had failed. The aircraft entered a spiral dive from which the pilot, who was likely to have become spatially disoriented, was unable to recover.
13 September 1996: a Helisul EMB 110 Bandeirante registration PT-WAV operating a cargo flight from Porto Alegre to Joinville collided with a hill and crashed during final approach to land at Joinville. The crew of two died.
17 November 1996: Brazilian Air Force, a P-95 Bandeirante registration FAB-7102 flying from Salvador da Bahia Air Force Base to Natal Air Force Base had an accident in the vicinity of Caruaru. Four Brazilian Air Force Bandeirantes were flying on formation from Salvador to Natal when the tail of FAB-7102 was struck by the propeller of another aircraft. It crashed after control of the aircraft was lost. All nine occupants died.
24 July 1999: an Air Fiji EMB 110 Bandeirante registration DQ-AFN on a domestic flight from Nausori to Nadi in the Fiji Islands crashed on a slope of a ridge. The aircraft had apparently descended below the 5,400 feet (1,600 m) safety altitude until the right wing struck a tree on a ridgeline at 1,300 feet (400 m) altitude. The Bandeirante then broke up and impacted the slope of a ridge 1.3 km (0.81 mi) further on. The tail section and right wing were found 150 m (490 ft) from the main wreckage. Weather at 05:00 was good: nil wind, 40 km (25 mi) visibility, scattered clouds at 2,200 feet (670 m) and an insignificant small shower band. Investigation revealed that the captain had insufficient rest prior to the flight and that he had consumed an above-therapeutic level of antihistamine prior to the flight, which would have degraded his ability to safely pilot the aircraft. Also Air Fiji's published standard operating procedures were inadequate for the Bandeirante aircraft.
26 December 2002: Brazilian Air Force, an EMB 110 Bandeirante registration FAB-2292 en route from São Paulo-Campo de Marte to Florianópolis Air Force Base, crashed while trying to carry out an emergency landing at Curitiba-Afonso Pena. Reportedly, both engines had quit. The airplane had taken off with insufficient fuel on board to complete the flight to Florianópolis. Three passengers and crew of the 16 aboard died.
8 November 2005: an EMB 110, operated by Wiggins Airways, registration N7801Q, flying a cargo route from Manchester-Boston Regional Airport to Bangor International Airport suffered an engine failure shortly after takeoff, causing the aircraft to bank and fall to the ground, landing inside of a Walmart garden center 1.4 km (0.87 mi) away from Runway 17/35. The pilot was the only occupant and survived the crash, and the aircraft was written off.
7 February 2009: an EMB 110, operated by Manaus Aerotáxi, registration PT-SEA, flying a domestic route in Brazil from Coari to Manaus (Amazonas) struggled in bad weather conditions and crashed 80 km (50 mi) from Manaus killing 24 passengers. 4 survivors were reported.
3 July 2013: An EMB 110, operated by Batair Cargo, registration ZS-NVB, en route from Lanseria Airport in Johannesburg for Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, crashed while attempting to land in Francistown, Botswana. The pilots had planned to land and refuel but thick mist on the ground caused them to miss the landing strip on their first pass. They called in to the control tower to notify that they would make a second pass because they could see the landing strip, but never did. The wreckage was found two hours later about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the airport. The plane crashed with no survivors.
17 November 2022: An EMB 110, registration C6-CAB, operated by LeAir Charter Services, flying from Cap-Haïtien International Airport, Haiti, to Lynden Pindling International Airport, Nassau, Bahamas, was substantially damaged when the nosewheel collapsed and it skidded off of the runway when landing at Nassau. During the landing approach, the crew observed problems with the landing gear. After performing a low pass so that the landing gear could be observed by the control tower, the flight circled for several minutes to burn off fuel before another approach to landing, during which the nosewheel collapsed. No injuries were reported.
16 September 2023: An Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante carrying 12 passengers and 2 crew from Eduardo Gomes International Airport veered off of the runway at Barcelos Airport. All 14 occupants were killed. The aircraft was registered as PT-SOG.
== See also ==
Related development
Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia
Embraer EMB 121 Xingu
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Dornier 228
de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter
FMA IA 50 Guaraní II
Let L-410 Turbolet
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Endres, Gunter and Gething, Mike. (2002). Aircraft Recognition Guide, (2nd Ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-713721-4.
Lambert, Mark (ed.) Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1991–92. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1991. ISBN 0-7106-0965-5.
Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976–77. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1976. ISBN 0-354-00538-3.
Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1982–83. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1982. ISBN 0-7106-0748-2.
Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89. Couldon, UK:Jane's Defence Data, 1988. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5.
"The Pioneers from São Paulo". Air International, April 1978, Vol. 14 No. 4. pp. 163–170, 193–194.
== External links ==
EMB 110 information at Airliners.net |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrades_Marathon#Cheating_in_the_race | Comrades Marathon | The Comrades Marathon is an ultramarathon of approximately 88 kilometres (55 mi) which is run annually in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa between the cities of Durban and Pietermaritzburg. It is the world's largest and oldest ultramarathon race. The direction of the race alternates each year between the "up" run (87.6 km) starting from Durban (elevation: 101 metres (331 ft)) and the "down" run (89.98 km) starting from Pietermaritzburg (elevation: 921 metres (3,022 ft)).
In all but three editions since 1988, over 10,000 runners have reached the finish within the allowed 11 or 12 hours. Since the 1980s, increased participation has coincided with substantial rises in both average finish times and the average age of finishers.
== Course ==
“Listen, listen, laduma, laduma. There’s a distant sound of thunder and a crackling of lightning on the horizon, and a great black and gold mist is starting to roll down the road from Pietermaritzburg, down Polly Shortts, through Camperdown, through Cato Ridge, through Drummond Village, over mighty Inchanga Mountain, all the way to Kingsmead. And they’re calling. They’re calling me. They’re calling me—the singing, the thunder, and the black and gold mist. So I must answer that call. And I must go. Ziyasha. This is it.”
The Comrades Marathon is run on the roads of KwaZulu-Natal province between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, with the direction alternating each year between the "up" and "down" runs. The route is defined by five major hills—Cowies Hill, Fields Hill, Botha's Hill, Inchanga, and Polly Shortts—collectively known as the “Big Five.” These hills vary in length, gradient, and strategic placement, and feature prominently in both directions of the race. The highest point on the course lies near the Umlaas Road interchange at about 2,850 feet (870 m) above sea level. Approximately 40 official refreshment stations line the course, offering runners water, energy drinks, fruit, and snacks, along with first aid and physiotherapy points at key locations.
=== 'Up' Run ===
In an "up" run year, the Comrades Marathon covers approximately 87 kilometres from Durban on the Indian Ocean coast to the inland city of Pietermaritzburg, gaining over 1,800 metres in elevation. The early stages feature the most sustained climbing, with a net elevation gain of over 500 metres in the first 22 kilometres. The route begins with a gradual ascent out of Durban, including long pulls through Tollgate and Mayville, before encountering the first of the five major hills.
Cowies, Fields, and Botha’s Hills appear in the first half of the route, demanding early restraint from runners seeking to conserve energy. After the halfway mark near Drummond, the course continues to undulate through the KwaZulu-Natal countryside. Inchanga, a long and winding ascent, tests endurance just after halfway. The highest point on the course is reached at Umlaas Road, before the route drops briefly into Ashburton and rises again for the steep climb of Polly Shortts, located within the final 10 kilometres. Though shorter in distance than some earlier hills, Polly Shortts is the steepest and often the most decisive, arriving when fatigue is at its peak. The final stretch into Pietermaritzburg features several smaller climbs and descents before reaching the finish line.
=== 'Down' Run ===
In a "down" run year, the Comrades Marathon follows a route of approximately 90 kilometres from Pietermaritzburg to Durban, descending from around 660 metres above sea level to near sea level. While the net elevation profile trends downhill, the course includes significant climbs and undulations throughout. From the start at the Pietermaritzburg City Hall, runners ascend gently through the suburbs before tackling early challenges such as Polly Shortts and Little Polly’s. The route then rises to Umlaas Road—the highest point on the course—before descending through Camperdown and Cato Ridge into the Harrison Flats region.
The second half of the race includes the long descent from Inchanga into Drummond (the halfway point), followed by a climb through Alverstone and Botha’s Hill. Notable features include Fields Hill, a steep and sustained descent into Pinetown, and Cowies Hill shortly afterward. These downhill sections, while advantageous for pacing, are known to strain the quadriceps and test runners' resilience. After navigating the M13 through Westville and 45th Cutting, participants descend toward Durban, finishing outside the Moses Mabhida Stadium via contraflow routes and city streets. Despite its name, the down run demands careful pacing, as late-race climbs and cumulative impact can be decisive.
== History ==
The Comrades Marathon, first held on 24 May 1921, is one of the world’s oldest and most prestigious ultramarathons. Conceived by World War I veteran Vic Clapham to honour fallen soldiers, the race was intended as a test of endurance and resilience.
Apart from brief interruptions during World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021), it has taken place annually. Over 300,000 runners have completed the course between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, alternating annually between the "up" and "down" routes.
The early decades of the race saw significant individual achievements and growing popularity. Bill Rowan won the first edition in 1921, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Women were initially unofficial participants—Frances Hayward ran in 1923 without formal entry. The 1930s were defined by runners like Hardy Ballington and Wally Hayward, with the latter continuing his legacy into the 1950s and eventually becoming the oldest finisher at age 80 in 1989.The 1940s introduced traditions like Max Trimborn’s rooster crow at the start, which replaced the starter's gun and remains part of the race to this day.
From the 1960s through the 1980s, the Comrades expanded significantly. The race opened to international competitors and, in 1975, officially welcomed black runners and women with Vincent Rakabele becoming the first black runner to officially win a medal and Elizabeth Cavanaugh becoming the first official women's winner. Milestones included Bruce Fordyce’s nine titles and Frith van der Merwe’s remarkable women's course record in 1989. The 1980s also marked the emergence of black champions like Sam Tshabalala and pioneering black female finishers like Olive Anthony. Television coverage, increased participation, and record-breaking performances made this era foundational for the race’s modern stature.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the Comrades became more global and professional. Prize money was introduced in 1995, attracting elite international athletes. The race date shifted from Republic Day to Youth Day, reflecting South Africa’s changing political context. The 2000 race drew nearly 24,000 entrants to celebrate the 75th anniversary, and in 2010, the event entered the Guinness World Records for most finishers in an ultramarathon. Runners like Leonid Shvetsov (2007 & 2008) and David Gatebe (2016) set course records, while athletes such as Stephen Muzhingi and the Russian identical twin sisters Olesya and Elena Nurgalieva dominating multiple editions - the sisters winning 10 races between them.
After a two-year hiatus due to COVID-19, the Comrades returned in 2022 with a capped field and the slogan "The Return – Sishay' Ibuya." Recent years have seen athletes like Gerda Steyn and Tete Dijana achieving multiple victories.
== Rules ==
Runners over the age of 20 are eligible to qualify after completion of an officially recognised marathon (42.2 km) in under 4:50 (5 hours before 2019). During the event an athlete must also reach five cut-off points in specified times to complete the race.
Athletes currently have 12 hours to complete the course, extended from 11 hours in 2003 (including a special 12 hour allowance in the year 2000). The original Comrades cut-off time from 1921 to 1927 was also 12 hours, reduced to 11 hours in 1928. There are a number of cut-off points along the routes which runners must reach by a prescribed time or be forced to retire from the race.
A runner who successfully completed nine marathons wears a yellow number, while those who completed ten races wear a green number permanently allocated to the runner for all future races. Runners running their 20th, 30th and 40th races are also indicated by yellow numbers – differently formatted on different years.
== Medals ==
Medals are awarded to all runners completing the course in under 12 hours. Medals are currently awarded as follows:
== Traditions ==
The Comrades Marathon has several long-standing traditions that are central to its identity. One of the most notable is the annual alternation between the “up” run and the “down” run, with each route offering distinct physical challenges.
At the start line, runners observe a set sequence: the South African National Anthem is played, Shosholoza is sung, Chariots of Fire by Vangelis is played, a recording of Max Trimborn’s rooster crow is played, and then the starting gun is fired.
About halfway into the race, runners pass Arthur’s Seat, a small recess in the bank near Drummond. It is believed to have been a race-day resting spot for five-time winner Arthur Newton. Tradition holds that greeting "Arthur" or placing a flower there brings good luck for the second half of the race.
As they enter the final straight, the leading man and woman are given a scroll bearing a goodwill message from the mayor of the starting city to the mayor of the finishing city, symbolizing the link between Durban and Pietermaritzburg. In addition, each of the top 10 male and female finishers is handed a red rose as they enter the finishing straight.
At the end, the 12-hour cutoff is strictly enforced. A gun is fired exactly at the time limit, and runners who haven’t finished are not counted as official finishers. Immediately after, The Last Post is played by a lone bugler to mark the close of the event.
== Results ==
The Comrades Marathon results show over a century of competitive endurance running. Bill Rowan won the first race in 1921 in 8:59:00, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Wally Hayward and Bruce Fordyce became major figures, with Hayward winning five times across the 1930s to 1950s, and Fordyce winning nine times in the 1980s. The women’s race, officially recognised from 1975, saw standout performances like Frith van der Merwe’s 5:54:43 in 1989, a record that stood for decades. In the 2000s, Russian athletes Elena and Olesya Nurgalieva were dominant, winning most of the women's races between 2003 and 2015.
From 2014 onwards, South African athletes began winning more consistently. Bongmusa Mthembu won three titles, and David Gatebe set the men’s down run record of 5:18:19 in 2016. Gerda Steyn has become the leading figure in the women’s field, breaking the down run record in 2023 (5:44:54) and the up run record in 2024 (5:49:46). On the men’s side, Tete Dijana broke the down run record on his way to his second victory in 2023, while Dutch runner Piet Wiersma won in 2024 and finished second in 2023. Since the end of COVID-related cancellations in 2020 and 2021, the race has returned with faster times and stronger fields, both local and international. The 2025 down run was won by Tete Dijana (5:25:28) and Gerda Steyn (5:51:19).
To date, Bruce Fordyce holds the record for the most men's victories with nine wins, while Elena Nurgalieva leads the women's field with eight wins.
== Records and statistics ==
The Comrades Marathon's fastest recorded times are 5:13:58 for men (Tete Dijana, 2023 down run) and 5:44:54 for women (Gerda Steyn, 2023 down run). Steyn also holds the up-run record, becoming the first woman to break 6 hours with her 5:49:46 in 2024. The most gold medals earned in the women's race is 13 by Elena Nurgalieva, while Allan Robb leads the men's race with 12 gold medals won.
The race also highlights endurance over decades. Louis Massyn has completed 50 Comrades Marathons — the most in history. In 2023 Johannes Maros Mosehla became the oldest known finisher aged 81, a record he extended in 2024 and 2025. He beat the record held by Wally Hayward, who completed the race at age 80 in 1989, 58 years after his first win.
== Waypoints ==
== Health issues ==
As with every ultramarathon, there are potentially lethal health risks involved in extreme physical events. In the history of the Comrades, there have been 8 deaths up to the 2022 event. In a survey among a sample of 2005 participants, 25% reported cramps, 18% nausea, 8% vomiting, 13% dizziness, 3% diarrhoea, 23% pain, excluding the expected sore legs, and 14% reported fatigue of such a nature that they believed themselves to be incapable of continuing the race. Among silver medalists there was a higher incidence of cramps (42.9%), nausea (21.4%) and diarrhoea (7.1%), though a lower incidence of pain and fatigue than the average runner.
== Charts ==
== Depictions in other media ==
The Long Run was a 2001 film set in 1999, in which a retired running coach trains a woman for the race. 'Comrades' was a 2008 film about seven diverse runners attempting the race.
In 2023, the documentary Down: A Comrades Story was released. It explores the history of the Comrades Marathon through the personal stories of the many athletes who have competed in it. As of 2025, it is available on YouTube.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Comrades Marathon Association
Comrades tables
Detailed profile of the 2009 Comrades route (PDF)
The Long Run. A movie about the Comrades marathon
The Comrades marathon, by Brad Morgan
The Famous Comrades Marathon, by Amby Burfoot (Account of the 2007 race)
1920 – 1925: A Soldier's Dream
FT article |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Adebayo_Balogun | Mustafa Adebayo Balogun | Mustafa Adebayo Balogun (25 August 1947 – 4 August 2022), widely known as Kumawu, was a Nigerian police officer, 11th Inspector General of Police from March 2002, but was forced to retire because of widespread charges of corruption in January 2005.
== Background ==
Balogun attended the University of Lagos, graduating in 1972 with a B.A. in Political Science. He joined the Nigeria Police Force in May 1973. While a police officer, he gained a law degree from the University of Ibadan. After working in various positions around the country, he became Principal Staff Officer to former Inspector-General of Police, Muhammadu Gambo, then Deputy Commissioner of Police in Edo State, and then Commissioner of Police first in Delta State and then in Rivers State and Abia State. He was appointed Assistant Inspector General of Police in A.I.G. Zone One Kano, the position he held when promoted to Inspector General of Police on 6 March 2002.
In November 2001, as A.I.G., Balogun reassured reporters that there were provisions to ensure the safety of businessmen in Nigeria through the outfit called Diplomatic Corp and Foreign National Protection Unit.
== Inspector General of Police ==
Balogun became IGP in March 2002, replacing Musiliu Smith.
He was responsible for overall police security during the April 2003 national elections, which were marred by reports of police abuses.
In August 2003, Balogun presented a paper on "Nigeria: Electoral Violence and National Security" in which he advocated improvements such as use of national identity cards, mass education, electoral law reforms, citizens participation in politics, good governance and establishment of a constitutional court.
In December 2003, Balogun organised extensive security measures across Nigeria to ensure that there were no disturbances during the Commonwealth of Nations summit.
Following various incidents in 2004 where reporters were beaten and their equipment damaged by policemen, Balogun made apologies and promised that those responsible would be punished.
Towards the end of 2004, newspapers published allegations of corruption on a massive scale, asserting that Balogun had pocketed public money and taken bribes from politicians and criminals. These led to his forced retirement in January 2005.
== Later career ==
On 4 April 2005, Balogun was arraigned at the Federal High Court, Abuja on charges involving about N13 billion obtained through money laundering, theft and other sources.
The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission under Nuhu Ribadu brought 70 charges against Balogun covering the period from 2002 to 2004. He made a plea bargain with the court in exchange for returning much of the property and money.
He was sentenced to six months in jail.
He was released on 9 February 2006 after serving his sentence, part of it in Abuja National Hospital.
In November 2008 and again in February 2009, the Chairman of the House Committee on Police Affairs, Abdul Ahmed Ningi, asked the Inspector General of Police Mike Okiro, to provide details of the money recovered from Balogun, a request that he passed on to the EFCC chairman, Mrs Farida Waziri. However, the EFCC stated that they did not have records of the exact properties recovered from Balogun.
It was said that some of the houses had been secretly sold to certain individuals at give-away prices.
In April 2009, the House of Representatives Committee on Police Affairs invited Balogun, Mike Okiro and Mrs Farida Waziri to explain how the N16 billion allegedly recovered from Balogun went missing.
He died on 4 August 2022.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavatar | Heavatar | Heavatar is a German power metal band.
== History ==
Heavatar was founded in 2012 by Van Canto founder Stefan Schmidt as a project. The debut album, All My Kingdoms, was released in February 2013 via Napalm Records. Jörg Michael acts as the drummer on this album. The project also features guitarist Sebastian Scharf and bassist David Vogt. Stefan Schmidt himself plays the seven-string guitar and does the lead vocals. Hacky Hackman and Olaf Senkbeil, who were already working together with Blind Guardian, were responsible for the choral arrangements. The cover artwork was done by the fantasy artist Kerem Beyit.
== Musical style ==
The band's music contains classical motifs, from composers like Bach, Beethoven and Paganini, and embeds it into power metal compositions.
== Band members ==
Stefan Schmidt – rhythm guitar, lead vocals
Sebastian Scharf – lead guitar
David Vogt – bass guitar
Jörg Michael – drums
== Discography ==
2013: All My Kingdoms (Napalm Records)
2018: The Annihilation (earMusic)
== See also ==
Van Canto
In Legend
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuwakot,_Bagmati_Province | Nuwakot, Bagmati Province | Nuwakot (Nepali: नुवाकोट) is a town in central Nepal, serving as the namesake of the district of the same name. The town is located on the bank of Trishuli and Tadi Rivers. It is located around 60 kilometres west of Kathmandu, and is known as a historic town which was the capital of the Valley in the days before the unification of Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah, and for more than 1,000 years the hilltop had served as a lookout and fort (kot) guarding the western entrance to Kathmandu Valley. Nuwakot served as an important trading hub for the Malla kings of the Valley, and was along a major transit route used for trade between India and Tibet (via Kerung). Making the Nuwakot hill as main forts including other eight forts: Malakot, Simalkot, Bhairabkot, Belkot, Kalikot, Salyankot, Dhuwankot and Pyaskot in its surrounding area, collectively named as 'Nawakotta' (Nine forts).
Because of its significance, the fort was a target for conquest by neighboring kingdoms, including the Kingdom of Gorkha. The founder of modern Nepal, Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked and finally captured the hill fort in a surprise attack on September 26, 1744. The Malla king Jaya Prakash Malla made one final attempt to get victory over Nuwakot the following year after Malla forces under Kasi Ram Thapa Magar (Chief Commander of Kantipur and Nuwakot) had defeated the Gorkha army at Naldum. However, the Gorkha army was able to repel the attack and secured Nuwakot as a permanent fort under Gorkha control. Nuwakot would afterwards serve as one of the key staging grounds for the eventual conquest of all three Malla kingdoms in the Kathmandu Valley (Kathmandu, Patan, Bhadgaon), which fell between 1768 and 1769 to Prithvi Narayan Shah.
Nuwakot has featured in several prominent moments of Nepali history. Chinese forces under General Fu-k'ang-an nearly captured Nuwakot during the Nepal-China conflict in 1792. It was also the location of the first meeting between the British envoy Captain William J. Kirkpatrick and the acting Regent Bahadur Shah in 1793, shortly after the war with China ended.
The current seven-story Nuwakot Durbar and surrounding complex was expanded in the 18th century by Prithvi Narayan Shah to support the growing trade routes linking Kathmandu with India and Tibet. Built in the Malla style, the architecture of the complex is divided into the main palace, the Bhairab Temple, as well as other temples and shrines. In 2008 the site was submitted for consideration as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Some of the temple complexes and buildings were damaged in the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Plan | Rogers Plan | The Rogers Plan (also known as Deep Strike) was a framework proposed by United States Secretary of State William P. Rogers to achieve an end to belligerence in the Arab–Israeli conflict following the Six-Day War and the continuing War of Attrition.
== History ==
The Rogers Plan was publicly proposed in a December 9, 1969 speech at an Adult Education conference.
The December 1969 speech followed the failure of the Jarring Mission to negotiate an implementation plan for UN Security Council Resolution 242 among the principals in the Six-Day War.
Some of the points included in Rogers' ten-point paper called for the following:
Negotiations under Gunnar Jarring's auspices following procedures used in the 1949 meetings on Rhodes;
Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory occupied in the war;
A binding commitment by Israel and Egypt to maintain peace with each other
Negotiations between Israel and Egypt for agreement on areas to be demilitarized, measures to guarantee free passage through the Gulf of Aqaba, and security arrangements for Gaza;
Failure of the Jarring Mission and the mediated peace talks reflected a long-standing stalemate between Israel and Egypt. Whereas Israel demanded a formal recognition of its sovereignty, gained via direct peace talks with Egypt, Egypt would only agree to offer a peace sponsored by the third-party United Nations (this would allow Egypt to avoid political fallout from the Arab nations, which were strongly opposed to recognition of Israel). In addition to this peace, Israel would return all land to Egypt. Both parties viewed the conflicting interests as a stalemate only to be resolved via military intimidation. Whereas the US government view hoped to use promises of arms to gain Israeli concessions on land, Israel desired arms to secure the land it refused to give up.
Negotiations leading up to Rogers' plan were complicated not only by hostilities between Israel and Egypt, but also by the differing philosophies adopted by the Soviet Union and the United States in approaching the negotiations. Soviet strategy during the peace talks had been to "bring the Egyptians with them every step of the way. American strategy was wholly different. There was never any question of trying to persuade the Israelis to endorse each American move as it was made. To secure Israel's agreement the Americans calculated that they would first have to have that of Egypt and the Soviet Union".
Israel rejected the plan on December 10, 1969, calling it "an attempt to appease [the Arabs] at the expense of Israel. The Soviets dismissed it as "one-sided" and "pro-Israeli." President Nasser rejected it because it was a separate deal with Israel even if Egypt recovered all of Sinai.
== The Six-Day War (1967) and the War of Attrition (1967–1970) ==
In an unsuccessful attempt to draw the UN intervention following the cease-fire which ended the Six Day War, the Egyptians launched a new round of artillery duels with Israeli forces. While Secretary Rogers pursued his peace plan, Pres. Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, with the assistance of three brigades of Soviet troops, rapidly escalated the War of Attrition against Israeli forces at the Suez Canal in an attempt to inflict maximum casualties on Israeli forces.
== Aftermath: historical implications ==
In June 1970, Rogers initiated a ceasefire plan, sometimes called the Second Rogers Plan Egypt accepted the ceasefire plan. Israel eventually accepted it, which had resulted in the right-wing Gahal party leaving Golda Meir's government in August 1970. The acceptance had resulted in the August 7, 1970, "in place" cease-fire.
According to the cease-fire agreement, both sides were required not to change "the military status quo within zones extending 50 km to the east and west of the cease-fire line." Although forbidden in the ceasefire agreement, Egypt immediately moved anti-aircraft batteries into the zone. By October there were about 100 SAM sites in the zone, and Rogers made no diplomatic effort to secure their removal. He thus had little credibility in Israel, and the 1973 Yom Kippur War eventually occurred.
Israeli military assertiveness resulted in a political setback with the United States, but Nasser had gained a respite that enabled him to consolidate his missile defense systems that had grown out from the war. Nasser also used the negotiations as a way of opening the lines of communication with the United States to counter his growing reliance on the Soviet Union. The PLO was shocked and angered by the agreement, which led for Habash and Hawatmah attempts to overthrow King Hussein. The actions led to the Black September, a civil war that broke out in Jordan on September 16, 1970.
In June 1971, Rogers initiated a plan for an interim agreement across the Canal, which is sometimes called the "Third Rogers Plan."
No breakthrough occurred, even after Sadat, in a surprise move, suddenly expelled Soviet advisers from Egypt and again signaled to Washington his willingness to negotiate. However, on 28 February 1973, during a visit in Washington, D.C., Meir agreed with Henry Kissinger's peace proposal based on "security versus sovereignty:" Israel would accept Egyptian sovereignty over all Sinai, and Egypt would accept Israeli presence in some of Sinai strategic positions.
Sadat continued the trend by both standing by the Rogers Plan and kicking out the pro-Soviet group of Ali Sabry in April 1971. It is unlikely, however, that the United States viewed the relations the same way since the State Department's focus was competition with the Soviet Union, as opposed to regional conflicts. The resolution also exacerbated the divisions between Kissinger and Rogers, and the Middle Eastern countries saw that the goals of American foreign policy were different. Kissinger did not want to involve the Soviet Union or any Arab countries friendly to them; in hopes they would turn to the United States and reject the Soviet Union.
Israel used that in hopes of preventing all peace talks, which could have resulted in getting greater land capitulations from Arab countries due to Israel's military strength. Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender.
In April 2025, a newly revealed audio recording from August 3, 1970, shed further light on Egypt's acceptance of the Rogers Plan. In a private conversation with Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, President Gamal Abdel Nasser expressed a pragmatic view of Egypt’s priorities, stating, "We have no interest in the Palestinian issue. We will only talk about Sinai. When [the Israelis] leave Sinai, there will be an agreement". In addition he said to Gaddafi: "You are welcome to mobilize the forces, go to Baghdad and try to fight against Israel. We will stay away from this operation, leave us alone - we will choose a non-violent and defeatist solution. I can live with that". Nasser also criticized other Arab leaders for engaging in "hollow slogans" about liberating Palestine and warned that such rhetoric could result in additional territorial losses, as had occurred after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Astorino-Courtois, Allison (1998). "Clarifying Decisions: Assessing the Impact of Decision Structures on Foreign Policy Choices During the 1970 Jordanian Civil War". International Studies Quarterly. 42 (4): 733–753. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00104.
Slater, Jerome (1991). "The Superpowers and an Arab–Israeli Political Settlement: The Cold War Years". Political Science Quarterly. 105 (4): 557–577. doi:10.2307/2150935. JSTOR 2150935.
Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006.
Galvani, John; Johnson, Peter; Theberge, Rene (1973). "The October War: Egypt, Syria, Israel". MERIP Reports. 3 (22): 3–21. JSTOR 3012270.
Korn, David A. "US-Soviet Negotiations of 1969 and the Rogers Plan" The Middle East Journal; Winter 1990; 44, 1; Research Library pg. 37
Records of the Israeli Knesset. [1]
Rogers initial plan full text
Various other Rogers plans
== External links ==
The full text of the plan can be viewed on the United Nations UNISPAL website. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_cuckoo-dove#:~:text=The%20brown%20cuckoo%2Ddove%20was,in%20New%20South%20Wales%2C%20Australia. | Brown cuckoo-dove | The brown cuckoo-dove (Macropygia phasianella) is a dove in the genus Macropygia found in Australia from Weipa and Aurukun in the north to Bega in the south, and most inland at Atherton and Toowoomba. It is sometimes called the "brown pigeon" or "pheasant pigeon", but both terms are best avoided, as they can lead to confusion with the brown doves and the true pheasant pigeon. It was one of three new species defined when the slender-billed cuckoo-dove was split in 2016.
== Taxonomy ==
The brown cuckoo-dove was formally described in 1821 by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck from a specimen collected near Port Jackson in New South Wales, Australia. He coined the binomial name Columba phasianella. The specific name is a diminutive of the Latin phasianus, meaning "pheasant". The brown cuckoo-dove is now placed in the genus Macropygia, which was introduced by the English naturalist William Swainson in 1837.
Three subspecies are recognised:
M. p. quinkan Schodde, 1989 - Cape York Peninsula
M. p. robinsoni Mathews, 1912 - Queensland
M. p. phasianella (Temminck, 1821) - East and Southeast Australia
== Description ==
The brown cuckoo-dove is from 40 to 43 centimetres (16 to 17 in) in length. The feathers are a rich rusty-brown colour, and the short wings, long tail and back are darker. The males tend to have a slight rose/green colouration on their nape and neck.
The call of this dove is a very loud "whoop-a whoop" with some differences depending on the subspecies involved.
The brown cuckoo-dove inhabits rainforest, woodland, scrubland and rainforest regrowth areas.
The doves can often be seen in pairs or groups. Its diet consists of berries from both native plants and introduced weed species. They can be nomadic, depending on the supplies of food. They tend to fly short distances and low to the ground with great strength.
Breeding occurs in spring and summer. The nest is a flat platform of sticks and vines, either in a fork of a tree or on top of a low tree. One, creamy white, egg is laid.
== References ==
Lamington National Park - Brown Cuckoo-Dove
North Queensland Bird Watching - Brown Cuckoo-Dove
Pizzey and Knight, "Field Guide to the Birds of Australia", Angus & Robertson, ISBN 0-207-19691-5 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_Asia_Championships | Badminton Asia Championships | The Badminton Asia Championships (formerly Asian Badminton Championships until 2006) is a tournament organized by governing body Badminton Asia to crown the best badminton players in Asia.
The tournament started in 1962 and is held annually since 1991. The event had rotated between team and individual competitions before the team event became null since 1994.
At the 2003 event however, there is a controversy when China decided to pull out from the tournament at the last minute. Head coach Li Yongbo said that the tournament did not award any ranking points for the 2004 Summer Olympics event and wanted to give his players more time to rest. Some of the top players were also willing to pull out from the tournament since the competitiveness of the event was low.
== Editions ==
The table below gives an overview of all host cities and countries of the Asia Championships. The most recent games were held in Ningbo in 2025. The number in parentheses following the city/country denotes how many times that city/country has hosted the championships. The number of events at each has ranged from one to six, and is given in the right-most column.
== All-time medal table ==
=== Individual medalists ===
Accurate as of 2025 Badminton Asia Championships.
=== Men's team medalists (1962 – 1993) ===
== Past winners ==
=== Men's team (1962–1993) ===
== Performance by nations ==
As of the 2025 edition
== Successful players and national teams ==
=== Asian Champions who also became World Champions ===
List of players who have won Asia Championships and also won the BWF World Championships to become both the Asian Champion and World Champion.
=== Successful players ===
Below is the list of the most ever successful players in the Badminton Asia Championships, with 3 or more gold medals.
MS: Men's singles; WS: Women's singles; MD: Men's doubles; WD: Women's doubles; XD: Mixed doubles
=== Successful national teams ===
Below are the gold medal teams, shown by year as against by country. China has been the most successful and the only country to achieve a full slate of golds which they did in 2011.
BOLD highlights the overall winner therefore at that Asia Team Championships
=== Men's singles ===
=== Women's singles ===
=== Men's doubles ===
=== Women's doubles ===
=== Mixed doubles ===
== Unofficial championships ==
In addition to official championships, a few invitational Asian championships were also conducted.
== See also ==
Badminton Asia Junior Championships
Badminton Asia Mixed Team Championships
Badminton Asia Team Championships
== Note ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Historical Results of Asia Championships |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_Pieces#Two | Number Pieces | The term Number Pieces refers to a body of late compositions (40, or 41 if Seventeen was actually composed) by John Cage. Each piece is named after the number of performers involved: for instance, Seven is a piece for seven performers, One9 (read "One Nine") is the ninth work for one performer, and 1O1 is a piece for an orchestra of 101 musicians. The vast majority of these works were composed using Cage's time bracket technique: the score consists of short fragments (frequently just one note, with or without dynamics) and indications, in minutes and seconds, during which the fragment can start and by what time it should end. Time brackets can be fixed (e.g. from 1.15 to 2.00) or flexible (e.g. from anywhere between 1.15 and 1.45, and to anywhere between 2.00 and 2.30).
All of the Number Pieces were composed during the last six years of Cage's life, 1987–1992. Most are for traditional instruments, with six exceptions that range from works for rainsticks, the Japanese aerophone shō and conch shells to an electronically amplified version of 4′33″. This article lists all Number Pieces, organized by number of performers.
== List of Number Pieces ==
=== One ===
=== Two ===
=== Three ===
=== Four ===
=== Five ===
=== Six to Twenty ===
=== Twenty to 108 ===
Cage's late orchestral works are to be performed without a conductor.
== Notes ==
== Further reading ==
Emmerik, Paul van (in collaboration with Herbert Henck and András Wilheim). "A John Cage Compendium"
Haskins, Rob. 2004. "An Anarchic Society of Sounds": The Number Pieces of John Cage. Ph.D. Diss., Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester.
Popoff, A. 2010. "John Cage’s Number Pieces: The Meta-Structure of Time-Brackets and the Notion of Time". Perspectives of New Music, pp. 65–84, 48/1.
Popoff, A. 2011. Indeterminate music and probability spaces: The case of John Cage's number pieces, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 6726 LNAI, pp. 220–229
Popoff, A. 2015. A Statistical Approach to the Global Structure of John Cage’s Number Piece Five5, Springer Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Volume 9110 LNAI, pp. 231–236
Weisser, B. 2003. " '... the whole paper would potentially be sound': Time-Brackets and the Number Pieces". Perspectives of New Music, pp. 176–225, 41/2.
Musicage: Cage Muses on Words, Art, Music, editor: Joan Retallack, Wesleyan University Press 1996, ISBN 0-8195-5285-2
== External links ==
John Cage Database – Worklist, includes a complete catalogue of Cage's music, details and lists of recordings for all pieces.
John Cage Complete Works, hosted and developed by the John Cage Trust
Rob Haskins: Program and Liner Notes, includes a number of essays on Number Pieces in general, One4, One9, Two2, Two3, Two4, Four, Four4, Twenty-Nine and 108.
James Pritchett: Liner Notes: One8 for cello and curved bow
Publication release notice by C. F. Peters, New York: One13 for cello with curved bow and 3 loud-speakers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention#:~:text=On%20June%2012%2C%202019%2C%20during,be%20excommunicated%20from%20the%20convention. | Southern Baptist Convention | The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), alternatively the Great Commission Baptists (GCB), is a Christian denomination based in the United States. It is the world's largest Baptist organization, the largest Protestant, and the second-largest Christian body in the United States. The SBC is a cooperation of fully autonomous, independent churches with commonly held essential beliefs that pool some resources for missions.
Churches affiliated with the denomination are evangelical in doctrine and practice, emphasizing the significance of the individual conversion experience. This conversion is then affirmed by the person being completely immersed in water for a believer's baptism. Baptism is believed to be separate from salvation and is a public and symbolic expression of faith, burial of previous life, and resurrection to new life; it is not a requirement for salvation. The denomination has a male pastorate, often citing 1 Timothy 2:12 as the reason it does not ordain women. All affiliated churches deny the legitimacy of same-sex marriage, saying that marriage can only be between a man and a woman, and also that all sexual relations should occur only within the confines of marriage. Other specific beliefs based on biblical interpretation vary by congregational polity, often to balance local church autonomy.
In 1845, the Southern Baptists separated from the Triennial Convention to uphold the institution of slavery, as American society divided over slavery preceding the American Civil War. In 1995, the denomination apologized for racial positions in its history, and at present, the Southern Baptist Convention is racially diverse, with one in four congregations having a nonwhite majority. Since the 1940s, it has spread across the United States, with tens of thousands of affiliated churches and 41 affiliated state conventions. Beginning in the late 1970s, a conservative movement began to take control of the organization, and it succeeded in taking control of the SBC leadership by the 1990s.
Self-reported membership peaked in 2006 at roughly 16 million. Membership has contracted by an estimated 13.6% since that year, with 2020 marking the 14th year of continuous decline. Mean organization-wide weekly attendance dropped about 27% between 2006 and 2020. The Convention reported increased participation and a slowing of the rate of overall membership decline in 2024, with 12,722,266 members reported.
== Name ==
The official name is the Southern Baptist Convention. The word Southern in "Southern Baptist Convention" stems from its 1845 organization in Augusta, Georgia, by white Baptists in the Southern United States who supported continuing the institution of slavery and split from the northern Baptists (known today as the American Baptist Churches USA), who did not support funding evangelists engaging in slavery in the Southern United States.
In 2012, the organization adopted the descriptor Great Commission Baptists after the election of its first African American president. Additionally, in 2020, some leaders of the Southern Baptists wanted to change its name to "Great Commission Baptists" to distance itself from its white supremacist foundation, and because it is no longer a specifically Southern church. Several churches affiliated with the denomination have also begun to identify as "Great Commission Baptists".
== History ==
=== Colonial era ===
Most early Baptists in the British colonies came from England in the 17th century, after conflict with the Church of England for their dissenting religious views. In 1638, Roger Williams founded the first Baptist church in British America at the Providence Plantations, the first permanent European American settlement also founded by Williams in Rhode Island. The oldest Baptist church in the South, First Baptist Church of Charleston, South Carolina, was organized in 1682 under the leadership of William Screven. A Baptist church was formed in Virginia in 1715 through the preaching of Robert Norden and another in North Carolina in 1727 through the ministry of Paul Palmer.
The Baptists adhered to a congregationalist polity. They operated independently of the state-established Anglican churches in the Southern United States at a time when states prohibited non-Anglicans from holding political office. By 1740, about eight Baptist churches existed in the colonies of Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, with an estimated 300 to 400 members. New members, both black and white, were converted chiefly by Baptist preachers who traveled throughout the Southern United States during the 18th and 19th centuries, in the eras of the First and Second Great Awakenings.
Black churches were founded in Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia before the American Revolution. Some black congregations kept their independence even after whites tried to exercise more authority after Nat Turner's Rebellion of 1831.
=== American Revolution period ===
Before the American Revolution, Baptist and Methodist evangelicals in the Southern United States promoted the view of the common person's equality before God, which embraced enslaved people and free blacks. They challenged the hierarchies of class and race and urged planters to abolish slavery. They welcomed enslaved people as Baptists and accepted them as preachers.
During this time, there was a sharp division between the austerity of the plain-living Baptists, attracted initially from yeomen and common planters, and the opulence of the Anglican planters—the enslaving elite who controlled local and colonial government in what had become an enslaved society by the late 18th century. The gentry interpreted Baptist church discipline as political radicalism, but it served to ameliorate disorder. The Baptists intensely monitored each other's moral conduct, watching especially for sexual transgressions, cursing, and excessive drinking; they expelled members who would not reform.
In Virginia and most southern colonies before the American Revolution, the Church of England was the established church and supported by general taxes, as it was in England. It opposed the rapid spread of Baptists in the Southern United States. Particularly, Virginia prosecuted many Baptist preachers for "disturbing the peace" by preaching without licenses from the Anglican Church. Patrick Henry and James Madison defended Baptist preachers before the American Revolution in cases considered significant in the history of religious freedom. In 1779, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, enacted in 1786 by the Virginia General Assembly. Madison later applied his ideas and those of the Virginia document related to religious freedom during the Constitutional Convention, when he ensured that delegates incorporated them into the United States Constitution.
The struggle for religious tolerance erupted during the American Revolution, as the Baptists worked to disestablish the Anglican churches in the South. The Baptists protested vigorously; the resulting social disorder resulted chiefly from the ruling gentry's disregard for public needs. The vitality of the religious opposition made the conflict between "evangelical" and "gentry" styles bitter. Scholarship suggests that the evangelical movement's strength determined its ability to mobilize power outside the conventional authority structure.
=== National unification and regional division ===
In 1814, leaders such as Luther Rice helped Baptists unify nationally under what became known informally as the Triennial Convention (because it met every three years) based in Philadelphia. It allowed them to join their resources to support missions abroad. The Home Mission Society, affiliated with the Triennial Convention, was established in 1832 to support missions in U.S. frontier territories. By the mid-19th century, there were many social, cultural, economic, and political differences among business owners of the North, farmers of the West, and planters of the South. The most divisive conflict was primarily over the issue of slavery and, secondarily, over missions.
==== Divisions over slavery ====
The issues surrounding slavery dominated the 19th century in the United States. This created tension between Baptists in northern and southern U.S. states over the issue of manumission. In the two decades after the American Revolution during the Second Great Awakening, northern Baptist preachers, as well as the Quakers and Methodists, increasingly argued that enslavers must free the people they enslaved. Although most Baptists in the 19th century south were yeomen farmers and common planters, the Baptists also began to attract major planters among their membership. Many southern ministers interpreted the Bible as supporting slavery and encouraged paternalistic practices by enslavers. They preached to enslaved people to accept their places and obey their enslavers and welcomed enslaved people and free blacks as members; whites controlled the churches' leadership and usually segregated church seating. From the early 19th century, many Baptist preachers in the Southern United States also argued in favor of preserving the right of ministers to be enslavers.
Black congregations were sometimes the largest in their regions. For instance, by 1821, Gillfield Baptist in Petersburg, Virginia, had the largest congregation within the Portsmouth Association. At 441 members, it was more than twice as large as the next-biggest church. Before Nat Turner's Rebellion of 1831, Gillfield had a black preacher. Afterward, the state legislature insisted that white men oversee black congregations. Gillfield could not call a black preacher until after the American Civil War and emancipation. After Turner's rebellion, whites worked to exert more control over black congregations and passed laws requiring white ministers to lead or be present at religious meetings. Many enslaved people evaded these restrictions.
The Triennial Convention and the Home Mission Society adopted a kind of neutrality concerning slavery, neither condoning nor condemning it. During the "Georgia Test Case" of 1844, the Georgia State Convention proposed the appointment of the enslaver Elder James E. Reeve as a missionary. The Foreign Mission Board refused to approve his appointment, recognizing the case as a challenge and not wanting to violate their neutrality on slavery. They said that slavery should not be a factor in deliberations about missionary appointments.
In 1844, University of Alabama president Basil Manly Sr., a prominent preacher and major planter who enslaved 40 people, drafted the "Alabama Resolutions" and presented them to the Triennial Convention. They included the demand that enslavers be eligible for denominational offices to which the Southern associations contributed financially. They were not adopted. Many Baptists in Georgia decided to test the claimed neutrality by recommending an enslaver to the Home Mission Society as a missionary. The Home Mission Society's board refused to appoint him, noting that missionaries were not allowed to take servants with them (so he clearly could not enslave people) and that they would not make a decision that appeared to endorse slavery. Many southern Baptists considered this an infringement of their right to determine candidates. From the perspective of many southerners, the northern position that "slaveholding brethren were less than followers of Jesus" effectively obligated enslavers to secede from the Triennial Convention. This difference came to a head in 1845 when representatives of the northern states refused to appoint missionaries whose families enslaved people. To continue in the work of missions, many southern Baptists separated and founded the Southern Baptist Convention.
==== Missions and organization ====
A secondary issue that disturbed the Southerners was the perception that the American Baptist Home Mission Society did not appoint a proportionate number of missionaries to the South. This was likely a result of the society's not appointing enslavers as missionaries. Baptists in the North preferred a loosely structured society of individuals who paid annual dues, with each society usually focused on a single ministry.
Baptists in Southern churches preferred a more centralized organization of churches patterned after their associations, with a variety of ministries brought under the direction of one denominational organization. The increasing tensions and the discontent of Baptists from the Southern United States over national criticism of slavery and issues over missions led to their withdrawal from national Baptist organizations.
The Southern Baptists met at the First Baptist Church of Augusta in May 1845. At this meeting, they created a new convention—the Southern Baptist Convention. They elected William Bullein Johnson (1782–1862) as its first president. He had served as president of the Triennial Convention in 1841, though he initially attempted to avoid a schism.
=== Formation and separation of black Baptists ===
African Americans had gathered in their own churches early on, in 1774 in Petersburg, Virginia, and in Savannah, Georgia, in 1788. Some established churches after 1800 on the frontier, such as the First African Baptist Church of Lexington, Kentucky. In 1824, the Elkhorn Association of Kentucky, which was white-dominated, accepted it. By 1850, First African had 1,820 members, the largest of any Baptist church in the state, black or white. In 1861, it had 2,223 members.
Southern whites generally required black churches to have white ministers and trustees. In churches with mixed congregations, seating was segregated, with blacks out of sight, often in a balcony. White preaching often emphasized Biblical stipulations that enslaved people should accept their places and try to behave well toward their enslavers. After the American Civil War, another split occurred when most freedmen set up independent black congregations, regional associations, and state and national conventions. Black people wanted to practice Christianity independently of white supervision. They interpreted the Bible as offering hope for deliverance and saw their exodus out of enslavement as comparable to the Exodus, with abolitionist John Brown as their Moses. They quickly left white-dominated churches and associations and set up separate state Baptist conventions. In 1866, black Baptists of the Southern and Western United States combined to form the Consolidated American Baptist Convention. In 1895, they merged three national conventions to create the National Baptist Convention, USA. With more than eight million members, it is today the largest African American religious organization and second in size to the Southern Baptists.
Free black people in the North founded churches and denominations in the early 19th century independent of white-dominated organizations. In the Reconstruction era, missionaries, both black and white, from several northern denominations worked in the South; they quickly attracted tens and hundreds of thousands of new members from among the millions of freedmen. The African Methodist Episcopal Church attracted more new members than any other denomination. White Southern Baptist churches lost black members to the new denominations, as well as to independent congregations which freedmen organized.
During the civil rights movement, many Southern Baptist pastors and members of their congregations rejected racial integration and accepted white supremacy, further alienating African Americans. According to historian and former Southern Baptist Wayne Flynt, "The [Southern Baptist] church was the last bastion of segregation." SBC did not integrate seminary classrooms until 1951.
In 1995, the convention voted to adopt a resolution in which it renounced its racist roots and apologized for its past defense of slavery, segregation, and white supremacy. This marked the denomination's first formal acknowledgment that racism had played a profound role in both its early and modern history.
=== Increasing diversity and policy changes ===
By the early 21st century, the number of ethnically diverse congregations was increasing among the Southern Baptists. In 2008, almost 20% of the congregations were majority African American, Asian, Hispanic, or Latino. SBC cooperating churches had an estimated one million African American members. It has passed a series of resolutions recommending including more black members and appointing more African American leaders. At its 2012 annual meeting, it elected Pastor Fred Luter of the Franklin Avenue Baptist Church as its first African American president. He had earned respect by showing leadership skills in building a large congregation in New Orleans.
The SBC's increasingly national scope inspired some members to suggest a name change. In 2005, some members made proposals at the SBC Annual Meeting to change the name to the more national-sounding "North American Baptist Convention" or "Scriptural Baptist Convention" (to retain the SBC initials). These proposals were defeated.
The messengers of the 2012 annual meeting in New Orleans voted to adopt the descriptor "Great Commission Baptists". The legal name remained "Southern Baptist Convention", but affiliated churches and convention entities could voluntarily use the descriptor.
Almost a year after the Charleston church shooting, the denomination approved a resolution that called upon member churches and families to stop flying the Confederate flag.
The church approved a resolution, "On Refugee Ministry", encouraging member churches and families to welcome refugees coming to the United States. In the same convention, Russell Moore of the Southern Baptist Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission quickly responded to a pastor who asked why a member should support the right of Muslims living in the U.S. to build mosques. Moore replied, "Sometimes we have to deal with questions that are really complicated... this isn't one of them." Moore said that religious freedom must be for all religions.
From February to June 2016, the denomination collaborated with the National Baptist Convention, USA, on racial reconciliation. SBC-GCB and NBC presidents Ronnie Floyd and Jerry Young assembled ten pastors from each convention in 2015, discussing race relations; in 2016, Baptist Press and The New York Times revealed tension among National Baptists debating any collaboration with Southern Baptists, quoting NBC President Young:
I've never said this to Dr. Floyd, but I've had fellows in my own denomination who called me and said: "What are you doing? I mean, are you not aware of the history?" And I say, obviously I'm aware. They bring up the issue about slavery and that becomes a reason, they say, that we ought not to be involved with the Southern Baptists. Where from my vantage point, that's reverse racism. I do understand the history, and I understand the pain of the past...But what I'm also quite clear about is, if the Gospel does anything at all, the Gospel demands that we not only preach but practice reconciliation.
After an initial resolution denouncing the alt-right movement failed to make it to the convention floor, the denomination officially denounced the alt-right movement at the 2017 convention. On November 5, 2017, a mass shooting took place at the First Baptist Church of Sutherland Springs. It was the deadliest shooting to occur at any affiliated church in its history and, in modern history, at an American place of worship.
In 2020, the denomination canceled its convention due to COVID-19 concerns and eventually rescheduled for June 2021.
In a Washington Post story dated September 15, 2020, Greear said some Southern Baptist Convention leaders wanted to change the official name of the church to "Great Commission Baptists" (GCB), to distance the church from its support of slavery and because it is no longer just a Southern church. Since then, several leaders and churches have begun adopting the alternative descriptor for their churches.
=== Sexual abuse scandal ===
In 2018, investigations showed that the SBC suppressed reports of sexual abuse and protected over 700 accused ministers and church workers. In 2022, a report indicated church leaders had stonewalled and disparaged clergy sex abuse survivors for nearly two decades; reform efforts had been met with criticism or dismissal from other organization leaders; and known abusers had been allowed to keep their positions without informing their local churches. On August 12, 2022, the denomination announced that it was facing a federal investigation into the scandal.
On February 10, 2019, a joint investigation by the Houston Chronicle and the San Antonio Express found that there had been over 700 victims of sexual abuse by nearly 400 Southern Baptist church leaders, pastors, and volunteers over the previous 20 years.
In 2018, the Houston Chronicle verified details of hundreds of accounts of abuse. It examined federal and state court databases, prison records, and official documents from more than 20 states and researched sex offender registries nationwide. The Chronicle compiled a list of records and information (current as of June 2019) listing church pastors, leaders, employees, and volunteers who have pleaded guilty to or were convicted of sex crimes.
On June 12, 2019, during their annual meeting, convention messengers, who assembled that year in Birmingham, Alabama, approved a resolution condemning sex abuse and establishing a special committee to investigate sex abuse, which will make it easier for the convention to excommunicate churches. The Reverend J. D. Greear, president of the convention and pastor of The Summit Church in Durham, North Carolina, called the move a "defining moment". Ronnie Floyd, president of the convention's executive committee, echoed Greear's remarks, calling the vote "a very, very significant moment in the history of the Southern Baptist Convention".
In June 2021, letters from former policy director Russell D. Moore to convention leadership were leaked. In the letters, Moore described how the convention had mishandled claims of sexual abuse.
On May 22, 2022, Guidepost Solutions, an independent firm contracted by the organization's executive committee, released a report detailing that church leaders had stonewalled and disparaged clergy sex abuse survivors for nearly two decades. It was then the most extensive investigation undertaken in the convention's history, with $4 million reportedly spent by the organization to fund the inquiry. The report also found that known abusers were allowed to keep their positions without informing their church or congregation. The report alleged that while the convention had elected a president, J. D. Greear, in 2018 who made addressing sexual abuse a central part of his agenda, nearly all efforts at reform had been met with criticism and dismissal by other organization leaders.
On June 14, 2022, the denomination voted "to create a way to track pastors and other church workers credibly accused of sex abuse and launch a new task force to oversee further reforms" after a consultant exposed that "Southern Baptist leaders mishandled abuse cases and stonewalled victims for years". The new task force will operate for one year, with the option to continue longer.
On August 12, 2022, the organization announced that it was facing a federal investigation into the sex abuse scandal. As revelations of sexual abuse and lawsuits continued to emerge in 2023, the SBC's Abuse Reform Implementation Task Force announced continued development of the database of sexual offenders.
== Doctrine ==
The Baptist Faith and Message (BF&M) represents the general theological perspective of the denomination's churches. The convention first drafted the BF&M in 1925 as a revision of the 1833 New Hampshire Confession of Faith. The convention revised the BF&M significantly in 1963, amended it in 1998 to add one new section on the family, and revised it again in 2000. The 1998 and 2000 changes were the subject of much controversy, particularly regarding the role of women in the church.
The BF&M is not a creed, such as the Nicene Creed. Members are not required to adhere to it, and churches and state conventions belonging to the global body are not required to use it as their statement of faith or doctrine, though many do in lieu of creating their own statement. Nevertheless, key leaders, faculty in denomination-owned seminaries, and missionaries who apply to serve through the various missionary agencies must affirm that their practices, doctrine, and preaching are consistent with the BF&M.
In 2012, a LifeWay Research survey of the denomination's pastors found that 30% of churches identified with the labels Calvinist or Reformed, while 30% identified with the labels Arminian or Wesleyan. LifeWay Research President Ed Stetzer said, "historically, many Baptists have considered themselves neither Calvinist nor Arminian, but holding a unique theological approach not framed well by either category". The survey also found that 60% of its pastors were concerned about Calvinism's impact within the convention. Nathan Finn writes that the debate over Calvinism has "periodically reignited with increasing intensity" and that non-Calvinists "seem to be especially concerned with the influence of Founders Ministries" while Calvinists "seem to be particularly concerned with the influence of revivalism and Keswick theology."
Historically, the denomination has not considered glossolalia or other Charismatic beliefs to be in accordance with Scriptural teaching, though the BF&M does not mention the subject. In 2015, the International Mission Board lifted a ban on glossolalia for its missionaries while reaffirming that it should not be taught as normative.
The convention brings together fundamentalist and moderate churches.
=== Position statements ===
In addition to the BF&M, the denomination has also issued position statements affirming the autonomy of the local church; identifying the Cooperative Program of missions as integral to the denomination; that statements of belief are revisable in light of Scripture, though the Bible is the final word; honoring the indigenous principle in missions without compromising doctrine or its identity for missional opportunities; that laypersons have the same right as ordained ministers to communicate with God, interpret Scripture, and minister in Christ's name; that "At the moment of conception, a new being enters the universe, a human being, a being created in God's image", who as such should be protected regardless of the circumstances of the conception; that God's plan for marriage and sexual intimacy is a lifetime relationship of one man and one woman, rejecting homosexuality; understanding the Bible to forbid any form of extramarital sexual relations; affirming the accountability of each person before God; and that women are not eligible to serve as pastors.
In 2022, it passed a resolution against prosperity theology, which it considers a heretical distortion of the message of the Bible.
==== Abortion ====
The position of many Southern Baptists on abortion has changed significantly over time, evolving from acceptance under certain circumstances to firm opposition.
In 1971, the SBC passed a resolution urging a loosening of U.S. abortion laws, stating:Be it further resolved, that we call upon Southern Baptists to work for legislation that will allow the possibility of abortion under such conditions as rape, incest, clear evidence of severe fetal deformity, and carefully ascertained evidence of the likelihood of damage to the emotional, mental, and physical health of the mother.In 1973, a "poll conducted by the Baptist Standard news journal found that 90 percent of Texas Baptists believed their state's abortion laws were too restrictive".
During this era, a majority of Southern Baptists, including a few conservatives within the denomination, supported a moderate expansion of abortion rights, seeing it as a matter of religious liberty, what they saw as a lack of biblical condemnation, and belief in non-intrusive government. Southern Baptists' and evangelicals' initial reaction to Roe v. Wade decision was one of support or indifference; they overwhelmingly viewed anti-abortion movements as a sectarian and Catholic concern. By the mid-1970s, this began to change, as a movement that sought to change Southern Baptists' opinions on abortion began to incline them against it substantially. Over that period, the SBC changed in other ways as well. Today, the SBC strongly opposes abortion.
==== Gender-based roles ====
Officially, the denomination subscribes to the complementarian view of gender roles. Beginning in the early 1970s, as a reaction to their perceptions of various "women's liberation movements", the church, along with several other historically conservative Baptist groups, began to assert its view of the propriety and primacy of what it deemed "traditional gender roles" as a body. In 1973, at the annual meeting of the Southern Baptist Convention, delegates passed a resolution that read in part: "Man was not made for woman, but the woman for the man. Woman is the glory of man. Woman would not have existed without man." In 1998, the convention appended a male leadership understanding of marriage to the 1963 version of the Baptist Faith and Message, with an official amendment: Article XVIII, "The Family". In 2000, it revised the document to reflect support for a male-only pastorate with no mention of the office of deacon.
In 1984, when it had about 250 women pastors, the Convention adopted a resolution affirming the exclusion of women from pastoral leadership.
Since 1987, various local associations and regional conventions have considered churches that have authorized the pastoral ministry of women to not be in friendly cooperation (or "disfellowshipped") without the intervention of the national convention on the subject.
By explicitly defining the pastoral office as the exclusive domain of males, the 2000 BF&M provision became the Southern Baptist's first-ever official position against women pastors. As individual churches affiliated with the organization are autonomous, churches cannot be forced to adopt a male-only pastorate.
Some churches that have installed women as their pastors have been disfellowshipped from membership in their local associations; a smaller number have been disfellowshipped from their affiliated state conventions. In February 2023, the Executive Committee for the first time deemed five churches that had appointed women pastors to not be in friendly cooperation. In June 2023, when two churches requested a review of the decision, 88% of the church representatives at the annual convention voted to uphold the decision. American Reformer magazine estimated the convention would have 1,844 female pastors in 2023.
The crystallization of the church's positions on gender roles and restrictions on women's participation in the pastorate contributed to the decision by members now belonging to the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, which broke from the convention in 1991. Another denomination that broke off, the Alliance of Baptists, also accepts women's ordination.
The 2000 BF&M prescribes a husband-headship authority structure, closely following a complementarian reading of Paul the Apostle's exhortations in Ephesians 5:21–33:
Article XVIII. The Family. The husband and wife are of equal worth before God, since both are created in God's image. The marriage relationship models the way God relates to his people. A husband is to love his wife as Christ loved the church. He has the God-given responsibility to provide for, to protect, and to lead his family. A wife is to submit herself graciously to the servant leadership of her husband even as the church willingly submits to the headship of Christ. She, being in the image of God as is her husband and thus equal to him, has the God-given responsibility to respect her husband and to serve as his helper in managing the household and nurturing the next generation.
=== Ordinances ===
Southern/Great Commission Baptists observe two ordinances: the Lord's Supper and believer's baptism (also known as credo-baptism, from the Latin for "I believe"). Furthermore, they hold the historic Baptist belief that immersion is the only valid mode of baptism. The Baptist Faith and Message describes baptism as a symbolic act of obedience and a testimony of the believer's faith in Jesus Christ to other people. The BF&M also notes that baptism is a precondition to congregational church membership.
The BF&M holds to memorialism, the belief that the Lord's Supper is a symbolic act of obedience in which believers commemorate the death of Christ and look forward to his Second Coming. Individual churches are free to practice either open or closed communion (due to the convention's belief in congregational polity and the autonomy of the local church), but most practice open communion. For the same reason, the frequency of observance of the Lord's Supper varies from church to church. Churches commonly observe it quarterly, but some churches offer it monthly; a small minority offer it weekly. Because the organization has traditionally opposed alcoholic beverage consumption by members, grape juice is used instead of wine.
=== Worship ===
Most members observe a low church form of worship, which is less formal and uses no stated liturgy. The form of the worship services generally depends on whether the congregation uses a traditional or a contemporary service, or a mix of both—the main differences concerning music and the response to the sermon.
In both types of services, there will be a prayer at the opening of the service, before the sermon, and at closing. Offerings are taken, which may be around the middle of the service or at the end (with the increased popularity of electronic financial systems, some churches operate kiosks allowing givers the opportunity to do so online or through a phone app or website link). Responsive Scripture readings are uncommon but may be done on a special occasion.
In a traditional service, the music typically features hymns accompanied by a piano or organ (churches have generally phased out the latter due to a shift in worship preferences) and sometimes with a special featured soloist or choir. Smaller churches typically let anyone participate in the choir regardless of actual singing ability; larger churches will limit participation to those who have successfully tried out for a role. After the sermon, an invitation to respond (sometimes termed an altar call) might be given; people may respond during the invitation by receiving Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and beginning Christian discipleship, seeking baptism or requesting to join the congregation, or entering into vocational ministry or making some other publicly stated decision. Churches may schedule baptisms on specific weekends, or (especially in buildings with built-in baptisteries) be readily available for anyone desiring baptism.
In a contemporary service, the music generally features modern songs led by a praise team or similarly named group with featured singers. Choirs are not as common. An altar call may or may not be given at the end; if not, interested persons are directed to seek out people in the lobby who can address any questions. Baptismal services are usually scheduled as specific and special events. Also, church membership is usually done periodically by attending specific classes about the church's history, beliefs, what it seeks to accomplish, and what is expected of a prospective member. Controversially, churches may ask a member to sign a "membership covenant", a document with the prospective member's promise to perform certain tasks (regular church attendance at main services and small groups, regular giving—sometimes even requiring tithing, and service within the church). Such covenants are highly controversial: among other things, such a covenant may not permit a member to withdraw from membership to avoid church discipline voluntarily, or, in some cases, the member cannot leave at all (even when not under discipline) without the approval of church leadership. A Dallas/Fort Worth church was forced to apologize to a member who attempted to do so for failing to request permission to annul her marriage after her husband admitted to viewing child pornography.
== Statistics ==
=== Membership ===
According to a 2024 census published by the convention, it had 46,876 churches, 4.3 million weekly worshippers, and 12,722,266 members.
The global convention has more than 1,161 local associations, 41 state conventions, and fellowships covering all 50 states and territories of the United States. The five U.S. states with the highest rates of membership are Texas, Georgia, North Carolina, Florida, and Tennessee. Texas has the largest number of members, with an estimated 2.75 million. Within Texas, these are divided among the more traditionalist Southern Baptists of Texas Convention and more moderate, diversified Baptist General Convention of Texas; the Baptist General Convention of Texas, or the Texas Baptists, are also more financially and organizationally autonomous from the primary convention in contrast to most state conventions.
Southern/Great Commission Baptists support thousands of missionaries in the United States and worldwide through the Cooperative Program.
=== Trends ===
Data from church sources and independent surveys indicate that since 1990 membership of Southern Baptist churches has declined as a proportion of the American population. Historically, the convention grew throughout its history until 2007, when membership decreased by a net figure of nearly 40,000 members. The total membership, of about 16.2 million, was flat over the same period, falling by 38,482 or 0.2%. An important indicator of the denomination's health is new baptisms, which have decreased yearly for seven of the last eight years. As of 2008, they had reached their lowest levels since 1987. Membership continued to decline from 2008 to 2012. The convention's statistical summary of 2014 recorded a loss of 236,467 members, their biggest one-year decline since 1881. In 2018, membership fell below 15 million for the first time since 1989 and reached its lowest level for over 30 years.
This decline in membership and baptisms has prompted some SBC researchers to describe the convention as a "denomination in decline". In 2008, former SBC president Frank Page suggested that if current conditions continue, half of all the convention's churches will close their doors permanently by 2030. A 2004 survey of SBC churches supported that assessment, finding that the membership of 70% of SBC churches is declining or has plateaued.
The decline in membership was discussed at the June 2008 Annual Convention. Curt Watke, a former researcher for the organization, noted four reasons for the decline of the church based on his research: the increase in immigration by non-European groups, decline in growth among predominantly European American (white) churches, the aging of the current membership, and a decrease in the proportion of younger generations participating in any church life. Some believe Baptists have not worked sufficiently to attract minorities.
On the other hand, the state conventions of Mississippi and Texas report an increasing proportion of minority members. In 1990, 5% of congregations were non-white. In 2012, the proportion of congregations of other ethnic groups (African American, Latino, and Asian) had increased to 20%. Sixty percent of the minority congregations were in Texas, particularly in the suburbs of Houston and Dallas. In 2020, an estimated 22.3% of affiliated churches were non-white.
The decline in SBC-GCB membership may be more pronounced than these statistics indicate because Baptist churches are not required to remove inactive members from their rolls, likely leading to greatly inflated membership numbers. In addition, hundreds of large, moderate congregations have shifted their primary allegiance to other Baptist groups, such as the American Baptist Churches USA, the Alliance of Baptists, or the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, but have continued to remain on the convention's books. Their members are thus counted in the convention's totals, although these churches no longer participate in the annual convention meetings or make more than the minimum financial contributions.
Groups have sometimes withdrawn from the convention because of its conservative trends. On November 6, 2000, the Baptist General Convention of Texas voted to cut its contributions to Southern Baptist seminaries and reallocate more than $5 million to three theological seminaries that members believed were more moderate. These included the Hispanic Baptist Theological School in San Antonio, Baylor University's George W. Truett Theological Seminary in Waco, and Hardin–Simmons University's Logsdon School of Theology in Abilene. Since the controversies of the 1980s, the convention has established more than 20 theological or divinity programs directed toward moderate and progressive Baptists in the Southeastern United States. In addition to Texas, the convention established schools in Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and Alabama in the 1990s. These include the Baptist Theological Seminary in Richmond, McAfee School of Theology of Mercer University in Atlanta, Wake Forest, Gardner Webb and Campbell Divinity schools in North Carolina, and Beeson Divinity School at Samford University. These schools contributed to the flat and declining enrollment at seminaries operating in the same region of the United States. Texas and Virginia have the largest state conventions identified as moderate in theological approach.
On June 4, 2020, the organization reported a drop in membership—the 13th consecutive year that membership declined. Total membership in the church fell almost 2% to 14,525,579 from 2018 to 2019. In 2022, the church lost another 457,371 members (the largest drop in over a century) to 13,223,122, a similar level as the late 1970s.
== Organization ==
The denomination has four levels of organization: the local congregation, the local association, the state convention, and the national convention. There are 41 affiliated state conventions or fellowships.
The national and state conventions and local associations are cooperative associations by which churches can voluntarily pool resources to support missionary and other work. Because of the basic Baptist principle of the autonomy of the local church and the congregationalist polity of the denomination, neither the national convention nor the state conventions or local associations has any administrative or ecclesiastical control over local churches; such a group may disfellowship a local congregation over an issue, but may not terminate its leadership or members or force its closure. The national convention has no authority over state conventions or local associations, nor do state conventions have authority over local associations. Furthermore, no individual congregation has any authority over any other congregation; a church may oversee another congregation voluntarily as a mission work, but another congregation has the right to become an independent congregation at any time.
Article IV. Authority: While independent and sovereign in its own sphere, the Convention does not claim and will never attempt to exercise any authority over any other Baptist body, whether church, auxiliary organizations, associations, or convention.
The national convention maintains a central administrative organization in Nashville, Tennessee. Its executive committee exercises authority and control over seminaries and other institutions owned by the national convention.
The national convention had around 10,000 ethnic churches as of 2008. Commitment to the autonomy of local churches was the primary force behind its executive committee's rejection of a proposal to create a convention-wide database of clergy accused of sexual crimes against congregants or other minors in order to stop the "recurring tide" of clergy sexual abuse within affiliated congregations. A 2009 study by Lifeway Christian Resources, the convention's research and publishing arm, revealed that one in eight background checks for potential volunteer or church workers revealed a history of crime that could have prevented them from working.
The denominational statement of faith, the Baptist Faith and Message, is not binding on churches or members due to the autonomy of the local church (though national convention employees and missionaries must agree to its views as a condition of employment or missionary support). Politically and culturally, Southern/Great Commission Baptists tend to be conservative. Most oppose homosexual activity and abortion.
=== Pastor and deacon ===
Generally, Baptists recognize only two scriptural offices: pastor-teacher and deacon. The convention passed a resolution in the early 1980s officially restricting offices requiring ordination to men. According to the Baptist Faith and Message, the office of pastor is limited to men based on New Testament scriptures.
=== Annual meeting ===
The annual meeting (held in June over two days) consists of delegates (called "messengers") from cooperating churches. The messengers confer, determine the convention's programs, policies, and budget, and elect the officers and committees. Each cooperating church is allowed up to two messengers regardless of the amount given to convention entities and may have more depending on the amount of contributions (in dollars or percent of the church's budget), but the maximum number of messengers permitted from any church is 12.
== Missions and affiliated organizations ==
=== Cooperative Program ===
The Cooperative Program (CP) is the organization's unified funds collection and distribution program for the support of regional, national, and international ministries; contributions from affiliated congregations fund the CP.
In the fiscal year ending September 30, 2008, the local congregations of the denomination reported gift receipts of $11.1 billion. From this they sent $548 million, approximately five percent, to their state Baptist conventions through the CP. Of this amount, the state Baptist conventions retained $344 million for their work. State conventions sent $204 million to the national CP budget to support denomination-wide ministries.
=== Mission agencies ===
The denomination was organized in 1845 to create a mission board to support the sending of Baptist missionaries. The North American Mission Board, or NAMB, (founded as the Domestic Mission Board, and later the Home Mission Board) in Alpharetta, Georgia serves missionaries involved in evangelism and church planting in the U.S. and Canada, while the International Mission Board, or IMB, (originally the Foreign Mission Board) in Richmond, Virginia, sponsors missionaries to the rest of the world.
Baptist Men is the mission organization for men in the convention's churches and is under the North American Mission Board.
The Woman's Missionary Union, founded in 1888, is an auxiliary to the national convention, which helps facilitate two large annual missions offerings: the Annie Armstrong Easter Offering (for North American missions) and the Lottie Moon Christmas Offering (for international missions).
=== Send Relief ===
Among the more visible organizations within the North American Mission Board is Southern Baptist Disaster Relief. In 1967, a small group of Texas Southern Baptist volunteers helped victims of Hurricane Beulah by serving hot food cooked on small "buddy burners". In 2005, volunteers responded to 166 named disasters, prepared 17,124,738 meals, repaired 7,246 homes, and removed debris from 13,986 yards. Southern Baptist Disaster Relief provides many different types: food, water, child care, communication, showers, laundry, repairs, rebuilding, or other essential tangible items that contribute to the resumption of life following the crisis—and the message of the Gospel. All assistance is provided to individuals and communities free of charge. SBC DR volunteer kitchens prepare much of the food distributed by the Red Cross in major disasters.
=== Southern Baptist Association of Christian Schools ===
The SBC has various primary and secondary schools affiliated with the Southern Baptist Association of Christian Schools.
=== Universities and colleges ===
The SBC has several affiliated universities.
=== Seminaries ===
The national convention directly supports six theological seminaries devoted to ministry preparation.
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky (1859, originally in Greenville, South Carolina)
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas (1908, originally part of Baylor University in Waco, Texas).
New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, New Orleans, Louisiana (1916, originally New Orleans Baptist Bible Institute)
Gateway Seminary, Ontario, California (1944, initially in Oakland, California, and formerly called Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary)
Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, Wake Forest, North Carolina (1950)
Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Kansas City, Missouri (1957)
=== Other organizations ===
Other notable organizations under the national convention include Baptist Press, the nation's largest Christian news service, established by the convention in 1946; Baptist Collegiate Network, the college-level organization operating campus and international missions typically known as the Baptist Student Union and Baptist Collegiate Ministries; GuideStone Financial Resources (formerly called the Annuity Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, and founded in 1918 as the Relief Board of the Southern Baptist Convention), which provides insurance, retirement, and investment services to churches, ministers, and employees of affiliated churches and agencies (it does not limit its services to member churches and members); LifeWay Christian Resources, founded as the Baptist Sunday School Board in 1891, one of the nation's largest Christian publishing houses, which previously operated the "LifeWay Christian Stores" (formerly "Baptist Book Stores") until closing physical stores in 2019; Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission (formerly known as the Christian Life Commission of the SBC), dedicated to addressing social and moral concerns and their implications on public policy issues from city hall to Congress and the courts; and the Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives, in Nashville, Tennessee, the official depository for the denomination's archives and a research center for the study of Baptists worldwide. The SBHLA website includes digital resources.
== Controversies ==
From its establishment to the present day, the organization has experienced several periods of major internal controversy.
=== Landmark controversy ===
In the 1850s–1860s, a group of young activists called for a return to certain early practices, or what they called Landmarkism. Other leaders disagreed with their assertions, and the Baptist congregations became split on the issues. Eventually, the disagreements led to the formation of Gospel Missions and the American Baptist Association (1924), as well as many unaffiliated independent churches. One historian called the related James Robinson Graves—Robert Boyte Crawford Howell controversy (1858–60) the greatest to affect the denomination before that of the late 20th century involving the fundamentalist-moderate break.
=== Whitsitt controversy ===
In the Whitsitt controversy of 1896–99, William H. Whitsitt, a professor at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, suggested that contrary to earlier thought, English Baptists did not begin to baptize by immersion until 1641, when some Anabaptists, as they were then called, began to practice immersion. This went against the idea of immersion, which was the practice of the earliest Baptists, as some Landmarkists contended.
=== American Civil War ===
During the 19th and most of the 20th century, the organization, reflecting Southern attitudes toward politics, supported white supremacy, racial segregation, the Confederacy, and the Lost Cause. The organization also denounced interracial marriage as an "abomination", citing the Bible. Beginning in the late 1970s, a conservative movement began to take control of the organization. By the 1990s, this movement succeeded in taking control of the SBC leadership. In 1995, it officially denounced racism and its white supremacist history. In the 21st century, after the election of its first black president, the SBC adopted the "Great Commission Baptists" descriptor, which gained prominent use among several churches that wished to sever themselves from its white supremacist history and controversies. By 2008, almost 20% of SBC congregations were majority African American, Asian, Hispanic, or Latino, reflecting the denomination's increased racial diversity. SBC-cooperating churches had an estimated one million African American members. By 2018, the denomination had passed resolutions that recommended gaining more black members and appointing more African American leaders.
=== Moderates–conservatives controversy ===
The Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence (c. 1970–2000) was an intense struggle for control of the national convention's resources and ideological direction.
In July 1961, Professor Ralph Elliott at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Kansas City published The Message of Genesis, a book rejecting biblical inerrancy. In the 1970s, other convention seminary professors came under suspicion of liberal Christianity.
In response to these events, a group of pastors led by Judge Paul Pressler and Pastor Paige Patterson campaigned at conferences in churches for a more conservative direction in Convention policies. This group's candidate, Adrian Rogers, was elected Convention president at the 1979 annual meeting. After the election, the organization's new leaders replaced all Southern Baptist agency leaders with people who said they were more conservative. Its initiators called it a "Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence", while its moderate opponents called it a "fundamentalist takeover".
Russell H. Dilday, president of the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary from 1978 to 1994, said the resurgence fragmented Southern Baptist fellowship and was "far more serious than [a controversy]", calling it as "a self-destructive, contentious, one-sided feud that at times took on combative characteristics". Since 1979, Southern Baptists had become polarized into two major groups: moderates and conservatives. Reflecting the conservative majority votes of messengers at the 1979 annual meeting of the SBC, the new national organization officers replaced all leaders of Southern Baptist agencies with presumably more conservative people (often dubbed "fundamentalist" by dissenters).
In 1984, this group was heavily involved in passing a resolution excluding women from pastoral leadership.
In 1987, a group of churches criticized the fundamentalists for controlling the leadership and founded the Alliance of Baptists. A group of moderate churches criticized the denomination for the same reasons, as well as opposition to women's ministry, and founded the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship in 1991.
In 2019, after the scandals of sexual abuse accusations involving the deacon Paul Pressler and sexual abuse cover-ups involving former president Paige Patterson, the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary removed the stained-glass windows from the MacGorman Chapel opened in 2011 depicting them as actors of a "conservative resurgence".
=== Marriage ===
Since 1976, the Convention has adopted 22 resolutions supporting only marriage between a man and a woman and opposing same-sex marriage.
Since 1992, the national convention has "disfellowshipped" various churches that support LGBTQ inclusion. In 2018, the District of Columbia Baptist Convention was disfellowshipped for this reason.
On June 10, 2025, at the annual meeting in Dallas, the convention voted overwhelmingly in favor of working to overturn the legal right to same-sex marriage. It was the first time the SBC had asked representatives of its member churches to do this. The same resolution opposed "transgender ideology". The resolution, "On Restoring Moral Clarity through God's Design for Gender, Marriage, and the Family", was written by Andrew T. Walker, an ethicist at a Kentucky seminary.
=== Critical race theory ===
By November 2020, the six convention seminary presidents called critical race theory "unbiblical". They emphasized the importance of not turning to secular ideas to confront racism. Four African American churches left the SBC over the leadership's charged statement on the issue.
== See also ==
List of Baptist denominations
List of Southern Baptist Convention affiliated people
List of the largest Protestant denominations
Evangelicalism in the United States
Southern Baptist Convention Presidents
Christian views on slavery
Christianity in the United States
Religion in the United States
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
=== Bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Gebrselassie | Haile Gebrselassie | Haile Gebrselassie (Amharic: ኀይሌ ገብረ ሥላሴ, romanized: Haylē Gebre Silassē; born 18 April 1973) is an Ethiopian former long-distance track, road running athlete, and businessman. He won two Olympic gold medals and four World Championship titles over the 10,000 metres. Haile triumphed in the Berlin Marathon four times consecutively and also had three straight wins at the Dubai Marathon. He also earned four world titles indoors and was the 2001 World Half Marathon Champion. He is considered to be one of the greatest long distance runners of all time.
Haile had major competition wins at distances between 1,500 metres and the marathon, moving from outdoor, indoor and cross country running to road running in the latter part of his career. He broke 61 Ethiopian national records, ranging from 800 metres to the marathon, set 27 world records, and is regarded as one of the greatest long distance runners in history. He won the 2008 Berlin Marathon with a world record time of 2:03:59, breaking his own world record by 27 seconds. The record stood for three years. Haile's 10,000 m Masters age group world record remains unchallenged since 2008. Due to his various achievements on track & road running events, many called him as the "Emperor of the Distance Running". Beyond his athletic achievements, he is a successful businessman, contributing to the development of his home country.
Haile was cited as one of the top 100 most influential Africans by New African in 2011. During the Hachalu Hundessa riots in 2020, Oromo mobs targeted the businesses and properties of non-Oromos. Haile's hotels and resort were burned and 400 employees lost their jobs. In 2021, in the midst of the Tigray War, he pledged to join the fighting against the Tigray People's Liberation Front.
== Athletics career ==
=== Early career ===
Haile was born one of ten children in Asella, Ethiopia. As a child growing up on a farm, he used to run ten kilometres to school every morning, and the same distance back every evening. This led to a distinctive running posture, with his left arm crooked as if he was still holding his school books. Gebrselassie's mother died from cancer when he was six.
In 1992, Haile gained international recognition in Seoul, South Korea, when he won the 5000-metre and 10,000-metre races at the 1992 World Junior Championships and a silver medal in the junior race at the World Cross Country Championships held in Boston, the United States.
The following year, in 1993, Haile won the first of what would eventually be four consecutive world championships titles in the men's 10,000 metres at the 1993, 1995, 1997, and 1999 World Championships. His win in 1993 was however his most infamous as he accidentally stepped on the heel of Moses Tanui's shoe at the bell, causing it to fly off his foot. After the contact, with just one shoe, an angered Tanui moved out to a 10-meter lead, only to have Haile run him down on the final straight. Also at the 1993 World Championships he ran in the 5,000-metre race to finish a close second behind Ismael Kirui of Kenya. In 1994 he won a bronze medal at the IAAF World Cross Country Championships. Later that year he set his first world record by running 12:56.96 in the 5,000 metres, breaking Saïd Aouita's record by almost two seconds.
In 1995, Haile ran the 10,000 metres in 26:43.53 in Hengelo, the Netherlands, lowering the world record by nine seconds. That same summer, in Zürich, Switzerland, Haile ran the 5000 metres in 12:44.39, taking 10.91 seconds off the world record 12:55.30 (established by Kenya's Moses Kiptanui earlier in the year). Later that summer he won the 10k world championship with his final 200m being run in 25 seconds. This world record at the Weltklasse meet in Zürich was voted "Performance of the Year" for 1995 by Track & Field News magazine. At the same Weltklasse meet in Zürich in 1996, an exhausted Haile, suffering from blisters obtained on the hard track in Atlanta (where he had won the Olympic 10,000 metres gold), had no answer to the 58-second lap of Daniel Komen with five laps to go as Komen went on to win and just miss Haile's record, finishing in 12:45.09. In 1997, Haile turned the tables on Komen at the same meet. Coming off his third 10K world championship gold medal, Haile beat Komen in another Zürich classic on 13 August 1997, covering the final 200 metres in 26.8 seconds to break his 5000 metres world record with a time of 12:41.86. Komen, in turn, took Haile's record only nine days later when Komen ran a 12:39.74 performance in Belgium.
=== Middle career ===
The next year, 1998, saw Haile lowering the indoor world records for 2000 and 3000 metres, enjoying success outdoors by taking back both the 5000 and 10,000 metres world records, as well as earning a share in the Golden League jackpot for winning all of his races in the Golden League series that summer. In June 1998 in Hengelo, Netherlands, Haile set a 10,000 metres world record 26:22.75, breaking Paul Tergat's world record 26:27.85, running evenly paced 13:11/13:11 5K splits.
Just 13 days later, Haile took on the 5000 metres mark of Komen in Helsinki, Finland. Croatian pacemaker Branko Zorko took the pace out slowly, hitting 1000 metres in 2:33.91 and dropping out at the mile. Million Wolde and Assefa Mezgebu led Haile through 2000 metres in 5:05.62. His pacemakers could not maintain the pace, though, and Haile was left alone for a problematic solo effort six laps out. Hitting 3000 metres in 7:38.93, even the British commentators announcing the race counted him out. With four laps to go (8:40.00), Haile needed a sub-4-minute final 1,600 metres for the record. With one lap to go and in great pain, Haile took off, recording a final lap of 56.77 seconds and a final 1,600 metres of 3:59.36 (= 4:00.96-mile) to race to a 12:39.36 world record.
In 1999, Haile starred as himself in the movie Endurance. The film chronicled his quest to win Olympic gold in the 10,000 metres in Atlanta. On the track, he won 1500/3000 metres double at the World Indoor Track Championships, defended his Outdoor World Track Championships 10,000 metres title, and remained undefeated in all his races (which ranged from 1500 up to 10,000 metres).
In 2000, Haile again won all of his races, ranking first in the world in both the 5000 and 10,000 metres. At the 2000 Sydney Olympics, he became the third man in history to successfully defend an Olympic 10,000 metres title (after Emil Zátopek and Lasse Virén). The narrow Olympic victory over Kenya's Paul Tergat came down to a blistering final kick, with Tergat's 26.3-second last 200 metres being topped by Haile's even faster 25.4. The winning margin of victory was only 0.09 seconds, closer than the winning margin in the men's 100-metre dash final.
On 26 August 2001, he ran his first half marathon (16 wins out of 20) and won in 1:04:34. Also in 2001, Haile won the IAAF World half Marathon Championships and the bronze medal in the 10,000 metres at the 2001 World Championships in Athletics. In the same year, he conceptualized the Great Ethiopian Run with Peter Middlebrook, which was latterly supported by Brendan Foster, British runner Richard Nerurkar the British ambassador to Ethiopia Myles Wickstead.
On 30 August 2003, Haile topped the polls when elected as a member of the IAAF Athletes Commission. Also in 2003, at the World Championships in Paris, Haile was involved in one of the most remarkable 10,000 metres races of all time while gaining a silver medal behind countryman Kenenisa Bekele. The last half of the 10,000 metres final at the championships was completed in a staggering 12:57.24 (12:57.2 for Bekele and 12:58.8 for Haile). According to the IAAF, "Not only was this split the fastest closing 5000 metres in the championships 10,000m (the previous record was 13:12.12, recorded in Atlanta), but it was also the fastest 5000 metres in a global championship surpassing the 12:58.13 Salah Hissou recorded when he won the 5,000m in Sevilla'99." (This remark remained true until a week later when the World Athletic Championships 5000 metres medalists (including Bekele) all ran faster than the second 5000 metres split in the previous week's 10,000 metres.) "The difference between the closing 5000 metres splits (12:57.24) and the 5000 metres World record (12:39.36) was 17.98 seconds, which is a record. The previous best of 18.4 seconds (13:31.4 for the closing 5000 metres when the World Record was 13:13.0) was recorded in the 1976 Olympics."
In the 2004 Athens Olympics, Haile sought to become the first man in history to win three straight Olympic gold medals in the 10,000 metres. He was unable to do so due to an injury; however, he finished fifth in a race won by his compatriot Kenenisa Bekele, who had broken both of Haile's major track world records, the 5000 metres and the 10,000 metres records. Shortly before the Athens games, Haile was unable to train for three weeks due to inflammation of his Achilles tendon. The injury was severe enough that he would not have competed otherwise but did so because of significant pressure from his country. This loss in the final period of training likely cost him a medal.
=== Later career ===
Since leaving the track after the 2004 Olympics, Haile has focused on road racing and the marathon. His adult marathons to date include London 2002 (3rd place), Amsterdam 2005 (1st place), London 2006 (9th place), Berlin 2006 (1st place), Fukuoka 2006 (1st place), London 2007 (DNF), Berlin 2007 (1st place and World Record), Dubai 2008 (1st place), Berlin 2008 (1st place and another World Record), Dubai 2009 (1st place) Berlin 2009 (1st place), Dubai 2010 (1st place), and NYC 2010 (DNF).
In 2002, Haile made his debut at the marathon at the London Marathon. He started the race at a very fast pace, within world record time. He was unable to hold it, however, as world record holders Khalid Khannouchi and Paul Tergat both eventually passed him. Khannouchi broke his world record, while Haile finished third.
In 2005, Haile went undefeated in all of his road races. This included a British all-comers' record in the 10K in Manchester (27:25), a win at the Amsterdam Marathon in the fastest marathon time in the world for 2006 (2:06:20), and a new world best for 10 miles in Tilburg Ten Miles race, The Netherlands (44:24). (His unofficial split of 41:22 at the 15K mark was 7 seconds faster than the official world best.)
Haile started 2006 positively on 15 January by setting his first world record on American soil. He ran the half marathon of the Rock 'n' Roll Arizona Marathon to beat Samuel Wanjiru 2005 record for the distance by a full 21 seconds with a time of 58 minutes and 55 seconds. During the race he passed the 20 km mark in 55:48, breaking also Paul Tergat's record for this distance which had stood since 1998. That year also marked another victory for Haile as he shattered the 25 km world road record (albeit in non-IAAF ratified fashion) by 68 seconds in a time of 1:11.37. The race was organized where Haile and six other runners would run 5 kilometres and then cross the starting line of the 20-K Alphen race in Alphen aan den Rijn of the Netherlands.
On 23 April 2006, he finished ninth in the London Marathon with a time of 2:09:05 (the race was won by Kenyan Felix Limo, who clocked 2:06:39). Haile referred to the ninth-place finish as "the worst race of my career". However, on 24 September he came back with a win in the Berlin Marathon in the fastest time of the year, 2:05:56. His time in Berlin made him only the fifth man in history to run under 2:06 for the marathon. This was followed by a win in the Fukuoka Marathon in Japan at 2:06:52.
In London on 22 April 2007, Haile challenged the 2006 London Marathon winner Felix Limo, 2005 London Marathon winner Martin Lel, 2004 Athens gold medalist Stefano Baldini, 2006 New York Marathon winner Marílson Gomes dos Santos, and the then marathon world record holder Paul Tergat in what organizers anticipated would be an exciting race. However Haile dropped out at the 18-mile (29 km) stage complaining of a stitch and inability to breathe, which turned out to be an allergic reaction to the pollen in the air. This left the 2005 winner Martin Lel to come home in the first place.
One month later, Haile made a surprise return to the track for the first of two stadium races that summer. In the first, he ran a 26:52.81 finishing fifth in a very competitive 10,000 metres race in Hengelo, The Netherlands. It was the first time a man over 30 ran the 10,000 m in less than 27 minutes. Then, on 27 June 2007, Haile launched an attack upon the world record for the one hour run, in Ostrava, Czech Republic. This record attempt was successful as Haile passed the hour mark at 21,285 metres (13 miles 397 yards), eclipsing the previous best of 21,101 metres, set by Mexican Arturo Barrios in La Flèche, France, on 30 March 1991. Furthermore, Haile covered 50 laps (20,000 m) in 56:25.98, another world best, well within the previous 56:55.6 also set by Barrios in 1991. These were his 23rd and 24th world records.
Haile made his running debut in New York City when he won the New York City Half Marathon on 5 August 2007, in 59:24, breaking the previous course record by two minutes. His win in the Lisbon Half Marathon (59:15) in March 2008 gave him a perfect record of 9–0 in winning all of his half marathons. He lost his first half marathon in Den Haag (14 March 2009), when he was beaten by Sammy Kitwara (59:47 for Kitwara, 59:50 for Haile).
On 30 September 2007, Haile won the Berlin Marathon in 2:04:26 (4:44.8 per mile), setting the world record and shaving 29 seconds off Paul Tergat's record, set on the same course in 2003. His victory further energized the celebrations of the Ethiopian Millennium (unique to the Ethiopian calendar), which began on 12 September 2007.
Before the 2008 Dubai Marathon, his manager suggested that Haile would be able to run a sub 2:04 time for a new world record. While Haile agreed that a sub 2:04 was possible, he stated that the conditions would need to be perfect for such a time. The event was held on 18 January 2008 and was won by Haile in a time of 2:04:53, making it the second-fastest marathon in history. However the early pace had been too fast and he was unable to continue at that speed, resulting in a time 27 seconds short of his world record.
At the Hengelo FBK-Games on 24 May, Haile ran 26:51.20 for the 10,000 metres to finish a close second behind countryman Sileshi Sihine's 26:50.53. This is the Master 35–39 age group world record. His nine career sub-27-minute 10,000-meter performances are more than any other athlete except for Kenenisa Bekele, who also has nine.
Because of Beijing's air pollution levels, Haile decided to withdraw from the marathon at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. He suffers from asthma and said that running in such conditions might be harmful to his health. Haile later admitted that he regretted the decision as the Beijing air was cleaner than expected. He did, however, run the 10,000 metres on 17 August, finishing sixth with a time of 27:06.68. The gold medal went to his countryman and then world record holder, Kenenisa Bekele with a 27:01:17 Olympic record winning time. The following month, on 28 September 2008, he defended his Berlin Marathon title, averaging 2:56.5 per kilometer (4:43.7 per mile) for a time of 2:03:59, breaking his own world record by 27 seconds.
Haile won the Dubai Marathon on 16 January 2009 but fell short of breaking his own world record that he had set four months earlier on the flat course. He finished in 2:05:29, well ahead of countryman Deressa Chimsa. In September of that year, he won the Berlin Marathon for the fourth consecutive time. He attempted to break the world record he had set the previous year but, despite a quick start, warm conditions saw him finish in 2:06:08, two minutes away from his best mark. He did, however, pass the 30-kilometer point in 1:27:49, which was a new world record for a road 30K.
In 2010, he tried to attack his world record for the third consecutive time at the Dubai Marathon 2010. Although he won the race with a time of 2:06:09, he failed to break his 18-month world record. In a post-race interview, Haile revealed that he had suffered back pain, requiring intensive pre-race physiotherapy, resulting from having slept in a bad position. His problems continued at the NYC Half Marathon, where he pulled up mid-race visibly uncomfortable in his running. He had an easy victory in the inaugural edition of the 10K de Madrid in April. He scored his third victory at the Great Manchester Run the following month, although he missed out on Micah Kogo's course record. He followed this with his first win at the Great North Run in September, finishing the half marathon in a time of 59:33 minutes.
He is also mentor and ambassador for the G4S 4teen, a programme supporting 14 young athletes.
=== Retirement ===
On 7 November, after dropping out of the 2010 New York City Marathon with an inflamed knee, Haile announced his retirement. Days later, he posted to his Twitter account that he was reconsidering his decision and wanted to run in the 2012 London Olympics. Haile had stated previously that after retiring he would like to enter politics, with scepticism from the public about his knowledge on politics and the unfamiliar culture of celebrities holding public office in Ethiopia. However he won his first race back in a 10k road race in Angola with a new course record of 28:05 and beat countryman Deriba Merga and the Kenyan Josphat Menjo who had run the fastest 10000m of that year.
Haile missed the 2011 Tokyo Marathon due to an injury, but won the half marathon at the Vienna City Marathon on 17 April 2011. About a month later Haile easily won the Great Manchester Run in England for the fourth time, finishing in 28:10. On 26 September he suffered a double setback when he dropped out of the Berlin Marathon (again suffering from respiratory difficulties of exercise-induced asthma) and saw his world records for 30 kilometres and the marathon broken by the man with whom he had been duelling, Patrick Makau. Haile was absent from the press conference later that day, but his manager Jos Hermens announced that while it was "the end of an era of record-breaking for Haile, it's not the end of his career". He returned to his winning ways at the Birmingham half marathon with a new course record and followed that up with a win at the Zevenheuvelenloop in November, taking his third career victory at the Dutch 15K race.
In 2012, Haile ran in the Tokyo Marathon and, after surging to the lead and putting a gap on the field with 6 km to go, faded and finished in 4th, in a time of 2:08:17. However, he bounced back to win the Vienna Half Marathon in 1:00:52, catching Paula Radcliffe who was given a 7:52-minute head-start. He was not selected for the Olympic marathon team, but after winning the Great Manchester Run with a fast time of 27:39, beating marathon world record holder Patrick Makau, world marathon leader Ayele Abshero and Olympic marathon medallist Tsegay Kebede, by a distance of over 100 metres, he decided to aim for a place in the 10,000 m race. He attempted to earn an Olympic spot at the Fanny Blankers-Koen Games in Hengelo, the stadium in which he had broken four world records. However, in extremely hot weather he finished seventh with a time of 27:20.39, sixth amongst Ethiopians, and did not qualify for the 2012 Summer Olympics. However, he did appear at the opening ceremony as one of the eight flagbearers who brought the Olympic flag into the stadium. Another outing at the Fukuoka Marathon, however, saw him enter as the favourite but drop out at 32 km.
On 14 April 2013, Haile won the open field of the Vienna City half marathon with a time of 01:01.14. He set his first over-40 world record with a time of 46:59 for 10 miles in Switzerland, on 15 September 2013. He took 3rd overall in the 2013 BUPA Great North Run, 32 seconds behind the winner Kenenisa Bekele and 31 seconds behind the reigning Olympic and world champion Mo Farah.
Haile has announced his retirement from competitive running after finishing 16th in the Great Manchester Run on Sunday 10 May 2015. It brings to an end a 25-year career in which he claimed two Olympic gold medals, eight World Championship victories and set 27 world records. "I'm retiring from competitive running, not from running. You cannot stop running, this is my life," he told BBC Sport.
Currently, Haile is the former president of the Ethiopian Athletics Federation, has been selling Hyundai cars in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, since 2009, and cooperates with Hyundai for the Marathon Motors Engineering factory there which started assembling the electric Hyundai Ioniq in July 2020. He has become a small-lot coffee farmer in Ethiopia. His coffees can be found under his estate name, Haile Estate, such as the Sun Dried Ethiopian Haile Estate Coffee, which is distributed by Starbucks Reserve.
== Business career ==
Haile Gebrselassie ventured into an entrepreneurship career in 1995, investing earnings from his sporting achievements that led to establishing companies. Until recent years, he has had 600 staff and offices every day. In 2010, Haile opened Haile Resorts in Lake Hawassa, and the resort quickly expanded to include destinations in Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region. He recently inaugurated the Grand Haile Resort in Addis Ababa headquartered in Lam Beret. Haile has a dealership for Hyundai cars in Ethiopia and started assembling Hyundai electric cars in 2020.
Haile owned Marathon Motors, a vehicle business that also assembles Hyundai cars, and which recently rolled off the first electric car from its assembly plant. Haile owned several businesses and is involved in real estate projects and owns four hotels, a coffee plantation. In 2015, there was estimated 1,000 employees and reached 3,000 employees across his investments in Ethiopia and beyond. Haile currently received 30 million birr revenue from various businesses.
Haile Gebrselassie is an ambassador for the German charity organisation "Menschen für Menschen", which is committed to the development of his home country of Ethiopia.
== Achievements ==
=== International competitions ===
=== Marathon performances ===
=== Track and field circuit ===
== World records and best performances ==
== Personal bests ==
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Haile Gebrselassie at World Athletics
Marathon World Record – Berlin 2008 – EthioTube Video
Spikes Hero profile on www.spikesmag.com
Gebrselassie approaching Record for Running Records
Pacing splits and analysis of Haile marathon world record
Berlin 2008: Haile runs 2:03:59 – race report and analysis of pacing |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Murray_(lexicographer)#:~:text=In%201861%2C%20Murray%20met%20a,tuberculosis%2C%20then%20known%20as%20consumption. | James Murray (lexicographer) | Sir James Augustus Henry Murray, FBA (; 7 February 1837 – 26 July 1915) was a British lexicographer and philologist. He was the primary editor of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) from 1879 until his death.
== Life and learning ==
James Murray was born in the village of Denholm near Hawick in the Scottish Borders, the eldest son of a draper, Thomas Murray. His brothers included Charles Oliver Murray and A. D. Murray, later editor of the Newcastle Daily Journal. He was christened plain 'James Murray', but in 1855 he assumed the extra names 'Augustus Henry' in order to distinguish himself from other James Murrays in the Hawick area. A precocious child with a voracious appetite for learning, he left school at fourteen because his parents were not able to afford to pay the fees to continue his education. At seventeen he became a teacher at Hawick Grammar School (now Hawick High School) and three years later he was headmaster of the Subscription Academy there. In 1856, he was one of the founders of the Hawick Archaeological Society.
In 1861, Murray met a music teacher, Maggie Scott, whom he married the following year. Two years later, they had a daughter Anna, who soon died of tuberculosis, then known as consumption. Maggie, too, fell ill with the same disease, and on the advice of doctors, the couple moved to London to escape the Scottish winters. Once there, Murray took an administrative job with the Chartered Bank of India while continuing in his spare time to pursue his many and varied academic interests. Maggie died within a year of arrival in London. A year later Murray was engaged to Ada Agnes Ruthven and the following year he married her. Their best man was his friend Alexander Graham Bell, who had earlier received instruction from Murray in elementary electricity, and often referred to him as "the grandfather of the telephone".
By this time Murray was primarily interested in languages and etymology, the origin of words. Some idea of the depth and range of his linguistic erudition may be gained from a letter of application he wrote to Thomas Watts, Keeper of Printed Books at the British Museum, in which he claimed an 'intimate acquaintance' with Italian, French, Catalan, Spanish, and Latin, and 'to a lesser degree Portuguese, Vaudois, Provençal & various dialects'. In addition, he was 'tolerably familiar' with Dutch, German, and Danish. His studies of Anglo-Saxon and Mœso-Gothic had been 'much closer', he knew 'a little of the Celtic' and was at the time 'engaged with the Slavonic, having obtained a useful knowledge of the Russian'. He had 'sufficient knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac to read and cite the Old Testament and Peshito' and to a lesser degree he knew Aramaic, Arabic, Coptic, and Phoenician. However, he did not get the job.
By 1869, Murray was on the council of the Philological Society, and by 1873 had given up his job at the bank and returned to teaching at Mill Hill School. He then published The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, which served to enhance his reputation in philological circles. In 1881, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Murray had eleven children with Ada (all having 'Ruthven' in their name, by arrangement with his father-in-law, George Ruthven); the eldest, Harold James Ruthven Murray became a prominent chess historian, Sir Oswyn Murray was permanent secretary at the Admiralty (United Kingdom) from 1917 to 1936, Robert Murray was a Jesuit priest and specialist in Syriac, and Wilfrid George Ruthven Murray wrote an account of his father. All the eleven children survived to maturity (which was unusual at that time) and helped him in the compilation of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED).
He died of pleurisy on 26 July 1915 and requested to be buried in Oxford beside the grave of his best friend, James Legge.
== Murray and the OED ==
On 26 April 1878, Murray was invited to Oxford to meet the Delegates of the Oxford University Press, with a view to his taking on the job of editor of a new dictionary of the English language, to replace Johnson's and to capture all the words then extant in the English speaking world in all their various shades of meaning.
On 1 March 1879, a formal agreement was put in place to the effect that Murray was to edit a new English Dictionary, which would eventually become the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). It was expected to take ten years to complete and be some 7,000 pages long, in four volumes. In fact, when the final results were published in 1928, it ran to twelve volumes, with 414,825 words defined and 1,827,306 citations employed to illustrate their meanings.
In preparation for the work ahead, Murray built a corrugated-iron shed in the grounds of Mill Hill School, called the Scriptorium, to house his small team of assistants as well as the flood of slips (bearing quotations illustrating the use of words to be defined in the dictionary) which started to flow in as a result of his appeal. As work continued on the early part of the dictionary, Murray gave up his job as a teacher and became a full-time lexicographer.
In the summer of 1884, Murray and his family moved to a large house on the Banbury Road in north Oxford. Murray had a second Scriptorium built in its back garden, a larger building than the first, with more storage space for the ever-increasing number of slips being sent to Murray and his team. Anything addressed to "Mr Murray, Oxford" would always find its way to him, and such was the volume of post sent by Murray and his team that the Post Office erected a special post box outside Murray's house. Murray became president of the Oxford Philatelic Society, making use of the substantial collection of postage stamps he received from his many readers around the world.
Murray continued his work on the dictionary, age and failing health doing nothing to diminish his enthusiasm for the work to which he had devoted much of his life. Despite his devotion to the dictionary, which was recognized by his knighthood in 1908, Murray remained a relative outsider in Oxford, never fully taking part in university academic and Senior Common Room life. He was never made a Fellow of an Oxford college, and received an Oxford honorary doctorate only the year before his death.
William Chester Minor was a major contributor to the OED. He became one of the project's most effective volunteers and came to the attention of Murray, who visited him in January 1891. In 1899, Murray paid compliment to Minor's enormous contributions to the dictionary, stating, "we could easily illustrate the last four centuries from his quotations alone".
== In literature and film ==
The book The Surgeon of Crowthorne (published in America as The Professor and the Madman), by Simon Winchester, was published in 1998 and chronicles both Minor's later life and his contributions to the creation of the Oxford English Dictionary.
The movie rights for the book were bought by Mel Gibson's Icon Productions in 1998. Farhad Safinia directed the film adaptation, called The Professor and the Madman, starring Gibson as Murray and Sean Penn as Minor. The film was released in May 2019.
In 2003, Winchester published a broader history, The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, which includes the origins of the Oxford English Dictionary and its completion nearly seventy years later.
The Dictionary of Lost Words (2020) is a best-selling novel by Australian author Pip Williams, much of which is set in the scriptorium where Murray and his team worked on the OED.
== Honorary degrees ==
He was awarded honorary doctoral degrees by nine universities, including:
LL.D from the University of Glasgow in June 1901.
D.Litt. from the University of Oxford in 1914.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Murray, KM Elisabeth (1977), Caught in the Web of Words: James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary (biography), Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08919-8 (his granddaughter).
Ogilvie, Sarah (2012), Words of the World: a global history of the Oxford English Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781107021839. (later editor on dictionary)
Winchester, Simon (2003), The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, OUP, ISBN 0-19-860702-4.
Murray is also the "professor" referred to in ———, The Surgeon of Crowthorne (US: The Professor and the Madman), even though he was never actually granted a professorship by Oxford. Dr. William Chester Minor, a volunteer who worked on the dictionary, was the "madman".
== External links ==
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography website entry for James Murray
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Murray, Sir James Augustus Henry" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 40.
Crime Library biography with photographs
Broadmoor's Word-Finder (on Minor and Murray)
Biography at Bikwil.com
Biography at Denholm Village's website Archived 11 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Blue plaque to Murray on his Banbury Road home
Murray Scriptorium Letters and papers of James Murray
Works by James Murray at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James Murray at the Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir#:~:text=Saz%2De%2DKashmir%3A%20It,major%20changes%20since%20its%20origin. | Music of Jammu and Kashmir | Music of Jammu and Kashmir reflects a rich musical heritage and cultural legacy of the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. Two different regions of Jammu and Kashmir consists the Jammu region and Kashmir Valley. Music of Kashmir and Chenab Valley has influences of Central Asian music while music from Jammu region is similar to that of other regions of North India.
== Kashmir ==
=== Sufiana Kalam (Kashmiri classical) ===
Sufiana Kalam is the classical music of Kashmir, which uses its own maqams, and is accompanied by the Rubab, the Kashmiri saz, the Santoor, the wasool and the dokra. The dance based on the sofiyiana kalam is the hafiz nagma.
=== Chakri ===
Chakri is one of the most popular types of traditional music played in Jammu & Kashmir. Chakri is a responsorial song form with instrumental parts, and it is played with instruments like the harmonium, the rubab, the sarangi, the Ghatam which is popularly known as Noet In Kashmiri, the geger, the tumbaknaer and the chimta. It is performed in folk and religious spheres, by the Kashmiri Muslims and Kashmiri Pandits. Chakri was also used to tell stories like fairy tales or famous love stories such as Yousuf-Zulaikha, Laila-Majnun, etc. Chakri ends with the rouf, though rouf is a dance form but few ending notes of Chakri which are played differently and on fast notes is also called Rouf. It is a very important part of the Henna Night (Ma'enzi raat) during weddings.
=== Henzae ===
Henzae is a traditional and ancient form of singing which is practiced by Kashmiri Pandits at their festivals. It appears to have archaic features that suggest it is the oldest form of Kashmiri folk singing.
=== Rouf or Wanwun ===
Rouf is a traditional dance form usually performed by women on certain important occasions like marriage and other functions and also in cultural activities.
=== List of traditional music instruments of Jammu and Kashmir ===
Rubab: The rabab, or rubab, is about three and a half feet long and has three strings. It is made of mulberry wood, while goat’s intestinal skin is used to make the strings. So, it is believed to bear someone’s soul and hence called Rabab. It came to the valley from Afghanistan. It creates soothing music and is an important part of Kashmir’s music culture.
Santoor: The santoor is an important accompaniment for Kashmiri folk and Sufiyana music. This instrument is trapezoidal in shape with 12 wires and 12 knobs on the sides.
Saz-e-Kashmir: It is a stringed instrument, round in shape, decorated using ivory, and played with a bow. It is similar to the violin; creates a soothing sound, and hasn’t undergone major changes since its origin.
Tumbaknaer: It is believed to have originated in Iran or Central Asia, from where it came to Kashmir and became an important part of the traditional music of this region. Tumbaknaer is a drum made out of baked clay with its base made from sheep skin. It is played during celebrations, mainly by women. It is said to have been in use since the medieval ages.
Nout: This traditional musical instrument is a rounded earthen pot with an opening. Nouts used in music are mostly of brass or copper. It is most commonly played during weddings.
Daf: It is a musical instrument consisting of a round frame with pairs of metal jingles attached to it and a translucent head made of plastic or goat skin. It is mostly played by women in weddings. It is of Iranian origin.
Sitar: Usually played by folk artists, the Kashmiri Sitar has a long body and 7 strings, and it is smaller in size than other Indian sitars.
Kashmiri sarang: Similar to the sarangi, though smaller in size, this musical instrument of Jammu and Kashmir is of mulberry or teakwood, hollow from inside and creates soothing, pleasant music. It is used by the folk musicians in Kashmir.
Surnai: This Kashmiri musical instrument is a wooden pipe around 18 inches in length with 7 outlet holes and one blowing hole and a bell-shaped outlet. There are two types of flutes found in the traditional music of Jammu and Kashmir. One is hollow from inside, has 7 holes for the 7 musical notes, and is played using two hands. The other type called Pi-Pi in Kashmiri, has 7 holes for the 7 swaras but does not have a blowing hole.
Geger: It is a percussion instrument used as an accompaniment in the traditional music of Jammu and Kashmir. It is a brass or metal vessel on which sounds are created with the use of fingers or rings on fingers. It is often played in Chakri songs.
Dokra: Also called Wasul or Dolke, was a percussion instrument used as an accompaniment in traditional Kashmiri music. Today, the tabla has taken its place. Tabla consists of two hand drums made of hollowed wood, metal or clay, where one drum is used to create treble and tonal sounds and the other is used to create bass.
Nagada: It is similar to Dhol and said to be a form of the ancient instrument Dundubhi. Sound is created by striking the nagada with a piece of wood. In Kashmir, this musical instrument is played at weddings and festivals.
Shankh: It is an ancient Indian instrument which is used to add a religious element to ceremonies and festivals. In Kashmir, the shankh is played at Hindu weddings and at temples. It has been mentioned in the Vedas and the Bhagwat Gita.
Swarnai: Known as Shahnai in Kashmiri music, it is wooden with nine holes and through a square near its mouth, air is blown to create sound. Swarnai music is melodious and the playing of this musical instrument is considered auspicious. Hindus as well as Muslims play this instrument at weddings and festivals.
Khasya: At religious gatherings and weddings, two Khasya are played by striking them with each other.
Thaluz: This traditional musical instrument is a part of the folk culture of Kashmir. It is mainly played at temples during prayers and kirtans.
Nai Flute
: In Kashmiri language, the normal meaning of ‘Nai’ is related to flute. In Kashmiri folk music, the prevalence of Nai is older than two thousand years as we get its description in Nilamata Purana.
"Punyahved shabdin vansi venurvenaya sut magadh shabden tatha vandisvanenc"
Nilamata Purana described banshi as well as venu and in the modern era even the Kashmiri artists, especially of Anantnag, are proficient in playing two types of flutes.
1. The first type of flute is empty from inside and there are seven holes for seven musical notes. While playing it, fingers of both the hands are used. This type of flute is more prevalent in the folk life.
2. The second type of flute is also called 'Pi-Pi' in Kashmiri language. This type of flute is made of walnut’s wood. Even this flute has seven holes but the hole from where the air is blown is absent, but its adjacent hole is put into the mouth and blown. The player sees the seven holes clearly. This instrument is used more conveniently and the player does not get tired soon. This type of flute is more famous in Kashmir.
=== Ladishah ===
Ladishah is one of the most important parts of the Kashmiri music tradition. Ladishah is a sarcastic form of singing. The songs are sung resonating to the present social and political conditions and are utterly humorous. The singers move from village to village performing generally during the harvesting period. The songs are composed on the spot on issues relating to that village, be it cultural, social or political. The songs reflect the truth and that sometimes makes the song a bit hard to digest, but they are totally entertaining.
=== Hindustani classical ===
Music and musical instruments find mention in the earliest texts like the Nilmatapurana and Rajatarangini by Kalhana. The very fact that it was a Kashmiri, Abhinavagupta (the great philosopher), who wrote a commentary called Abhinavabharati on Bharata's Natyashatra shows how much importance was given to music in the ancient times. A favorite traditional instrument is the santoor (Shat-tantri-veena), a hundred string percussion instrument which is played by the goddess Sharada (the goddess of learning and art in ancient Kashmir).
Notable santoor players from Jammu and Kashmir include Shivkumar Sharma, from Jammu, and Bhajan Sopori from the Kashmir Valley.
== Jammu region ==
Music in Jammu division is diverse with essence of both mountains and plains. Musical instruments of Jammu include flute, ektara, dafla, sarangi, Chang, narsingha, kansiya etc.
Traditional music includes:
Karkan: Songs in praise of martyrs and gurus.
Baran: Songs of valour and sacrifice
Bhaints: Devotional Songs in praise of Goddesses
Bishanpate: Songs in praise of Vishnu or incarnations of Vishnu.
Kirtan: Devotional Songs of God.
Bihai: Songs sung when a boy child is born
Badhai: These are sung in occasions of special ceremonies
Ghodi:These are sung when bride's groom wear SEHARA.
Suhag: They are sung by women in Bride's house during Feras.
Barah Mah: These Songs are the most beautiful one which describe the beauty of 12 months of the year. The themes of World famous BASOHLI PAINTINGS of Jammu are based on these Songs.
Lohri geet: These are sung by children when they ask for lohri from elders. They bid adieu to winters. Apart from this there are Gojri Songs which are sung by the Gujjar Bakarwal community. In these songs they describe their hardships of leaving their homes and moving from hills to plains in winters and back to hills in summers. They are in their own local Gojri language. Songs of Jammu division are mix of Dogri Lok geet, Punjabi Geet, Pahadi geet, Bhadarwahi geet and Gojri Geet. Such is the diversity of Jammu division with sugar coated languages and beautiful music of nature.
== See also ==
Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)
Culture of Kashmir
Outline of Jammu and Kashmir
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_All-Africa_Games | 1999 All-Africa Games | The 7th All-Africa Games (Zulu: imiDlalo yesi-7 yase-Afrika; Afrikaans: 7de Afrika-Spele), also known as Johannesburg 1999 (Zulu: eGoli 1999), was a sport event held from 10 to 19 September 1999, in Greater Johannesburg, South Africa. 53 countries participated in eighteen sports. Netball was included as a demonstration sport.
The South Africans hosted about 25,000 visitors including 6,000 athletes and 3,000 officials from throughout the continent. The opening ceremony included dancing, African parables and Zulu warriors. Due to the size of the used props, the ceremony was staged in an arena with less than 15,000 spectators.
South Africa, which had lost its bid to Greece for the 2004 Olympic Games, was hoping to impress FIFA in the hope of landing the 2006 World Cup. It eventually got the 2010 edition. Overall the games were a success, with hosts South Africa outdistancing Nigeria and Egypt in the medals race.
Typical problems at the games included 600 children contracting food poisoning after being fed boxed lunches at the practice session for the Opening Ceremonies, striking laborers demonstrating outside games venues, displaying placards which read "No Wages, No All Africa Games." Women's field hockey was demoted to a non-medal event after the Nigerian team dropped out of the tournament. A melee at the finish of the basketball game between Angola and Egypt forced police to escort the Egyptian team from the court. Haile Gebrselassie, the world record holder in the 5,000 and 10,000 meter runs opted out of the games for health reasons, depriving the games organizers of one of the biggest drawing cards of the games.
Despite the difficulties experienced, IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch, praised South Africa's organization of the Games, saying "this shows that you can organize big events."
Olympic stars Maria de Lurdes Mutola (athletics-800 m), Penny Heyns (swimming), Gete Wami (athletics, 10000 m) all starred in the women's events. South African pole vaulter Okkert Brits won his second African Games gold medal. Assefa Mezgebu of Ethiopia won the men's 10000 m.
Cameroon beat Zambia 4-3 on penalty kicks to win the football finale.
== Sports ==
demonstration sport: Netball ()
== Venues ==
== Medal table ==
* Host nation (South Africa)
== Athletics ==
See Athletics at the 1999 All-Africa Games
Maria de Lurdes Mutola of Mozambique won her third 800 metres title in a row. Nigeria won all four relay races; 4x100 metres and 4x400 metres for men and women. South African athletes won all four throwing events for men.
Some new women's events were added: pole vault, hammer throw and 10 kilometres road walk.
== Field hockey ==
Men: 1. South Africa, 2. Egypt, 3. Kenya, 4. Zimbabwe, 5. Ghana, 6. Malawi
Women. 1. South Africa, 2. Zimbabwe, 3. Kenya, 4. Namibia
== Soccer ==
The soccer tournament was won by Cameroon, who became the second team to win this tournament twice.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site
Athletics results - gbrathletics.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20100120090652/http://www.sportscheduler.co.sz/all_africa_games99.htm |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventaquemada | Ventaquemada | Ventaquemada is a town and municipality in the Central Boyacá Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. Ventaquemada is located at a distance of 98 kilometres (61 mi) from the capital Bogotá and 29 kilometres (18 mi) from the departmental capital Tunja. The urban centre is situated at an altitude of 2,630 metres (8,630 ft) on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Ventaquemada borders Tunja and Samacá in the north, Boyacá, Boyacá, Jenesano and Nuevo Colón in the east, Turmequé and Villapinzón in the south and Guachetá, Lenguazaque and Villapinzón in the west.
== Etymology ==
Former names of Ventaquemada are Padua and La Venta, indicating the commercial centre at a strategical location along the road between Bogotá and Tunja, historically the most important cities of the Altiplano. After the burning of the properties of Albarracín, the name Ventaquemada ("burnt sale") was given to the town.
== History ==
The area of Ventaquemada before the Spanish conquest was populated by the Muisca, who were organised in their loose Muisca Confederation. Ventaquemada was part of the rule of the zaque of Hunza.
Modern Ventaquemada was founded on December 17, 1777, by viceroy Manuel Antonio Flórez.
Ventaquemada is close to the Puente de Boyacá, the bridge where the decisive Battle of Boyacá in the struggle for independence of Colombia was fought. Ventaquemada has a classical colonial house and a statue honouring independence hero Simón Bolívar. The train station of Ventaquemada has long been abandoned.
== Economy ==
Main economical activity of Ventaquemada is agriculture; potatoes and maize are the major products cultivated.
== Born in Ventaquemada ==
Héctor Moreno, former Colombian racewalker
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorizema_dicksonii | Chorizema dicksonii | Chorizema dicksonii, commonly known as yellow-eyed flame pea, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae and is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It is an erect or spreading shrub with oblong to lance-shaped leaves and red and orange flowers.
== Description ==
Chorizema dicksonii is an erect or spreading shrub that typically grows to a height of 30–100 cm (12–39 in). Its leaves are oblong to lance-shaped or almost linear, up to 19 mm (0.75 in) long and rigid, tapering to a sharp point on the end. The flowers are arranged in loose, spike-like racemes on the ends of branches, each flower on a short pedicel. The sepals are silky-hairy, about 8 mm (0.31 in) long, the upper two lobes joined for about half their length. The petals are red and orange, the standard petal nearly twice as long as the sepals, the wings slightly longer than the sepals, and the keel shorter and curved with an erect point on the end. Flowering occurs from August to December.
== Taxonomy ==
Chorizema dicksonii was first formally described in 1839 by Robert Graham in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal from specimens "raised from seeds obtained by Messrs. James Dickson and Sons, Edinburgh, from Swan River".
== Distribution and habitat ==
Yellow-eyed flame pea grows on rocky hillsides and ridges in the Avon Wheatbelt, Jarrah Forest and Swan Coastal Plain bioregions of south-western Western Australia.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasser_Arafat#:~:text=In%201944%2C%20Arafat%20enrolled%20in,Herzl%20and%20other%20prominent%20Zionists. | Yasser Arafat | Yasser Arafat (4 or 24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004), also popularly known by his kunya Abu Ammar, was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004, President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 and President of the Palestinian Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004. Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist, Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004.
Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I. While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956.
In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War.
From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories. He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit. The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, alongside Israeli prime ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. The cause of Arafat's death remains the subject of speculation. Investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved, while a Swiss team determined he was radiologically poisoned.
Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist. Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals, frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government.
== Early life ==
=== Birth and childhood ===
Arafat was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 4 or 24 August 1929. His father, Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, a distant relative of Amin al-Husseini, the former Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, was a Palestinian from Gaza City, whose mother, Yasser's paternal grandmother, was Egyptian. Arafat's father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim family land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful. He worked as a textile merchant in Cairo's religiously mixed Sakakini District. Arafat was the second-youngest of seven children and was, along with his younger brother Fathi, the only offspring born in Cairo. Jerusalem was the family home of his mother, Zahwa Abul Saud, who died from a kidney ailment in 1933, when Arafat was four years of age.
Arafat's first visit to Jerusalem came when his father, unable to raise seven children alone, sent Yasser and his brother Fathi to their mother's family in the Mughrabi Quarter of the Old City. They lived there with their uncle Salim Abul Saud for four years. In 1937, their father recalled them to be taken care of by their older sister, Inam. Arafat had a deteriorating relationship with his father; when he died in 1952, Arafat did not attend the funeral, nor did he visit his father's grave upon his return to Gaza. Arafat's sister Inam stated in an interview with Arafat's biographer, British historian Alan Hart, that Arafat was heavily beaten by his father for going to the Jewish quarter in Cairo and attending religious services. When she asked Arafat why he would not stop going, he responded by saying that he wanted to study Jewish mentality.
=== Education ===
In 1944, Arafat enrolled in the University of King Fuad I and graduated in 1950. At university, he engaged Jews in discussion and read publications by Theodor Herzl and other prominent Zionists. By 1946, he was an Arab nationalist and began procuring weapons to be smuggled into Mandatory Palestine, for use by irregulars in the Arab Higher Committee and the Army of the Holy War militias.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Arafat left the university and, along with other Arabs, sought to enter Palestine to join Arab forces fighting against Israeli troops and the creation of the state of Israel. During the war, Arafat allegedly acted as a go-between in arms procurement for the Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini’s troops. However, instead of joining the ranks of the Palestinian fedayeen, Arafat fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood, although he did not join the organization. He took part in combat in the Gaza area (which was the main battleground of Egyptian forces during the conflict). In early 1949, the war was winding down in Israel's favor, and Arafat returned to Cairo due to a lack of logistical support.
After returning to the university, Arafat studied civil engineering and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) from 1952 to 1956. During his first year as president of the union, the university was renamed Cairo University after a coup was carried out by the Free Officers Movement overthrowing King Farouk I. By that time, Arafat had graduated with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering and was called to duty to fight with Egyptian forces during the Suez Crisis; however, he never actually fought. Later that year, at a conference in Prague, he donned a solid white keffiyeh–different from the fishnet-patterned one he adopted later in Kuwait, which was to become his emblem.
=== Personal life ===
In 1990, Arafat married Suha Tawil, a Palestinian Christian, when he was 61 and Suha, 27. Her mother introduced her to him in France, after which she worked as his secretary in Tunis. Prior to their marriage, Arafat adopted fifty Palestinian war orphans. During their marriage, Suha tried to leave Arafat on many occasions, but he forbade it. Suha said she regrets the marriage, and given the choice again would not repeat it. In mid-1995, Arafat's wife gave birth in a Paris hospital to a daughter, named Zahwa after Arafat's mother.
=== Name ===
Arafat's full name was Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini. Mohammed Abdel Rahman was his first name, Abdel Raouf was his father's name and Arafat his grandfather's. Al-Qudwa was the name of his tribe and al-Husseini was that of the clan to which the al-Qudwas belonged. The al-Husseini clan was based in Gaza and is not related to the well-known al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem, other notable family members include Amin al-Husseini.
Since Arafat was raised in Cairo, the tradition of dropping the Mohammed or Ahmad portion of one's first name was common; notable Egyptians such as Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak did so. However, Arafat dropped Abdel Rahman and Abdel Raouf from his name as well. During the early 1950s, Arafat adopted the name Yasser, and in the early years of Arafat's guerrilla career, he assumed the nom de guerre of Abu Ammar. Both names are related to Ammar ibn Yasir, one of Muhammad's early companions. Although he dropped most of his inherited names, he retained Arafat due to its significance in Islam.
== Rise of Fatah ==
=== Founding of Fatah ===
Following the Suez Crisis in 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser agreed to allow the United Nations Emergency Force to establish itself in the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip, precipitating the expulsion of all guerrilla or "fedayeen" forces there—including Arafat. Arafat originally attempted to obtain a visa to Canada and later Saudi Arabia, but was unsuccessful in both attempts. In 1957, he applied for a visa to Kuwait (at the time a British protectorate) and was approved, based on his work in civil engineering. There he encountered two Palestinian friends: Salah Khalaf ("Abu Iyad") and Khalil al-Wazir ("Abu Jihad"), both official members of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Arafat had met Abu Iyad while attending Cairo University and Abu Jihad in Gaza. Both would later become Arafat's top aides. Abu Iyad traveled with Arafat to Kuwait in late 1960; Abu Jihad, also working as a teacher, had already been living there since 1959. After settling in Kuwait, Abu Iyad helped Arafat obtain a temporary job as a schoolteacher.
As Arafat began to develop friendships with Palestinian refugees (some of whom he knew from his Cairo days), he and the others gradually founded the group that became known as Fatah. The exact date for the establishment of Fatah is unknown. In 1959, the group's existence was attested to in the pages of a Palestinian nationalist magazine, Filastununa Nida al-Hayat (Our Palestine, The Call of Life), which was written and edited by Abu Jihad. FaTaH is a reverse acronym of the Arabic name Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini which translates into "The Palestinian National Liberation Movement". "Fatah" is also a word that was used in early Islamic times to refer to "conquest."
Fatah dedicated itself to the liberation of Palestine by an armed struggle carried out by Palestinians themselves. This differed from other Palestinian political and guerrilla organizations, most of which firmly believed in a united Arab response. Arafat's organization never embraced the ideologies of the major Arab governments of the time, in contrast to other Palestinian factions, which often became satellites of nations such as Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria and others.
In accordance with his ideology, Arafat generally refused to accept donations to his organization from major Arab governments, in order to act independently of them. He did not want to alienate them, and sought their undivided support by avoiding ideological alliances. However, to establish the groundwork for Fatah's future financial support, he enlisted contributions from the many wealthy Palestinians working in Kuwait and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf, such as Qatar (where he met Mahmoud Abbas in 1961). These businessmen and oil workers contributed generously to the Fatah organization. Arafat continued this process in other Arab countries, such as Libya and Syria.
In 1962, Arafat and his closest companions migrated to Syria—a country sharing a border with Israel—which had recently seceded from its union with Egypt. Fatah had approximately three hundred members by this time, but none were fighters. In Syria, he managed to recruit members by offering them higher incomes to enable his armed attacks against Israel. Fatah's manpower was incremented further after Arafat decided to offer new recruits much higher salaries than members of the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA), the regular military force of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was created by the Arab League in 1964. On 31 December, a squad from al-Assifa, Fatah's armed wing, attempted to infiltrate Israel, but they were intercepted and detained by Lebanese security forces. Several other raids with Fatah's poorly trained and badly equipped fighters followed this incident. Some were successful, others failed in their missions. Arafat often led these incursions personally.
Arafat was detained in Syria's Mezzeh Prison when a Palestinian Syrian Army officer, Yusef Urabi, was killed. Urabi had been chairing a meeting to ease tensions between Arafat and Palestinian Liberation Front leader Ahmed Jibril, but neither Arafat nor Jibril attended, delegating representatives to attend on their behalf. Urabi was killed during or after the meeting amid disputed circumstances. On the orders of Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad, a close friend of Urabi, Arafat was subsequently arrested, found guilty by a three-man jury and sentenced to death. However, he and his colleagues were pardoned by President Salah Jadid shortly after the verdict. The incident brought Assad and Arafat to unpleasant terms, which would surface later when Assad became President of Syria.
=== Leader of the Palestinians ===
On 13 November 1966, Israel launched a major raid against the Jordanian administered West Bank town of as-Samu, in response to a Fatah-implemented roadside bomb attack which had killed three members of the Israeli security forces near the southern Green Line border. In the resulting skirmish, scores of Jordanian security forces were killed and 125 homes razed. This raid was one of several factors that led to the 1967 Six-Day War.
The Six-Day war began when Israel launched air strikes against Egypt's air force on 5 June 1967. The war ended in an Arab defeat and Israel's occupation of several Arab territories, including the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Although Nasser and his Arab allies had been defeated, Arafat and Fatah could claim a victory, in that the majority of Palestinians, who had up to that time tended to align and sympathize with individual Arab governments, now began to agree that a 'Palestinian' solution to their dilemma was indispensable. Many primarily Palestinian political parties, including George Habash's Arab Nationalist Movement, Hajj Amin al-Husseini's Arab Higher Committee, the Islamic Liberation Front and several Syrian-backed groups, virtually crumbled after their sponsor governments' defeat. Barely a week after the defeat, Arafat crossed the Jordan River in disguise and entered the West Bank, where he set up recruitment centers in Hebron, the Jerusalem area and Nablus, and began attracting both fighters and financiers for his cause.
At the same time, Nasser contacted Arafat through the former's adviser Mohammed Heikal and Arafat was declared by Nasser to be the "leader of the Palestinians." In December 1967 Ahmad Shukeiri resigned his post as PLO Chairman. Yahya Hammuda took his place and invited Arafat to join the organization. Fatah was allocated 33 of 105 seats of the PLO Executive Committee while 57 seats were left for several other guerrilla factions.
=== Battle of Karameh ===
Throughout 1968, Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were the target of a major Israeli army operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh, where the Fatah headquarters—as well as a mid-sized Palestinian refugee camp—were located. The town's name is the Arabic word for 'dignity', which elevated its symbolism in the eyes of the Arab people, especially after the collective Arab defeat in 1967. The operation was in response to attacks, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias, within the Israeli-occupied West Bank. According to Said Aburish, the government of Jordan and a number of Fatah commandos informed Arafat that large-scale Israeli military preparations for an attack on the town were underway, prompting fedayeen groups, such as George Habash's newly formed Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Nayef Hawatmeh's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), to withdraw their forces from the town. Though advised by a sympathetic Jordanian Army divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to the nearby hills, Arafat refused, stating, "We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee." Aburish writes that it was on Arafat's orders that Fatah remained, and that the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued.
In response to persistent PLO raids against Israeli civilian targets, Israel attacked the town of Karameh, Jordan, the site of a major PLO camp. The goal of the invasion was to destroy Karameh camp and capture Yasser Arafat in reprisal for the attacks by the PLO against Israeli civilians, which culminated in an Israeli school bus hitting a mine in the Negev, killing two children. However, plans for the two operations were prepared in 1967, one year before the bus attack. The size of the Israeli forces entering Karameh made the Jordanians assume that Israel was also planning to occupy the eastern bank of the Jordan River, including the Balqa Governorate, to create a situation similar to the Golan Heights, which Israel had captured just 10 months prior, to be used a bargaining chip. Israel assumed that the Jordanian Army would ignore the invasion, but the latter fought alongside the Palestinians, opening heavy fire that inflicted losses upon the Israeli forces. This engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces. The Israelis were repelled at the end of a day's battle, having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 141 PLO prisoners. Both sides declared victory. On a tactical level, the battle went in Israel's favor and the destruction of the Karameh camp was achieved. However, the relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and was stunning to the Israelis. Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own, King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit. Some have alleged that Arafat himself was on the battlefield, but the details of his involvement are unclear. However, his allies–as well as Israeli intelligence–confirm that he urged his men throughout the battle to hold their ground and continue fighting. The battle was covered in detail by Time, and Arafat's face appeared on the cover of the 13 December 1968 issue, bringing his image to the world for the first time. Amid the post-war environment, the profiles of Arafat and Fatah were raised by this important turning point, and he came to be regarded as a national hero who dared to confront Israel. With mass applause from the Arab world, financial donations increased significantly, and Fatah's weaponry and equipment improved. The group's numbers swelled as many young Arabs, including thousands of non-Palestinians, joined the ranks of Fatah.
When the Palestinian National Council (PNC) convened in Cairo on 3 February 1969, Yahya Hammuda stepped down from his chairmanship of the PLO. Arafat was elected chairman on 4 February. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Palestinian Revolutionary Forces two years later, and in 1973, became the head of the PLO's political department.
== Confrontation with Jordan ==
In the late 1960s, tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly; heavily armed Palestinian elements had created a virtual "state within a state" in Jordan, eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country. After their proclaimed victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan. They set up roadblocks, publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces, molested women and levied illegal taxes—all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored. King Hussein considered this a growing threat to his kingdom's sovereignty and security, and attempted to disarm the militias. However, in order to avoid a military confrontation with opposition forces, Hussein dismissed several of his anti-PLO cabinet officials, including some of his own family members, and invited Arafat to become Deputy Prime Minister of Jordan. Arafat refused, citing his belief in the need for a Palestinian state with Palestinian leadership.
Despite Hussein's intervention, militant actions in Jordan continued. On 15 September 1970, the PFLP (part of the PLO) hijacked four planes and landed three of them at Dawson's Field, located 30 miles (48 km) east of Amman. After the foreign national hostages were taken off the planes and moved away from them, three of the planes were blown up in front of international press, which took photos of the explosion. This tarnished Arafat's image in many western nations, including the United States, who held him responsible for controlling Palestinian factions that belonged to the PLO. Arafat, bowing to pressure from Arab governments, publicly condemned the hijackings and suspended the PFLP from any guerrilla actions for a few weeks. He had taken the same action after the PFLP attacked Athens Airport. The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory, and the next day, King Hussein declared martial law. On the same day, Arafat became supreme commander of the PLA.
As the conflict raged, other Arab governments attempted to negotiate a peaceful resolution. As part of this effort, Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September. Arafat's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders. Other heads of state took sides against Hussein, among them Muammar Gaddafi, who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal. A ceasefire was agreed upon between the two sides, but Nasser died of a massive heart attack hours after the summit, and the conflict resumed shortly afterward.
By 25 September, the Jordanian Army achieved dominance, and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a ceasefire in Amman. The Jordanian Army inflicted heavy casualties on the Palestinians—including civilians—who suffered approximately 3,500 fatalities. After repeated violations of the ceasefire from both the PLO and the Jordanian Army, Arafat called for King Hussein to be toppled. Responding to the threat, in June 1971, Hussein ordered his forces to oust all remaining Palestinian fighters in northern Jordan, which they accomplished. Arafat and a number of his forces, including two high-ranking commanders, Abu Iyad and Abu Jihad, were forced into the northern corner of Jordan. They relocated near the town of Jerash, near the border with Syria. With the help of Munib Masri, a pro-Palestinian Jordanian cabinet member, and Fahd al-Khomeimi, the Saudi ambassador to Jordan, Arafat managed to enter Syria with nearly two thousand of his fighters. However, due to the hostility of relations between Arafat and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad (who had since ousted President Salah Jadid), the Palestinian fighters crossed the border into Lebanon to join PLO forces in that country, where they set up their new headquarters.
== Headquarters in Lebanon ==
=== Official recognition ===
Because of Lebanon's weak central government, the PLO was able to operate virtually as an independent state. During this time in the 1970s, numerous leftist PLO groups took up arms against Israel, carrying out attacks against civilians as well as military targets within Israel and outside of it.
Two major incidents occurred in 1972. The Fatah subgroup Black September Organization hijacked Sabena Flight 572 en route to Vienna and forced it to land at the Ben Gurion International Airport in Israel. The PFLP and the Japanese Red Army carried out a shooting rampage at the same airport, killing twenty-four civilians. Israel later claimed that the assassination of PFLP spokesman Ghassan Kanafani was a response to the PFLP's involvement in masterminding the latter attack. Two days later, various PLO factions retaliated by bombing a bus station, killing eleven civilians.
At the Munich Olympic Games, Black September kidnapped and killed eleven Israeli athletes. A number of sources, including Mohammed Oudeh (Abu Daoud), one of the masterminds of the Munich massacre, and Benny Morris, a prominent Israeli historian, have stated that Black September was an armed branch of Fatah used for paramilitary operations. According to Abu Daoud's 1999 book, "Arafat was briefed on plans for the Munich hostage-taking." The killings were internationally condemned. In 1973–74, Arafat closed Black September down, ordering the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
In 1974, the PNC approved the Ten Point Program (drawn up by Arafat and his advisers), and proposed a compromise with the Israelis. It called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of "liberated" Palestinian territory, which refers to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War (present-day West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip). This caused discontent among several of the PLO factions; the PFLP, DFLP and other parties formed a breakaway organization, the Rejectionist Front.
Israel and the US have alleged also that Arafat was involved in the 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations, in which five diplomats and five others were killed. A 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded "The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat." Arafat denied any involvement in the operation and insisted it was carried out independently by the Black September Organization. Israel claimed that Arafat was in ultimate control over these organizations and therefore had not abandoned terrorism.
In addition, some circles within the US State Department viewed Arafat as an able diplomat and negotiator who could get support from many Arab governments at once. An example of that, we find in March 1973 that Arafat tried to arrange for a meeting between the President of Iraq and the Emir of Kuwait in order to resolve their disputes.
Also in 1974, the PLO was declared the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and admitted to full membership of the Arab League at the Rabat Summit. Arafat became the first representative of a non-governmental organization to address a plenary session of the UN General Assembly. In his United Nations address, Arafat condemned Zionism, but said:
Today I have come bearing an olive branch in one hand and a freedom fighter's rifle in another. Do not let the green branch fall from my hand.
He wore a holster throughout his speech, although it did not contain a gun. His speech increased international sympathy for the Palestinian cause.
Following recognition, Arafat established relationships with a variety of world leaders, including Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin. Arafat was Amin's best man at his wedding in Uganda in 1975.
=== Fatah involvement in Lebanese Civil War ===
Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict, Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War. Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub-groups such as the PFLP, DFLP and the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF), Arafat aligned the PLO with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement (LNM). The LNM was led by Kamal Jumblatt, who had a friendly relationship with Arafat and other PLO leaders. Although originally aligned with Fatah, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides. He sent his army, along with the Syrian-backed Palestinian factions of as-Sa'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside right-wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM. The primary components of the Christian front were the Phalangists loyal to Bachir Gemayel and the Tigers Militia led by Dany Chamoun, a son of former President Camille Chamoun.
In February 1975, a pro-Palestinian Lebanese MP, Maarouf Saad, was shot and killed, reportedly by the Lebanese Army. His death from his wounds, the following month, and the massacre in April of 27 Palestinians and Lebanese travelling on a bus from Sabra and Shatila to the Tel al-Zaatar refugee camp by Phalangist forces precipitated the Lebanese Civil War. Arafat was reluctant to respond with force, but many other Fatah and PLO members felt otherwise. For example, the DFLP carried out several attacks against the Lebanese Army. In 1976, an alliance of Christian militias with the backing of the Lebanese and Syrian armies besieged Tel al-Zaatar camp in east Beirut. The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour, a Phalangist stronghold where they massacred 684 people and wounded many more. The Tel al-Zaatar camp fell to the Christians after a six-month siege in which thousands of Palestinians, mostly civilians, were killed. Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort.
PLO cross-border raids against Israel grew during the late 1970s. One of the most severe—known as the Coastal Road massacre—occurred on 11 March 1978. A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv-Yafo. There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles, killing thirty-seven civilians. In response, the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later, with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River. The IDF achieved this goal, and Arafat withdrew PLO forces north into Beirut.
After Israel withdrew from Lebanon, cross-border hostilities between PLO forces and Israel continued, though from August 1981 to May 1982, the PLO adopted an official policy of refraining from responding to provocations. On 6 June 1982, Israel launched an invasion of Lebanon to expel the PLO from southern Lebanon. Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF; Arafat declared the city to be the "Hanoi and Stalingrad of the Israeli army." The Civil War's first phase ended and Arafat—who was commanding Fatah forces at Tel al-Zaatar—narrowly escaped with assistance from Saudi and Kuwaiti diplomats. Towards the end of the siege, the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and the PLO—guarded by a multinational force of eight hundred US Marines supported by the United States Navy—to exile in Tunis.
During the war, Arafat took measures to protect the Lebanese Jewish community. He ordered the PLO fighters to guard the Maghen Abraham Synagogue of Beirut and deliver food to affected Jewish families. After Arafat left Lebanon, the synagogue's protection went in hands of Phalangists.
Arafat returned to Lebanon a year after his eviction from Beirut, this time establishing himself in the northern Lebanese city of Tripoli. This time Arafat was expelled by a fellow Palestinian working under Hafez al-Assad. Arafat did not return to Lebanon after his second expulsion, though many Fatah fighters did.
== Headquarters in Tunisia ==
Arafat and Fatah's center for operations was based in Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, until 1993. In 1985 Arafat narrowly survived an Israeli assassination attempt when Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed his Tunis headquarters as part of Operation Wooden Leg, leaving 73 people dead; Arafat had gone out jogging that morning. The following year Arafat had his operational headquarters in Baghdad for some time.
=== First Intifada ===
During the 1980s, Arafat received financial assistance from Libya, Iraq and Saudi Arabia, which allowed him to reconstruct the badly damaged PLO. This was particularly useful during the First Intifada in December 1987, which began as an uprising of Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The word Intifada in Arabic is literally translated as "tremor"; however, it is generally defined as an uprising or revolt.
The first stage of the Intifada began following an incident at the Erez checkpoint where four Palestinian residents of the Jabalya refugee camp were killed in a traffic accident involving an Israeli driver. Rumors spread that the deaths were a deliberate act of revenge for an Israeli shopper who was stabbed to death by a Palestinian in Gaza four days earlier. Mass rioting broke out, and within weeks, partly upon consistent requests by Abu Jihad, Arafat attempted to direct the uprising, which lasted until 1992–93. Abu Jihad had previously been assigned the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command and, according to biographer Said Aburish, had "impressive knowledge of local conditions" in the Israeli-occupied territories. On 16 April 1988, as the Intifada was raging, Abu Jihad was assassinated in his Tunis household by an Israeli hit squad. Arafat had considered Abu Jihad as a PLO counterweight to local Palestinian leadership in the territories, and led a funeral procession for him in Damascus.
The most common tactic used by Palestinians during the Intifada was throwing stones, molotov cocktails, and burning tires. The local leadership in some West Bank towns commenced non-violent protests against Israeli occupation by engaging in tax resistance and other boycotts. Israel responded by confiscating large sums of money in house-to-house raids. As the Intifada came to a close, new armed Palestinian groups—in particular Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ)—began targeting Israeli civilians with the new tactic of suicide bombings, and internal fighting amongst the Palestinians increased dramatically.
=== Change in direction ===
In August 1970, Arafat declared: "Our basic aim is to liberate the land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. We are not concerned with what took place in June 1967 or in eliminating the consequences of the June war. The Palestinian revolution's basic concern is the uprooting of the Zionist entity from our land and liberating it." However, in early 1976, at a meeting with US Senator Adlai Stevenson III, Arafat suggested that if Israel withdrew a "few kilometers" from parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and transferred responsibility to the UN, Arafat could give "something to show his people before he could acknowledge Israel's right to exist".
On 15 November 1988, the PLO proclaimed the independent State of Palestine. Though he had frequently been accused of and associated with terrorism, in speeches on 13 and 14 December Arafat repudiated 'terrorism in all its forms, including state terrorism'. He accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and Israel's right "to exist in peace and security" and Arafat's statements were greeted with approval by the US administration, which had long insisted on these statements as a necessary starting point for official discussions between the US and the PLO. These remarks from Arafat indicated a shift away from one of the PLO's primary aims—the destruction of Israel (as entailed in the Palestinian National Covenant)–and toward the establishment of two separate entities: an Israeli state within the 1949 armistice lines, and an Arab state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. On 2 April 1989, Arafat was elected by the Central Council of the Palestine National Council, the governing body of the PLO, to be the president of the proclaimed State of Palestine.
Prior to the Gulf War in 1990–91, when the Intifada's intensity began to wear down, Arafat supported Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait and opposed the US-led coalition attack on Iraq. He made this decision without the consent of other leading members of Fatah and the PLO. Arafat's top aide Abu Iyad vowed to stay neutral and opposed an alliance with Saddam; on 17 January 1991, Abu Iyad was assassinated by the Abu Nidal Organization. Arafat's decision also severed relations with Egypt and many of the oil-producing Arab states that supported the US-led coalition. Many in the US also used Arafat's position as a reason to disregard his claims to being a partner for peace. After the end of hostilities, many Arab states that backed the coalition cut off funds to the PLO and began providing financial support for the organization's rival Hamas and other Islamist groups. Arafat narrowly escaped death again on 7 April 1992, when an Air Bissau aircraft he was a passenger on crash-landed in the Libyan Desert during a sandstorm. Two pilots and an engineer were killed; Arafat was bruised and shaken.
== Palestinian Authority and peace negotiations ==
=== Oslo Accords ===
In the early 1990s, Arafat and leading Fatah officials engaged the Israeli government in a series of secret talks and negotiations that led to the 1993 Oslo Accords. The agreement called for the implementation of Palestinian self-rule in portions of the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period, along with an immediate halt to and gradual removal of Israeli settlements in those areas. The accords called for a Palestinian police force to be formed from local recruits and Palestinians abroad, to patrol areas of self-rule. Authority over the various fields of rule, including education and culture, social welfare, direct taxation and tourism, would be transferred to the Palestinian interim government. Both parties agreed also on forming a committee that would establish cooperation and coordination dealing with specific economic sectors, including utilities, industry, trade and communication.
Prior to signing the accords, Arafat—as Chairman of the PLO and its official representative—signed two letters renouncing violence and officially recognizing Israel. In return, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, on behalf of Israel, officially recognized the PLO. The following year, Arafat and Rabin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, along with Shimon Peres. The Palestinian reaction was mixed. The Rejectionist Front of the PLO allied itself with Islamists in a common opposition against the agreements. It was rejected also by Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan as well as by many Palestinian intellectuals and the local leadership of the Palestinian territories. However, the inhabitants of the territories generally accepted the agreements and Arafat's promise for peace and economic well-being.
=== Establishing authority in the territories ===
In accordance with the terms of the Oslo agreement, Arafat was required to implement PLO authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He insisted that financial support was imperative to establishing this authority and needed it to secure the acceptance of the agreements by the Palestinians living in those areas. However, Arab states of the Persian Gulf—Arafat's usual source for financial backing—still refused to provide him and the PLO with any major donations for siding with Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War. Ahmed Qurei—a key Fatah negotiator during the negotiations in Oslo—publicly announced that the PLO was bankrupt.
In 1994, Arafat moved to Gaza City, which was controlled by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)—the provisional entity created by the Oslo Accords. Arafat became the President and Prime Minister of the PNA, the Commander of the PLA and the Speaker of the PLC. In July, after the PNA was declared the official government of the Palestinians, the Basic Laws of the Palestinian National Authority was published, in three different versions by the PLO. Arafat proceeded with creating a structure for the PNA. He established an executive committee or cabinet composed of twenty members. Arafat also replaced and assigned mayors and city councils for major cities such as Gaza and Nablus. He began subordinating non-governmental organizations that worked in education, health, and social affairs under his authority by replacing their elected leaders and directors with PNA officials loyal to him. He then appointed himself chairman of the Palestinian financial organization that was created by the World Bank to control most aid money towards helping the new Palestinian entity.
Arafat appointed Moshe Hirsch as the Minister of Jewish Affairs in 1995. Arafat established a Palestinian police force, named the Preventive Security Service (PSS), that became active on 13 May 1994. It was mainly composed of PLA soldiers and foreign Palestinian volunteers. Arafat assigned Mohammed Dahlan and Jibril Rajoub to head the PSS. Amnesty International accused Arafat and the PNA leadership of failing to adequately investigate abuses by the PSS (including torture and unlawful killings) against political opponents and dissidents as well as the arrests of human rights activists.
Throughout November and December 1995, Arafat toured dozens of Palestinian cities and towns that were evacuated by Israeli forces including Jenin, Ramallah, al-Bireh, Nablus, Qalqilyah and Tulkarm, declaring them "liberated". The PNA also gained control of the West Bank's postal service during this period. On 20 January 1996, Arafat was elected president of the PNA, with an overwhelming 88.2 percent majority (the other candidate was charity organizer Samiha Khalil). However, because Hamas, the DFLP and other popular opposition movements chose to boycott the presidential elections, the choices were limited. Arafat's landslide victory guaranteed Fatah 51 of the 88 seats in the PLC. After Arafat was elected to the post of President of the PNA, he was often referred to as the Ra'is, (literally president in Arabic), although he spoke of himself as "the general".
In 1997, the PLC accused the executive branch of the PNA of financial mismanagement causing the resignation of four members of Arafat's cabinet. Arafat refused to resign his post.
=== Other peace agreements ===
In mid-1996, Benjamin Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister of Israel. Palestinian-Israeli relations grew even more hostile as a result of continued conflict. Despite the Israel-PLO accord, Netanyahu opposed the idea of Palestinian statehood. In 1998, US President Bill Clinton persuaded the two leaders to meet. The resulting Wye River Memorandum detailed the steps to be taken by the Israeli government and PNA to complete the peace process.
Arafat continued negotiations with Netanyahu's successor, Ehud Barak, at the Camp David 2000 Summit in July 2000. Due partly to his own politics (Barak was from the leftist Labor Party, whereas Netanyahu was from the rightist Likud Party) and partly due to insistence for compromise by President Clinton, Barak offered Arafat a Palestinian state in 73 percent of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian percentage of sovereignty would extend to 90 percent over a ten- to twenty-five-year period. Also included in the offer was the return of a small number of refugees and compensation for those not allowed to return. Palestinians would also have "custodianship" over Al-Aqsa, sovereignty on all Islamic and Christian holy sites, and three of Jerusalem's four Old City quarters. Arafat rejected Barak's offer and refused to make an immediate counter-offer. He told President Clinton that, "the Arab leader who would surrender Jerusalem is not born yet."
After the September 2000 outbreak of the Second Intifada, negotiations continued at the Taba summit in January 2001; this time, Ehud Barak pulled out of the talks to campaign in the Israeli elections. In October and December 2001, suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups increased and Israeli counter strikes intensified. Following the election of Ariel Sharon in February, the peace process took a steep downfall. Palestinian elections scheduled for January 2002 were postponed—the stated reason was an inability to campaign due to the emergency conditions imposed by the Intifada, as well as IDF incursions and restrictions on freedom of movement in the Palestinian territories. In the same month, Sharon ordered Arafat to be confined to his Mukata'a headquarters in Ramallah, following an attack in the Israeli city of Hadera; US President George W. Bush supported Sharon's action, claiming that Arafat was "an obstacle to the peace."
== Political survival ==
Arafat's long personal and political survival was taken by most Western commentators as a sign of his mastery of asymmetric warfare and his skill as a tactician, given the extremely dangerous nature of politics of the Middle East and the frequency of assassinations. Some commentators believe his survival was largely due to Israel's fear that he could become a martyr for the Palestinian cause if he were assassinated or even arrested by Israel. Others believe that Israel refrained from taking action against Arafat because it feared Arafat less than Hamas and the other Islamist movements gaining support over Fatah. The complex and fragile web of relations between the US, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab states contributed also to Arafat's longevity as the leader of the Palestinians.
Israel attempted to assassinate Arafat on a number of occasions, but has never used its own agents, preferring instead to "turn" Palestinians close to the intended target, usually using blackmail. According to Alan Hart, the Mossad's specialty is poison. According to Abu Iyad, two attempts were made on Arafat's life by the Israeli Mossad and the Military Directorate in 1970. In 1976, Abu Sa'ed, a Palestinian agent working for the Mossad, was enlisted in a plot to put poison pellets that looked like grains of rice in Arafat's food. Abu Iyad explains that Abu Sa'ed confessed after he received the order to go ahead, explaining that he was unable to go through with the plot because, "He was first of all a Palestinian and his conscience wouldn't let him do it." Arafat claimed in a 1988 interview with Time that because of his fear of assassination by the Israelis, he never slept in the same place two nights in a row.
=== Relations with Hamas and other militant groups ===
Arafat's ability to adapt to new tactical and political situations was perhaps tested by the rise of the Hamas and PIJ organizations, Islamist groups espousing rejectionist policies with Israel. These groups often bombed non-military targets, such as malls and movie theaters, to increase the psychological damage and civilian casualties. In the 1990s, these groups seemed to threaten Arafat's capacity to hold together a unified nationalist organization with a goal of statehood.
An attack carried out by Hamas militants in March 2002 killed 29 Israeli civilians celebrating Passover, including many senior citizens. In response, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield, a major military offensive into major West Bank cities. Mahmoud al-Zahar, a Hamas leader in Gaza, stated in September 2010 that Arafat had instructed Hamas to launch what he termed "military operations" against Israel in 2000 when Arafat felt that negotiations with Israel would not succeed.
Some Israeli government officials opined in 2002 that the armed Fatah sub-group al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades commenced attacks towards Israel in order to compete with Hamas. On 6 May 2002, the Israeli government released a report, based in part on documents, allegedly captured during the Israeli raid of Arafat's Ramallah headquarters, which allegedly included copies of papers signed by Arafat authorizing funding for al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades' activities. The report implicated Arafat in the "planning and execution of terror attacks".
=== Attempts to marginalize ===
Persistent attempts by the Israeli government to identify another Palestinian leader to represent the Palestinian people failed. Arafat was enjoying the support of groups that, given his own history, would normally have been quite wary of dealing with or supporting him. Marwan Barghouti (a leader of al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades) emerged as a possible replacement during the Second Intifada, but Israel had him arrested for allegedly being involved in the killing of twenty-six civilians, and he was sentenced to five life terms.
Arafat was finally allowed to leave his compound on 2 May 2002 after intense negotiations led to a settlement: six PFLP militants, including the organization's secretary-general Ahmad Sa'adat, wanted by Israel, who had been holed up with Arafat in his compound, would be transferred to international custody in Jericho. After the wanted men were handed over the siege was lifted. With that, and a promise that he would issue a call to the Palestinians to halt attacks on Israelis, Arafat was released. He issued such a call on 8 May. On 19 September 2002, the IDF largely demolished the compound with armored bulldozers in order to isolate Arafat. In March 2003, Arafat ceded his post as Prime Minister to Mahmoud Abbas amid pressures by the US.
The Israeli security Cabinet on 11 September 2003 decided that "Israel will act to remove this obstacle [Arafat] in the manner, at the time, and in the ways that will be decided on separately". Israeli Cabinet members and officials hinted on Arafat's death, the Israeli military had begun making preparations for Arafat's possible expulsion in the near future, and many feared for his life. Israeli peace activists of Gush Shalom, Knesset members and others went into the Presidential Compound prepared to serve as a human shield. The compound remained under siege until Arafat's transfer to a French hospital, shortly before his death.
In 2004, President Bush dismissed Arafat as a negotiating partner, saying he had "failed as a leader", and accused him of undercutting Abbas when he was prime minister (Abbas resigned the same year he was given the position). Arafat had a mixed relationship with the leaders of other Arab nations. His support from Arab leaders tended to increase whenever he was pressured by Israel; for example, when Israel declared in 2003 it had made the decision, in principle, to remove him from the Israeli-controlled West Bank. In an interview with the Arabic news network Al Jazeera, Arafat responded to Ariel Sharon's suggestion that he be exiled from the Palestinian territories permanently, by stating, "Is it his [Sharon's] homeland or ours? We were planted here before the Prophet Abraham came, but it looks like they [Israelis] don't understand history or geography."
== Financial dealings ==
Under the Oslo Peace Accords, Israel undertook to deposit the VAT tax receipts on goods purchased by Palestinians into the Palestinian treasury. Until 2000, these monies were transferred directly to Arafat's personal accounts at Bank Leumi, in Tel Aviv.
In August 2002, the Israeli Military Intelligence Chief alleged that Arafat's personal wealth was in the range of US$1.3 billion. In 2003 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) conducted an audit of the PNA and stated that Arafat had diverted $900 million in public funds to a special bank account controlled by himself and the PNA Chief Economic Financial adviser. However, the IMF did not claim that there were any improprieties, and it specifically stated that most of the funds had been used to invest in Palestinian assets, both internally and abroad.
However, in 2003, a team of American accountants—hired by Arafat's own finance ministry—began examining Arafat's finances. In its conclusions, the team claimed that part of the Palestinian leader's wealth was in a secret portfolio worth close to $1 billion, with investments in companies like a Coca-Cola bottling plant in Ramallah, a Tunisian cell phone company and venture capital funds in the U.S. and the Cayman Islands. The head of the investigation stated that "although the money for the portfolio came from public funds like Palestinian taxes, virtually none of it was used for the Palestinian people; it was all controlled by Arafat. And none of these dealings were made public." An investigation conducted by the General Accounting Office reported that Arafat and the PLO held over $10 billion in assets even at the time when he was publicly claiming bankruptcy.
Although Arafat lived a modest lifestyle, Dennis Ross, former Middle East negotiator for Presidents George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, stated that Arafat's "walking-around money" financed a vast patronage system known as neopatrimonialism. According to Salam Fayyad—a former World Bank official whom Arafat appointed Finance Minister of the PNA in 2002—Arafat's commodity monopolies could accurately be seen as gouging his own people, "especially in Gaza which is poorer, which is something that is totally unacceptable and immoral." Fayyad claims that Arafat used $20 million from public funds to pay the leadership of the PNA security forces (the Preventive Security Service) alone.
Fuad Shubaki, former financial aide to Arafat, told the Israeli security service Shin Bet that Arafat used several million dollars of aid money to buy weapons and support militant groups. During Israel's Operation Defensive Shield, the Israel army recovered counterfeit money and documents from Arafat's Ramallah headquarters. The documents showed that, in 2001, Arafat personally approved payments to Tanzim militants. The Palestinians claimed that the counterfeit money was confiscated from criminal elements.
== Illness and death ==
=== Unsuccessful Israeli assassination attempts ===
The Israeli government tried for decades to assassinate Arafat, including attempting to intercept and shoot down private aircraft and commercial airliners on which he was believed to be traveling. The assassination was initially assigned to Caesarea, the Mossad unit in charge of Israel's numerous targeted killings. Shooting down a commercial airliner in international airspace over very deep water was thought to be preferable to make recovery of the wreckage, and hence investigation, more difficult. Following Israel's 1982 invasion of Lebanon, Israeli minister of defense Ariel Sharon created a special task force code named "Salt Fish" headed by special operations experts Meir Dagan and Rafi Eitan to track Arafat's movements in Lebanon to kill him because Sharon saw Arafat as a "Jew murderer" and an important symbol, symbols being as important as body counts in a war against a terrorist organization. The Salt Fish task force orchestrated the bombing of buildings where Arafat and senior PLO leaders were believed to be staying. Later renamed "Operation Goldfish", Israeli operatives followed Israeli journalist Uri Avnery to a meeting with Arafat in an additional unsuccessful attempt to kill him. In 2001, Sharon as prime minister is believed to have made a commitment to cease attempts to assassinate Arafat. However, following Israel's successful assassination in March 2004 of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, a founder of the Hamas movement, Sharon stated in April 2004 that "this commitment of mine no longer exists."
=== Failing health ===
The first reports of Arafat's failing health by his doctors for what his spokesman said was influenza came on 25 October 2004, after he vomited during a staff meeting. His condition deteriorated in the following days. Following visits by other doctors, including teams from Tunisia, Jordan, and Egypt—and agreement by Israel to allow him to travel—Arafat was flown from Ramallah to Jordan by a Jordanian military helicopter and from there to France on a French military plane. He was admitted to the Percy military hospital in Clamart, a suburb of Paris. On 3 November, he had lapsed into a gradually deepening coma.
Arafat was pronounced dead at 03:30 UTC on 11 November 2004 at the age of 75 of what French doctors called a massive hemorrhagic cerebrovascular accident (hemorrhagic stroke). Initially, Arafat's medical records were withheld by senior Palestinian officials, and Arafat's wife refused an autopsy believing that it went against Muslim practices. French doctors also said that Arafat suffered from a blood condition known as disseminated intravascular coagulation, although it is inconclusive what brought about the condition. When Arafat's death was announced, the Palestinian people went into a state of mourning, with Qur'anic mourning prayers emitted from mosque loudspeakers throughout the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and tires burned in the streets. The Palestinian Authority and refugee camps in Lebanon declared 40 days of mourning.
=== Funeral ===
On 11 November 2004, a French Army guard of honour held a brief ceremony for Arafat, with his coffin draped in a Palestinian flag. A military band played the French and Palestinian national anthems, and a Chopin funeral march. French President Jacques Chirac stood alone beside Arafat's coffin for about ten minutes in a last show of respect for Arafat, whom he hailed as "a man of courage". The next day, Arafat's body was flown from Paris aboard a French Air Force transport plane to Cairo, Egypt, for a brief military funeral there, attended by several heads of states, prime ministers and foreign ministers. Egypt's top Muslim cleric Sayed Tantawi led mourning prayers preceding the funeral procession.
Israel refused Arafat's wish to be buried near the Masjid Al-Aqsa or anywhere in Jerusalem, citing security concerns. Israel also feared that his burial would strengthen Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem. Following the Cairo procession, Arafat was "temporarily" buried within the Mukataa in Ramallah; tens of thousands of Palestinians attended the ceremony. Arafat was buried in a stone, rather than wooden, coffin, and Palestinian spokesman Saeb Erekat said that Arafat would be reburied in East Jerusalem following the establishment of a Palestinian state. After Sheikh Taissir Tamimi discovered that Arafat was buried improperly and in a coffin—which is not in accordance with Islamic law—Arafat was reburied on the morning of 13 November at around 3:00 am. On 10 November 2007, prior to the third anniversary of Arafat's death, President Mahmoud Abbas unveiled a mausoleum for Arafat near his tomb in commemoration of him.
=== Theories about the cause of death ===
Numerous theories have circulated regarding Arafat's death, with the most prominent being poisoning (possibly by polonium) and AIDS-related illnesses, as well as liver disease or a platelet disorder.
In September 2005, an Israeli AIDS expert claimed that Arafat bore all the symptoms of AIDS based on obtained medical records. But others, including Patrice Mangin of the University of Lausanne and The New York Times, disagreed with this claim, insisting that Arafat's record indicated that it was highly unlikely that the cause of his death was AIDS. Arafat's personal doctor Ashraf al-Kurdi and aide Bassam Abu Sharif maintained that Arafat was poisoned, possibly by thallium. A senior Israeli physician concluded that Arafat died from food poisoning. Both Israeli and Palestinian officials have denied claims that Arafat was poisoned. Palestinian foreign minister Nabil Shaath ruled out poisoning after talks with Arafat's French doctors.
On 4 July 2012, Al Jazeera published the results of a nine-month investigation, which found that rumors Arafat had died of cancer, cirrhosis, or AIDS were not true, because he was in good health until he fell ill suddenly on 12 October 2004 – but revealed that tests carried out by Swiss experts found traces of polonium in quantities much higher than could occur naturally on Arafat's personal belongings. On 12 October 2013, the British medical journal The Lancet published a peer-reviewed article by the Swiss experts about the analysis of the 38 samples of Arafat's clothes and belongings and 37 reference samples which were known to be polonium-free, suggesting that Arafat could have died of polonium poisoning.
On 27 November 2012, three teams of international investigators, a French, a Swiss, and a Russian team, collected samples from Arafat's body and the surrounding soil in the mausoleum in Ramallah, to carry out an investigation independently from each other.
On 6 November 2013, Al Jazeera reported that the Swiss forensic team had found levels of polonium in Arafat's ribs and pelvis 18 to 36 times the average, even though by this point in time the amount had diminished by a factor of 2 million. François Bochud, the head of the Swiss team, said that the poisoning hypothesis by polonium is "reasonably supported", while forensic scientist Dave Barclay, retained by Al Jazeera, stated, "In my opinion, it is absolutely certain that the cause of his illness was polonium poisoning. ... What we have got is the smoking gun – the thing that caused his illness and was given to him with malice." Derek Hill, a professor in radiological science at University College London who was not involved in the investigation, said "I would say it's clearly not overwhelming proof, and there is a risk of contamination (of the samples), but it is a pretty strong signal. ... It seems likely what they're doing is putting a very cautious interpretation of strong data."
But on 26 December 2013, a team of Russian scientists released a report saying they had found no trace of radioactive poisoning—a finding that came after the French report found traces of polonium. Vladimir Uiba, the head of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency, said that Arafat died of natural causes and the agency had no plans to conduct further tests. Unlike the Swiss report, the French and Russian reports were not made public at the time. The Swiss experts read the French and Russian reports and argued that the radiologic data measured by the other teams supported their conclusions of a probable death by polonium poisoning. In March 2015, a French prosecutor closed a 2012 French inquiry, stating that French experts maintained that the polonium and lead traces found were of an environmental nature. Palestinian official Wasel Abu Yousef said of the 2013 report, "The French report is politicized and is contrary to all the evidence which confirms that the president was killed by poisoning", and "This report is an attempt to cover up what happened in Percy hospital."
== Legacy ==
Places named in his honor include:
Martyr Yasser Arafat Governmental Hospital
Yasser Arafat Cup
Yasser Arafat International Airport
== See also ==
Politics of Palestine
List of international trips made by Yasser Arafat
List of Fatah members
Arafat's Johannesburg Address
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Aburish, Said K. (1998). Arafat: From Defender to Dictator. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58234-049-4.
Gowers, Andrew; Tony Walker (2005). Arafat: The Biography. Virgin Books. ISBN 978-1-85227-924-0.
Hart, Alan (1989). Arafat, a political biography. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-32711-6.
Karsh, Efraim (2003). Arafat's War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1758-8.
Livingstone, Neil (1990). Inside the PLO. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN 978-0-7090-4548-9.
Rubin, Barry M.; Judith Colp Rubin (2003). Yasir Arafat: A Political Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516689-7.
Rubenstein, Danny; Leon, Dan (1995). The Mystery of Arafat. Steerforth Press. ISBN 978-1-883642-10-5.
Sela, Avraham (2002). "Arafat, Yasser". In Avraham, Sela (ed.). The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East (Rev. and updated ed.). New York: Continuum. pp. 166–171. ISBN 9780826414137. OCLC 48706504.
Wallach, Janet; John Wallach (1990). Arafat: In the Eyes of the Beholder. Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart. ISBN 978-0-8184-0533-4. OCLC 21950960.
== External links ==
Yasser Arafat on Nobelprize.org
Yasser Arafat (1929–2004) at PASSIA
"A Life in Retrospect: Yasser Arafat", Time
Appearances on C-SPAN
Yasser Arafat at IMDb
Yasser Arafat collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
Yasser Arafat collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrades_Marathon#History | Comrades Marathon | The Comrades Marathon is an ultramarathon of approximately 88 kilometres (55 mi) which is run annually in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa between the cities of Durban and Pietermaritzburg. It is the world's largest and oldest ultramarathon race. The direction of the race alternates each year between the "up" run (87.6 km) starting from Durban (elevation: 101 metres (331 ft)) and the "down" run (89.98 km) starting from Pietermaritzburg (elevation: 921 metres (3,022 ft)).
In all but three editions since 1988, over 10,000 runners have reached the finish within the allowed 11 or 12 hours. Since the 1980s, increased participation has coincided with substantial rises in both average finish times and the average age of finishers.
== Course ==
“Listen, listen, laduma, laduma. There’s a distant sound of thunder and a crackling of lightning on the horizon, and a great black and gold mist is starting to roll down the road from Pietermaritzburg, down Polly Shortts, through Camperdown, through Cato Ridge, through Drummond Village, over mighty Inchanga Mountain, all the way to Kingsmead. And they’re calling. They’re calling me. They’re calling me—the singing, the thunder, and the black and gold mist. So I must answer that call. And I must go. Ziyasha. This is it.”
The Comrades Marathon is run on the roads of KwaZulu-Natal province between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, with the direction alternating each year between the "up" and "down" runs. The route is defined by five major hills—Cowies Hill, Fields Hill, Botha's Hill, Inchanga, and Polly Shortts—collectively known as the “Big Five.” These hills vary in length, gradient, and strategic placement, and feature prominently in both directions of the race. The highest point on the course lies near the Umlaas Road interchange at about 2,850 feet (870 m) above sea level. Approximately 40 official refreshment stations line the course, offering runners water, energy drinks, fruit, and snacks, along with first aid and physiotherapy points at key locations.
=== 'Up' Run ===
In an "up" run year, the Comrades Marathon covers approximately 87 kilometres from Durban on the Indian Ocean coast to the inland city of Pietermaritzburg, gaining over 1,800 metres in elevation. The early stages feature the most sustained climbing, with a net elevation gain of over 500 metres in the first 22 kilometres. The route begins with a gradual ascent out of Durban, including long pulls through Tollgate and Mayville, before encountering the first of the five major hills.
Cowies, Fields, and Botha’s Hills appear in the first half of the route, demanding early restraint from runners seeking to conserve energy. After the halfway mark near Drummond, the course continues to undulate through the KwaZulu-Natal countryside. Inchanga, a long and winding ascent, tests endurance just after halfway. The highest point on the course is reached at Umlaas Road, before the route drops briefly into Ashburton and rises again for the steep climb of Polly Shortts, located within the final 10 kilometres. Though shorter in distance than some earlier hills, Polly Shortts is the steepest and often the most decisive, arriving when fatigue is at its peak. The final stretch into Pietermaritzburg features several smaller climbs and descents before reaching the finish line.
=== 'Down' Run ===
In a "down" run year, the Comrades Marathon follows a route of approximately 90 kilometres from Pietermaritzburg to Durban, descending from around 660 metres above sea level to near sea level. While the net elevation profile trends downhill, the course includes significant climbs and undulations throughout. From the start at the Pietermaritzburg City Hall, runners ascend gently through the suburbs before tackling early challenges such as Polly Shortts and Little Polly’s. The route then rises to Umlaas Road—the highest point on the course—before descending through Camperdown and Cato Ridge into the Harrison Flats region.
The second half of the race includes the long descent from Inchanga into Drummond (the halfway point), followed by a climb through Alverstone and Botha’s Hill. Notable features include Fields Hill, a steep and sustained descent into Pinetown, and Cowies Hill shortly afterward. These downhill sections, while advantageous for pacing, are known to strain the quadriceps and test runners' resilience. After navigating the M13 through Westville and 45th Cutting, participants descend toward Durban, finishing outside the Moses Mabhida Stadium via contraflow routes and city streets. Despite its name, the down run demands careful pacing, as late-race climbs and cumulative impact can be decisive.
== History ==
The Comrades Marathon, first held on 24 May 1921, is one of the world’s oldest and most prestigious ultramarathons. Conceived by World War I veteran Vic Clapham to honour fallen soldiers, the race was intended as a test of endurance and resilience.
Apart from brief interruptions during World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021), it has taken place annually. Over 300,000 runners have completed the course between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, alternating annually between the "up" and "down" routes.
The early decades of the race saw significant individual achievements and growing popularity. Bill Rowan won the first edition in 1921, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Women were initially unofficial participants—Frances Hayward ran in 1923 without formal entry. The 1930s were defined by runners like Hardy Ballington and Wally Hayward, with the latter continuing his legacy into the 1950s and eventually becoming the oldest finisher at age 80 in 1989.The 1940s introduced traditions like Max Trimborn’s rooster crow at the start, which replaced the starter's gun and remains part of the race to this day.
From the 1960s through the 1980s, the Comrades expanded significantly. The race opened to international competitors and, in 1975, officially welcomed black runners and women with Vincent Rakabele becoming the first black runner to officially win a medal and Elizabeth Cavanaugh becoming the first official women's winner. Milestones included Bruce Fordyce’s nine titles and Frith van der Merwe’s remarkable women's course record in 1989. The 1980s also marked the emergence of black champions like Sam Tshabalala and pioneering black female finishers like Olive Anthony. Television coverage, increased participation, and record-breaking performances made this era foundational for the race’s modern stature.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the Comrades became more global and professional. Prize money was introduced in 1995, attracting elite international athletes. The race date shifted from Republic Day to Youth Day, reflecting South Africa’s changing political context. The 2000 race drew nearly 24,000 entrants to celebrate the 75th anniversary, and in 2010, the event entered the Guinness World Records for most finishers in an ultramarathon. Runners like Leonid Shvetsov (2007 & 2008) and David Gatebe (2016) set course records, while athletes such as Stephen Muzhingi and the Russian identical twin sisters Olesya and Elena Nurgalieva dominating multiple editions - the sisters winning 10 races between them.
After a two-year hiatus due to COVID-19, the Comrades returned in 2022 with a capped field and the slogan "The Return – Sishay' Ibuya." Recent years have seen athletes like Gerda Steyn and Tete Dijana achieving multiple victories.
== Rules ==
Runners over the age of 20 are eligible to qualify after completion of an officially recognised marathon (42.2 km) in under 4:50 (5 hours before 2019). During the event an athlete must also reach five cut-off points in specified times to complete the race.
Athletes currently have 12 hours to complete the course, extended from 11 hours in 2003 (including a special 12 hour allowance in the year 2000). The original Comrades cut-off time from 1921 to 1927 was also 12 hours, reduced to 11 hours in 1928. There are a number of cut-off points along the routes which runners must reach by a prescribed time or be forced to retire from the race.
A runner who successfully completed nine marathons wears a yellow number, while those who completed ten races wear a green number permanently allocated to the runner for all future races. Runners running their 20th, 30th and 40th races are also indicated by yellow numbers – differently formatted on different years.
== Medals ==
Medals are awarded to all runners completing the course in under 12 hours. Medals are currently awarded as follows:
== Traditions ==
The Comrades Marathon has several long-standing traditions that are central to its identity. One of the most notable is the annual alternation between the “up” run and the “down” run, with each route offering distinct physical challenges.
At the start line, runners observe a set sequence: the South African National Anthem is played, Shosholoza is sung, Chariots of Fire by Vangelis is played, a recording of Max Trimborn’s rooster crow is played, and then the starting gun is fired.
About halfway into the race, runners pass Arthur’s Seat, a small recess in the bank near Drummond. It is believed to have been a race-day resting spot for five-time winner Arthur Newton. Tradition holds that greeting "Arthur" or placing a flower there brings good luck for the second half of the race.
As they enter the final straight, the leading man and woman are given a scroll bearing a goodwill message from the mayor of the starting city to the mayor of the finishing city, symbolizing the link between Durban and Pietermaritzburg. In addition, each of the top 10 male and female finishers is handed a red rose as they enter the finishing straight.
At the end, the 12-hour cutoff is strictly enforced. A gun is fired exactly at the time limit, and runners who haven’t finished are not counted as official finishers. Immediately after, The Last Post is played by a lone bugler to mark the close of the event.
== Results ==
The Comrades Marathon results show over a century of competitive endurance running. Bill Rowan won the first race in 1921 in 8:59:00, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Wally Hayward and Bruce Fordyce became major figures, with Hayward winning five times across the 1930s to 1950s, and Fordyce winning nine times in the 1980s. The women’s race, officially recognised from 1975, saw standout performances like Frith van der Merwe’s 5:54:43 in 1989, a record that stood for decades. In the 2000s, Russian athletes Elena and Olesya Nurgalieva were dominant, winning most of the women's races between 2003 and 2015.
From 2014 onwards, South African athletes began winning more consistently. Bongmusa Mthembu won three titles, and David Gatebe set the men’s down run record of 5:18:19 in 2016. Gerda Steyn has become the leading figure in the women’s field, breaking the down run record in 2023 (5:44:54) and the up run record in 2024 (5:49:46). On the men’s side, Tete Dijana broke the down run record on his way to his second victory in 2023, while Dutch runner Piet Wiersma won in 2024 and finished second in 2023. Since the end of COVID-related cancellations in 2020 and 2021, the race has returned with faster times and stronger fields, both local and international. The 2025 down run was won by Tete Dijana (5:25:28) and Gerda Steyn (5:51:19).
To date, Bruce Fordyce holds the record for the most men's victories with nine wins, while Elena Nurgalieva leads the women's field with eight wins.
== Records and statistics ==
The Comrades Marathon's fastest recorded times are 5:13:58 for men (Tete Dijana, 2023 down run) and 5:44:54 for women (Gerda Steyn, 2023 down run). Steyn also holds the up-run record, becoming the first woman to break 6 hours with her 5:49:46 in 2024. The most gold medals earned in the women's race is 13 by Elena Nurgalieva, while Allan Robb leads the men's race with 12 gold medals won.
The race also highlights endurance over decades. Louis Massyn has completed 50 Comrades Marathons — the most in history. In 2023 Johannes Maros Mosehla became the oldest known finisher aged 81, a record he extended in 2024 and 2025. He beat the record held by Wally Hayward, who completed the race at age 80 in 1989, 58 years after his first win.
== Waypoints ==
== Health issues ==
As with every ultramarathon, there are potentially lethal health risks involved in extreme physical events. In the history of the Comrades, there have been 8 deaths up to the 2022 event. In a survey among a sample of 2005 participants, 25% reported cramps, 18% nausea, 8% vomiting, 13% dizziness, 3% diarrhoea, 23% pain, excluding the expected sore legs, and 14% reported fatigue of such a nature that they believed themselves to be incapable of continuing the race. Among silver medalists there was a higher incidence of cramps (42.9%), nausea (21.4%) and diarrhoea (7.1%), though a lower incidence of pain and fatigue than the average runner.
== Charts ==
== Depictions in other media ==
The Long Run was a 2001 film set in 1999, in which a retired running coach trains a woman for the race. 'Comrades' was a 2008 film about seven diverse runners attempting the race.
In 2023, the documentary Down: A Comrades Story was released. It explores the history of the Comrades Marathon through the personal stories of the many athletes who have competed in it. As of 2025, it is available on YouTube.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Comrades Marathon Association
Comrades tables
Detailed profile of the 2009 Comrades route (PDF)
The Long Run. A movie about the Comrades marathon
The Comrades marathon, by Brad Morgan
The Famous Comrades Marathon, by Amby Burfoot (Account of the 2007 race)
1920 – 1925: A Soldier's Dream
FT article |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullvad | Mullvad | Mullvad is a commercial VPN service based in Sweden. The name "Mullvad" is the word for "mole" in the Swedish language. Mullvad operates using the WireGuard and OpenVPN protocols. It also supports Shadowsocks as a bridge protocol for censorship circumvention. Mullvad's VPN client software is publicly available under the GPLv3, a free and open-source software license.
== History ==
Mullvad was launched in March 2009 by Amagicom AB in Göteborg, and it had begun by supporting connections via the OpenVPN protocol in 2009. Mullvad was an early adopter and supporter of the WireGuard protocol, announcing the availability of the new VPN protocol in March 2017 and making a "generous donation" supporting WireGuard development between July and December 2017.
In September 2018, the cybersecurity firm Cure53 performed a penetration test on Mullvad's macOS, Windows, and Linux applications. Seven issues were found which were addressed by Mullvad. Cure53 tested only the applications and supporting functions. No assessment was made on the Mullvad server-side and back end.
In October 2019, Mullvad partnered with Mozilla to utilize Mullvad's WireGuard servers for Mozilla VPN.
In April 2020, Mullvad partnered with Malwarebytes and provided WireGuard servers for their VPN service, Malwarebytes Privacy.
In May 2022, Mullvad started officially accepting Monero.
On 18 April 2023, Mullvad's head office in Gothenburg was visited by officers from the National Operations Department of the Swedish Police Authority who had a search warrant to seize computers being used by Mullvad containing customer data. Mullvad demonstrated that in accordance with their policies, no such data existed on their systems. After consulting with the prosecutor, the officers left without seizing any equipment or obtaining customer information. Mullvad had released a public statement in relation to this information in a blog post on their website two days later, also mentioning that it was their first time that their offices had been searched by authorities. In a letter sent to Mullvad nine days after the search, the Swedish Police Authority stated that they had conducted the search at the request of Germany for an ongoing investigation. The investigation involved a blackmail attack that targeted several institutions in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania which revealed IP addresses that were traced back to Mullvad's VPN service.
On 29 May 2023, Mullvad announced that they would be removing support for port forwarding, effective on 1 July 2023. This was done due to the use of port forwarding for illegal activities, with this causing interference by law enforcement, Mullvad IP addresses getting blacklisted, and hosting providers canceling their services.
== Service ==
A TechRadar review noted in 2019 that "Mullvad's core service is powerful, up-to-date, and absolutely stuffed with high-end technologies". Complementing its use of the open-source OpenVPN and WireGuard protocols, Mullvad includes "industrial strength" encryption (employing AES-256 GCM methodology), 4096-bit RSA certificates with SHA-512 for server authentication, perfect forward secrecy, multiple layers of DNS leak protection, IPv6 leak-protection, and multiple "stealth options" to help bypass government or corporate VPN blocking.
Mullvad provides VPN client applications for computers running the Windows, macOS and Linux operating systems. As of April 2020, native iOS and Android Mullvad VPN clients using the WireGuard protocol are available. iOS and Android mobile operating system users can also configure and use built-in VPN clients or the OpenVPN or WireGuard apps to access Mullvad's service.
== Privacy ==
Providing personal information used to identify users such as email addresses and phone numbers is not required during Mullvad's registration process. Instead, a unique 16-digit account number is anonymously generated for each newly registered user, and this account number is used to log in to the Mullvad on other devices.
For anonymity purposes, Mullvad accepts the anonymous payment methods of cash and Monero. Payment for the service can also be made via bank wire-transfer, credit card, Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash, PayPal, Swish, EPS Transfer, Bancontact, iDEAL, Przelewy24, and vouchers sold by multiple resellers. Payments made via cryptocurrency have a 10% discount. In June 2022, the service announced that it will no longer offer new recurring subscriptions, as this further reduces the amount of personal information that will have to be stored.
Mullvad does not log VPN users' IP addresses, the VPN IP address used, browsing-activity, bandwidth, connections, session duration, timestamps, and DNS-requests.
Mullvad has many privacy-focused features built into their VPN. Instances include multi-hop, which routes all traffic through an additional Mullvad server before it arrives at its destination, the ability to add a quantum-resistant key exchange to the encryption process, making all data encrypted resistant to quantum computer related attacks, and Defense against AI-guided Traffic Analysis (DAITA), which ensures all packets are the same size and also inserts random network traffic (significantly increasing bandwidth usage), though this is only enabled on select servers.
Mullvad has been actively campaigning against the EU's Regulation to Prevent and Combat Child Sexual Abuse (a.k.a. Chat Control), which would require service providers to scan all users' online communications, even encrypted services, arguing that it would make all methods of online communication viewable and thus not private and not anonymous.
== Reception ==
While Mullvad has been noted for "taking a strong approach to privacy and maintaining good connection speeds", the VPN client setup and interface has been noted as being more onerous and technical than most other VPN providers especially on some client platforms. However, a follow-up review by the same source in October 2018 notes, "Mullvad has a much improved, modern Windows client (and one for Mac, too)". A PC World review, also from October 2018, concludes, "With its commitment to privacy, anonymity (as close as you can realistically get online), and performance Mullvad remains our top recommendation for a VPN service".
In November 2018, TechRadar noted Mullvad VPN as one of five VPN providers to answer a set of questions for trustworthiness verification posed by the Center for Democracy and Technology. In March 2019, a TechRadar review noted slightly substandard speeds. However, a TechRadar review later that year, published on 11 June 2019, stated that Mullvad VPN "speeds are excellent". This is also supported by a 2024 CNET review that demonstrated 13.5% speed loss in March 2024 tests. While the latter review notes a shortcoming for mobile users in that Mullvad had not provided mobile VPN client apps, Mullvad apps for both Android and iOS are now available.
The non-profit Freedom of the Press Foundation, in their "Choosing a VPN" guide, lists Mullvad amongst the five VPNs that meet their recommended settings and features for VPN use as a tool for anonymizing online activity.
== Other products ==
=== Browser ===
On 3 April 2023, Mullvad Browser was released, developed by the Tor Project team and distributed by Mullvad. It has similar privacy and security settings levels to Tor Browser, with an exception being that it operates independently of the Tor network and is meant to be used with a VPN service instead, either Mullvad VPN or another trusted provider. Mullvad Browser has been programmed to minimize the risk of users being tracked and fingerprinted. It attempts to achieve this through several measures:
Private mode is enabled by default. This means that cookies are never saved between sessions.
It utilizes Firefox's "resist fingerprinting" feature.
First-party isolation is in place, in which cookies are placed in separate cookie jars so that trackers cannot connect to each other to build a profile of its user.
No collection of telemetry data.
=== Search engine ===
On 20 June 2023, Mullvad announced the Mullvad Leta search engine. Mullvad Leta uses the Google Search and Brave Search APIs as a proxy and caches each search for 30 days. When a user inputs a web query, the service checks if it has a cache of the search before making a call to the Google Search or Brave Search API. The service was initially only accessible to devices that had Mullvad VPN turned on, before being opened to the general public on 4 March 2025. Mullvad VPN announced on November 6, 2025, that Mullvad Leta would be shut down on November 27, 2025.
=== Public DNS ===
Mullvad also offers public DNS servers that offer DNS over HTTPS, DNS over TLS, and various content-blocking filters.
== See also ==
Comparison of virtual private network services
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Mullvad repositories on GitHub |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mr._Box_Office_episodes | List of Mr. Box Office episodes | Mr. Box Office is an American syndicated sitcom that premiered on September 22, 2012. The series centers on Marcus Jackson (Bill Bellamy), a well-known movie actor who ends up in legal trouble due to a physical altercation with a paparazzo, leading to his sentence to teach a class of inner-city high school students in Los Angeles' infamous South Central neighborhood. The following is a list of episodes of the program, shown in order of its broadcast airdate.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2012–13) ===
=== Season 2 (2013–15) ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oicat%C3%A1#:~:text=%22Hailstoned%20farmlands%22.-,History,%2C%20culturally%2C%20and%20in%20productivity. | Oicatá | Oicatá is a town and municipality in the Central Boyacá Province, Department of Boyacá, Colombia. The urban centre is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense at an altitude of 2,815 metres (9,236 ft) and a distance of 153 kilometres (95 mi) from the national capital Bogotá and 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the department capital Tunja. It borders Cómbita and Tuta in the north, Chivatá and Tunja in the south, Chivatá in the east and in the west Cómbita and Tunja.
== Etymology ==
The name Oicatá comes from Chibcha and means "Domain of the priests" or "Hailstoned farmlands".
== History ==
The municipality was founded on May 9, 1539 by Pedro Ruiz Corredor. Before the Spanish conquest it was the territory of the Muisca, which was the most developed in the country socially, culturally, and in productivity. Post-conquest governmental power was exercised by the Governor General, who was directly appointed by the King of Spain.
After several centuries of Spanish rule, and after fierce battles, the people won their freedom from Spain in the Battle of Boyacá, where on August 7, 1819, troops under the command of Simón Bolívar defeated the Spanish forces.
In 1821 the Constitution of Cúcuta divided the country into departments, the departments into provinces, provinces into counties, and counties into parishes, establishing Boyacá Department as an administrative entity comprising the provinces of Tunja, Pamplona, Socorro and Casanare.
The Act of June 15, 1857, established Boyacá as a sovereign state consisting of the provinces of Tunja, Tundama, Casanare, and the counties of Chiquinquirá and Velez.
The Act of October 31 of that year created four departments: Tunja with 42 districts, Tundama with 46, Casanare with 21, and Oriente (East) with 6.
Under the Constitution of Rionegro in 1863 the administrative divisions of Boyacá underwent various modifications, and Law 10 of that year established a new division into 6 departments: Casanare, Tundama, North, West, East and Centre.
The centrist Constitution of 1886 divided the country into departments, the departments into provinces, and the provinces into municipalities.
The provinces were abolished in 1911 by Executive Decree No. 306, and several municipalities were separated off to form the commissariat of Arauca.
Afterward the municipalities in the Orinoco region formed the intendency of Casanare as a newly annexed territory of Boyacá Department until 1973, when it split off again.
== Economy ==
Main economical activity of Oicatá is agriculture with products potatoes, maize, barley, wheat, peas and beans.
== Climate ==
Oicata's climate is influenced by its location and altitude. At almost 3000 m it is one of the higher cities in Colombia. As a result, the city features a subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cfb) with little variation in temperature throughout the year but a distinct dry season from December to February.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Gardiner_(art_collector) | Margaret Gardiner (art collector) | Margaret Emilia Gardiner OBE (22 April 1904 – 2 January 2005) was a radical modern British patron of artists and resident of Hampstead, London, from 1932, where she was also a left wing political activist. She was also for a time the partner of Professor John Desmond Bernal. She was known as "Mrs Bernal" for most of her life, but they were never married. In the 1980 Birthday Honours she was awarded an OBE for services to the Pier Arts Centre Trust, Stromness. She was referred to as Margaret Emilia Gardiner Bernal on the list.
== Biography ==
Gardiner was born in Berlin where her father, the Egyptologist Sir Alan Gardiner, was working at the time. In 1923 he assisted Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon with the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb. Her mother was Hedwig (née von Rosen), Lady Gardiner, whose father was an Austro-Hungarian Roman Catholic with Jewish roots and mother a Swedish Finn. Her brother was Henry Rolf Gardiner.
Gardiner was educated at the Fröbel School in Hammersmith, then at Bedales, the liberally-minded school, followed by Newnham College, Cambridge. There she read Modern Languages, but transferred to Moral Sciences, the Cambridge term for Philosophy. Her family was wealthy and she had no need to work, devoting her life instead to politics and the arts. At Cambridge she fell in love with Bernard Deacon, a scholar at Trinity but was shattered when he died from blackwater fever whilst working on Malakula in the New Hebrides, Vanuatu in 1927 at the age of 24. She visited his grave there 56 years later and wrote a book, Footprints on Malekula: Memoir of Bernard Deacon, in 1984.
After Cambridge she spent a brief, but unsuccessful, time as a primary-school teacher in Gamlingay. Afterwards she devoted her time and energy to supporting her friends: Barbara Hepworth, Hepworth's second husband, Ben Nicholson, W. H. Auden, Berthold Lubetkin, Solly Zuckerman, Naum Gabo and others.
She made her home at 35 Downshire Hill, Hampstead, close to the Heath where she swam in the ponds into her 90s.
Her son with Bernal was Martin Bernal, author of Black Athena. Despite never marrying, Gardiner referred to herself as "Mrs Bernal". John Desmond Bernal had married Agnes Eileen Sprague, a secretary, on 21 June 1922, the day after being awarded his BA degree when he was aged 21. As well as his son with Gardiner, he had two children with Sprague and one with Margot Heinemann.
== Politics ==
With Bernal, who was a Communist, she was part of the 1930s and 40s group campaigning "For Intellectual Liberty". Gardiner was however not pressed to join the party. She spent a winter with Bernal in Moscow but had reservations about Joseph Stalin. In the 1960s she organised full-page advertisements in The Times signed by well-known people opposed to the Vietnam War. She was also a supporter of CND.
In the 1970 general election Ben Whitaker, Labour MP for Hampstead, lost his seat as a result of a far-left candidate standing whom Gardiner had financed.
== Orkney ==
She spent a large part of her life away from London on Rousay, Orkney, as a retreat. She was the founder, in 1979 of the art gallery, Pier Arts Centre in Stromness. One of the works there is "Curved Form (Trevalgan)" by her longtime friend Barbara Hepworth in 1956 which Gardiner kept on display in her back garden in Hampstead. The work, named after a hill in Cornwall between Zennor and St Ives, was Hepworth's first entirely bronze work. She gave 67 works of art to the people of Orkney and "Curved Form" now sits outside on the centre's pier on the original plinth from Gardiner's garden.
== Publications ==
Barbara Hepworth: a memoir. Edinburgh: Salamander Press. 1982. ISBN 9780907540106.
Footprints on Malekula: Memoir of Bernard Deacon. London: Chatto & Windus. 1984. ISBN 9780907540458.
A Scatter of Memories. Free Association. 1988. ISBN 978-1-85343-043-5.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisexuality_in_the_United_States | Bisexuality in the United States | The first English-language use of the word "bisexual" to refer to sexual orientation occurred in 1892.
== Early history ==
The first English-language use of the word "bisexual" referring to sexual orientation was by the American neurologist Charles Gilbert Chaddock in his 1892 translation of the 7th edition of Krafft-Ebing's seminal work Psychopathia Sexualis. Prior to this, "bisexual" typically referred to reproductive hermaphrodites, especially in botany. Under any label, openly bisexual people were rare in early American life. One notable exception was the openly bisexual poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, who received the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver in 1923. The 19th century poet Walt Whitman is usually described by biographers as either bisexual or homosexual in his feelings and attractions. In the early 20th century, during the Harlem Renaissance, blues singers Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith made no secret about their relationships with both men and women and songs like "Sissy Man Blues", "Freakish Blues" and Rainey's "Prove It on Me" spoke openly of homosexual and bisexual relationships.
Early film, being a cutting-edge medium, also provided opportunity for bisexuality to be expressed. In 1914 the first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in A Florida Enchantment, by Sidney Drew. However, due to the censorship legally required by the Hays Code, the word bisexual could not be mentioned and almost no bisexual characters appeared in American film from 1934 until 1968.
Bisexual Americans were given some visibility in the research of Alfred Kinsey (who was himself bisexual) and his colleagues in the late 1940s and early 1950s; they found that 28% of women and 46% of men had responded erotically to or were sexually active with both women and men.
Their research also found that 11.6% of white males (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response throughout their adult lives, and that 7% of single females (ages 20–35) and 4% of previously married females (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response for this period of their lives. As a result of this research, the earlier meanings of the word "bisexual" were largely displaced by the meaning of being attracted to both women and men. However, Kinsey himself disliked the use of the term bisexual to describe individuals engaging in sexual activity regardless of gender, preferring to use "bisexual" in its older, biological sense of reproductive hermaphrodites, saying, "Until it is demonstrated [that] taste in a sexual relation is dependent upon the individual containing within his [sic] anatomy both male and female structures, or male and female physiological capacities, it is unfortunate to call such individuals bisexual" (Kinsey et al., 1948, p. 657).
== Late 20th century ==
=== 1960s ===
LGBT political activism became more prominent in the 1960s. The first public protests for equal rights for gay and lesbian people were staged at governmental offices and historic landmarks in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., between 1965 and 1969. In D.C., protesters picketed in front of the White House, Pentagon, and the U.S. Civil Service Commission. One woman at the second White House picket of those protests, J.D., identified herself as a bisexual.
In 1966, bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) founded the Student Homophile League at Columbia University and New York University. In 1967 Columbia University officially recognized this group, thus making them the first college in the United States to officially recognize a gay student group. Activism on behalf of bisexuals in particular also began to grow, especially in San Francisco. One of the earliest organizations for bisexuals, the Sexual Freedom League in San Francisco, was facilitated by Margo Rila and Frank Esposito beginning in 1967. Two years later, during a staff meeting at a San Francisco mental health facility serving LGBT people, nurse Maggi Rubenstein came out as bisexual. Due to this, bisexuals began to be included in the facility's programs for the first time.
The Stonewall Rebellion, considered the beginning of the modern LGBT rights movement, occurred at the Stonewall bar in 1969. Bar patrons, including bisexuals, stood up to the police during a raid. In commemoration of this, the next year the first LGBT pride march was held. Bisexual activist Brenda Howard is known as the "Mother of Pride", for her work in coordinating the first LGBT Pride march, and she also originated the idea for a week-long series of events around Pride Day which became the genesis of the annual LGBT Pride celebrations that are now held around the world every June. Additionally, Howard along with the bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) and gay activist L. Craig Schoonmaker are credited with popularizing the word "Pride" to describe these festivities. Bisexual activist Tom Limoncelli later stated, "The next time someone asks you why LGBT Pride marches exist or why [LGBT] Pride Month is June tell them 'A bisexual woman named Brenda Howard thought it should be.'"
=== 1970s ===
Bisexuals became more prominent in the media in the 1970s. In 1972 bisexual activist Don Fass founded the National Bisexual Liberation group in New York City, which issued The Bisexual Expression, most likely the earliest bisexual newsletter. In 1973 bisexual activist Woody Glenn was interviewed by a radio show of the National Organization for Women on WICC in Bridgeport, Connecticut. In 1974, both Newsweek and Time magazines ran stories on "bisexual chic", bringing bisexuality to mainstream attention as never before. In 1976 the landmark book View from Another Closet: Exploring Bisexuality in Women, by Janet Mode, was published.
Bisexuals were also important contributors to the larger LGBT rights movement. In 1972, Bill Beasley, a bisexual activist in the civil rights movement as well as the LGBT movement, was the core organizer of the first Los Angeles Gay Pride March. He was also active with the Gay Liberation Front. In 1975, activist Carol Queen came out as bisexual and organized GAYouth in Eugene, Oregon. In 1977 Alan Rockway, a psychologist and bisexual activist, co-authored America's first successful gay rights ordinance put to public vote, in Dade County, Florida. Anita Bryant campaigned against the ordinance, and Rockway began a boycott of Florida orange juice, which she advertised, in response. The San Francisco Bisexual Center also helped sponsor a press conference with lesbian activists Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, and pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock, in opposition to Bryant. The Florida Citrus Commission canceled her contract as a direct response to this pressure. In 1979, Dr. Marvin Colter and John Soroczak co-founded Arete, The Bisexual Center of Southern California, in Whittier, California, a support and social group for bisexuals, which marched in the 1982 Los Angeles Gay pride. John Soroczak, a psychotherapist, facilitated the first bisexual rap group at the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center in 1994. Also in 1979 A. Billy S. Jones, a bisexual founding member of the National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gays, helped organize the first black gay delegation to meet with President Jimmy Carter's White House staff. Jones was also a core organizer of the 1979 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, and "Third world conference: When will the ignorance end?", the first national conference for gay and lesbian people of color.
The bisexual movement had its own successes as well. Most notably, in 1972 a Quaker group, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality, issued the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality" supporting bisexuals. The Statement, which may have been "the first public declaration of the bisexual movement" and "was certainly the first statement on bisexuality issued by an American religious assembly", appeared in the Quaker Friends Journal and The Advocate in 1972.
In 1976, Harriet Levi and Maggi Rubenstein founded the San Francisco Bisexual Center. It was the longest surviving bisexual community center, offering counseling and support services to Bay Area bisexuals, as well as publishing a newsletter, The Bi Monthly, from 1976 to 1984. In 1978, bisexual activist Dr. Fritz Klein introduced the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid in his book The Bisexual Option: A Concept of One-Hundred Percent Intimacy, in which he examined the incidence and nature of bisexuality, the attitudes of bisexual persons, and the rewards of bisexuality. Bisexual activism also began to spread beyond the coasts, as from 1978 until 1979, several Midwestern bisexual groups were created, such as One To Five (founded by Scott Bartell and Gary Lingen for Minneapolis/St.Paul, Minn), BI Women Welcome in Minneapolis, The BI Married Men's Group in the Detroit suburbs, and BI Ways in Chicago.
=== 1980s ===
In the 1980s AIDS began to affect the LGBT community, and bisexual people took an important role in combating it. In 1981 bisexual activists David Lourea and Cynthia Slater presented safer-sex education in bathhouses and BDSM clubs in San Francisco. In 1984, David Lourea finally persuaded the San Francisco Department of Public Health to recognize bisexual men in their official AIDS statistics (the weekly "New AIDS cases and mortality statistics" report), after two years of campaigning. Health departments throughout the United States began to recognize bisexual men because of this, whereas before they had mostly only recognized gay men. Bisexual activists also fought for the recognition of women in the AIDS epidemic. From 1984 until 1986, bisexual activist Veneita Porter, of the Prostitute's Union of Massachusetts and COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics), advocated for women, transgender people, and injection drug users with AIDS. In 1985, Cynthia Slater, who was HIV-positive, organized the first Women's HIV/AIDS Information Switchboard. This sort of activism was particularly important for bisexuals as they were often blamed for spreading AIDS to their heterosexual partners. For example, in 1987, Newsweek portrayed bisexual men as "the ultimate pariahs" of the AIDS epidemic, and bisexual activist and person with AIDS Alan Rockway of BiPOL was quoted speaking against the stereotype. An October 1989 Cosmopolitan magazine article that stereotyped bisexual men as dishonest spreaders of AIDS led to a letter-writing campaign by the New York Area Bisexual Network (NYABN). Cosmopolitan has printed no articles defaming bisexuals since the campaign.
The bisexual movement enjoyed some important firsts during the 1980s. The Boston Bisexual Women's Network, the oldest existing bisexual women's group, was founded in 1983 and began publishing their bi-monthly newsletter, BI Women. It is the longest-existing bisexual newsletter in the US. Also in 1983, BiPOL, the first and oldest bisexual political organization, was founded in San Francisco by bisexual activists Autumn Courtney, Lani Ka'ahumanu, Arlene Krantz, David Lourea, Bill Mack, Alan Rockway, and Maggi Rubenstein. In 1984, BiPOL sponsored the first bisexual rights rally, outside the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. The rally featured nine speakers from civil rights groups allied with the bisexual movement. Also in 1984, the First East Coast Conference on Bisexuality (which was also the first regional bisexual conference in the US) was held at the Storrs School of Social Work at the University of Connecticut, with about 150 people participating. Participants in the conference then founded the East Coast Bisexual Network in 1985, which later was renamed the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC) in 1993. In 1987, the East Coast Bisexual Network established the first Bisexual History Archives with bisexual activist Robyn Ochs' initial collection; archivist Clare Morton hosted researchers. Also in 1987, the Bay Area Bisexual Network, the oldest and largest bisexual group in the San Francisco Bay Area, was founded by Lani Ka'ahumanu, Ann Justi and Maggi Rubenstein.
In 1988, Gary North published the first national bisexual newsletter, called Bisexuality: News, Views, and Networking. In 1989 Cliff Arnesen testified before the U.S. Congress on behalf of bisexual, lesbian, and gay veteran's issues. He was the first veteran to testify about bisexual, lesbian, and gay issues and the first openly non-heterosexual veteran to testify on Capitol Hill about veteran's issues in general. He testified on May 3, 1989, during formal hearings held before the U.S. House Committee on Veterans Affairs: Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. He also testified before the same Subcommittee on May 16, 1990, as part of an HIV/AIDS panel.
Bisexual people also continued to be active in the larger LGBT movement. In 1986 BiPOL's Autumn Courtney was elected co-chair of San Francisco's Lesbian Gay Freedom Day Pride Parade Committee; she was the first openly bisexual person to hold this sort of position in the United States. In 1987 a group of 75 bisexuals marched in the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, which was the first nationwide bisexual gathering. The article "The Bisexual Movement: Are We Visible Yet?", by Lani Ka'ahumanu, appeared in the official Civil Disobedience Handbook for the March. It was the first article about bisexuals and the emerging bisexual movement to be published in a national lesbian or gay publication. The North American Bisexual Network, the first national bisexual organization, was first thought of at this gathering, though not founded until three years later (see below.) NABN would later change its name to BiNet USA.
Another important development is that the biangles symbol of bisexuality was designed by artist Liz Nania as she co-organized a bisexual contingent for the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights in 1987. The design of the biangles began with the pink triangle, a Nazi concentration camp badge that later became a symbol of gay liberation representing homosexuality. The addition of a blue triangle contrasts the pink and represents heterosexuality. The two triangles overlap and form lavender, which represents the "queerness of bisexuality", referencing the Lavender Menace and 1980s and 1990s associations of lavender with queerness.
(Some bisexual individuals object to the use of a pink triangle in the biangles symbol of bisexuality (see above), as it was a symbol that Adolf Hitler's regime used to tag and persecute homosexuals. In response, a double crescent moon symbol of bisexuality was devised by Vivian Wagner in 1998. This symbol is common in Germany and surrounding countries.)
Also in 1987, Barney Frank became the first U.S. congressman to come out as gay of his own volition; he was inspired in part by the death of Stewart McKinney, a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut. Frank told The Washington Post that after McKinney's death there was, "An unfortunate debate about 'Was he or wasn't he? Didn't he or did he?' I said to myself, I don't want that to happen to me."
=== 1990s ===
The oldest national bisexuality organization in the United States, BiNet USA, was founded in 1990. It was originally called the North American Multicultural Bisexual Network (NAMBN), and had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco, and sponsored by BiPOL. Bisexual health was one of eight workshop tracks at the conference, and the "NAMES Project" quilt was displayed with bisexual quilt pieces. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice", and declaring June 23, 1990, Bisexual Pride Day. The conference also inspired attendees from Dallas to create the first bisexual group in Texas, called BiNet Dallas.
The bisexual movement also became more accepted as part of established institutions. In 1990, Susan Carlton offered the first academic course on bisexuality in America at UC Berkeley, and in 1991, psychologists Sari Dworkin and Ron Fox became the founding co-chairs of the Task Force on Bisexual Issues of Division 44, the gay and lesbian group in the American Psychological Association. In 1997, bisexual activist and psychologist Pat Ashbrook pioneered a national model for LGBT support groups within the Veterans Administration hospital system.
Bisexual literature became more prominent in the 1990s. In 1991, the Bay Area Bisexual Network began publishing the first national bisexual quarterly magazine, Anything That Moves: Beyond the Myths of Bisexuality, founded by Karla Rossi, who was the managing editor of the editorial collective until 1993. 1991 also saw the publication of one of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement, Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu. After this anthology was forced to compete (and lost) in the Lambda Literary Awards under the category Lesbian Anthology, and in 2005, Directed by Desire: Collected Poems a posthumous collection of the bisexual Jamaican American writer June Jordan's work had to compete (and won) in the category "Lesbian Poetry", BiNet USA led the bisexual community in a multi-year campaign eventually resulting in the addition of a Bisexual category, starting with the 2006 Awards. In 1995, Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made the academic case for bisexuality with her book Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for "repression, religion, repugnance, denial, laziness, shyness, lack of opportunity, premature specialization, a failure of imagination, or a life already full to the brim with erotic experiences, albeit with only one person, or only one gender". In 1997, bisexual activist Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality. However, other media proved more mixed in terms of representing bisexuals. In 1990, a film with a relationship between two bisexual women, called Henry and June, became the first film to receive the NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). But in 1993, bisexual activist Sheela Lambert wrote, produced, and hosted the first television series by and for bisexuals, called Bisexual Network. It aired for 13 weeks on NYC Public Access Cable.
Regional organizations in the bisexual movement also began to have more impact. In 1992 the Bisexual Connection (Minnesota) sponsored the First Annual Midwest Regional Bisexual Conference, called BECAUSE (Bisexual Empowerment Conference: A Uniting, Supportive Experience). That year Minnesota changed its State Civil Rights Law to grant the most comprehensive civil rights protections for bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people in the country. Minnesota's bisexual community had united with lesbian, gay, and transgender groups to lobby for this statute. Also in 1992, the South Florida Bisexual Network (founded in 1989) and the Florida International University's Stonewall Students Union co-sponsored the First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference. Thirty-five people from at least four southeastern states attended. In 1993 the First Annual Northwest Regional Conference was sponsored by BiNet USA, the Seattle Bisexual Women's Network, and the Seattle Bisexual Men's Union. It was held in Seattle, and fifty-five people representing Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Montana, and British Columbia attended.
An important event in the LGBT rights movement in this decade was the 1993 March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. As a result of lobbying by BiPOL (San Francisco), openly bisexual people held key leadership roles in local and regional organizing for the March, and for the first time bisexuals were included in the title of the March. Also, openly bisexual activist and author Lani Ka'ahumanu spoke at the rally, and over 1,000 people marched with the bisexual group. Coinciding with the March, BiNet USA, the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC), and the Washington, DC–based Alliance of Multicultural Bisexuals (AMBi) sponsored the Second National Conference Celebrating Bisexuality in Washington, DC. Over than 600 people attended from the US and Europe, making it at the time the largest Bisexual Conference ever held.
Another important event in the LGBT rights movement was the enactment of the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy. Before the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was enacted in 1993, bisexuals (and lesbians and gays) were banned from serving in the military. In 1993 the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was enacted, which mandated that the military could not ask servicemembers about their sexual orientation. However, until the policy was ended in 2011 service members were still expelled from the military if they engaged in sexual conduct with a member of the same sex, stated that they were bisexual, gay, or lesbian, and/or married or attempted to marry someone of the same sex.
Several important surveys concerning bisexuality were conducted around this time. In 1993, Ron Fox authored the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research. Also in 1993, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior showed that five percent of men and three percent of women considered themselves bisexual. In 1995 BiNet USA Bisexual Youth Initiative, Fayetteville, North Carolina, developed and mailed a national survey to LGBT youth programs. The survey was published and sent back to agencies, offering assistance to improve services to bisexual youth.
In 1992, Colorado voters approved by initiative an amendment to the Colorado state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize bisexuals or gay people as a protected class. The amendment stated:
Neither the State of Colorado, through any of its branches or departments, nor any of its agencies, political subdivisions, municipalities or school districts, shall enact, adopt or enforce any statute, regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships shall constitute or otherwise be the basis of or entitle any person or class of persons to have or claim any minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination. This Section of the Constitution shall be in all respects self-executing.
This led to the 1996 Supreme Court Case Romer v. Evans, in which the Court ruled in a 6–3 decision that the state constitutional amendment in Colorado preventing protected status based upon bisexuality or homosexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause. The majority opinion in Romer stated that the amendment lacked "a rational relationship to legitimate state interests", and the dissent stated that the majority "evidently agrees that 'rational basis'—the normal test for compliance with the Equal Protection Clause—is the governing standard". The state constitutional amendment failed rational basis review.
The concept of bisexual pride became more widespread in the late 1990s. At an LGBT PrideFest in Connecticut in 1997, Evelyn Mantilla came out as America's first openly bisexual state official. The bisexual pride flag designed by Michael Page was unveiled December 5, 1998. The first Celebrate Bisexuality Day was organized by Michael Page, Gigi Raven Wilbur, and Wendy Curry in 1999, and is now observed annually on September 23.
== 21st century ==
=== 2000s ===
Bisexual people had notable accomplishments in the LGBT rights movement at this time. In 2001, the American Psychological Association (APA)'s "Guidelines on psychotherapy with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients" stated "homosexuality and bisexuality are not a mental illness"; bisexual activist Ron Fox served on the task force that produced the guidelines. In 2002, Pete Chvany, Luigi Ferrer, James Green, Loraine Hutchins and Monica McLemore presented at the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Intersex Health Summit, held in Boulder, Colorado, marking the first time bisexual people, transgender people, and intersex people were recognized as co-equal partners on the national level rather than gay and lesbian "allies" or tokens. Also in 2002, bisexual activist Robyn Ochs delivered the first bi-focused keynote during the National Association of Lesbian and Gay Addiction Professionals. In 2003, the Union for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to both the bisexual and transgender communities. In 2005, bisexual scholars and activists mobilized with The Task Force, GLAAD and BiNet USA to meet with New York Times science section editor and researcher Brian Dodge to respond to misinformation the paper had published on a study about bisexual men. The study, entitled Sexual Arousal Patterns of Bisexual Men, by the controversial researcher J. Michael Bailey, allegedly "proved" that bisexual men did not exist. With little critical examination, various media celebrities and outlets jumped on the band-wagon and claimed to have "solved" the "problem of bisexuality" by declaring it to be non-existent, at least in men. Further studies, including improved follow-up research led by Michael Bailey, proved this to be false. Also in 2005, the Queens Chapter of PFLAG announced the creation of the "Brenda Howard Memorial Award", marking the first time a major American LGBT organization named an award after an openly bisexual person. The National Equality March in Washington, D.C., was held on October 11, 2009, calling for equal protection for bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people in all matters governed by civil law in all states and districts; a dedicated bisexual, pansexual, and queer-identified contingent was organized as part of the March. Several bisexual groups came together and marched, including BiNet USA, New York Area Bisexual Network, DC Bi Women and BiMA DC. There were also four out bisexual speakers at the National Equality March rally: Michael Huffington, Lady Gaga, Chloe Noble, and Penelope Williams. In October 2009, LGBT activist Amy Andre was appointed as executive director of the San Francisco Pride Celebration Committee, making her the organization's first openly bisexual woman of color executive director.
Significant reports about bisexuals were also released in this decade. In 2002, a survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as "something else". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as "something else". A 2007 report said that 14.4% of young US women identified themselves as bisexual/lesbian, with 5.6% of the men identifying as gay or bisexual. Also in 2007, an article in the 'Health' section of The New York Times stated that "1.5 percent of American women and 1.7 percent of American men identify themselves [as] bisexual."
In 2008 Kate Brown was elected as the Oregon Secretary of State, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
=== 2010s ===
In 2011, one of the demands of 2009's National Equality March was met as the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was ended, allowing bisexuals, lesbians, and gay men in the U.S. military to be open about their sexuality.
San Francisco's Human Rights Commission released a report on bisexual visibility in 2011, marking the first time any governmental body released such a report. Its findings indicated that self-identified bisexuals made up the largest single population within the LGBT community in the United States. In each of the report's studies, more women identified as bisexual than lesbian, though fewer men identified as bisexual than gay. Also in 2011, a longitudinal study of sexual minority women (bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian) found that over 10 years, "more women adopted bisexual/unlabeled identities than relinquished them". Of those who began the study identifying as bisexual, 92% identified as bisexual or unlabeled 10 years later, and 61% of those who began as unlabeled identified as bisexual or unlabeled 10 years later.
In September 2012, Berkeley, California, became the first city in America to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals. The Berkeley City Council unanimously and without discussion declared September 23 as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day. In 2013 on Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, the White House held a closed-door meeting with about 30 bisexual advocates so they could meet with government officials and discuss issues of specific importance to the bisexual community; this was the first bi-specific event ever hosted by any White House. Another important contribution to bisexual visibility came in 2014, when the Bisexual Research Collaborative on Health (BiRCH) was founded to search for ways to raise public awareness of bisexual health issues, as well as to continue high-level discussions of bisexual health research and plan a national conference.
As for law and politics, in November 2012 Kyrsten Sinema was elected to the House of Representatives, becoming the first openly bisexual member of Congress in American history. In 2013 BiLaw, the first American national organization of bisexual lawyers, law professors, law students, and their allies, was founded. In February 2015 Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, upon the resignation of Oregon's chief executive. On June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage, legalizing it throughout the United States; this increased the rights of bisexual people in America wishing to marry their same-sex partners. Another important victory came later that year, when the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission concluded that Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act does not allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination. In 2016, Kate Brown was elected as governor of Oregon, and thus became the first openly bisexual person elected as a United States governor (and indeed the first openly LGBT person elected as such). In 2018, Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person to win a major party nomination to run for a U.S. Senate seat, and later that year she became the first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate. As well, Kate Brown was re-elected that year as governor of Oregon. In 2020 Christy Holstege became the first openly bisexual mayor in America, as mayor of Palm Springs, California.
In the first large-scale government survey measuring Americans' sexual orientation, the NHIS reported in July 2014 that 0.7 percent of Americans identify as bisexual. A 2016 survey cited by CNN said that bisexuality was increasing in the United States, with 5.5% of women and 2% of men identifying as bisexual compared with 3.9% and 1.2% respectively in an earlier survey. However the NHIS reported the same year that bisexuality was at .8% for men, and 1.2% for women, only changing slightly the next year.
In 2017, the Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are bisexual or gay.
In 2018 America's first city-wide Bi Pride event was held, in West Hollywood.
=== 2020s ===
In 2021 Pennsylvania governor Tom Wolf became the first governor in the United States to issue a statement recognizing Bisexual Pride Day. Estimates of Bisexual and fluid Americans range from ten to fifty million.
== Notable American bisexuals ==
Gregg Araki is an independent filmmaker. He is involved in New Queer Cinema. Araki self-identified as gay until 1997, when he entered a relationship with actress Kathleen Robertson, whom he directed in Nowhere.
Billie Joe Armstrong, lead singer for the band Green Day.
Drew Barrymore, actress and director, came out as bisexual in an interview with Contact Music in 2003, where she said "Do I like women sexually? Yeah, I do. Totally. I have always considered myself bisexual." Barrymore was quoted in 2004 as saying, "A woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful. Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else. When I was younger I used to go with lots of women."
Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, as governor of Oregon, in 2015. She had been elected as the Oregon Secretary of State in 2008, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
Aaron Carter, a musician, came out as bisexual via Twitter on August 5, 2017.
John Cheever, novelist, had sexual relationships with both men and women and was described by his son as bisexual.
Margaret Cho, comedian.
Clive Davis is a record producer and music industry executive. He has won five Grammy Awards and is a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a non-performer. From 1967 to 1973, Davis was the president of Columbia Records. He came out as bisexual in 2013.
Raúl Esparza is a Cuban-American stage actor, singer, and voice artist noted for his award-winning performances in Broadway shows. He came out as bisexual in 2007.
Megan Fox, an actress and model, came out as bisexual in 2009.
Lady Gaga, a multiplatinum-selling singer and LGBT rights activist, came out as bisexual in 2009.
Jack Gantos is an American author of children's books renowned for his fictional character Joey Pigza, a boy with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Gantos has won several literary awards, including the Newbery Honor, the Newbery Medal, the Printz Honor, and the Sibert Honor from the American Library Association.
Angelina Jolie, an Academy Award-winning actress, came out as bisexual in 2003. When asked if she was bisexual, Jolie responded, "Of course. If I fell in love with a woman tomorrow, would I feel that it's okay to want to kiss and touch her? If I fell in love with her? Absolutely! Yes!"
Orlando Jordan is an openly bisexual wrestler.
Romona Lofton, better known by her pen name Sapphire, is an American author and performance poet. She is best known for her novel Push.
Robyn Ochs helped found the Boston Bisexual Network in 1983, and the Bisexual Resource Center in 1985. She is also the editor of the Bisexual Resource Guide and the coeditor of the anthology Getting Bi: Voices of Bisexuals Around the World.
Michelle Rodriguez is an American actress, screenwriter, and disc jockey. Rodriguez got her breakout role in the independent film Girlfight, which was met with critical acclaim for her performance as a troubled boxer, and earned her several awards, including the Independent Spirit Award and Gotham Award for Best Debut Performance. The following year, she made her Hollywood debut starring as Letty Ortiz in the blockbuster film The Fast and the Furious, and reprised her role with its sequels Fast & Furious and Fast & Furious 6.
Kyle Schickner is a film producer, writer, director, actor, and bisexual rights activist. He is the founder of FenceSitter Films, a production company devoted to entertainment for sexual minorities, women, and ethnic minorities. While in college, inspired by hearing a talk given by bisexual rights activist Lani Ka'ahumanu, he formed BIAS (Bisexuals Achieving Solidarity), the first college bisexual rights group in the United States.
Kyrsten Sinema, elected to the House of Representatives in 2012 and the Senate in 2018, is the first openly bisexual member of Congress and the first openly bisexual Senator in American history.
Ron Jackson Suresha is an author and anthologist of books centering on bisexual and gay men's subcultures, particularly the Bear community.
Mike White is an American writer, director, actor, and producer for television and film and the winner of the Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award for Chuck & Buck. He was co-creator, co-executive producer, writer and actor for the HBO series Enlightened.
== Timeline of bisexual American history ==
1892: The word "bisexual" is first used in English in the sense of being sexually attracted to both males and females in Charles Gilbert Chaddock's direct translation of Kraft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis.
1914: The first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in A Florida Enchantment, by Sidney Drew.
1966: Bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) (née Robert Martin, 1946–1996) founded the Student Homophile League at Columbia University and New York University; in 1967 Columbia University was the first University in the United States to officially recognize a gay student group.
1969: The Stonewall Rebellion, considered the beginning of the modern LGBT rights movement, occurred at the Stonewall bar in 1969. Bar patrons, including bisexuals, stood up to the police during a raid.
1970: In commemoration of the Stonewall Rebellion, the first LGBT pride march was held. Bisexual activist Brenda Howard is known as the "Mother of Pride" for her work in coordinating this march.
1972: Bill Beasley, a bisexual veteran of the Civil Rights Movement, was the core organizer of first Los Angeles Gay Pride March and active with the Gay Liberation Front.
1972: A Quaker group, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality, issued the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality" supporting bisexuals. The Statement, which may have been "the first public declaration of the bisexual movement" and "was certainly the first statement on bisexuality issued by an American religious assembly," appeared in the Quaker Friends Journal and The Advocate in 1972. Presently Quakers have varying opinions on LGBTQ people and rights, with some Quaker groups more accepting than others.
1974: In New York City Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Bisexual Forum, the first support group for the bisexual community.
1977: Alan Rockway co-authored the first successful gay rights ordinance put to public vote in America, in Dade County, Florida. When Anita Bryant initiated the anti-gay "Save Our Children" campaign in response to the ordinance, Dr. Rockway conceived of and initiated a national "gaycott" of Florida orange juice. The Florida Citrus Commission canceled Ms. Bryant's million dollar contract as a result of the "gaycott".
1978: Dr. Fritz Klein first described the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG), which attempts to measure sexual orientation by expanding upon the earlier Kinsey scale, in his 1978 book The Bisexual Option.
1979: A. Billy S. Jones, a founding member of National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gays, helped organize the first black gay delegation to meet with President Carter's White House staff. Jones was also a core organizer of the 1979 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, and was a key organizer for "Third world conference: When will the ignorance end?" the first national gay and lesbian people of color conference.
1979: Dr. Marvin Colter and John Soroczak co-founded Arete, The Bisexual Center of Southern California in Whittier, California, a support and social group for bisexuals.
1983: The Boston Bisexual Women's Network, the oldest existing bisexual women's group, was founded in 1983 and began publishing their bi-monthly newsletter, BI Women. It is the longest-existing bisexual newsletter in the US.
1983: BiPOL, the first and oldest bisexual political organization, was founded in San Francisco by Autumn Courtney, Lani Ka'ahumanu, Arlene Krantz, David Lourea, Bill Mack, Alan Rockway, and Maggi Rubenstein.
1984: BiPOL sponsored the first bisexual rights rally, which was held outside the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. The rally featured nine speakers from civil rights groups allied with the bisexual movement.
1984: A. Billy S. Jones helped organize the first federally funded national "AIDS in the Black Community Conference" in Washington, D.C.
1984: The First East Coast Conference on Bisexuality (which was also the first regional bisexual conference in the US) was held at the Storrs School of Social Work at the University of Connecticut, with about 150 people participating.
1985: The Bisexual Resource Center (BRC) was founded.
1985: Cynthia Slater (1945-1989), an early outspoken bisexual and HIV positive woman, organized the first Women's HIV/AIDS Information Switchboard.
1986: BiPOL's Autumn Courtney was elected co-chair of San Francisco's Lesbian Gay Freedom Day Pride Parade Committee; she was the first openly bisexual person to hold this sort of position in the United States.
1987: Veneita Porter, director of the New York State Office of AIDS Discrimination, helped design the first educational projects and trainings for state workers, hearing judges and legal staff.
1987: The New York Area Bisexual Network (NYABN) was founded.
1987: The East Coast Bisexual Network established the first Bisexual History Archives with Robyn Ochs' initial collection; archivist Clare Morton hosted researchers.
1987: The Bay Area Bisexual Network, the oldest and largest bisexual group in the San Francisco Bay Area, was founded by Lani Ka'ahumanu, Ann Justi and Maggi Rubenstein.
1987: A group of 75 bisexuals marched in the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, which was the first nationwide bisexual gathering. The article "The Bisexual Movement: Are We Visible Yet?", by Lani Ka'ahumanu, appeared in the official Civil Disobedience Handbook for the March. It was the first article about bisexuals and the emerging bisexual movement to be published in a national lesbian or gay publication.
1988: Gary North published the first national bisexual newsletter, called Bisexuality: News, Views, and Networking.
1989: In 1989 Cliff Arnesen testified before the U.S. Congress on behalf of bisexual, lesbian, and gay veteran's issues. He was the first veteran to testify about bisexual, lesbian, and gay issues and the first openly non-heterosexual veteran to testify on Capitol Hill about veteran's issues in general. He testified on May 3, 1989, during formal hearings held before the U.S. House Committee on Veterans Affairs: Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations.
1990: The North American Bisexual Network, the first national bisexual organization, was founded. NABN would later change its name to BiNet USA. It had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco, and sponsored by BiPOL. Bisexual health was one of eight workshop tracks at the conference, and the "NAMES Project" quilt was displayed with bisexual quilt pieces. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice", and declaring June 23, 1990 Bisexual Pride Day. The conference also inspired attendees from Dallas to create the first bisexual group in Texas, called BiNet Dallas.
1990: Susan Carlton offered the first academic course on bisexuality in America at UC Berkeley.
1990: A film with a relationship between two bisexual women, called Henry and June, became the first film to receive the NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
1991: Psychologists Sari Dworkin and Ron Fox became the founding co-chairs of the Task Force on Bisexual Issues of Division 44, the gay and lesbian group in the American Psychological Association.
1991: Liz Highleyman co-founded the Boston ACT UP IV League needle exchange, one of the first in the US.
1991: The Bay Area Bisexual Network began publishing the first national bisexual quarterly magazine, Anything That Moves: Beyond the Myths of Bisexuality, founded by Karla Rossi, who was the managing editor of the editorial collective until 1993.
1991: One of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement, Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu, was published.
1992: The Bisexual Connection (Minnesota) sponsored the First Annual Midwest Regional Bisexual Conference, BECAUSE (Bisexual Empowerment Conference: A Uniting, Supportive Experience).
1992: The South Florida Bisexual Network and the Florida International University's Stonewall Students Union co-sponsored the First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference. Thirty-five people from at least four southeastern states attended.
1992: Colorado voters approved by initiative an amendment to the Colorado state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize bisexuals or gay people as a protected class.
1992-1994: Lani Ka'ahumanu served as project coordinator for an American Foundation for AIDS Research grant awarded to Lyon-Martin Women's Health Services. This was the first grant in the U.S. to target young high risk bisexual and lesbian women for HIV/AIDS prevention/education research. She created the "Peer Safer Sex Slut Team" with Cianna Stewart.
1993: Sheela Lambert wrote, produced, and hosted the first television series by and for bisexuals, called Bisexual Network. It aired for 13 weeks on NYC Public Access Cable.
1993: Ron Fox wrote the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research.
1993: The First Annual Northwest Regional Conference was sponsored by BiNet USA, the Seattle Bisexual Women's Network, and the Seattle Bisexual Men's Union. It was held in Seattle, and fifty-five people representing Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Montana, and British Columbia attended.
1993: The March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. As a result of lobbying by BiPOL (San Francisco), openly bisexual people held key leadership roles in local and regional organizing for the March, and for the first time bisexuals were included in the title of the March. Also, Lani Ka'ahumanu spoke at the rally, and over 1,000 people marched with the bisexual group. Coinciding with the March, BiNet USA, the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC), and the Washington, DC–-based Alliance of Multicultural Bisexuals (AMBi) sponsored the Second National Conference Celebrating Bisexuality in Washington, DC. Over 600 people attended from the US and Europe, making it at the time the largest Bisexual Conference ever held.
1993: Ron Fox authored the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research.
1996: In the Supreme Court case Romer v. Evans, the Court ruled in a 6–3 decision that the state constitutional amendment in Colorado preventing protected status based upon bisexuality or homosexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause.
1997: Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality.
1996: Angel Fabian co-organized the National Task Force on AIDS Prevention's first Gay/Bisexual Young Men of Color Summit at Gay Men of Color Conference, Miami, Florida.
1997: At an LGBT PrideFest in Connecticut in 1997, Evelyn Mantilla came out as America's first openly bisexual state official.
1998: The first bisexual pride flag, designed by Michael Page, was unveiled on December 5, 1998.
1998: The American Institute of Bisexuality, a charity, was founded on July 23, 1998, by Fritz Klein M.D. to promote research and education about bisexuality.
1998: BiNet USA hosted the First National Institute on Bisexuality and HIV/AIDS.
1999: The first Celebrate Bisexuality Day, also known as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, was organized by Michael Page, Gigi Raven Wilbur, and Wendy Curry. It is now observed every September 23.
1999: Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality.
1999: Marshall Miller founded the BiHealth Program at Fenway Community Health, the first funded bisexual-specific program targeting bisexual people and MSMW (men who have sex with men and women) and WSWM (women who have sex with men and women) who don't identify as bisexual. The program published "Safer sex for bisexuals and their partners" brochures.
2000: The first anthology by bisexual people of faith, Blessed Bi Spirit (Continuum International 2000), was published. It was edited by Debra Kolodny.
2002: Pete Chvany, Luigi Ferrer, James Green, Loraine Hutchins and Monica McLemore presented at the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Intersex Health Summit, held in Boulder, Colorado, marking the first time bisexual people, transgender people, and intersex people were recognized as co-equal partners on the national level rather than gay and lesbian "allies" or tokens.
2002: Robyn Ochs delivered the first bi-focused keynote during the National Association of Lesbian and Gay Addiction Professionals.
2003: The Union for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to the bisexual and transgender communities, issuing a resolution titled, "Support for the Inclusion and Acceptance of the Transgender and Bisexual Communities".
2003: Women of Reform Judaism issued a statement describing their support for human and civil rights and the struggles of the bisexual and transgender communities, and saying, "Women of Reform Judaism accordingly: Calls for civil rights protections from all forms of discrimination against bisexual and transgender individuals; Urges that such legislation allows transgender individuals to be seen under the law as the gender by which they identify; and Calls upon sisterhoods to hold informative programs about the transgender and bisexual communities."
2003: The North American Conference on Bisexuality hosted a Bi Health Summit organized by Cheryl Dobinson, Luigi Ferrer and Ron Fox, and the first Bi People of Color Summit was coordinated by Angel Fabian and Penelope Williams.
2003: The Center for Sex and Culture, founded by Carol Queen and Robert Lawrence in 1994, opened its archive and sexuality research library, becoming the first public non-profit community-based space designed for adult sex education, including continuing professional education.
2003: Loraine Hutchins and Linda Poelzl graduated from The Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Sexuality's first California Sexological Bodyworkers Certification Training as part of new movement of somatic erotic educators.
2004: Lani Ka'ahumanu, Bobbi Keppel and the Safer Sex Sluts presented the first Safer Sex Workshop given at a joint national conference with American Society on Aging and National Association on Aging.
2005: The Queens Chapter of PFLAG announced the creation of the "Brenda Howard Memorial Award". This was the first time a major American LGBT organization named an award after an openly bisexual person.
2006: After a multi-year campaign, a Bisexual category was added to the Lambda Literary Awards, starting with the 2006 Awards.
2008: Kate Brown was elected as the Oregon Secretary of State in the 2008 elections, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
2009: In October 2009, LGBT activist Amy Andre was appointed as executive director of the San Francisco Pride Celebration Committee, making her San Francisco Pride's first openly bisexual woman of color executive director.
2011: San Francisco's Human Rights Commission released a report on bisexual visibility, titled "Bisexual Invisibility: Impacts and Regulations". This was the first time any governmental body released such a report. The report showed, among other things, that self-identified bisexuals made up the largest single population within the LGBT community in the United States. In each study included in the report, more women identified as bisexual than lesbian, though fewer men identified as bisexual than gay.
2012: City Councilmember Marlene Pray joined the Doylestown, Pennsylvania council in 2012, though she resigned in 2013; she was the first openly bisexual office holder in Pennsylvania.
2012: Kyrsten Sinema (D-AZ) became the first openly bisexual person elected to the US Congress.
2012: On September 18, 2012, Berkeley, California, became the first city in the U.S. to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals. The Berkeley City Council unanimously and without discussion declared Sept. 23 as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day.
2013: On Celebrate Bisexuality Day, also known as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, the White House held a closed-door meeting with almost 30 bisexual advocates so they could meet with government officials and discuss issues of specific importance to the bisexual community; this was the first bi-specific event ever hosted by any White House.
2013: The Bi Writers Association, which promotes bisexual writers, books, and writing, announced the winners of its first Bisexual Book Awards. An awards ceremony was held at the Nuyorican Poets Café in New York City.
2013: BiLaw, the first American national organization of bisexual lawyers, law professors, law students, and their allies, was founded.
2014: Conner Mertens of the Division III Willamette Bearcats came out as bisexual, becoming the first active college football player at any level to come out.
2014: The Bisexual Resource Center, based in Boston, Massachusetts, declared March 2014 as the first Bisexual Health Awareness Month, with the theme "Bi the Way, Our Health Matters Too!"; it included the first social media campaign to address disparities in physical and mental health facing the bisexual community.
2014: The Bisexual Research Collaborative on Health (BiRCH) was founded to search for ways to raise public awareness of bisexual health issues, as well as to continue high-level discussions of bisexual health research and plan a national (American) conference.
2014: The book Bisexuality: Making the Invisible Visible in Faith Communities, the first book of its kind, was published. It is by the American authors Marie Alford-Harkey and Debra W. Haffner.
2014: BiNet USA declared the seven days surrounding Celebrate Bisexuality Day to be Bi Awareness Week, also called Bisexual Awareness Week. The week begins the Sunday before Celebrate Bisexuality Day.
2015: Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, as governor of Oregon when the old governor resigned.
2015: J. Christopher Neal became the first openly bisexual New York City LGBT Pride March Grand Marshal.
2016: Kate Brown was elected as governor of Oregon, and thus became the first openly bisexual person elected as a United States governor (and indeed the first openly LGBT person elected as such).
2017: The Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are bisexual or gay.
2017: The American Institute of Bisexuality provided funding for The Center for Sex Education's publication of 25 Great Lesson Plans About Sexual Orientation, which includes a number of resources and lesson plans on how to teach about bisexuality. Edited by T. Clark, T. Gilbert, K. Rayne.
2018: Megan Hunt, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ person elected to the state legislature of Nebraska.
2018: Katie Hill was elected as California’s first openly bisexual person, and first openly queer woman, to be a member of Congress.
2018: Mike Jacobs became the first sitting judge in the United States to come out as bisexual.
2018: Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person to win a major party nomination to run for a U.S. Senate seat.
2018: America's first city-wide Bi Pride event was held, in West Hollywood.
2018: Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate.
2019: Antonio Brown was elected as Atlanta's first openly bisexual councilman.
2019: A one-day conference for bi+ people, Unico[r]n, was held on October 12, 2019, in San Francisco.
2020: The first San Francisco and East Bay BiCon was held on February 1 and 2, 2020, in San Francisco and Oakland.
2020: Christy Holstege became the first openly bisexual mayor in America, as mayor of Palm Springs, California.
2020: Alex Lee became the California State Assembly’s first openly bisexual member.
2020: Jessica Benham, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ+ woman elected to the Pennsylvania General Assembly.
2021: Pennsylvania governor Tom Wolf became the first governor in the United States to issue a statement recognizing Bisexual Pride Day.
2024: Molly Cook, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ+ person elected to the Texas Senate.
== See also ==
History of bisexuality
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bi America: Myths, Truths, and Struggles of an Invisible Community, by William E. Burleson (Apr 7, 2005)
Bisexuality in the United States, an anthology edited by Paula Rodriguez Rust (Nov 15, 1999)
== External links ==
The Bisexuality-Aware Professionals Directory: A listing of professionals who are sensitive to the unique needs of bisexual clientele
BiNet USA - A national (American) bisexuality organization
The Bisexual Resource Center based in Boston, Massachusetts
A Brief History of the Bisexual Movement, by BiNet Usa
A Brief Trip Thru Bisexual NYC's History
Timeline: The Bisexual Health Movement in the U.S., by BiNet USA
Timeline of D.C. Bi History, by the Rainbow History Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Europe_Meeting | Asia–Europe Meeting | The Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) is an Asian–European political dialogue forum to enhance relations and various forms of cooperation between its partners.
It was officially established on 1 March 1996 at the 1st ASEM Summit (ASEM1) in Bangkok, Thailand, by the then 15 Member States of the European Union (EU) and the European Commission, the then 7 Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the individual countries of China, Japan, and South Korea. A series of enlargements saw additional EU Member States join as well as India, Mongolia, Pakistan and the ASEAN Secretariat in 2008, Australia, New Zealand and Russia in 2010, Bangladesh, Norway, and Switzerland in 2012, as well as Croatia, and Kazakhstan in 2014.
The main components of the ASEM Process rest on the following 3 pillars:
Political Pillar
Economic & Financial Pillar
Social, Cultural & Educational Pillar
In general, the ASEM Process is considered by the Partners involved to be a way of deepening the relations between Asia and Europe at all levels, which is deemed necessary to achieve a more balanced political and economic world order. The process is enhanced by the biennial meetings of Heads of State and Government, alternately in Asia and Europe, and biennial meetings of Foreign Ministers as well as other Ministerial Meetings, and other political, economic, and socio-cultural events at various levels.
== Partners ==
The ASEM Partnership currently has 53 Partners: 51 countries and 2 regional organisations. The countries are Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, China, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom and Vietnam while the European Union and the ASEAN Secretariat are the regional organisations involved.
== Meetings ==
=== ASEM Summits ===
Biennial Summits are held alternating between Asia and Europe, attended by the Heads of State and Government of the respective partner countries and organisations:
ASEM13: 25–26 November 2021, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
ASEM12: 18–19 October 2018, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM11: 15–16 July 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEM10: 16–17 October 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEM9: 05–06 November 2012, Vientiane, Laos
ASEM8: 04–05 October 2010, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM7: 24–25 October 2008, Beijing, China
ASEM6: 10–11 September 2006, Helsinki, Finland
ASEM5: 08–09 October 2004, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEM4 Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEM3: 20–21 October 2000, Seoul, South Korea
ASEM2: 03–04 April 1998, London, United Kingdom
ASEM1: 01–02 March 1996, Bangkok, Thailand
=== ASEM Ministerial Meetings ===
Aside from Summits, regular Ministerial Meetings are held on foreign affairs, financial, cultural, economic, educational, labor and employment, transport, or environmental issues, attended by the relevant ministers:
==== ASEM Foreign Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFMM) ====
ASEMFMM14 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 December 2019, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM13: 20–21 November 2017, Naypyidaw, Myanmar
ASEMFMM12: 05–06 November 2015, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
ASEMFMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 November 2013, New Delhi, India
ASEMFMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2011, Gödöllő, Hungary
ASEMFMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMFMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 28–29 May 2007, Hamburg, Germany
ASEMFMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 May 2005, Kyoto, Japan
ASEMFMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2004, Kildare, Ireland
ASEMFMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–24 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2002, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 24–25 May 2001, Beijing, China
ASEMFMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29 March 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMFMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 February 1997, Singapore
==== ASEM Finance Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFinMM) ====
ASEMFinMM14: 2020, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ASEMFinMM13 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26 April 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMFinMM12 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 09–10 June 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMFinMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 September 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEMFinMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 October 2012, Bangkok, Thailand
ASEMFinMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2010, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFinMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 16 June 2008, Jeju, South Korea
ASEMFinMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 08–09 April 2006, Vienna, Austria
ASEMFinMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 June 2005, Tianjin, China
ASEMFinMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFinMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMFinMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 13–14 January 2001, Kobe, Japan
ASEMFinMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15–16 September 1999, Frankfurt, Germany
ASEMFinMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19 September 1997, Bangkok, Thailand
==== ASEM Culture Ministers' Meetings (ASEMCMM) ====
ASEMCMM9: 2020, Asia
ASEMCMM8: 01-02 March 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMCMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 June 2016, Gwangju, South Korea
ASEMCMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 20–21 October 2014, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMCMM5: 18–19 September 2012, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
ASEMCMM4: 08–10 September 2010, Poznań, Poland
ASEMCMM3: 21–24 April 2008, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMCMM2: 06–07 June 2005, Paris, France
ASEMCMM1: 03 December 2003, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Economic Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEMM) ====
ASEMEMM7: 21–22 September 2017, Seoul, South Korea
High-level Meeting: 16-17 September 2005, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMEMM5: 23–24 July 2003, Dalian, China
ASEMEMM4: 18–19 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEMM3: 10–11 September 2001, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMEMM2: 09–10 October 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMEMM1: 27–28 September 1997, Makuhari, Japan
==== ASEM Education Ministers' Meetings (ASEMME) ====
ASEMME9: 25-26 January 2024, Valletta, Malta
ASEMME8: 15 December 2021, Bangkok (online), Thailand
ASEMME7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 May 2019, Bucharest, Romania
ASEMME6: 21–22 November 2017, Seoul, South Korea
ASEMME5: 27–28 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMME4: 12–14 May 2013, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMME3: 09–10 May 2011, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMME2: 14–15 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMME1: 05–06 May 2008, Berlin, Germany
==== ASEM Labour & Employment Ministers' Conferences (ASEMLEMC) ====
ASEMLEMC5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 03–04 December 2015, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMLEMC4: 24–26 October 2012, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMLEMC3: 12–14 December 2010, Leiden, Netherlands
ASEMLEMC2: 13–15 October 2008, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMLEMC1: 03 September 2006, Potsdam, Germany
==== ASEM Transport Ministers' Meetings (ASEMTMM) ====
ASEMTMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11-12 December 2019, Budapest, Hungary
ASEMTMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26–28 September 2017, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMTMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29–30 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMTMM2: 24–25 October 2011, Chengdu, China
ASEMTMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19–20 October 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania
==== ASEM Environment Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEnvMM) ====
ASEMEnvMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–23 May 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMEnvMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–26 April 2007, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEnvMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 12–13 October 2003, Lecce, Italy
ASEMEnvMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17 January 2002, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Ministerial Conference on Energy Security (ASEMESMC) ====
ASEMESMC1: 17–18 June 2009, Brussels, Belgium
== See also ==
ASEM Education Process
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean Summit
== References ==
== External links ==
ASEM InfoBoard, the official information platform of the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM)
Introduction to the Asia-Europe Meeting
ASEM in Its Tenth Year: Looking Forward, Looking Back Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Asia-Europe People's Forum (AEPF)
Asia-Europe Labour Forum (AELF)
ASEM Education Secretariat (AES)
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
ASEF Classroom Network (ASEF ClassNet)
Asia-Europe Museum Network (ASEMUS) Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
ASEF University Alumni Network (ASEFUAN)
Asia-Europe Institute (AEI) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuPaul%27s_Drag_Race_season_1 | RuPaul's Drag Race season 1 | The first season of RuPaul's Drag Race premiered in the United States on February 2, 2009, on Logo, and ended on March 23 of the same year. Nine contestants were selected to compete in the running of becoming "America's Next Drag Superstar." The first season was filmed during the summer of 2008. The winner of the first season won a cash prize of $20,000, $5,000 worth of MAC Cosmetics, was featured in an LA Eyeworks campaign, and joined the Logo Drag Race tour. One of the nine contestants to compete on RuPaul's Drag Race, Nina Flowers was determined by an audience vote via the show's official website.
The theme song playing during the runway every episode was "Cover Girl" from RuPaul's album Champion. This season, and season one of All Stars, are the only seasons to not feature a "Snatch Game" challenge episode, in which the contestants must impersonate a celebrity of their choosing while improvising witty responses to nonsensical riddles, in a format similar to vintage game shows such as Hollywood Squares or Match Game.
The winner of the first season of RuPaul's Drag Race was BeBe Zahara Benet, with DJ Nina Flowers as the runner-up.
In late 2013, Logo re-aired the first season, which was titled RuPaul's Drag Race: The Lost Season, with featured commentary from RuPaul.
== Contestants ==
Ages, names, and cities stated are at time of filming.
Notes:
== Contestant progress ==
Legend:
== Lip syncs ==
Legend:
== Guest judges ==
Listed in chronological order:
Bob Mackie, fashion designer
Mike Ruiz, photographer
Frank Gatson, director and choreographer
Michelle Williams, singer and actress
Howard Bragman, writer and lecturer
Debra Wilson, actress and comedian
Gordon Espinet, make-up artist
Jenny Shimizu, model and actress
Lucy Lawless, actress and singer
Robin Antin, dancer, choreographer, and actress
Jeffrey Moran, Absolut Vodka marketing/branding executive
María Conchita Alonso, singer-songwriter and actress
== Episodes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (U.S.)
RuPaul's Drag Race at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio | Polio | Poliomyelitis ( POH-lee-oh-MY-ə-LY-tiss), commonly shortened to polio, is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. Approximately 75% of cases are asymptomatic; mild symptoms which can occur include sore throat and fever; in a proportion of cases more severe symptoms develop such as headache, neck stiffness, and paresthesia. These symptoms usually pass within one or two weeks. A less common symptom is permanent paralysis, and possible death in extreme cases. Years after recovery, post-polio syndrome may occur, with a slow development of muscle weakness similar to what the person had during the initial infection.
Polio occurs naturally only in humans. It is highly infectious, and is spread from person to person either through fecal–oral transmission (e.g. poor hygiene, or by ingestion of food or water contaminated by human feces), or via the oral–oral route. Those who are infected may spread the disease for up to six weeks even if no symptoms are present. The disease may be diagnosed by finding the virus in the feces or detecting antibodies against it in the blood.
Poliomyelitis has existed for thousands of years, with depictions of the disease in ancient art. The disease was first recognized as a distinct condition by the English physician Michael Underwood in 1789, and the virus that causes it was first identified in 1909 by the Austrian immunologist Karl Landsteiner. Major outbreaks started to occur in the late 19th century in Europe and the United States, and in the 20th century, it became one of the most worrying childhood diseases. Following the introduction of polio vaccines in the 1950s, polio incidence declined rapidly. As of October 2023, only Pakistan and Afghanistan remain endemic for wild poliovirus (WPV).
Once infected, there is no specific treatment. The disease can be prevented by the polio vaccine, with multiple doses required for lifelong protection. There are two broad types of polio vaccine; an injected polio vaccine (IPV) using inactivated poliovirus and an oral polio vaccine (OPV) containing attenuated (weakened) live virus. Through the use of both types of vaccine, incidence of wild polio has decreased from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to 30 confirmed cases in 2022, confined to just three countries. In rare cases, the traditional OPV was able to revert to a virulent form. An improved oral vaccine with greater genetic stability (nOPV2) was developed and granted full licensure and prequalification by the World Health Organization in December 2023.
== Signs and symptoms ==
The term "poliomyelitis" is used to identify the disease caused by any of the three serotypes of poliovirus. Two basic patterns of polio infection are described: a minor illness that does not involve the central nervous system (CNS), sometimes called abortive poliomyelitis, and a major illness involving the CNS, which may be paralytic or nonparalytic. Adults are more likely to develop symptoms, including severe symptoms, than children.
In most people with a normal immune system, a poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. In about 25% of cases, the infection produces minor symptoms which may include sore throat and low fever. These symptoms are temporary and full recovery occurs within one or two weeks.
In about 1 percent of infections the virus can migrate from the gastrointestinal tract into the central nervous system (CNS). Most patients with CNS involvement develop nonparalytic aseptic meningitis, with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting, stomach pain, lethargy, and irritability. About one to five in 1,000 cases progress to paralytic disease, in which the muscles become weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and, finally, completely paralyzed; this condition is known as acute flaccid paralysis. The weakness most often involves the legs, but may less commonly involve the muscles of the head, neck, and diaphragm. Depending on the site of paralysis, paralytic poliomyelitis is classified as spinal, bulbar, or bulbospinal. In those who develop paralysis, between 2 and 10 percent die as the paralysis affects the breathing muscles.
Encephalitis, an infection of the brain tissue itself, can occur in rare cases, and is usually restricted to infants. It is characterized by confusion, changes in mental status, headaches, fever, and, less commonly, seizures and spastic paralysis.
== Etymology ==
The term poliomyelitis derives from the Ancient Greek poliós (πολιός), meaning "grey", myelós (µυελός "marrow"), referring to the grey matter of the spinal cord, and the suffix -itis, which denotes inflammation, i.e., inflammation of the spinal cord's grey matter. The word was first used in 1874 and is attributed to the German physician Adolf Kussmaul. The first recorded use of the abbreviated version polio was in the Indianapolis Star in 1911.
== Cause ==
Poliomyelitis does not affect any species other than humans. The disease is caused by infection with a member of the genus Enterovirus known as poliovirus (PV). This group of RNA viruses colonize the gastrointestinal tract – specifically the oropharynx and the intestine. Its structure is quite simple, composed of a single (+) sense RNA genome enclosed in a protein shell called a capsid. In addition to protecting the virus' genetic material, the capsid proteins enable poliovirus to infect certain types of cells. Three serotypes of poliovirus have been identified – wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1), type 2 (WPV2), and type 3 (WPV3) – each with a slightly different capsid protein. All three are extremely virulent and produce the same disease symptoms. WPV1 is the most commonly encountered form, and the one most closely associated with paralysis. WPV2 was certified as eradicated in 2015 and WPV3 certified as eradicated in 2019.
The incubation period (from exposure to the first signs and symptoms) ranges from three to six days for nonparalytic polio. If the disease progresses to cause paralysis, this occurs within 7 to 21 days.
Individuals who are exposed to the virus, either through infection or by immunization via polio vaccine, develop immunity. In immune individuals, IgA antibodies against poliovirus are present in the tonsils and gastrointestinal tract and able to block virus replication; IgG and IgM antibodies against PV can prevent the spread of the virus to motor neurons of the central nervous system. Infection or vaccination with one serotype of poliovirus does not provide immunity against the other serotypes, and full immunity requires exposure to each serotype.
A rare condition with a similar presentation, nonpoliovirus poliomyelitis, may result from infections with enteroviruses other than poliovirus.
The oral polio vaccine, which has been in use since 1961, contains weakened viruses that can replicate. On rare occasions, these may be transmitted from the vaccinated person to other people; in communities with good vaccine coverage, transmission is limited, and the virus dies out. In communities with low vaccine coverage, this weakened virus may continue to circulate and, over time may mutate and revert to a virulent form. Polio arising from this cause is referred to as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) or variant poliovirus in order to distinguish it from the natural or "wild" poliovirus (WPV).
=== Transmission ===
Poliomyelitis is highly contagious. The disease is transmitted primarily via the fecal–oral route, by ingesting contaminated food or water. It is occasionally transmitted via the oral–oral route. It is seasonal in temperate climates, with peak transmission occurring in summer and autumn. These seasonal differences are far less pronounced in tropical areas. Polio is most infectious between 7 and 10 days before and after the appearance of symptoms, but transmission is possible as long as the virus remains in the saliva or feces. Virus particles can be excreted in the feces for up to six weeks.
Factors that increase the risk of polio infection include pregnancy, being very old or very young, immune deficiency, and malnutrition. Although the virus can cross the maternal-fetal barrier during pregnancy, the fetus does not appear to be affected by either maternal infection or polio vaccination. Maternal antibodies also cross the placenta, providing passive immunity that protects the infant from polio infection during the first few months of life.
== Pathophysiology ==
Poliovirus enters the body through the mouth, infecting the first cells with which it comes in contact – the pharynx and intestinal mucosa. It gains entry by binding to an immunoglobulin-like receptor, known as the poliovirus receptor or CD155, on the cell membrane. The virus then hijacks the host cell's own machinery, and begins to replicate. Poliovirus divides within gastrointestinal cells for about a week, from where it spreads to the tonsils (specifically the follicular dendritic cells residing within the tonsilar germinal centers), the intestinal lymphoid tissue including the M cells of Peyer's patches, and the deep cervical and mesenteric lymph nodes, where it multiplies abundantly. The virus is subsequently absorbed into the bloodstream.
Known as viremia, the presence of a virus in the bloodstream enables it to be widely distributed throughout the body. Poliovirus can survive and multiply within the blood and lymphatics for long periods of time, sometimes as long as 17 weeks. In a small percentage of cases, it can spread and replicate in other sites, such as brown fat, the reticuloendothelial tissues, and muscle. This sustained replication causes a major viremia, and leads to the development of minor influenza-like symptoms. Rarely, this may progress and the virus may invade the central nervous system, provoking a local inflammatory response. In most cases, this causes a self-limiting inflammation of the meninges, the layers of tissue surrounding the brain, which is known as nonparalytic aseptic meningitis. Penetration of the CNS provides no known benefit to the virus, and is quite possibly an incidental deviation of a normal gastrointestinal infection. The mechanisms by which poliovirus spreads to the CNS are poorly understood, but it appears to be primarily a chance event – largely independent of the age, gender, or socioeconomic position of the individual.
=== Paralytic polio ===
In around one percent of infections, poliovirus spreads along certain nerve fiber pathways, preferentially replicating in and destroying motor neurons within the spinal cord, brain stem, or motor cortex. This leads to the development of paralytic poliomyelitis, the various forms of which (spinal, bulbar, and bulbospinal) vary only with the amount of neuronal damage and inflammation that occurs, and the region of the CNS affected.
The destruction of neuronal cells produces lesions within the spinal ganglia; these may also occur in the reticular formation, vestibular nuclei, cerebellar vermis, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Inflammation associated with nerve cell destruction often alters the color and appearance of the gray matter in the spinal column, causing it to appear reddish and swollen. Other destructive changes associated with paralytic disease occur in the forebrain region, specifically the hypothalamus and thalamus.
Early symptoms of paralytic polio include high fever, headache, stiffness in the back and neck, asymmetrical weakness of various muscles, sensitivity to touch, difficulty swallowing, muscle pain, loss of superficial and deep reflexes, paresthesia (pins and needles), irritability, constipation, or difficulty urinating. Paralysis generally develops one to ten days after early symptoms begin, progresses for two to three days, and is usually complete by the time the fever breaks.
The likelihood of developing paralytic polio increases with age, as does the extent of paralysis. In children, nonparalytic meningitis is the most likely consequence of CNS involvement, and paralysis occurs in only one in 1000 cases. In adults, paralysis occurs in one in 75 cases. In children under five years of age, paralysis of one leg is most common; in adults, extensive paralysis of the chest and abdomen also affecting all four limbs – quadriplegia – is more likely. Paralysis rates also vary depending on the serotype of the infecting poliovirus; the highest rates of paralysis (one in 200) are associated with poliovirus type 1, the lowest rates (one in 2,000) are associated with type 2.
==== Spinal polio ====
Spinal polio, the most common form of paralytic poliomyelitis, results from viral invasion of the motor neurons of the anterior horn cells, or the ventral (front) grey matter section in the spinal column, which are responsible for movement of the muscles, including those of the trunk, limbs, and the intercostal muscles. Virus invasion causes inflammation of the nerve cells, leading to damage or destruction of motor neuron ganglia. When spinal neurons die, Wallerian degeneration takes place, leading to weakness of those muscles formerly innervated by the now-dead neurons. With the destruction of nerve cells, the muscles no longer receive signals from the brain or spinal cord; without nerve stimulation, the muscles atrophy, becoming weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and finally completely paralyzed. Maximum paralysis progresses rapidly (two to four days), and usually involves fever and muscle pain. Deep tendon reflexes are also affected, and are typically absent or diminished; sensation (the ability to feel) in the paralyzed limbs, however, is not affected.
The extent of spinal paralysis depends on the region of the cord affected, which may be cervical, thoracic, or lumbar. The virus may affect muscles on both sides of the body, but more often the paralysis is asymmetrical. Any limb or combination of limbs may be affected – one leg, one arm, or both legs and both arms. Paralysis is often more severe proximally (where the limb joins the body) than distally (the fingertips and toes).
==== Bulbar polio ====
Making up about two percent of cases of paralytic polio, bulbar polio occurs when poliovirus invades and destroys nerves within the bulbar region of the brain stem. The bulbar region is a white matter pathway that connects the cerebral cortex to the brain stem. The destruction of these nerves weakens the muscles supplied by the cranial nerves, producing symptoms of encephalitis, and causes difficulty breathing, speaking and swallowing. Critical nerves affected are the glossopharyngeal nerve (which partially controls swallowing and functions in the throat, tongue movement, and taste), the vagus nerve (which sends signals to the heart, intestines, and lungs), and the accessory nerve (which controls upper neck movement). Due to the effect on swallowing, secretions of mucus may build up in the airway, causing suffocation. Other signs and symptoms include facial weakness (caused by destruction of the trigeminal nerve and facial nerve, which innervate the cheeks, tear ducts, gums, and muscles of the face, among other structures), double vision, difficulty in chewing, and abnormal respiratory rate, depth, and rhythm (which may lead to respiratory arrest). Pulmonary edema and shock are also possible and may be fatal.
==== Bulbospinal polio ====
Approximately 19 percent of all paralytic polio cases have both bulbar and spinal symptoms; this subtype is called respiratory or bulbospinal polio. Here, the virus affects the upper part of the cervical spinal cord (cervical vertebrae C3 through C5), and paralysis of the diaphragm occurs. The critical nerves affected are the phrenic nerve (which drives the diaphragm to inflate the lungs) and those that drive the muscles needed for swallowing. By destroying these nerves, this form of polio affects breathing, making it difficult or impossible for the patient to breathe without the support of a ventilator. It can lead to paralysis of the arms and legs and may also affect swallowing and heart functions.
== Diagnosis ==
Paralytic poliomyelitis may be clinically suspected in individuals experiencing acute onset of flaccid paralysis in one or more limbs with decreased or absent tendon reflexes in the affected limbs that cannot be attributed to another apparent cause, and without sensory or cognitive loss.
A laboratory diagnosis is usually made based on the recovery of poliovirus from a stool sample or a swab of the pharynx. Rarely, it may be possible to identify poliovirus in the blood or in the cerebrospinal fluid. Poliovirus samples are further analysed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or genomic sequencing to determine the serotype (i.e., 1, 2, or 3), and whether the virus is a wild or vaccine-derived strain.
== Prevention ==
=== Passive immunization ===
In 1950, William Hammon at the University of Pittsburgh purified the gamma globulin component of the blood plasma of polio survivors. Hammon proposed the gamma globulin, which contained antibodies to poliovirus, could be used to halt poliovirus infection, prevent disease, and reduce the severity of disease in other patients who had contracted polio. The results of a large clinical trial were promising; the gamma globulin was shown to be about 80 percent effective in preventing the development of paralytic poliomyelitis. It was also shown to reduce the severity of the disease in patients who developed polio. Due to the limited supply of blood plasma gamma globulin was later deemed impractical for widespread use and the medical community focused on the development of a polio vaccine.
=== Vaccine ===
Two types of vaccine are used throughout the world to combat polio: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection, and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth. Both types induce immunity to polio and are effective in protecting individuals from disease.
The inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk at the University of Pittsburgh, and announced to the world on 12 April 1955. The Salk vaccine is based on poliovirus grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture (vero cell line), which is chemically inactivated with formalin. After two doses of IPV (given by injection), 90 percent or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of poliovirus, and at least 99 percent are immune to poliovirus following three doses.
Subsequently, Albert Sabin developed a polio vaccine that can be administered orally (oral polio vaccine - OPV), comprising a live, attenuated virus. It was produced by the repeated passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at subphysiological temperatures. The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of wild poliovirus infection and replication, but the vaccine strain is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue. A single dose of Sabin's trivalent OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in about 50 percent of recipients. Three doses of OPV produce protective antibody to all three poliovirus types in more than 95 percent of recipients. Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957, and in 1958, it was selected, in competition with the live attenuated vaccines of Koprowski and other researchers, by the US National Institutes of Health. Licensed in 1962, it rapidly became the only oral polio vaccine used worldwide.
OPV efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus by oral–oral and fecal–oral routes, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community. The live attenuated virus may be transmitted from vaccinees to their unvaccinated contacts, resulting in wider community immunity. IPV confers good immunity but is less effective at preventing spread of wild poliovirus by the fecal–oral route.
Because the oral polio vaccine is inexpensive, easy to administer, and produces excellent immunity in the intestine (which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where it is endemic), it has been the vaccine of choice for controlling poliomyelitis in many countries. On very rare occasions, the attenuated virus in the Sabin OPV can revert into a form that can paralyze. In 2017, cases caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outnumbered wild poliovirus cases for the first time, due to wild polio cases hitting record lows. Most industrialized countries have switched to inactivated polio vaccine, which cannot revert, either as the sole vaccine against poliomyelitis or in combination with oral polio vaccine.
An improved oral vaccine (Novel oral polio vaccine type 2 - nOPV2) began development in 2011 and was granted emergency licensing in 2021, and subsequently full licensure in December 2023. This has greater genetic stability than the traditional oral vaccine and is less likely to revert to a virulent form.
== Treatment ==
There is no cure for polio, but there are treatments. The focus of modern treatment has been on providing relief of symptoms, speeding recovery and preventing complications. Supportive measures include antibiotics to prevent infections in weakened muscles, analgesics for pain, moderate exercise and a nutritious diet. Treatment of polio often requires long-term rehabilitation, including occupational therapy, physical therapy, braces, corrective shoes and, in some cases, orthopedic surgery.
Portable ventilators may be required to support breathing. Historically, a noninvasive, negative-pressure ventilator, more commonly called an iron lung, was used to artificially maintain respiration during an acute polio infection until a person could breathe independently (generally about one to two weeks). The use of iron lungs is largely obsolete in modern medicine as more modern breathing therapies have been developed and due to the eradication of polio in most of the world.
Other historical treatments for polio include hydrotherapy, electrotherapy, massage and passive motion exercises, and surgical treatments, such as tendon lengthening and nerve grafting.
== Prognosis ==
Patients with abortive polio infections recover completely. In those who develop only aseptic meningitis, the symptoms can be expected to persist for two to ten days, followed by complete recovery. In cases of spinal polio, if the affected nerve cells are completely destroyed, paralysis will be permanent; cells that are not destroyed, but lose function temporarily, may recover within four to six weeks after onset. Half the patients with spinal polio recover fully; one-quarter recover with mild disability, and the remaining quarter are left with severe disability. The degree of both acute paralysis and residual paralysis is likely to be proportional to the degree of viremia, and inversely proportional to the degree of immunity. Spinal polio is rarely fatal.
Without respiratory support, consequences of poliomyelitis with respiratory involvement include suffocation or pneumonia from aspiration of secretions. Overall, 5 to 10 percent of patients with paralytic polio die due to the paralysis of muscles used for breathing. The case fatality rate (CFR) varies by age: 2 to 5 percent of children and up to 15 to 30 percent of adults die. Bulbar polio often causes death if respiratory support is not provided; with support, its CFR ranges from 25 to 75 percent, depending on the age of the patient. When intermittent positive pressure ventilation is available, the fatalities can be reduced to 15 percent.
=== Recovery ===
Many cases of poliomyelitis result in only temporary paralysis. Generally in these cases, nerve impulses return to the paralyzed muscle within a month, and recovery is complete in six to eight months. The neurophysiological processes involved in recovery following acute paralytic poliomyelitis are quite effective; muscles are able to retain normal strength even if half the original motor neurons have been lost. Paralysis remaining after one year is likely to be permanent, although some recovery of muscle strength is possible up to 18 months after infection.
One mechanism involved in recovery is nerve terminal sprouting, in which remaining brainstem and spinal cord motor neurons develop new branches, or axonal sprouts. These sprouts can reinnervate orphaned muscle fibers that have been denervated by acute polio infection, restoring the fibers' capacity to contract and improving strength. Terminal sprouting may generate a few significantly enlarged motor neurons doing work previously performed by as many as four or five units: a single motor neuron that once controlled 200 muscle cells might control 800 to 1000 cells. Other mechanisms that occur during the rehabilitation phase, and contribute to muscle strength restoration, include myofiber hypertrophy – enlargement of muscle fibers through exercise and activity – and transformation of type II muscle fibers to type I muscle fibers.
In addition to these physiological processes, the body can compensate for residual paralysis in other ways. Weaker muscles can be used at a higher than usual intensity relative to the muscle's maximal capacity, little-used muscles can be developed, and ligaments can enable stability and mobility.
=== Complications ===
Residual complications of paralytic polio often occur following the initial recovery process. Muscle paresis and paralysis can sometimes result in skeletal deformities, tightening of the joints, and movement disability. Once the muscles in the limb become flaccid, they may interfere with the function of other muscles. A typical manifestation of this problem is equinus foot (similar to club foot). This deformity develops when the muscles that pull the toes downward are working, but those that pull it upward are not, and the foot naturally tends to drop toward the ground. If the problem is left untreated, the Achilles tendons at the back of the foot retract and the foot cannot take on a normal position. People with polio that develop equinus foot cannot walk properly because they cannot put their heels on the ground. A similar situation can develop if the arms become paralyzed.
In some cases the growth of an affected leg is slowed by polio, while the other leg continues to grow normally. The result is that one leg is shorter than the other and the person limps and leans to one side, in turn leading to deformities of the spine (such as scoliosis). Osteoporosis and increased likelihood of bone fractures may occur. An intervention to prevent or lessen length disparity can be to perform an epiphysiodesis on the distal femoral and proximal tibial/fibular condyles, so that limb's growth is artificially stunted, and by the time of epiphyseal (growth) plate closure, the legs are more equal in length. Alternatively, a person can be fitted with custom-made footwear which corrects the difference in leg lengths. Other surgery to re-balance muscular agonist/antagonist imbalances may also be helpful. Extended use of braces or wheelchairs may cause compression neuropathy, as well as a loss of proper function of the veins in the legs, due to pooling of blood in paralyzed lower limbs. Complications from prolonged immobility involving the lungs, kidneys and heart include pulmonary edema, aspiration pneumonia, urinary tract infections, kidney stones, paralytic ileus, myocarditis and cor pulmonale.
=== Post-polio syndrome ===
Between 25 percent and 50 percent of individuals who have recovered from paralytic polio in childhood can develop additional symptoms decades after recovering from the acute infection, notably new muscle weakness and extreme fatigue. This condition is known as post-polio syndrome (PPS) or post-polio sequelae. The symptoms of PPS are thought to involve a failure of the oversized motor units created during the recovery phase of the paralytic disease. Contributing factors that increase the risk of PPS include aging with loss of neuron units, the presence of a permanent residual impairment after recovery from the acute illness, and both overuse and disuse of neurons. PPS is a slow, progressive disease, and there is no specific treatment for it. Post-polio syndrome is not an infectious process, and persons experiencing the syndrome do not shed poliovirus.
== Orthotics ==
Paralysis, length differences and deformations of the lower extremities can lead to a hindrance when walking with compensation mechanisms that lead to a severe impairment of the gait pattern. In order to be able to stand and walk safely and to improve the gait pattern, orthotics can be included in the therapy concept. Today, modern materials and functional elements enable the orthosis to be specifically adapted to the requirements resulting from the patient's gait. Mechanical stance phase control knee joints may secure the knee joint in the early stance phases and release again for knee flexion when the swing phase is initiated. With the help of an orthotic treatment with a stance phase control knee joint, a natural gait pattern can be achieved despite mechanical protection against unwanted knee flexion. In these cases, locked knee joints are often used, which have a good safety function, but do not allow knee flexion when walking during swing phase. With such joints, the knee joint remains mechanically blocked during the swing phase. Patients with locked knee joints must swing the leg forward with the knee extended even during the swing phase. This only works if the patient develops compensatory mechanisms, e.g. by raising the body's center of gravity in the swing phase (Duchenne limping) or by swinging the orthotic leg to the side (circumduction).
== Epidemiology ==
Major polio epidemics were unknown before the 20th century; up until that time, polio was an endemic disease worldwide. Mothers who had survived polio infection passed on temporary immunity to their babies in the womb and through breast milk. As a result, an infant who encountered a polio infection generally suffered only mild symptoms and acquired a long-term immunity to the disease. With improvements in sanitation and hygiene during the 19th century, the general level of herd immunity in the population declined; this provided circumstances where epidemics of polio became frequent. It is estimated that epidemic polio killed or paralysed over half a million people every year.
Following the widespread use of poliovirus vaccine in the mid-1950s, new cases of poliomyelitis declined dramatically in many industrialized countries. Efforts to completely eradicate the disease started in 1988 and are ongoing.
=== Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses ===
The oral polio vaccine, while highly effective, has the disadvantage that it contains a live virus which has been attenuated so that it cannot cause severe illness. The vaccine virus is excreted in the stool, and in under-immunized communities it can spread from person to person. This is known as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) or more simply as variant poliovirus.
With prolonged transmission of this kind, the weakened virus can mutate and revert to a form that causes illness and paralysis. Cases of cVDPV now exceed wild-type cases, making it desirable to discontinue the use of the oral polio vaccine as soon as safely possible and instead use other types of polio vaccines.
=== Eradication ===
A global effort to eradicate polio – the Global Polio Eradication Initiative – began in 1988, led by the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and The Rotary Foundation. Polio is one of only two diseases currently the subject of a global eradication program, the other being Guinea worm disease. So far, the only diseases completely eradicated by humankind are smallpox, declared eradicated in 1980, and rinderpest, declared eradicated in 2011. In April 2012, the World Health Assembly declared that the failure to completely eradicate polio would be a programmatic emergency for global public health, and that it "must not happen".
These efforts have hugely reduced the number of cases; from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to a low of 483 cases in 2001, after which it remained at a level of about 1,000–2000 cases per year for a number of years.
By 2015, polio was believed to remain naturally spreading in only two countries, Pakistan and Afghanistan, although it continued to cause outbreaks in other nearby countries due to hidden or re-established transmission.
Global surveillance for polio takes two forms. Cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) are tested for the presence and type of poliovirus. In addition, environmental and wastewater samples are tested for the presence of poliovirus - this is an effective method of detecting circulating virus which has not given rise to severe symptoms. Here is a summary of both wild polio (WPV) and variant polio (cVDPV) prevalence over the years shown:
2019 - 147 cases of WPV1 in Pakistan, and 29 cases in Afghanistan. None were reported elsewhere in the world. cVDPV was detected in 19 countries with 378 confirmed cases.
2020 - 84 WPV1 cases in Pakistan, 56 in Afghanistan. 32 countries reported cVDPV detection, and there were 1,103 cVDPV cases.
In 2021, there were just six confirmed cases of wild poliovirus — one in Pakistan, four in Afghanistan, and one in Malawi. The case in Malawi, the country's first in almost three decades and the first in Africa in five years, was seen as a significant setback to the eradication effort. 23 countries detected cVDPV, with 698 cases.
In 2022, there were 30 confirmed cases of WPV1 reported to WHO, with two cases in Pakistan and 20 Afghanistan respectively, while eight non-endemic cases were recorded in Mozambique, the first cases in the country since 1992. The Mozambique cases derived from the strain of Pakistani origin that caused two confirmed cases in Malawi in 2021. 24 countries detected cVDPV, with 881 cases.
In 2023, twelve cases of WPV1 were reported, six each in Afghanistan and Pakistan. 32 countries reported cVDPV, with 524 cases.
==== Afghanistan and Pakistan ====
The last remaining region with wild polio cases are the South Asian countries Afghanistan and Pakistan.
During 2011, the CIA ran a fake hepatitis vaccination clinic in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in an attempt to locate Osama bin Laden. This destroyed trust in vaccination programs in the region. There were attacks and deaths among vaccination workers; 66 vaccinators were killed in 2013 and 2014. In Afghanistan, the Taliban banned house-to-house polio vaccination between 2018 and 2021. These factors have set back efforts to eliminate polio by means of vaccination in these countries.
In Afghanistan, 80 cases of polio were reported from 35 districts during 2011. Incidence over the subsequent 10 years has declined to just 4 cases in 2 districts during 2021.
In Pakistan, cases dropped by 97 percent from 2014 to 2018; reasons include 440 million dirham support from the United Arab Emirates to vaccinate more than ten million children, changes in the military situation, and arrests of some of those who attacked polio workers.
==== Americas ====
The Americas were declared polio-free in 1994. The last known case was a boy in Peru in 1991. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends polio vaccination boosters for travelers and those who live in countries where the disease is endemic.
In July 2022, the US state of New York reported a polio case for the first time in almost a decade in the country; this was attributed to a vaccine-derived strain of the virus.
==== Western Pacific ====
In 2000, polio was declared to have been officially eliminated in 37 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia.
Despite eradication ten years earlier, an outbreak was confirmed in China in September 2011, involving a strain common in Pakistan.
In September 2019, the Department of Health of the Philippines declared a polio outbreak in the country after a single case in a 3-year-old girl. In December 2019, acute poliomyelitis was confirmed in an infant in Sabah state, Borneo, Malaysia. Subsequently, a further three polio cases were reported, with the last case reported in January 2020. Both outbreaks were found to be linked instances of vaccine-derived poliomyelitis.
==== Europe ====
Europe was declared polio-free in 2002.
==== Southeast Asia ====
On 27 March 2014, the WHO announced the eradication of poliomyelitis in the South-East Asia Region, which includes eleven countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, North Korea, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Timor-Leste. With the addition of this region, 80 per cent of the world population was considered to be living in polio-free regions.
==== Middle East ====
As of January 2023, Syria is considered a polio-free country, but it remains at high risk for imported outbreaks. Difficulties in executing immunization programs in the ongoing civil war led to a return of wild polio in 2012–2013 15 cases were confirmed among children in Syria between October and November 2013 in Deir Ezzor. Later, two more cases, one each in rural Damascus and Aleppo, were identified. A vaccination campaign in Syria operated under gunfire and led to the deaths of several vaccinators, but returned vaccination coverage to pre-war levels. Another outbreak in 2017 was caused by circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2). Both outbreaks were successfully contained through intensive vaccination campaigns and surveillance efforts.
In 2022, prior to the Israel-Hamas conflict, routine immunization coverage of eligible children exceeded 99%, but fell to less than 90% by the first quarter of 2024, according to the WHO. In 2024, the Gaza Health Ministry reported that several children have shown symptoms consistent with polio, with laboratory tests confirming that a 10-month-old child is infected with the virus. United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres urged for a weeklong cease-fire in Gaza to facilitate vaccinations and prevent a potential polio outbreak, emphasizing the risk faced by many children.
==== Africa ====
In 2003, in northern Nigeria – a country that at that time was considered provisionally polio free – a fatwa was issued declaring that the polio vaccine was designed to render children sterile. Subsequently, polio reappeared in Nigeria and spread from there to several other countries. In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was the only attack. Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to revive the campaign, and Nigeria was removed from the polio-endemic list in September 2015 after more than a year without any cases, only to be restored to the list in 2016 when two cases were detected.
Africa was declared free of wild polio in August 2020, although cases of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 continue to appear in several countries.
A single case of wild polio that was detected in Malawi in February 2022, and another in Mozambique in May 2022 were both of a strain imported from Pakistan and do not affect the African region's wild poliovirus-free certification status.
== History ==
The effects of polio have been known since prehistory; Egyptian paintings and carvings depict otherwise healthy people with withered limbs, and young children walking with canes. The earliest known case of polio is indicated by the remains of a teenage girl discovered in a 4000-year-old burial site in the United Arab Emirates, exhibiting characteristic symptoms of the condition.
The first clinical description was provided by the English physician Michael Underwood in 1789, where he refers to polio as "a debility of the lower extremities". The work of physicians Jakob Heine in 1840 and Karl Oskar Medin in 1890 led to it being known as Heine–Medin disease. The disease was later called infantile paralysis, based on its propensity to affect children.
Before the 20th century, polio infections were rarely seen in infants before six months of age, most cases occurring in children six months to four years of age. Poorer sanitation of the time resulted in constant exposure to the virus, which enhanced a natural immunity within the population. In developed countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, improvements were made in community sanitation, including better sewage disposal and clean water supplies. These changes drastically increased the proportion of children and adults at risk of paralytic polio infection, by reducing childhood exposure and immunity to the disease.
Small localized paralytic polio epidemics began to appear in Europe and the United States around 1900. Outbreaks reached pandemic proportions in Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand during the first half of the 20th century. By 1950, the peak age incidence of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States had shifted from infants to children aged five to nine years, when the risk of paralysis is greater; about one-third of the cases were reported in persons over 15 years of age. Accordingly, the rate of paralysis and death due to polio infection also increased during this time. In the United States, the 1952 polio epidemic became the worst outbreak in the nation's history. Of the nearly 58,000 cases reported that year, 3,145 died and 21,269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis. Intensive care medicine has its origin in the fight against polio. Most hospitals in the 1950s had limited access to iron lungs for patients unable to breathe without mechanical assistance. Respiratory centers designed to assist the most severe polio patients, first established in 1952 at the Blegdam Hospital of Copenhagen by Danish anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen, were the precursors of modern intensive care units (ICU). (A year later, Ibsen would establish the world's first dedicated ICU.)
The polio epidemics not only altered the lives of those who survived them, but also brought profound cultural changes, spurring grassroots fund-raising campaigns that would revolutionize medical philanthropy, and giving rise to the modern field of rehabilitation therapy. As one of the largest disabled groups in the world, polio survivors also helped to advance the modern disability rights movement through campaigns for the social and civil rights of the disabled. The World Health Organization estimates that there are 10 to 20 million polio survivors worldwide. In 1977, there were 254,000 persons living in the United States who had been paralyzed by polio. According to doctors and local polio support groups, some 40,000 polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis were living in Germany, 30,000 in Japan, 24,000 in France, 16,000 in Australia, 12,000 in Canada and 12,000 in the United Kingdom in 2001. Many notable individuals have survived polio and often credit the prolonged immobility and residual paralysis associated with polio as a driving force in their lives and careers.
The disease was very well publicized during the polio epidemics of the 1950s, with extensive media coverage of any scientific advancements that might lead to a cure. Thus, the scientists working on polio became some of the most famous of the century. Fifteen scientists and two laymen who made important contributions to the knowledge and treatment of poliomyelitis are honored by the Polio Hall of Fame, which was dedicated in 1957 at the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation in Warm Springs, Georgia, US. In 2008 four organizations (Rotary International, the World Health Organization, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and UNICEF) were added to the Hall of Fame.
World Polio Day (24 October) as an annual day of awareness was established by Rotary International to commemorate the birth of Jonas Salk, who led the first team to develop a vaccine against poliomyelitis.
A global effort to eradicate polio – the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) – began in 1988, led by the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and The Rotary Foundation. Since then, international cooperation led by GPEI has reduced polio worldwide by 99 percent, and the campaign is ongoing.
In 2010, wild poliovirus was discovered through importation in 13 different countries. They were Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Kazakhstan, Liberia, Mali, Nepal, Niger, the Russian Federation, Senegal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uganda.
In 2021, Types 2 and 3 were fully eradicated from every country; however, type 1 cases still remain in Pakistan and Afghanistan. A majority of countries have successfully eradicated polio, with Pakistan and Afghanistan being the last countries with endemic cases of poliovirus. The following countries have been considered polio-free, but not confirmed as of April 2024: Somalia, Djibouti, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Yemen, the UAE, Iraq, Kuwait, and Iran.
== Research ==
Since 2018, Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) has coordinated efforts both to eliminate polio and to research means of improving surveillance and prevention. At the peak of its work, the programme directly employed 4000 people across 75 countries and managed a budget of nearly U.S. $1 billion.
As of 2021, the GPEI had raised 18 billion dollars in funding, with annual contributions around 800 million to 1 billion dollars. Around 30% of the funding came from the Gates Foundation 30% from developed governments, 27% from countries at risk of polio, and the rest was made up of donations from nonprofits, private funders, and other foundations.
The GPEI has identified six directions for continuing research:
Optimizing oral polio vaccine efficacy
Developing affordable inactivated polio vaccine
Managing risks associated with vaccine-derived polioviruses and vaccine-associated paralytic polio (including OPV cessation)
Antivirals
Polio diagnostics
Surveillance research
Even if polio can be eliminated from the world population, vaccination programs should continue for at least ten years. The retention of live poliovirus samples in laboratories and vaccine manufacturing facilities (which carry a risk of escape of the virus) should progressively be reduced. To support these two objectives, vaccines are under development which either utilise a virus-like particle, or which derive from a modified virus which cannot reproduce in a human host.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Benison, Saul. “The Enigma of Poliomyelitis: 1910,” in Freedom and Reform: Essays in Honor of Henry Steele Commager, ed. Harold Hyman, (1967).
Benison, Saul. “The History of Polio Research in the United States: Appraisal and Lessons,” in The Twentieth Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas, ed. Gerald Holton, (1972).
Black, Kathryn. In the shadow of polio : a personal and social history (1996) online
Gould, Tony (1995). A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors. London: Yale University Press.
Hecht, Alan, and I. Edward Alcamo. Polio (2003) online copy, for middle schools
Kluger Jefferey (2004). Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0-399-15216-0.
Oshinsky DM (2005). Polio: An American story. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515294-4., a major scholarly history.
Rai, Anushree, et al. "Polio returns to the USA: An epidemiological alert." Annals of Medicine and Surgery 82 (2022). online
Shaffer MM, Bernard S (2005). The death of a disease: a history of the eradication of poliomyelitis. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3677-4.
Shell M (2005). Polio and its aftermath: the paralysis of culture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01315-5. polio.
Wilson DJ (2005). Living with polio: the epidemic and its survivors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90103-9.
Wilson DJ, Silver J (2007). Polio voices: an oral history from the American polio epidemics and worldwide eradication efforts. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-99492-1.
Zimmermann, Jonas. "War on Disease: Polio Eradication in the United States." Historia. scriber 15 (2023): 263-280. online
== External links ==
Media related to Polio at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Polio at Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of polio at Wiktionary |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasto_de_Buenos_Aires | Abasto de Buenos Aires | The Abasto Shopping is one of the biggest shopping mall centers in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The building was the central wholesale fruit and vegetable market in the city ("Mercado de Abasto") from 1893 to 1984. Since 1999, it has served as a shopping mall. It is also famous for being in the area where the tango singer Carlos Gardel, known as El Morocho del Abasto ("the dark-haired guy from Abasto"), lived for most of his life. Today, the surrounding area, though part of the Balvanera neighbourhood, is sometimes referred to as Abasto.
The Abasto Shopping centre is served by the adjoining underground station Carlos Gardel of line B metro (subte).
== History ==
By the end of the 19th century, the city of Buenos Aires was expanding rapidly due to the influx of migrants from various European countries. Because of the demographic change, and the demolition of the Mercado Modelo market near the Plaza Lorea, the Devoto brothers on August 16, 1888, proposed the construction of a supply market on the land they acquired in 1875 in the Balvanera neighbourhood. The land was near the Sarmiento railway and halfway between La Boca and Olivos, two zones of fruit and vegetable production.
The town hall accepted the proposal on November 29 of that year, and passed it on to the Deliberating Council, who sanctioned it on January 8, 1889, in an ordinance approving the construction of the Mercado Central de Abasto ("Central Supply Market") on the 25,000 m² plot of land between Corrientes Avenue, Lavalle, Anchorena and Laprida streets. The municipality allowed the Abasto market to become wholesalers of fruit, vegetables and other foodstuffs, but forbade the sale of meat.
The old marketeers of the Mercado Modelo associated and founded in 1889 the Sociedad Anónima Mercado de Abasto Proveedor ("Market Supply Provider Anonymous Society"), which bought from the Devoto brothers the land and the concession to build the Mercado de Abasto. The construction of the building started shortly after the sale had been approved by mayor Francisco Seeber, and the first section was inaugurated on April 1 of 1893, with a covered area of 1,300 m².
Ten years later a refrigerated storage and an ice factory were opened, to satisfy the city's hygiene standards of the times. Since the population, and with it consumer demand, was steadily growing, it was necessary to construct a parking area for horses and vehicles. In 1928 an annex for retail sale was built between Guardia Vieja, Lavalle, Gallo and Bustamante streets.
Consumer demand again led to the overcrowding of the markets of the city, so architects José Luis Delpini, Viktor Sulčič and Raúl Bes designed a new market in the location of the Abasto market. Work started on December 28 of 1931 with the foundations and finished in 1934. The new Mercado de Abasto had an area of 44,000 m2 (473,612 sq ft), railway access and underground parking. In 1939, the sale of meat and fish was allowed.
On October 14, 1984, the central market was moved to the present Mercado Central, location, outside the city of Buenos Aires, and the Abasto of Buenos Aires was closed and left abandoned. It was not until the mid-1990s that a project was proposed for turning the Abasto into a shopping mall. In 1996 the building was sold to "Inversiones y Representaciones Sociedad Anónima" (IRSA), which restored the facade and remodeled and restored its interior. Abasto Shopping Centre was opened in 1999, and currently houses many locally known brands like Akiabara, Cuesta Blanca, and Sarkany. A limited number of foreign brands can also be found such as Adidas, Lacoste and Nike
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Abasto Shopping Pics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavino_Angius#:~:text=Confirmed%20as%20deputy%20in%201992,Italian%20Senate%20in%20May%202006. | Gavino Angius | Gavino Angius (born 18 November 1946) is an Italian politician.
== Biography ==
Born at Sassari (Sardinia), after the degree in Political Sciences, he became a member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), for which he was secretary of his city's section. He was elected for the first time at the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1987.
Angius initially opposed the transformation of PCI into the more Social democratic-oriented Democratic Party of the Left (PDS, later Democrats of the Left). However, he remained in the new party while becoming a national level figure, as well as collaborator to secretary Massimo D'Alema.
Confirmed as deputy in 1992 and 1994 for PDS, he was elected senator two years later. Elected again in 2001, he was named chief of the Democrats of the Left senators.
Angius became one of the vice-presidents of the Italian Senate in May 2006.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grete_Stern | Grete Stern | Grete Stern (9 May 1904 – 24 December 1999) was a German-Argentine photographer. Between April 1930 and March 1933, she studied at the Bauhaus. With her husband Horacio Coppola, she helped modernize the visual arts in Argentina, and presented the first exhibition of modern photographic art in Buenos Aires, in 1935.
== Early life ==
The daughter of Frida Hochberger and Louis Stern, Grete Stern was born on 9 May 1904 in Elberfeld, Germany. She often visited family in England and attended primary school there. After reaching adulthood, from 1923 to 1925 she studied graphic arts at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Stuttgart, but after a short term working in the field she was inspired by the photography of Edward Weston and Paul Outerbridge to change her focus to photography. Relocating to Berlin, she took private lessons from Walter Peterhans.
== Career ==
In 1930 Stern and Ellen Rosenberg Auerbach founded ringl+pit, a critically acclaimed, prize-winning Berlin based photography and design studio. They used equipment purchased from Peterhans and became well known for innovative work in advertising. The name ringl+pit is from their childhood nicknames (Ringl for Grete, Pit for Ellen).
Intermittently between April 1930 and March 1933, Stern continued her studies with Peterhans at the Bauhaus photography workshop in Dessau, where she met the Argentinian photographer Horacio Coppola. In 1933 the political climate of Nazi Germany led her to emigrate with her brother to England, where Stern set up a new studio, soon to resume her collaboration there with Auerbach.
Stern first traveled to Argentina in the company of her new husband, Horacio Coppola in 1935. The newlyweds mounted an exhibition in Buenos Aires at Sur magazine, which according to the magazine, was the first modern photography exhibition in Argentina. In 1958, she became a citizen of Argentina.
In 1948 Stern began working for Idilio, an illustrated women's magazine, targeted specifically at lower/lower-middle class women. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Stern created Los Sueños as illustrations for the woman's magazine Idilio and its column "El psicoanálisis te ayudará" (Psychoanalysis Will Help You). Readers were encouraged to submit their dreams to be analyzed by the 'experts' as an aid for its readers to find "self-knowledge and self-aid that would help them succeed in love, family and work". Each week, one dream would be selected, analyzed in depth by the expert, Richard Rest, and then illustrated by Stern through photomontage. Stern created about 150 of these photomontages, of which only 46 survive in negatives. Stern's photomontages are surreal interpretations of the readers' dreams that often subtly pushed back on the traditional values and concepts in Idilio magazine by inserting feminist critique of Argentinian gender roles and the psychoanalytic project in her images. The Idilio series has often been compared to Francisco Goya's Sueños drawings, a series of preliminary drawings for his later body of work, Los Caprichos; they have also been directly compared to Los Caprichos themselves.
Stern provided photographs for the magazine and served for a stint as a photography teacher in Resistencia at the National University of the Northeast in 1959 and continued to teach until 1985.
== Death ==
In 1985, she retired from photography, but lived another 14 years until 1999, dying in Buenos Aires on 24 December at the age of 95.
== Legacy ==
In 1995 documentarian Juan Mandelbaum made a documentary about Studio Ringl + Pit, which was reviewed in the New York Times In 2015 her work was the subject of an exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art called "From Bauhaus to Buenos Aires: Grete Stern and Horatio Coppola."
== Collections ==
Stern's work is held in the following permanent collections:
The Jewish Museum
The Museum of Modern Art
The Metropolitan Museum
The J. Paul Getty Museum
== See also ==
Women of the Bauhaus
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Thurman, Judith (19–26 December 2016). "Grete Stern". Visionaries. The New Yorker. Vol. 92, no. 42. p. 100.
Foster, David William. “Dreaming in Feminine: Grete Stern’s Photomontages and the Parody of Psychoanalysis” Ciberletras 10. 2004 http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/ciberletras/v10/foster.htm
Lavin, Maud. “Ringl + Pit: The Representation of Women in German Advertising, 1929–33 in The Print Collector's Newsletter, Vol 16, No. 3 (July – August 1985), pp. 89–93
Hopkinson, Amanda. "Grete Stern" obituary. The Guardian. January 18, 2000.
Marcoci, Roxana and Sarah Hermanson Meister, From Bauhaus to Buenos Aires: Grete Stern and Horacio Coppola. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2015.
Wieder, Christina. ‘Montages of exile. Photographic techniques and spatial dimensions in the artwork of Grete Stern.’ Jewish Culture and History 21, no.1 (2020): 42-65. DOI: 10.1080/1462169X.2020.1701846.
Roberts, Jodi. ‘A City in Dispute: Grete Stern’s Photographs of Buenos Aires, 1936-1956.’ Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 24, no.2 (2015): 123-152. https://doi-org.eux.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/13569325.2015.1040742.
Corrigan, Anna. ‘Laughter as Feminist Intervention in Grete Stern's Suenos,’ PhD Diss., Universidade NOVA de Lisboa (Portugal), 2016. ProQuest (30880494).
Laxton, Susan. ‘Psicofotografía: Grete Stern and the Administration of the Unconscious.' October, no.172 (2020): 35-67. https://doi-org.eux.idm.oclc.org/10.1162/octo_a_00392.
== External links ==
Almacen magazine
Proa foundation
Grete Stern works in MoMA's collection |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Carleton,_1st_Viscount_Dorchester | Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester | Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester (10 March 1573 – 15 February 1632) was an English art collector, diplomat and Secretary of State.
== Early life ==
He was the second son of Anthony Carleton of Brightwell Baldwin, Oxfordshire, and of Joyce Goodwin, daughter of John Goodwin of Winchendon, Buckinghamshire. He was born on 10 March 1573, and educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A, in 1595, M.A. in 1600. After graduating he took employment with Sir Edward Norreys at Ostend, as secretary. In 1598 he attended Francis Norreys, nephew of Sir Edward, on a diplomatic mission to Paris led by Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham. In 1603 he became secretary to Thomas Parry, ambassador in Paris, but left the position shortly, for one in the household of Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland.
Carleton was returned to the parliament of 1604 as member for St Mawes. As a parliamentarian, Carleton was an apologist for the court line in unpopular causes, as in the debate over the "Apology" of 1604.
Through his connection with the Earl of Northumberland, his name was associated with the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. Carleton was out of the country in November 1605; Francis Norreys (by now Earl of Berkshire) had gone to Spain earlier in the year with the Earl of Nottingham who was Ambassador in Madrid; and Carleton had accompanied him. Norreys fell ill in Paris on the journey home, and Carleton was in Paris when it was discovered that the plotters' house, adjacent to the vault that had contained the gunpowder under Parliament, had been sublet, by Thomas Percy in May 1604, by using the names of Carleton and another member of the Northumberland household. Summoned to return, Carleton was detained for a month, but was released through the influence of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury. Cecil in fact knew well enough that Carleton had been held up in Paris from September, from letters detailing the treatment of Norreys who was a political ally.
== Ambassador to the Venetian Republic ==
In 1610 he was knighted and sent as ambassador to Venice, where he was the means of concluding the Treaty of Asti. Much of his work was tied up with religious affairs. While there he sent the ex-Carmelite Giulio Cesare Vanini to England; he also helped Giacomo Castelvetro out the Inquisition's prison in 1611. For the king he commissioned in 1613 a report from Paolo Sarpi on the theology of Conrad Vorstius. On his staff were Isaac Wake, and Nathaniel Brent who would later smuggle Sarpi's history of the Council of Trent out for publication in London.
Carleton as a diplomat had a wide general correspondence, as well as letters from George Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury, concerned with English apostates and possible conversions of Catholics. He exchanged information with intelligencers such as Sarpi who had a large network, and recruited informants, such as the Neapolitan jurist Giacomo Antonio Marta. Encouraged by Walter Cope, he began also to look for works of art for Charles, Duke of York and the Earl of Salisbury; Carleton, like his predecessor in Venice Sir Henry Wotton, effectively promoted Italian aesthetics and the Grand Tour to the Stuart upper crust and looked for Venetian works of art that might be acquired by Charles I (then Duke of York) and other members of the Whitehall Group.
== Ambassador to the United Provinces ==
Carleton returned home in 1615, and next year was appointed ambassador to the Netherlands. Anglo-Dutch relations were central to foreign policy and Carleton succeeded in improving these, through the Amboyna massacre, commercial disputes between the two countries, and the tendency of James I to seek alliance with Spain.
The religious situation in the Netherlands had become fraught, during the Twelve Years' Truce, with the Calvinist–Arminian debate that had taken the form of a clash between Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants. Carleton used Matthew Slade as informant, who was a Contra-Remonstrant partisan. Maurice of Nassau supported the Contra-Remonstrants and Calvinist orthodoxy, and was vying for dominance in all seven provinces, resisted by Johan van Oldenbarnevelt who backed the Remonstrants. Carleton was himself an orthodox Genevan Calvinist, who also saw the divisive quarrel as weakening an ally. He weighed in on Maurice's side, and in line with the thinking of Abbot and the king pressed for the national Synod of Dort. His public intervention in the affair of the Balance (a Remonstrant pamphlet criticizing Carleton) represented a crucial escalation of the religious conflict, which strengthened the Contra-Remonstrant cause. A British delegation, which he helped to choose with Abbot, was led by George Carleton, a cousin. The Synod in 1618–9 resolved the theological issue, somewhat in arrears of political developments on the ground but providing the keystone to Maurice's control.
Carleton at the same time continued his interests in the art trade. He exchanged marbles for paintings with Rubens, served as an intermediary for collectors like Lord Somerset, Lord Pembroke, Lord Buckingham and sent Lord Arundel paintings by Daniel Mytens and Gerard van Honthorst.
As the build-up to the Palatinate campaign of 1620 began, Carleton realised the great limitations of the diplomatic line he had been pursuing and the influence he had: Maurice and James had quite different intentions concerning Frederick V, Elector Palatine, who was nephew (respectively son-in-law) to the two men. Maurice, in crude terms, was happy to have war over the border in Germany tying up the Spanish, while James wanted peace. Frederick did as Maurice wished in claiming the crown of Bohemia, was heavily defeated in the Battle of White Mountain and set off the Thirty Years' War, and lost the Palatinate. It was in Carleton's house at The Hague that Frederick and his queen Elizabeth of Bohemia took refuge in 1621.
Carleton returned to England in 1625 with George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and was made Vice-Chamberlain of the Household and a privy councillor.
== In both houses ==
Shortly afterwards he took part in an abortive mission to France in favour of the Huguenots and to inspire a league against the House of Habsburg. On his return in 1626 he found the attention of Parliament, to which he had been elected for Hastings, completely occupied with the attack on Buckingham. Carleton endeavoured to defend his patron, and supported the king's exercise of royal prerogative. On 12 May he warned that the king if thwarted might follow "new counsels".
His further career in the Commons was cut short by his elevation in May to the peerage as Baron Carleton of Imber Court. In the debate over Roger Maynwaring he put the argument that the book being complained of should not be burned, in case the king was offended. Shortly afterwards he was dispatched on another mission to The Hague, on return from which he was created Viscount Dorchester in July 1628. He was active in forwarding the conferences between Buckingham and Contarini for a peace with France on the eve of Buckingham's intended departure for La Rochelle, which was prevented by the Duke's assassination.
== The Personal Rule ==
In December 1628 Dorchester was made principal Secretary of State, making him a leading figure of the Personal Rule of Charles I. He worked with the efficient bureaucrat Sir John Coke, a master of the paperwork but deliberately excluded from the more arcane foreign negotiations. Dorchester came to full responsibility for matters of foreign policy.
He died on 15 February 1632, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
== Correspondence ==
His surviving letters cover practically the whole history of foreign affairs in the period 1610–1628. His letters as ambassador at The Hague, January 1616 to December 1620, were first edited by Philip Yorke, in 1757; his correspondence from The Hague in 1627 by Sir Thomas Phillipps in 1841; other letters are printed in the letter collection Cabala from the 17th century, and in Thomas Birch's Court and Times of James I and Charles I, but most remained in manuscript among the state papers. His regular correspondent John Chamberlain kept up with Carleton from 1597 to the end of his life in 1628, and 452 of Chamberlain's letters survive. John Hales was employed by Carleton to report on the proceedings of the Synod of Dort, and the correspondence was published in 1659. Carleton and Chamberlain belonged to an intellectual circle including also Thomas Allen, the physician William Gent, William Gilbert and Mark Ridley.
Carleton's letters are considered, in particular, a major source for information on the patronage networks of the period, in terms of their actual functioning. When Carleton's family connection Henry Savile died in 1622, leaving the position of Provost of Eton College vacant, Carleton took great interest in the post on his own behalf (he had expressed an interest to Chamberlain already in 1614). It was supposed to be for a cleric, but Savile was a layman. Thomas Murray became Provost; but he died in 1623. Buckingham would have the last word, and the Spanish match interfered; Carleton played the princess card of the favour of Elizabeth of Bohemia, but the nomination had become a free-for-all. Murray's widow had the provostship for while to help support seven children; Robert Aytoun, rumour had it, might marry her. Carleton gave Buckingham a marble chimney for York House, while his colleague Wotton gave pictures. In the end the post went to Wotton in 1624 who had reversions of legal offices that could be manipulated to satisfy William Becher, another diplomat with his hat in the ring, and with a definite promise from Buckingham.
== Family ==
Carleton married in November 1607 the widowed Anne, Lady Tredway (née Gerrard), daughter of George Gerrard and Margaret Dacres, Margaret married Henry Savile as her second husband. Anne died in 1627, leaving no living children. He then married in 1630 Anne (née Glemham), widow of Paul Bayning, 1st Viscount Bayning, and daughter of Sir Henry Glemham and Lady Anne Sackville; she died in 1639, and their one child died young. The title Viscount Dorchester died with him. His heirs were the sons of his elder brother, George: Sir John Carleton, 1st Baronet and John's half-brother Sir Dudley Carleton.
== See also ==
Baron Dorchester
Viscount Bayning
Secretary of State (England)
Vice-Chamberlain of the Household
Privy council
== References ==
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dorchester, Dudley Carleton, Viscount". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
memorial in Westminster Abbey
"Archival material relating to Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester". UK National Archives.
Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dorchester, Dudley Carleton, Viscount". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 421–422. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_paddlefish | Chinese paddlefish | The Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius; simplified Chinese: 白鲟; traditional Chinese: 白鱘; pinyin: báixún: literal translation: "white sturgeon"), also known as the Chinese swordfish, is an extinct species of fish that was formerly native to the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China. With records of specimens over 3.6 metres (12 ft) and possibly 7 m (23 ft) in length, it was one of the largest species of primarily freshwater fish. It was the only species in the genus Psephurus and one of two recent species of paddlefish (Polyodontidae), the other being the still-living American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula). The species was not a strictly freshwater fish, with individuals having migrated down the Yangtze into the sea as juveniles, where they spent time in coastal waters, before returning into the river by adulthood, and migrating upriver to spawn. Unlike the American paddlefish, which is a filter feeder on plankton, the Chinese paddlefish was a piscivorous predator that primarily consumed small to medium-sized fish.
Since the 1990s, the species was officially listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as critically endangered, and was last seen alive in 2003. A 2019 paper including scientists from the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute found the species to be extinct based on its absence from extensive capture surveys, with the extinction suggested to have occurred by 2005, and no later than 2010, although it had become functionally extinct by 1993. It was unanimously agreed to be extinct by the Species Survival Commission Sturgeon Specialist Group of the IUCN on 15 September 2019, with its conservation status being formally updated by the IUCN Red List in July 2022.
The main cause of its extinction was the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in 1981, fragmenting the population and blocking the migration of the fish to its upriver spawning grounds required to sustain its population. Overfishing also played a significant role in its decline. Fishing of the Chinese paddlefish dates back centuries, with annual harvests reaching 25 tons by the 1970s.
== Description ==
The Chinese paddlefish had a white underbelly, and its back and head were grey. Its dorsal and anal fins were situated considerably far back on the body. The paddle-like rostrum was narrow and pointed, and was between a quarter and up to a third of total body length. Its eyes were small and round. The tail fin was heterocercal (spine extending into the upper lobe), with the lower lobe being well developed. The skull is more elongate and narrower than that of the American paddlefish, and lacks the sculpturing present on the skull bones of other paddlefish, with the stellate (star-shaped) bones on the rostrum less numerous than those of the American paddlefish. The teeth were small, sharp, canine shaped and inward curling, and became proportionally smaller relative to the jaw during growth, and in mature adults were completely fused into the bone. Compared to Polyodon, the jaws were shorter, and had a proportionately narrower gape, and unlike the American paddlefish, but similar to fossil paddlefish, the upper jaw was not firmly attached to the braincase. Like other paddlefish, the skeleton was largely cartilaginous. The body lacked scales, except for small scales in the caudal peduncle and caudal fin.
Juveniles attained a weight of around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2 to 3 lb) by their first winter and a length of 1 m (3 ft) and a weight of about 3.3 kg (7 lb 4 oz) by the time they were a year old. Beyond this length, proportional weight gain relative to body length dramatically increased, reaching a weight of about 12.5 kg (28 lb) by the time they were around 1.5 m (5 ft) long. They reached sexual maturity at a weight of around 25 kg (55 lb). Female fish are suggested to have grown larger than male fish once sexually mature, though they grew at similar rates prior to this.The maximum length of the Chinese paddlefish is often quoted as 7 m (23 ft), with this estimate apparently being given by C. Ping (1931) as quoted by John Treadwell Nichols in 1943, though according to Lance Grande and William Bemis in 1991, the Chinese paddlefish was only definitively known to have body lengths in excess of 3 metres (9.8 ft). Ping is often suggested to have said that fishermen in Nanjing caught a Chinese paddlefish with a length of 7 metres (23 ft) and a weight of 907 kilograms (2,000 lb). However, Grande and Bemis (1991) suggested that this enormous length may have been the result of a translation error. The last known specimen of the species, a mature female caught in 2003, was measured as being 3.63 metres (11.9 ft) in length with a body mass of approximately 200 kilograms (440 lb). A 1996 study estimated based on extrapolations from growth curves, that the largest female and male fish may have grown to lengths of 4.363 metres (14.31 ft) and 3.685 metres (12.09 ft) respectively. FishBase and World Wide Fund for Nature gives a conservative maximum weight of 300–500 kg (660–1,100 lb).
The lifespan has been estimated at 29–38 years, though the theoretical maximum lifespan is likely to have been significantly higher, as the estimate reflects anthropogenic impacts on the population.
== Taxonomy and evolutionary history ==
The species was first named as a species of Polyodon (the genus of the American paddlefish) by Eduard von Martens in 1862. It was placed into a separate, monotypic genus by Albert Günther in 1873. The species was also given a different name, Spatularia angustifolium by Johann Jakob Kaup also in 1862, but this is considered a junior synonym of P. gladius.
Paddlefish (Polyodontidae) are one of two living families of Acipenseriformes alongside sturgeons (Acipenseridae). The oldest records of Acipenseriformes date to the Early Jurassic, over 190 million years ago. The oldest paddlefish fossil is that of Protopsephurus from the Early Cretaceous of China, dating to around 120 million years ago. The oldest representatives of the genus containing the American paddlefish, Polyodon date to around 65 million years ago, from the beginning of the Paleocene. Various molecular clock estimates have been given for the age of the divergence between the American and Chinese paddlefish, including 68 million years ago 72 million years ago, and 100 million years ago, all dating to the middle to Upper Cretaceous.
Relationships of recent and fossil paddlefish genera, after Grande et al. (2002).
== Distribution, habitat and ecology ==
The Chinese paddlefish was native to the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) River basin and its estuary at the East China Sea. Historically it was also recorded in the Yellow River basin (which is connected to the Yangtze by the Grand Canal) and its estuary at the Yellow Sea. They were also historically found in coastal waters of the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea; occasionally spring tides would bring individuals into the lower reaches of the Qiantang and Yong rivers of Zhejiang province. It primarily inhabited the rivers, particularly in the case of the Yangtze the relatively more prey-rich lower-middle reaches as opposed to the relatively food-poor upper reaches, but sometimes travelled into large lakes.
During fall and winter, breeding-age adults migrated from the rest of the Yangtze river system to the lower Jinsha River (a name given to the upper part of the Yangtze) in the section of the river around the city of Yibin in southern Sichuan, to congregate for spawning, which occurred in spring of the following year, from mid-March to early April. Males and females are suggested to have reached sexual maturity and began spawning at 5 and 6 years of age respectively, with spawning males being reported as approximately 5-10 years of age, while spawning females were generally 6 to 16 years of age. One spawning site on the Jinsha River, located at the midpoint of the river, around 60 m (200 ft) from the riverbank, was around 500 m (1,600 ft) in length, and had a max water depth of 10 m (33 ft) and rapid water flow, with the bottom sediments in the lower reaches being shingly and in the upper reaches muddy/sandy. Females probably did not spawn every year, likely every other year or somewhat less frequently, like other members of Acipenseriformes. The ovaries of the female fish contained over 100,000 eggs, each approximately 2.7 mm (3⁄32 in) across, which had a sticky surface. Once the eggs had become fertilized, they sank and attached to pebbles on the river bottom.
The fish was amphidromous (migrating between freshwater and the sea for reasons other than spawning), with young juveniles migrating 2,750 kilometres (1,710 mi) downriver following their hatching in their spawning grounds in the upper Yangtze, reaching the Yangtze estuary in the vicinity of Shanghai by the time they were 4-5 months of age in July to August, following which they spent part of their life living in brackish and saline coastal waters. As subadults they later migrated back up into freshwater in the Yangtze at around 1.5-2 years old, following which they would progressively migrate upriver over the next 1-4 years until they reached close to their spawning grounds in the section of the Yangtze between Chongqing and Yibin.
The fish was largely solitary, and occupied the lower-mid layers of the water column. Chinese paddlefish were noted for being strong swimmers. Unlike its relative the American paddlefish, which is a planktivorous filter feeder, the Chinese paddlefish was primarily piscivorous, mainly feeding on small to medium-sized fishes like anchovies (Coilia), cyprinids (Coreius, Rhinogobio), gobies (Gobius) as well as bagrid catfish and bothid flounders. It also consumed crustaceans like shrimp and crabs. The jaws, unlike the American paddlefish but like sturgeons and fossil paddlefish, were capable of protrusion, a form of cranial kinesis allowing them to move relative to the rest of the skull, with the upper jaw being able to thrust downwards and forwards in order to seize prey. Paddlefish, like other Acipenseriformes and several other groups of vertebrates, engage in passive electroreception (the sensing of external electric fields) using structures called ampullae that form an extension of the lateral line system of sensory organs. Passive electroreception (where electric fields are sensed but not generated, as in electric fish) is primarily used for detecting the weak electric fields generated by prey. The head and rostrum of Chinese paddlefish, like those of other paddlefish, was densely packed with ampullae, indicating that enhancing electroreception was one of the rostrum's primary functions.
== Decline and extinction ==
The last records of Chinese paddlefish in the Yellow River basin and its estuary date back to the 1960s, although declines were realized between the 13th and 19th centuries. Declines were significant throughout its primary range in the Yangtze basin, but annual captures of 25 tonnes continued into the 1970s. A 2024 study estimated that the population of spawning age individuals of the fish was around 3,000 in 1980. In 1983, the Chinese government made fishing of the species illegal due to its decline in numbers. The species was still being found in small numbers in the 1980s (for example, 32 were caught in 1985), and young were seen as recently as 1995. Due to the rarity of the fish by the time it was realised that it was in peril, and the fact that the adult fish were difficult to keep in captivity, attempts to create a captive breeding stock failed.
Since 2000, there have been only two confirmed sightings of the fish alive, both from the Yangtze basin: The first was a 3.3-metre (10 ft 10 in), 117-kilogram (258 lb) female caught at Nanjing in 2002 and the second, initially reported as 3.52-metre (11 ft 7 in), 160 kg (350 lb) female accidentally caught at Yibin, Sichuan, on January 24, 2003, by fisherman Liu Longhua (刘龙华); the former died despite attempts to save it and the latter was radio-tagged and released, but the tag stopped working after only 12 hours.
During a search conducted in the Yangtze basin from 2006 to 2008, a research team from the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science in Jingzhou failed to catch any paddlefish, but two possible specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. A comprehensive study published in 2019, including scientists from the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute, found that the species was certainly extinct, based on its absence from extensive capture surveys of the Yangtze between 2017 and 2018. The paper estimated that the species went extinct between 2005 and 2010, but became functionally extinct by 1993. The paper thus recommended the reclassification of the species as Extinct by the IUCN. A similar recommendation was also made by the Species Survival Commission Sturgeon Specialist Group of the IUCN in September 2019. The official IUCN status of the species was formally updated to "extinct" in July 2022.
The primary cause of its extinction was the construction of the Ghezouba Dam, which became operational 1981, which a 2024 study described as having "sealed its fate of inevitable extinction" upon becoming operational because it effectively prevented the fish from properly completing its life cycle, dividing the fish population into subadults downstream of the dam who could not migrate upriver through the dams turbines to reproduce, and a residual adult population upstream of the dam who could continue to spawn but not effectively replace itself over the long term. Overfishing also played a role in its decline. The Chinese paddlefish was heavily overfished in all stages of growth from fry (which were easily captured by traditional fishing methods) to adult, which combined with the long generation time due to its slow maturation led to reduced sustainability of viable populations.
== Cultural significance ==
A gold belt from the Jinsha site in Sichuan, dating to around 1000 BC, has been found emblazoned with drawings of what is suggested to be Chinese paddlefish. The Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th century BC) may contain references to the Chinese paddlefish as one of the animals sacrificed during rituals. The Huainanzi (2nd century BC) claims that the fish was receptive to rhythm and attracted to the sound of musical instruments. The Eastern Jin writer Guo Pu apparently mentions the fish in his work Jiang Fu (江賦 , lit. Ode to the River). The 9th century Tang Dynasty book Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang suggests that killing a Chinese paddlefish could cause rain. The fish is depicted in a number of historical Chinese paintings. Sichuanese fishermen had a saying regarding the fish, referencing its large size. Some common names for the fish in Chinese compare the rostrum of the fish to an elephant's trunk.
Like the related sturgeons and American paddlefish, the species was fished for its caviar, though it made up only a small proportion (less than 1%) of the total number of fish caught from the Yangtze in the late 20th century by weight.
== See also ==
Baiji – a critically endangered, probably extinct species of river dolphin also native to the Yangtze, whose decline was driven by the same factors that drove the Chinese paddlefish to extinction
List of endangered and protected species of China
== References ==
== External links ==
Article on the extinction in Qilu Yidian, which contains numerous rare images of the fish alive or recently dead
Chinese documentary on the species, which features footage of the fish alive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Prize_in_Statistics | International Prize in Statistics | The International Prize in Statistics is awarded every two years to an individual or team "for major achievements using statistics to advance science, technology and human welfare". The International Prize in Statistics, along with the COPSS Presidents' Award, are the two highest honours in the field of Statistics.
The prize is modelled after the Nobel Prizes, Abel Prize, Fields Medal and Turing Award and comes with a monetary award of $80,000. The award ceremony takes place during the World Statistics Congress.
== Laureates ==
== Rules ==
The prize recognizes a single work or body of work, representing a powerful and original idea that had an impact in other disciplines or a practical effect on the world. The recipient must be alive when the prize is awarded.
== Organization ==
The prize is awarded by the International Prize in Statistics Foundation, which comprises representatives of the following major learned societies:
American Statistical Association
International Biometric Society
Institute of Mathematical Statistics
International Statistical Institute
Royal Statistical Society
In addition to recognizing the contributions of a statistician, the Foundation also aims at educating the public about statistical innovations and their impact on the world and gaining wider recognition for the field.
The recipient of the prize is chosen by a selection committee comprising international experts in the field. As of 2016, the committee members were Xiao-Li Meng (Harvard University), Sally Morton (Virginia Tech), Stephen Senn (Luxembourg Institute of Health), Bernard Silverman (University of Oxford), Stephen Stigler (University of Chicago), Susan Wilson (Australian National University) and Bin Yu (University of California, Berkeley). As of May 2022, the members of the selection committee are Yoav Benjamini, Francisco Cribari-Neto, Vijay Nair, Sonia Petrone, Nancy Reid, Sylvia Richardson, and Jane-Ling Wang.
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
COPSS Distinguished Achievement Award and Lectureship
Rousseeuw Prize for Statistics
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_Argentine_general_election | 1983 Argentine general election | A general election was held in Argentina on 30 October 1983 and marked the return of constitutional rule following the self-styled National Reorganization Process dictatorship installed in 1976. Voters fully chose the president, governors, mayors, and their respective national, province and town legislators; with a turnout of 85.6%.
== Background ==
The government of Isabel Perón faced several simultaneous crises in 1976. Guerrillas such as Montoneros and the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP) were out of control and caused hundreds of deaths each month. In turn, the army counter-attacked with undercover agents, the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance. The Rodrigazo caused an annual inflation rate above 600 percent and growing, which, coupled with union unrest, left the national industry in a virtual halt. Congresswoman Cristina Guzmán also accused Perón of stealing funds from a charity, but the Congress refused to proceed with an impeachment. All this led to the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, as most of society perceived the military as the only ones capable of fixing the crises.
General Roberto Viola was deposed in 1981 by Leopoldo Galtieri, during a "palace coup", which strengthened the political clout of the Agentine Navy. Opposed by the other military factions and fearing to be deposed in a new coup, Galtieri planned an invasion of the Falkland Islands. The 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands gave a huge popularity boost to the Junta, but it also caused a bank panic and undermined the attempts of minister Roberto Alemann to decrease inflation and stabilize the economy. This boost turned into a massive decrease after the Argentine surrender in the Falklands War, even more because the local media distorted the events and the surrender came as a complete surprise to the population.
Six years of intermittent wage freezes, policies adverse to industry and restrictive measures like the Circular 1050 had left GDP per capita at its lowest level since 1968 and real wages lower by around 40%. Given these conditions, the return of some freedoms quickly led to a wave of strikes, including two general strikes led by Saúl Ubaldini of the CGT labor federation (then the largest in South America). Fanning antagonism on the part of hard-liners in the regime, this led Admiral Jorge Anaya (later court-martialed for gross malfeasance in the 1982 Falklands War) to announce his candidacy for President in August, becoming the first to do so; he proved to be highly unpopular and Bignone immediately thwarted the move.
Amid growing calls for quicker elections, police brutally repressed a December 16, 1982, demonstration in Buenos Aires' central Plaza de Mayo, resulting in the death of one protester and Bignone's hopes for an indefinite postponement of elections. Devoting themselves to damage control, the regime began preparing for the transition by shredding evidence of their murder of between 15,000 and 30,000 dissidents (most of which were students, academics and labor union personnel uninvolved in the violence Argentina suffered from 1973 to 1976). Hoping to quiet demands that their whereabouts be known, in February 1983 Buenos Aires Police Chief Ramón Camps publicly recognized the crime and asserted that the "disappeared" were, in fact, dead. Provoking popular indignation, Camps' interview forced President Bignone to cease denying the tragedy and, on April 28, declare a blanket amnesty for those involved (including himself).
== Nominations ==
Among the first prominent political figures to condemn the amnesty was the leader of the UCR's progressive wing, Raúl Alfonsín, who easily secured his party's nomination during their convention in July. Alfonsín chose as his running mate Víctor Martínez, a more conservative UCR figure from Córdoba Province. Their traditional opponents, the Justicialist Party, struggled to find candidates for not only the top of the ticket, but for a number of the more important local races, as well. Following conferences that dragged on for two months after the UCR nominated Alfonsín, the Justicialists' left wing (the target of much of the repression before and after the 1976 coup) proved little match for the CGT's influence within the party. They nominated ideological opposites Ítalo Luder, who had served as acting President during Mrs. Perón's September 1975 sick leave, for President and former Chaco Province Governor Deolindo Bittel as his running mate; whereas Luder had authorized repression against the left in 1975, Bittel was a populist renowned for his defense of Habeas Corpus during the subsequent dictatorship.
== Campaign issues ==
Constrained by time, Alfonsín focused his strategy on accusing the Justicialists, who had refused to condemn Bignone's military amnesty, of enjoying the dictator's tacit support. Alfonsín enjoyed the valuable support of a number of Argentine intellectuals and artists, including playwright Carlos Gorostiza, who devised the UCR candidate's slogan, Ahora, Alfonsín ("Now is the Time for Alfonsín").
Luder, aware of intraparty tensions, limited his campaign ads and rhetoric largely to an evocation of the founder of the Justicialist Party, the late Juan Perón. Polls gave neither man an edge for the contest, which was scheduled for October 30. A few days for the elections (which a record turnout), the Justicialist candidate for Governor of Buenos Aires Province, Herminio Iglesias, threw a (premature) "victory rally" in which a coffin draped in the UCR colors was burned before the television cameras.
The bonfire ignited the electorate's bitter memories of Isabel Perón's tenure and helped result in a solid victory for the UCR. The Peronists were given a majority in the Senate and 12 of 22 governorships. The UCR secured only 7 governors, though the nation's largest province, Buenos Aires, would be governed by the UCR's Alejandro Armendáriz. Alfonsín persuaded Bignone after the elections to advance the inaugural to December 10, 1983.
== Candidates for President ==
Radical Civic Union (centrist/social democrat): Former Deputy Raúl Alfonsín of Buenos Aires.
Justicialist Party (populist): Former Senator Ítalo Luder of Santa Fe.
Intransigent Party (socialist) : Former Governor Oscar Alende of Buenos Aires.
Integration and Development Movement (developmentalist): Economist Rogelio Julio Frigerio of Buenos Aires.
== Results ==
The Alfonsín-Martínez tandem won the election by 51.75% of votes against the 40.16% of Luder-Bittel tandem. Alfonsín's 51.75% vote percentage would be broken by Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's record of 54.11% vote percentage in 2011.
=== President ===
==== Results by province ====
=== Chamber of Deputies ===
==== Results by province ====
=== Senate ===
==== Results by province ====
=== Provincial Governors ===
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Burns, Jimmy (1987). The land that lost its heroes: the Falklands, the post-war, and Alfonsín. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7475-0002-9. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio | Caravaggio | Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi or Amerighi da Caravaggio; 29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. During the final four years of his life, he moved between Naples, Malta, and Sicily. His paintings have been characterized by art critics as combining a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, which had a formative influence on Baroque painting.
Caravaggio employed close physical observation with a dramatic use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism. He made the technique a dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of light and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, torture, and death. He worked rapidly with live models, preferring to forgo drawings and work directly onto the canvas. His inspiring effect on the new Baroque style that emerged from Mannerism was profound. His influence can be seen directly or indirectly in the work of Peter Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Velázquez and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his influence were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists").
Caravaggio trained as a painter in Milan before moving to Rome when he was in his twenties. He developed a considerable name as an artist and as a violent, touchy and provocative man. He killed Ranuccio Tommasoni in a brawl, which led to a death sentence for murder and forced him to flee to Naples. There he again established himself as one of the most prominent Italian painters of his generation. He travelled to Malta and on to Sicily in 1607 and pursued a papal pardon for his sentence. In 1609, he returned to Naples, where he was involved in a violent clash; his face was disfigured, and rumours of his death circulated. Questions about his mental state arose from his erratic and bizarre behavior. He died in 1610 under uncertain circumstances while on his way from Naples to Rome. Reports stated that he died of a fever, but suggestions have been made that he was murdered or that he died of lead poisoning.
Caravaggio's innovations inspired Baroque painting, but the latter incorporated the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. The style evolved and fashions changed, and Caravaggio fell out of favour. In the 20th century, interest in his work revived, and his importance to the development of Western art was reevaluated. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy stated: "What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting."
== Biography ==
=== Early life (1571–1592) ===
Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi or Amerighi) was born in Milan, where his father, Fermo (Fermo Merixio), was a household administrator and architect-decorator to the marquess of Caravaggio, a town 35 km (22 mi) to the east of Milan and south of Bergamo. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague that ravaged Milan, and Caravaggio's father and grandfather both died there on the same day in 1577. It is assumed that the artist grew up in Caravaggio, but his family kept up connections with the Sforzas and the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas and destined to play a major role later in Caravaggio's life.
Caravaggio's mother had to raise all of her five children in poverty. She died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Caravaggio appears to have stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio area after his apprenticeship ended, but it is possible that he visited Venice and saw the works of Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccari later accused him of imitating, and Titian. He would also have become familiar with the art treasures of Milan, including Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, and with the regional Lombard art, a style that valued simplicity and attention to naturalistic detail and was closer to the naturalism of Germany than to the stylised formality and grandeur of Roman Mannerism.
=== Beginnings in Rome (1592/95–1600) ===
Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592, Caravaggio left Milan for Rome in flight after "certain quarrels" and the wounding of a police officer. The young artist arrived in Rome "naked and extremely needy... without fixed address and without provision... short of money." During this period, he stayed with the miserly Pandolfo Pucci, known as "monsignor Insalata". A few months later he was performing hack-work for the highly successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Clement VIII's favourite artist, "painting flowers and fruit" in his factory-like workshop.
In Rome, there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palaces being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for a stylistic alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggio's innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism (the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value).
Known works from this period include the small Boy Peeling a Fruit (his earliest known painting), Boy with a Basket of Fruit, and Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with Cesari. All three demonstrate the physical particularity for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy's produce has been analyzed by a professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to "...a large fig leaf with a prominent fungal scorch lesion resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)."
Caravaggio left Cesari, determined to make his own way after a heated argument. At this point he forged some extremely important friendships, with the painter Prospero Orsi, the architect Onorio Longhi, and the sixteen-year-old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti. Orsi, established in the profession, introduced him to influential collectors; Longhi, more balefully, introduced him to the world of Roman street brawls. Minniti served Caravaggio as a model and, years later, would be instrumental in helping him to obtain important commissions in Sicily. Ostensibly, the first archival reference to Caravaggio in a contemporary document from Rome is the listing of his name, with that of Prospero Orsi as his partner, as an 'assistant' in a procession in October 1594 in honour of St. Luke. The earliest informative account of his life in the city is a court transcript dated 11 July 1597, when Caravaggio and Prospero Orsi were witnesses to a crime near San Luigi de' Francesi.
The Fortune Teller, his first composition with more than one figure, shows a boy, likely Minniti, having his palm read by a Romani girl, who is stealthily removing his ring as she strokes his hand. The theme was quite new for Rome and proved immensely influential over the next century and beyond. However, at the time, Caravaggio sold it for practically nothing. The Cardsharps—showing another naïve youth of privilege falling victim to card cheats—is even more psychologically complex and perhaps Caravaggio's first true masterpiece. Like The Fortune Teller, it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survived. More importantly, it attracted the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, one of the leading connoisseurs in Rome. For del Monte and his wealthy art-loving circle, Caravaggio executed a number of intimate chamber-pieces—The Musicians, The Lute Player, a tipsy Bacchus, and an allegorical but realistic Boy Bitten by a Lizard—featuring Minniti and other adolescent models.
Caravaggio's first paintings on religious themes returned to realism and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. "It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?" It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: Saint Catherine; Martha and Mary Magdalene; Judith Beheading Holofernes; Sacrifice of Isaac; Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy; and Rest on the Flight into Egypt. These works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, for which it was necessary to look to the Church.
Already evident was the intense realism or naturalism for which Caravaggio is now famous. He preferred to paint his subjects as the eye sees them, with all their natural flaws and defects, instead of as idealised creations. This allowed a full display of his virtuosic talents. This shift from accepted standard practice and the classical idealism of Michelangelo was very controversial at the time. Caravaggio also dispensed with the lengthy preparations for a painting that were traditional in central Italy at the time. Instead, he preferred the Venetian practice of working in oils directly from the subject—half-length figures and still life. Supper at Emmaus, from c. 1600–1601, is a characteristic work of this period demonstrating his virtuoso talent.
=== "Most famous painter in Rome" (1600–1606) ===
In 1599, presumably through the influence of del Monte, Caravaggio was contracted to decorate the Contarelli Chapel in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The two works making up the commission, The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew and The Calling of Saint Matthew, delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Thereafter he never lacked commissions or patrons.
Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. Opinion among his artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, notably his insistence on painting from life, without drawings, but for the most part he was hailed as a great artistic visionary: "The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles."
Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and death. Most notable and technically masterful among them were The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (circa 1601) and The Taking of Christ (circa 1602) the latter only rediscovered in the 1990s in Dublin after remaining unrecognized for two centuries. For the most part, each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar.
His first version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, featuring the saint as a bald peasant with dirty legs attended by a lightly clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and a second version had to be painted as The Inspiration of Saint Matthew. Similarly, The Conversion of Saint Paul was rejected, and while another version of the same subject, the Conversion on the Way to Damascus, was accepted, it featured the saint's horse's haunches far more prominently than the saint himself, prompting this exchange between the artist and an exasperated official of Santa Maria del Popolo: "Why have you put a horse in the middle, and Saint Paul on the ground?" "Because!" "Is the horse God?" "No, but he stands in God's light!"
The aristocratic collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother of Cardinal Girolamo Mattei, who was friends with Cardinal Francesco Maria Bourbon Del Monte, gave The Supper at Emmaus to the city palace he shared with his brother, 1601 (National Gallery, London), The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, c. 1601, "Ecclesiastical Version" (Private Collection, Florence), The Incredulity of Saint Thomas c. 1601, 1601 "Secular Version" (Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam), John the Baptist with the Ram, 1602 (Capitoline Museums, Rome) and The Taking of Christ, 1602 (National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin) Caravaggio commissioned.
The second version of The Taking of Christ, which was looted from the Odessa Museum in 2008 and recovered in 2010, is believed by some experts to be a contemporary copy.
The Incredulity of Saint Thomas is one of the most famous paintings by Caravaggio, circa 1601–1602. It entered the Prussian Royal Collection, survived the Second World War unscathed, and can be viewed in the Sanssouci Picture Gallery, Potsdam.
The painting depicts the episode that led to the term "Doubting Thomas"—in art history formally known as "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas"—which has been frequently depicted and used to make various theological statements in Christian art since at least the 5th century. According to the Gospel of John, Thomas the Apostle missed one of Jesus' appearances to the apostles after his resurrection and said, "Unless I see the marks of the nails in his hands, and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe it." A week later, Jesus appeared and told Thomas to touch him and stop doubting. Then Jesus said, "Because you have seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed."
The painting shows in a demonstrative gesture how the doubting apostle puts his finger into Christ's side wound, the latter guiding his hand. The unbeliever is depicted like a peasant, dressed in a robe torn at the shoulder and with dirt under his fingernails. The composition of the picture is designed in such a way that the viewer is directly involved in the event and also feels its intensity.
Other works included Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto ("Madonna of the Pilgrims"), the Grooms' Madonna, and Death of the Virgin. The history of these last two paintings illustrates the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art and the times in which he lived. The Grooms' Madonna, also known as Madonna dei palafrenieri, painted for a small altar in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, remained there for just two days and was then removed. A cardinal's secretary wrote: "In this painting, there are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and disgust...One would say it is a work made by a painter that can paint well, but of a dark spirit, and who has been for a lot of time far from God, from His adoration, and from any good thought..."
Death of the Virgin, commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist for his private chapel in the new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, was rejected by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini records that it was rejected because Caravaggio had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin. Giovanni Baglione, another contemporary, tells that it was due to Mary's bare legs—a matter of decorum in either case. Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for the Carmelites may have been theological rather than aesthetic, in that Caravaggio's version fails to assert the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary, the idea that the Mother of God did not die in any ordinary sense but was assumed into Heaven. The replacement altarpiece commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not dead, as Caravaggio had painted her, but seated and dying; and even this was rejected, and replaced with a work showing the Virgin not dying, but ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels. In any case, the rejection did not mean that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. Death of the Virgin was no sooner taken out of the church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of Rubens, and later acquired by Charles I of England before entering the French royal collection in 1671.
One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia, in English also called Amor Victorious, painted in 1602 for Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member of del Monte's circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610–1625 and known as Cecco del Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'), carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god Cupid—as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio's other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio's Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them.
=== Legal problems and flight from Rome (1606) ===
Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill many pages.
Bellori claims that around 1590–1592, Caravaggio, already well known for brawling with gangs of young men, committed a murder which forced him to flee from Milan, first to Venice and then to Rome.
On 28 November 1600, while living at the Palazzo Madama with his patron Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio beat nobleman Girolamo Stampa da Montepulciano, a guest of the cardinal, with a club, resulting in an official complaint to the police. Episodes of brawling, violence, and tumult grew more and more frequent. Caravaggio was often arrested and jailed at Tor di Nona.
After his release from jail in 1601, Caravaggio returned to paint first The Taking of Christ and then Amor Vincit Omnia. In 1603, he was arrested again, this time for the defamation of another painter, Giovanni Baglione, who sued Caravaggio and his followers Orazio Gentileschi and Onorio Longhi for writing offensive poems about him. The French ambassador intervened, and Caravaggio was transferred to house arrest after a month in jail in Tor di Nona.
Between May and October 1604, Caravaggio was arrested several times for possession of illegal weapons and for insulting the city guards. He was also sued by a tavern waiter for having thrown a plate of artichokes in his face.
An early published notice on Caravaggio, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, recounts that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him."
In 1605, Caravaggio was forced to flee to Genoa for three weeks after seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, a notary, in a dispute over Lena, Caravaggio's model and lover. The notary reported having been attacked on 29 July with a sword, causing a severe head injury. Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed to cover up the incident.
Upon his return to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his landlady Prudenzia Bruni for not having paid his rent. Out of spite, Caravaggio threw rocks through her window at night and was sued again.
In November, Caravaggio was hospitalized for an injury which he claimed he had caused himself by falling on his own sword.
On 29 May 1606, Caravaggio killed a young man, possibly unintentionally, resulting in his fleeing Rome with a death sentence hanging over him. Ranuccio Tomassoni was a gangster from a wealthy family. The two had argued many times, often ending in blows. The circumstances are unclear, whether a brawl or a duel with swords at Campo Marzio, but the killing may have been unintentional.
Many rumours circulated at the time as to the cause of the fight. Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a pallacorda game, a sort of tennis, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination. Other rumours, however, claimed that the duel stemmed from jealousy over Fillide Melandroni, a well-known Roman prostitute who had modeled for him in several important paintings; Tomassoni was her pimp. According to such rumours, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his sword before deliberately killing him, with other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death had been caused accidentally during the castration. The duel may have had a political dimension, as Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a client of the French ambassador.
Caravaggio's patrons had hitherto been able to shield him from any serious consequences of his frequent duels and brawling, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged by his death and demanded justice. Caravaggio's patrons were unable to protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to beheading for murder, and an open bounty was decreed, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry out the sentence legally. Caravaggio's paintings began, obsessively, to depict severed heads, often his own, at this time.
Modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life. A theory relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding has been advanced by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon. Whatever the details, the matter was serious enough that Caravaggio was forced to flee Rome. He moved just south of the city, then to Naples, Malta, and Sicily.
=== Exile and death (1606–1610) ===
==== Naples ====
Following the death of Tomassoni, Caravaggio fled first to the estates of the Colonna family south of Rome and then on to Naples, where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, in whose husband's household Caravaggio's father had held a position, maintained a palace. In Naples, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples.
His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy. The Seven Works of Mercy depicts the seven corporal works of mercy as a set of compassionate acts concerning the material needs of others. The painting was made for and is still housed in the church of Pio Monte della Misericordia in Naples. Caravaggio combined all seven works of mercy in one composition, which became the church's altarpiece. Alessandro Giardino has also established the connection between the iconography of "The Seven Works of Mercy" and the cultural, scientific and philosophical circles of the painting's commissioners.
==== Malta ====
Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for Hospitaller Malta, the headquarters of the Knights of Malta. Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Costanza's son, was a Knight of Malta and general of the Order's galleys. He appears to have facilitated Caravaggio's arrival on the island in 1607 (and his escape the next year). Caravaggio presumably hoped that the patronage of Alof de Wignacourt, Grand Master of the Knights of Saint John, could help him secure a pardon for Tomassoni's death. Wignacourt was so impressed at having the artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a Knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success. Wignacourt reportedly gifted some slaves to Caravaggio in recognition for his services.
Major works from his Malta period include the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist, his largest ever work, and the only painting to which he put his signature, Saint Jerome Writing (both housed in Saint John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta) and a Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page, as well as portraits of other leading Knights. According to Andrea Pomella, The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist is widely considered "one of the most important works in Western painting." Completed in 1608, the painting had been commissioned by the Knights of Malta as an altarpiece and measuring 370 by 520 centimetres (145 in × 205 in) was the largest altarpiece Caravaggio painted. It still hangs in St. John's Co-Cathedral, for which it was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and briefly served as a knight.
Yet, by late August 1608, he was arrested and imprisoned, likely the result of yet another brawl, this time with an aristocratic knight, during which the door of a house was battered down and the knight seriously wounded. Caravaggio was imprisoned by the Knights at Valletta, but he managed to escape. By December, he had been expelled from the Order "as a foul and rotten member", a formal phrase used in all such cases.
==== Sicily ====
Caravaggio made his way to Sicily where he met his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married and living in Syracuse. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour from Syracuse to Messina and, maybe, on to the island capital, Palermo. In Syracuse and Messina Caravaggio continued to win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from this period are Burial of St. Lucy, The Raising of Lazarus, and Adoration of the Shepherds. His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds. "His great Sicilian altarpieces isolate their shadowy, pitifully poor figures in vast areas of darkness; they suggest the desperate fears and frailty of man, and at the same time convey, with a new yet desolate tenderness, the beauty of humility and of the meek, who shall inherit the earth." Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, which included sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, and mocking local painters.
Caravaggio displayed bizarre behaviour from very early in his career. Mancini describes him as "extremely crazy", a letter from Del Monte notes his strangeness, and Minniti's 1724 biographer says that Mario left Caravaggio because of his behaviour. The strangeness seems to have increased after Malta. Susinno's early-18th-century Le vite de' pittori Messinesi ("Lives of the Painters of Messina") provides several colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicily, and these are reproduced in modern full-length biographies such as Langdon and Robb. Bellori writes of Caravaggio's "fear" driving him from city to city across the island and finally, "feeling that it was no longer safe to remain", back to Naples. Baglione says Caravaggio was being "chased by his enemy", but like Bellori does not say who this enemy was.
==== Return to Naples ====
After only nine months in Sicily, Caravaggio returned to Naples in the late summer of 1609. According to his earliest biographer, he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now Paul V) and return to Rome. In Naples he painted The Denial of Saint Peter, a final John the Baptist (Borghese), and his last picture, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. His style continued to evolve—Saint Ursula is caught in a moment of highest action and drama, as the arrow fired by the king of the Huns strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings that had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was also much freer and more impressionistic.
In October 1609, he was involved in a violent clash, an attempt on his life, perhaps ambushed by men in the pay of the knight he had wounded in Malta or some other faction of the Order. His face was seriously disfigured and rumours circulated in Rome that he was dead. He painted a Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid), showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time, he also painted a David with the Head of Goliath, showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing at the severed head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio. This painting he may have sent to his patron, the unscrupulous art-loving Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of the pope, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons. Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate a pardon in exchange for works by the artist.
News from Rome encouraged Caravaggio, and in the summer of 1610, he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, the gifts for Cardinal Scipione. What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture, shrouded in much mystery.
The bare facts seem to be that on 28 July, an anonymous avviso (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later, another avviso said that he had died of fever on his way from Naples to Rome. A poet friend of the artist later gave 18 July as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany.
=== Death ===
Caravaggio had a fever at the time of his death, and what killed him was a matter of controversy and rumour at the time and has been a matter of historical debate and study since. Contemporary rumours held that either the Tomassoni family or the Knights had him killed in revenge. Traditionally historians have long thought he died of syphilis. Some have said he had malaria, or possibly brucellosis from unpasteurised dairy. Some scholars have argued that Caravaggio was actually attacked and killed by the same "enemies" that had been pursuing him since he fled Malta, possibly Wignacourt or factions of the Knights.
Caravaggio's remains were buried in Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano cemetery, which closed in 1956, and then moved to St. Erasmus cemetery, where, in 2010, archaeologists conducted a year-long investigation of remains found in three crypts and after using DNA, carbon dating, and other methods. They believe with a high degree of confidence that they have identified those of Caravaggio. Initial tests suggested Caravaggio might have died of lead poisoning—paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts, and Caravaggio is known to have indulged in violent behavior, as caused by lead poisoning. Later research concluded he died as the result of a wound sustained in a brawl in Naples, specifically from sepsis caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
Vatican documents released in 2002 support the theory that the wealthy Tomassoni family had him hunted down and killed as a vendetta for Caravaggio's murder of gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in a botched attempt at castration after a duel over the affections of model Fillide Melandroni.
== Sexuality ==
Since the 1970s art scholars and historians have debated the inferences of homoeroticism in Caravaggio's works as a way to better understand the man. Caravaggio never married and had no known children, and Howard Hibbard observed the absence of erotic female figures in the artist's oeuvre: "In his entire career he did not paint a single female nude", and the cabinet-pieces from the Del Monte period are replete with "full-lipped, languorous boys ... who seem to solicit the onlooker with their offers of fruit, wine, flowers—and themselves" suggesting an erotic interest in the male form. The model for Amor vincit omnia, Cecco del Caravaggio, lived with the artist in Rome and stayed with him even after he was obliged to leave the city in 1606. The two may have been lovers.
A connection with a certain Lena is mentioned in a 1605 court deposition by Pasqualone, where she is described as "Michelangelo's girl". According to G. B. Passeri, this 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model for the Madonna di Loreto; and according to Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' may have been the same person as the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who named Caravaggio as an "intimate friend" by her own testimony in 1604. Caravaggio was also rumoured to be madly in love with Fillide Melandroni, a well known Roman prostitute who modeled for him in several important paintings.
Caravaggio's sexuality also received early speculation due to claims about the artist by Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau. Writing in 1783, Mirabeau contrasted the personal life of Caravaggio directly with the writings of St Paul in the Book of Romans, arguing that "Romans" excessively practice sodomy or homosexuality. The Holy Mother Catholic Church teachings on morality (and so on; short book title) contains the Latin phrase "Et fœminæ eorum immutaverunt naturalem usum in eum usum qui est contra naturam." ("and their women changed their natural habit to that which is against nature"). The phrase, according to Mirabeau, entered Caravaggio's thoughts, and he claimed that such an "abomination" could be witnessed through a particular painting housed at the Museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany—featuring a rosary of a blasphemous nature, in which a circle of thirty men (turpiter ligati) are intertwined in embrace and presented in unbridled composition. Mirabeau notes the affectionate nature of Caravaggio's depiction reflects the voluptuous glow of the artist's sexuality. By the late nineteenth century, Sir Richard Francis Burton identified the painting as Caravaggio's painting of St. Rosario. Burton also identifies both St. Rosario and this painting with the practices of Tiberius mentioned by Seneca the Younger. The survival status and location of Caravaggio's painting is unknown. No such painting appears in his or his school's catalogues.
Aside from the paintings, evidence also comes from the libel trial brought against Caravaggio by Giovanni Baglione in 1603. Baglione accused Caravaggio and his friends of writing and distributing scurrilous doggerel attacking him; the pamphlets, according to Baglione's friend and witness Mao Salini, had been distributed by a certain Giovanni Battista, a bardassa, or boy prostitute, shared by Caravaggio and his friend Onorio Longhi. Caravaggio denied knowing any young boy of that name, and the allegation was not followed up.
Baglione's painting of "Divine Love" has also been seen as a visual accusation of sodomy against Caravaggio. Such accusations were damaging and dangerous as sodomy was a capital crime at the time. Even though the authorities were unlikely to investigate such a well-connected person as Caravaggio, "Once an artist had been smeared as a pederast, his work was smeared too." Francesco Susino in his later biography additionally relates the story of how the artist was chased by a schoolmaster in Sicily for spending too long gazing at the boys in his care. Susino presents it as a misunderstanding, but some authors have speculated that Caravaggio may indeed have been seeking sex with the boys, using the incident to explain some of his paintings which they believe to be homoerotic.
The art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised the debate:
A lot has been made of Caravaggio's presumed homosexuality, which has in more than one previous account of his life been presented as the single key that explains everything, both the power of his art and the misfortunes of his life. There is no absolute proof of it, only strong circumstantial evidence and much rumour. The balance of probability suggests that Caravaggio did indeed have sexual relations with men. But he certainly had female lovers. Throughout the years that he spent in Rome, he kept close company with a number of prostitutes. The truth is that Caravaggio was as uneasy in his relationships as he was in most other aspects of life. He likely slept with men. He did sleep with women. He settled with no one... [but] the idea that he was an early martyr to the drives of an unconventional sexuality is an anachronistic fiction.
Washington Post art critic Philip Kennicott has taken issue with what he regarded as Graham-Dixon's minimizing of Caravaggio's homosexuality:
There was a fussiness to the tone whenever a scholar or curator was forced to grapple with transgressive sexuality, and you can still find it even in relatively recent histories, including Andrew Graham-Dixon's 2010 biography of Caravaggio, which acknowledges only that "he likely slept with men". The author notes the artist's fluid sexual desires but gives some of Caravaggio's most explicitly homoerotic paintings tortured readings to keep them safely in the category of mere "ambiguity".
== As an artist ==
=== The birth of Baroque ===
Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro". Chiaroscuro was practised long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique a dominant stylistic element, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this came the acute observation of physical and psychological reality that formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions.
He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle; very few of Caravaggio's drawings appear to have survived, and it is likely that he preferred to work directly on the canvas, an unusual approach at the time. His models were basic to his realism; some have been identified, including Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both fellow artists, Minniti appearing as various figures in the early secular works, the young Boneri as a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the later canvasses. His female models include Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, and Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" mentioned in court documents of the "artichoke" case as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints. Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula.
Caravaggio had a noteworthy ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment. The Supper at Emmaus depicts the recognition of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he is a fellow traveller, mourning the passing of the Messiah, as he never ceases to be to the innkeeper's eyes; the second after, he is the Saviour. In The Calling of St Matthew, the hand of the Saint points to himself as if he were saying, "who, me?", while his eyes, fixed upon the figure of Christ, have already said, "Yes, I will follow you". With The Resurrection of Lazarus, he goes a step further, giving a glimpse of the actual physical process of resurrection. The body of Lazarus is still in the throes of rigor mortis, but his hand, facing and recognising that of Christ, is alive. Other major Baroque artists would travel the same path, for example Bernini, fascinated with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses.
=== The Caravaggisti ===
The installation of the St. Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione. Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of plagiarism and the two were involved in a long feud. Baglione went on to write the first biography of Caravaggio. In the next generation of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620 and ended up as a court painter to Charles I of England. His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also stylistically close to Caravaggio and one of the most gifted of the movement. However, in Rome and Italy, it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of his rival Annibale Carracci, blending elements from the High Renaissance and Lombard realism, that ultimately triumphed.
Caravaggio's brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection—Naples was a possession of Spain—was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence.
Rubens was likely one of the first Flemish artists to be influenced by Caravaggio whose work he got to know during his stay in Rome in 1601. He later painted a copy (or rather an interpretation) of Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ and recommended his patron, the Duke of Mantua, purchase Death of the Virgin (Louvre). Although some of this interest in Caravaggio is reflected in his drawings during his Italian residence, it was only after his return to Antwerp in 1608 that Rubens' works show openly Caravaggesque traits such as in the Cain slaying Abel (1608–1609) (Courtauld Institute of Art) and the Old Woman and Boy with Candles (1618–1619) (Mauritshuis). However, the influence of Caravaggio on Rubens' work would be less important than that of Raphael, Correggio, Barocci and the Venetians. Flemish artists, who were influenced by Rubens, such as Jacob Jordaens, Pieter van Mol, Gaspar de Crayer and Willem Jacob Herreyns, also used certain stark realism and strong contrasts of light and shadow, common to the Caravaggesque style.
A number of Catholic artists from Utrecht, including Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen travelled in the first decades of the 17th century to Rome. Here they became profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio and his followers. On their return to Utrecht, their Caravaggesque works inspired a short-lived but influential flowering of artworks inspired indirectly in style and subject matter by the works of Caravaggio and the Italian followers of Caravaggio. This style of painting was later referred to as Utrecht Caravaggism. In the following generation of Dutch artists the effects of Caravaggio, although attenuated, are to be seen in the work of Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy.
=== Death and rebirth of a reputation ===
Caravaggio's innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. While he directly influenced the style of the artists mentioned above, and, at a distance, the Frenchmen Georges de La Tour and Simon Vouet, and the Spaniard Giuseppe Ribera, within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. The Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, but perhaps more pertinently, Caravaggio never established a workshop as the Carracci did and thus had no school to spread his techniques. Nor did he ever set out his underlying philosophical approach to art, the psychological realism that may only be deduced from his surviving work.
Thus his reputation was doubly vulnerable to the unsympathetic critiques of his earliest biographers, Giovanni Baglione, a rival painter with a vendetta, and the influential 17th-century critic Gian Pietro Bellori, who had not known him but was under the influence of the earlier Giovanni Battista Agucchi and Bellori's friend Poussin, in preferring the "classical-idealistic" tradition of the Bolognese school led by the Carracci. Baglione, his first biographer, played a considerable part in creating the legend of Caravaggio's unstable and violent character, as well as his inability to draw.
In the 1920s, art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once more to the foreground and placed him in the European tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of Delacroix, Courbet and Manet would have been utterly different". The influential Bernard Berenson agreed: "With the exception of Michelangelo, no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence."
=== Epitaph ===
Caravaggio's epitaph was composed by his friend Marzio Milesi. It reads:
"Michelangelo Merisi, son of Fermo di Caravaggio – in painting not equal to a painter, but to Nature itself – died in Port' Ercole – betaking himself hither from Naples – returning to Rome – 15th calend of August – In the year of our Lord 1610 – He lived thirty-six years nine months and twenty days – Marzio Milesi, Jurisconsult – Dedicated this to a friend of extraordinary genius."
He was commemorated on the front of the Banca d'Italia 100,000-lire banknote in the 1980s and '90s (before Italy switched to the euro), with the back showing his Basket of Fruit.
== Oeuvre ==
There is disagreement as to the size of Caravaggio's oeuvre, with counts as low as 40 and as high as 80. In his monograph of 1983, the Caravaggio scholar Alfred Moir wrote, "The forty-eight color plates in this book include almost all of the surviving works accepted by every Caravaggio expert as autograph, and even the least demanding would add fewer than a dozen more", but there have been some generally accepted additions since then. One, The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew, was in 2006 authenticated and restored; it had been in storage in Hampton Court, mislabeled as a copy. Richard Francis Burton writes of a "picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany), showing a circle of thirty men turpiter ligati" ("lewdly banded"), which is not known to have survived. The rejected version of Saint Matthew and the Angel, intended for the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, was destroyed during the bombing of Dresden, though black and white photographs of the work exist. In June 2011 it was announced that a previously unknown Caravaggio painting of Saint Augustine dating to about 1600 had been discovered in a private collection in Britain. Called a "significant discovery", the painting had never been published and is thought to have been commissioned by Vincenzo Giustiniani, a patron of the painter in Rome.
A painting depicting Judith Beheading Holofernes was allegedly discovered in an attic in Toulouse in 2014. In April 2016 the expert and art dealer to whom the work was shown announced that this was a long-lost painting by the hand of Caravaggio himself. That lost Caravaggio painting was only known up to that date by a presumed copy of it by the Flemish painter Louis Finson, who had shared a studio with Caravaggio in Naples. The French government imposed an export ban on the newly discovered painting while tests were carried out to establish whether it was an authentic painting by Caravaggio. In February 2019 it was announced that the painting would be sold at auction after the Louvre had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million. After an auction was considered, the painting was finally sold in a private sale to the American billionaire hedge fund manager J. Tomilson Hill. The art historical world is not united over the attribution of the work, with the art dealer who sold the work promoting its authenticity with the support of art historians who were given privileged access to the work, while other art historians remain unconvinced mainly based on stylistic and quality considerations. Some art historians believe it may be a work by Louis Finson himself.
In April 2021 a minor work believed to be from the circle of a Spanish follower of Caravaggio, Jusepe de Ribera, was withdrawn from sale at the Madrid auction house Ansorena when the Museo del Prado alerted the Ministry of Culture, which placed a preemptive export ban on the painting. The 111 centimetres (44 in) by 86 centimetres (34 in) painting has been in the Pérez de Castro family since 1823, when it was exchanged for another work from the Real Academia of San Fernando. It had been listed as "Ecce-Hommo con dos saiones de Carabaggio" before the attribution was later lost or changed to the circle of Ribera. Stylistic evidence, as well as the similarity of the models to those in other Caravaggio works, has convinced some experts that the painting is the original Caravaggio 'Ecce Homo' for the 1605 Massimo Massimi commission. The attribution to Caravaggio is disputed by other experts. The painting is now undergoing restoration by Colnaghis, who will also be handling the future sale of the work.
== Theft ==
In October 1969, two thieves entered the Oratory of Saint Lawrence in Palermo, Sicily, and stole Caravaggio's Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence from its frame. Experts estimated its value at $20 million.
Following the theft, Italian police set up an art theft task force with the specific aim of re-acquiring lost and stolen artworks. Since the creation of this task force, many leads have been followed regarding the Nativity. Former Italian mafia members have stated that Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence was stolen by the Sicilian Mafia and displayed at important mafia gatherings. Former mafia members have said that the Nativity was damaged and has since been destroyed.
The whereabouts of the painting are still unknown. A reproduction currently hangs in its place in the Oratory of San Lorenzo.
In December 1984, Saint Jerome Writing (Caravaggio, Valletta) was stolen from the St. John's Co-Cathedral, Malta. The canvas was cut out of the frame. The painting was recovered two years later, following negotiations between the thieves and Fr. Marius J. Zerafa, then the Director of Museums in Malta. A full account of the theft and successful recovery had been recorded by Fr. Marius J. Zerafa in his book Caravaggio Diaries.
== In popular culture ==
Caravaggio's work has been widely influential in late-20th-century American gay culture, with frequent references to male sexual imagery in paintings such as The Musicians and Amor Victorious. Several poems written by Thom Gunn were responses to specific Caravaggio paintings, and British filmmaker Derek Jarman made a critically applauded biopic entitled Caravaggio in 1986.
Another biopic, L'Ombra di Caravaggio (Caravaggio's Shadow), directed by Michele Placido and starring Riccardo Scamarcio, was released in 2022.
Caravaggio was prominently featured as motif in Steven Zaillian's Netflix series Ripley, based on Patricia Highsmith's book The Talented Mr. Ripley. The murder of Rannucchio is also depicted. Caravaggio is portrayed by Daniele Rienzo.
== Contemporary analysis and Modernist revisitation ==
Caravaggio's baroque art was rediscovered as self-consciously political in the 1999 book Quoting Caravaggio by Mieke Bal. In 2013, a touring Caravaggio exhibition called "Burst of Light: Caravaggio and His Legacy" opened in the Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art in Hartford, Connecticut. The show included five paintings by the master artist that included Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness (1604–1605) and Martha and Mary Magdalene (1589). The whole travelled to France and also to Los Angeles, California. Other Baroque artists like Georges de La Tour, Orazio Gentileschi, and the Spanish trio of Diego Velazquez, Francisco de Zurbarán, and Carlo Saraceni were also included in the exhibitions.
In 2017 the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited Caravaggio's Last Two Paintings that displayed its The Denial of Saint Peter, and Caravaggio’s The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (loaned by the Banca Intesa Sanpaolo, Naples).
== See also ==
Paintings in the Contarelli Chapel
List of paintings by Caravaggio
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Primary sources ===
The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are:
Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravaggio in Considerazioni sulla pittura, c. 1617–1621
Giovanni Baglione's Le vite de' pittori, 1642
Giovanni Pietro Bellori's Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni, 1672
All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's Caravaggio and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's Caravaggio.
=== Secondary sources ===
== External links ==
=== Articles and essays ===
Caravaggio, The Prince of the Night
Christiansen, Keith. "Caravaggio...and his Followers." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2003)
FBI Art Theft Notice for Caravaggio's Nativity
The Passion of Caravaggio
Deconstructing Caravaggio and Velázquez
Interview with Peter Robb, author of M
Compare Rembrandt with Caravaggio.
Caravaggio and the Camera Obscura
Caravaggio's incisions by Ramon van de Werken
Caravaggio's use of the Camera Obscura: Lapucci
Some notes on Caravaggio – Patrick Swift
Roberta Lapucci's website and most of her publications on Caravaggio as freely downloadable PDF
=== Art works ===
caravaggio-foundation.org 175 works by Caravaggio
caravaggio.org Analysis of 100 important Caravaggio works
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio WebMuseum, Paris webpage
Caravaggio's EyeGate Gallery
=== Video ===
Caravaggio's Calling of Saint Matthew Archived 23 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine at Smarthistory, accessed 13 February 2013
Caravaggio's Crucifixion of Saint Peter Archived 8 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 February 2013
Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin Archived 1 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 February 2013
Caravaggio's Narcissus at the Source Archived 1 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 February 2013
Caravaggio's paintings in the Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, accessed 13 February 2013
Caravaggio's Supper at Emmaus Archived 11 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 February 2013 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_las_Carreras | Francisco de las Carreras | Francisco de las Carreras (1809–1870) was an Argentine lawyer, judge and politician. He was the first President of the Supreme Court of Argentina between 1863 and 1870.
== Career ==
De las Carreras did his higher studies in Law at the University of Buenos Aires, turning to politics during the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas. He was Minister of Finance for the Province of Buenos Aires during the 1850s.
In January 1863, when the president of Argentina, Bartolomé Mitre formed the first Supreme Court, he was appointed its Minister. But after Valentín Alsina's refusal to take over as chief justice, he was appointed chief justice on June 1, 1863, a position he held until his death.
A street in the city of Mar de Ajo is named in his honor.
In Buenos Aires , Argentine largest city , exists a street named in his honor too. In this location the name of the street is: Santiago Francisco de las Carreras. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weston,_Ohio | Weston, Ohio | Weston is a village in Wood County, Ohio, United States. The population was 1,455 at the 2020 census. Weston is located just 10 miles west of Bowling Green, Ohio, a university town.
== History ==
Weston was originally called Taylortown, and under the latter name was platted in 1853 by Thomas Taylor, and named for him. Another early variant name was New Westfield. The present name is from Weston Township. A post office called New Westfield was established in 1856, and the name was changed to Weston in 1863. The village was incorporated in 1873.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.13 square miles (2.93 km2), all land.
== Demographics ==
=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,590 people, 609 households, and 424 families living in the village. The population density was 1,407.1 inhabitants per square mile (543.3/km2). There were 700 housing units at an average density of 619.5 per square mile (239.2/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 91.6% White, 0.1% African American, 1.0% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 4.8% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.8% of the population.
There were 609 households, of which 37.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.4% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.4% were non-families. 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.07.
The median age in the village was 35.8 years. 29.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.8% were from 25 to 44; 26.4% were from 45 to 64; and 10.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.4% male and 50.6% female.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,659 people, 638 households, and 454 families living in the village. The population density was 1,476.2 inhabitants per square mile (570.0/km2). There were 662 housing units at an average density of 589.1 per square mile (227.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 93.31% White, 0.18% African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.12% Asian, 3.74% from other races, and 2.53% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.10% of the population
== Library ==
The Weston Public Library serves the communities in southwestern Wood County from its administrative offices in Weston and a branch in Grand Rapids. In 2006, the library loaned 96,919 items and provided 186 programs to its 3,399 cardholders. Total holdings in 2006 were over 35,000 volumes with over 130 periodical subscriptions.
== References ==
== External links ==
Village website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbeo | Berbeo | Berbeo is a town and municipality in the Lengupá Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. The urban centre of Berbeo is located at an altitude of 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Berbeo borders San Eduardo in the east, Zetaquirá and Miraflores in the west, Zetaquirá in the north and Miraflores and Páez in the south.
== Etymology ==
The municipality was formerly called San Fernando de Aguablanca and Legupá, and since 1913 bears the name Berbeo, after Juan Francisco Berbeo.
== History ==
The area of Berbeo before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by the indigenous Muisca. In Berbeo petroglyphs have been discovered. Modern Berbeo was founded on April 23, 1743, by Jesuits.
== Economy ==
Main activity of Berbeo is agriculture, with coffee and chonto tomatoes as major products.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_Kiefer#Recognitions | Anselm Kiefer | Anselm Kiefer (born 8 March 1945) is a German painter and sculptor. He studied with Peter Dreher and Horst Antes at the end of the 1960s. His works incorporate materials such as straw, ash, clay, lead, and shellac. The poems of Paul Celan have played a role in developing Kiefer's themes of German history and the horrors of the Holocaust, as have the spiritual concepts of Kabbalah.
When he was 18, Kieffer set out on a year-long tour to visit places in The Netherlands, Belgium and France which had associations with Van Gogh. Excerpts from the diary that he kept indicate how strongly he was influenced by Van Gogh.
In his entire body of work, Kiefer argues with the past and addresses taboo and controversial issues from recent history. Themes from Nazi rule are particularly reflected in his work; for instance, the painting Margarete (oil and straw on canvas) was inspired by Celan's well-known poem "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue").
His works are characterised by an unflinching willingness to confront his culture's dark past, and unrealised potential, in works that are often done on a large, confrontational scale well suited to the subjects. It is also characteristic of his work to find signatures and names of people of historical importance, legendary figures or historical places. All of these are encoded sigils through which Kiefer seeks to process the past; this has resulted in his work being linked with the movements New Symbolism and Neo–Expressionism.
Kiefer has lived and worked in France since 1992. Since 2008, he has lived and worked primarily in Paris. In 2018, he was awarded Austrian citizenship.
== Personal life and career ==
The son of a German art teacher, Kiefer was born in Donaueschingen a few months before the end of World War II. His city having been heavily bombed, Kiefer grew up surrounded by the devastation of the war. In 1951, his family moved to Ottersdorf, and he attended public school in Rastatt, graduating high school in 1965. He studied pre-law and Romance languages at the University of Freiburg. However, after three semesters he switched to art, studying at art academies in Freiburg and Karlsruhe. In Karlsruhe, he studied under Peter Dreher, a realist and figurative painter. He received an art degree in 1969.
In 1971 Kiefer moved to Hornbach (Walldürn) and established a studio. He remained in the Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis until 1992; his output during this first creative time is known as The German Years. In 1992 he relocated to France.
Kiefer left his first wife and children in Germany on his move to Barjac in 1992. From 2008 he lived in Paris, in a large house in the Marais district, with his second wife, the Austrian photographer Renate Graf, and their two children. Kiefer and Graf divorced in 2014.
In 2017, Kiefer was ranked one of the richest 1,001 individuals and families in Germany by the monthly business publication Manager Magazin.
Kiefer is the subject of the 3D documentary film Anselm (2023), directed by Wim Wenders.
== Artistic process ==
Generally, Kiefer attributes traditional mythology, books, and libraries as his main subjects and sources of inspiration. In his middle years, his inspiration came from literary figures, namely Paul Celan and Ingeborg Bachmann. His later works incorporate themes from Judeo-Christian, ancient Egyptian, and Oriental cultures, which he combines with other motifs. Cosmogony is also a large focus in his works. In all, Kiefer searches for the meaning of existence and "representation of the incomprehensible and the non-representational."
=== Philosophy ===
Kiefer values a "spiritual connection" with the materials he works with, "extracting the spirit that already lives within [them]." In doing so, he transforms his materials with acid baths and physical blows with sticks and axes, among other processes.
He often chooses materials for their alchemical properties—lead in particular. Kiefer's initial attraction to lead arose when he had to repair aging pipes in the first house he owned. Eventually, he came to admire its physical and sensory qualities and began to discover more about its connection to alchemy. Physically, Kiefer specifically likes how the metal looks during the heating and melting process when he sees many colors, especially gold, which he associates to the symbolic gold sought by alchemists.
Kiefer's use of straw in his work represents energy. He claims this is due to straw's physical qualities, including the color gold and its release of energy and heat when burned. The resulting ash makes way for new creation, thus echoing the motifs of transformation and the cycle of life.
Kiefer also values the balance between order and chaos in his work, stating, "[I]f there is too much order, [the piece] is dead; or if there is much chaos, it doesn't cohere." In addition, he cares deeply about the space in which his works reside. He states that his works "lose their power completely" if put in the wrong spaces.
== Work ==
=== Photography ===
Kiefer began his career creating performances and documenting them in photographs titled Occupations and Heroische Sinnbilder (Heroic Symbols). Dressed in his father's Wehrmacht uniform, Kiefer mimicked the Nazi salute in various locations in France, Switzerland and Italy. He asked Germans to remember and to acknowledge the loss to their culture through the mad xenophobia of the Third Reich. In 1969, at Galerie am Kaiserplatz, Karlsruhe, he presented his first single exhibition "Besetzungen (Occupations)" with a series of photographs of controversial political actions.
=== Painting and sculpture ===
Kiefer is best known for his paintings, which have grown increasingly large in scale with additions of lead, broken glass, and dried flowers or plants. This results in encrusted surfaces and thick layers of impasto.
By 1970, while studying informally under Joseph Beuys at Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, his stylistic leanings resembled Georg Baselitz's approach. He worked with glass, straw, wood and plant parts. The use of these materials meant that his art works became temporary and fragile, as Kiefer himself was well aware; he also wanted to showcase the materials in such a way that they were not disguised and could be represented in their natural form. The fragility of his work contrasts with the stark subject matter in his paintings. This use of familiar materials to express ideas was influenced by Beuys, who used fat and carpet felt in his works. It is also typical of the Neo-Expressionist style.
Kiefer returned to the area of his birthplace in 1971. In the years that followed, he incorporated German mythology in particular in his work, and in the next decade he studied the Kabbalah, as well as Qabalists like Robert Fludd. He went on extended journeys throughout Europe, the US and the Middle East; the latter two journeys further influenced his work. Besides paintings, Kiefer created sculptures, watercolors, photographs, and woodcuts, using woodcuts in particular to create a repertoire of figures he could reuse repeatedly in all media over the next decades, lending his work its knotty thematic coherence.
Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Kiefer made numerous paintings, watercolors, woodcuts, and books on themes interpreted by Richard Wagner in his four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). In the early 1980s, he created more than thirty paintings, painted photographs, and watercolors that refer in their titles and inscriptions to the Romanian Jewish writer Paul Celan's poem "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue").
A series of paintings which Kiefer executed between 1980 and 1983 depict looming stone edifices, referring to famous examples of National Socialist architecture, particularly buildings designed by Albert Speer and Wilhelm Kreis. The grand plaza in To the Unknown Painter (1983) specifically refers to the outdoor courtyard of Hitler's Chancellery in Berlin, designed by Speer in 1938 in honor of the Unknown Soldier. Between 1984 and 1985, he made a series of works on paper incorporating manipulated black-and-white photographs of desolate landscapes with utility poles and power lines. Such works, like Heavy Cloud (1985), were an indirect response to the controversy in West Germany in the early 1980s about NATO's stationing of tactical nuclear missiles on German soil and the placement of nuclear fuel processing facilities.
By the mid-1980s, Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on Germany's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involved not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life. During the 1980s his paintings became more physical, and featured unusual textures and materials. The range of his themes broadened to include references to ancient Hebrew and Egyptian history, as in the large painting Osiris and Isis (1985–87). His paintings of the 1990s, in particular, explore the universal myths of existence and meaning rather than those of national identity. From 1995 to 2001, he produced a cycle of large paintings of the cosmos.
Over the years Kiefer has made many unusual works, but one work stands out among the rest as particularly bizarre—that work being his 20 Years of Solitude piece. Taking over 20 years to create (1971–1991), 20 Years of Solitude is a ceiling-high stack of hundreds of white-painted ledgers and handmade books, strewn with dirt and dried vegetation, whose pages are stained with the artist's semen. The word solitude in the title references the artists frequent masturbation onto paper during the 20 years it took to create. He asked American art critic Peter Schjeldahl to write a text for a catalog of the masturbation books. Schjeldahl attempted to oblige but ultimately failed in his endeavor. No other critic would take on the task, so the work has largely faded into obscurity.
He would shock the art world yet again at a dinner party in May 1993. Kiefer and his second wife, Renate Graf, decorated a candlelit commercial loft in New York with white muslin and skinned animals hanging on hooks above a floor carpeted with white sand, and staffed it with waiters dressed as mimes with white-face. A handful of art world elite, such as the likes of Sherrie Levine, were served several courses of arcane organ meats, such as pancreas, that were mostly white in color. Not surprisingly, the guests did not find the meal to be particularly appetizing. A group of NYC nightlife performers including Johanna Constantine, Lavinia Coop, Armen Ra and Flotilla DeBarge were hired to dress in white and mill about the West Village venue, Industria, and Anohni was hired to sing for Kiefer's guests.
Since 2002, Kiefer has worked with concrete, creating the towers destined for the Pirelli warehouses in Milan, the series of tributes to Velimir Khlebnikov (paintings of the sea, with boats and an array of leaden objects, 2004–5), a return to the work of Paul Celan with a series of paintings featuring rune motifs (2004–06), and other sculptures. In 2003, he held his first solo show at Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Salzburg Villa Katz, Anselm Kiefer: Am Anfang dedicated to a series of new works, centered on the recurring themes of history and myths. In 2005, he held his second exhibition in Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac's Salzburg location, Für Paul Celan which focused on Kiefer's preoccupation with the book, linking references to Germanic mythology with the poetry of Paul Celan, a German-speaking Jew from Czernowitz. The exhibition featured eleven works on canvas, a series of bound books shown in display cases, and five sculptures, including one powerful, monumental outdoor sculpture of reinforced concrete and lead elements, two leaden piles of books combined with bronze sunflowers, lead ships and wedges, and two monumental leaden books from the series The Secret Life of Plants. The exhibition toured to Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Paris and Galerie Yvon Lambert, Paris, the following year.
In 2006, Kiefer's exhibition, Velimir Chlebnikov, was first shown in a small studio near Barjac, then moved to White Cube in London, then finishing in the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Connecticut. The work consists of 30 large (2 × 3 meters) paintings, hanging in two banks of 15 on facing walls of an expressly constructed corrugated steel building that mimics the studio in which they were created. The work refers to the eccentric theories of the Russian futurist philosopher/poet Velimir Chlebnikov, who invented a "language of the future" called "Zaum", and who postulated that cataclysmic sea battles shift the course of history once every 317 years. In his paintings, Kiefer's toy-like battleships—misshapen, battered, rusted and hanging by twisted wires—are cast about by paint and plaster waves. The work's recurrent color notes are black, white, gray, and rust; and their surfaces are rough and slathered with paint, plaster, mud and clay.
In 2007, he became the first artist to be commissioned to install a permanent work at the Louvre, Paris, since Georges Braque some 50 years earlier. The same year, he inaugurated the Monumenta exhibitions series at the Grand Palais in Paris, with works paying special tribute to the poets Paul Celan and Ingeborg Bachmann.
In 2009 Kiefer mounted two exhibitions at the White Cube gallery in London. A series of forest diptychs and triptychs enclosed in glass vitrines, many filled with dense Moroccan thorns, was titled Karfunkelfee, a term from German Romanticism stemming from a poem by the post-war Austrian writer Ingeborg Bachmann. In The Fertile Crescent, Kiefer presented a group of epic paintings inspired by a trip to India fifteen years earlier where he first encountered rural brick factories. Over the past decade, the photographs that Kiefer took in India "reverberated" in his mind to suggest a vast array of cultural and historical references, reaching from the first human civilization of Mesopotamia to the ruins of Germany in the aftermath of the Second World War, where he played as a boy. "Anyone in search of a resonant meditation on the instability of built grandeur", wrote the historian Simon Schama in his catalogue essay, "would do well to look hard at Kiefer's The Fertile Crescent".
In Morgenthau Plan (2012), the gallery is filled with a sculpture of a golden wheat field, enclosed in a five-meter-high steel cage. That same year, Kiefer inaugurated Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac's gallery space in Pantin, with an exhibition of monumental new works, Die Ungeborenen. The exhibition was accompanied by a publication with a letter by Anselm Kiefer and essays by Alexander Kluge and Emmanuel Daydé. He continues to be represented by the gallery and participates in group and solo exhibitions at their various locations.
=== Books ===
In 1969 Kiefer began to design books. Early examples are typically worked-over photographs; his more recent books consist of sheets of lead layered with paint, minerals, or dried plant matter. For example, he assembled numerous lead books on steel shelves in libraries, as symbols of the stored, discarded knowledge of history. The book Rhine (1981) comprises a sequence of 25 woodcuts that suggest a journey along the Rhine River; the river is central to Germany's geographical and historical development, acquiring an almost mythic significance in works such as Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungs. Scenes of the unspoiled river are interrupted by dark, swirling pages that represent the sinking of the battleship Bismarck in 1941, during an Atlantic sortie codenamed Rhine Exercise.
=== Studios ===
Kiefer's first large studio was in the attic of his home, a former schoolhouse in Hornbach. Years later he installed his studio in a factory building in Buchen, near Hornbach. In 1988, Kiefer transformed a former brick factory in Höpfingen (also near Buchen) into an extensive artwork including numerous installations and sculptures. In 1991, after twenty years of working in the Odenwald, the artist left Germany to travel around the world—to India, Mexico, Japan, Thailand, Indonesia, Australia, and the United States. In 1992 he established himself in Barjac, France, where he transformed his 35-hectare studio compound La Ribaute into a Gesamtkunstwerk. A derelict silk factory, his studio is enormous and in many ways is a comment on industrialization. He created an extensive system of glass buildings, archives, installations, storerooms for materials and paintings, subterranean chambers and corridors.
Sophie Fiennes filmed Kiefer's studio complex in Barjac for her documentary study Over Your Cities Grass Will Grow (2010), which recorded both the environment and the artist at work. One critic wrote of the film: "Building almost from the ground up in a derelict silk factory, Kiefer devised an artistic project extending over acres: miles of corridors, huge studio spaces with ambitious landscape paintings and sculptures that correspond to monumental constructions in the surrounding woodland, and serpentine excavated labyrinths with great earthy columns that resemble stalagmites or termite mounds. Nowhere is it clear where the finished product definitively stands; perhaps it is all work in progress, a monumental concept-art organism."
During 2008, Kiefer left his studio complex at Barjac and moved to Paris. A fleet of 110 lorries transported his work to a 35,000 sq ft (3,300 m2) warehouse in Croissy-Beaubourg, outside of Paris, that had once been the depository for the La Samaritaine department store. A journalist wrote of Kiefer's abandoned studio complex: "He left behind the great work of Barjac – the art and buildings. A caretaker looks after it. Uninhabited, it quietly waits for nature to take over, because, as we know, over our cities grass will grow". Kiefer spent the summer of 2019 living and working at Barjac."
== Works ==
Source:
The Second Sinful Fall of Parmenides (Der zweite Sündenfall des Parmenides), 1969. Oil on canvas, 82 5/8 x 98 3/8" (210x250 cm), Private Collection.
You're a Painter (Du bist Maler), 1969. Bound book, 9 7/8 × 7 1/2 x 3/8" (25 x 19 x 1 cm), Private Collection.
Plate I, German Line of Spiritual Salvation, 1975, Deutsche Heilsline, Watercolor on paper, 9 7/16 x 13 3/8" (24 X 34 cm), Private Collection.
Pages from "Occupations" ("Besetzungen"), 1969. From Interfunktionen (Cologne), no. 12 (1975).
Plate 2, Every Human Being Stands beneath His Own Dome of Heaven (Jeder Mensch steht unter seinem Himmelskugel), 1970, Watercolor and pencil on paper, 15 3/4 x 18 7/8", (40 x 48 cm), Private Collection.
Double-page photographic image with foldout from The Flooding of Heidelberg (Die Überschwemmung Heidelbergs), 1969, 11 7/8 × 8 1/2 x 7/8" (30.2 x 21.7 x 2.3 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Double-page photographic images from The Flooding of Heidelberg (Die Überschwemmung Heidelbergs), 1969.
Untitled (Ohne Titel), 1971, Oil on canvas (in two parts), each 86 5/8 x 39 3/8" (220 x 100 cm), Collection of Dr. Gunther Gercken, Lutjensee, West Germany.
Plate 3, Winter Landscape (Winterlandschaft), 1970, Watercolor on paper, 16 15/16 x 14 3/16" (43 x 36 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 4, Reclining Man with Branch (Liegender Mann mit Zweig), 1971, Watercolor on paper, 9 7/16 x 11" (24 x 28 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 5, Fulia, 1971, Watercolor and pencil on paper, 18 11/16 x 14 3/16" (47.5 x 36 cm), Private Collection.
Quaternity (Quaternität), 1973, Charcoal and oil on burlap, 118 1/8 x 171 1/4" (300 x 435 cm), Collection of George Baselitz, Derneburg, West Germany.
Father, Son, Holy Ghost (Vater, Sohn, heiliger Geist), 1973, Oil on burlap, 65 x 61 1/2" (165 x 156 cm), Collection of Dr. Gunther Gerken, Lutjensee, West Germany.
Faith, Hope, Love (Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe), 1973, Charcoal on burlap, with cardboard, 117 3/8 x 110 5/8" (298 x 281 cm). Staatsgalerie Stuttgart.
Plate 6, Man in the Forest (Mann im Wald), 1971, Oil on muslin, 68 1/2 x 74 7/16" (174 x 189 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 7, Resurrexit, 1973, oil, acrylic and charcoal on burlap, 114 3/16 x 70 7/8" (290 x 180 cm). Collection Sanders, Amsterdam.
Plate 8, Nothung (Notung), 1973, oil and charcoal on burlap, with oil and charcoal on cardboard, 118 1/8 x 170" (300 x 432 cm). Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam.
Plate 10, Germany's Spiritual Heroes (Deutschlands Geisteshelden), 1973, oil and charcoal on burlap, mounted on canvas, 120 7/8 x 268 1/2" (307 x 682 cm). Collection of Barbara and Eugene Schwartz, New York.
Double-page from Heroic Allegories (Heroische Sinnbilder), 1969, photography on cardboard, with pastel and pencil, 26 x 19 5/8 x 4" ( 66 x 50 x 10 cm), Private Collection.
Operation Winter Storm (Unternehmen "Wintergewitter"), 1975, oil on burlap, 47 1/4 x 59" (120 x 150 cm), Private Collection.
The Lake of Gennesaret (See Genezareth), 1974, oil emulsion, and shellac on burlap, 41 1/4 x 67" (105 x 170 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 11, Landscape with Head (Landschaft mit Kopf), 1973, oil, distemper, and charcoal on cardboard, 82 11/16 x 94 1/2" (210 x 240 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 12, Cockchafer Fly (Maikäfer flieg), 1974, oil on burlap, 86 5/8 x 118 1/8" (220 x 300 cm), Saatchi Collection, London.
Plate 13, March Heath (Märkische Heide), oil, acrylic and shellac on burlap, 46 1/2 x 100" (118 x 254 cm), Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
There is Peace upon Every Mountain Peak (Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh!), 1973, watercolor on paper, 12 3/8 x 18 7/8" (31.5 x 48 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 14, Operation Sea Lion I (Unternehmen "Seelöwe"), 1975, oil on canvas, 86 5/8 x 118 1/8" (220 x 300 cm), Collection of Norman and Irma Braman, Miami Beach.
Plate 15, Piet Mondrian- Operation Sea Lion (Piet Mondrian- Unternehmen "Seelöwe"), 1975, thirty-four double-page photographic images, mounted on cardboard and bound, 22 7/16 x 16 1/2 x 2" (57 x 42 5 cm) (bound volume), Collection of Marian Goodman, New York.
Plate 16, March Sand V (Märkischer Sand V), 1977, twenty-five double page photographic images, with sand, oil, and glue, mounted on cardboard and bound, 24 3/8 x 16 5/8 × 3 3/8" (62 x 42 x 8.5 cm) (bound volume), Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Andrew Saul, New York.
Double-page photographic images from Hoffmann von Fallersleben auf Helgoland, 1978 (Groningen, 1980), 11 7/8 × 8 1/2 x 1/2" (30.2 x 21.6 x 1.3 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Plate 17, Varus, 1976, oil and acrylic on burlap, 78 3/4 x 106 5/16" (200 x 270 cm), Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Double-page from Germany's Facial Type (Charcoal for 2000 Years) (Das deutsche Volksgesicht [Kohle fur 2000 Jahre]), 1974, charcoal on paper, with woodcut, 22 7/16 x 17 3/4 × 2 3/8" (57 x 45 x 6 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Heliogabalus (Heliogabal), 1974, watercolor on paper, 11 3/4 x 15 3/4" (30 x 40 cm), Collection of Fredrik Roos, Switzerland.
Plate 18, Ways of Worldly Wisdom (Wege der Weltweisheit), 1976–77, oil, acrylic, and shellac on burlap, mounted on canvas, 120 x 196 7/8" (305 x 500 cm), Collection Sanders, Amsterdam.
Plate 19, Ways of Worldly Wisdom- Arminius's Battle (Wege der Weltweisheit-die Hermanns-Schlacht), 1978–80, woodcut, with acrylic and shellac, mounted on canvas, 126 x 196 7/8" (320 x 500 cm), The Art Institute of Chicago.
Plate 20, Stefan!, 1975, watercolor and ball point pen on paper, 8 1/16 x 11 1/4" (20.5 x 28.5 cm), Collection of Johannes Gachenang, Bern.
Siegfried Forgets Brunhilde (Siegfried vergisst Brunhilde), 1975, oil on canvas, 51 1/8 x 67" (130 x 170 cm), Family H. de Groot Collection, Groningen, The Netherlands.
== Exhibitions ==
In 1969, Kiefer had his first solo exhibition, at Galerie am Kaiserplatz in Karlsruhe. Along with Georg Baselitz, he represented Germany at the Venice Biennale in 1980. He was also featured in the 1997 Venice Biennale with a one-man show held at the Museo Correr, concentrating on paintings and books.
Comprehensive solo exhibitions of Kiefer's work have been organized by the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf (1984); Art Institute of Chicago (1987); Sezon Museum of Art in Tokyo (1993); Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin (1991); Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (1998); Fondation Beyeler in Basel (2001); the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (2005); the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington D.C. (2006); the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (2007). In 2007, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao presented an extensive survey of recent work. Several of his works were exhibited in 2009 for the first time in the Balearic Islands, in the museum Es Baluard in Palma de Mallorca. In 2012, the Art Gallery of Hamilton presented some of his paintings. London's Royal Academy of Arts mounted the first British retrospective of the artist's work in September 2014.
In 2007 Kiefer was commissioned to create a huge site-specific installation of sculptures and paintings for the inaugural "Monumenta" at the Grand Palais, Paris. With the unveiling of a triptych – the mural Athanor and the two sculptures Danae and Hortus Conclusus – at the Louvre in 2007, Kiefer became the first living artist to create a permanent site-specific installation in the museum since Georges Braque in 1953.
In 2008, Kiefer installed Palmsonntag (Palm Sunday) (2006), a monumental palm tree and 36 steel-and-glass reliquary tablets in the auditorium-gym of the First Baptist Church of Los Angeles, an enormous Spanish Gothic edifice built in 1927. The room was reconfigured to accommodate the work. Floors were sanded to remove the basketball court's markings, and the wall for the reliquary paintings was constructed inside the space. In 2010 the piece was installed at the Art Gallery of Ontario museum in Toronto, where Kiefer created eight new panels specifically for the AGO's exhibition of this work.
In 2009, the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited Broken Flowers and Grass: Nature and Landscape in the Drawings of Anselm Kiefer, displaying Kiefer’s landscape paintings.
In Next Year in Jerusalem (2010) at Gagosian Gallery, Kiefer explained that each of the works was a reaction to a personal "shock" initiated by something he had recently heard of.
In September 2013, The Hall Art Foundation, in partnership with the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, opened a long-term installation of sculpture and paintings in a specifically repurposed, 10,000 square-foot building on the MASS MoCA campus. In 2014, the Foundation landscaped the area surrounding this building in order to present long-term installations of outdoor sculpture. The long-term exhibition—includes Étroits sont les Vaisseaux (Narrow are the Vessels) (2002), an 82-foot long, undulating wave-like sculpture made of cast concrete, exposed rebar, and lead; The Women of the Revolution (Les Femmes de la Revolution) (1992), composed of more than twenty lead beds with photographs and wall text; Velimir Chlebnikov (2004), a steel pavilion containing 30 paintings dealing with nautical warfare and inspired by the quixotic theories of the Russian mathematical experimentalist Velimir Chlebnikov; and a new, large-format photograph on lead created by the artist for the installation at MASS MoCA.
In 2015, the Centre Pompidou, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and the Museum der bildenden Künste in Leipzig hosted a retrospective exhibition in honor of Kiefer's 70th birthday.
In 2016 the Albertina in Vienna dedicated an exhibition to his woodcuts, showing 35 made between 1977 and 2015, with an accompanying catalogue.
In 2017, the Met Breuer presented Provocations: Anselm Kiefer at The Met Breuer, an exhibit of works that spanned his career.
He unveiled his first public art commission in the United States in May 2018, at Rockefeller Center. The Uraeus sculpture was inspired in part by the religious symbols of Egypt and Thus Spoke Zarathustra. It was put on view until 22 July.
From October 18, 2025–January 25, 2026, the Saint Louis Art Museum exhibited Anselm Kiefer: Becoming the Sea, a retrospective of Kiefer’s 60 year career. A catalog accompanied the exhibit.
== Recognition ==
In 1990, Kiefer was awarded the Wolf Prize. In 1999 the Japan Art Association awarded him the Praemium Imperiale for his lifetime achievements. In the explanatory statement it reads:
"A complex critical engagement with history runs through Anselm Kiefer's work. His paintings as well as the sculptures of Georg Baselitz created an uproar at the 1980 Venice Biennale: the viewers had to decide whether the apparent Nazi motifs were meant ironically or whether the works were meant to convey actual fascist ideas. Kiefer worked with the conviction that art could heal a traumatized nation and a vexed, divided world. He created epic paintings on giant canvases that called up the history of German culture with the help of depictions of figures such as Richard Wagner or Goethe, thus continuing the historical tradition of painting as a medium of addressing the world. Only a few contemporary artists have such a pronounced sense of art's duty to engage the past and the ethical questions of the present, and are in the position to express the possibility of the absolution of guilt through human effort."
In 2008, Kiefer was awarded the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade, given for the first time to a visual artist. Art historian Werner Spies said in his speech that Kiefer is a passionate reader who takes impulses from literature for his work. In 2011 Kiefer was appointed to the chair of creativity in art at the Collège de France.
== Materials ==
Due to the spontaneous nature of his creative process, many of his works have issues regarding stability—a concern shared by collectors, dealers, and curators alike. He acknowledges the issue, but says change is part of the process and that their essence will ultimately stay the same. This idea of transformation has a kind of appeal for Kiefer and thus is featured in many of his works. This fascination for the process may have stemmed from the artist's keen interest in alchemy. He often chooses materials for their alchemical properties—lead in particular being chief among them. In the case of lead, he specifically likes how the metal looks during the heating and melting process when he would see many colors—especially that of gold—which he thought of in a symbolic sense as the gold sought by alchemists. He is also particularly fond of the oxidation of white on lead. He would often try to induce oxidation artificially with the use of acid to speed up the process. Lead was also associated with the alchemical concepts of magic numbers and represented the planet Saturn.
Shellac, another material popular in his work, corresponded to lead in terms of how he felt about its color and energy possibilities. He also liked that while being polished it takes on energy and becomes warm to the touch.
The use of straw in his work is also in part the result of this common theme of energy. Straw again features the color gold and gives off energy, heat, and warmth when burned. This would make way for new creation thus continuing the cycle of life through the transformation process.
== Art market ==
The best selling painting for the artist was The Fertile Crescent (2009), which sold for $3,997,103 at the China Guardian action house, on 3 June 2019. The previous record belonged to the painting To the Unknown Painter (1983), sold by $3,554,500 at Christie's New York, on 11 May 2011, to an American private collector. Previously, it was held by Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom (1999), who had sold by $3,549,350 at Christie's London, on 8 February 2007.
== Collections ==
Kiefer's works are included in numerous public collections, including the Hamburger Bahnhof, Berlin; the Museum of Modern Art and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit; the Tate Modern, London; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; the Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; the North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh; the High Museum of Art, Atlanta; the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo; the Philadelphia Museum of Art; the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra; the Tel Aviv Museum of Art; and the Albertina, Vienna. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York owns 20 of the artist's rare watercolors. Notable private collectors include Eli Broad and Andrew J. Hall.
== See also ==
Holocaust memorial landscapes in Germany
== Bibliography ==
Lauterwein, Andréa (2007). Anselm Kiefer/Paul Celan. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-23836-3.
Kiefer, Anselm; Auping, Michael (2005). Anselm Kiefer. Fort Worth, Tex: Prestel Publishing. ISBN 978-3-7913-3387-8.
Biro, Matthew (1998). Anselm Kiefer and the Philosophy of Martin Heidegger. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59170-6.
Biro, Matthew (5 March 2013). Anselm Kiefer. London [u.a]: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-6143-2.
Danto, Arthur C. (1 January 1997). "Anselm Kiefer". Encounters & Reflections. Berkeley, Calif. London: Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20846-9.
Fiennes, Sophie (2011), Over your cities grass will grow, London: Artificial Eye, OCLC 1043105151
Hoerschelmann, Antonia (2016). Anselm Kiefer. Vienna Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7757-4101-9.
Stewart, Garrett (2010). "Bookwork as Demediation". Critical Inquiry. 36 (3): 410–457. doi:10.1086/653407. ISSN 0093-1896. S2CID 162264154.
== References ==
== External links ==
AnseIm Kiefer Site includes articles, interviews, bibliography and gallery of exhibitions posters. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_attorneys_general_of_Argentina | List of attorneys general of Argentina | The attorney general of Argentina (Spanish: Procurador General de la Nación Argentina) is the chief of all the prosecutors who act before national courts, as well as the designated prosecutor in the Supreme Court. The attorney general leads the Ministry of Public Prosecutions (Ministerio Público Fiscal; MPF). The Ministry of Public Prosecutions and the Ombudsperson's Office (Defensoría General) make up Argentina's Public Ministry, in accordance to Article 120 of the Argentine constitution.
Since 2017, the attorney general of Argentina has been Eduardo Casal, who serves in interim fashion following the resignation of Alejandra Gils Carbó.
== List of attorneys general ==
1863–1875 Francisco Pico
1875–1878 Carlos Tejedor
1878–1890 Eduardo Costa
1890–1892 Antonio Malaver
1892–1905 Sabiniano Kier
1905–1917 Julio Botet
1917–1922 José Nicolás Matienzo
1923–1935 Horacio Rodríguez Larreta (attorney general)
1935–1947 Juan Álvarez
1947–1955 Carlos Gabriel Delfino
1955–1958 Sebastián Soler
1958–1966 Ramón Lascano
1966–1973 Eduardo Marquardt
1973–1976 Enrique C. Petracchi
1976–1980 Elías P. Guastavino
1980–1983 Mario Justo Lopez
1983–1987 Juan Octavio Gauna
1987–1989 Andrés José d'Alessio
1989–1991 Oscar Eduardo Roger
1991–1992 Rebón Aldo Montesano
1992–1994 Oscar Luján Fappiano
1994–1997 Ángel Nicolás Agüero Iturbe
1997–2004 Nicolás Eduardo Becerra
2004–2012 Esteban Justo Righi
2012–2017 Alejandra Magdalena Gils Carbó
2017- Eduardo Casal (Interim)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Spanish) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopore | Sopore | Sopore (Urdu pronunciation: [soːpoːr] ; Kashmiri pronunciation: [soːpoːr]) is a city in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is 45 km (28 mi) north-west of Srinagar, and 16 km (10 mi) north-east of Baramulla.
Sopore is one of the largest subdivisions in Jammu and Kashmir, consisting of seven tehsils and the state's oldest existing subdivision. Recognized as an urban area right from the 1911 census. Sopore has long been a central business hub in North Kashmir. Its historical significance, coupled with its economic role, underscores its prominent position in the region.
Sopore features Asia's second-largest fruit mandi, located at Nowpora Kalan Sopore , approximately 2 km away from the main town, boasting an annual turnover of over ₹3000 crore. This mandi facilitates around 40 percent of the apple production and sales in the Kashmir Valley, which has led to Sopore being known as the 'Apple Town of Kashmir'. Additionally, Wular Lake, one of Asia's largest freshwater lakes, lies between Sopore and the Bandipore district. Wular Lake is a major source of fish for the Kashmir Valley and is also distinguished for its production of water chestnuts, enhancing the region's economic and ecological significance.
Municipal Council Sopore is a local urban body that administers the city of Sopore. There are 21 wards in Sopore M.Cl (Municipal Council) and two OG's (Outgrowths), as Amargarh and Nowpora Kalan.
Old Sopur is settled on both banks of the Jhelum River, lending it a picturesque and historically rich setting. This historic area is known for its densely packed network of 30-35 mohallas. Some Notable mohallas include Hatishah, Jamia Qadeem, Khanqah, Chankhan, Untoo Hamam, Sofi Hamam, Now Hamam, Batpora, Ashpeer, Khushal Matoo, Muslim Peer, Kralteng, Sangrampora, Maharajpora, Arampora, Teliyan, and Takyabal. Each mohalla has its unique character and history, together forming a diverse and culturally significant part of Old Sopur.
New Sopore began to take shape in the mid-20th century, starting with its first planned colony, New Colony. Over time, this development expanded to include a variety of other colonies, such as Noor Bagh, Iqbal Nagar, Badam Bagh, Baba Raza, Siddiq Colony, Model Town, Shah Kirman Colony, Krankshivan Colony and New Light Colony, among others. Each of these neighborhoods was designed with modern infrastructure and amenities, reflecting the region's growth and enhancement of urban living standards.
Sopore division encompasses the city of Sopore, several nearby villages such as Tarzoo, Wagub, Adipora, Seer Jagir, and others, along with a historically notable region known as the Zaingair belt. This belt comprises numerous villages such as Dangerpora, Dooru, Mundji, Hardshiva, Warpora, Botingoo, Hathlangoo, Wadoora, Tujar Sharif, Brath Kalan, Bomai, Seelo, Logripora, Zaloora, and many more. Each of these villages plays a vital role in supporting and sustaining the economy of the Sopore region.
== Markets and Commercial Centers ==
Old Sopore is home to a historic marketplace that has been a central hub for trade and commerce for over a century. This marketplace is locally known as Bada Bazar, which serves as the main market of Sopore. Running parallel to Bada Bazar is its counterpart, the narrower Chota Bazar. Together, these markets host a diverse range of retail and wholesale establishments, including general stores, grocery shops, cloth merchants, readymade garment shops, copper shops, goldsmiths, and various other shops. Chota Bazar is also renowned for its prominent fish market, often referred to as Gaade Bazar.
Main Chowk Sopore, often referred to as Samad Talkies Chowk due to the historic Samad Talkies Cinema that once stood there, serves as the central hub of the town. This bustling intersection links four key markets: Bada Bazar and Chota Bazar on one side, Iqbal Market on the opposite side, and Super Bazar and Tehsil Road on the remaining sides. This bustling intersection is truly the heart of Sopore, linking its vibrant commercial centers.
Since 1947, the town's market has expanded at least fivefold. A major development in this expansion was the emergence of Iqbal Market, which quickly became the heart of commercial activities. Iqbal Market is renowned for its bustling Sunday Market, where vendors gather to sell their goods. Additionally, Iqbal Market connects seamlessly with Shah Faisal Market and the General Bus Stand Market, creating a vibrant and well-integrated commercial area.
Other significant markets in Sopore include Chankhan Market, Downtown, and Tehsil Road, which is commonly referred to as Bugu. The New Colony area, located near the General Bus Stand, has grown from Sopore's first planned colony into a major commercial hub. Additionally, Amargarh and the Sopore Bypass are rapidly developing into prominent commercial zones, further enhancing the city's economic landscape.
== History ==
Sopore was earlier known as "Suyyapura" in Antiquity. Suyyapura, founded by a reputed Kashmiri engineer Suyya during the reign of Raja Awantivarma (855-883 A.D.) and commemorating his name, is undoubtedly the town known now as Sopore.
J.P. Ferguson, in his book entitled 'Kashmir', remarks, "Suyya stands out as a person hundreds of years in advance of his time". It is because of the technical intelligence and real skill he possessed and applied for draining off the flood water, which could find no outlet and had made the cultivation of land impossible, with the result that famine-like conditions prevailed in the whole of the valley. That is why, in the light of the results achieved by this great engineer, he has been regarded as an incarnation of the Lord of Food himself by the great historian Kalhana in his book 'Rajatarangini'. Suyya's reputation attracted many persons who also settled at the place he resided, and which eventually came to be known as Suyyapura, meaning the place where Suyya settled. With the passage of time and constant use, the pronunciation of the name was distorted into Sopore, by which it is known at present.
M.A. Stein, the English translator of Kalhanas 'Rajatarangini' in his book 'Memoir on maps illustrating the Ancient Geography of Kashmir' published in 1899, (p. 208) while writing about Sopore town, remarks: Sopore, which lies a short distance below the point where the Vitasta leaves the Wular, has retained its importance to this day and is still a town of over 8,000 inhabitants. It has, during recent times, been the official headquarters for the whole of Kamraj. From a passage of Srivara, it appears that this had been the case already at an earlier period. Relating a great conflagration which destroyed Suyyapura in Zain-ul-Abidin's time, this chronicle tells us that in it perished the whole of the official archives relating to Kamarajya. The royal residence, however, escaped, and the town itself was again built up by the King in great splendour. Of this, however, nothing has remained; nor does the town now show older remains of any interest." As will be clear from the history of the town narrated above, there is no trace left of any historical buildings or ancient monuments that could throw some light on the past. It is quite likely that the ancient remains might have been destroyed in the conflagration that broke out during the reign of Zain-ul-Abdin (1420-1470 A.D.).
=== Kashmir Sultanate era ===
In 1459, Sopur was attacked by Adam Khan, son of the sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, during a rebellion against his father. The town's governor resisted, but he was defeated and killed, and Adam had the town destroyed. Zain-ul-Abidin responded by sending an army to Sopur, and they routed Adam's forces in a pitched battle. While Adam and his followers were fleeing across the Jhelum at Sopur, the bridge collapsed and 300 of his followers drowned in the river.
At some point late in Zain-ul-Abidin's reign, the town of Sopur was destroyed by fire (this might be a duplicate reference to Adam Khan's destruction of Sopur; the source isn't clear about this). Sometime after this happened, Zain-ul-Abidin built a new palace at Sopur; another palace at Baramula was demolished at this point, and its materials were used to build the new palace at Sopur. Zain-ul-Abidin also had a swinging bridge constructed at Sopur during his reign.
The swinging bridge continued to be the sole communication link across the river until 1955, when it was discarded in favour of an R.C.C. bridge constructed about half a mile downstream. Lately the old bridge has also been reconstructed and thrown open to traffic.
== Demographics ==
As of the 2011 India census, Sopore urban area had a population of 71,292 and an area of 18.9 km2 (7.3 sq mi). The urban area consisted of the city, which had a municipal council and some outgrowths. In the 2011 census, the city had a population of 61,098 and an area of 9.90 km2 (3.82 sq mi). In the urban area, there were 37,570 males (53%) and 33,722 females (47%). Of the population, 9,329 (13.1%) were age 0-6: 5,042 males (54%) and 4,287 females (46%). The literacy rate for people over six was 70.8% (males 78.6%, females 62.3%).
== Administration ==
Sh. Shabir Ahmad Raina is serving as the ADC (Additional Deputy Commissioner) Sopore, and Iftkhar Talib (JKPS) as SP (Superintendent of Police) Sopore.
== Education ==
The main public educational institutions in Sopore are:
Government Degree College, Sopore
Government Degree College for Women, Sopore
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology Wadoora, Sopore.
Sopore Law College
== Notable people ==
Atiqa Bano, educationist
Syed Ali Shah Geelani, politician
Afzal Guru, Freedom fighter
Ghulam Rasool Kar, politician
Rahim Sopori Sufi Saint and Poet
Saifi Sopori, poet and teacher
Abdul Ahad Vakil, politician
Baba Shukur ud-Din Wali Sufi Saint from the Rishi Order Lived here on Sharikot Hill near Wular Lake in the 15th C.E
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedaant_Madhavan#Junior_National_Aquatics_Championships_2022 | Vedaant Madhavan | Vedaant Madhavan (born 21 August 2005) is an Indian freestyle swimmer. He is a 5-time gold medalist at the Malaysian Open, a gold and silver medalist at the Danish Open, as well as a bronze medalist at the Latvian and Thailand Open. Madhavan finished 5th at the Commonwealth Youth Games.
== Early life ==
Madhavan was born on 21 August 2005 in Mumbai to fashion designer Sarita Birje and actor R. Madhavan. As he was attending school, he joined the Goregaon Sports Club to learn swimming professionally.
He shifted to Glenmark Aquatic Foundation in 2017 and started participating in national level meets. He finished his schooling at Universal American School of Dubai. He majored in marketing from Virginia Tech and was a part of the swimming team Virginia Tech Hokies. Madhavan has also studied at the West Virginia University.
== Career ==
Madhavan's first international level test was Thailand Open 2018, where he clinched the bronze medal in 1500m freestyle. He won silver in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay at the Asian Age Group Championships 2019. In 2021, he won the bronze medal in the 1500m freestyle at the Latvia Open. He then won the silver in the 1500m and the gold in the 800m events at the Danish Open 2022.
He next participated at the World Junior Championships 2022 where he finished with his best-ever lap at 52.83s in 100m freestyle. Madhavan won five gold medals in the 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m and 1500m events at the 2023 Malaysia Open. He also set two new personal bests during the tournament.
While he has won several national medals, his most noteworthy performance at the level was during the 2023 Khelo India Youth Games where he won 7 medals including 5 gold and 2 silver. He finished 5th in 1500 m freestyle at the 2023 Commonwealth Youth Games and was the flag bearer of the Indian contingent.
== Achievements ==
== References ==
== See also ==
Swimming in India
== External links ==
Vedaant Madhavan at World Aquatics
Vedaant Madhavan on Swim Cloud |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Gay_Bottje | Will Gay Bottje | Will Gay Bottje (June 30, 1925; Grand Rapids, Michigan - January 7, 2018; Grand Rapids, Michigan) was an American composer known for his contributions to electronic music.
Bottje was a graduate of the Juilliard School (Bachelor of Music in flute performance and Master of Music in composition) where he studied composition with Vittorio Giannini. He went on to pursue studies at the Eastman School of Music where he was a pupil of Bernard Rogers and Howard Hanson. From Eastman he earned a Doctor of Musical Arts in Composition, the second such degree to be awarded to a student from any institution. He also studied composition privately with Nadia Boulanger in Paris, and was a pupil of Henk Badings at the University of Utrecht's electronic music studio.
From 1957 to 1981 Bottje taught on the music faculty at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, Illinois. There he founded and directed SIU's electronic music studio. One of his notable pupils at SIU was composer Larry Lake. During 21-23 October 1965, Bottje was also a SIU featured Vision '65 speaker/presenter.
== Selected compositions ==
=== Orchestral ===
Commentaries for Guitar & Small Orchestra (also piano reduction)
Concertino for Piccolo & Orchestra (piano reduction Zalo)
Concerto for 2 Flutes & Orchestra (Piano vers. J/P publication)
Concerto for Horn & Orchestra (also piano reduction)
Concerto for Oboe, Violin & Orchestra (small)
Flavors (Community or select high school)
Full Circle
Opener
Sinfonia for Young String Orchestra
Sounds From the West Shore
The Ballad Singer
== Vocal and choral ==
A Sentence Once Begun – Soprano, Str Quartet (Ch. Fry) (piano reduction)
Cantata for the 53rd Sunday ( A Prayer for Middle Age) – SATB, 3 solos, keyboard, soprano obligato instrument
Carol (from Wind In the Willows) – SATB
Credo (R. Roland) – SSAATTBB
Diptych (Rilke) – SSAATTBB, part 2 with keyboard
Exhortation of the Dawn – SATB and Brass Ensemble or keyboard
In Caverns All Alone (7 songs on mind) – Soprano or Tenor, flute, bassoon and piano
In Praise of Music (5 songs) (Elizabethan texts) – Mezzo-Soprano and String Quartet (Rev. 1997–98)
Last Minute Message for a Time Capsule – SATB, ten dr
Quests of Odysseus (Kazantzakis) – tenor and piano (8 songs)
Radiant Musings (N. Cousins) – SATB and keyboard, 11 short settings which can be done as a whole, in part, or individually
"Songs from the Land Between the Rivers - SATB and Orchestra"
Thrush Song – SSAATTBB, solos & flute
Wayward Pilgrim (5 songs) (E. Dickinson) – Soprano or Mezzo-soprano & Piano
== Chamber music ==
Brief Acquaintances – Oboe, Clarinet, Cello
Brief Candles – Flute and Guitar
Chorale and Allegro – four trumpets
Concerto for Tuba – Tuba & Piano (also in ms. orch version)
Country Wife-Suite (5 dances for Wycherly play) – flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon.
Dances: Real & Imagined – Guitar & String Quartet
Designs- 2 flutes, cello, piano
Diversions (Settings of Jim Thurber texts) – narrator, flute, oboe, bassoon, clarinet, horn and piano
Dune Music – flute, oboe, cello and piano
Duo Sonatina – 2 Euphoniums, piano (a vers. with 14-piece ensemble, also)
Fireflies – Oboe, Harpsichord & String Quartet
Incidental Music for a Restoration Comedy – clarinet, viola and cello
Lighter Strings – Guitar & Harpsichord
Litanies, Refrains & Alleluias – Trombone and piano
Little Sonata No.1 – Flute and organ
Little Sonata 5 – Clarinet and organ
Little Sonata No.7 – Trumpet and organ
Lyric Sonata (rev. 1998) – Bassoon and piano
Music for a Joyous Occasion III – 2 flutes (or violins), and cello
Prelude & Fugue – Tuba and piano
Quintet for Flute & Strings
Quintet for Clarinet, bassoon, french horn, violin, and contrabass
Quintet Nr. 2 For Winds – flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and French horn
Ready, Set-- 3 cellos, or 3 bassoons, or 3 Clarinets
Recitative, Arioso & Finale – Trombone and piano
Serenade – Wind quintet and string quartet
Sextet for Strings – 2 violins, 2 violas and 2 cellos
Sonata for 2 Cellos
Sonatas 1,2, and 3 – cello and piano
Sonata for Flute & Piano
Sonata for Guitar
Sonata for Trumpet & Piano
Sonata for Violin & Piano
Song and Dance (1998) – Violin and Piano
Soundings – Oboe and Harpsichord
Sprites & Phantoms – flute, oboe, clarinet, cello and piano
String Quartets Nrs. 2, 4 & 5
Symphony for Cello and Piano four-hands (rev. 1998)
Three Flared Bells – trumpet, French horn and trombone
Three Miniatures – flute and piano
Tides – two pianos
Trio – flute, cello and piano
Trio (rev. 1998) – violin, cello and piano
Triple Play- Clarinet & Piano
Variations & Fugue – 4 trombones (400)
Well-Tempered Flutes – 43 Preludes & Fugues from Bach WTC, arr for 2 flutes
Wonders of the Night Sky – 8 piano ensemble
== References ==
== External links ==
Will Gay Bottje at the American Composers Alliance |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Singapore | Demographics of Singapore | As of June 2025, the population of Singapore stood at 6.11 million. Of these 6.11 million, 4.20 million are residents, consisting of about 3.66 million citizens and 540,000 permanent residents (PRs). The remaining 1.91 million people living in Singapore are classed as non-residents, defined as "foreign workforce across
all pass types, dependants and international students".
Singapore is a multi-racial, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society. Major religions include Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism and Hinduism. Its population is broadly classified under the CMIO system: Chinese, Malay, Indian and Other. While Malays are recognised as the indigenous community, 75.5 percent of citizens and permanent residents are ethnic Chinese, with Malays and Indians making up 15.1 and 7.6 percent respectively. These three groups make up 98.2 percent of the ethnic citizen population, while the remaining 1.8 percent, categorised as Other, are largely Eurasians. Non-residents, who make up 29 percent of the overall population, are excluded from resident statistics. Officially, mixed-race Singaporeans are typically assigned their father's race, though their identity card may also reflect both parents' ethnicities.
Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Malay holds the status of national language, but English is the main working language. The education system is bilingual, with English as the medium of instruction and a second language, usually Malay, Mandarin or Tamil, also required. Singlish, a local creole, is commonly spoken in informal settings across all major ethnic groups. In 2020, the total population growth rate was -0.3 percent. The resident total fertility rate (TFR) was 1.10, with Chinese at 0.94, Malays at 1.83 and Indians at 0.97.
== History ==
=== Population growth ===
Population growth in Singapore was fuelled by immigration for a long period of time, starting soon after Stamford Raffles landed in Singapore in 1819, when the population of the island was estimated to be around 1,000. The first official census taken in January 1824 showed that the resident population of Singapore had grown to 10,683: 4,580 Malays, 3,317 Chinese, 1,925 Bugis, 756 natives of India, 74 Europeans, 16 Armenians, and 15 Arabs. Chinese males greatly outnumbered the females; in the 1826 population figures there were 5,747 Chinese males but only 341 Chinese females, in contrast to 2,501 Malay males and 2,289 Malay females. The figures for around a thousand Indians in 1826 were also similarly skewed towards male – 209 male and 35 female Bengalis, 772 males and 5 females from the Coromandel Coast. By 1836, the population figure had risen to 29,980, and marked a change in demographics as the Malays were outnumbered for the first time; 45.9% of the population were Chinese versus 41.9% for Malays (including Javanese and Bugis). Women from China were discouraged from emigrating, and most of the Chinese females in this early period of Singapore were likely nyonyas from Malacca; it was noted in 1837 that there were no Chinese women in Singapore who had emigrated directly from China.
The imbalance of the sexes continued for a long period, for example, the 1901 census figures show that there were 130,367 Chinese males compared to 33,674 Chinese females. Such imbalance also meant that fewer people were born in early Singapore, and in the first hundred years, most of the Chinese population in Singapore were immigrants. By the late 1890s, only around 10% of the Chinese population in Singapore were born there. Many of the early migrant workers from China and India did not intend to settle permanently to raise their families in Singapore; they worked to send back remittance to their families back home, and would return to China or India after they had earned enough money. Later an increasing number of Chinese chose to settle permanently in Singapore, especially in the 1920s when it became more favourable to stay in Singapore rather than returning to China. Change in social attitude in the modern era also meant that Chinese women were freer to emigrate from China, and the sex ratio began to normalise. This gradual normalisation of sex ratio led to an increase in the number of native births. Immigration continued to be the main reason for the Chinese population increase in Singapore until the 1931–1947 period when the natural increase in population surpassed the net immigration figure.
After World War II, in the period from 1947 to 1957, Singapore saw a massive population increase mostly due to increased number of native births. The birth rate rose and the death rate fell; the average annual growth rate was 4.4%, of which 1% was due to immigration; Singapore experienced its highest birth rate in 1957 at 42.7 per thousand individuals. (This was also the same year the United States saw its peak birth rate.)
Immigration to Singapore also fell sharply after Singapore independence due to tighter control of immigration from Malaysia and other countries. The population increase became dominated by native births with 315,400 in the 1970–1980 period due to natural increase compared to 24,000 from net migration. However, a lower rate of natural growth in population and the need for low-skill labour resulted in a deliberate shift in policy by the Singapore government to allow more foreigners to live and work in the country, and net migration increased in the 1980–1990 period to nearly 200,000. By the decade of 1990–2000, the net migrant number of over 600,000 had surpassed the natural growth of the population, and accounted for nearly two-thirds of the population increase. The same high level of immigration is also seen in the next decade with 664,083 net migration recorded.
Due to the continued low birth rate, amongst other reasons, the Singapore government has varied its immigration policy over the years. As the demand for labour grew with industrialisation, foreign talent with professional qualifications as well as less-skilled foreign workers has made up a significant and increasing proportion of Singapore's total population since the 2000s and 2010s. Curbs on immigration, however, began to be implemented in the 2010s to ease increasing social issues arising from the high level of immigration.
=== Population planning ===
The post-war boom in births led to an interest in family planning, and by 1960, the government publicly funded and supported family planning programmes. After independence in 1965, the birth rate had fallen to 29.5 per thousand individuals, and the natural growth rate had fallen to 2.5%. Birth rates in the 1960s were still perceived as high by the government; on average, a baby was born every 11 minutes in 1965. Kandang Kerbau Hospital (KKH)—which specialised in women's health and was the most popular hospital to have children—saw over 100 deliveries per day in 1962. In 1966, KKH delivered 39835 babies, earning it a place in the Guinness Book of World Records for "largest number of births in a single maternity facility" for ten years. Because there was generally a massive shortage of beds in that era, mothers with routine deliveries were discharged from hospitals within 24 hours.
In September 1965 the Minister for Health, Yong Nyuk Lin, submitted a white paper to Parliament, recommending a "Five-year Mass Family Planning programme" that would reduce the birth rate to 20.0 per thousand individuals by 1970. In 1966, the Family Planning and Population Board (FPPB) had been established based on the findings of the white paper, providing clinical services and public education on family planning.
By 1970, the Stop at Two campaign was firmly established, implementing incentives, disincentives and public exhortation to discourage families from having more than two children. After 1975, the fertility rate declined below replacement level, in a sign that Singapore was undergoing the demographic transition. In 1983, the Graduate Mothers' Scheme was implemented in an attempt to get educated women, especially women with a university degree, to marry and procreate, while the government encouraged women without an O-level degree to get sterilised. This was done out of the Lee Kuan Yew government's belief that for the nation to best develop and avoid hardship, the educated classes should be encouraged to contribute to the nation's breeding pool, while the uneducated should not, sparking the Great Marriage Debate.
In 1986, the government reversed its population policy—except its stance on low-income, lowly-educated women—and initiated the Have Three or More (if you can afford it) campaign, offering cash and public administration incentives to have children. In 2001, the Singapore government started its Baby Bonus scheme.
Singapore has one of the lowest fertility rates in the world. In 2012, Singapore total fertility rate (TFR) was 1.20 children born per woman, a sub-replacement fertility rate. Ethnic Chinese had a fertility of 1.07 in 2004 (1.65 in 1990), while Malays had a TFR of 2.10 (2.69 in 1990). Both figures declined further in 2006. TFR for Indians was 1.30 in 2004 and 1.89 in 1990. The Singapore government has launched several highly publicised attempts to raise the fertility rate and increase awareness of the negative effects of an ageing population, the elderly (65 and above) had constituted 9.9% of its population in 2012; this proportion is still significantly lower than that of many other developed nations, such as the United States and Japan. In February 2015, National University of Singapore launched the "New Age Institute" in conjunction with Washington University in St. Louis to conduct research on this issue.
=== Area planning ===
The population of Singapore are generally housed within new towns, which are large scale satellite housing developments designed to be self contained. It includes public housing units, private housing, a town centre and other amenities. Since the 1950s, Singapore had a city centre surrounded by slums and squatter colonies. By 1959 when Singapore attained self government, the problem of housing shortage had grown. Combined with a fast population growth, it led to congestion and squalor. The new towns planning concept was introduced in July 1952 by the country's public housing authority, Housing and Development Board (HDB), to counter the housing shortage problem and to relocate most of the population crammed within the city centre to other parts of the island. Today, there are 23 new towns and 3 estates within the country, with Bedok being the largest by area and population.
=== Population White Paper ===
In early 2013, the Parliament of Singapore debated the policies set out in the Population White Paper (PWP) titled A Sustainable Population for a Dynamic Singapore. The White Paper noted that by 2030, around 900,000 baby boomers would make up one quarter of the citizen population and that the workforce would begin to shrink "from 2020 onwards". It projected that by 2030, Singapore's total population could range between 6.5 and 6.9 million, with the resident population between 4.2 and 4.4 million and the citizen population between 3.6 and 3.8 million. To address these challenges, the PWP recommended increasing the number of foreign workers to strike a balance between skilled and less skilled labour, as well as to provide healthcare and domestic services. It also argued that foreign workers support businesses in times of economic growth.
The motion was passed by a vote of 77 to 13 in the People's Action Party (PAP)–dominated Parliament, following amendments that removed the phrase "population policy" and placed greater emphasis on infrastructure and transport development. Opposition to the motion came from non–PAP parliamentarians, including all seven MPs of the Workers' Party (WP). In addition, three Non-constituency Members of Parliament (NCMPs) voted against it, two from the WP and one from the Singapore People's Party (SPP). Several Nominated Members of Parliament (NMPs) also expressed dissent, with three casting votes against the motion and one choosing to abstain.
Outside Parliament, the PWP was heavily criticised and panned by opposition parties and government critics. WP's Low Thia Khiang criticised current measures of increasing the fertility rate, claiming that this would lead to an increase of a higher cost of living and discourage young couples from having more kids. As for current immigration policies, he had noted that immigrants were a source of friction for Singaporeans and that an increased population would put more stress and strain on the urban infrastructure. On 16 February 2013, an estimated 4,000 Singaporeans gathered at the Speakers' Corner in Hong Lim Park to protest against the PWP. Participants voiced concerns that the projected population increase would strain public services and drive up the cost of living. The event was noted as the largest protest of an anti government nature to be held at the Speakers' Corner since its establishment in 2000.
== Population ==
=== Population size and growth by residential status ===
Source: Singapore Department of Statistics
=== Gender composition of resident population ===
Source: Singapore Department of Statistics
=== Age distribution of resident population ===
Source: Singapore Department of Statistics
=== Population by sex and age (2025) ===
Source:
=== Fertility and mortality ===
Source: Department of Statistics of Singapore: Population Trends, 2020 Archived 20 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
== Vital statistics ==
=== Registered births and deaths ===
Data from Singapore Department of Statistics, Ministry of Home Affairs:
Notable events in Singaporean demography:
1942-1945 – Second World War
=== Current vital statistics ===
=== Population by area ===
== Ethnic groups ==
=== Post-independence ===
In the post-independence period after 1965, Singapore's population has been broadly classified into four main groups: Chinese, Malays, Indians and Others, a category that consists largely of Eurasians. These groups collectively shape the country's contemporary cultural and social landscape, influencing its cuisine, languages, religions and traditions that are regarded as distinctive to Singapore. The CMIO framework was first proposed in 1956 during British colonial rule as a way to structure the education system around four designated national languages.
Although immigration was a major driver of population growth in Singapore during the colonial period, by the mid-20th century growth became dominated by native births and accelerated following World War II. After Singapore's separation from Malaysia in 1965, the free movement of people between the two countries ended, and net immigration fell to a low of 24,000 in the decade from 1970 to 1980 due to tighter immigration controls by the Singaporean government. Meanwhile, fertility among the Chinese population declined sharply after the post-war boom, while fertility among the Malay population remained relatively high. As a result, the Malay share of the population increased to 14.5% in the late-1960s, reversing a long period of decline during the British colonial period.
From the 1980s onwards, the government's immigration policy shifted, leading to a sharp increase in the number of immigrants, which once again became an important driver of population growth in Singapore. By the period from 1990 to 2000, immigration had overtaken natural population growth, accounting for nearly two-thirds of the decadal increase with 640,571 net migrants, including non-residents. While the racial composition of citizens has remained relatively constant over the decades, slight shifts are observed in the figures for residents (citizens plus permanent residents). A smaller proportion of immigrants were Malays, resulting in a decline in the percentage of Malays among the resident population. By contrast, the proportion of Indian residents rose to 9.2% in 2010, an increase from 7.4% among citizens alone, largely due to the inflow of migrant workers from South Asia particularly in the construction sector.
The population profile of Singapore changed significantly after the relaxation of immigration policy from the 1980s, with a sharp increase in the number of transient foreigners. Official figures show that the number of non-residents grew from 30,900 in 1970 to 1,641,600 in 2020, representing about a 53-fold increase over 50 years. Their share of the total population rose from 2.9% in 1970 to 28.9% in 2020. Despite this, no further breakdown of the non-resident population (such as by ethnic origin) is publicly provided by Singstat. It is widely assumed that this group comprises individuals from a broad range of countries who generally do not fit into the CMIO classification, which may explain the lack of detailed categorisation. By the mid-2020s, it was estimated that more than 40% of Singapore's total population were of foreign origin, being both permanent residents and non-residents, including foreign workers, students and their dependants, among others.
=== Pre-independence ===
Singapore, following its founding as a British free port by Stamford Raffles in the 19th century, did not have a sizeable native population as the population became dominated by three main groups of immigrants. When Raffles arrived in Singapore in January 1819, Singapore had approximately 120 Malays, 30 Chinese and some native tribes (Orang Laut) under the rule of the Temenggung. Around 100 of the Malays had originally moved to Singapore from the mainland (Johor) in 1811, led by the Temenggung. Other estimates place the then population of Singapore at 1,000, belonging to various local tribes. Early census figures show a long influx of migrant workers into the country, initially consisting mostly of Malays, but shortly thereafter followed by the Chinese. By 1821, the population was estimated to have increased to 4,724 Malays and 1,150 Chinese.
In the first census of 1824, 6,505 out of the 10,683 total were Malays and Bugis, constituting over 60% of the population. Large number of Chinese migrants started to enter Singapore just months after it became a British settlement, and they were predominantly male. In 1826, official census figures give a total population of 13,750, with 6,088 Chinese, 4,790 Malays, 1,242 Bugis, 1,021 Indians from Bengal (244) and the Coromandel Coast (777), smaller number of Javanese (267), Europeans (87) and other peoples. The population total of Singapore increased to 16,000 in 1829, 26,000 five years later. By 1836, the Chinese at 13,749 had become the most populous ethnic group, overtaking the broad Malay grouping (12,538, including other groups such as the Bugis, Javanese, and Balinese from the Dutch East Indies). By 1849, the population had reached 59,043, 24,790 of them Chinese.
Many of the migrants from China in the 19th century came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations, with 11,000 Chinese immigrants recorded in one year. Singapore became one of the entry and dispersal points for large number of Chinese and Indian migrants who came to work in the plantations and mines of the Straits Settlements, many of whom then settled in Singapore after their contract ended. By 1860, the total population had reached around 90,000, of these 50,000 were Chinese, and 2,445 Europeans and Eurasians. The first thorough census in Singapore was undertaken in 1871, and the people were grouped into 33 racial, ethnic or national categories, with Chinese forming the largest group at 57.6%.
Censuses were then conducted at 10-year intervals afterwards. The 1881 census grouped the people into 6 main categories, and further subdivided into 47 sub-categories. The 6 broad groups were given as Europeans, Eurasians, Malays, Chinese, Indians and Others in 1921. The Malays group included other natives of the Malay archipelago, the Europeans included Americans, the Indians would be people from the Indian subcontinent including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh. In 1901, the total population of Singapore was 228,555, with 15.8% Malays, 71.8% Chinese, 7.8% Indians, and 3.5% Europeans and Eurasians. The Chinese population figure of Singapore has stayed at over 70% of the total since, reaching 77.8% in 1947. After dropping from a peak of 60% in the early years of Singapore, the Malay population settled within the range of 11 and 16% in the first half of the 20th century, while Indians hovered between 7 and just over 9% in the same period.
^A Population figures do not include transient populations of military personnel and convicts
^B Mostly of Portuguese descent
^C Include other peoples of the Malay Archipelago if figures not given separately
^D Include Balinese
^E Include Cafres, Siamese, Parsis, Jews, and other groupings if figures not given separately.
== Languages ==
Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil.
Malay is the national language of the country, although English is the official language used in the educational system and by the government. The colloquial English-based creole used in everyday life is often referred to as Singlish, spoken by all races of Singapore.
The government of Singapore promotes the use of Mandarin. The use of other Chinese varieties, like Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese and Hakka, has been declining over the last two decades, although they are still being used especially by the older generations of the Chinese population.
About 60% of Indian Singaporeans are Tamils although the percentage of those who speak Tamil at home has been declining, with around 37% of Singaporean Indians speaking Tamil at home according to the 2010 census. Other spoken Indian languages are Punjabi, Malayalam, Hindi and Bengali, but none of them alone is spoken by more than 10% of the Indian Singaporeans. As with Chinese Singaporeans, a large proportion of Indian Singaporeans speak English at home.
Around 5,000 to 10,000 Peranakans, the early Chinese population of the region, still use the Hokkien-influenced Malay dialect called Baba Malay.
== Religion ==
The main religions of Singapore are Chinese folk religion, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Sikhism, with a significant number who profess no religion.
Singapore has freedom of religion, although the government restricts some religions such as Jehovah's Witnesses, due to their opposition to conscription. The majority of Malays are Muslim, while the plurality of Chinese practise Buddhism and syncretic Chinese folk traditions. Christianity is growing in the country. Taoism was overtaken as the second-most prominent religion in the 2000 census among the Chinese as more have increasingly described themselves as Buddhists rather than Taoist. Indians are mostly Hindus, though many are Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians. People who practise no religion form the second largest group in Singapore.
== Marriage and divorce ==
== Literacy and education ==
Among residents aged 25–39 years, the percentage of university graduates increased from 23.7% in 2001 to 45.9% in 2011 while that who had attained a diploma or professional qualification increased from 15.9% to 22.9% over the same period.
== Employment ==
In 2005, the unemployment rate for persons aged 15 years and over was 2.5%, the lowest in the last four years, with a labour force of 2.3 million people.
== Household income ==
=== Average household monthly income ===
The average household monthly income was SGD 4,943 in 2000, which was an increase of $3,080 in 1990 at an average annual rate of 4.9%. The average household income experienced a drop of 2.7% in 1999 due to economic slowdown. Measured in 1990 dollars, the average household monthly income rose from SGD$3,080 in 1990 to SGD$4,170 in 2000 at an average annual rate of 3.1%.
=== Household income distribution ===
=== Growth in household income by decile ===
With the recovery from the 1998 economic slowdown, household income growth had resumed for the majority of households in 2000. However, for the lowest two deciles, the average household income in 2000 had declined compared with 1999. This was mainly due to the increase in the proportion of households with no income earner from 75% in 1999 to 87% in 2000 for the lowest 10%. Households with no income earner include those with retired elderly persons as well as unemployed members.
=== Household income ratio ===
The disparity in household income had widened in 2000, reflecting the faster income growth for the higher-income households.
== See also ==
Singaporeans
Malay Singaporeans
Chinese Singaporeans
Indian Singaporeans
Arab Singaporeans
Eurasians in Singapore
Population planning in Singapore
== References ==
== External links ==
Census 2000
Singapore Dept of Statistics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Duterte | Sara Duterte | Sara Zimmerman Duterte-Carpio (English: , Tagalog: [dʊˈtɛɾtɛ]; born May 31, 1978), commonly known as Inday Sara, is a Filipino lawyer and politician who is the 15th and current vice president of the Philippines. She is the third female vice president (after Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and Leni Robredo), the third vice president to come from Mindanao, and the youngest ever Philippine vice president. A daughter of the 16th president Rodrigo Duterte, she previously served as the mayor of Davao City from 2010 to 2013, and from 2016 to 2022. She was also Davao City's vice mayor from 2007 to 2010.
Duterte graduated from San Pedro College, initially aiming to pursue a medical career. She attended classes in the College of Law of San Beda College and eventually graduated in San Sebastian College – Recoletos. She was elected as Davao City's vice mayor in 2007, before eventually being elected as the city's mayor from 2010 until 2013, succeeding her father and becoming the youngest and the first female mayor of the city. After her first term ended, she took a brief hiatus, returning to politics in 2016 after being elected again as Davao City mayor and was reelected in 2019. During her second stint as mayor, she initiated the Byaheng DO30 and Peace 911 programs in the city, as well as overseeing the city government's COVID-19 pandemic response. Duterte was also an influential figure in national politics during her father's presidency, forming alliances with several political parties and playing a key role in the ouster of Pantaleon Alvarez as the Speaker of the House of Representatives in 2018.
Duterte ran for the vice presidency in 2022 under Lakas–CMD, becoming the running mate of Bongbong Marcos from the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas under the UniTeam alliance. Their ticket won in a landslide victory, becoming the first running mate pair to win together since 2004, and the first to be elected by a majority since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1986. Duterte became the vice president on June 30, 2022, and was inaugurated 11 days earlier in Davao City.
As vice president, Duterte concurrently served as the secretary of education and as vice chairperson of an anti-insurgency task force (NTF-ELCAC) but resigned from both positions on June 19, 2024. Despite her initial electoral alliance with Marcos, political observers have noted her increasing absence from public appearances with the president correlating with a growing rift in the Marcos and Duterte political families. By late August 2024, she has openly admitted her regret to supporting Marcos in the presidential election, while Marcos himself later acknowledged that they have not spoken to each other since she handed in her resignation. After her father was arrested and brought to The Hague in March 2025, her tenure has been characterized by multiple trips abroad that aim to consolidate her family's overseas supporters.
On February 5, 2025, Duterte was impeached by the House of Representatives after concerns were raised regarding her use of confidential funds and her assassination threat against President Marcos, his wife Liza and House Speaker Martin Romualdez. She became the first sitting vice president, as well as the fifth official in Philippine history, to be impeached.
== Early years ==
Sara Zimmerman Duterte was born at Davao Doctors Hospital in Davao City on May 31, 1978. She is the second child to then-lawyer later president Rodrigo Duterte and flight attendant Elizabeth Zimmerman. Her great-grandfather was German American, having fled to the Philippines from the United States.
Growing up in what she called a "broken family", she has spoken of her "love-hate relationship" with her father when she was a student due to her disapproval for his womanizing tendencies and late night habits. Once he left his wife Elizabeth in the 1990s, Sara stayed with her mother, and up to the time she was mayor, Sara considered her relationship with her father as "not very close". Despite this, Rodrigo considered Sara to be his favorite child, and placed high value on the education she and her brothers received.
=== Education and law career ===
Duterte attended San Pedro College, majoring in BS Respiratory Therapy, and graduated in 1999; in her inaugural speech as mayor of Davao City, Duterte said she originally wanted to be a pediatrician instead of a politician. She later took up a law degree from San Beda College but transferred to the San Sebastian College – Recoletos, where she graduated in May 2005. In 2005, Duterte passed the Philippine Bar Examination. She then worked for a few months as a court attorney at the office of Supreme Court Associate Justice Romeo Callejo Sr.
== Vice mayor of Davao City (2007–2010) ==
Sara's father Rodrigo had admitted to initially keeping his family members from entering "the messy and difficult world of politics", but by December 2006, he expressed that he would like for Sara to run as his running mate in the 2007 mayoral elections due to his concern for corrupt politicians taking over and ruining his legacy. Sara Duterte was elected vice mayor in 2007 with over 330,000 votes, defeating lone opponent Jeff Ho and succeeding Luis Bonguyan. Duterte served under her father for one term until 2010, and concurrently served as a regional officer of the National Movement of Young Legislators from 2007 to 2010. It was during this time when lawyer Zuleika T. Lopez was first hired by Duterte to be a staff member of the city government, receiving the position of city council secretary.
As vice mayor, Duterte's landmark project was 'Inday para sa Barangay', a whole-of-government approach servicing yearly in each of the city's barangays. It was later called the Caravan of Government Services when she transferred it to the Office of the City Mayor.
== First term as mayor of Davao City (2010–2013) ==
In 2010, Duterte was elected mayor, becoming the first female mayor of the city, as well as being the youngest to have been elected, as she turned 32 years old just weeks after being proclaimed winner. She won over House Speaker Prospero Nograles, her father's political rival, in a lead of 200,000 votes in the 2010 elections. Nograles earlier filed a protest at the Commission on Elections in Manila questioning the results, stating that there was a conspiracy of local poll officials. Vowing to be "useful and to serve the country at all times", she assumed the post that her father Rodrigo held for over 20 years. After Duterte appointed Zuleika T. Lopez as city administrator a few days into her term, her decision was challenged by the city council led by Rodrigo, then the vice mayor of Davao, who argued that Lopez was unqualified for the position. In response, Sara withdrew her request for the council's concurrence in Lopez's appointment and threatened to halt city hall's engagements with the city council, stating that the council "should learn to respect" her office as mayor.
During her first term, she also served as officer in the National Executive Board of the League of Cities Philippines from 2010 to 2013.
On December 2, 2010, President Benigno Aquino III appointed her as Chairperson of the Regional Development Council (RDC) Region XI. She was the first woman to hold the position and the first to be appointed from the government sector since the reorganization of the council in 1986. As chairperson, she saw the growth of Davao Region’s Gross Regional Domestic Product from 3.9 percent in 2011 to 7.1 percent in 2012.
On July 1, 2011, Duterte gained national attention when she punched Abe Andres, a Davao City Regional Trial Court sheriff, over the demolition of shanties in Barangay Kapitan Tomas Monteverde Sr., Agdao, Davao City. She had earlier asked the court and the demolition team to delay the demolition. But Andres refused her request and pushed through with the violent demolition which made her furious. On July 11, Sheriffs Confederation of the Philippines Inc. filed a complaint against Duterte in connection to the incident. On June 28, 2012, almost a year after the incident, she publicly apologized to Andres and his family. By May 2022, Andres openly expressed his support for the Marcos-Duterte electoral team.
=== Policies ===
Duterte promoted the city as a tourism and investment destination, introducing the "Davao: Life Is Here" tagline to market the city in 2011.
== Interim years (2013–2016) ==
Duterte decided not to seek re-election in 2013 to give way to her father Rodrigo. She also turned down her father's offer to run for representative of Davao City's 1st district.
== Second and third term as mayor of Davao City (2016–2022) ==
Duterte ran again for the mayoralty post for Davao City in the 2016 elections and won the position, succeeding her father for the second time. She had her older brother Paolo, and later Bernard Al-ag, as her vice mayors during this term. According to lawyer Salvador Panelo, Duterte had been reluctant in running for mayor, wishing to stay away from politics and instead continue her legal practice, but was eventually convinced by her father.
In her first year back as mayor, the Davao City bombing took place on September 2, 2016, with Duterte's private nurse Kristia Bisnon, who accompanied Duterte during hospital checkups in July for her pregnancy with triplets, among the victims who perished. Three days later, Duterte's doctor informed her that she had a miscarriage with two of her three fetuses, which she revealed during a speech on September 8, 2016.
She ran for re-election in the 2019 elections and was successful.
After her father won in the 2016 presidential election, Duterte launched the "Tapang at Malasakit" (lit. 'Courage and Compassion') movement composed of Duterte supporters and allies on October 23, 2017.
On February 23, 2018, she launched a new regional party called Hugpong ng Pagbabago (HNP). The party was later approved on July 4, 2018, ahead of the 2019 general elections. HNP also stood as an electoral alliance, fielding candidates from different parties for the senatorial election. Nine out of 13 senatorial candidates won in the election.
Following the creation of HNP, a feud began between Duterte and one of her father's allies, then House Speaker Pantaleon Alvarez, citing its formation as an example of the entrenchment of political dynasties in the country. In response, Duterte publicly berated Alvarez and alleged that he has been calling mayors in the Davao Region to tag her as part of the opposition and brag about having the ability to impeach her father, all of which Alvarez denied. Duterte also remarked that "the Philippines will be a better country if he is not Speaker." Months later, Alvarez was unseated as the House Speaker in the 17th Congress, with former president and Pampanga's 2nd district representative Gloria Macapagal Arroyo taking his place. According to her father, she was behind the ousting of Alvarez as speaker, stating that "honest to God, it was Inday who maneuvered it."
=== Policies ===
During her second stint as mayor, Duterte initiated Byaheng DO30, consisting of 30 projects addressing ten priority sectors which include "education, health, poverty alleviation, infrastructure development, solid waste management and environment, agriculture, investment and tourism, traffic and transport management, disaster risk reduction and management, and peace and order". Duterte also established the Peace 911 program to address the local communist rebellion through a "human-centered" approach, bringing several government services to far-flung areas. The program was first implemented in the Paquibato district before being expanded to other barangays. Her administration also established the Kean Gabriel Hotline for reporting child abuse anonymously.
As Davao City mayor, Duterte garnered an approval rating of 93% according to an independent survey by the RP-Mission and Development Foundation, exceeding her father's highest approval rating when he was mayor at 86% in 2010, and getting the highest rating throughout the country.
=== COVID-19 pandemic response ===
In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the city. In response, Duterte created a city task force for COVID-19 and other public health emergencies and instituted several measures to limit the spread of the disease and address the crisis. The city government cancelled several citywide events, ordered the closure of several establishments, and restricted travel and movement in the city. To aid residents affected by the restrictions, the local government provided food packs; most of the city's Bayanihan grant was spent on the purchase of food packs distributed to the city's barangays and for medical workers. Travel restrictions were eased as the number of cases lowered. The local government also established COVID-19 testing centers and isolation facilities. Her administration also oversaw the city's COVID-19 vaccination program when the national government began its vaccination program in early 2021.
== 2022 vice presidential election ==
Duterte was considered by many political commentators as her father's successor after her role as a power broker in the 2019 midterm elections. On July 7, 2021, the People's Reform Party (PRP) signaled their support early on for Duterte's potential presidential run, with Duterte stating two days later that she was open to running for president. On September 9, she said she would not, since her father, the sitting president, would run for vice president, and they agreed that only one should run for a national position. However, he did not file his candidacy for vice president by October 2, but she did not file a candidacy for any national position, running instead for reelection as mayor of Davao City. She later withdrew her candidacy for reelection as Davao City mayor on November 9. Her brother Sebastian, incumbent vice mayor of Davao City, ran in her stead. On November 11, she resigned from Hugpong ng Pagbabago and joined Lakas–CMD in Silang, Cavite. There, she sponsored the wedding of Jed Patricio and Gianna Revilla, the daughter of party chairman and senator Bong Revilla. Six days later, she became the chairperson of Lakas–CMD, succeeding Revilla. On November 19, she rejoined Hugpong ng Pagbabago as its chairperson.
=== Candidacy and campaign ===
On November 13, she filed her candidacy for Vice President of the Philippines under Lakas–CMD for the 2022 Philippine vice presidential election. She said this was to meet her supporters halfway, who had been previously asking her to run for president, and credited Senator Imee Marcos with convincing her to run for the position. She was then adopted and endorsed by Partido Federal ng Pilipinas as the running mate of former senator Bongbong Marcos, and soon afterwards was endorsed by the PRP. Their alliance was named UniTeam.
Duterte became the vice president-elect, winning the election with 32,208,417 votes with a margin of 22 million over her closest rival, Senator Francis Pangilinan. She became the first vice president to be elected by a majority since the 1986 elections and the largest majority since 1969. She also earned the most votes for any office in a single-winner election in Philippine history. She was also the first vice president from Davao City, the youngest to become vice president at the age of 44, the third woman to hold the post after Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and Leni Robredo, the third vice president who is a child of a president after Salvador Laurel and Arroyo, the third vice president to come from Mindanao after Emmanuel Pelaez and Teofisto Guingona Jr., and the fourth Cebuano-speaking vice president overall (after Sergio Osmeña, Carlos P. Garcia, and Pelaez). She and Marcos were also the first presidential ticket to win together since the 2004 elections.
== Vice presidency (2022–present) ==
Before her inauguration, on May 11, 2022, Marcos announced that Duterte agreed to join his cabinet as Secretary of Education, although she earlier expressed interest in becoming the Secretary of National Defense. According to Duterte, she chose to become the Education secretary instead to avoid "intrigues" about her loyalty to the administration. She was inaugurated in Davao City on June 19, 2022, but only officially started her term on June 30 in accordance with the constitution. At her request, the oath-taking, which was the first in Mindanao for a vice president, was administered by Associate Justice Ramon Paul Hernando, her former professor at San Beda College of Law.
=== Programs and policies ===
In her first day as the vice president, Duterte established satellite offices for the Office of the Vice President (OVP) in Cebu City, Dagupan, Davao City, Tacloban, Tandag, and Zamboanga City. The seat of the Office of the Vice President would then be transferred from Quezon City Reception House to Cybergate Plaza in Mandaluyong, which is closer to the headquarters of the Department of Education (DepEd) in Pasig where she also held office as its secretary.
On August 3, 2022, Duterte, alongside the Department of Transportation, launched the Libreng Sakay Program (lit. transl. Free Rides Program) of the OVP, providing free rides as an effort to de-congest the roads during peak hours. It initially launched five buses bestowed by the department, deploying two in Metro Manila (plying the EDSA Carousel route) and one each in Bacolod, Cebu (plying Mandaue, Lapu-Lapu City, and Cebu City), and Davao City.
On October 9, 2022, the OVP, in collaboration with the DepEd and the Department of Health, began deploying "Kalusugan Food Trucks" (lit. transl. Health Food Trucks) in select areas nationwide to address malnutrition among school children, wherein the trucks regularly stop at identified schools and institutions with malnutrition and hunger problems among children, with the project following a 120-day feeding program menu recommended by the DOH's National Nutrition Council.
On March 9, 2023, Duterte launched the "Mag Negosyo Ta 'Day" program which aims to financially support women and LGBTQIA+ members, alongside other marginalized sectors, by facilitating a business-friendly environment and encouraging the growth of micro, small, and medium enterprises. The program was adopted by the OVP from Duterte's similar initiative during her tenure as mayor of Davao City.
Following her designation as the co-vice chairperson of the National Task Force to End Local Communist Armed Conflict (NTF-ELCAC) on May 11, 2023, she issued a warning to communist rebels and said the rebels' "so-called protracted war" must end. On May 29, Duterte kicked off a nationwide distribution of one million bags containing school supplies and dental kits as well as the planting of one million trees under the OVP's “PagbaBAGo: A Million Learners and Trees” program in partnership with DepEd and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. As of October 2023, a total of 64,860 PagbaBAGo bags were distributed by the OVP to school children and planted 178,167 trees.
From July 2022 to October 2023, Duterte's OVP was able to provide ₱1.2 billion worth of medical assistance to 106,958 beneficiaries, with the office's burial assistance program providing ₱130.3 million worth of assistance to 22,470 families. Within the same time period, the office's Libreng Sakay Program served 523,263 commuters in Metro Manila, 89,605 commuters in Bacolod City, 60,409 commuters in Davao City, and 99,633 commuters in Cebu City. The OVP's Disaster Operations Center also conducted 162 relief operations and extended assistance worth ₱69.1 million to 115,045 families in times of disasters and calamities.
==== Foreign trips ====
Duterte visited Japan on September 26–27, 2022 as the Philippines' representative to the state funeral of former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. During her visit, she conducted several education-related activities as she visited an elementary school in Japan and met with officials from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Duterte also met with several Japanese officials and paid a courtesy call on Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida.
In line with her duties as president of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, Duterte visited Brunei in June 2023 wherein she met with the crown prince Al-Muhtadee Billah, the education minister Romaizah Salleh, and some overseas Filipino workers. On June 13–14, Duterte visited Singapore wherein she met with President Halimah Yacob, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, and other officials to discuss the strong bilateral relationship between both countries. Vice President Duterte also visited the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Language Centre.
Duterte then paid an official visit to South Korea in September 2023 in order to serve as keynote speaker at the Global Education and Innovation Summit where she spoke about the disruption caused by the pandemic as well as the uncertainties posed by the boom of artificial intelligence. Afterwards, she met with South Korean Deputy Prime Minister and Education Minister Lee Ju-ho to discuss opportunities for cooperation in learning advancements. In February 2024, Duterte visited Malaysia and met with Malaysian Minister of Education Fadhlina Sidek and Deputy Prime Minister Dato' Sri Fadillah Yusof.
=== Secretary of Education (2022–2024) ===
As the concurrent Education Secretary, Duterte was responsible for planning further the transition to the resumption of mandatory face-to-face classes at all basic education schools in the Philippines, which was put on hold since 2020 due to the risks brought out by the COVID-19 pandemic, for the school year 2022–2023. She issued her first department order, the Department Order No. 034 dated July 11, 2022, wherein schools may either opt for five-day in-person classes or blended modality from the opening of classes on August 22 to October 31 before shifting to mandatory in-person classes observing physical distancing when necessary by November 2 onwards. She also declared that school uniforms and vaccination among students would be optional for the upcoming school year. She also mulled institutionalizing blended learning only in select schools and areas with special circumstances, including schools with possibly unrepaired or unfinished buildings. Earlier, before taking office, Duterte also called the reinstatement of the mandatory Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), which would later gain more support especially from legislators and government officials.
On November 25, 2022, Duterte established the Learner Rights and Protection Office (LRPO) under DepEd and launched its Telesafe Contact Center Helpline to address child abuse and strengthen child protection.
On January 20, 2023, Duterte presented the “current state” of the country's basic education through the Basic Education Report (BER) 2023, wherein she identified the challenges faced by the department when it came to the delivery of basic education and outlined the plans that are set to be implemented by the department. As the Secretary of Education, Duterte was elected as the President of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) succeeding Singapore's Education Minister, Chan Chun Sing, on February 8, 2023, during the 52nd SEAMEO Council Meeting held in Manila.
To maintain a learning-focused environment and ensure teachers are not burdened with non-work-related matters, in March 2023, Duterte signed a department order prohibiting teachers from joining volunteer work and extracurricular activities during school hours. In May that year, she said she intended to include mandatory scouting in the K-12 curriculum for young Filipino boys to instill in them an enduring love for the country. In July 2023, Duterte signed a department order starting a National Learning Recovery Program designed to improve students’ numeracy and literacy and strengthen the education sector's learning recovery.In August 2023, DepEd launched a new "less congested" and revised version of K–12, called the "Matatag curriculum". This version of the K–12 reduced the learning areas for students from seven to five and removed Mother Tongue as a separate subject; it also emphasized a "Makabansa" learning area to instill Filipino identity and nationalism among students. It will be implemented in phases from 2024 to 2028 on Kinder and Grades 1 to 10. The Matatag curriculum pilot implementation was well received by teachers, students, and parents. The Matatag Agenda and the Basic Education Development Plan 2030 as formulated by the DepEd under Duterte was later approved by President Marcos as the national policy and plan for basic education on April 27, 2024.
In September 5, 2023, Duterte announced that school teachers nationwide would have a 30-day straight break without volunteer work for the School Year 2023–2024. In the same month, the DepEd also signed a memorandum of agreement with the Government Service Insurance System (GSIS) establishing more express lanes in all GSIS offices for teachers and DepEd personnel. Following reports citing the Commission on Audit which flagged DepEd for failing to remit nearly P5 billion in premium contributions and loan amortizations to the GSIS in 2022, DepEd stated in December 2023 that it has conducted reconciliation activities with the GSIS regarding its balance at all levels of the department.
Other reforms implemented by Duterte as education secretary was the establishment of a procurement strand within the department to streamline service delivery and resource acquisition, as well as the creation of a school infrastructure and facilities strand to tackle the shortage of classrooms and equipment, which resulted in the construction of 2,201 classrooms, 45 Last Mile School classrooms, and 880 health facilities by the end of 2023, although this fell short of the 5,000 to 6,000 classroom target previously set by the department for the year. She had also signed a memorandum of agreement with non-profit organization Go Negosyo in November 2023 to teach Filipino youth about business and agriculture through various programs.
Under her tenure, DepEd also aimed to enhance the digital infrastructure of schools. Satellite internet was provided to 2,000 schools, while 25 schools were selected for Starlink connections as of 2023. The DepEd also introduced "Digital Education Learning Carts" and mobile computer labs equipped with laptops, charging carts, and Smart TVs. However, the budget for the department's Computerization Fund remained underutilized, with only ₱10.2 billion being obligated out of the ₱20.5 billion allocation in the 2023 budget. Additionally, only ₱2.18 billion out of ₱11.36 billion allocated for computers, laptops, and television sets had been utilized. Thousands of laptops intended for personnel were also not delivered. By 2023, the ratio between the number of teachers for each computer remained at 1 to 30, while the student to computer ratio was 1 to 9.
Under Duterte's leadership, the Philippines ranked bottom among 64 countries in the creative thinking assessment of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), with a mean score of 14, compared to the global average of 33. The assessment for which the rankings are based on were done in May 2022, before she took office as education secretary. Duterte said that the results revealed an “uncomfortable truth” about the state of country’s education system, but that efforts were in place to improve future PISA results.
On January 25, 2024, Duterte delivered her second BER. The following day, Duterte signed a department order which removed administrative tasks from teachers’ workloads with the aim of enabling teachers to maximize their time in actual classroom teaching. This was then augmented by the signing of an additional order on April 30 which limited teachers' work hours to eight hours a day, six of which are devoted to actual classroom teaching while the remaining two is reserved for ancillary tasks.
On May 10, 2024, the DepEd signed a Joint Memorandum Circular with the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) for the country's senior high school graduates to be provided with free national certification assessments, the accreditation of DepEd senior high schools as assessment centers, along with the training and certification of technical vocational livelihood (TVL) teachers as Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) competency assessors, as a means of boosting the employment opportunities of the country's senior high school students.
Amid a worsening rift between the Marcos and Duterte political clans, on June 19, 2024, Duterte resigned as Education Secretary. She formally handed over the post to her successor, Senator Sonny Angara, on July 18, 2024.
=== Rift with Marcos and the House ===
On May 19, 2023, Duterte resigned from Lakas–CMD, stating that her leadership "cannot be poisoned by political toxicity." Her resignation came a few days after her political ally Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, was demoted from her senior deputy speaker position in the House of Representatives following rumors that Arroyo allegedly planned to unseat Bongbong Marcos' cousin, House Speaker Martin Romualdez. In a speech in June 2023, Duterte acknowledged Marcos' support for her but stated that Marcos' middle name, Romualdez, was "unmentionable" amid reports of a falling out between her and the Speaker.
Duterte's relationship with the House worsened when her office's, as well as the education department's, use of confidential funds was questioned by the Philippine House Committee on Appropriations and the Philippine Senate Committee on Finance. The House would later remove her requested confidential funds from the proposed 2024 budget, while Duterte later rescinded her request for confidential funds, citing their "divisiveness."
In January 2024, former senator Antonio Trillanes claimed that Duterte was included as a “secondary respondent" in a crime against humanity case pending before the International Criminal Court (ICC). Arturo Lascañas, a retired police officer in Davao City, implicated Duterte as having had a role in extrajudicial killings (EJKs) after succeeding her father, Rodrigo Duterte, to become Davao City mayor in 2010. Duterte responded by saying that she never engaged with the Davao Death Squad (DDS) throughout her terms as Davao City mayor and vice mayor, and that she would face any charges only before judges and courts in the Philippines.
In early 2024, Duterte lamented that she was being subjected to an intensified "demolition job" meant to destroy her reputation as a public servant. Amid a worsening rift between the Marcos and Duterte political clans, on June 19, 2024, Duterte resigned as Secretary of Education and co-vice chairperson of the NTF-ELCAC. Shortly after, Marcos announced that Senator Sonny Angara would replace Duterte as the new DepEd Secretary. Duterte's resignation took effect on July 19, 2024.
Duterte skipped Marcos' State of the Nation Address (SONA) on July 22, 2024, claiming to have appointed herself as the "designated survivor", a term she did not elaborate but is related to a contingency plan in the United States presidential line of succession. She went to Bohol for Bohol Day and attended the wake of Bohol Vice Governor Dionisio Victor Balite, who died on July 17. A day after Marcos' SONA, the Philippine National Police (PNP) relieved all 75 police officers previously assigned for Duterte's security, reducing her from a record-high of around 400, the most for any Philippine vice president in history. Despite the recall, she still retains over 300 security personnel, more than those assigned to Marcos. She described the recall as “a clear case of political harassment” and accused PNP Chief Rommel Marbil of lying. Marbil added that the recall was due to the absence of security threats against her and denied any "political pressure" influencing the decision.
On July 24, 2024, Duterte left the country for Germany for a personal trip with her mother, husband, and children some hours prior to the southwestern monsoon, enhanced by Typhoon Gaemi (locally called Carina), which caused significant rainfall and affected Luzon. She had received travel authority from the Office of the President on July 9. The OVP noted that while the trip's timing was unfortunate, the Disaster Operations Center remained ready to aid those affected by the typhoon, including a relief operation in Quezon City. Duterte revealed that during her trip to Germany, she spent her time with family and met with the Filipino community group Hakbang ng Maisug International Germany (HMIG) in Munich. Her departure faced criticism from netizens and Representative Edcel Lagman (Albay–1st) for perceived insensitivity during the crisis, though Senator Imee Marcos defended her, stating that Duterte didn't know that there would be a storm.
On August 7, 2024, Duterte publicly criticized the Marcos government and the House of Representatives over issues such as failures in disaster management, policing, healthcare reform, and the possible involvement of the International Criminal Court in investigating the Philippine drug war spearheaded by her father as president. Later that month, during the budget hearing for the OVP's 2025 budget, Duterte refused to answer questions regarding her office's budget. Unlike in previous years, where the House swiftly approved the OVP budget, the approval of the 2025 budget was deferred, while some congressmen criticized Duterte for her behavior during the hearing. Duterte nor any representative from her office did not attend the second budget hearing on September 10, and approval for the OVP budget was deferred again.
On September 18, 2024, Duterte attended the House's inquiry about her office's alleged misuse of funds and refused to take an oath and answer questions. Additionally, when asked about her friendship with Marcos, she said they were never friends and merely running mates in the 2022 elections. Marcos responded, expressing he was "deceived" about their supposed friendship. On October 18, 2024, Duterte held a press conference at her office, where she discussed her fallout with Marcos, claiming he "does not know how to be president" and has led the country "on the road to hell." She also revealed that she once told Senator Imee Marcos that if attacks against her persisted, she would exhume former President Ferdinand Marcos' remains and discard them in the West Philippine Sea.
The lower chamber's probe against Duterte and her office's alleged misuse of funds continued by November 2024. Several of Duterte's staff were cited in contempt for refusing to attend these hearings. On the sixth hearing, Duterte's chief of staff, Zuleika T. Lopez, was cited in contempt for undue interference; she would later be detained at a detention facility within the Batasang Pambansa Complex. Duterte stayed with Lopez overnight on November 21 and 22, despite only being allowed by the House to visit Lopez and not stay with her for the duration of her detainment. When Lopez was due to be transferred on the evening of November 22 by House authorities to the Correctional Institution for Women, Duterte obstructed the proceeding and stayed in the room where Lopez is detained, after which Lopez initiated a midnight press conference through Zoom.
=== Threat to assassinate Marcos ===
In the early morning of November 23, Duterte made an expletive-laden tirade against the Marcos administration during Lopez's press conference, wherein she claimed to have spoken with a contract killer to target President Marcos, his wife Liza, and House Speaker Romualdez in the event of her assassination. She made the claim in response to a vlogger's question over her security. Later that day, the administration deemed her threat against the president to be "clear and unequivocal" and thus treated as an "active threat" against the government. Duterte later clarified that her remarks were not serious threats but rather a reflection of her fear for her personal safety after hearing threats against her. Marcos pledged to prevent any "criminal attempts," but in response, Duterte stated she would not overlook the actions of the Marcos administration against her. She also claimed that the Marcos family was behind the assassination of former senator Ninoy Aquino. Romualdez called Duterte's claim of hiring a contract killer a direct threat to democracy. He also referred to the threat as "alarming and unprecedented." On November 26, 2024, the National Bureau of Investigation issued a subpoena to Duterte regarding her alleged assassination threat, which she eventually ignored.
=== Confidential funds controversy ===
In 2022 and 2023, Duterte made use of confidential and intelligence funds for both the OVP and DepEd; the OVP under her predecessor did not make use of confidential funds. According to Duterte's chief of staff, due to the OVP's compartmentalized structure, she handled her confidential funds in direct coordination with her office's special disbursing officer Gina F. Acosta without any intermediary.
In 2022, the OVP had requested ₱250 million, although only half, ₱125 million, was granted. The report of the Commission on Audit (COA) later revealed that the entire fund was spent within 11 days. COA has also issued a notice of disallowance on the ₱73 million worth of such confidential funds in 2022. In 2023, the OVP was the fourth highest spender of confidential funds, spending a total of ₱375 million within the year, more than the combined total of confidential funds from the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency, National Security Council, and the National Bureau of Investigation.
During the plenary deliberations for the 2024 national budget in September 2023, Duterte requested Congress for confidential and intelligence funds worth ₱500 million for the OVP and ₱150 million for the DepEd. DepEd defended the use of confidential funds, stating that it was for gathering information and intelligence. The request would later be scrutinized by both chambers of Congress. Duterte dismissed claims that these funds were used inappropriately. She also defended the use of confidential funds, and branded critics against it as enemies of peace and the nation. In November 2023, Duterte eventually dropped both of her requests for confidential funds in response to the request being "divisive".
In 2024, the lower chamber's Committee on Good Government and Public Accountability started investigations against the vice president's alleged misuse of funds after the approval of the 2025 OVP budget was deferred. On September 25, a former DepEd undersecretary alleged that Duterte gave out cash gifts worth ₱50 thousand monthly; later on, another former official also came forward, claiming that they received similar envelopes but had stopped by late 2023, around the same time the issue of confidential funds was raised. By November 2024, acknowledgement receipts from her offices submitted to the COA were revealed. Several lawmakers have expressed their doubts on the authenticity of the receipts, highlighting irregularities such as uncommon and allegedly fictitious names as well as discrepancies in the dates and signatures. Duterte claimed that she has not seen the receipts. On December 9, 2024, the Philippine Statistics Authority reported that the names of 60% of the 677 individuals that were named as recipients of confidential funds from DepEd had no records in the national civil registry.
=== Disbarment petition ===
Disbarred lawyer and Presidential Adviser for Poverty Alleviation Larry Gadon has filed a disbarment complaint against Duterte over alleged "assassination" threats. Gadon stated that President Marcos did not support the filing of the disbarment case against Duterte. On November 26, 2024, Supreme Court spokesperson Camille Ting revealed that an anonymous complaint had been filed against Duterte for her comments about President Ferdinand Marcos and added that two other disbarment cases filed during her time as mayor of Davao City.
=== Impeachment ===
On December 2, 2024, an impeachment complaint was filed in the House of Representatives against Duterte for 24 offenses including failure to account for her spending of confidential funds, involvement in extrajudicial killings and threatening the assassination of President Marcos and Romualdez. A second impeachment complaint was filed against her on December 4 for misuse of confidential funds. On December 19, a third impeachment complaint was filed against Duterte for betrayal of public trust.
Despite growing calls for Duterte's impeachment, Marcos has publicly voiced his opinion against impeaching her, calling it "a storm in a teacup" and considering the move inconsequential to the lives of Filipinos. Consequently, the Iglesia ni Cristo on December 4 has announced that it plans to hold a rally to oppose the impeachment efforts concurring with President Marcos' stance in November 2024 that efforts to remove Duterte from office is unconstructive. On January 13, 2025, more than 1.5 million INC members went to the "National Rally for Peace" at the Quirino Grandstand in Manila; 12 other sites also staged the rally across the country.
On February 5, 2025, the House of Representatives consolidated the three filed complaints into one complaint and voted to impeach Duterte on charges that include corruption, plotting to assassinate President Marcos, involvement in extrajudicial killings and incitement to insurrection and public disorder. The measure passed after 215 lawmakers voted in favor, significantly above the minimum 102 votes needed in the chamber. Although the verified complaint was immediately submitted to the Senate within the same day, Senate President Francis Escudero was noted to have taken a controversial interpretation of the constitutional term "forthwith" in holding an impeachment trial in the Senate, delaying the potential start of the trial to June when congressional sessions are resumed.
On June 10, 2025, the Senate convened as an impeachment court, but soon remanded the complaint back to the House of Representatives, requesting that the latter first confirm the impeachment's constitutionality and that it ask the then-upcoming 20th Congress if it was willing to continue the impeachment. A day later, the House adopted a resolution affirming that their impeachment complaint did not violate the constitution, and carried a motion deferring its acceptance of the remanded impeachment articles. The Supreme Court later unanimously nullified the complaint on July 25, 2025, ruling that it was "unconstitutional" for alleged procedural issues and not allowing Duterte to defend herself when the impeachment was filed. The decision, as written by Justice Marvic Leonen, has been heavily criticized by legal experts and former Supreme Court justices due to a conspicuous factual error and the addition of criteria for impeachment, warning that the latter would effectively make the future filing of impeachment complaints against government officials more difficult. Due to constitutional restrictions, no further impeachment complaint can be filed against Duterte until February 6, 2026, one year after her impeachment. On August 4, 2025, the House of Representatives filed a motion for reconsideration to the Supreme Court regarding its ruling, which is still pending as of November 2025. Despite the motion, the Senate voted to archive Duterte's impeachment on August 6, 2025, with Escudero arguing that the case can be revived when the Supreme Court reverses its initial decision.
=== Arrest of Rodrigo Duterte ===
On March 11, 2025, Sara's father, former Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte, was arrested in Manila on the basis of an International Criminal Court (ICC) warrant charging him with crimes against humanity. Sara Duterte released a statement that her father's detention was "a blatant affront to our sovereignty and an insult to every Filipino who believes in our nation’s independence". Shortly after 11 p.m. PHT (UTC+08:00), a government-chartered private jet carrying Duterte along with his legal counsel, Salvador Medialdea, departed from Ninoy Aquino International Airport. Minutes after, President Bongbong Marcos held a televised press conference where he revealed that the flight would eventually continue to The Hague in the Netherlands, where Duterte was set to be arraigned for the indictment on charges of crimes against humanity at the ICC. The following morning, Sara Duterte herself departed Manila for Amsterdam to support her father. On March 14, 2025, Duterte publicly disclosed that she would not return to Philippines for an unspecified period, stating that she would focus on forming her father's legal team. The next day, Duterte stated that she would not return to the Philippines until another family relative could arrive in the Netherlands to also ensure that her father would not be left alone. On April 7, 2025, she returned to the Philippines after a month of being with her detained father. Two weeks later, Sara Duterte formally endorsed Imee Marcos and Camille Villar in the Senate elections.
== Political positions ==
=== Moro conflict ===
After the Mamasapano clash between the Special Action Force (SAF) and Jemaah Islamiyah occurred in 2015 that led to the deaths of 44 SAF members, Duterte had her profile pictures on Facebook and Instagram set to memorial images that read: "Rest in peace SAF 44", which lasted up to 2022.
=== Communist conflict ===
Duterte opposes government peace talks with the Communist Party of the Philippines-New People's Army-National Democratic Front (CPP-NPA-NDF). After the Marcos administration agreed to resume peace talks with the CPP-NPA-NDF, in December 2023, she called the peace talks "a pact with the devil", warning that the communist rebels were insincere in reaching a settlement with the government.
=== Foreign issues ===
Duterte has been noted for not issuing explicit statements on the dispute between the Philippines and China in the South China Sea. She has declined to comment on the matter, instead deferring people to the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of National Defense when queried on such matters. For this, she received criticism by some officials, including by allies of Marcos in the House of Representatives and Philippine Coast Guard spokesperson for the West Philippine Sea Jay Tarriela. However, Marcos defended Duterte, stating that "[it is] not the role of the Vice President or the Secretary of Education to talk about China".
=== Apollo Quiboloy ===
Duterte has expressed support for religious leader and her father's ally, Apollo Quiboloy, who had been indicted by the FBI, sanctioned by the U.S. Magnitsky Act, and is the subject of various probes by the Philippine Senate and House of Representatives over allegations of sexual abuse and human trafficking, among other things. Duterte stated that the probes conducted by the Philippine Congress were "unjust" and "violent", and deprived Quiboloy of due process. Following the serving of arrest warrants of Quiboloy in June 2024, Duterte called for a just and humane law enforcement following what she described as the use of excessive force by the police. On August 25, 2024, she condemned the "gross abuse of police power" involved in the Philippine National Police (PNP) executing an arrest warrant against Quiboloy at the Kingdom of Jesus Christ (KOJC) compound in Davao City. She also expressed her regret in encouraging KOJC adherents to support her 2022 running mate, Bongbong Marcos. On August 30, 2024, Duterte visited the wake of a KOJC member who died from a heart attack while manning a watchtower during the first day of the police raid. Two days later, Duterte attended the KOJC's 39th anniversary event at the compound where she reiterated her support for the church organization and apology for supporting Marcos.
== Publications ==
Duterte wrote the children's book Isang Kaibigan (lit. transl. A Friend), launched in November 2023. With her office proposing a budget of ₱10 million for the distribution of 200,000 copies to public schools as part of the OVP's "PagbaBAGo" campaign, the book has gained controversy over the potential use of public funds to promote her own book and allegations of plagiarism due to similarities with Andy Runton's Owly: Just a Little Blue and the main character's similarities with Canva's graphics. The OVP has asserted the originality and copyright registration of the book. While intended for educational purposes, critics argued that the book serves as a political tool to enhance Duterte's image, a notion she denied by highlighting the book's focus on children who are not yet eligible to vote. Duterte later announced that she will write another book, this time about "a friend's betrayal."
== Personal life ==
Duterte met Manases "Mans" Carpio while she was attending San Beda College (now San Beda University); they married at the Santuario de San Antonio in Forbes Park, Makati, on October 27, 2007. Although news reports have often mentioned that they have three children, Duterte had issued a statement in July 2024 mentioning that they have four children. Manases, a nephew of Ombudsman Conchita Carpio-Morales and Supreme Court Senior Associate Justice Antonio Carpio, is a legal counsel for Lapanday Foods Corporation.
Duterte is also a fan of Korean dramas. She previously hosted television programs like Una Ka BAI and Byaheng DO30 on GMA Davao, a local station of GMA Network. Byaheng DO30 also expanded its airing across Mindanao on GMA Regional TV and internationally via GMA News TV International.
During her political hiatus from 2013 to 2016, Duterte devoted her time as one of the partner lawyers of Carpio & Duterte Lawyers. Planning to join the judiciary, she also passed the Pre-Judicature Program of the Philippine Judicial Academy. Duterte was elected as one of the governors of the Philippine Red Cross in 2014. Duterte is a reserve officer in the Armed Forces of the Philippines with the rank of colonel, being confirmed on March 11, 2020.
In October 2015, to convince her father to run for president in the 2016 Philippine presidential elections despite his reluctance due to lack of campaign funds and political machinery, she shaved her head. On April 18, 2016, in connection with the rape remark made by her father Rodrigo on one of his presidential candidacy campaigns, Duterte took to her Instagram account to admit that she was once a rape victim. However, Rodrigo Duterte dismissed his daughter's admission and referred to her as a "drama queen".
On March 10, 2022, she told supporters at a meet-and-greet that she was part of the LGBT community, with her gender expression being male. Duterte's statement was met with some skepticism by the left-wing LGBT rights group Bahaghari Philippines.
In September 2022, Duterte received criticism for allegations that she was using the official presidential helicopter, a Bell 412, for personal trips to visit her children in Davao. These allegations surfaced after Duterte thanked President Marcos and the 250th Presidential Airlift Wing in a Facebook post for ensuring that she could be at home in time with her children "wherever she may be found in the country". The Philippine Air Force clarified that the Vice President is authorized to use helicopters from the 250th for official functions, denying rumors that Duterte used the helicopter to visit her children in Davao.
On June 12, 2024, a neck scar was first noticed on Duterte while she was in Davao City attending its Independence Day flag-raising ceremony, which she later claimed as coming from an attempted knife attack ("gurgur") against her. When reporters asked for clarification, she stated that her answer was "very straightforward" and added in jest that the attack was done by "all of those people" ("Silang lahat").
== Electoral history ==
== See also ==
Hoya indaysarae, a species named after her
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Sara Duterte at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_the_Republic_(Brazil) | Prosecutor General of the Republic (Brazil) | The prosecutor general of the Republic (Portuguese: procurador-geral da República) is the head of the Brazilian Federal Prosecution Office, an autonomous agency in charge of criminal prosecution and the defense of society in general. The prosecutor general heads a group of independent prosecutors (Procuradores da República), who work to investigate and prosecute criminal, labor, and civil offenses committed against society. It is a position appointed by the president of the Republic and the nomination must be approved by the Federal Senate.
Paulo Gustavo Gonet Branco has been the prosecutor general of Brazil since 18 December 2023.
== List of prosecutors general ==
== See also ==
Brazilian Public Prosecutor's Office
Attorney General of Brazil
Brazilian Ministry of Justice
Brazilian Public Defender's Office
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website of the Brazilian Prosecutor General's Office (in Portuguese) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Zahafi | Mohamed Zahafi | Mohamed Zahafi (born 1959) is a Moroccan middle distance runner who specialized in the 800 metres.
In 1983 he won bronze medals in both 800 and 1500 metres at the Maghreb Championships. Both races were won by Saïd Aouita. In the same year Zahafi competed at the 1983 World Championships, but without reaching the final. He also finished fifth in the 1500 metres at the 1983 Mediterranean Games.
He became Moroccan champion in the 800 metres in 1981, 1982 and 1983, and in the 1500 metres in 1983.
His personal best time was 1.46.38 minutes, achieved in June 1983 in Lausanne.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noetic_Learning_math_contest | Noetic Learning math contest | The Noetic Learning math contest is a national biannual problem-solving competition for elementary and middle school students. The contest aims to encourage students' interest in mathematics and develop problem-solving skills. It is open to students in grades 2 through 8. It is held twice a year, in the fall and spring. The competition consists of a 45-minute timed test, comprising 20 math problems.
== History ==
The Noetic Learning math contest was founded in 2007 by Li Kelty. The company is based in Overland Park, Kansas. The contest has grown over the years, with participants from various schools across the United States.
In Spring 2023, more than 35,000 students nationwide participated in the Noetic Learning Math Contest.
== Awards and recognition ==
Students who participate in the Noetic Learning Math Contest can earn the following awards and recognition, based on their performance:
Team Winner: The top scorer on the team.
National Honor Roll: Awarded to the top 10% of participants in each grade category.
Honorable Mention: Awarded to students who score in the top 50% of participants in their grade category.
School teams can earn the following award:
Team Achievement: The top 10% of teams in each grade.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacey_Musgraves | Kacey Musgraves | Kacey Lee Musgraves (born August 21, 1988) is an American country singer-songwriter. She began her career in the early 2000s, when she self-released three solo albums and recorded another album as a member of the duo Texas Two Bits. In 2007, Musgraves appeared on the fifth season of the USA Network singing competition Nashville Star, where she finished in seventh place. In 2012, she signed with Mercury Nashville and released the hit single "Merry Go 'Round". Her major-label debut studio album, Same Trailer Different Park (2013), won the Grammy Award for Best Country Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards.
Musgraves' second studio album, Pageant Material (2015), debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart and yielded the critically and commercially successful singles "Biscuits" and "Dime Store Cowgirl". She released a Christmas-themed album, A Very Kacey Christmas (2016). Her fourth studio album Golden Hour (2018) was released to widespread critical acclaim and won all four of its nominated Grammy Award categories, including Album of the Year and Best Country Album. The album's first two singles, "Space Cowboy" and "Butterflies", won the Grammy Award for Best Country Song and Best Country Solo Performance, respectively. Musgraves' fifth studio album, Star-Crossed (2021), became her fourth top-ten album on the Billboard 200. In 2023, she was featured on the single "I Remember Everything" by Zach Bryan, which debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won a Grammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance. Her sixth studio album, Deeper Well (2024), peaked at number two on the Billboard 200, and the album's single "The Architect" won the Grammy Award for Best Country Song.
Musgraves has won eight Grammy Awards, seven Country Music Association Awards, and four Academy of Country Music Awards.
== Early life ==
Kacey Lee Musgraves was born August 21, 1988, in Sulphur Springs, Texas, and grew up in Golden, Texas. Her parents are Karen (née Abrams), an artist, and Craig Musgraves, owner of a small printing business, M-Prints Printing, Inc., in Mineola, Texas. Kacey said that she was born six weeks prematurely and weighed only five pounds. She has a younger sister, Kelly Christine Sutton (née Musgraves), who is a photographer and at times has photographed some of Kacey's work including in the Cotswolds in South West England.
Kacey Musgraves started writing songs at age eight. Her first song, "Notice Me", was for her elementary-school graduation. She first learned to play music on the mandolin, then at age 12 started taking guitar lessons from a local musician named John DeFoore, which she later described as "one of the most important things that ever happened to me." DeFoore also taught guitar to Miranda Lambert and Riley Thompson. Musgraves learned harmonica too.
Musgraves' mother took her to local music festivals to sing western swing music. She and co-student Alina Tatum formed country-music duo Texas Two Bits, toured through Texas, and released an independent album in 2000, and earned an invitation to perform at President George W. Bush's "Black Tie and Boots Inaugural Ball". Musgraves also won yodeling national championships and was selected to sing the national anthem at the 2002 Winter Olympics. At age 14, her family funded her first solo, self-released album. She graduated from Mineola High School in Mineola, Texas northwest of Tyler in 2006 and moved to Austin at 18. In 2007, Musgraves competed on Season 5 of the singing competition reality TV series Nashville Star, where she placed seventh. To sustain herself she took various jobs, including performing as Hannah Montana for children's birthday parties.
== Career ==
=== 2008–2014: Debut ===
Musgraves recorded three self-produced albums in 2002, 2003, and 2007. While living in Austin in 2008, she recorded two songs for independent record label Triple Pop. She collaborated with the Josh Abbott Band in 2010 on the song "Oh, Tonight". Musgraves' two acoustic recordings for Triple Pop (covers of OneRepublic's "Apologize" and Miley Cyrus' "See You Again") are available on a digital EP released in 2012. "Apologize" (Acoustic Version) charted in the Billboard Hot Singles Chart at No. 23 on February 15, 2014, and racked up over 31,000,000 streams on Spotify. To commemorate the 10-year anniversary on March 30, 2018, Triple Pop released the "Acoustic Remixed" digital EP, which featured newly remixed and remastered versions of the same recordings.
Musgraves joined Lady A on the European leg of their Own the Night Tour in 2012. In 2012, she signed with Mercury Nashville and released her solo debut single "Merry Go 'Round". The song is included on her major-label debut album Same Trailer Different Park, produced and co-written by Musgraves, Shane McAnally and Luke Laird and released on March 19, 2013. The album debuted at number 2, selling 42,000 copies. It produced additional hit singles in "Blowin' Smoke" and "Follow Your Arrow". Rolling Stone magazine listed "Follow Your Arrow" at number 39 of its list of 100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time, and said that Musgraves was "one of the loudest symbols of young country musicians embracing progressive values." "Undermine", a song co-written by Musgraves and Trent Dabbs, was featured in one of the first episodes in the first season of the television series Nashville on October 17, 2012. Musgraves co-wrote Miranda Lambert's 2013 single "Mama's Broken Heart" and sang harmony on the song.
Musgraves was nominated for four awards at the 47th Annual Academy of Country Music Awards in 2012, including Female Vocalist of the Year. Musgraves was also nominated for four Grammy Awards at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, tying Taylor Swift and Lorde for the most nominations received by a woman that year. Those nominations included Best New Artist, Best Country Album (Same Trailer Different Park), and Best Country Song for both "Mama's Broken Heart" and "Merry Go 'Round". "Merry Go 'Round" won the Best Country Song Grammy award, and Same Trailer Different Park won in Best Country Album.
Musgraves joined Katy Perry on the North American leg of her Prismatic World Tour as well as Willie Nelson and Alison Krauss on select dates during their tour. Musgraves provided backing vocals for "Bourbon in Kentucky", the lead single on Dierks Bentley's 2013 album Riser. In April 2014, Musgraves won the Academy of Country Music award for album of the year for Same Trailer Different Park. In June 2014, she released a new song called The Trailer Song, which she debuted on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. Same Trailer Different Park was certified gold in August 2014 for selling over 500,000 copies. Musgraves' single "Follow Your Arrow" was also certified gold, and "Merry Go Round" was certified platinum.
=== 2015–2017: Early album releases ===
Musgraves announced in late August 2014 that she would perform a 10-show headlining tour, titled Same Tour Different Trailer, which started on September 25 and ended on October 19. In September 2014, she said that she had begun writing songs for her second major label album, and planned to write with Luke Laird and Shane MacAnally later in the year after her touring schedule wrapped. "Biscuits", the lead single from the album, was released on March 16, 2015.
Pageant Material, Musgraves' second studio album, was released on June 23, 2015. To support the album, Musgraves performed on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (June 9, 2015), Late Night with Seth Meyers (June 10, 2015), Good Morning America (June 23, 2015), The View (June 24, 2015), Jimmy Kimmel Live! (September 14, 2015), The Late Show with Stephen Colbert (January 8, 2016), and The Late Late Show with James Corden (April 6, 2016).
Musgraves was featured on a remix of Miguel's single "Waves", released on February 26, 2016. On September 7, 2016, Musgraves announced the release of her first Christmas album, A Very Kacey Christmas. The album, which features eight traditional and four original songs, was released on October 28, 2016, through Mercury Nashville. In support of the album, Musgraves embarked on a Christmas-themed tour, complete with a strings section, an accordion, a bass, a saxophone, a clarinet, and backup singers. In September 2016, Musgraves was selected as one of 30 country music artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mash-up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "On the Road Again", and "I Will Always Love You". The song celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards and secured Musgraves her first number-one country single.
In 2017, Musgraves provided backing vocals on "All the Best", a John Prine cover, for Zac Brown Band's album Welcome Home. Also in 2017, Musgraves was featured on Outlaw: Celebrating the Music of Waylon Jennings. Originally recorded for TV, it later was released on CD and DVD. During the broadcast, Musgraves performed Jennings' song "The Wurlitzer Prize". Musgraves appeared on the June 21, 2017, episode of Hollywood Medium with Tyler Henry to receive a psychic reading and connect with her grandmother, Barbara Taylor, to learn more details about her death in a house fire. Musgraves has said that her song "This Town", from the album Pageant Material, is about her grandmother, and that her grandmother sings during the opening of the song.
=== 2018–2020: Breakthrough ===
In October 2017, Musgraves posted a picture of herself on Twitter indicating she was in the studio writing new songs for her upcoming third studio album. On December 12, 2017, Musgraves announced the title of her third studio album Golden Hour through Entertainment Weekly. The songs "Butterflies" and "Space Cowboy" were released as the first singles from the album on February 23, 2018. In March, Musgraves headlined the 2018 C2C: Country to Country festival in London after playing the festival in 2016.
Musgraves premiered "High Horse", the third song from the album, on March 22, 2018, on Zane Lowe's Beats 1 Apple Radio show. On March 29, 2018, she performed "Slow Burn" on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. Golden Hour was released on March 30, 2018, on MCA Nashville. On May 12, 2018, Musgraves was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live, performing "High Horse" and "Slow Burn". Through June and July, Musgraves was the opening act on the second North American leg of Harry Styles: Live on Tour. In September, Musgraves appeared on a rerecorded version of "There's No Gettin' Over Me" with Ronnie Milsap for his 2019 duet album. On October 2, 2018, she appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! as the musical guest. In October 2018, Musgraves embarked on the Oh, What a World Tour in support of Golden Hour. The tour began in Oslo, Norway on October 13. In February 2019, Golden Hour won Album of the Year at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards. In the same month, Musgraves released "Rainbow" as the fifth single from the album. In April, Musgraves featured on a newly recorded version of "Neon Moon" with Brooks and Dunn for their duet album Reboot. She also made a cameo appearance as herself in the country-music drama film Wild Rose, released in April. In May, Musgraves made her Met Gala debut as a Barbie doll and afterwards announced she had signed with modeling agency IMG. In August, Musgraves appeared at San Francisco's Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, among her largest festival appearances to date. In October 2019, Musgraves revealed that she would cover the song "All Is Found" for Frozen II. The song plays over the end credits and is also included on the soundtrack album.
On November 4, 2019, Musgraves announced The Kacey Musgraves Christmas Show, a holiday special premiering through Amazon Amazon Prime Video on November 29. On November 20, 2019, she debuted the song "Glittery" featuring Troye Sivan on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. The soundtrack to the show includes collaborations with other artists, including a cover of "I'll Be Home for Christmas" together with singer Lana Del Rey. The show also stars Kacey's grandmother Barbara (Nana) Musgraves. In April 2020, she appeared in the Together at Home virtual concert series and performed "Rainbow". That same month, she released an Earth Day inspired remix of "Oh, What a World".
=== 2020–present: Star-Crossed, Deeper Well and other projects ===
On May 29, 2020, Musgraves was featured on The Flaming Lips single "Flowers of Neptune 6" and also provided vocals on two additional tracks ("Watch the Lightbugs Glow" and "God and the Policeman") on their album American Head, which was released on September 11, 2020. Musgraves also provides backing vocals on several tracks on Ruston Kelly's second album Shape & Destroy, which was recorded before she and Kelly divorced. On December 10, 2020, Troye Sivan released a reworked version of his song "Easy" which features Musgraves and was produced by Mark Ronson. Musgraves' song "Oh, What A World" was used in the Paramount Network original Christmas movie Dashing in December. She voiced Earwig's mother in the English dub of the Studio Ghibli film, Earwig and the Witch.
In April 2021, Musgraves announced that her new album would be released later that year, in partnership with UMG Nashville and Interscope Records, her first release on the latter label. Golden Hour co-producers Daniel Tashian and Ian Fitchuk will return to work on the project. Musgraves began teasing her next album by releasing snippets of new music on her 33rd birthday. On August 23, Musgraves revealed that her fifth album, now titled Star-Crossed, would be released on September 10, along with an accompanying 50-minute film which will be available for streaming exclusively on Paramount+. Musgraves also released the album's title track.
In August 2021, Musgraves announced a 15-city Star-Crossed: Unveiled Tour for the album Star-Crossed. On October 2, she became the first ever musical guest to perform nude on Saturday Night Live.
Musgraves collaborated with American country star Zach Bryan on the single "I Remember Everything" from his self-titled fourth studio album. The track debuted at the top position on the Billboard Hot 100, marking her first number 1 single on the chart. The single was nominated for two Grammy awards at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Country Song and Best Country Duo/Group Performance winning the latter. On October 6, 2023, Musgraves collaborated with breakout artist Noah Kahan on a re-released version of the single "She Calls Me Back" from Kahan's album Stick Season. In 2023, Musgraves also executive produced the country music competition show My Kind of Country with Reese Witherspoon.
In February 2024, Musgraves announced her sixth studio album, Deeper Well, which was released on March 15, 2024. She performed two songs from the album on the March 2 episode of Saturday Night Live. She was a guest and interviewed for two hours on March 18, 2024, on Howard Stern's SiriusXM show; she performed three songs live with her band at Sirius' Nashville studio. In April 2024, Musgraves collaborated with American alternative rock band Rainbow Kitten Surprise on the single "Overtime," from the band's new album Love Hate Music Box. On August 10, 2024, Musgraves and Sabrina Carpenter were in a duet singing a cover of Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots are Made for Walkin'" during Carpenter's headline set at the Outside Lands Festival in San Francisco.
== Artistry ==
=== Influences ===
Musgraves lists Alison Krauss as one of her career role models, stating, "I mean, how many Grammys does she have? She's just remained solid and true and great, and I respect that".
Musgraves' favorite artist is John Prine and, in a tribute performance to him after his death in April 2020, she said that "my favorite quality of John's would be his sense of humor and it really influenced my songwriting a lot" and proclaimed "that man singlehandedly influenced me and my songwriting more than anyone else on this planet". She lists Lee Ann Womack as one of her childhood influences: "Lee Ann Womack is from near where I grew up in East Texas, so I've always looked up to her." Musgraves spoke of both Prine and Womack, "if I could sing it like Lee Ann would and say it like John would, then I feel like I've gotten somewhere".
Musgraves listed albums by Glen Campbell, Bobbie Gentry, Marty Robbins, Charley Pride, Roger Miller, and Jim Croce as influences on her sophomore album and an interview of hers with Rolling Stone Country cited Ray Price, Julie Miller, and Loretta Lynn as being other influences. In a Billboard interview, Musgraves said that she is a Dolly Parton fan, saying "Beauty, sex appeal, brains, wit, humor, beautiful songwriting, meaningful songwriting, no apologies for who she is, LGBTQ advocate long before it was even a thing or trendy or whatever... She's fearless and I admire her spirit a lot and she's very kind. She's very present when you're talking to her and I just really love her so much."
Noncountry artists whom Musgraves has mentioned as influences include Cher, Selena, Ryan Adams, Cake, Neil Young, Weezer, Imogen Heap, Bee Gees, Sade, and Electric Light Orchestra.
=== Lyrical themes and style ===
Critics have said Musgraves is a soprano. Her socially progressive lyrics draw attention in the generally conservative country music genre.
Her music has tackled topics such as LGBT acceptance, safe sexual intercourse, recreational marijuana use, and questioning religious sentiment. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Musgraves talked about criticism she faced for her rebellious lyrics. "I think throwing the rebel card out there is really cheap," she said. "The things I'm singing about are not controversial to me, I don't push buttons to push buttons. I talk about things that have made an impression on me that a lot of people everywhere are going through."
== Personal life ==
In 2014, in an interview with ABC Radio, Musgraves said her bandmate Misa Arriaga had been her boyfriend for several years after they first became friends and worked together.
Musgraves met Ruston Kelly in March 2016 at the Bluebird Café in Nashville. In May 2016, they had a songwriting date, and they began dating shortly after. Musgraves said that the song "Butterflies" from her album Golden Hour is about her courtship with Kelly; many other songs from the album were inspired by Kelly. On December 24, 2016, Musgraves and Kelly were engaged. They married on October 14, 2017, in Tennessee. The couple filed for divorce in July 2020 and it was finalized in September 2020.
From 2021 to 2023, Musgraves was in a relationship with Cole Schafer, a poet.
== Discography ==
Same Trailer Different Park (2013)
Pageant Material (2015)
A Very Kacey Christmas (2016)
Golden Hour (2018)
Star-Crossed (2021)
Deeper Well (2024)
== Tours ==
Headlining
Same Trailer Different Tour (2013–2015)
The Kacey Musgraves Country & Western Rhinestone Revue (2015–2016)
A Very Kacey Christmas Tour (2016)
Oh, What a World: Tour (2018–2019)
Oh, What a World: Tour II (2019)
Star-Crossed: Unveiled (2022)
Deeper Well World Tour (2024)
Opening act
50th Anniversary Tour for Loretta Lynn (2012)
2012 Spring Tour for John Mayer; canceled (2012)
Own the Night Tour for Lady Antebellum (2012)
Tornado Tour for Little Big Town (2013)
No Shoes Nation Tour for Kenny Chesney (2013)
Take Me Downtown Tour for Lady Antebellum (2013–2014)
Together in Concert for Willie Nelson and Family and Alison Krauss and Union Station (2014)
Prismatic World Tour for Katy Perry (2014)
Strait to Vegas for George Strait (2016)
The Breakers Tour for Little Big Town (2018)
Harry Styles: Live on Tour for Harry Styles (2018)
== Awards and honors ==
At the Grammy Awards Musgraves has received eight awards from seventeen nominations.
Album of the Year - Golden Hour (2019)
Best Country Song - "Merry Go 'Round" (2014), "Space Cowboy" (2019), "The Architect" (2025)
Best Country Album - Same Trailer Different Park (2014), Golden Hour (2019)
Best Country Solo Performance - "Butterflies" (2019)
Best Country Duo/Group Performance - "I Remember Everything" with Zach Bryan (2024)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Kacey Musgraves at AllMusic
Kacey Musgraves discography at Discogs
Interview with Kacey Musgraves on Ben Sorensen's REAL Country |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Museum_of_Chicago#:~:text=In%20late%202018%2C%20the%20museum,Randolph%20St). | Design Museum of Chicago | The Design Museum of Chicago or "DMoC" (formerly Chicago Design Museum) is a museum of design in Chicago. It was founded by Tanner Woodford in 2012 as a pop-up museum, and hosted exhibitions in different venues around Chicago in 2012 and 2013. Following a successful Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign in 2014, the museum opened a permanent location in the Block 37 building. In late 2018, the museum moved to Expo 72 (72 E. Randolph St).
== Mission and purpose ==
The mission of the Design Museum of Chicago is to "educate, inspire, and foster innovation through design."
Its programs are collaborative and community-based, largely relying on local volunteers for exhibit design, curation, registration, marketing, and other core museological functions. With a small staff, its foundation is "in its many volunteers' visions and labor."
The museum is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that believes design has the capacity to fundamentally improve the human condition. It fosters free, open, and honest engagement with diverse audiences through a permanent collection, rotating exhibitions, and educational programming.
== Exhibitions ==
Exhibitions focus on a broad, cross-disciplinary definition of design, encompassing graphic design, architecture, urban planning, interior design, systems thinking, and more.
Letters Beyond Form: Chicago Types (November 9, 2024 – April 4, 2025)
Voices Embodied: Reverberations (July 13 – October 13, 2024)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibitions 2024 (May 3 – June 2, 2024)
SOLVE: Puzzle Design Exhibit (December 8, 2023 – March 31, 2024)
At the Precipice: Responses to the Climate Crisis (July 14 – October 30, 2023)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibitions (April 29 – June 2, 2023)
Free & Open Chicago: Cheers to 10 Years! (November 17, 2022 – April 2, 2023)
ID@85: 85 Years of Making the Future (October 19, 2022 – Ongoing)
The Correct Time: One Clock Per Minute (July 16, 2022 – October 17, 2022)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibition 2022 (May 11, 2022 – June 22, 2022)
Tomorrow, and Tomorrow and Tomorrow (April 15, 2022 – April 16, 2022)
All Together Now: Sound x Design (November 13, 2021 – April 3, 2022)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibition 2021 (January 1, 2021 – December 31, 2021)
A Designed Life (June 12, 2021 – September 19, 2021)
Chicago: Home of House at The Catacombs (May 8, 2021 – June 30, 2021)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibition 2020 (May 29, 2020 – December 31, 2020)
Great Ideas of Humanity: Passing the Torch (February 25, 2020 – December 31, 2020)
Setting the Stage: Objects of Chicago Theatre (June 29, 2019 – January 5, 2020)
Chicago Public Schools All-City Visual Arts Exhibition 2019 (April 10, 2019 – May 12, 2019)
Keep Moving: Designing Chicago's Bicycle Culture (October 27, 2018 – March 3, 2019)
Keep Moving: Shifting Gears (November 17, 2018 – January 18, 2019)
Great Ideas of Humanity: Out of the Container (April 20, 2018 – August 18, 2018)
HEY! PLAY! Games in Modern Culture (October 20, 2017 – March 10, 2018)
Confluence • 20+ Creative Ecologies of Hong Kong (October 14, 2017 – November 4, 2017)
Dan Friedman: Radical Modernist (April 28, 2017 – August 12, 2017)
City of Ideas: Architects' Voices and Visions (October 22, 2016 – February 25, 2017)
ChicagoMade: Great Ideas of Humanity (December 1, 2016 – December 3, 2016)
Unfolded: Made with Paper (April 5, 2016 – August 26, 2016)
New Horizon: Architecture from Ireland (October 2, 2015 – January 30, 2016)
The State of Detroit (April 28, 2015 – August 29, 2015)
Deborah Sussman Loves Los Angeles! (November 13, 2014 – February 28, 2015)
Starts/Speculations: Graphic Design in Chicago Past and Future (June 12, 2014 – September 30, 2014)
Work at Play (June 1, 2013 – June 30, 2013)
A—Z: Art on Track (September 22, 2012)
Inaugural Exhibition: 700 N Sacramento (June 1, 2012 – June 30, 2012)
== Notable projects ==
=== VaxChiNation Artist campaign ===
In 2021, the Design Museum joined with the Chicago Department of Public Health and the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs and Special Events to commission more than 80 local artists to "design original art exploring themes of health, vitality, community, and vaccine distribution to encourage everyone to get vaccinated." The commissioned art is featured on print and digital billboards throughout Chicago neighborhoods and on social media channels.
Some artists in the campaign include: Afrokilla, Alice Hargrave, Anthony Lewellen, Ashley Lin, Bob Faust, CZR PRZ, Carlos Rolón, Carlos Segura, Cody Hudson, Cristi López, Dan Grzeca, Dont Fret, Elloo, Emmy Star Brown, Esther Garcia, Gabriel Villa, Hector Duarte, Jason Pickleman, Jeff Zimmerman, Johnny Sampson, Kelly Knaga, Langston Allston, Lori Seidemann, Moises Salazar, Penny Pinch, Pouya Ahmadi, Rosemary Holiday Hall, Rubén Aguirre, Shannon Downey, Sonnenzimmer, Substance Collective, The Kid From Pilsen, Thomas Williams, Unyimeabasi Udoh, William J. O’Brien, and Won Kim.
=== Great Ideas of Humanity ===
Great Ideas of Humanity is a series of advertisements in which contemporary artists and designers are asked to create artwork that responds to quotes by leading scientists, philosophers, and academics. The series serves as "an acknowledgment of the increasing globalization or our world and resulting cross-pollination of ideas, philosophies, societies, and culture," and is inspired by the Great Ideas of Western Man campaign by Chicago's Container Corporation of America. Advertisements from this series have been displayed downtown Chicago on its bus rapid transit advertisement stanchions, and in Hong Kong at the Business of Design Week InnoTech Design Expo.
Contributors include Matthew Hoffman on Susan B. Anthony, Andy Gregg on Mary Wollstonecraft, Renata Graw on Hypatia, 50,000feet on Goethe, Margot Harrington on Sojourner Truth, Cocu Liu on George Sand, Pouya Ahmadi on Rumi, Patternbase on Lucy Larcom, Eileen Tjan on Goethe, Kimberly Terzis on Anne Sophie Swetchine, Alexander Skoirchet on Buddha, Marcus Norman on Lucy Larcom, Tanner Woodford on Edith Wharton, Veronica Corzo-Duchardt on Goethe, LaShun Tines on Frederick Douglass, Matthew Terdich on Benjamin Franklin, Bibliothèque on Alfred North Whitehead, Hugh Dubberly on John Dewey, and Ivan Chermayeff on Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
=== Chicago Design Market ===
The Chicago Design Market is "a rotating series of pop-up shops that create the unexpected by placing small emerging artists alongside larger established businesses. Located on the third floor of Block 37, "shops are not charged for utilities and do not pay a fixed monthly rent. Instead, the museum takes a sales commission. This allows small designers or businesses, such as Aviate Press, to market in a retail space, while allowing larger establishments, such as Cards Against Humanity, to experiment with both the space and their business model."
Stores are selected via an application process. They include: Cards Against Humanity, The Colossal Shop, You Are Beautiful, Fourneau Bread Oven, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Resketch, Sweetwater Foundation, Shawnimals, Aviate Press, AIA Chicago, Dock 6 Collective and mercer & winnie.
=== The Design Pack ===
The Design Pack is a Cards Against Humanity expansion pack that includes 30 illustrated cards that interpret George Carlin's infamous 1972 monologue, "Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television." All proceeds from the Design Pack benefit the Design Museum of Chicago, with sales surpassing $130,000 in its first few days on the market. Similar non-profit packs by Cards Against Humanity have raised nearly millions of dollars for partner organizations DonorsChoose.org, the Wikimedia Foundation, and the Sunlight Foundation.
Contributors to the Design Pack include Laura Park, Shawna X, Chad Kouri, Susan Kare, Yann Legendre, Paula Scher, Jay Ryan, Mike McQuade, Paul Octavious, Erik Spiekermann, Max Temkin, Debbie Millman, Art Paul, Simon Whybray, Mike Mitchell, Scott Thomas, Matthew Terdich, Jez Burrows, Jason Polan, Jessica Hische, Cody Hudson, Nick Adam, Matthew Hoffman, Magdalena Wistuba + Anna Mort, Eric Hu, Olly Moss, Tanner Woodford, Milton Glaser, and Sonnenzimmer.
== Brand identity ==
The Design Museum of Chicago’s current logo was designed by Chicago-based Substance Collective. Its inspiration was the city’s notable urban grid organizing “the interconnectivity of streets, thoroughfares, blocks and diverse neighborhoods.”
== Leadership ==
After nearly fourteen years, Tanner Woodford chose to step down as executive director on January 31, 2026, and then remain involved as founder and board member.
== See also ==
List of design museums
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Great Ideas of Humanity from the Design Museum of Chicago
Manifesto of the Staatliches Bauhaus
The Design Pack
Chicago Design Museum ephemera collection at The Newberry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cora_Sadosky | Cora Sadosky | Cora Susana Sadosky de Goldstein (May 23, 1940 – December 3, 2010) was an Argentine mathematician and Professor of Mathematics at Howard University.
== Early life and education ==
Sadosky was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the daughter of mathematicians Manuel Sadosky and Corina Eloísa "Cora" Ratto de Sadosky. At the age of 6, she moved with her parents to France and Italy.
Sadosky began college at age 15 in the School of Science of the University of Buenos Aires, obtaining her degree of Licenciatura (comparable to a Bachelor's degree in the US nomenclature) in 1960. She earned her doctorate at the University of Chicago in 1965.
== Career ==
After receiving her doctorate she returned to Argentina. She became an assistant professor of Mathematics at the University of Buenos Aires. She resigned her position in 1966, along with 400 other faculty members, in protest over a police assault on the School of Science. She taught for one semester at Uruguay National University and then became an assistant professor at Johns Hopkins. She returned to Argentina in 1968 but was unable to obtain an academic position there, instead working as a technical translator and editor.
In 1974, due to political persecution, Sadosky left Argentina, relocating to Caracas to join the faculty of the Central University of Venezuela. At this time she wrote a graduate text on mathematics, Interpolation of Operators and Singular Integrals: An Introduction to Harmonic Analysis, which was published in the United States in 1979. She spent the academic year of 1978–1979 at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1980 she became an associate professor at Howard University. After spending a year as a visiting professor at the University of Buenos Aires, she returned to Howard University as a full professor in 1985. From 1995 to 1997, she served as an American Mathematical Society Council member at large.
== Awards ==
She was appointed a visiting professorship for women (VPW) in science and technology from the National Science Foundation (NSF) for 1983–1984 and spent it at the Institute for Advanced Study. She received a second VPW in 1995 which she spent as visiting professor at the University of California at Berkeley. She received a Career Advancement Award from the NSF in 1987–1988 which allowed her to spend the year as a member of the classical analysis program at Mathematical Sciences Research Institute (MSRI), where she later returned as a research professor.
She was elected president of the Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM) for 1993–1995. The Sadosky Prize of the AWM is named in her honor.
== Research ==
Sadosky's research was in the field of analysis, particularly Fourier analysis and Operator Theory. Sadosky's doctoral thesis was on parabolic singular integrals, written under Alberto Pedro Calderón and Antoni Zygmund.
Together with Mischa Cotlar, Sadosky wrote more than 30 articles as part of a collaborative research program. Their research included work on moments theory and lifting theorems for measures, Toeplitz forms, Hankel operators, and scattering systems, as well as their applications using weighted norm inequalities and functions of bounded mean oscillation.
In addition to the above topics, Sadosky wrote extensively on harmonic analysis, particularly harmonic analysis on Euclidean space, the Hilbert transform, and other topics related to scattering and lifting techniques.
== References ==
== External links ==
Estela A. Gavosto, Andrea R. Nahmod, María Cristina Pereyra, Gustavo Ponce, Rodolfo H. Torres, Wilfredo Urbina, "Remembering Cora Sadosky".
Charlene Morrow and Teri Peri (eds), Notable Women in Mathematics, Greenwood Press, 1998, pp. 204–209.
Larry Riddle, "Cora Sadosky", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Cora Sadosky.
María Cristina Pereyra, Stefania Marcantognini, Alexander M. Stokolos, Wilfredo Urbina (eds), Harmonic Analysis, Partial Differential Equations, Complex Analysis, Banach Spaces, and Operator Theory Volume 1 and Volume 2 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghulam_Hassan_Sofi#:~:text=Ghulam%20Hassan%20Sofi%20(1932%2C%20Srinagar,India%20Radio%2C%20in%20early%201950s. | Ghulam Hassan Sofi | Ghulam Hassan Sofi (1932, Srinagar - 2009, Srinagar) was a singer and harmonium player of traditional music of Kashmir, India.
Sofi began his career from Radio Kashmir, local station of All India Radio, in the early 1950s. He also sang for the station Doordarshan Kendra Srinagar, and for the Cultural Academy, besides being part of the staff in the Song and Drama Division from 1967 to 1994. Sofi, who also performed in other states of India, received the lifetime award from the Union Information Ministry and the Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah award from the State Government in 2006. Sofi sang the lyrics of the noted Kashmiri poets Ghulam Ahmad Mehjoor, Abdul Ahad Azad, Wahab Khar, Rasool Mir and Rajab Hamid. His own compositions often dwelt on spiritual and mystical themes.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downey,_California#2010 | Downey, California | Downey is a city in southeastern Los Angeles County, California, United States, 13 mi (21 km) southeast of Downtown Los Angeles. It is considered part of the Gateway Cities. The city is the birthplace of the Apollo space program and Taco Bell. It is also the home of the oldest operating McDonald's restaurant in the world. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 114,355.
== History ==
=== 18th century to World War II ===
Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was initially founded on September 8, 1771, near settlements of the Tongva people. It was located in the Whittier Narrows on a bluff overlooking the Rio Hondo, near the modern intersection of San Gabriel Blvd and Lincoln Avenue. After five years, flooding forced the relocation of the mission to its present site in San Gabriel.
In 1784, Governor Pedro Fages granted to former soldier Manuel Nieto (1734–1804) the largest of the land concessions made in what was then Alta California, a province of New Spain. Its 300,000 acres (120,000 hectares) stretched from the Santa Ana River on the east to the Old San Gabriel River (now the Rio Hondo and Los Angeles River) on the west, and from the mission highway (approximately Whittier Boulevard) on the north to the ocean on the south. Its acreage was slightly reduced later at the insistence of Mission San Gabriel on whose lands it infringed. The Spanish concessions, of which 25 were made in California, were unlike the later Mexican land grants in that title was not transferred but were similar to grazing permits with the title remaining with the Spanish crown.
The Rancho Los Nietos passed to Manuel Nieto's four children upon his death and remained intact until 1833 when his heirs petitioned Mexican Governor José Figueroa to partition the property. The northwestern portion of the original rancho, comprising the Downey-Norwalk area, was granted as Rancho Santa Gertrudes to Josefa Cota, the widow of Manuel Nieto's son, Antonio Nieto. At approximately 21,000 acres (8,500 hectares), Santa Gertrudes was itself a sizable rancho and contained the old Nietos homestead, which was a center of social life east of the pueblo of Los Angeles.
Dairy was a major industry in Downey. The Central Milk Agency marketed the milk for "seven hundred dairymen whose dairy herds range from thirty to two thousand head" with the value of the products marketed in excess of $1,000,000 per month.
Some of Downey's settlers came from Ireland. Downey was founded by and named for the former and youngest ever governor of California, John Gately Downey, who was born in Ireland. Although he was an Irish Democrat, he supported the Republican Lincoln in his efforts to keep the Union intact during the American Civil War. He pioneered the modern subdivision with land he acquired between the Rio Hondo and the San Gabriel River, in about 1865. Downey was convinced that oranges would flourish in Southern California, importing several varieties, which would result in oranges becoming one of the state's biggest cash crops.
=== Gallatin ===
Two small settlements were established along the Rio Hondo River - College Settlement and Gallatin, near where the modern Paramount Boulevard and Florence Avenue cross. In the late 1860s, the Gallatin residents built a small school known as the "Little Red Gallatin School House". By 1871, it was not large enough and a two-story school was built. Gallatin School moved in 1893 to its present site. Later, Alameda School and Downey School were built. By 1883, College Settlement, Gallatin and Downey joined and with the help of Governor Downey convinced the Southern Pacific Railroad to route through and stop in Downey. The new center of activity migrated to the depot area and this became the center of a new larger Downey, uniting the three previous settlements.
=== After World War II ===
Farmers in the area grew grain, corn, castor beans, and fruit, and by 1935 Downey was characterized as an "orange-grove town".
Downey was incorporated in 1956 and instituted a charter form of government in 1964. Suburban homes and factories replaced the farms after World War II.
==== Aerospace ====
Vultee Aircraft was Downey's largest employer during World War II producing 15% of all of America's military aircraft by 1941. The company was a pioneer in the use of women in manufacturing positions and was the first aircraft company to build airplanes on a powered assembly line. After World War 2, the plant was mostly idle from 1945 until 1948, when North American Aviation (later North American Rockwell, then Rockwell International which was then bought by the Boeing company) occupied the facility. In 1961, the facilities were transferred from the US Air Force ownership to NASA and became the birthplace of the systems for the Apollo Space Program as well as the Space Shuttle. For over 70 years, Downey's Rockwell NASA plant produced and tested many of the 20th century's greatest aviation, missile, and space endeavors.
The seventy-year history of airplane and space vehicle manufacturing in Downey came to an end when the Rockwell plant closed in 1999. The plant was demolished and replaced by the Columbia Memorial Space Center, Downey Landing shopping center, Promenade at Downey shopping center (the former movie studio site of Downey Studios), a Kaiser Permanente hospital, and a city recreation fields park.
==== Other landmarks ====
Near the center of the city lies what was in the 1960s one of the busiest intersections in California, the intersection of Lakewood Boulevard (State Route 19) and Firestone Boulevard (former State Route 42). Route 19 was a major thoroughfare between Pasadena and the port at Long Beach and Route 42 was along part of the old Spanish El Camino Real trail that connected the Pueblo de Los Angeles to San Diego.
In the 1960s, the town's Downey Records achieved some notoriety with recordings such as The Chantays' surfing instrumental "Pipeline"; nearly two decades later, Downey's local music scene led to the founding of The Blasters and Dark Angel.
Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, the main public rehabilitation hospital for Los Angeles County, is located in Downey. Rancho Los Amigos is renowned worldwide for its innovative contributions to the care of spinal cord injuries and post-polio syndrome.
Downey was featured in the 2008 American action-comedy film Pineapple Express. Many of the buildings along Florence Avenue are seen in a driving sequence early in the film.
Downey is home to the world's oldest existing McDonald's Restaurant, the so-called Speedee McDonald's Store, which opened in 1953 at the southwest corner of Florence Avenue and Lakewood Boulevard. Damaged in the 1994 Northridge Earthquake, the store reopened in 1996 along with a museum and gift shop.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau the city has a total area of 12.6 square miles (33 km2). 12.4 square miles (32 km2) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52 km2) of it is water.
The cities of South Gate and Bell Gardens are adjacent to the west and northwest, Pico Rivera lies to the northeast, Santa Fe Springs and Norwalk to the east, and Paramount and Bellflower are to the south.
=== Climate ===
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Downey has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated BSk on climate maps.
=== Surrounding areas ===
== Demographics ==
Downey first appeared as a city in the 1960 U.S. census as part of the Downey-Norwalk census county division (pop. 272.729 in 1960).
=== 2020 ===
The 2020 United States census reported that Downey had a population of 114,355. The population density was 9,215.5 inhabitants per square mile (3,558.1/km2). The racial makeup of Downey was 23.4% White, 3.7% African American, 2.1% Native American, 6.7% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 40.0% from other races, and 23.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 75.1% of the population.
The census reported that 99.0% of the population lived in households, 0.5% lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0.5% were institutionalized.
There were 35,017 households, out of which 40.1% included children under the age of 18, 48.4% were married-couple households, 7.9% were cohabiting couple households, 27.2% had a female householder with no partner present, and 16.4% had a male householder with no partner present. 16.7% of households were one person, and 6.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.23. There were 27,251 families (77.8% of all households).
The age distribution was 22.2% under the age of 18, 10.2% aged 18 to 24, 28.9% aged 25 to 44, 25.4% aged 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males.
There were 36,087 housing units at an average density of 2,908.1 units per square mile (1,122.8 units/km2), of which 35,017 (97.0%) were occupied. Of these, 50.0% were owner-occupied, and 50.0% were occupied by renters.
In 2023, the US Census Bureau estimated that the median household income was $87,400, and the per capita income was $37,122. About 7.0% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line.
=== 2010 ===
The 2010 United States census reported that Downey had a population of 111,772. The population density was 8,893.3 inhabitants per square mile (3,433.7/km2). The racial makeup of Downey was 63,255 (56.6%) White, 19,784 (17.7%) Non-Hispanic White, 7,804 (7.0%) Asian (2.2% Korean, 2.2% Filipino, 0.6% Indian, 0.5% Chinese, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.3% Japanese, 0.2% Thai, 0.1% Cambodian, 0.1% Pakistani), 4,329 (3.9%) African American, 820 (0.7%) Native American, 221 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 30,797 (27.6%) from other races, and 4,546 (4.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 78,996 persons (70.7%); 54.0% of Downey residents are of Mexican ancestry, 3.9% Salvadoran, 2.0% Cuban, 2.0% Guatemalan, 1.1% Peruvian, and 1.0% Nicaraguan ancestry.
The Census reported that 111,089 people (99.4% of the population) lived in households, 122 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 561 (0.5%) were institutionalized.
There were 33,936 households, out of which 15,697 (46.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 17,405 (51.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6,289 (18.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,796 (8.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,357 (6.9%) POSSLQ, and 225 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,721 households (16.9%) were made up of individuals, and 2,211 (6.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.27. There were 26,490 families (78.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.68.
The population was spread out, with 29,972 people (26.8%) under the age of 18, 12,108 people (10.8%) aged 18 to 24, 33,056 people (29.6%) aged 25 to 44, 25,057 people (22.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 11,579 people (10.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.
There were 35,601 housing units at an average density of 2,832.7 units per square mile (1,093.7 units/km2), of which 17,135 (50.5%) were owner-occupied, and 16,801 (49.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.9%. 59,555 people (53.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 51,534 people (46.1%) lived in rental housing units. Approximately 30–40 homeless reside in the area.
According to the 2010 United States census, Downey had a median household income of $60,939, with 11.8% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
=== Mapping L.A. ===
According to Mapping L.A., Mexican and German were the most common ancestries in Downey in 2000. Mexico and Korea were the most common foreign places of birth.
=== Homelessness ===
In 2022, Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority's Greater Los Angeles Homeless Count counted 218 homeless individuals in Downey.
== Crime ==
While reports of robberies, aggravated assaults, and petty thefts in Downey dropped in 2008, auto thefts reached a 10-year high. In 2008, 1,231 vehicles were reported stolen in Downey. Other crimes recorded by the FBI Crime Index for the year 2008 include 252 robberies, 172 aggravated assaults, 24 rapes, 711 burglaries, and 2,038 acts of larceny/thefts.
=== Anti-gang activities ===
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Downey saw an increase in gang activity. Today there is still gang activity going in the south area of Downey. In response, Downey formed GOOD (Gangs Out Of Downey), a community-based organization that helps encourage young people between the ages of 10–20 to stay away from gangs. GOOD is also responsible for organizing many community events and programs such as various sports, after-school care, scholarship programs for at-risk students looking to attend college, and counseling for both young people and their parents. GOOD has kept a close partnership with the Downey Police Department.
== Economy ==
=== Most Business-Friendly Award ===
In 2017, the City of Downey was recognized as L.A. County's "Most Business-Friendly City" by the Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation for cities with a population greater than 68,000.
=== Largest employers ===
According to the city's 2024 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
== Government ==
In the California State Legislature, Downey is in the 30th senatorial district, represented by Democrat Bob Archuleta, and in the 64th Assembly district, represented by Democrat Blanca Pacheco.
In the United States House of Representatives, Downey is in California's 42nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Robert Garcia.
== Culture ==
The author Tom Wolfe wrote about Downey. His article "The Hair Boys" was about Harvey's Drive-in and the fashions that the hair boys wore. He claimed that Harvey's was one of the great unacknowledged centers of fashion in the world. The essay appears in his 1968 book "The Pump House Gang." His drawing of one of the hair boys appears in his book "In Our Time."
In 1955, Downey was featured in newspapers worldwide when truck driver George Di Peso lived at 7739 Alderdale Street and had a gopher problem. He tried to solve it by putting a hose down a gopher hole and turning on the water to drown it, but could not get the hose out afterwards. He then noticed that the hose was slowly being pulled down the hole. Wire services found out about this, and the mysterious phenomenon was reported in newspapers worldwide. According to a July 3, 1955, front-page article in the Los Angeles Times ("Tokyo Awaits Arrival of Downey Hose"), "A message received from Tokyo at the United Press office here read 'Tell Di Peso in Downey the other end of his hose has not turned up here, but we're all still looking.'" There was a great deal of speculation about the cause of the disappearing hose. Eventually the hose vanished completely. The most likely explanation was that there was an underground river that pulled at the hose.
In the early 1960s, it was widely reported that the Downey City Library had banned Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan books because Tarzan was not married to Jane when they conceived Boy. Evidence for the rumor's staying power is in articles in the Los Angeles Times that were published in the 1970s (for example, "Downey Sends L.A. Back to the Bush League," Jack Smith, May 8, 1970). The rumor about Tarzan was, however, an exaggeration. According to "Zane Grey Also Safe: Tarzan’s Marital Status No Issue as Downey School Ban Is Denied" (Los Angeles Times December 28, 1961), a rumor spread that one of Downey's elementary schools had removed Edgar Rice Burroughs and Zane Grey books from its library because "1—There was no indication that Tarzan and his mate, Jane, were ever married before they took up housekeeping in the treetops," and "2—Grey was known to put such expletives as 'damn!’ and 'hell' in the mouths of his western cowhands." It turns out that there was no "ban." What happened was that in one elementary school, a parent had put two Zane Grey books "out of site in a desk drawer." No Tarzan books were involved. The Zane Grey books were put back on the shelves.
== Education ==
=== Primary and secondary schools ===
Most of Downey is within the Downey Unified School District. Downey's two main public high schools are named for Governor John G. Downey and Governor and Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren.
Downey has three public high schools: Downey, Warren, and Columbus High School. Other public schools include:
Small sections are within the Montebello Unified School District. Another portion is in Little Lake City Elementary School District and Whittier Union High School District.
Private schools include:
Calvary Chapel Christian School: pre-K–12
St. Pius X-Matthias Academy: 9–12
Our Lady of Perpetual Help School: TK-K–8
Saint Raymond's Catholic School: pre-K–8
Saint Mark's Episcopal School: pre-K–8
Roman Catholic schools are under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
=== Public libraries ===
The Downey City Library serves the city. The first library in Downey was established in 1901 by a women's social club that was founded in 1898. The County of Los Angeles Public Library opened a branch in Downey in September 1915. The county branch moved several times; its final location was in the County Civic Center. In 1958 the Downey City Council voted to establish its own library and withdraw from the county system. The city library services were originally provided out of the back of a bookstore. The city library opened in the former cafeteria of the former Downey Elementary School, then being used as the city hall and police station, on July 1, 1958. A permanent library building was built on December 7, 1959. It had almost 16,000 square feet (1,500 m2) and it was built for $186,200, costing $11.97 per square foot. It was dedicated on December 17 and opened on December 18. In February 1984 an addition of almost 12,000 square feet (1,100 m2) was completed and dedicated.
In March 2019, the city announced that it would be using Measure S funds to begin remodeling on the city library. The remodeling was initially supposed to last 15 months, but the COVID-19 pandemic caused delays in the project. The remodeled city library opened on May 3, 2021, with notable updates including mobile app support for checkouts and a multi-use community space.
In addition, the headquarters of the County of Los Angeles Public Library are located in Downey.
== Infrastructure ==
=== Health care ===
The Los Angeles County Department of Public Health operates the Whittier Health Center in Whittier, serving Downey.
=== Post office ===
The United States Postal Service operates the Downey Post Office at 8111 Firestone Boulevard, the North Downey Post Office at 10409 Lakewood Boulevard, and the South Downey Post Office at 7911 Imperial Highway. Los Cerritos Community News serves the city.
=== Transportation ===
Any of four freeways can conveniently reach the city: I-105 and the Metro C Line passes through the southern part of the city, I-5 passes through the northern region, I-605 passes along the eastern side, and I-710 passes just west of the city.
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) provides bus services to the city and is served by Lakewood Boulevard station on the C Line. The city also operates a local bus service called DowneyLINK.
== Notable people ==
Dave Alvin, musician, founder of Downey-based rockabilly band The Blasters with brother Phil
Bob Bennett, contemporary Christian musician, singer-songwriter, recording artist, was born in Downey
Paul Bigsby, father of the modern electric solid-body guitar, built in 1948, and creator of the Bigsby vibrato
William Bonin, serial killer; was Downey resident during his crime spree
The Carpenters (singer-musicians Karen and Richard) moved to Downey in 1963, originally to an apartment complex called the Shoji on 12020 Downey Ave, later moving to a house that still stands on Newville Avenue which can be seen on the cover of their album, Now & Then; after the duo's success, they built two apartment buildings still located on 5th St.
Miranda Cosgrove, actress and singer, star of iCarly
Art Cruz, musician and songwriter, current drummer of Lamb of God
Joslyn Davis, host of Clevver TV and YouTube personality, was raised in Downey
Rosario DeSimone (1873–1946), Downey-based crime boss
Walt Faulkner, Indy car driver, first rookie to win pole position at Indianapolis 500
Ed Fiori, professional golfer
Terry Forcum, 1983 World Champion professional long drive golfer was born in Downey
Ty France, professional baseball player
Donavon Frankenreiter, surfer and musician
Kevin Gross, former Major League Baseball pitcher for Los Angeles Dodgers and Anaheim Angels
Dan Henderson, mixed martial artist
Demos Shakarian, businessman and founder of Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International
Brian Haner, Musician/Comedian
James Hetfield, Metallica frontman
Leon Hooten, former baseball player for Oakland Athletics
Robert Illes, Emmy-winning TV writer and producer
Allison Iraheta, musician, American Idol Season 8 contestant
Kerry King, Slayer guitarist
Evan Longoria, an All-Star third baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays, San Francisco Giants and Arizona Diamondbacks, was born in Downey
Darren McCaughan, professional baseball player for the Seattle Mariners, was raised in Downey.
Ira J. McDonald, Los Angeles City Council member, 1941–43, Downey civic leader
Ron McGovney, original Metallica bassist, spent school years in Downey
Bob Meusel, baseball star for New York Yankees who played with Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, lived and died in Downey
Riki R. Nelson, oil painter
Tom Nieto, professional baseball player
George Pajon Jr., Grammy Award-winning recording and performing artist
Lena Park, South Korean singer
Wayne Rainey, former American Grand Prix motorcycle racer, was born in Downey
Kimmy Robertson, actress best known for her role as Lucy Moran in Twin Peaks
Rich Rodriguez, Major League Baseball pitcher 1990–2003
Paul Ruffner, pro basketball player
Kenneth Shelley, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, was born in Downey
Dennis Sproul, NFL player
JoJo Starbuck, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, grew up in Downey
Aimee Teegarden, actress (Friday Night Lights) and fashion model
Alanna Ubach, actress
Joan Weston, queen of Roller Derby, grew up in Downey
"Weird Al" Yankovic, musician and parody artist, was born in Downey
Andrew Robert Young, U.S. Ambassador to Burkina Faso (appointed 2016), was born in Downey.
Stephanie Zavala, professional bowler, 2021 PWBA Rookie of the Year, resides in Downey.
== Sister cities ==
Downey's sister cities are:
== Media ==
The Downey Patriot is a weekly community newspaper serving the Downey community. The Los Angeles Times and the Press-Telegram are the daily newspapers that provide daily local coverage in Los Angeles County and the Gateway Cities region.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shastri_Nagar_metro_station | Shastri Nagar metro station | The Shastri Nagar (formerly called Vivekanandapuri) metro station is located on the Red Line of the Delhi Metro.
== Station layout ==
== Facilities ==
List of available ATM at Shastri Nagar metro station are
== See also ==
List of Delhi Metro stations
Transport in Delhi
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Delhi Suburban Railway
List of rapid transit systems in India
Delhi Transport Corporation
List of Metro Systems
== References ==
== External links ==
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)
Delhi Metro Annual Reports
"Station Information". Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (DMRC). Archived from the original on 19 June 2010.
UrbanRail.Net – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
one and half an hour distance from Nehru Place |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meldola_Medal_and_Prize#:~:text=Thomas%20Summers%20West-,1955%3A%20Peter%20Gray,-1954%3A%20John | Meldola Medal and Prize | The Meldola Medal and Prize was awarded annually from 1921 to 1979 by the Chemical Society and from 1980 to 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry to a British chemist who was under 32 years of age for promising original investigations in chemistry (which had been published). It commemorated Raphael Meldola, President of the Maccabaeans and the Institute of Chemistry. The prize was the sum of £500 and a bronze medal.
The prize was modified in 2008 and joined the Edward Harrison Memorial Prize to become the Harrison-Meldola Memorial Prizes.
== Winners ==
Awardees include:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Manekshaw#:~:text=A%20flyover%20bridge%20in%20Ahmedabad's,Minister%20of%20Gujarat%2C%20Narendra%20Modi. | Sam Manekshaw | Field Marshal Sam Hormusji Framji Jamshedji Manekshaw (3 April 1914 – 27 June 2008), also known as Sam Bahadur ("the Brave"), was an Indian Army general officer who was the Chief of the army staff during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, and the first Indian army officer to be promoted to the rank of field marshal. His active military career spanned four decades, beginning with service in World War II.
Manekshaw joined the first intake of the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun in 1932. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment. In World War II, he was awarded the Military Cross for gallantry. Following the Partition of India in 1947, he was reassigned to the 8th Gorkha Rifles. Manekshaw was seconded to a planning role during the 1947 Indo-Pakistani War and the Hyderabad crisis, and as a result, he never commanded an infantry battalion. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier while serving at the Military Operations Directorate. He became the commander of 167 Infantry Brigade in 1952 and served in this position until 1954 when he took over as the director of military training at the Army Headquarters.
After completing the higher command course at the Imperial Defence College, he was appointed the general officer commanding of the 26th Infantry Division. He also served as the commandant of the Defence Services Staff College. In 1962, he was accused in a politically motivated treason trial, he was eventually found innocent but thus could not serve in the 1962 war. In 1963, Manekshaw was promoted to the rank of army commander and took over Western Command, then was transferred in 1964 to Eastern Command. In this role, in 1967, he was involved in the first Indian victory against a Chinese offensive during the Nathu La and Cho La clashes.
Manekshaw was awarded the Padma Bhushan, the third highest Indian civilian award, in 1968 for responding to the insurgencies in Nagaland and Mizoram. Manekshaw became the seventh chief of army staff in 1969. Under his command, Indian forces providing them with arms and ammunitions to fight against the strong regular army of Pakistan in the Bangladesh-Pakistani War of 1971, which led to the Independence of Bangladesh in December 1971. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award of India, in 1972 for his services to the nation. Manekshaw was promoted to the rank of field marshal in January 1973, the first of the only two officers to be ever promoted to the post, second being K.M. Carriappa. He retired on 15 January 1973 (also celebrated as Army Day). He died on 27 June 2008, at the age of 94, due to respiratory problems.
== Early life and family ==
Sam Manekshaw was born on 3 April 1914
in Amritsar to Hormizd (1871–1964), a doctor, and Hilla, née Mehta (1885–1970). Both of his parents were Parsis who had moved to Amritsar from the city of Valsad in coastal Gujarat. Manekshaw's parents had left Mumbai in 1903 for Lahore, where his father was going to start practising medicine. However, when their train halted at Amritsar station, Hilla found it impossible to travel any further due to her advanced pregnancy. After Hilla had recovered from child birth, the couple decided to stay in Amritsar, where Hormizd soon set up a clinic and pharmacy. The couple had four sons (Fali, Jan, Sam and Jami) and two daughters (Cilla and Sheru). Manekshaw was their fifth child and third son.
During World War II, Hormizd had served in the British Indian Army as a captain in the Indian Medical Service (now the Army Medical Corps).
== Education ==
Manekshaw completed his primary schooling in Punjab, and then joined Sherwood College, Nainital for 8 years. In 1931, he passed his senior high school examinations with distinction. He then asked his father to send him to London to study medicine, but his father refused as he was not old enough. His father was already supporting Sam's elder brothers who were studying engineering in London. Manekshaw instead enrolled at the Hindu Sabha College (now the Hindu College, Amritsar) and graduated in April 1932.
A formal notification for the entrance examination to enrol in the newly established Indian Military Academy (IMA) was issued in the early months of 1932. Examinations were scheduled for June or July. In an act of rebellion against his father's refusal to send him to London, Manekshaw applied for a place and sat for the entrance exams in Delhi. On 1 October 1932, he was one of the fifteen cadets to be selected through an open competition, and placed sixth in the order of merit.
=== Indian Military Academy ===
Manekshaw was part of the first batch of cadets at the IMA. Called "The Pioneers", this batch also included Smith Dun and Muhammad Musa Khan, the future commanders-in-chief of Burma and Pakistan, respectively. Although the academy was inaugurated on 10 December 1932, the cadets' military training commenced on 1 October 1932. As an IMA cadet, Manekshaw went on to achieve a number of distinctions: the only one to attain the rank of field marshal. The commandant of the Academy during this period was Brigadier Lionel Peter Collins. Manekshaw was almost suspended from the Academy when he went to Mussoorie for a holiday with Kumar Jit Singh (the Maharaja of Kapurthala) and Haji Iftikhar Ahmed, and did not return in time for the morning drills.
Of the 40 cadets inducted into the IMA, only 22 completed the course; they were commissioned as second lieutenants on 1 February 1935. Some of his batchmates were Dewan Ranjit Rai; Mohan Singh, the founder of the Indian National Army; Melville de Mellow, a famous radio presenter; and two generals of the Pakistani Army, Mirza Hamid Hussain and Habibullah Khan Khattak. Many of Manekshaw's batchmates were captured by Japan during World War II and would fight in the Indian National Army, which mostly drew its troops from Indian prisoners of war in Axis camps. Tikka Khan, who would later join the Pakistani Army during the Partition, was Manekshaw's junior at the IMA by five years and also his boxing partner.
== Military career ==
When Manekshaw was commissioned, it was standard practice for newly commissioned Indian officers to be initially assigned to a British regiment before being sent to an Indian unit. Manekshaw thus joined the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots, stationed at Lahore. He was later posted to the 4th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment (4/12 FF), stationed in Burma. On 1 May 1938, he was appointed quartermaster of his company. Already fluent in Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, English and his native language Gujarati, in October 1938 Manekshaw qualified as a Higher Standard army interpreter in Pashto.
=== World War II ===
There was a shortage of qualified officers at the outbreak of the war, officers were thus promoted without having served for the minimum period required for a promotion. Therefore, for the first two years of the conflict, Manekshaw was temporarily appointed to the ranks of captain and major before being promoted to the substantive rank of captain on 4 February 1942.
==== Battle of Pagoda Hill ====
Manekshaw saw action in Burma during the 1942 campaign at the Sittang River with 4/12 FF, and was recognised for his bravery in the battle. During the fighting around Pagoda Hill, a key position on the left of the Sittang bridgehead, he led his company in a counter-attack against the invading Imperial Japanese Army. Despite suffering 30% casualties, the company managed to achieve its objective, partly because of the aid received from Captain John Niel Randle's company. After capturing the hill, Manekshaw was hit by a burst of light machine gun fire, and was severely wounded in the stomach. While observing the battle, Major General David Tennant Cowan, General Officer Commanding of the 17th Infantry Division, spotted the wounded Manekshaw and awarded him the Military Cross. This award was made official with the publication of the notification in a supplement to the London Gazette. The citation reads:
This officer was in command of the 'A' Company of his battalion when ordered to counter-attack the Pagoda Hill position, the key hill on the left of the Sittang Bridgehead, which had been captured by the enemy. The counterattack was successful despite 30% casualties, and this was largely due to the excellent leadership and bearing of Captain Manekshaw. This officer was wounded after the position had been captured.
Manekshaw was evacuated from the battlefield by Sher Singh, his orderly, who took him to an Australian surgeon. The surgeon initially declined to treat Manekshaw, saying that he had been too badly wounded. Manekshaw's chances of survival were low, but Sher Singh persuaded the doctor to treat him. Manekshaw regained consciousness, and when the surgeon asked what had happened to him, he replied that he had been "kicked by a mule". Impressed by Manekshaw's sense of humour, the surgeon treated him, removing the bullets from his lungs, liver, and kidneys. Most of his intestines were also removed, Manekshaw survived and recovered from his wounds.
Manekshaw attended the eighth staff course at the Command and Staff College in Quetta between 23 August and 22 December 1943. On completion, he was posted as the brigade major of the Razmak Brigade. He served in that post until 22 October 1944, after which he joined the 9th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment, part of the 14th Army commanded by General William Slim. On 30 October 1944, he received the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel. By the end of the war, he was appointed as a staff officer to the general officer commanding of the 20th Indian Infantry Division, Major General Douglas Gracey. During the Japanese surrender, Manekshaw was appointed to supervise the disarmament of over 10,000 Japanese prisoners of war (POWs). No cases of indiscipline or escape attempts were reported from the camp Manekshaw was in charge of. He was promoted to the acting rank of lieutenant colonel on 5 May 1946, and completed a six-month lecture tour of Australia. From 1945 to 1946, Manekshaw and Yahya Khan were two of the staff officers of Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck. Manekshaw was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 4 February 1947, and on his return from Australia was appointed a Grade 1 General Staff Officer (GSO1) in the Military Operations (MO) Directorate.
=== Post-independence ===
Due to the Partition of India in 1947, Manekshaw's unit, the 4th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment, became part of the Pakistan army. Manekshaw was therefore reassigned to the 8th Gorkha Rifles. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan's first Governor General, also considered the founder of that nation, had reportedly asked Manekshaw to join the Pakistani Army, but Manekshaw had refused.
In October 1947, Manekshaw was posted as the commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion, 5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force) (3/5 GR (FF)). Before he had moved on to his new appointment, on 22 October, Pakistani forces infiltrated the Kashmir region, capturing Domel and Muzaffarabad. The following day, the ruler of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, appealed to India for help. On 25 October, Manekshaw accompanied V. P. Menon to Srinagar, where he carried out an aerial survey of the situation in Kashmir. On the same day, they flew back to Delhi, where Lord Mountbatten and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru were briefed. On the morning of 27 October, Indian troops were sent to Kashmir to defend Srinagar from the Pakistani forces, who had reached the city's outskirts. Manekshaw's assignment as the commander of 3/5 GR (FF) was cancelled, and he was posted to the MO Directorate. As a consequence of the Kashmir dispute and the annexation of Hyderabad (whose events he briefed Sardar Patel on), Manekshaw never commanded a battalion. During his term at the MO Directorate, he was promoted to colonel, then brigadier. He was then appointed the director of military operations (DMO).
Manekshaw was one of the three army officers who represented India at the 1949 Karachi Conference. The Conference resulted in the Karachi Agreement and the Ceasefire Line (which evolved into the Line of Control). The other two army officers at the conference were Lt. Gen. S. M. Shrinagesh and Maj. Gen. KS Thimayya, while the two civilian officers were Vishnu Sahay and HM Patel.
Manekshaw was promoted to the rank of colonel on 4 February 1952, and in April was appointed the commander of 167 Infantry Brigade, headquartered at Firozpur. On 9 April 1954, he was appointed the director of military training at Army Headquarters. He was appointed the commandant of the Infantry School at Mhow on 14 January 1955, and also became the colonel of both the 8th Gorkha Rifles and the 61st Cavalry. During his tenure as the commandant of the Infantry School, he discovered that the training manuals were outdated, and was instrumental in revamping them to be consistent with the tactics employed by the Indian Army. He was promoted to the substantive rank of brigadier on 4 February 1957.
=== General officer ===
In 1957, he went to the Imperial Defence College, London, to attend a year long higher command course. On his return, he was appointed the general officer commanding (GOC) 26th Infantry Division on 20 December 1957, with the acting rank of major general. When he commanded the division, Gen. K. S. Thimayya was the chief of the army staff (COAS), and Krishna Menon the defence minister. During a visit to Manekshaw's division, Menon asked him what he thought of Thimayya. Manekshaw replied that it was improper to evaluate his superior, and told Menon not to ask anybody again. This annoyed Menon, and he told Manekshaw that if he wanted to, he could sack Thimayya, to which Manekshaw replied, "You can get rid of him. But then I will get another."
Manekshaw was promoted to substantive major general on 1 March 1959. On 1 October, he was appointed the Commandant of the Defence Services Staff College, Wellington, where he was caught up in a controversy that almost ended his career. In May 1961, Thimayya resigned as the COAS, and was succeeded by General Pran Nath Thapar. Earlier in the year, Major General Brij Mohan Kaul had been promoted to lieutenant general and appointed the Quarter Master General by Menon. The appointment was made against the recommendation of Thimayya, who resigned as a result. Kaul was made the chief of general staff (CGS), the second highest appointment at Army Headquarters after the COAS. Kaul cultivated a close relationship with Nehru and Menon and became even more powerful than the COAS. This was met with disapproval by senior army officials, including Manekshaw, who argued against the interference of the political leadership in the administration of the army. This led him to be marked as an anti-national.
Kaul sent informers to spy on Manekshaw who, as a result of the information gathered, was charged with sedition, and subjected to a court of inquiry. The charges against him were that he was more loyal to the Queen and the Crown than to India, because he had not removed portraits of the Queen and British military and civilian officers from the College and his office. The court, presided over by the general officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-in-C) of Western Command, Lt. Gen. Daulet Singh, exonerated Manekshaw as no evidence against him was found. Before a formal 'no case to answer' could be announced, the Sino-Indian War broke out; Manekshaw was not able to participate because of the court proceedings. The Indian Army was defeated in the war, for which Kaul and Menon were held primarily responsible, both were sacked. In November 1962, Nehru asked Manekshaw to take over the command of IV Corps. Manekshaw told Nehru that the court action against him was a conspiracy, and that his promotion had been due for almost eighteen months; Nehru apologised. Shortly after, on 2 December 1962, Manekshaw was promoted to acting lieutenant general and appointed the GOC of IV Corps at Tezpur.
Soon after taking charge, Manekshaw reached the conclusion that poor leadership had been a significant factor in IV Corps' failure in the war with China. He felt the first course of action was to improve the morale of his soldiers. Manekshaw identified the root cause of the low morale to be panicked withdrawals, ordered without allowing the soldiers to fight back. He ordered there to be no more retreats without his written permission. The next task Manekshaw took up was to reorganise the troops in the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), where he alleviated the shortages of equipment, accommodation and clothing. Analyst Srinath Raghavan noted that Corps Commander Manekshaw and COAS Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri had delayed moving into the NEFA region until the end of 1963, in order to avoid provoking a new Chinese offensive.
Promoted to substantive lieutenant general on 20 July 1963, Manekshaw was appointed an army commander on 5 December, taking command of Western Command as the GOC-in-C. Defence analyst Ajai Shukla, citing Anit Mukherjee, states that Western Command troops were reported to be moving from Punjab to Delhi after Nehru's death. This movement was seen as the precursor to a coup by the civilian establishment, while the army said it was moving in troops to manage the large crowds expected at Nehru's funeral. As a result, on 16 November 1964, Manekshaw was transferred from Shimla to Calcutta as the GOC-in-C Eastern Command. There he responded to the insurgencies in Nagaland and Mizoram, for which he was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1968.
=== Nathu La and Cho La clashes ===
In 1967, five years after the War of 1962, China decided to capture four critical posts in Sikkim: Nathu La, Jelep La, Sebu La and Cho La. These posts were strategically valuable, as they oversaw the Chicken's Neck, the small strip of land which provides access to Northeast India. Major General Sagat Singh decided not to retreat following the Chinese attack. Manekshaw endorsed this initiative by Singh and remarked: "I am afraid they are enacting Hamlet without the Prince. I will now tell you how I intend to deal with this." The conflict ended in Indian victory following the Chinese withdrawal from the area.
=== Chief of army staff ===
Gen. P. P. Kumaramangalam retired as the chief of army staff (COAS) in June 1969. Manekshaw was appointed as the eighth chief of the army staff on 8 June 1969. During his tenure, he was instrumental in stopping a plan to reserve quotas in the army for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Though he was a Parsi, a minority in India, Manekshaw felt reservation would compromise the ethos of the army and believed all must be given an equal chance.
In his capacity as the COAS, Manekshaw once visited a battalion of the 8 Gorkha Rifles in July 1969. He asked an orderly if he knew the name of his chief. The orderly replied that he did, and on being asked to name the chief, he said "Sam Bahadur" (lit. 'Sam the Brave'). This eventually became Manekshaw's nickname. During this period, there were suspicions that Manekshaw would lead a coup and impose martial law. Indira Gandhi had asked him if he intended to coup, Manekshaw had denied. Once, an American diplomat, in the presence of Kenneth Keating, the US ambassador to India, had asked Manekshaw when he was going to stage a coup. Manekshaw reportedly said, "As soon as General Westmoreland takes over your country".
==== Bangladesh Liberation War 1971 ====
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation war, a conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the East Pakistanis who were a majority of the population but lacked representation. In 1970, East Pakistanis called for Bengali autonomy, but the Pakistani government failed to meet these demands. In early 1971, opinion shifted towards secession in East Pakistan. In March, the Pakistan Armed Forces launched a fierce campaign to curb the secessionists, whose members included soldiers and police from East Pakistan. Thousands of East Pakistanis died, and nearly ten million refugees fled to West Bengal, an adjacent Indian state. In April, India decided to intervene militarily to create Bangladesh.
During a cabinet meeting towards the end of April, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi asked Manekshaw if he was prepared to go to war with Pakistan. He replied that most of his armoured and infantry divisions were deployed elsewhere, only twelve of his tanks were combat-ready, and they would be competing for rail carriages with the grain harvest. He also pointed out that the Himalayan passes would soon open up with the forthcoming monsoon, which would result in heavy flooding. After the cabinet had left the room, Manekshaw offered to resign; Gandhi declined and instead sought his advice. He said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to handle the conflict on his own terms, and set a date for its initiation; Gandhi agreed.
Following the strategy planned by Manekshaw, the army launched several preparatory operations in East Pakistan, including training and equipping the Mukti Bahini, a local militia group of Bengali nationalists. About three brigades of regular Bangladeshi troops were trained, and 75,000 guerrillas were trained and equipped with arms and ammunition. These forces were used to harass the Pakistani Army forces stationed in East Pakistan in the lead-up to the war.
The war started officially on 3 December 1971, when Pakistani aircraft bombed Indian Air Force bases in western India. The Army Headquarters under Manekshaw's leadership formulated the following strategy: II Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. Tapishwar Narain Raina would enter from the west; IV Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. Sagat Singh would enter from the east; XXXIII Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. Mohan L. Thapan would enter from the north; and the 101 Communication Zone Area commanded by Maj. Gen. Gurbax Singh would provide support from the northeast. This strategy was to be executed by Eastern Command under Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora. Manekshaw instructed Lt. Gen. J.F.R. Jacob, chief of staff, Eastern Command, to inform the Indian prime minister that orders were being issued for the movement of troops from Eastern Command. The following day, the Indian Navy and Air Force also initiated full-scale operations on both the eastern and western fronts.
As the war progressed, India captured most of the strategic positions and isolated the Pakistani forces, who started to surrender or withdraw. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the situation. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States put forward a resolution for an "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed it twice, and because of Pakistani atrocities in Bengal, the United Kingdom and France abstained. On 8 December, a C141 American cargo plane was seen unloading arms and other equipment at Karachi. Manekshaw prevented any further supplies by summoning the military attache at the US embassy in India and asking him to stop the drops which were in contravention of US public policy.
Indian forces have surrounded you. Your Air Force is destroyed. You have no hope of any help from them. Chittagong, Chalna and Mangla ports are blocked. Nobody can reach you from the sea. Your fate is sealed. The Mukti Bahini and the people are all prepared to take revenge for the atrocities and cruelties you have committed...Why waste lives? Don't you want to go home and be with your children? Do not lose time; there is no disgrace in laying down your arms to a soldier. We will give you the treatment befitting a soldier[.]
Manekshaw addressed the Pakistani troops by radio broadcast on 9, 11 and 15 December, assuring them that they would receive honourable treatment from the Indian troops if they surrendered. The last two broadcasts were delivered as replies to messages from the Pakistani commanders Maj. Gen. Rao Farman Ali and Lt. Gen. Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi to their troops. These broadcasts had a demoralising effect; they convinced the Pakistani troops of the futility of further resistance and led to their decision to surrender.
On 11 December, Ali messaged the United Nations requesting a ceasefire, but it was not authorised by President Yahya Khan, and the fighting continued. Following several discussions and consultations, and subsequent attacks by the Indian forces, Khan decided to stop the war in order to avoid any additional Pakistani casualties. The actual decision to surrender was taken by Niazi on 15 December and was conveyed to Manekshaw through the United States Consul General in Dhaka via Washington. Manekshaw replied that he would stop the war only if the Pakistani troops surrendered to their Indian counterparts by 9 AM on 16 December. The deadline was extended to 3 PM on the same day at Niazi's request, and the instrument of surrender was formally signed on 16 December 1971 by Lt. Gen. Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi.
When the prime minister asked Manekshaw to go to Dhaka and accept the surrender of Pakistani forces, he declined, saying that the honour should go to the GOC-in-C Eastern Command, Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora. Concerned about maintaining discipline in the aftermath of the conflict, Manekshaw issued strict instructions forbidding looting and rape and stressed the need to respect and stay away from women. As a result, according to Singh, cases of looting and rape were negligible. While addressing his troops on the matter, Manekshaw was quoted as saying: "When you see a Begum (Muslim woman), keep your hands in your pockets, and think of Sam."
The war lasted 12 days and saw 93,000 Pakistani soldiers taken prisoner. It ended with the unconditional surrender of East Pakistan and resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In addition to the prisoners of war (POWs), Pakistan suffered 6,000 casualties against India's 2,000. After the war, Manekshaw ensured good conditions for the POWs, but was criticised for treating them like "sons in law" by the cabinet. Singh recounts that in some cases he addressed them personally and talked to them privately, with just his aide-de-camp for company, while they shared a cup of tea. He made provisions for the prisoners to be supplied with the copies of the Quran, and allowed them to celebrate festivals and receive letters and parcels from their loved ones. However, he did not want them to be returned to Pakistan until a peace agreement was concluded, as the POWs numbered about four divisions of soldiers and could be deployed for another war. The Pakistani POWs remained in captivity for several years, used as leverage for Pakistan officially recognizing Bangladesh.
Manekshaw was India's official representative for the negotiations held on 28 November 1972 to demarcate the Line of Control in Kashmir after the war. Pakistan's representative was General Tikka Khan. The talks broke down due to disagreements on control over parts of Thako Chak and Kaiyan (located in Pakistan's Chicken's Neck), Chhamb and Tortuk. The second round of talks held from 5 to 7 December managed to resolve these issues.
=== Promotion to field marshal ===
After the war, Indira Gandhi decided to promote Manekshaw to the rank of field marshal and appoint him as the chief of defence staff (CDS). However, after several objections from the commanders of the navy and the air force, the appointment was dropped. Because Manekshaw was from the army, there were concerns that the comparatively smaller forces of the navy and air force would be neglected. Moreover, the bureaucrats felt that the appointment might reduce their influence over defence issues. Though Manekshaw was to retire in June 1972, his term was extended by a period of six months, and "in recognition of outstanding services to the Armed Forces and the nation," he was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 1 January 1973. The first Indian Army officer to be so promoted, he was formally conferred with the rank in a ceremony held at the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President's Residence) on 3 January.
== Honours and post-retirement ==
For his service to India, the President of India, VV Giri, awarded Manekshaw the Padma Vibhushan in 1972. Manekshaw retired from active service on 15 January 1973 (celebrated as Army Day in India) after a career of nearly four decades. He moved with his family to Coonoor, the civilian town next to Wellington Cantonment, where he had served as commandant of the Defence Services Staff College early on in his career. Popular with Gorkha soldiers, Nepal fêted Manekshaw as an honorary general of the Nepalese Army in 1972. In 1977, he was awarded the Order of Tri Shakti Patta First Class, an order of knighthood of the Kingdom of Nepal by King Birendra. Following his service in the Indian Army, Manekshaw served as an independent director on the board and, in a few cases, as the chairman of several companies, like Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation, Britannia Industries and Escorts Limited.
In May 2007, Gohar Ayub, the son of the Pakistani Field Marshal Ayub Khan, claimed that Manekshaw had sold Indian Army secrets to Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 for 20,000 rupees, but his accusations were dismissed by the Indian defence establishment.
Although Manekshaw was conferred the rank of field marshal in 1973, it was reported that he was not given the complete allowances he was entitled to. He did not receive these until 2007, when President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam met him in Wellington, and presented him with a cheque for ₹1.3 crore (equivalent to ₹3.9 crore or US$460,000 in 2023)—his arrears of pay for over 30 years. Manekshaw was critical of politicians and civilian bureaucrats, and frequently mocked them, asking for example, "whether those of our political masters who have been put in charge of the defence of the country can distinguish a mortar from a motor; a gun from a howitzer; a guerrilla from a gorilla – although a great many in the past have resembled the latter.”
Manekshaw visited hospitalised soldiers during the Kargil War and was cited by COAS Ved Prakash Malik, the commander during the war, as his icon.
== Personal life and death ==
Manekshaw married Silloo Bode on 22 April 1939 in Bombay. The couple had two daughters. Manekshaw died of complications from pneumonia at the Military Hospital in Wellington, Tamil Nadu, at 12:30 a.m. on 27 June 2008 at the age of 94. Reportedly, his last words were "I'm okay!" He was buried at the Parsi cemetery in Udhagamandalam (Ooty), Tamil Nadu, with military honours, adjacent to his wife's grave. His funeral lacked governmental representation, which the media argued was a result of the civilian establishment's apathy towards the military, who feared that the military would stage a coup if it became too popular with the citizenry. A national day of mourning was not declared. While this was not a breach of protocol, such commemoration is customary for a leader of national importance. Bangladesh, however, did pay tribute to Manekshaw on his death. He was survived by two daughters and three grandchildren.
=== Character ===
Manekshaw was charismatic and known to be capable of charm. He was often described as a gentleman. Like others of his generation, his background in the British army gave him a fondness for some English habits, such as drinking whisky and wearing his handlebar moustache. His background as a Parsi is sometimes attributed as a factor in his ambition and success. He commanded great loyalty from his troops, particularly the Gorkhas, due to his reputation for personal bravery, fairness and his avoidance of punishments. He came into conflict with politicians, however, because he stood up to their often unreasonable or unethical demands. They also disliked his popularity as they feared the possibility of a military coup. He dealt with politicians' demands through sarcasm, which however was recognised by figures such as Indira Gandhi. Manekshaw also did not hesitate from advocating for better strategies than those developed by the civilian establishment, a trait rarely found in the military brass today, according to Admiral Arun Prakash.
== Honours and decorations ==
Throughout his military career he was awarded the Military Cross
in 1942 for his display of gallantry in Burma during World War II against the Japanese at the battle of Pagoda Hill. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1968, and the Padma Vibhushan in 1972 for his exceptional service.
== Legacy and assessment ==
Vijay Diwas (lit. Victory Day) is celebrated on 16 December every year in honor of the victory achieved under Manekshaw's leadership in 1971. On 16 December 2008, a postage stamp depicting Manekshaw in his field marshal's uniform was released by then President Pratibha Patil.
The Manekshaw Centre in the Delhi Cantonment is named for the field marshal. The centre was inaugurated by the President of India on 21 October 2010. The biannual Army Commanders' conference takes place at the centre. The Manekshaw parade ground in Bengaluru is also named after him. The Republic Day celebrations in Karnataka are held at this ground every year. A flyover bridge in Ahmedabad's Shivranjeeni area was named after him in 2008 by the then Chief Minister of Gujarat, Narendra Modi. In 2014, a granite statue was erected in his honour at Wellington, in the Nilgiris district, close to the Manekshaw Bridge on the Ooty–Coonoor road, which had been named after him in 2009. His statue is also on the Maneckji Mehta Road in Pune Cantonment. The Centre for Land Warfare Studies, an Indian military think tank, publishes its research papers in a collection called the Manekshaw Papers as a tribute to the field marshal.
Manekshaw has been portrayed in film and fiction. Vicky Kaushal played the role of Manekshaw in the 2023 biopic Sam Bahadur. He is also featured conversing with his Pakistani adversary and former Burma war colleague Tiger Niazi in Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children, in the chapter entitled "Sam and the Tiger".
=== Soldiers' pay ===
In 1970, the Armed Forces and the Army in particular had the opportunity for the first time to get their pay determined by the Pay Commission, which set the pay levels for all other government employees. Armed Forces personnel had not been considered for the 1st and 2nd Pay Commissions but were to be considered for the 3rd Pay Commission. Manekshaw convinced the government to apply the 3rd Pay Commission's recommendations for military personnel and set pay scales for them proportionate to their service conditions (termed hazard pay), a practice which continues to this day.
=== Strategy and doctrine ===
Manekshaw's strategies during the 1971 war have been considered by analysts to be the precursor to the Indian Cold Start military doctrine, which calls for integrated offensive attacks. Formulated along with his deputies Aurora and Singh, Manekshaw's shock and awe tactic of deploying IV Corps, which was geographically disadvantaged, contributed significantly to the military victory. Analysts consider Manekshaw and Aurora to have created a Blitzkrieg style of warfare which was even more rapid.
Defence analyst Robert M. Citino noted that the speed of the 1971 campaign had been impressive, but it had taken too much time to mobilise the units involved; its logistics had been rather crude; and it could have run into problems if there had been an air force in East Pakistan. Manekshaw said the following about the campaign: "To say that it was something like what Rommel did would be ridiculous".
General André Beaufre, a French military theorist, had been invited by Manekshaw to analyse the 1971 war. Beaufre had previously observed the Battles of Chumb and Basantar from the Pakistani side. Beaufre concluded that the Indian operations on the Eastern Front were maneuver warfare but the operations in and around the Shakargarh bulge had been too slow.
On 12 October 1966, while on a flight from Delhi to Kolkata, Manekshaw was a co-passenger with William K. Hitchcock, the Consul General of the USA in Kolkata. On the flight, Manekshaw talked to Hitchcock about the need for more military involvement in Kashmir and criticized COAS Chaudhuri's decision to not deploy the 300,000 Indian soldiers of Eastern Command in the 1965 War due to fear of a Chinese offensive. Manekshaw also expressed his worries over India's dependence on Soviet defence equipment, and said he would have advocated for India taking a more American friendly stance on the Vietnam War if he had had more power.
=== Procurement ===
Manekshaw was an advocate for a strong domestic defence industrial base and procurement reforms, which he believed could shorten the long order and delivery cycles of the Indian Armed Forces. He was also a critic of defence equipment imports and over reliance on the Soviet Union and its successor state, Russia. During the 1971 War, Manekshaw managed to urgently procure equipment to achieve numerical superiority and raise new divisions. However, he could not make any lasting reforms to the procurement process.
=== Special operations ===
After being convinced by Brigadier Bhawani Singh on the need for special operations, Manekshaw approved the plans for the Chachro Raid, which the brigadier had drawn up himself. The raid resulted in the capture of 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi) of Pakistani territory up to Umerkot in Sindh province, and is considered by analysts to be the most successful operation by an Indian special operations unit.
=== Counter insurgency ===
While responding to the insurgency in Mizoram in 1966, Manekshaw implemented the policy of merging small villages (termed spatialisation) as a counter insurgency tool. The intended effect was to prevent insurgents from hiding in sparsely populated villages, and to enable safer civilian and military operations. By forcing insurgents to operate out of uninhabited areas, they were denied access to food and supplies; the army also had to patrol a smaller area and did not have to engage in high casualty urban warfare as a result of the policy.
== See also ==
Field Marshal K.M. Cariappa
Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== Books ===
=== News articles ===
== External links ==
Sam Manekshaw at the Indian Army's website
Lecture and Q&A by Sam Manekshaw at the DSSC, hosted by the Indian Defence Review |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gokula# | Gokula | Veer Gokula Jat (died 1 January 1670), also known as Gokul Dev, was a zamindar and chieftain who led a rebellion against the Mughal Empire during the reign of emperor Aurangzeb in the late 17th century. Gokula emerged as a symbol of resistance against Mughal oppression, particularly their discriminatory religious and economic policies. His leadership in the uprising of 1669 marked one of the earliest organised revolts against Mughal rule in India, influencing later rebellions and the rise of the Kingdom of Bharatpur.
In 1669, Gokula rallied approximately 20,000 Jats and other local farmers to resist oppressive Mughal taxation and religious policies. His forces achieved early successes, defeating and killing the Mughal Faujdar Abdul Nabi Khan at the Battle of Tilpat and destroying the Sadabad cantonment. However, the rebellion was crushed following the Tilpat's siege, where Gokula was captured after a four-day battle. Gokula was executed by dismemberment in Agra on 1 January 1670.
== Early life ==
Gokula (originally Ola or Gokul Dev) was born in a Hindu Jat family of Tilpat region (of Haga/Agre/Agha gotra) to Madu Haga and was the second of the family's four sons.
== Background ==
In the mid-17th century, the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb faced growing discontent among its subjects, particularly in rural areas. The Jats, a predominantly agrarian community in the Mathura region (present-day Uttar Pradesh and Haryana), bore the brunt of heavy land revenue demands, often exceeding 50% of their produce. Aurangzeb’s reimposition of the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) in 1669, coupled with forced Islamic conversions, destruction of Hindu temples and prohibition on Hindu festivals, deepened the sentiments among Hindu communities, mostly the Jats, who revered Mathura as a sacred center of lord Krishna worship. The spark for rebellion came in 1669 when mughal Abdul Nabi’s oppressive measures, including excessive tax collection and interference in local religious practices, pushed the Jats to the breaking point.
== Rebellion ==
In early 1669, Gokula, as the chieftain of Tilpat, emerged as the leader of a peasant uprising against Mughal oppression. The rebellion was sparked by Abdul Nabi’s excesses and the burdensome tax regime. Gokula mobilised approximately 20,000 Jat farmers, along with Gujjars and Ahirs. In May 1669, the rebels attacked Mughal outposts. An early victory came at the Battle of Sahora, where Gokula’s forces killed Abdul Nabi, while he attempted to capture the village. The rebels destroyed the Mughal cantonment at Sadabad, sacking regions around Mathura and disrupting Mughal control.This inspired the Hindus to fight against the Mughal rulers, who were there to destroy all Hindu rebels and this fight continued for five months.
== 1st Battle of Tilpat (1669) ==
The Battle of Tilpat was fought between Hindu Jats and the Mughal Empire in 1669. Under Aurangzeb's rule, Mughal Subahdars (governors) imposed heavy taxes (jizya) on the non-Muslim farmers of this region due to unhealthy financial conditions of the empire resulting from the continuous military expansion in the southern regions of the subcontinent. Due to the imposition of heavy taxation and restriction on Hindu religious practices, dissatisfaction and anger arose among the Jats and it took the form of rebellion against the Mughal Empire during Aurangzeb's reign. In an effort to suppress the rebellion, Aurangzeb sent his commander Hasan Ali Khan with a large army contingent of Mughal soldiers as a reinforcement to the Sadabad cantonment commanded by Abdul Nabi Khan, who would later be killed by the Jats. Gokula Jat, son of Tilpat Zamindar Madu Singh, led the rebellion of farmers along with his uncle Uday Singh Jat. The first confrontations of the rebellion continued for 4 days with the seizing of Tilpat and the farmers' counterattacks. Gokula's leadership in the Jat uprising of 1669 marked one of the earliest organised revolts against Mughal rule in India by Hindus.
== 2nd Battle of Tilpat ==
In 1669, Gokula Dev, with 20,000 Jat farmers, fought the Mughals, about 20 miles from Tilpat. Abdul Nabi Khan, a Mughal faujdar, attacked them. While Khan was initially successful, he was killed by the Jats on 12 May 1669 (21st Dhu al Hijja, 1079 A.H.). Gokula Dev and his followers then retreated to Tilpat, where Hasan Ali Khan, an Aurangzeb-appointed Mughal officer, followed and besieged them with reinforcements of 10,000 musketeers, 5,000 rocketmen, and 250 artillery pieces. Amanulla, the Faujdar of the environs of Agra, was also sent to reinforce Hasan Ali Khan. Gokula and his followers were captured alive and taken first to Delhi, and then to Agra, where Gokula was executed by Emperor Aurangzeb's decree.
== Death ==
Gokula was brought to Agra, following his capture by the Mughal forces at the Battle of Tilpat. He was executed by having his limbs cut off, one by one, on a public platform in Agra. Gokula's son and daughter were forcibly converted to Islam by the Mughal authorities under Aurangzeb. These conversions were not voluntary and were part of the broader context of Mughal policies toward non-Muslim rebels during Aurangzeb’s reign. In addition, Gokula's followers were imprisoned. Meanwhile, innocent people involved in the fighting were released after proper inquiries, and the elderly and children were handed over to a court eunuch for care.
== Legacy ==
A Rajasthani poet, Balveer Singh Karuna, in his book Samarveer Gokula wrote that:
Slowly the water of self-respect started to awaken,
I decided to rebel by refusing to pay taxes.
You die only once in one birth
And wait in the graves till the doomsday
But we are immortal forever, the soul will not die
Only it will change its body and clothes again and again
== See also ==
Rajaram of Sinsini
Churaman
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanele_Muholi#Awards | Zanele Muholi | Zanele Muholi (born 1972) is a South African artist and visual activist working in photography, video, and installation. Muholi's work focuses on race, gender and sexuality with a body of work that dates back to the early 2000s, documenting and celebrating the lives of South Africa's Black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex communities. Muholi is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns, explaining that "I'm just human".
Muholi has described themselves as a visual activist as opposed to an artist. They are dedicated to increasing the visibility of black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex people. They researched and documented the stories of hate crimes against the LGBTQI community in order to bring forth the realities of "corrective rape," assault, and HIV/AIDS, to public attention.
Muholi was shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in 2015. They received an Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography in 2016, a Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2016, and an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 2018.
Muholi had a retrospective exhibition on at Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris from 1 February to 25 May 2023. Their work was also shown that year at Mudec-Museo delle Culture in Milan, from 31 March through 30 July 2023, showcasing 60 self-portraits in black and white chosen especially for Mudec.
== Early life and education ==
Zanele Muholi was born and raised in Umlazi, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Their father was Ashwell Tanji Banda Muholi and their mother was Bester Muholi. They are the youngest of eight children. Muholi's father died shortly after their birth, and their mother was a domestic worker who had to leave her children to work for a white family during apartheid in South Africa. Muholi was raised by an extended family.
Muholi completed an Advanced Photography course at the Market Photo Workshop in Newtown, Johannesburg in 2003, and held their first solo exhibition at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. In 2009 they were awarded their Master of Fine Arts degree in Documentary Media from Ryerson University in Toronto. Their thesis mapped the visual history of black lesbian identity and politics in post-Apartheid South Africa.
On 28 October 2013, they were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.They were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.
== Photography ==
Muholi's photography has been compared to the way W.E.B. DuBois subverted the typical representations of African Americans. Both Muholi and Du Bois have created an archive of photos, working to dismantle dominant, pre-existing perceptions of the subjects they chose to photograph. Muholi views their work as collaborative, referring to the individuals they photograph as "participants" rather than as subjects. With the term "participants" Muholi allows their participants to collaborate on poses instead of Muholi placing them in positions. Seeking to empower their subjects, Muholi often invites participants to speak at events and exhibitions, adding the participant's voice to the conversation. Through their artistic approach they hope to document the journey of the African queer community as a record for future generations. They try to capture the moment without negativity or focusing on the prevalent violence, portraying the LGBTQI community as individuals and as a whole to encourage unity. Thus, their work can be considered documentative, recording the overall community LGBTI of South Africa and their challenges, and at times, more specifically the struggle of black lesbians. Before 1994, black lesbian voices were excluded from the making of a formal queer movement. Muholi's efforts of creating a more positive visualization of LGBTI Africans combats the homophobic-motivated violence that is prevalent in South Africa today, especially in the case of black lesbians. While black women's bodies appear frequently throughout sexualized pop-culture, black lesbians are viewed (through the lens of the patriarchy and heteronormativity) as undesirable. This negative view of homosexuals in Africa lead to violence, such as murder and rape, and rejection from their families. Muholi's Zukiswa (2010), shows an African lesbian woman making eye contact with the viewer, displaying an unwavering gaze of confidence, self-awareness, and determination. This example encourages awareness, acceptance, and positivity with the queer community as well as South Africa.
Although Muholi became known as a photographer who engaged with the then-invisible lives of black lesbians in South Africa, they began to recognize this idea of "gender within gender." In 2003, and their sense of community definitively began to include trans people. Muholi was employed as a photographer and reporter for Behind the Mask, an online magazine on LGBTI issues in Africa.
Muholi first received global attention from the art world in 2012 at Documenta, a world-famous exhibition of modern and contemporary art in (Germany), for a series of portraits of lesbians and transgender participants titled: Faces and Phases. The photos were also exhibited at Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture (2004) ===
Muholi launched their visual activism through their first solo exhibition entitled Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture, at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. This exhibition featured photographs of survivors of rape and hate crimes as well as an image of a rape and an assault case number. The artist explicitly captures the images as to not reveal the person's gender. The viewer may only have access to an above the knee, and hip shot with hands over the genital region. In contrast to their later exhibitions, the people in these images remain anonymous. Although homosexuality is technically protected legally under the South African government, many individuals do not exercise their legal rights publicly in fear of violent backlash. There is also a reluctance to report cases of hate crimes since officials will often ridicule the victim and nothing will be accomplished. This is a systematic use of violence and oppression. In Only Half the Picture series, the artist was able to give LGBT people a voice without ousting their anonymity. Their work is mostly about bringing visibility of queer people in the black community.
=== Faces and Phases (2006–ongoing) ===
In 2006, Muholi began their Faces and Phases project, a series of around three hundred portraits of lesbians, shot in front of plain or patterned backgrounds. The project began in 2006 when Muholi photographed activist and friend Busi Sigasa. Sigasa is a survivor of corrective rape and contracted HIV from the attack. Muholi's concern for their participant's safety dictated that all pictured individuals be of age and fully out. Faces and Phases mocks the "art-in-service-to-science" narrative engrained in colonial images. 18th century botany imagery shows various plants plucked from their natural environment therefore erasing any social or cultural context. This practice emphasizes Western discovery of an object without acknowledging its longstanding existence. According to Susan Kart at Grove Art Online, this project "documents victims of sexual assault and hate crimes, the wedding images share moments of victory, acceptance, and joy for LGBTI families." In Faces and Phases, Muholi utilizes this history and compares it to the representation of LGBTI in South Africa. Black queer individuals have increased dramatically in national representation but this is still an erasure of important context. These individuals are represented in the same way as the botanical prints. There is increased visibility for Western consumption but no attention is paid to the suffering and systematic oppression these individuals face in post-apartheid South Africa. Muholi challenges this in their series by providing names, dates, locations, and representing the participants within a public sphere.
In June 2014, Muholi was back at their alma mater, showing Faces and Phases at the Ryerson Image Centre as part of WorldPride. In the same month they showed at the Singapore International Arts Festival's O.P.E.N. where they also spoke on legacies of violence.
=== Innovative Women (2009) ===
In 2009, the Innovative Women exhibition was shown in South Africa in the cities of Durban and Cape Town. It was curated by painter Bongi Bhengu and features their work as well as 9 other artists including Muholi and photographer Nandipha Mntambo. In August 2009, the Minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana walked out of the exhibition due to Muholi's photography, calling it immoral, offensive and going against nation-building. In their response Muholi said "It's paralysing. I expected people to think before they act, and to ask questions. I wanted to create dialogue."
=== Trans(figures) (2010–2011) ===
Their Trans(figures) (2010–2011) project embraces lesbian and trans life. The portraits are taken in urban and rural settings in South Africa and internationally.
=== Of Love & Loss (2014) ===
Muholi's 2014 exhibition, Of Love & Loss, focused on the violence and hate crimes experienced by members of the LGBTQIA communities in South Africa. Juxtaposing images of weddings and funerals, the show included photographs, video works and installation elements. An element of autobiography featured images of Muholi and their partner. This exhibition furthermore exemplifies why Muholi calls themself a visual activist rather than an artist and it shows their battle scars. They bring these harsh issues into light with such powerful contrast, as a way to show resistance. Muholi calls this as just one of their many responsibilities, and these harsh and cruel realities cannot be ignored.
=== Brave Beauties (2014) ===
A series focusing on capturing the portraits of trans women, Brave Beauties was shot outside the studio and on location throughout South Africa. This "mobile studio" was a further expression of Muholi's celebration of LGBTQIA visibility as equal citizens of their country, an embrace of artistic freedom and a gesture of rejecting the limitations that studios can present. While on show at the Stevenson Gallery in Cape Town, an "activist wall" encouraged the participants to write directly on the gallery walls about their experiences, stories and vision. A gesture of destabilization, the activist wall was another expression of Muholi's desire to empower the participants in their work.
=== Isibonelo/Evidence (2015) ===
In 2015, Muholi presented 87 works in their solo Isibonelo/Evidence at the Brooklyn Museum. The meaning of the show's title, in which "Isibonelo" roughly translates from Zulu to "evidence," referred to its contents, which were split into three main sections separated on three walls. The first featured a decade-long chronology of hate crimes in South Africa, and faced the second, which was covered in handwritten messages from members of the LGBTQIA communities. The third and final wall consisted of portraits, including one of Muholi themself.
=== Somnyama Ngonyama ("Hail the Dark Lioness") (2012–present) ===
In 2014 Muholi began working on 365 self portraits for the series Somnyama Ngonyama. The portraits are alter egos, often with a Zulu name.That Muholi turned the camera towards themselves in this series is a departure from their previous work. Muholi explains, “I needed it to be my own portraiture. I didn't want to expose another person to this pain. I was also thinking about how acts of violence are intimately connected to our faces. Remember that when a person is violated, it frequently starts with the face: it’s the face that disturbs the perpetrator, which then leads to something else. Hence the face is the focal point in the series: facing myself and facing the viewer, the camera, directly.”
For most of the pieces in the collection Muholi exaggerated the darkness of their skin tone to reclaim their blackness from its performance by "privileged others." This, academic and critic Nomusa Makhubu explains, is in reference to the appropriation of blackness in minstrel performance. Of this series, the writer and cultural historian Maurice Berger has this to say: "The self-portraits function on various levels and pay homage to the history of black women in Africa and beyond, the dark lionesses of the book’s title. They reimagine black identity in ways that are largely personal but inevitably political. And they challenge the stereotypes and oppressive standards of beauty that often ignore people of color."
This series had a debut exhibition at Yancey Richardson Gallery in New York in 2015. It was shown in London in 2017 and in Times Square in New York City as digital billboards during the city's autumn 2017 Performa Biennial festival. Previews in Muholi's New York gallery were sold out. The photos were published in a 2018 book published by Aperture. In 2019 Muholi won the Photography Book award from the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation for Somnyama Ngonyama. Hail, the Dark Lioness.
== Activism ==
In 2002, Muholi co-founded the Forum for the Empowerment of Women (FEW), a black lesbian organization dedicated to providing a safe space for women to meet and organize.
=== Inkanyiso (2009) ===
In 2006 Zanele Muholi conceptualized a platform that promoted Queer Activism = Queer media. With the intention of a flexible and unique source of information for art advocacy. In 2009, Muholi founded Inkanyiso ("illuminate" in Zulu), a non-profit organisation concerned with queer visual activism. In 2009, Muholi registered the non-profit organization with Department of Social Services (NPO 073–402). It is involved with visual arts and media advocacy for and on behalf of the LGBTI community. The organization's vision statement is "Produce. Educate. Disseminate."
=== Women's Mobile Museum (2018) ===
In 2018, Muholi collaborated with photographer Lindeka Qampi, and the Philadelphia Photo Arts Center (PPAC), to create and mentor a cohort of women artists in Philadelphia. Called the Women's Mobile Museum, the collaborative project culminated in a special exhibition at the PPAC featuring works by the participating artists. According to art critic Megan Voeller: "For nearly nine months, they underwent a professional boot camp at PPAC, starting with technical workshops in digital camerawork, lighting and Photoshop and progressing to assembling and promoting an exhibition."
=== Somnyama Ngonyama (2021) ===
In 2021, Muholi produced a colouring book of their exhibition Somnyama Ngonyama to engage South-African children who are categorised as youth until the age of 35, as a result of the apartheid. Workshops teaching photography and painting were organised in parallel to provide the opportunity of an art education to underprivileged regions. The matter is of personal concern to the artist as someone who grew up under similar circumstances faced with conditions that they are still trying to 'break through' today. 'My activism now focuses on education and building arts infrastructure in places that are rural or still considered peripheral,' Muholi tells Ocula Magazine.
== Documentaries ==
In 2010, Muholi co-directed their documentary Difficult Love, which was commissioned by SABC. Difficult Love provides a look into Muholi's life and the lives, loves and struggles of other black lesbians in South Africa. In the documentary Muholi presents the stories and people that inspired them to create their images. It has shown in South Africa, USA, Spain, Sweden, UK, Amsterdam, Paris (Festival Cinefable) and Italy. In 2013, Muholi co-directed a documentary called We Live in Fear, released by Human Rights Watch.
== Attacks and robberies ==
On 20 April 2012, Muholi's flat in Vredehoek was robbed, with over twenty primary and back-up external hard drives containing five years' worth of photos and video being stolen with their laptop. Photos contained therein include records of the funerals of Black South African lesbians murdered in hate crimes. Nothing else was stolen, raising suspicions that Muholi's recordings of Black lesbian life was targeted. Muholi was overseas at the time of the robbery. This effectively erased the previous five years of Muholi's work. A few weeks later they said, "I'm still traumatized by the burglary" and, "It's hard to fall asleep in this place, which is now a crime scene, as I dealt with many crime scenes before."
In July 2017, a collaborator of Muholi's, Sibahle Nkumbi, was pushed down a staircase in Amsterdam by their Airbnb host while visiting the Netherlands to cover the opening of Muholi's exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum. Nkumbi was hospitalised, sustaining a concussion and substantial bruising. Video footage of the confrontation subsequently went viral, and the host was charged with attempted manslaughter.
== Publication ==
Zanele Muholi: Only Half The Picture. Cape Town: Michael Stevenson, 2006. ISBN 0-620361468.
Faces and Phases. Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel, 2010. ISBN 978-3-7913-4495-9.
Zanele Muholi. African Women Photographers #1. Granada, Spain: Casa África/La Fábrica, 2011. ISBN 978-8-4150-3466-7.
Faces + Phases 2006–14. Göttingen, Germany: Steidl, 2014. ISBN 978-3-86930-807-4.
Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness. Renée Mussai (author), Zanele Muholi (photographer), et al., New York: Aperture, 2018, ISBN 978-1597114240.
== Exhibitions ==
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2004: Visual Sexuality, as part of Urban Life (Market Photo Workshop exhibition), Johannesburg Art Gallery, Johannesburg, South Africa
2006: Vienna Kunsthalle project space, Vienna: Slide Show
2014: Faces and Phases, Massimadi Festival, Montreal, Canada
2015: Zanele Muholi: Vukani/Rise, Open Eye Gallery, Liverpool, England
2015: Somnyama Ngonyama, Yancey Richardson, New York, NY, USA
2017: Zanele Muholi, Stedelijk, Amsterdam
2017: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Autograph ABP, London
2017: Zanele Muholi Homecoming: Durban Art Gallery, Durban, South Africa
2018: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Spelman College Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, USA
2019: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Colby College Museum of Art, Maine, USA
2019: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Seattle Art Museum, WA, USA
2020/21: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London (delayed opening) – their biggest solo exhibition to date
2022: Being Muholi: Portraits as Resistance, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA
2022: Zanele Muholi, National Gallery of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
2023: Maison européenne de la photographie, Paris
2023: Muholi: A Visual Activist, Museo delle culture (Milano), Milan, Italy
2023: Zanele Muholi, Kunstmuseum Luzern, Luzern, Switzerland
2024: Zanele Muholi: Eye Me, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA
2024: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London
=== Group exhibitions ===
2011: Figures & Fictions: Contemporary South African Photography, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England
2016: Systematically Personae at the FotoFocus Biennal, National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
2017: Art/Afrique, Louis Vuitton Foundation, Paris, France
2018: Half the Picture: A Feminist Look at the Collection, Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY, USA
2018: Legacy of the Cool: A Tribute to Barkley L. Hendricks, MassArt Art Museum (MAAM), Boston, MA, USA
2019: Yithi Laba. A group exhibition by Lindeka Qampi, Neo Ntsoma, Zanele Muholi, Ruth Seopedi Motau and Berni Searle at Market Photo Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa
2019: 58th Venice Biennale curated by Ralph Rugoff
2020: Radical Revisionists: Contemporary African Artists Confronting Past and Present, Moody Center for the Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Through an African Lens: Sub-Saharan Photography from the Museum's Collection, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Crossing Views, Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France
2020: African Cosmologies: Fotofest Biennial 2020, Houston, Texas, USA
2020: Sydney Biennale 2020, Sydney Australia
2021: Afro-Atlantic Histories, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2021: Interior Infinite, The Polygon Gallery, Vancouver, Canada
2021: THIS IS NOT AFRICA – UNLEARN WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark; Red Clay, Ghana
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, LACMA, Los Angeles, California, USA
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., USA
2022: Fire Figure Fantasy: Selections from ICA Miami’s Collection, ICA Miami, Miami, FL, USA
2022: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2022: The Work of Love, the Queer of Labor, Pratt Manhattan Gallery, New York, NY, USA
2022: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Black Venus, Fotografiska, New York, NY
2023: Museu de l’art Prohibit, Barcelona, Spain
2023: La Cinquième Saison (The Fifth Season), Jardin des Tuileries, Paris, France
2023: Love & Anarchy, Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC
2023: Imagining Black Diasporas: 21st Century Art and Poetics, LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2023: Africa Fashion, Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA
2023: Black Venus: Reclaiming Black Women in Visual Culture, Somerset House, London, UK
2023: Youth vs. Crisis: A Generation in Search of a Future, Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2023: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2023: Coyote Park: I Love You Like Mirrors Do, Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art, New York, NY
2023: Trace – Formations of Likeness: Photography and Video from The Walther Collection, Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany
2023: Lente Africana; fotografia subsahariana de la colleción del Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2023: Museo de Arte Miguel Urrutia, Bogotá, Colombia
2023: Nudes – Art from the Tate, LWL Museum for Art and Culture, Münster, Germany
2023: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
2023: Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2023: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2023: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2023: Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2023: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2024: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2024: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2024: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2024: Turning the Page, Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA
2024: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain; CaixaForum Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CaixaForum Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain; CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
=== Curated exhibitions ===
2016: Co-curated a show at Rencontres d'Arles photography festival, Arles, France
== Awards ==
2005: Tollman Award for the Visual Arts
2006: BHP Billiton/Wits University Visual Arts Fellowship
2009: Thami Mnyele Residency in Amsterdam
2009: Ida Ely Rubin Artist-in-Residence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
2009: Fondation Blachère award at African Photography Encounters (Rencontres Africaines de la Photographie, Biennale Africaine de la photographie) in Bamako, Mali
2009: Fanny Ann Eddy accolade from IRN-Africa for their outstanding contributions to the study of sexuality in Africa
2012: Civitella Ranieri Fellowship by the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, Italy
2013: Freedom of Expression award by Index on Censorship
2013: Glamour Magazine named them Campaigner of the Year
2013: Winner of the Fine Prize for the 2013 Carnegie International
2013: Prince Claus Award
2013: Feather Award (South Africa's LGBTI Awards)
2015: Shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize for Faces and Phases 2006–2014
2015: Light Work Artist-in-Residence Program, Syracuse, NY, USA
2016: Infinity Award for Documentary and Photojournalism from the International Center of Photography, New York, NY, USA
2016: Africa's Out! Courage + Creativity Award
2016: Outstanding International Alumni Award from Ryerson University
2017: Mbokodo Award (Visual Art) for South African Women in the Arts
2017: Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knighthood of the Order Arts and Letters)
2018: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bath, England
2019: Rees Visionary Award, Amref Health Africa, New York, USA
2019: Lucie Humanitarian Award
2019 Kraszna-Krausz Foundation Best Photography Book Award
== Collections ==
Muholi's work is held in the following public collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL (7 prints)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (3 prints as of October 2018)
Museum of Modern Art, New York (6 prints as of March 2019)
Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, MA (1 featured print as of March 2019)
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, NC (2 prints as of March 2019)
Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
Tate Modern, London (15 pieces)
Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN (3 prints as of August 2020)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
== References ==
== External links ==
"My year as a dark lioness – in pictures " – a gallery of photographs in The Guardian
"Zanele Muholi: Mobile Studio" from Art21
Zanele Muholi at Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa
Zanele Muholi at Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, New York, USA
Zanele Muholi at La MEP, Paris, France |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Wintour_Costume_Center | Anna Wintour Costume Center | The Anna Wintour Costume Center is a wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art main building in New York City, United States. It houses the collection of the Costume Institute, a curatorial department of the museum focused on fashion and costume design. The center is named after Anna Wintour, the longtime editor-in-chief of Vogue, Chief Content Officer of Condé Nast, and chair of the museum's annual Met Gala (often called the "Met Ball") since 1995. It was endowed by Lizzie and Jonathan Tisch. As of August 2017, the chief curator is Andrew Bolton.
The center was formally opened by the First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama on May 5, 2014. Guests included Sarah Jessica Parker, Diane Von Furstenberg, Tory Burch, Zac Posen, Ralph Lauren, and Donatella Versace.
== History ==
In 1902, wealthy philanthropists Irene and Alice Lewisohn began to volunteer at the Henry Street Settlement House in New York, a community center that provided social services and healthcare to immigrant families. Alice, who acted in plays herself, began working as a drama teacher, while Irene devoted herself to dance productions. In 1914, the sisters bought a lot on the corner of Grand and Pitt Streets and donated it to the Settlement for building a new theater. The Neighborhood Playhouse opened in 1915. By 1920, the theater employed professional actors, and it was known for its experimental productions and its revue "The Grand Street Follies." Theater designer Aline Bernstein served her apprenticeship there from 1915 to 1924 designing costumes and stage sets.
The Playhouse closed in 1927, but the company continued to produce plays on Broadway under the management of Helen F. Ingersoll. In 1928, with Rita Wallach Morganthau, the Lewisohns established the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre at East 54th Street, where it became an actor training school and students were offered a two-year program formal drama and dance training to become professionals.
During their years of running the school theatre and producing plays, a body of knowledge was formed about acting, theater production, and costume, set and stage design. In 1937, Irene Lewisohn opened a home for this library, the Museum of Costume Art, on Fifth Avenue. Aline Bernstein served as the first President and Polaire Weissman as its first executive director. After Irene Lewisohn's death in 1944, Lord & Taylor president Dorothy Shaver worked to bring the collection to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Shaver believed that this would strengthen the American fashion industry and raised $350,000 from New York garment manufacturers to finance the transaction. The Costume Art museum became part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1946, becoming The Costume Institute but was independently run until 1959 when it became a curatorial department in the museum. The Met is now home to the Irene Lewisohn Costume Reference Library.
Since 1946, with help from the fashion publicist Eleanor Lambert, the institute has hosted the annual Met Gala to raise money for operating expenses.
In 2009, the American Costume Collection of the Brooklyn Museum was transferred to the Costume Institute, as The Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art. The high costs of maintaining and displaying the collection was the main impetus for the move, which followed years of close collaboration between the two organizations. The collection of the Brooklyn museum is older, having been formed from private donations by former New York high society personalities, beginning with the donation in 1903 of an 1892 cream colored crepe dress worn by Kate Mallory Williams at her graduation from Brooklyn Heights Seminary. Prior to the move, 23,500 objects from the Brooklyn collection were digitized and these images are now shared by both organizations. At the time of the acquisition, the Met costume collection consisted of 31,000 objects from the 17th-century onwards. The opening exhibition in 2014 featured work by British-born designer Charles James, an important figure in New York fashion of the 1940s and 1950s and whose work is in the Brooklyn collection.
On September 8, 2015, it was announced that Harold Koda would be stepping down from his position as Curator in Charge of the Costume Institute. Andrew Bolton, who had joined the Costume Institute in 2002 as associate curator and was made curator in 2006, was announced as his replacement.
In May 2017, the Costume Institute featured an exhibition featuring the works of Rei Kawakubo/Comme des Garçons. The exhibit was the Costume Institute's first exhibition focusing on a living designer since Yves Saint Laurent in 1983.
== List of exhibitions ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Charles James: Beyond Fashion—Link to the 2014 opening exhibition, honoring the work of Charles James
Guide to the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Digital collections of the Costume Institute
Costume Institute Records, 1937–2011 from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Archives, New York. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_Palma | Emilio Palma | Emilio Marcos de Palma Morella (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first person born on the continent Antarctica.
== Biography ==
Palma was born in Fortín Sargento Cabral at the Esperanza Base, near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, and weighed 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz). His father, Captain Jorge Emilio Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base.
In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. Emilio Palma was born in 7 January 1978 and baptized at the Chapel of St. Francis of Assisi on the base.
He is featured in the Guinness Book of Records as the first person born on the continent.
== See also ==
Demographics of Antarctica
Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Nigerien_constitutional_referendum | 1989 Nigerien constitutional referendum | A constitutional referendum was held in Niger on 24 September 1989. The new constitution would make the country a one-party state with the National Movement for the Society of Development as the sole legal party. The government would have a presidential system, as well as the continued involvement of the Armed Forces, which had ruled the country since the military coup in 1974.
It was approved by 99.3% of voters with a 94.9% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year on 12 December.
== Results ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filip_Ha%C5%A1ek | Filip Hašek | Filip Hašek (born 20 March 1997) is a Czech professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Latvian Higher League club Jelgava.
== Club career ==
Hašek made his professional debut for Bohemians 1905 against Slovácko on 22 July 2018.
== References ==
== External links ==
Bohemians 1905 official club profile (in Czech)
Filip Hašek at Soccerway
Filip Hašek – Czech First League statistics at Fotbal DNES (in Czech) (in Czech) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jody_Williams_(Afrikaans_singer) | Jody Williams (Afrikaans singer) | Jody Williams (born May 17, 1990) is a South African pop/R&B singer. She won the fourth season of the South African reality television singing competition Idols on 9 December 2007 at age 17, making her the youngest winner of the competition until 2017, when Paxton Fielies won the Competition at age 17.
Her debut platinum-selling album, Just Gonna Be Me, reached No. 1 on the South African Albums Chart, and spawned three consecutive number one singles on the South African Airplay Chart: "Love Is All Around", "Kiss of Life", "Wind It", and "Love Like This Before". Elements of Pop, R&B, dance and soul can be found in her music. Jody has cited singers Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey and Celine Dion as her main musical inspirations and influences.
== Early life ==
Jody grew up in a home in Cape Town, South Africa, as one of three siblings. Jody has an older sister Candice, with a five-year age difference. She first picked up a hairbrush and started singing at age nine. At age 13, Jody started receiving vocal training. She attended Bosmansdam High School in Bothasig.
== Idols ==
When auditions for the fourth season of Idols arrived in Cape Town, she and her father jumped at the opportunity. During the six-month-long competition, Jody became known for her performances of power ballads by artists including Whitney Houston, Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera. Her performances of Houston's "Run To You" and "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" were raved as her best performances of the whole competition; she repeated them on the final stage of the competition. Jody also performed "brilliant" versions of songs originally done by male artists, including Bryan Adams, Michael Jackson and Luther Vandross.
Jody also did renditions of current hits, namely the pop rock song "Behind These Hazel Eyes" by American Idol winner Kelly Clarkson and Swedish Idol winner Agnes Carlsson's "Love Is All Around" – which later became the winner's song and Jody's first single. She also sang some songs originally performed by girl groups: "I Don't Need A Man" by The Pussycat Dolls and "Secrets" by South African urban-pop girl group Jamali.
Idols performances:
Top 2: "Love Is All Around" – Agnes Carlsson
Top 2: "Run to You" – Whitney Houston
Top 2: "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" – Whitney Houston
Top 3: "Dance with My Father" – Luther Vandross
Top 3: "Ain't No Other Man" – Christina Aguilera
Top 3: "On the Wings of Love" – Jeffrey Osborne
Top 4: "I Surrender" – Celine Dion
Top 4: "Hurt" – Christina Aguilera
Top 5: "The Colour of My Love" – Celine Dion
Top 5: "Black or White" – Michael Jackson
Top 6: "Heaven" – Bryan Adams
Top 6: "I Don't Need a Man" – The Pussycat Dolls
Top 7: "Secrets" – Jamali
Top 8: "Behind These Hazel Eyes" – Kelly Clarkson
Top 9: "Over & Over" – Puff Johnson
Top 10: "The Best" – Tina Turner
Top 12: "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" – Whitney Houston
Top 14: "Run to You" – Whitney Houston
Top 12 Girls: "The Greatest Reward" – Celine Dion
On 9 December 2007, Jody beat out 21-year-old fellow Capetonian, Andriëtte Norman on the season finale, which saw a record-breaking 7,803,990 votes being cast. It was the first season where votes could be cast through the social-networking communication device "MXit"; hence the record-breaking votes. Jody was said to have the majority of support in both the adult and teenager fanbases. Jody described her song choices during the competition:I chose songs I knew because it would makes my performances easier. I didn't want to try to learn a whole new song and then forget my words.
With most of the South African Idols fading after winning the competition, Jody reassured her fans:I'm not gonna fade I'll always be there making new music for you guys.
Her winnings included a record deal with Sony BMG, a Citroen C1, a Cardies hamper, cellphone and spa treatments for a year and Yamaha music and sound equipment among other prizes. From Idols, Jody grew to become more mature and more confident with herself, and her performing and vocal abilities.
== After Idols ==
After Jody's victory on Idols, Independent Democrats leader Patricia de Lille said:
Idols winner Jody Williams deserves special congratulations on her achievement of becoming South Africa's youngest idol. We know that she will continue to inspire the youth of today. To her parents we can only say, well done for raising such a beautiful, talented child. South Africa certainly needs more young role models like her. The ID will give her all the support she needs.
Jody was complimented by Celine Dion, who told her, "Good luck for the future. I wish you all the best. You'll get there". Jody was the opening act for Celine Dion in some of Dion's first 9 shows in the South African and first overall leg of Dion's Taking Chances Tour, which began 14 February 2008.
She appeared on Idols, then recorded her debut album, whilst still at Bosmansdam High School, in the Milnerton suburb of Cape Town. She graduated at the end of 2009.
Williams performed a few songs in the 2009 South African Idols Finale including "Wind It". She represented the continent of Africa on the song "Everyone", the Official Theme Song of the Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games.
Williams collaborated with four other artists, American Sean Kingston (Americas), Singaporean Tabitha Nauser (Asia), British Steve Appleton (Europe), and Australian Jessica Mauboy (Oceania). She released her newest single (2013) titled "Cosmic Coincidence" which is her first single to be available to buy on iTunes. Two years earlier she released a Christmas single titled "This Christmas" written with the help of her sister, Candice.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-class_blimp | K-class blimp | The K-class blimp was a class of blimps (non-rigid airship) built by the Goodyear Aircraft Company of Akron, Ohio, for the United States Navy. These blimps were powered by two Pratt & Whitney Wasp nine-cylinder radial air-cooled engines, each mounted on twin-strut outriggers, one per side of the control car that hung under the envelope. Before and during World War II, 134 K-class blimps were built and configured for patrol and anti-submarine warfare operations, and were extensively used in the Navy’s anti-submarine efforts in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean areas.
== Development ==
In 1937, K-2 was ordered from Goodyear as part of a contract that also bought the L-1, (Goodyear’s standard advertising and passenger blimp). K-2 was the production prototype for future K-class airship purchases. K-2 flew for the first time at Akron, Ohio on December 6, 1938 and was delivered to the Navy at NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey on December 16. The envelope capacity of the K-2—404,000 ft³ (11,440 m³)—was the largest for any USN blimp up to that time. K-2 was flown extensively as a prototype, and continued to operate testing new equipment, techniques, and performing whatever tasks were needed, including combat patrols in World War II.
On October 24, 1940, the Navy awarded a contract to Goodyear for six airships (K-3 through K-8) that were assigned the designation Goodyear ZNP-K. These blimps were designed for patrol and escort duties and were delivered to the Navy in late 1941 and early 1942. K-3 through K-8 had only minor modifications to K-2's design, the only major change was in engines from Pratt & Whitney R-1340-16s to Wright R-975-28s. The Wright engine/propeller combination proved excessively noisy and was replaced in later K-ships with slightly modified Pratt & Whitney engines. The K-3 cost $325,000. A series of orders for more K-class blimps followed. Twenty-one additional blimps (K-9 through K-30) were ordered on 14 October 1942. On 9 January 1943, 21 more blimps (K-31 through K-50) were ordered. The envelope size of K-9 through K-13 was increased to 416,000 ft³ (11,780 m³) and those delivered thereafter used an envelope of 425,000 ft³ (12,035 m³). The final contract for the K-class blimp were awarded in mid-1943 for 89 airships. Four blimps from this order were later canceled. The remaining deliveries were assigned numbers K-51 through K-136. But, the number K-136 was not assigned to a specific airship as the control car assigned for K-136 was used to replace the car for K-113. The original car for K-113 was destroyed in a fire.
The US Navy's experiences with K-ships in tropical regions showed a need for a blimp with greater volume than the K-class to offset the loss of lift due to high ambient temperatures. Goodyear addressed these concerns with a follow-on design, the M-class blimp, which was 50% larger.
== Variants ==
After World War II a number of K-class blimps were modified with more advanced electronics, radar, sonar systems and larger envelopes. These modified blimps were designated:
ZNP-K
The original designation of the K-class blimps. Individual blimps were identified by a sequential suffix number, e.g. ZNP-K-2, ZNPK-8 etc. In everyday use only the K and numerical suffixes were used. Batches of blimps were built with sometimes major differences, but the designations remained in the ZNP-K range, until the later versions, listed below, emerged.
ZPK
Revised designation of the ZNP-K series.
ZP2K
A larger envelope with the volume increased to 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3), sensors and other improvements re-designated ZSG-2.
ZP3K
A larger envelope with the volume increased to 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3), with systems and controls even more advanced than the ZP2Ks, re-designated ZSG-3.
ZP4K
Delivered in 1953, retaining the 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3) envelope volume and length of 266 ft (81.08 m), re-designated ZSG-4 in 1954.
== Operational history ==
The K-ships were used for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) duties in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as well as the Mediterranean Sea. All equipment was carried in a forty foot long control car. The installed communications and instrumentation equipment allowed night flying. The blimps were equipped with the ASG radar, that had a detection range of 90 mi (140 km), sonobuoys, and magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) equipment. The K-ships carried four 350 lb (160 kg) depth bombs, two in a bomb bay and two externally, and were equipped with a machine gun in the forward part of the control car. An aircrew of 10 normally operated the K-ships, consisting of a command pilot, two co-pilots, a navigator/pilot, airship rigger, an ordnanceman, two mechanics, and two radiomen.
On 1 June 1944, two K-class blimps of United States Navy (USN) Airship Patrol Squadron 14 (ZP-14) completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships. K-123 and K-130 left South Weymouth, MA on 28 May 1944 and flew approximately 16 hours to Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland. From Argentia, the blimps flew approximately 22 hours to Lajes Field on Terceira Island in the Azores. The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to Craw Field in Port Lyautey (Kenitra), French Morocco. The first pair of K-ships were followed by K-109 & K-134 and K-112 & K-101 which left South Weymouth on 11 and 27 June 1944, respectively. These six blimps initially conducted nighttime anti-submarine warfare operations to complement the daytime missions flown by FAW-15 aircraft (PBYs and B-24s) using magnetic anomaly detection to locate U-boats in the relatively shallow waters around the Straits of Gibraltar. Later, ZP-14 K-ships conducted minespotting and minesweeping operations in key Mediterranean ports and various escort missions including that of the convoy carrying Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill to the Yalta Conference in early 1945. In late April 1945, K-89 and K-114 left Weeksville NAS in North Carolina and flew a southern transatlantic route to NAS Bermuda, the Azores, and Port Lyautey where they arrived on 1 May 1945 as replacements for Blimp Squadron ZP-14.
The ability of the K-ships to hover and operate at low altitudes and slow speeds resulted in detection of numerous enemy submarines as well as assisting in search and rescue missions. The K-ships had an endurance capability of over 24 hours which was an important factor in the employment of ASW tactics.
The mooring system for the K-ship was a 42 ft (12.8 m) high triangular mooring mast that was capable of being towed by a tractor. For advance bases where moving the mooring mast was not needed, a conventional stick mast was used. A large ground crew was needed to land the blimps and moor them to the mast.
During the war, only one K ship was lost to enemy action. On 18 July 1943, K-74 was shot down by U-134 in the Straits of Florida. The crew was rescued eight hours later, except for one man who was attacked by a shark and drowned only minutes before the rescue. Five weeks later, U-134 was sunk by a British frigate in the Bay of Biscay on its return voyage to Germany.
In 1947, Goodyear acquired the former Navy K-28 and operated it as part of its commercial advertising blimp fleet. The K ship was named Puritan and was the largest ever Goodyear blimp. The airship was purchased from the Navy primarily to experiment with Trans-Lux illuminated running copy advertising signs attached to the envelope. Costly to operate and maintain, Puritan was retired from the Goodyear fleet in April, 1948 after only one year of operation. The blimp was deflated and placed in storage at Goodyear's base at Wingfoot Lake in Suffield, Ohio and was later sold back to the Navy.
K-43, the last operational Navy "K Ship", was retired from service in March, 1959.
=== Nuclear weapon effects tests ===
Several K-class blimps were used for nuclear weapon effects tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) during the Operation Plumbbob series of tests in 1957. K-40, K-46, K-77 and K-92 were destroyed in Project 5.2, events Franklin (Fissile) and Stokes (19 kt, XW-30 device). The tests were to "determine the response characteristics of the model ZSG-3 airship when subject to a nuclear detonation in order to establish criteria for safe escape distances after airship delivery of antisubmarine warfare special weapons." According to the Navy, the "airship operations were conducted with extreme difficulty." The Navy was trying to determine whether the airship could be among the aircraft to deliver its planned Lulu (W-34) nuclear depth charge.
== Airship designations ==
During the life of the K-class airship, the U.S. Navy used three different designation systems. From 1922 through World War II, the Navy used a four character designator. The K-class blimps were designated ZNP-K where the "Z" signified lighter-than-air; "N" denoted non-rigid; "P" denoted a patrol mission; and "K" denoted the type or class of airship.
In April 1947, the General Board of the U.S. Navy modified the designation system for airships. The second character of the designator was dropped as the Board dropped the code for rigid airships so that the "N" for non-rigid was no longer needed. The designation for the K-class blimps then became ZPK.
In April 1954, the designation system for lighter-than-air airships was further modified so that it conformed to the designation system for heavier-than-air aircraft. By this time the ZPK blimps had been retired from service and only the later version K-Class blimps were in service. Under the 1954 system the ZP2K blimp became the ZSG-2, the ZP3K became the ZSG-3, the ZP4K became the ZSG-4, and the ZP5K became the ZS2G-1. In new designation system, the "Z" signified lighter-than-air; the "S" was the type denoting an anti-submarine warfare mission; the numeral (i.e., "2") was the model; and the "G" was for Goodyear, the manufacturer's letter in the Navy's designation system. The final numeral denoted the series of the vehicle within the type/model. The US Navy ordered a new type of airship in 1951 for the Korean War. The new air ship was designated ZP4K (later called ZSG-4), which had a different design than WW2 K-type. The first ZP4K was delivered in June 1954. A total of 15 were built. In 1955 an update version a called the ZP5K (later called ZS2G-1) was delivered, a total of 15 were built. The ZP5K has an inverted “Y” tail.
== Surviving aircraft ==
K-22 Control car currently under restoration at the Moffett Field Museum on Moffett Federal Airfield in Santa Clara County, California.
K-27 and several other K class blimps were seen in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film This Man's Navy (1945), one of the few motion pictures to depict U.S. Navy blimp operations. The film starred Wallace Beery who actually served as a Navy blimp commander during World War II.
K-28 - Goodyear Puritan – Control car on static display at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
K-47 - Control car on static display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. The K-47 was upgraded to the ZP3K configuration before it was retired in 1956.
== Specifications (K-14) ==
General characteristics
Crew: 9–10
Length: 251 ft 8 in (76.73 m)
Diameter: 57 ft 10 in (17.63 m)
Volume: 425,000 cu ft (12,043 m3)
Useful lift: 7,770 lb (3,524 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-2 radials , 425 hp (317 kW) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 78 mph (125 km/h, 68 kn)
Cruise speed: 58 mph (93 km/h, 50 kn)
Range: 2,205 mi (3,537 km, 1,916 nmi)
Endurance: 38 hours 12 minutes
Armament
1 × .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun
4 × 350 lb (160 kg) AN-Mk 47 depth charges
== See also ==
Aircraft Warning Service
Naval Air Station Hitchcock, Texas
US Navy airships during World War II
Related lists
List of airships of the United States Navy
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
United States Navy K-Type Airships Pilot’s Manual |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dior | Dior | Christian Dior SE (French: [kʁistjɑ̃ djɔʁ]), commonly known as Dior, is a French multinational luxury goods company that is controlled and chaired by Bernard Arnault, who also heads LVMH. As of December 2023, Dior controlled around 42% of the shares and 57% of the voting rights of LVMH. In addition, the Arnault family held a further 7% of the shares and 8% of the voting rights of LVMH as of that date.
The original fashion house was founded by French designer Christian Dior in 1946 to make haute couture items. Clothing is now produced by Christian Dior Couture, which is a subsidiary of LVMH, whereas Christian Dior SE is a holding company that controls LVMH. Bernard Arnault's daughter, Delphine Arnault, has been the CEO of Christian Dior Couture since February 2023. Bernard Arnault's eldest son, Antoine Arnault, is the CEO of Christian Dior SE. In August 2025, Dior opened its first permanent spa in the United States, housed in its newly renovated House of Dior flagship on Madison Avenue in New York City; designed by Peter Marino, the spa offers personalized skincare diagnostics and advanced treatments such as cryotherapy, microdermabrasion, and LED therapy
== History ==
=== Founding ===
The House of Dior was established on 16 December 1946 at 30 Avenue Montaigne in Paris. However, the current Dior company celebrates 1947 as the opening year. Christian Dior was financially backed by Marcel Boussac, a wealthy businessman. Boussac had originally invited Dior to design for Philippe et Gaston, but Dior refused, wishing to make a fresh start under his own name rather than reviving an old brand. The new couture house became part of "a vertically integrated textile business" already operated by Boussac. Its capital was at FFr 6 million and workforce at 80 employees. Although the company was largely a vanity project for Boussac, it was a majority-owned affiliate of Boussac Saint-Frères S.A. Nevertheless, Dior was allowed a then-unusual great part in his namesake label (legal leadership, a non-controlling stake in the firm, and one-third of pretax profits) despite Boussac's reputation as a "control freak". Dior's creativity also negotiated him a good salary."
=== "New Look" ===
On 12 February 1947, Christian Dior launched his first fashion collection for Spring–Summer 1947. The show of "90 models of his first collection on six mannequins" was presented in the salons of the company's headquarters at 30 Avenue Montaigne. Originally, the two lines were named "Corolle" and "Huit". However, the new collection went down in fashion history as the "New Look" after the editor-in-chief of Harper's Bazaar Carmel Snow exclaimed, "It's such a new look!" The New Look was a revolutionary era for women at the end of the 1940s. When the collection was presented, the editor-in-chief also showed appreciation by saying; "It's quite a revolution, dear Christian!" The debut collection of Christian Dior is credited with having revived the fashion industry of France. Along with that, the New Look brought back the spirit of haute couture in France as it was considered glamorous and young-looking. "We were witness to a revolution in fashion and to a revolution in showing fashion as well."
The silhouette was characterized by a small, nipped-in waist and a full skirt falling below mid-calf length, which emphasized the bust and hips, as epitomized by the "Bar" suit from the first collection. The Bar suit was a contribution from the head of Dior's tailoring atelier, a young Pierre Cardin, who was employed by the house from 1947 to 1949. The collection overall showcased more stereotypically feminine designs in contrast to the popular fashions of wartime, with full skirts, tight waists, and soft shoulders. Dior retained some of the masculine aspects, as they continued to hold popularity through the early 1940s, but he also wanted to include more feminine style.
The "New Look" became extremely popular, its full-skirted silhouette influencing other fashion designers well into the 1950s, and Dior gained a number of prominent clients from Hollywood, the United States, and the European aristocracy. As a result, Paris, which had fallen from its position as the capital of the fashion world after World War II, regained its preeminence. The New Look was welcomed in western Europe as a refreshing antidote to the austerity of wartime and de-feminizing uniforms, and was embraced by stylish women such as Princess Margaret in the UK. According to Harold Koda, Dior credited Charles James with inspiring The New Look. Dior's designs from the "New Look" did not only affect the designers in the 1950s, but also more recent designers in the 2000s, including Thom Browne, Miuccia Prada, and Vivienne Westwood. Dior's evening dresses from that time are still referred to by many designers, and they have been seen in different wedding themed catwalks with multiple layers of fabric building up below the small waist (Jojo, 2011). Examples include Vivienne Westwood's Ready-to-Wear Fall/Winter 2011 and Alexander McQueen's Ready to Wear Fall/Winter 2011 (Jojo, 2011).
Not everyone was pleased with the New Look, however. Some considered the amount of material to be wasteful, especially after years of cloth rationing. Feminists in particular were outraged, feeling that these corseted designs were restrictive and regressive, and that they took away a woman's independence. There were several protest groups against the designs including, the League of Broke Husbands, made up of 30,000 men who were against the costs associated with the amount of fabric needed for such designs. Fellow designer Coco Chanel remarked, "Only a man who never was intimate with a woman could design something that uncomfortable." Despite such protests, the New Look was highly influential, continuing to inform the work of other designers and fashion well into the 21st century. For the 60th anniversary of the New Look in 2007, John Galliano revisited it for his Spring-Summer collection for Dior. Galliano used the wasp waist and rounded shoulders, modernised and updated with references to origami and other Japanese influences. In 2012 Raf Simons revisited the New Look for his debut haute couture collection for Dior, wishing to update its ideas for the 21st century in a minimalist but also sensual and sexy manner. Simons's work for Dior retained the luxurious fabrics and silhouette, but encouraged self-respect for the woman's body and liberation of expression. The design process for this collection, which was produced in only eight weeks, is documented in Dior and I, presenting Simons's use of technology and modernist re-interpretations.
=== Dior ===
Available references contradict themselves whether Christian Dior Parfums was established in 1947 or 1948. The Dior company lists the founding of Christian Dior Parfums as 1947, with the launch of its first perfume, Miss Dior. Dior revolutionized the perfume industry with the launch of the highly popular Miss Dior parfum, which was named after Catherine Dior, Christian's sister. Christian Dior Ltd owned 25%, manager of Coty perfumes held 35%, and Boussac owned 40% of the perfume business, headed by Serge Heftler Louiche. Pierre Cardin was made head of the Dior workshop from 1947 until 1950. In 1948, a Christian Dior Parfums branch in New York City was established—this could be the cause of the establishment-date issue. The modern Dior company also notes that "a luxury ready-to-wear house is established in New York at the corner of 5th Avenue and 57th Street, the first of its kind," in 1948. In 1949, the Diorama perfume was released and by 1949, the New Look line alone made a profit of FFr 12.7 million.
=== Expansion, and death of Christian Dior ===
Expansion from France began by the end of 1949 with the opening of a Christian Dior boutique in New York City. By the end of the year, Dior fashions made up 75% of Paris's fashion exports and 5% of France's total export revenue.
In 1949, Douglas Cox from Melbourne, Australia, travelled to Paris to meet with Christian Dior to discuss the possibility of having Dior pieces made for the Australian market. Dior and Cox signed a contract for Dior to produce original designs and for Cox to create them in his Flinders Lane workshop. The agreement between Dior and Cox put Australian dressmaking on the global stage, yet ultimately the 60 Dior models proved to be too avant-garde for the conservative Australian taste. Douglas Cox was unable to continue the contract beyond the single 1949 season.
In 1950, Jacques Rouët, the general manager of Dior Ltd, devised a licensing program to place the now-renowned name of "Christian Dior" visibly on a variety of luxury goods. It was placed first on neckties and soon was applied to hosiery, furs, hats, gloves, handbags, jewelry, lingerie, and scarves. Members of the French Chamber of Couture denounced it as a degrading action for the haute-couture image. Nevertheless, licensing became a profitable move and began a trend to continue "for decades to come", which all couture houses followed.
Also in 1950, Christian Dior was the exclusive designer of Marlene Dietrich's dresses in the Alfred Hitchcock film Stage Fright. In 1951, Dior released his first book, Je Suis Couturier (I am a Couturier) through publishers Editions du Conquistador. Despite the company's strong European following, more than half of its revenue was generated in the United States by this time. Christian Dior Models Limited was created in London in 1952. An agreement was made between the Sydney label House of Youth for Christian Dior New York models. Los Gobelinos in Santiago, Chile, made an agreement with Dior for Christian Dior Paris Haute Couture. The first Dior shoe line was launched in 1953 with the aid of Roger Vivier. The company operated firmly established locations in Mexico, Cuba, Canada, and Italy by the end of 1953. As popularity of Dior goods grew, so did counterfeiting.
By the mid-1950s, the House of Dior operated a well-respected fashion empire. The first Dior boutique was established in 1954 at 9 Conduit Street. In honour of Princess Margaret and the Duchess of Marlborough, a Dior fashion show was held at the Blenheim Palace in 1954 as well. Christian Dior launched more highly successful fashion lines between the years of 1954 and 1957. However, none came as close to the profound effect of the New Look. Dior opened the Grande Boutique on the corner between Avenue Montaigne and Rue François Ier in 1955. The first Dior lipstick was also released in 1955. 100,000 garments had been sold by the time of the company's 10th anniversary in 1956. Actress Ava Gardner had 14 dresses created for her in 1956 by Christian Dior for the Mark Robson film The Little Hut.
Christian Dior appeared on the cover of Time dated 4 March 1957. The designer died from a third heart attack on 24 October 1957. The impact of Dior's creative fashion genius earned him recognition as one of history's greatest fashion figures. Kevin Almond for Contemporary Fashion wrote that "by the time Dior died his name had become synonymous with taste and luxury."
Throughout his career, Christian Dior's designs were worn by notable figures such as First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, Elizabeth Taylor, Edith Piaf, and Rita Hayworth, Marlene Dietrich, Princess Margaret, and Jennifer Jones reflecting his influence across Hollywood and European high society.
=== Dior without Christian Dior: 1957 through the 1970s ===
The death of the head designer left the House of Dior in chaos, and general manager Jacques Rouët considered shutting down operation worldwide. This possibility was not received graciously by Dior licensees and the French fashion industry; the Maison Dior was too important to the financial stability of the industry to allow such an action. To bring the label back on its feet, Rouët promoted the 21-year-old Yves Saint Laurent to Artistic Director the same year. Saint Laurent had joined the House's family in 1955 after being personally picked out by the original designer for the position of the first ever and only Head Assistant. Saint Laurent initially proved to have been the most appropriate choice after the debut of his first collection for Dior (the mention of Dior from this moment on refers to the company) in 1958. The clothes were as meticulously made and perfectly proportioned as Dior's in the same exquisite fabrics, but their young designer made them softer, lighter and easier to wear. Saint Laurent was hailed as a national hero. Emboldened by his success, his designs became more daring, culminating in the 1960 Beat Look inspired by the existentialists in the Saint-Germain des Près cafés and jazz clubs. His 1960 bohemian look was harshly criticized, and even more in Women's Wear Daily. Marcel Boussac was furious, and in the spring, when Saint Laurent was forced to leave the house of Dior, having been called up to join the French army, the Dior management raised no objection. Saint Laurent left after the completion of six Dior collections.
Saint Laurent was replaced at Dior by designer Marc Bohan in late 1960. Bohan instilled his conservative style on the collections. He was credited by Rebecca Arnold as the man who kept the Dior label "at the forefront of fashion while still producing wearable, elegant clothes," and Women's Wear Daily claimed that he "rescued the firm." Bohan's designs were very well esteemed by prominent social figures. Actress Elizabeth Taylor ordered twelve Dior dresses from Bohan's Spring-Summer 1961 collection featuring the "Slim Look". The Dior perfume "Diorling" was released in 1963 and the men's fragrance "Eau Sauvage" was released in 1966. Bohan's assistant Philippe Guibourgé launched the first French ready-to-wear collection "Miss Dior" in 1967. This is not to be confused with the already existing New York Ready-to-Wear store established in 1948. Designed by Bohan, "Baby Dior" opened its first boutique in 1967 at 28 Avenue Montaigne. The Christian Dior Coordinated Knit line was released in 1968 and management of the Fashion Furs Department of Christian Dior was taken over by Frédéric Castet. This year as well, Dior Parfums was sold to Moët-Hennessy (which would itself become LVMH) due to Boussac's ailing textile company (the still-owner of Dior). This, however, had no effect on the House of Dior operations, and so the Christian Dior Cosmetics business was born in 1969 with the creation of an exclusive line.
Following this, Bohan launched the first Christian Dior Monsieur (now known as Dior Men) clothing line in 1970. A new Dior boutique at Parly II was decorated by Gae Aulenti and the "Diorella" perfume was released in 1972. Christian Dior Ready-to-Wear Fur Collection was created in France in 1973, and then manufactured under license in the United States, Canada, and Japan. The first Dior watch "Black Moon" was released in 1975 in collaboration with licensee Benedom. Dior haute-couture graced the bodies of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, Princess Grace of Monaco, Nicaraguan First Lady Hope Portocarrero, Princess Alexandra of Yugoslavia, and Lady Pamela Hicks (Lord Mountbatten of Burma's younger daughter) for the wedding of The Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer. In 1978, the Boussac Group filed for bankruptcy and so its assets (including those of Christian Dior) were purchased by the Willot Group under the permission of the Paris Trade Court. The perfume "Dioressence" was released in 1979 followed by the men's fragrance "Jules" a year later.
=== Arrival of Bernard Arnault ===
After the Willot Group went into bankruptcy in 1981, Bernard Arnault and his investment group purchased it for "one symbolic franc" in December 1984. The Dior perfume "Poison" was launched in 1985. That same year, Arnault became chairman, chief executive officer, and managing director of the company. On assuming leadership, Arnault did away with the company's mediocre textile operations, to focus on the Bon Marché department store and Christian Dior Couture. Operations for Christian Dior drastically changed for the better under Arnault. He repositioned it as the holding company Christian Dior S.A. of the Dior Couture fashion business. On the 40th anniversary of Dior's first collection, the Paris Fashion Museum dedicated an exhibition to Christian Dior.
In 1988, Arnault's Christian Dior S.A.'s took a 32% equity stake into the share capital of Moët-Hennessy • Louis Vuitton through its subsidiary Jacques Rober, creating what would become one of the leading and most influential luxury goods companies in the world. Under this milestone merger, the operations of Christian Dior Couture and Christian Dior Parfums were once again united. Italian-born Gianfranco Ferré replaced Bohan as head designer in 1989. The first such non-Frenchman, Ferré left behind traditional Dior associations of flirtation and romance, and introduced concepts and a style described as "refined, sober and strict." Ferré headed design for Haute Couture, Haute Fourrure, Women's Ready-to-Wear, Ready-to-Wear Furs and Women's Accessories collections. His first collection was awarded the Dé d'Or in 1989. That year, a boutique was opened in Hawaii and the LVMH stake by Jacques Rober rose to 44%.
Further Dior boutiques were opened in 1990 in upscale New York City, Los Angeles, and Tokyo shopping districts. The stake in LVMH rose again, to 46%. Another collection of watches named "Bagheera" – inspired by the round design of the "Black Moon" watches – was also released in 1990. Having fired the company's managing executive Beatrice Bongbault in December 1990, Arnault took up that position until September 1991, when he placed former Bon Marché president Phillipe Vindry at the post. In 1991, Christian Dior was listed on the spot market and then on the Paris Stock Exchange's monthly settlement market, and the perfume "Dune" was launched. Vindry dropped ready-to-wear prices by 10%. Still, a wool suit from Dior would come with a price label of USD 1,500. 1990 revenue for Dior was USD 129.3 million, with a net income of $22 million. Dior was now reorganized into three categories: 1) women's ready-to-wear, lingerie, and children's wear 2) accessories and jewelry 3) menswear. Licensees and franchised boutiques were starting to be reduced, to increase the company's control over brand product. Licensing was in fact reduced by nearly half because Arnault and Vindry opted "for quality and exclusivity over quantity and accessibility." Wholly company-owned boutiques now opened in Hong Kong, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Cannes, and Waikiki, adding to its core stores located in New York City, Hawaii, Paris and Geneva. This held a potential to increase direct sales and profit margins while maintaining high-profile locations." In 1992, Dior Homme was placed under the artistic direction of Patrick Lavoix, and the "Miss Dior" perfume was relaunched. Francois Baufume succeeded Vindry in 1993 and continued to reduce licenses of the Dior name.
The production of Dior Haute Couture was spun off into a subsidiary named Christian Dior Couture in 1995. Also, the "La Parisienne" watch model was released – embodied in the watch "Parisian Chic". By that year, revenue for the label rose to USD 177 million, with a net income of USD 26.9 million. Under the influence of Anna Wintour, editor and chief of Vogue, CEO Arnault appointed British designer John Galliano to replace Gianfranco Ferré in 1997. This choice of a British designer, once again instead of a French one, is said to have "ruffled some French feathers". Arnault himself stated that he "would have preferred a Frenchman", but that "talent has no nationality". He even compared Galliano to Christian Dior himself, noting that "Galliano has a creative talent very close to that of Christian Dior. He has the same extraordinary mixture of romanticism, feminism, and modernity that symbolised Monsieur Dior. In all of his creations – his suits, his dresses – one finds similarities to the Dior style." Galliano sparked further interest in Dior with somewhat controversial fashion shows, such as "Homeless Show" (models dressed in newspapers and paper bags) or "S&M Show". Meanwhile, Dior licenses were being reduced further by new president and CEO Sidney Toledano. On 15 October 1997, the Dior headquarters store on Avenue Montaigne was reopened –it had been closed and remodeled by Peter Marino – in a celebrity-studded event including Nicole Kidman, Demi Moore and Jacques Chirac. That year, Christian Dior Couture also took over all thirteen boutique franchises from Japan's Kanebo.
In May 1998, another Dior boutique was opened in Paris. This time the store opened its doors on the Left Bank, Place Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Also this year, Victoire de Castellane became lead designer of Dior Fine Jewellery and the first Dior Fine Jewellery boutique opened in New York City. Paris itself would witness the opening of the first Parisian Dior Fine Jewellery boutique the following year, at 28 Avenue Montaigne. The perfume "J'adore" was released in 1999.
In October 1999, Galliano released the Dior Spring-Summer 2000 ready-to-wear fashion show, debuting the now-iconic Dior Saddle bag, which became one of the first "It Bags" of the 2000s. The show reflected the growing influence of hip-hop on luxury fashion, drawing inspiration from artists like Lauryn Hill—whose style and music were directly referenced through the soundtrack and runway styling. At the time, hip hop's fascination with luxury logos was increasingly shaping the fashion industry. In previous decades, many artists turned to custom designers like Dapper Dan due to being shut out from major fashion houses. However, by the turn of the millennium, luxury brands such as Dior and Louis Vuitton began embracing logo-heavy aesthetics, giving rise to a phenomenon dubbed "logomania". The show featured models walking in denim, monogram prints, and locs, bridging streetwear aesthetics with Dior's couture identity, ushering in a new era of youth-driven, status-oriented style.
In the same year, Dior's long watch partner Benedom joined the LVMH group. In 2000, Galliano's leadership was extended to ready-to-wear, accessories, advertising and communications. The first campaign under his leadership was photographed by Nick Knight and featured two women simulating intercourse. Like many other brands in the late 1990s, notably Gucci, featured suggestive images in their ads to draw public attention, Dior ads had such an impact that such publicity became a trend in most fashion ads. Galliano ignited the escalation of erotic advertisements, which culminated with Ungaro's zoophilic ads, shot by Mario Sorrenti, and another ad for Gucci that featured a model with pubic hair shaped like the signature Gucci logo. As a matter of fact, it is considered that Galliano had revolutionized Dior more through his advertising campaigns than through his designs.
=== 21st century ===
On 17 July 2000, Dior Homme lead designer Patrick Lavoix was replaced by Hedi Slimane. Notable Dior releases that year were watches such as the distinctive "Malice", which features bracelets made of "CD" links, as well as the "Riva". John Galliano then began to release his own Dior watches in 2001, beginning with the "Chris 47 Aluminum" line, marking a new era in Dior watch design. Next, the "Malice" and "Riva" watches were redesigned with precious stones to create the "Malice Sparkling" and "Riva Sparkling" spin-off collections. Inspired by the Spring-Summer 2002 Ready-to-Wear collection, Dior released the "Dior 66" watch, breaking many feminine traditional expectations in design.
In 2001, the Dior Homme boutique on 30 Avenue Montaigne reopened with a new "contemporary masculine concept" instilled by its designer Hedi Slimane. Slimane used this concept in the creation of his first Dior Homme collection. Soon, Dior Homme gained prominent male clientele including Brad Pitt and Mick Jagger.
The men's fragrance "Higher" was released in 2001, followed by the perfume "Addict" in 2002. The company then opened Milan's first Dior Homme boutique on 20 February 2002. By 2002, 130 locations were in full operation. On 3 June 2002, Slimane was presented with the "International Designer of the Year" award by the CFDA. Until 2002, Kanebo was the Christian Dior ready-to-wear license holder in Japan and, when the license expired, Christian Dior was able to profitable directly sell its ready-to-wear and accessories in its own boutiques. The "Chris 47 Steel" watch was released in 2003 as a cousin of the original "Chris 47 Aluminum". Bernard Arnault, Hélène Mercier-Arnault, and Sidney Toledano witnessed the opening of the Dior flagship boutique in the Omotesandō district of Tokyo on 7 December 2003. The second Dior flagship store was opened in the upscale Ginza shopping district of Tokyo in 2004. An exclusive Dior Homme boutique was opened also that year in Paris on Rue Royale, and it presented the entire Dior Homme collection. A second Dior Fine Jewelry boutique in Paris was opened at 8 Place Vendôme. A Christian Dior boutique was opened in Moscow after the company took control of licensed operations of its Moscow agent.
The designer of Dior Fine Jewelry Victoire de Castellane launched her own watch named "Le D de Dior" (French: "The D of Dior"). signifying the entrance of Dior watches into its collection of fine Jewelry. This watch was designed for women but made use of many design features which are typically thought of as masculine. Slimane next released a watch for the Dior Homme collection called "Chiffre Rouge." This special watch included the signature look of Dior Homme: "Watch design and technology match each other inseparably, to create the perfect expression of Dior Homme's artistic excellence and to increase the watchmaking legitimacy of Dior timepieces." De Castellane then launched her second line of watches called "La Baby de Dior". The design for this line was meant to be more feminine with more of a "jewelry look."
The "Miss Dior Chérie" perfume and the "Dior Homme" fragrance were released in 2005. Galliano released his "Dior Christal" watches in which he combined steel and blue sapphires to create a "creative and innovative collection." Christian Dior S.A. then celebrated the 13th anniversary of Dior Watches in 2005, and, in April of that year, its "Chiffre Rouge" collection was recognized by the World Watches and Jewelry Show in Basel, Switzerland. Also in the year, the fashion house also celebrated the 100th anniversary of the birthday of designer Christian Dior. An exhibition, "Christian Dior: Man of the Century," was held in the Dior Museum in Granville, Normandy.
In 2006, the Dior watch booth was dedicated to the Dior Canework. This pattern was made by designer Christian Dior and based on the Napoleon III chairs used in his fashion shows.
In 2007, Kris Van Assche was appointed as the new artistic director of Dior Homme. Van Assche presented his first collection later that year. The 60th Anniversary of the founding of the Maison Dior was officially celebrated in 2007 as well.
By February 2011, the House of Dior was in scandal after accusations of John Galliano making antisemitic remarks made international headlines: the company found itself in a "public relations nightmare." Galliano was fired in March and the scheduled presentation of his Fall-Winter 2011/2012 ready-to-wear collection went ahead without him, amid the controversy, on 4 March. Before the start of the show, chief executive Sydney Toledano gave a sentimental speech on the values of Christian Dior and alluded to the family's ties to The Holocaust. The show closed with the staff of the atelier coming out to accept applause in the absence of their artistic director. (The previous January 2011 presentation of Spring-Summer 2011 haute-couture was the last appearance of Galliano on the Dior runway.) The company went on ahead and appointed Bill Gaytten as head designer interim in absence of artistic director. Gaytten had worked under Galliano for Dior and for the John Galliano label. The first haute-couture collection (for the Fall-Winter 2011 season) under Gaytten's management was presented in July and was received with mainly negative reviews. Meanwhile, speculation remained for months as it was unknown who would be selected to replace Galliano. During its 13-month period of having no artistic director, Dior began undergoing subtle changes in its designs as the influence of the theatrical and flamboyant Galliano faded. The all-new resigned dior.com was launched in late 2011.
On 23 January 2012, Gaytten presented his second haute-couture collection (for the Spring-Summer 2012 season) for Dior and it was much better received than his first collection.
Belgian designer Raf Simons was announced, on 11 April 2012, as the new artistic director of Christian Dior. Simons was known for his minimalist designs, and this contrasted against the dramatic previous designs of Dior under Galliano. Furthermore, Simons was seen to have emerged as a "dark horse" amid the names of other designers who were considered high contenders. To emphasize the appropriate choice of Simons as the right designer, the company ostentatiously made comparisons between Simons and the original designer Christian Dior. Reportedly, Bernard Arnault and fellow executives at Dior and LVMH were keen to move Dior from the Galliano years. Simons spent much time in the Dior archives and familiarizing himself with haute-couture (as he had no previous background in that niche of fashion). Simons was then scheduled to debut his designs in July. Meanwhile, Gaytten's Spring-Summer 2012 haute-couture collection was presented as the first Dior haute-couture show ever to be held in China on 14 April in Shanghai; and it was a mark of the company's devotion to its presence in the Chinese market. The show was the last presentation by Gaytten for Dior, and he remained as head designer for the John Galliano label.
On 3 May, the Dior: Secret Garden — Versailles promotional film was launched. It was highly buzzed about throughout various industry and social media sources as it was a display of Dior through its transition. Simons presented his first-ever collection for the company — the Fall-Winter 2012 haute-couture collection — on 2 July. A major highlight of the fall-winter 2012 haute-couture shows, the collection was called by the company as "the new couture" and made reference to the start of a new Dior through the work of Simons "wiping the [haute couture] slate clean and starting again from scratch." The designer's collection "made more references to Mr. Dior than to the house of Dior" with pieces harkening back to themes Dior's post-World War II designs introduced to fashion. Simons, who rarely makes himself available for interviews, gave an interview published by the company through its Dior Mag online feature. While previous runway presentations under Galliano were held at the Musée Rodin, Simons' show was held at a private residence, near the Arc de Triomphe, with the address only disclosed to select top-clients, celebrities, journalists, and other personnel exclusively invited in a discreet affair. High-profile figures in attendance included designers Azzedine Alaïa, Pierre Cardin, Alber Elbaz (Lanvin designer), Diane von Fürstenberg, Marc Jacobs, Christopher Kane, Olivier Theyskens, Riccardo Tisci, Donatella Versace; and Princess Charlene of Monaco, actresses Marion Cotillard, Mélanie Laurent, Jennifer Lawrence, Sharon Stone; film producer Harvey Weinstein; and Dior chairman Arnault with his daughter. Live satellite feed of the show was provided on DiorMag online and Twitter was also implemented for real time communication. By then, it was also known that the company had purchased the Parisian embroidery firm Maison Vermont sometime earlier in 2012.
In March 2014, it was announced that Peter Philips was designated the new creative and image director for Dior makeup, replacing Pat McGrath in her previous role of overseeing the makeup looks for upcoming Dior fashion shows. In March 2015 it was announced that Barbadian singer Rihanna was chosen as the official spokeswoman for Dior; this makes her the first black woman to take the spokeswoman position at Dior. In 2015, Israeli model Sofia Mechetner was chosen to be the new face of Dior.
In 2016, Maria Grazia Chiuri was named the women's artistic director for Dior. In April 2016 a new Dior flagship boutique opened in San Francisco, with a party hosted by Jaime King. In 2017, Dior renovated and expanded its Madrid store. The brand celebrated the opening of the new boutique in a masked ball attended by a number of Spanish celebrities like Alejandro Gómez Palomo.
In March 2018, Kim Jones was named the men's artistic director for the house. Under his management Dior has made several high profile streetwear collaborations. Jones first show for Dior featured American artist and designer Brian Donnelly, a.k.a. KAWS. Thereafter followed collaborations with Raymond Pettibon, 1017 ALYX 9SM, Yoon Ahn, Hajime Sorayama, Daniel Arsham, Sacai and most recently Shawn Stussy, creator of the legendary streetwear brand Stüssy.
In October 2019, Dior apologized to China for using a map of China that excluded Taiwan.
In October 2021, Dior appointed Francis Kurkdjian as its new creative director of perfume.
On 11 March 2022, 30 Avenue Montaigne has once again opened its doors to the public. The property was closed for two years for a major renovation led by architect Peter Marino. Historically, 30 Avenue Montaigne is the place where Christian Dior showcased his first collection.
In January 2023, it was announced Delphine Arnault would assume the role of chairperson and CEO, beginning in February.
On August 6, 2025, Dior opened Dior Spa New York, its first permanent spa in the United States, located on the top floor of the newly renovated House of Dior flagship at Madison Avenue and 57th Street in Manhattan. The interior was designed by architect Peter Marino, and the space is scented with a custom fragrance by Dior perfumer Francis Kurkdjian.
In June 2024, one of its subsidiaries, Manufactures Dior SRL, was put in judicial administration in Italy after being accused of having sub-contracted work to Chinese equity firms that would mistreat employees.
In 2025, Jonathan Anderson was appointed as Dior’s new Creative Director of women's, men's and haute couture collections of the house, succeeding Kim Jones & Maria Grazia Chiuri.
== Fashion shows ==
== Financial data ==
Dior pays subcontractors as little as 53 euro for a handbag sold for 2600 euro.
== Controversies ==
=== 2000s ===
In 2000, Galliano's collection inspired by homeless people drew criticism, but also attention, to the house of Dior.
=== 2010s ===
In early 2011, scandal arose when John Galliano was accused of making antisemitic comments after drinking in Paris. Footage was released of the designer under the influence of alcohol saying "I love Hitler" and "People like you would be dead today. Your mothers, your forefathers would be fucking gassed and dead" to a non-Jewish woman. In France, it is against the law to make antisemitic remarks, and is punishable by up to six months in prison. On 1 March 2011, Christian Dior officially announced that it had fired Galliano amidst the controversy.
=== 2017 ===
In 2017, Dior was accused of cultural appropriation by directly plagiarizing a Bihor coat, a traditional Romanian vest, by using the same colour and patterns in its pre-fall collection; Dior had presented it as their original designs without giving any credit to the people of Bihor nor crediting the Romanian people as source of inspiration. As a result, Romanian people were outraged and to fight against this cultural appropriation, a campaign was launched by Romanian fashion magazine Beau Monde who then recruited native craftsmen and fashion designers from Bihor to create a new line of fashion. The cover of the Beau Monde magazine read:
Don't let traditions go out of stock. Support the fashion from Bihor and buy authentic creations from Bihorcouture.com
Thus, the online platform named Bihor Couture was launched; Bihor Couture also publicly shamed Dior for "theft" and sold original artisan-made versions of the traditional Romanian vest.
=== 2022 ===
In April 2022, Dior released a new midi-skirt in Seoul, Dior's art director Maria Grazia Chiuri described the 2022 Fall collection design as inspired by school uniform (including pleated skirts), also in honour of Catherine Dior. This new skirt was a plain black wrap-around skirt, made of two panels of fabric sewn to the waistband of the skirt; it featured four flat panels with no pleats (one at each side of each panel of fabric) and pleats; it was constructed in an overlapping fashion, so that there was two overlapping flat surfaces at the back and the front, and side pleats when worn. On its official website page, this skirt was described as "a hallmark Dior silhouette, the mid-length skirt is updated with a new elegant and modern variation [...]".
Three months later, the skirt was noticed by some Hanfu enthusiasts, who criticized it as being created by copying the mamianqun design. They also indicated that this skirt had the exact same cut and construction as the mamianqun with only its length being the difference from the orthodox-style and historical mamianqun of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD). It was, however, noted by Chinese netizens that the 21st-century modified, modern version of the mamianqun, also included midi-mamianqun, which had been designed in the past years by Chinese Hanfu designers.
Dior decided to stop this sale in Mainland China to avoid controversy. On 23 July, about 50 Chinese overseas students in Paris, France, made a protest in front of a Dior flagship store at the Champs-Élysées, they used the slogan "Dior, Stop Cultural Appropriation" and "This is a traditional Chinese dress" written with a mixture of French and English; they also called for other overseas students from the United Kingdom and the United States for relay, and the Communist Youth League of China also expressed support for this protest. There were also more than 10 Chinese democratic activists that lifted banners saying "Skirt Rights Is Bigger Than Human Rights" etc. for anti-protest, both sides started a conflict with each other. Chinese news media initially had no mention for anti-protest but focused on the cultural embezzling accusation. Chinese network also spread a theory that the democracy activists were composed by Taiwanese.
Some French news media commented this was largely due to Dior not describing its origin for sale with any transparency, most of the criticising views argued that Dior did not respect Chinese traditions. According to the Journal du Luxe, a French news media, the adoption of the mamianqun cut and construction design by Dior was not the main issue of the debate and critics, but rather the absence of transparency surrounding the origins of the inspirations behind the skirt design. Some Chinese netizens also criticized Dior on Weibo with comments, such as "Was Dior inspired by Taobao?" while another Instagram user commented on the official Dior account:
"Les références culturelles à notre pays [Chine] sont plus que bienvenues mais cela ne signifie pas pour autant que vous pouvez détourner notre culture et nier le fait que cette jupe est chinoise!"
[transl. "Taking cultural references from our country [China] is more than welcomed; however, this does not meaning that you can appropriate our culture and deny the fact that this skirt is Chinese!"].
Dior was accused of cultural appropriation for a second time in July 2022 for its usage of pattern print which looks like the huaniaotu (Chinese: 花鸟图; lit. 'bird-and-flower painting') into its 2022 Autumn Winter ready-to-wear collection, having introduced it as being Dior's signature motif Jardin d'Hiver, which was inspired by Christian Dior's wall murals; the huaniaotu is a traditional Chinese painting theme, it belongs to the Chinese scholar-artist style in Chinese painting and originated in the Tang dynasty.
=== 2024 ===
In June 2024, Italian authorities placed Manufactures Dior SRL, a subsidiary of Christian Dior Italia SRL, under judicial administration for one year, for poor labour practices in its supply chain. This decision followed investigations revealing that four small suppliers in the Milan area employed 32 workers under exploitative conditions. Among these workers, two were undocumented immigrants, and seven lacked the necessary documentation. The workers were found to live and work in unsanitary conditions, with inadequate health and safety measures. Additionally, the suppliers operated continuously, including during holidays, and removed safety devices from machinery to increase production speed.
Subsequently, in July 2024, the Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato (AGCM), launched an investigation Dior and other fashion companies. The probe aims to determine whether these companies misled consumers regarding their labor practices and supply chain management.
=== 2025 ===
In May 2025, Dior confirmed they were a victim to a cyber attack which resulted in a data breach that compromised personal customer information, primarily in China. The company said the breach was discovered on 7 May and involved ‘unauthorised access’ to a customer database. The database contained personally identifiable information such as names, gender, email and postal addresses, phone numbers or purchase history.
In early July, Dior faced backlash for a $200,000 coat from Jonathan Anderson's debut collection, which prominently features mukaish work, a traditional Indian embroidery technique. Fashion commentator Hanan Besnovic highlighted the lack of credit for Indian artisans, echoing the recent controversy where Prada similarly failed to acknowledge the origin of their Kolhapuri chappals. This reignites debate over luxury brands appropriating traditional craftsmanship without due recognition.
== Ownership and shareholdings ==
At the end of 2010, the only declared major shareholder in Christian Dior S.A. was Groupe Arnault SAS, the family holding company of Bernard Arnault. The group's control amounted to 69.96% of Dior's stock and 82.86% of its voting rights. The remaining shares are considered free float.
Christian Dior S.A. held 42.36% of the shares of LVMH and 59.01% of its voting rights at the end of 2010. Arnault held an additional 5.28% of shares and 4.65% of votes directly.
== Creative directors ==
Christian Dior – 1946–1957
Yves Saint Laurent – 1957–1960
Marc Bohan (women's & haute couture) – 1960–1989, (men's) - 1969–1979
Christian Benais & Gérard Penneroux (men's) - 1979–1983
Dominique Morlotti (men's) - 1983–1992
Gianfranco Ferré (women's & haute couture) – 1989–1997
Patrick Lavoix (men's) - 1992–2000
John Galliano (women's & haute couture) – 1997–2011
Bill Gaytten (women's & haute couture) – 2011–2012
Raf Simons (women's & haute couture) – 2012–2015
Serge Ruffieux & Lucie Meier (women's & haute couture) 2015–2016
Maria Grazia Chiuri (women's & haute couture) – 2016–2025
Hedi Slimane (men's) – 2000–2007
Kris Van Assche (men's) – 2007–2018
Kim Jones (men's) – 2018–2025
Jonathan Anderson (women's, men's & haute couture) – 2025–present
== Retail locations ==
The company operates a total of 535 locations as of April 2023:
Asia: 143
Africa: 6
Europe: 192
Middle East: 45
North America: 117
Oceania: 10
South America: 2
== See also ==
Dior Homme
Parfums Christian Dior
Vogue World 2024
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Jackson, Lesley (1991). The New Look: Design in the Fifties. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27644-7.
== External links ==
Christian Dior retail website
Christian Dior corporate website
Dior – brand and company profile at Fashion Model Directory
Christian Dior SE – Annuaire des Entreprises (in French)
Christian Dior Couture – Annuaire des Entreprises (in French) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hey_Ya | Hey Ya | "Hey Ya!" is a song by American hip hop duo Outkast, performed by its member André 3000, who wrote and produced the song. Along with "The Way You Move", which was recorded by Outkast's other member Big Boi and featured Sleepy Brown, "Hey Ya!" was released by Arista Records as the second single from the duo's fifth album, Speakerboxxx/The Love Below, on August 25, 2003. The track became a commercial success, reaching number one in the United States, Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Norway, and Sweden. "Hey Ya!" received critical acclaim upon release, and is consistently ranked as one of the greatest songs of the 2000s. The song was ranked number 10 in Rolling Stone's 2021 list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
== Writing and recording ==
André 3000 wrote "Hey Ya!" in 2000 and began work on recording it in December 2002 at Stankonia Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. He used an acoustic guitar for accompaniment, inspired by bands such as the Ramones, Buzzcocks, the Hives, and the Smiths.
André recorded the introduction, the first verse, the hook, and the vocals around the same time, using several dozen takes. He returned to work on the song several evenings later, with session musician Kevin Kendricks performing the bassline on the synthesizer. Months later, André 3000 worked with Pete Novak at the Larrabee Sound Studios in Los Angeles. They experimented with various sound effects, including singing through a vocoder, and did 30 to 40 takes for each line.
== Composition ==
"Hey Ya!" is a song in G major. Each cadential six-measure phrase is constructed using a change of meter on the fourth measure (creating a song with 22 quarter note beats per phrase) and uses a I–IV–V–VI chord progression. G major and C major chords are played for one and two 44 measures, respectively. André 3000 then uses a deceptive cadence after a 24 measure of the dominant D major chord, leading into two 44 measures of an E major chord (against a G note in the melody implying E minor). The song moves at a tempo of 159 beats per minute, and André's vocal range spans more than an octave and a half, from B3 to G5.
The song opens with three pick-up beats as André 3000 counts "one, two, three, oh" (with the "oh" on beat 1) and then leads into the first verse. The lyrics begin to describe the protagonist's concerns and doubts about a romantic relationship. He wonders if they are staying together just "for tradition", as in the lines "But does she really wanna [mess around] / But can't stand to see me / Walk out the door?" André 3000 commented, "I think it's more important to be happy than to meet up to...the world's expectations of what a relationship should be. So this is a celebration of how men and women relate to each other in the 2000s". The song then leads into the chorus, which consists of the line "Hey ya!" repeated eight times, accompanied by a synthesizer performing the bassline.
During the second verse, the protagonist gets cold feet and wonders what the purpose of continuing the relationship is, pondering the question, "If they say nothing is forever...then what makes love the exception?" After repeating the chorus, the song leads into a call and response section. André 3000 jokes, "What's cooler than being cool?", and the "fellas'" response, an overdubbed version of his vocals, is "Ice cold", a reference to one of André Benjamin's stage names. He then calls to the "ladies", whose response is overdubbed from vocals by Rabeka Tuinei, who was an assistant to the audio engineer.
The song's breakdown coined the phrase "shake it like a Polaroid picture", a reference to a technique used by some photographers to expedite drying of damp instant film photos taken with film made by the Polaroid Corporation. It is an ongoing urban myth that shaking photos taken by the instant camera makes them dry faster. The breakdown also namechecks singer Beyoncé and actress Lucy Liu, in a turn of phrase alluding to the song "Independent Women Part I", which was performed by Destiny's Child for the 2000 film adaptation of Charlie's Angels, in which Liu starred. Though the line "now all Beyoncés and Lucy Lius" is meant to mean "now all the independent women", André 3000 says he included the lyric because the music video for "Independent Women Part I" was playing on his TV as he wrote "Hey Ya!". The song closes by repeating the chorus and then gradually fading out.
== Critical reception ==
"Hey Ya!" received widespread acclaim from music critics. PopMatters described the track as "brilliantly rousing" and "spazzy with electrifying multiplicity". Entertainment Weekly highlighted it as the catchiest song on the double album, and Stylus Magazine identified it as one of the best songs in OutKast's history. "Hey Ya!" topped the 2003 Pazz & Jop list, a survey of several hundred music critics conducted by Robert Christgau, with 322 mentions, beating runner-up Beyoncé and Jay-Z's "Crazy in Love" by 119. It was listed at number 15 on Blender's 2005 list of "The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born", and Pitchfork included it in its collection of The Pitchfork 500.
The song's unusual arrangement drew comparisons to artists from a variety of genres. Pitchfork referred to it as the apex of the album and added that it successfully mixed Flaming Lips-style instrumentation with the energy of Prince's 1983 single "Little Red Corvette". Marcello Carlin of Uncut described the song as "Andre going power pop with overtones of early-'80s electro; The Knack meet side one of The The's Soul Mining."
Subsequently, Pitchfork gave it the number two slot in its "The Top 100 Singles of 2000–2004" feature in January 2005, bested only by OutKast's own "B.O.B". Blender described it as a mix of soul music by Ike Turner and new wave music by Devo and later as an "electro/folk-rock/funk/power pop/hip-hop/neo-soul/kitchen sink rave-up". Rolling Stone compared André 3000's vocals to those of "an indie-rock Little Richard" and the backing arrangement to the Beatles' 1969 album Abbey Road, later ranking it at number 182 in their list of 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and ranking it at number four on their 2011 list of the "100 Best Songs of the Aughts".
New York also likened it to the Beatles and found it to be one of the best singles of 2003. AllMusic described it as an "incandescent" mix of electro, funk, and soul music. NME likened trying to classify the song as "akin to trying to lasso water" and described it as "a monumental barney between the Camberwick Green brass band, a cruise-ship cabaret act, a cartoon gospel choir and a sucker MC hiccuping 'Shake it like a Polaroid pic-chaaaa!' backed up by the cast of an amateur production of The Wizard of Oz. Sort of." In 2011, they placed it at number three on its list of the "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years". In 2013, the sports website Grantland named it the best song of the millennium after a March Madness style bracket of 64 songs. The music video of the same name was likewise well received by critics, who regarded it as a contemporary piece of post-industrial performance art. In 2014, NME ranked the song at number 18 on their list of the 500 greatest songs of all time, and in 2021, Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 10 on their list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
== Commercial performance and impact ==
"Hey Ya!" was successful in North America, first charting on the week ending October 18, 2003, at number 57 on the Billboard Hot 100, three weeks after "The Way You Move" featuring Sleepy Brown debuted; which was at number 25 at the time. It topped the Hot 100 for nine weeks, from December 13, 2003, to February 7, 2004. The digital sales topped the Billboard Hot Digital Tracks for 17 consecutive weeks. The song's time at number one bridged two eras, ending Casey Kasem's second tenure as host of American Top 40 and beginning Ryan Seacrest's tenure as host. The song performed well in urban contemporary markets, topping the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and reaching number nine on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks. It was also successful in mainstream music, topping the Top 40 Mainstream and Top 40 Tracks and reaching number 13 on the Adult Top 40. The song also crossed over to modern rock radio, and peaked at number 16 on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart in December 2003. In 2004, André 3000 performed the song at The 2004 Kids' Choice Awards and the song won the award for Favorite Song. Later in the year, the song appeared on the compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 16. It also appeared on the album Now That's What I Call Music! Number 1's in 2006 as well as the Now That's What I Call Party Hits! album in 2007.
"Hey Ya!" was the first song on Apple's iTunes to reach one million downloads and in September 2005, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the single platinum for shipping one million copies. At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, the song won Best Urban/Alternative Performance and was nominated for Record of the Year, but lost to Coldplay's "Clocks".
The song also performed well in Europe. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number six on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number three after 12 weeks, remaining on the chart for a total of 21 weeks. "Hey Ya!" topped the Norwegian singles chart for seven weeks, and it reached the top in Sweden for the first week of 2004. It performed well across the continent, reaching the top ten in Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, and Switzerland. "Hey Ya!" debuted at number 17 on Australia's ARIA Singles Chart, and later topped the chart for two consecutive weeks. The song remained on the chart for 16 weeks and was certified 11× platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association. The song charted at number 61 for the 2003 end of year chart and was listed at number 15 on the 2004 chart and number five on the 2004 urban chart. It was also successful in New Zealand, reaching number two and staying on the RIANZ Singles Chart for 23 weeks.
The lyric "shake it like a Polaroid picture", along with the song's commercial success, helped to temporarily revitalize the Polaroid Corporation, which had declared bankruptcy in 2001. Because modern Polaroid film is sealed behind a clear plastic window, casually waving the picture has no effect on the film's development. Vigorously shaking the film may actually distort the image by causing the film to separate prematurely and creating blobs in the final image. Nevertheless, Polaroid sought to capitalize on the allusion, hiring Ryan Berger of the Euro RSCG advertising agency. Polaroid sponsored parties for OutKast at which Euro RSCG distributed Polaroid cameras. OutKast also made a deal to hold Polaroid cameras during some of its performances. While Polaroid did not release sales figures, its public image, which was in decline with the growing popularity of digital cameras, was bolstered by the song. However, despite the welcome exposure, Polaroid eventually discontinued the sale of original Polaroid cameras and film, and again declared bankruptcy in 2008.
The song was used as the namesake of Pocoloco’s Stand ability in Jojo’s Bizarre Adventure, part seven, “Steel Ball Run,” which debuted in 2004.
== Accolades ==
== Music video ==
=== Background ===
The song's music video, directed by Bryan Barber, is conceptually similar to the video for former Beatle Paul McCartney's song "Coming Up", but is also based on the Beatles' landmark appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show on February 9, 1964. However, it sets the action in London. The beginning and end of the video blend with those of "The Way You Move" so that the two can be watched in either order, and a "The Way You Move/Hey Ya!" video combining both clips with a bridging sequence was released on the OutKast: The Videos DVD.
After listening to the song, Barber was inspired to create a video around the Beatles' appearance on Sullivan's show based on the song's musical structure, but André 3000 had never seen this footage. Barber showed the footage to André 3000 and came up with the idea of reversing the British Invasion, by having the American band the Love Below becoming popular on a British television program. The music video was filmed using motion control photography in two days in August 2003 on a sound stage at Universal Studios in Los Angeles, California. The cast included more than 100 women. Each of André 3000's parts was shot several times from different angles, and he performed the song 23 times during the course of filming. Because releasing "Hey Ya!" as a single was a last-minute decision, André did not have time to choreograph the parts, and all of the dancing was improvised. Ice Cold 3000's sequences were the first filmed, resulting in the character's energetic performance, and Johnny Vulture's were the last, so André, exhausted from the previous takes, sat on a stool for those sequences.
=== Synopsis ===
In the video, André 3000 plays all eight members of the fictional band The Love Below: keyboardist Benjamin André, bassist Possum Aloysius Jenkins, vocalist André "Ice Cold" 3000, drummer Dookie Blossom Gain III, three backing vocalists the Love Haters, and guitarist Johnny Vulture.
The video opens with the band's manager Antwan (Big Boi) talking to Ice Cold and Dookie backstage. Meanwhile, the television presenter, portrayed by Ryan Phillippe (another version featured an energetic Phillippe), tries to calm a crowd of screaming girls on a show being broadcast live in black-and-white. Afterwards, he introduces the band and they start performing. While the girls in the audience scream loudly, one girl is carried off by security after rushing the stage, and another faints. A family is shown dancing to the broadcast at home. When Ice Cold instructs listeners to "shake it like a Polaroid picture", some of the girls begin taking pictures and shaking them. Ice Cold dances with one of the girls on stage, and the video closes with several friends of the band watching and discussing the performance.
=== Performance ===
The video debuted on MTV's Total Request Live on September 5, 2003, at number 10. It topped the countdown for 19 days and retired at number eight on November 24, having spent 50 days on the program. At the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, the video won four awards for Video of the Year, Best Hip-Hop Video, Best Special Effects, and Best Art Direction. It was also nominated for Best Direction but lost to Jay-Z's "99 Problems". "Hey Ya!" was nominated for Best Short Form Music Video at the 46th Grammy Awards, but it lost to Johnny Cash's cover of Nine Inch Nails' "Hurt". In Canada, the video topped MuchMusic's Countdown for the week beginning January 30, 2004, and it won the award for Best International Video by a Group at the 2004 MuchMusic Video Awards. In 2006, Stylus Magazine listed it at number 72 on its "Top 100 Music Videos of All Time", comparing André 3000's dancing to James Brown's performances in the early 1970s.
== Formats and track listings ==
== Credits and personnel ==
The credits for "Hey Ya!" are adapted from the liner notes of Speakerboxx/The Love Below.
Recording
Recorded at: Stankonia Studios and Tree Sound Studios in Atlanta, Georgia; Larrabee Sound Studios in Los Angeles, California.
Personnel
André 3000 – vocals, guitars, keyboards, production, audio programming
Kevin Kendricks – keyboards
John Frye – recording engineer
Pete Novak – recording engineer
Robert Hannon – recording engineer
Mike Nicholson – recording engineer
Josh Monroy – assistant recording engineer
Warren Bletcher – assistant recording engineer
Jared Robbins – assistant recording engineer
Rabeka Tuinei – assistant recording engineer, additional vocals
Neal Pogue – audio mixer
Greg Price – assistant audio mixer
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
== Cover versions ==
The rock influences of "Hey Ya!" have allowed many other artists to release cover versions of the song. In 2006, Mat Weddle, frontman of the unsigned folk band Obadiah Parker, performed an acoustic cover of the song at a local open mic night, and a friend of his posted a video of the performance on YouTube, which quickly became virally popular online. Inspired by slowcore band Red House Painters, Weddle's version moves at a much slower tempo backed by a rhythmic guitar strum and converts the breakdown into a "staccato chime". The cover received international airplay and spawned many other copycat acoustic versions.
An acoustic cover of the song, sung by Sam Lloyd in his role as Ted Buckland appeared in the 2009 season 8 episode of Scrubs titled "My Soul On Fire, Part 2". In 2010, Chris Rock published a spoof video for a parody cover song titled Crackers which was originally produced in 2004. In 2015, Postmodern Jukebox released a Scott Bradlee arrangement of "Hey Ya!" with a big band tempo and 1960s feel. Featuring Sara Niemietz on lead vocals, their version was featured in Billboard magazine, Time magazine online, and the New York Daily News.
English rock band Sleep Token released a cover in 2018 as a single. This version saw lead singer Vessel accompanied solely by piano and only included the first two verses and the chorus.
== See also ==
List of highest-certified singles in Australia
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite) | Foton (satellite) | Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although uncrewed, the design was adapted from the crewed Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology. The original Foton series included 12 launches from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome from 1985 to 1999.
The second series, under the name Foton-M, incorporates many design improvements over the original Foton, and is still in use. So far, there have been four launch attempts of the Foton-M. The first was in 2002 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, which ended in failure due to a problem in the launch vehicle. The last three were from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in 2005, 2007, and 2014; all were successful. Both the Foton and Foton-M series used Soyuz-U (11A511U and 11A511U2) rockets as launch vehicles. Starting with the Foton-7 mission, the European Space Agency has been a partner in the Foton program.
== Foton-M ==
Foton-M is a new generation of Russian robotic spacecraft for research conducted in the microgravity environment of Earth orbit. The Foton-M design is based on the design of the Foton, with several improvements including a new telemetry and telecommand unit for increased data flow rate, increased battery capacity, and a better thermal control system. It is produced by TsSKB-Progress in Samara.
The launch of Foton-M1 failed because of a malfunction of the Soyuz-U launcher. The second launch (of Foton-M2) was a success. Foton-M3 was launched on 14 September 2007, carried by a Soyuz-U rocket lifting off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan with Nadezhda, a cockroach that conceived in space and produced 33 offspring after the spacecraft returned successfully to Earth on 26 September 2007, landing in Kazakhstan at 7:58 GMT.
== Reentry ==
The Foton capsule has limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation can not be controlled after the capsule has separated from the engine system. This means that the capsule has to be protected from reentry heat on all sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design), which allows for maximum volume while minimizing the external surface. However, the lack of lift means the capsule experiences high forces on reentry, up to 8 to 9g.
== Foton launches ==
== See also ==
Biosatellite
Bion
BIOPAN
Animals in space
== References ==
== External links ==
Foton (from Encyclopedia Astronautica)
Russian Space Web |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthops_bidens | Acanthops bidens | Acanthops bidens is a species of mantis in the family Acanthopidae.
== Discovery ==
This species was described by Morgan Hebard in 1922.
== Distribution ==
Acanthops bidens is native to Mexico.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bentley_(painter) | Charles Bentley (painter) | Charles Bentley (1805/6–4 September 1854), was an English watercolour painter of coastal and river scenery.
== Life ==
Bentley was born in 1805 or 1806, the son of a master-carpenter and builder living in Tottenham Court Road, London. He was sent to work colouring prints for Theodore Fielding to whom he was eventually apprenticed in order to learn aquatinting. Bentley became a lifelong friend of another, rather younger, pupil of Fielding, William Callow. During his apprenticeship he was sent to Paris, probably to assist work on the plates for Excursion sur les Cotes et dans les Ports de Normandie' (Paris, 1823-5), most of which were after watercolours by Richard Bonington.
After the end of his apprenticeship, though earning some money from engraving or designing plates for periodicals, Bentley turned increasingly to painting watercolours. He exhibited four works at the first Exhibition of the New Society of Painters in Water-Colours, (later the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours) in 1832, and six the next year. He was then living at 15, Bateman's Buildings, a narrow turning on the south side of Soho Square, where he remained for another six years. In February 1834, Bentley was elected an Associate-Exhibitor of the Old Water-Colour Society (later the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours). By 1838 he had moved to 11, Mornington Place, Hampstead Road, where, except for a three-year break (when he lived with William Callow in Charlotte Street) he spent the rest of his life. His exhibits at the Old Water-Colour Society in 1838 included two imaginative compositions :From the Red Rover, depicting a naval battle, and From Tom Cringle's Log, which represented a sinking slave-ship. He showed at the British Institution for the first time in 1843, and the next year became a full member of the "Old Society" . In 1851 he showed at the Society of British Artists.
Bentley painted scenes all over Britain, in Jersey, the north of Ireland, and in Normandy, which he visited several times with Callow between 1836 and 1841. He also exhibited views of Venice, Holland and Düsseldorf, but it is not certain that he actually went to these places, as he is known to have painted works after sketches by other people, such as his paintings of Trebizond and Abydos, shown in 1841 and 1849, based on drawings by Coke Smyth. He also worked up the illustrations for 12 Views in the Interior of Guiana, published by Rudolf Ackermann in 1841, from studies done on an expedition to South America by John Morison.
Bentley was not financially successful: Samuel Redgrave described him as "uncertain in his transactions, and always poor". He died of cholera on 4 September 1854, leaving a widow, and was buried in the western side of Highgate Cemetery. The grave (no.6056) no longer has a headstone or marker.
== References ==
== External links ==
Radford, Ernest (1885). "Bentley, Charles" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 4. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Works by Bentley (Government Art Collection)
Charles Bentley on Artnet
Scarborough Castle from the South Bay Archived 16 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine (Watercolour - Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery)
Painting of Venice. Santa Salute., engraved by J. Thomas for The Literary Souvenir, 1835 with a poetical illustration on Venice by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.
Painting of Site of the Castle of Ulysses. engraved by Robert Sands for The Literary Souvenir, 1837 with a poetical illustration Song of the Sirens by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.
Paintings for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Books with poetical illustrations by Letitia Elizabeth Landon:
1837, Town and Harbour of Ithaca. engraved by J Tingle.
1837, Gibraltar. Scene During the Plague. engraved by Joseph Clayton Bentley.
1838, The Village of Kursalee. engraved by J Appleton.
1838, Tunis, from the Saneeah Eftoor. engraved by James Sands.
1838, Gibraltar—from the Sea. engraved by James Charles Armytage.
1838, Death of the Lion among the Ruins of Sbeitlah. engraved by Samuel Lacey.
1838, Gibraltar, from the Signal Tower at the foot of the Queen of Spain's Chair. engraved by Edward Francis Finden.
1838, Corfu and Manduchio form Mount Olivet.. engraved by James Sands. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weesp_train_disaster | Weesp train disaster | The Weesp train disaster took place on 13 September 1918 near Weesp, Netherlands. With 41 deaths and 42 injuries, it was the largest train disaster in Dutch railway history until the 1962 Harmelen train disaster.
The 102 train from Amersfoort to Amsterdam derailed near the railway bridge over the Merwedekanaal near Weesp and dropped off the bank. Various wooden carriages were splintered, causing many casualties.
== Composition ==
The train was composed of two parts; the front carriages came from Zwolle and the rear ones from Enschede. In Hilversum another carriage was hooked on, making a total of 11 carriages, which were pulled by the locomotive HSM 520. The departure time was 9:46 from Amersfoort and 10:10 from Hilversum. According to the schedule the train should have arrived in Amsterdam at 10:40.
== Derailment ==
While ascending the slope of Weesp station towards the bridge over the Merwedekanaal the dike subsided over a length of 95 metres. This was caused by extensive rain in the preceding time and the poor state of repair of the railway dike. At the moment of the subsidence the locomotive was already on the bridge and thus entangled in the ironworks of the bridge construction. The locomotive and tender flipped to the right. The tender lay on the bridgehead, a luggage wagon next to it came to a standstill against the bridgehead. The following three carriages slid off the slope and smashed into each other. The wooden upperside was largely splintered, causing the most casualties. The third carriage was also engulfed by the luggage carriage on the rear and a postal carriage, which because of the speed partially ended up next to the forward carriages. The carriage behind the postal carriage ended up skewed down from the slope, but was barely damaged. The rear carriages of the train derailed but remained on the tracks.
== Emergency aid ==
The disaster happened at 10:25. Two minutes before a train from Amsterdam to Hilversum passed. The station chief of Weesp station sounded the alarm at 10:45. A surgeon who happened to be on the train took care of first aid, soon assisted by two doctors rushed in from Weesp. Four nuns also gave aid, as well as soldiers who happened to be in the neighbourhood. There were no victims among the train crew, who also helped shortly after the disaster.
At 11:40 the first aid train arrived from Naarden-Bussum followed by accident carriages and carriages for transporting injured from Amsterdam. After that a Red Cross train arrived. At 12:40 the first injured and non-injured passengers were able to leave for Amsterdam. About 2+1⁄2 hours after the disaster the first injured arrived on an aid train at Muiderpoort station in Amsterdam and were transferred to the Onze Lieve Vrouwe Gasthuis hospital. Two ships which were sailing on the Merwedekanaal were stopped and they transported injured to the Binnengasthuis in Amsterdam. At 13:30 a tug left with two ships and 36 injured for Amsterdam; half an hour later a ship carrying 32 corpses followed, which arrived at the Wilhelmina Gasthuis at 16:00. One of the victims was Henri Gorter, a Dutch cyclist, speed skater and ice skates manufacturer from Zwolle. He died that evening in the Binnengasthuis.
== Rerouting of train traffic ==
The trains between Amsterdam and Amersfoort were temporarily rerouted through Breukelen and Utrecht. For commuter traffic there were several trains from Naarden-Bussum through Hilversum and Utrecht to Amsterdam. Six days after the disaster, rail traffic resumed over one track with a maximum speed of five km/h. After the bridge and dike were repaired both tracks were fully available again on 2 December.
== Investigation ==
The day after the disaster an investigative commission was instituted under the chairmanship of minister Lely. The investigation concluded that the embankment had been soaked by a prolonged period of rainfall. This was aggravated by the structure of the dike which featured impenetrable layers that the water could not escape through. Also the percolation water from the Merwedekanaal seeped through the loam dikes. The ground water level in the railway dike had therefore risen above ground level. As a result of the passing of the train the embankment vibrated and the more or less liquified dike collapsed and was shoved aside.
The disaster instigated the founding of the Laboratorium voor Grondmechanica at the Technische Hogeschool in Delft, and expedited the soil mechanics work of Albert Sybrandus Keverling Buisman.
== Later train accident near Weesp ==
On 19 June 1953, two passenger trains collided near Weesp, causing at least two deaths.
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Op de Rails, 1968-10 (in Dutch). p. 223. ISSN 0030-3321.
Jongerius, R.T. (1993). Spoorwegongevallen in Nederland, 1839–1993 (in Dutch). Haarlem: Schuyt & Co. ISBN 90-6097-341-0. Part 22 in the book series by the Nederlandse Vereniging van Belangstellenden in het Spoor- en tramwegwezen.
== External links ==
10 Most Dramatic Vintage Railway Bridge Disasters
(in Dutch) Spoorwegongeval Weesp 1918 - on nicospilt.com with various photos, clippings and stories
(in Dutch) Photos of the Weesp train disaster on the site of the Beeldbank Amsterdam
Treinramp bij Weesp van 1918 trof ook de sportwereld. Wim Zonneveld, sportgeschiedenis.nl (13 October 2022). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagina_procumbens | Sagina procumbens | Sagina procumbens (procumbent pearlwort) is a species of flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae, native throughout Europe, most of western and central Asia, and northwest Africa. It is a common weed in many environments, and can be found in wild and disturbed habitat, especially moist areas. It can frequently be seen growing in lawns or in cracks in pavements, particularly in block paving, where it resists human trampling well, and is also common in flower pots.
== Description ==
It is a perennial ground-hugging herb forming clumps or mats of hairless green herbage, sometimes vaguely resembling a patch of moss. The stems root readily at the stem nodes, enabling it to spread widely by vegetative reproduction. The leaves are linear, and up to 1–2 cm long. The inflorescence is a solitary, minute flower with four or five sepals and four or five small white petals, but the petals are sometimes absent; they have 4 free stigmas. The fruit is a small capsule which releases black seeds.
== As an invasive species ==
Outside of its native range, it can be found widely across much of North and South America, and locally in northeast Asia. In 1998 numerous well-developed plants were found on the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Gough Island, where it is an introduced species. Given the island's remoteness, seeds were most likely introduced from visitors' footwear and/or clothing. Without control the plant will very likely transform the ecosystem of the island's uplands, as it has already done on the Prince Edward Islands, where it has spread at a rate of 100 m to 300 m per year and is now considered beyond control. Eradication programs on Gough Island are expected to require years of 'concerted effort'. By 2010, through removing plants manually with some soil and then treating the area with boiling water, it had been restricted to one small area of coastal cliffs. As a result, the seed load had been reduced in a decade by 3 orders of magnitude. This nevertheless could result in 200 plants germinating per square metre. To reduce the population further, a study indicated that a combination of soil removal and herbicide could be effective.
== Role in myths, magic and legends of Great Britain ==
It is said to have been the first plant on which Christ set his foot when he came to Earth, or when he rose from the dead. In the highlands of Scotland it was supposed to have derived supernatural powers from having been blessed by Christ, St Bride and St Columba. A spray of it hung from the door lintel gave protection against fairies, especially those who made a practise of taking people away. If pearlwort were stuck in a bull's fore-hooves, the cows with which it mated and the calves and the milk they produced were safeguarded from ills. If a cow ate the herb, its calves and milk, and all who drank the milk, were also protected against fairies. For the young village maiden, pearlwort brought a bonus. If drunk in an infusion, or used merely to wet the lips, it would attract her favoured lover, and if a piece of it were in the girl's mouth when she kissed him, he was bound to her for ever.
== Etymology ==
Sagina means 'fodder'; the genus was named after a fodder plant, spurrey, which has since been moved into its own genus, Spergula. The species name procumbens means 'procumbent', 'lying flat on the ground' The English name 'pearlwort' is first known from John Ray's 1660 Catalogus plantarum: 151; he did not explain its origin or derivation.
Other recorded names include "birdeye pearlwort" and "matted pearlwort".
== References ==
== External links ==
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Flora of North America
Washington Burke Museum
Illinois Wildflowers
Photo gallery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billene_Seyoum#Education | Billene Seyoum | Billene Seyoum Woldeyes (Amharic: ቢለኔ ሥዩም ወልደየስ; born 1982) is an Ethiopian politician, poet and author who is serving as the Foreign Press Secretary for the Office of Prime Minister of Ethiopia since 5 November 2018. Billene speaks as the prime minister's foreign spokesperson in English.
== Early life ==
Billene was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. She is the last born among three and has two brothers. She moved to Harare, Zimbabwe at a young age before moving to Canada and then back to Ethiopia.
In her book, Billene writes about this multinational upbringing, "I have spent half of my life outside of my birth country Ethiopia. Nevertheless, some norms of Ethiopiawinet (Ethiopianess) injected in me through socialization have sustained themselves throughout the years."
== Education ==
Upon finishing high school in Harare, Billene completed two years of college in Marketing Management at the Addis Ababa University, College of Commerce. She studied International Relations at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver from 2004 to 2008. Billene went on to obtain an MA in Gender and Peacebuilding from the University for Peace and later another MA in Peace, Security, Development and International Conflict Transformation at the University of Innsbruck, Austria.
== Career ==
Billene moved back to Addis Ababa at the end of 2010 and began her career there.
In 2010, three weeks later, she started her blog EthiopianFeminism. In 2012, she renamed the website to AfricanFeminism. AfricanFeminism is a digital African feminist platform that shares works of feminist African writers while encouraging dialogue. The purpose of the blog: "to understand similar issues on the continent and engage with other African feminists. It was also a response to the lack of Ethiopian voices on continental issues".
In 2011, Billene co-formed a spoken-word poetry collective called Zemneged-Andinet (meaning, "from a place of unity" in Amharic). Billene has stated that it consisted of "both English and Amharic writing poets who believe in words as a medium of artistic expression." The collective performed in venues in Addis Ababa.
From 2011 to 2013, Billene served as the Deputy Training Lead at the Institute of Peace and Security Studies - Africa Peace and Security Program in Addis Ababa.
In 2013, Billene was the president of Ethiopia's Association of Women in Business (AWiB).
In 2014, she published her book, Transformative Spaces: Enabling Authentic Female Leadership Through Self Transformation. The Case of AWiB.
Since 2010, she has published with multiple newsletters, including Pambazuka News, on topics that concern the rights of women and girls.
She has also served as an editor for the Association for Women's Sanctuary and Development (AWSAD)'s newsletter.
Billene has worked as a consultant on the Agricultural Growth Program-Agribusiness and Market Development (AGP-AMDe) project of ACDI-VOCA, where she worked on content development and management. The AGP-AMDe project aims to help enhance the capacity of Ethiopian small scale farmers.
In 2016, Billene was chosen to be an Acumen East African Fellow.
Billene is also the founder of a Social impact company Earuyan Solutions.
== Political career ==
Billene was one of the originators of the 50-50 gender balance concept for Ethiopian government. In an open letter addressed to Prime Minister, Abiy Ahmed, that was published by The Reporter, Billene Seyoum Weldeyes and Sewit Hailesellasie Tadesse pushed the Prime Minister to work towards gender equality and justice by recommending a few ideas that would strengthen the Prime Minister's commitment towards gender equality. Among them was a recommendation to create a 50-50 gender balance in the ministerial cabinet, Prime Minister's gender advisory group, CSO Law, the Women's rights Defenders Forum, and many more. Ahmed responded positively, appointing 10 female ministers when he formed his cabinet on the 16 October 2018.
Billene was then appointed as the Press Secretary for the Office of the Prime Minister of Ethiopia in November 2018, following the end of Government Communication Affairs Office (GCAO).
Multiple platforms have noted Billene's preference for not being addressed with the title Weizero or Weizerit (roughly translated to Mrs. or Miss.).
== Controversy ==
False information that Billene had been fired and replaced by Nigussie Tilahun surfaced around 2 January 2019. However, Billene continued to be the press secretary in charge of the English and digital media. Nigussu Tilahun did join the secretariat as press secretary, but to aid with the Amharic section.
== Works ==
=== Poetry ===
She is an author of multiple poems including Things I Imagine Telling My Daughter, Make It Happen, From Foetus to Woman and others.
Essays and Reflections
"Modern slavery of Ethiopian women | Pambazuka News". www.pambazuka.org. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
"Ethiopia: Violence against women on the rise | Pambazuka News". www.pambazuka.org. Retrieved 2019-01-15.
=== Book ===
Woldeyes, Billene Seyoum (2014.)Transformative spaces : enabling authentic female leadership through self transformation - the case of AWiB. ISBN 3643905025. OCLC 900171333.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Creutz#:~:text=Creutz%20was%20born%20in%201944,the%20time%20of%20Michael's%20birth. | Michael Creutz | Michael John Creutz (born November 24, 1944) is an American theoretical physicist at Brookhaven National Laboratory specializing in lattice gauge theory and computational physics.
== Background ==
Creutz was born in 1944 in Los Alamos, New Mexico. His father, Edward Creutz, was also a physicist and was working on the Manhattan Project to help build the atomic bomb at the time of Michael's birth.
Creutz graduated with honor with a bachelor's degree in physics from Caltech in 1966. He did his graduate work at Stanford University under a NSF Graduate Fellowship, graduating in 1970. His thesis was done at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and his adviser was the noted physicist Sidney Drell.
After his graduation he served shortly as a research associate at SLAC before moving to the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he was a fellow from 1970-1972. In 1972 he joined the High Energy Theory Group at Brookhaven National Laboratory, becoming a senior physicist in 1985 and serving as group leader from 1984 to 1987. In 2003 he became an adjunct professor at the C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics at nearby Stony Brook University.
== Research ==
Creutz's research spans a wide variety of topics in particle physics and mathematical physics, but he is best known for his work on lattice QCD. His 1983 textbook Quarks, Gluons, and Lattices was the first full-length textbook on lattice QCD and is considered a classic in the field.
Creutz is a fellow of the American Physical Society and was the 2000 recipient of the Aneesur Rahman Prize for Computational Physics "for first demonstrating that properties of QCD could be computed numerically on the lattice through Monte Carlo methods, and for numerous contributions to the field thereafter." In 2009 he received a Humboldt Research Award.
== Books ==
Creutz, Michael (1983). Quarks, gluons, and lattices. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24405-6. OCLC 9323498.
Berg, B. (1988). Lattice Higgs Workshop : Florida State University, May 16-18, 1988. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 9971-5-0686-6. OCLC 19290040.
Creutz, Michael (1992). "Quantum Fields on the Computer". Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics. Vol. 11. WORLD SCIENTIFIC. doi:10.1142/1634. ISBN 978-981-02-0939-1. ISSN 1793-1339.
== References ==
== External links ==
latticeguy.net - personal website
Creutz's BNL website
Papers on INSPIRE-HEP
arXiv.org preprints |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Shipley_Rowlinson | John Shipley Rowlinson | Sir John Shipley Rowlinson (12 May 1926 – 15 August 2018) was a British chemist. He attended Oxford University, where he completed his undergraduate studies in 1948 and doctoral in 1950. He then became research associate at University of Wisconsin (1950–1951), lecturer at University of Manchester (1951–1961), Professor at Imperial College London (1961–1973) and back at Oxford from 1974 to his retirement in 1993.
His works covered a wide range of subjects, including on capillarity (the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity) and cohesion (forces that make similar molecules stick together). In addition, he wrote about the history of science, including multiple works on the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923). He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. He received a Faraday Lectureship Prize in 1983 and was knighted in 2000.
== Early life ==
Born in Handforth, Cheshire, on 12 May 1926, Rowlinson attended the independent Rossall School in Fleetwood. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, where in 1944 he was awarded a Millard scholarship to read chemistry. His tutor was Professor Sir Cyril Hinshelwood, who was the first head of the Physical Chemistry Laboratory. He graduated with first-class honours in 1948. After graduation, he continued his studies at Oxford and received a D.Phil. in 1950 in chemical kinetics, working under J. D. Lambert.
== Career ==
In 1950, Rowlinson won a Fulbright scholarship and became a research associate at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. There, he was member of Joseph O. Hirschfelder's team and worked with C. F. Curtiss on various topics in physical chemistry. In 1951 he moved to the University of Manchester where he worked as a Fellow. Subsequently, he became lecturer and senior lecturer at the same university.
In 1961, Rowlinson was appointed Professor in Chemical Technology at Imperial College London. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1970. In 1974, he moved to Oxford as Dr Lee's Professor of Chemistry. He was appointed a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1976. He received the Faraday Lectureship Prize in 1983 for 'exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry'. He retired in 1993, becoming an Emeritus Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. After his formal retirement he continued to write scientific papers. He was knighted in the 2000 Birthday Honours.
In 2008, he received the Sidney M. Edelstein Award for Outstanding Achievement in the History of Chemistry from the American Chemical Society.
== Work ==
Throughout his career, Rowlinson wrote more than 200 papers and book chapters. While he contributed to a wide range of topics, his main areas of focus were capillarity and cohesion (forces that make molecules 'stick' together). His Molecular Theory of Capillarity—co-written with Benjamin Widom in 1982—is widely cited in scientific and engineering literatures: it had more than 2,000 citations by 2010. His earlier work, Liquids and Liquid Mixtures (1958) is also similarly popular and is described by Widom as a "classic". His acclaimed 2002 work Cohesion described intermolecular forces, their scientific history and their effect on properties of matter in great detail. He also co-wrote a textbook Thermodynamics for Chemical Engineers (1975). Other scientific topics he wrote about include phase transitions, critical phenomena, computer simulations of interfaces, glaciers, and information theory.
In addition to his technical works, Rowlinson wrote about the history of science. His works on this topic began with the Nature paper The Legacy of van der Waals in 1973. He followed it up with further works on Johannes Diderik van der Waals, including a 1988 translation of van der Waals' doctoral thesis, and a 1996 biography of the Dutch physicist. His colleague Benjamin Widom praised the translation as "no less[...] than a masterwork" and the accompanying introduction "brilliant both as science and as history". His Molecular Theory of Capillarity also treats the topic's history in addition to its technical aspect.
Rowlinson also contributed to the administration of science in his native United Kingdom. He expanded the scope of Oxford's physical chemistry research and history of science teaching. He supported Oxford's collection displayed at the Museum of the History of Science. He was the editor of the journal Molecular Physics.
== Personal life ==
Rowlinson routinely climbed the Swiss Alps and had also climbed in the Himalayas. He was an active member of the Exeter College community at Oxford and regularly attended its lunches and alumni events. He died on 15 August 2018.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Widom, Benjamin (2010). "Preface to the Sir John S. Rowlinson Festschrift". Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data. 55 (10): 4127–4129. doi:10.1021/je100562f.
Tildesley, D.J. (1993). "Professor John Shipley Rowlinson". Molecular Physics. 80 (4): 701–704. Bibcode:1993MolPh..80..701T. doi:10.1080/00268979300102571. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisexuality_in_the_United_States#:~:text=1997%3A%20At%20an%20LGBT%20PrideFest,first%20openly%20bisexual%20state%20official. | Bisexuality in the United States | The first English-language use of the word "bisexual" to refer to sexual orientation occurred in 1892.
== Early history ==
The first English-language use of the word "bisexual" referring to sexual orientation was by the American neurologist Charles Gilbert Chaddock in his 1892 translation of the 7th edition of Krafft-Ebing's seminal work Psychopathia Sexualis. Prior to this, "bisexual" typically referred to reproductive hermaphrodites, especially in botany. Under any label, openly bisexual people were rare in early American life. One notable exception was the openly bisexual poet Edna St. Vincent Millay, who received the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for The Ballad of the Harp-Weaver in 1923. The 19th century poet Walt Whitman is usually described by biographers as either bisexual or homosexual in his feelings and attractions. In the early 20th century, during the Harlem Renaissance, blues singers Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith made no secret about their relationships with both men and women and songs like "Sissy Man Blues", "Freakish Blues" and Rainey's "Prove It on Me" spoke openly of homosexual and bisexual relationships.
Early film, being a cutting-edge medium, also provided opportunity for bisexuality to be expressed. In 1914 the first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in A Florida Enchantment, by Sidney Drew. However, due to the censorship legally required by the Hays Code, the word bisexual could not be mentioned and almost no bisexual characters appeared in American film from 1934 until 1968.
Bisexual Americans were given some visibility in the research of Alfred Kinsey (who was himself bisexual) and his colleagues in the late 1940s and early 1950s; they found that 28% of women and 46% of men had responded erotically to or were sexually active with both women and men.
Their research also found that 11.6% of white males (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response throughout their adult lives, and that 7% of single females (ages 20–35) and 4% of previously married females (ages 20–35) had about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response for this period of their lives. As a result of this research, the earlier meanings of the word "bisexual" were largely displaced by the meaning of being attracted to both women and men. However, Kinsey himself disliked the use of the term bisexual to describe individuals engaging in sexual activity regardless of gender, preferring to use "bisexual" in its older, biological sense of reproductive hermaphrodites, saying, "Until it is demonstrated [that] taste in a sexual relation is dependent upon the individual containing within his [sic] anatomy both male and female structures, or male and female physiological capacities, it is unfortunate to call such individuals bisexual" (Kinsey et al., 1948, p. 657).
== Late 20th century ==
=== 1960s ===
LGBT political activism became more prominent in the 1960s. The first public protests for equal rights for gay and lesbian people were staged at governmental offices and historic landmarks in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., between 1965 and 1969. In D.C., protesters picketed in front of the White House, Pentagon, and the U.S. Civil Service Commission. One woman at the second White House picket of those protests, J.D., identified herself as a bisexual.
In 1966, bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) founded the Student Homophile League at Columbia University and New York University. In 1967 Columbia University officially recognized this group, thus making them the first college in the United States to officially recognize a gay student group. Activism on behalf of bisexuals in particular also began to grow, especially in San Francisco. One of the earliest organizations for bisexuals, the Sexual Freedom League in San Francisco, was facilitated by Margo Rila and Frank Esposito beginning in 1967. Two years later, during a staff meeting at a San Francisco mental health facility serving LGBT people, nurse Maggi Rubenstein came out as bisexual. Due to this, bisexuals began to be included in the facility's programs for the first time.
The Stonewall Rebellion, considered the beginning of the modern LGBT rights movement, occurred at the Stonewall bar in 1969. Bar patrons, including bisexuals, stood up to the police during a raid. In commemoration of this, the next year the first LGBT pride march was held. Bisexual activist Brenda Howard is known as the "Mother of Pride", for her work in coordinating the first LGBT Pride march, and she also originated the idea for a week-long series of events around Pride Day which became the genesis of the annual LGBT Pride celebrations that are now held around the world every June. Additionally, Howard along with the bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) and gay activist L. Craig Schoonmaker are credited with popularizing the word "Pride" to describe these festivities. Bisexual activist Tom Limoncelli later stated, "The next time someone asks you why LGBT Pride marches exist or why [LGBT] Pride Month is June tell them 'A bisexual woman named Brenda Howard thought it should be.'"
=== 1970s ===
Bisexuals became more prominent in the media in the 1970s. In 1972 bisexual activist Don Fass founded the National Bisexual Liberation group in New York City, which issued The Bisexual Expression, most likely the earliest bisexual newsletter. In 1973 bisexual activist Woody Glenn was interviewed by a radio show of the National Organization for Women on WICC in Bridgeport, Connecticut. In 1974, both Newsweek and Time magazines ran stories on "bisexual chic", bringing bisexuality to mainstream attention as never before. In 1976 the landmark book View from Another Closet: Exploring Bisexuality in Women, by Janet Mode, was published.
Bisexuals were also important contributors to the larger LGBT rights movement. In 1972, Bill Beasley, a bisexual activist in the civil rights movement as well as the LGBT movement, was the core organizer of the first Los Angeles Gay Pride March. He was also active with the Gay Liberation Front. In 1975, activist Carol Queen came out as bisexual and organized GAYouth in Eugene, Oregon. In 1977 Alan Rockway, a psychologist and bisexual activist, co-authored America's first successful gay rights ordinance put to public vote, in Dade County, Florida. Anita Bryant campaigned against the ordinance, and Rockway began a boycott of Florida orange juice, which she advertised, in response. The San Francisco Bisexual Center also helped sponsor a press conference with lesbian activists Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, and pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock, in opposition to Bryant. The Florida Citrus Commission canceled her contract as a direct response to this pressure. In 1979, Dr. Marvin Colter and John Soroczak co-founded Arete, The Bisexual Center of Southern California, in Whittier, California, a support and social group for bisexuals, which marched in the 1982 Los Angeles Gay pride. John Soroczak, a psychotherapist, facilitated the first bisexual rap group at the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center in 1994. Also in 1979 A. Billy S. Jones, a bisexual founding member of the National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gays, helped organize the first black gay delegation to meet with President Jimmy Carter's White House staff. Jones was also a core organizer of the 1979 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, and "Third world conference: When will the ignorance end?", the first national conference for gay and lesbian people of color.
The bisexual movement had its own successes as well. Most notably, in 1972 a Quaker group, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality, issued the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality" supporting bisexuals. The Statement, which may have been "the first public declaration of the bisexual movement" and "was certainly the first statement on bisexuality issued by an American religious assembly", appeared in the Quaker Friends Journal and The Advocate in 1972.
In 1976, Harriet Levi and Maggi Rubenstein founded the San Francisco Bisexual Center. It was the longest surviving bisexual community center, offering counseling and support services to Bay Area bisexuals, as well as publishing a newsletter, The Bi Monthly, from 1976 to 1984. In 1978, bisexual activist Dr. Fritz Klein introduced the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid in his book The Bisexual Option: A Concept of One-Hundred Percent Intimacy, in which he examined the incidence and nature of bisexuality, the attitudes of bisexual persons, and the rewards of bisexuality. Bisexual activism also began to spread beyond the coasts, as from 1978 until 1979, several Midwestern bisexual groups were created, such as One To Five (founded by Scott Bartell and Gary Lingen for Minneapolis/St.Paul, Minn), BI Women Welcome in Minneapolis, The BI Married Men's Group in the Detroit suburbs, and BI Ways in Chicago.
=== 1980s ===
In the 1980s AIDS began to affect the LGBT community, and bisexual people took an important role in combating it. In 1981 bisexual activists David Lourea and Cynthia Slater presented safer-sex education in bathhouses and BDSM clubs in San Francisco. In 1984, David Lourea finally persuaded the San Francisco Department of Public Health to recognize bisexual men in their official AIDS statistics (the weekly "New AIDS cases and mortality statistics" report), after two years of campaigning. Health departments throughout the United States began to recognize bisexual men because of this, whereas before they had mostly only recognized gay men. Bisexual activists also fought for the recognition of women in the AIDS epidemic. From 1984 until 1986, bisexual activist Veneita Porter, of the Prostitute's Union of Massachusetts and COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics), advocated for women, transgender people, and injection drug users with AIDS. In 1985, Cynthia Slater, who was HIV-positive, organized the first Women's HIV/AIDS Information Switchboard. This sort of activism was particularly important for bisexuals as they were often blamed for spreading AIDS to their heterosexual partners. For example, in 1987, Newsweek portrayed bisexual men as "the ultimate pariahs" of the AIDS epidemic, and bisexual activist and person with AIDS Alan Rockway of BiPOL was quoted speaking against the stereotype. An October 1989 Cosmopolitan magazine article that stereotyped bisexual men as dishonest spreaders of AIDS led to a letter-writing campaign by the New York Area Bisexual Network (NYABN). Cosmopolitan has printed no articles defaming bisexuals since the campaign.
The bisexual movement enjoyed some important firsts during the 1980s. The Boston Bisexual Women's Network, the oldest existing bisexual women's group, was founded in 1983 and began publishing their bi-monthly newsletter, BI Women. It is the longest-existing bisexual newsletter in the US. Also in 1983, BiPOL, the first and oldest bisexual political organization, was founded in San Francisco by bisexual activists Autumn Courtney, Lani Ka'ahumanu, Arlene Krantz, David Lourea, Bill Mack, Alan Rockway, and Maggi Rubenstein. In 1984, BiPOL sponsored the first bisexual rights rally, outside the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. The rally featured nine speakers from civil rights groups allied with the bisexual movement. Also in 1984, the First East Coast Conference on Bisexuality (which was also the first regional bisexual conference in the US) was held at the Storrs School of Social Work at the University of Connecticut, with about 150 people participating. Participants in the conference then founded the East Coast Bisexual Network in 1985, which later was renamed the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC) in 1993. In 1987, the East Coast Bisexual Network established the first Bisexual History Archives with bisexual activist Robyn Ochs' initial collection; archivist Clare Morton hosted researchers. Also in 1987, the Bay Area Bisexual Network, the oldest and largest bisexual group in the San Francisco Bay Area, was founded by Lani Ka'ahumanu, Ann Justi and Maggi Rubenstein.
In 1988, Gary North published the first national bisexual newsletter, called Bisexuality: News, Views, and Networking. In 1989 Cliff Arnesen testified before the U.S. Congress on behalf of bisexual, lesbian, and gay veteran's issues. He was the first veteran to testify about bisexual, lesbian, and gay issues and the first openly non-heterosexual veteran to testify on Capitol Hill about veteran's issues in general. He testified on May 3, 1989, during formal hearings held before the U.S. House Committee on Veterans Affairs: Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. He also testified before the same Subcommittee on May 16, 1990, as part of an HIV/AIDS panel.
Bisexual people also continued to be active in the larger LGBT movement. In 1986 BiPOL's Autumn Courtney was elected co-chair of San Francisco's Lesbian Gay Freedom Day Pride Parade Committee; she was the first openly bisexual person to hold this sort of position in the United States. In 1987 a group of 75 bisexuals marched in the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, which was the first nationwide bisexual gathering. The article "The Bisexual Movement: Are We Visible Yet?", by Lani Ka'ahumanu, appeared in the official Civil Disobedience Handbook for the March. It was the first article about bisexuals and the emerging bisexual movement to be published in a national lesbian or gay publication. The North American Bisexual Network, the first national bisexual organization, was first thought of at this gathering, though not founded until three years later (see below.) NABN would later change its name to BiNet USA.
Another important development is that the biangles symbol of bisexuality was designed by artist Liz Nania as she co-organized a bisexual contingent for the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights in 1987. The design of the biangles began with the pink triangle, a Nazi concentration camp badge that later became a symbol of gay liberation representing homosexuality. The addition of a blue triangle contrasts the pink and represents heterosexuality. The two triangles overlap and form lavender, which represents the "queerness of bisexuality", referencing the Lavender Menace and 1980s and 1990s associations of lavender with queerness.
(Some bisexual individuals object to the use of a pink triangle in the biangles symbol of bisexuality (see above), as it was a symbol that Adolf Hitler's regime used to tag and persecute homosexuals. In response, a double crescent moon symbol of bisexuality was devised by Vivian Wagner in 1998. This symbol is common in Germany and surrounding countries.)
Also in 1987, Barney Frank became the first U.S. congressman to come out as gay of his own volition; he was inspired in part by the death of Stewart McKinney, a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut. Frank told The Washington Post that after McKinney's death there was, "An unfortunate debate about 'Was he or wasn't he? Didn't he or did he?' I said to myself, I don't want that to happen to me."
=== 1990s ===
The oldest national bisexuality organization in the United States, BiNet USA, was founded in 1990. It was originally called the North American Multicultural Bisexual Network (NAMBN), and had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco, and sponsored by BiPOL. Bisexual health was one of eight workshop tracks at the conference, and the "NAMES Project" quilt was displayed with bisexual quilt pieces. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice", and declaring June 23, 1990, Bisexual Pride Day. The conference also inspired attendees from Dallas to create the first bisexual group in Texas, called BiNet Dallas.
The bisexual movement also became more accepted as part of established institutions. In 1990, Susan Carlton offered the first academic course on bisexuality in America at UC Berkeley, and in 1991, psychologists Sari Dworkin and Ron Fox became the founding co-chairs of the Task Force on Bisexual Issues of Division 44, the gay and lesbian group in the American Psychological Association. In 1997, bisexual activist and psychologist Pat Ashbrook pioneered a national model for LGBT support groups within the Veterans Administration hospital system.
Bisexual literature became more prominent in the 1990s. In 1991, the Bay Area Bisexual Network began publishing the first national bisexual quarterly magazine, Anything That Moves: Beyond the Myths of Bisexuality, founded by Karla Rossi, who was the managing editor of the editorial collective until 1993. 1991 also saw the publication of one of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement, Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu. After this anthology was forced to compete (and lost) in the Lambda Literary Awards under the category Lesbian Anthology, and in 2005, Directed by Desire: Collected Poems a posthumous collection of the bisexual Jamaican American writer June Jordan's work had to compete (and won) in the category "Lesbian Poetry", BiNet USA led the bisexual community in a multi-year campaign eventually resulting in the addition of a Bisexual category, starting with the 2006 Awards. In 1995, Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made the academic case for bisexuality with her book Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life, in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for "repression, religion, repugnance, denial, laziness, shyness, lack of opportunity, premature specialization, a failure of imagination, or a life already full to the brim with erotic experiences, albeit with only one person, or only one gender". In 1997, bisexual activist Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality. However, other media proved more mixed in terms of representing bisexuals. In 1990, a film with a relationship between two bisexual women, called Henry and June, became the first film to receive the NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). But in 1993, bisexual activist Sheela Lambert wrote, produced, and hosted the first television series by and for bisexuals, called Bisexual Network. It aired for 13 weeks on NYC Public Access Cable.
Regional organizations in the bisexual movement also began to have more impact. In 1992 the Bisexual Connection (Minnesota) sponsored the First Annual Midwest Regional Bisexual Conference, called BECAUSE (Bisexual Empowerment Conference: A Uniting, Supportive Experience). That year Minnesota changed its State Civil Rights Law to grant the most comprehensive civil rights protections for bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people in the country. Minnesota's bisexual community had united with lesbian, gay, and transgender groups to lobby for this statute. Also in 1992, the South Florida Bisexual Network (founded in 1989) and the Florida International University's Stonewall Students Union co-sponsored the First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference. Thirty-five people from at least four southeastern states attended. In 1993 the First Annual Northwest Regional Conference was sponsored by BiNet USA, the Seattle Bisexual Women's Network, and the Seattle Bisexual Men's Union. It was held in Seattle, and fifty-five people representing Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Montana, and British Columbia attended.
An important event in the LGBT rights movement in this decade was the 1993 March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. As a result of lobbying by BiPOL (San Francisco), openly bisexual people held key leadership roles in local and regional organizing for the March, and for the first time bisexuals were included in the title of the March. Also, openly bisexual activist and author Lani Ka'ahumanu spoke at the rally, and over 1,000 people marched with the bisexual group. Coinciding with the March, BiNet USA, the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC), and the Washington, DC–based Alliance of Multicultural Bisexuals (AMBi) sponsored the Second National Conference Celebrating Bisexuality in Washington, DC. Over than 600 people attended from the US and Europe, making it at the time the largest Bisexual Conference ever held.
Another important event in the LGBT rights movement was the enactment of the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy. Before the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was enacted in 1993, bisexuals (and lesbians and gays) were banned from serving in the military. In 1993 the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was enacted, which mandated that the military could not ask servicemembers about their sexual orientation. However, until the policy was ended in 2011 service members were still expelled from the military if they engaged in sexual conduct with a member of the same sex, stated that they were bisexual, gay, or lesbian, and/or married or attempted to marry someone of the same sex.
Several important surveys concerning bisexuality were conducted around this time. In 1993, Ron Fox authored the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research. Also in 1993, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior showed that five percent of men and three percent of women considered themselves bisexual. In 1995 BiNet USA Bisexual Youth Initiative, Fayetteville, North Carolina, developed and mailed a national survey to LGBT youth programs. The survey was published and sent back to agencies, offering assistance to improve services to bisexual youth.
In 1992, Colorado voters approved by initiative an amendment to the Colorado state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize bisexuals or gay people as a protected class. The amendment stated:
Neither the State of Colorado, through any of its branches or departments, nor any of its agencies, political subdivisions, municipalities or school districts, shall enact, adopt or enforce any statute, regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships shall constitute or otherwise be the basis of or entitle any person or class of persons to have or claim any minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination. This Section of the Constitution shall be in all respects self-executing.
This led to the 1996 Supreme Court Case Romer v. Evans, in which the Court ruled in a 6–3 decision that the state constitutional amendment in Colorado preventing protected status based upon bisexuality or homosexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause. The majority opinion in Romer stated that the amendment lacked "a rational relationship to legitimate state interests", and the dissent stated that the majority "evidently agrees that 'rational basis'—the normal test for compliance with the Equal Protection Clause—is the governing standard". The state constitutional amendment failed rational basis review.
The concept of bisexual pride became more widespread in the late 1990s. At an LGBT PrideFest in Connecticut in 1997, Evelyn Mantilla came out as America's first openly bisexual state official. The bisexual pride flag designed by Michael Page was unveiled December 5, 1998. The first Celebrate Bisexuality Day was organized by Michael Page, Gigi Raven Wilbur, and Wendy Curry in 1999, and is now observed annually on September 23.
== 21st century ==
=== 2000s ===
Bisexual people had notable accomplishments in the LGBT rights movement at this time. In 2001, the American Psychological Association (APA)'s "Guidelines on psychotherapy with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients" stated "homosexuality and bisexuality are not a mental illness"; bisexual activist Ron Fox served on the task force that produced the guidelines. In 2002, Pete Chvany, Luigi Ferrer, James Green, Loraine Hutchins and Monica McLemore presented at the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Intersex Health Summit, held in Boulder, Colorado, marking the first time bisexual people, transgender people, and intersex people were recognized as co-equal partners on the national level rather than gay and lesbian "allies" or tokens. Also in 2002, bisexual activist Robyn Ochs delivered the first bi-focused keynote during the National Association of Lesbian and Gay Addiction Professionals. In 2003, the Union for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to both the bisexual and transgender communities. In 2005, bisexual scholars and activists mobilized with The Task Force, GLAAD and BiNet USA to meet with New York Times science section editor and researcher Brian Dodge to respond to misinformation the paper had published on a study about bisexual men. The study, entitled Sexual Arousal Patterns of Bisexual Men, by the controversial researcher J. Michael Bailey, allegedly "proved" that bisexual men did not exist. With little critical examination, various media celebrities and outlets jumped on the band-wagon and claimed to have "solved" the "problem of bisexuality" by declaring it to be non-existent, at least in men. Further studies, including improved follow-up research led by Michael Bailey, proved this to be false. Also in 2005, the Queens Chapter of PFLAG announced the creation of the "Brenda Howard Memorial Award", marking the first time a major American LGBT organization named an award after an openly bisexual person. The National Equality March in Washington, D.C., was held on October 11, 2009, calling for equal protection for bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people in all matters governed by civil law in all states and districts; a dedicated bisexual, pansexual, and queer-identified contingent was organized as part of the March. Several bisexual groups came together and marched, including BiNet USA, New York Area Bisexual Network, DC Bi Women and BiMA DC. There were also four out bisexual speakers at the National Equality March rally: Michael Huffington, Lady Gaga, Chloe Noble, and Penelope Williams. In October 2009, LGBT activist Amy Andre was appointed as executive director of the San Francisco Pride Celebration Committee, making her the organization's first openly bisexual woman of color executive director.
Significant reports about bisexuals were also released in this decade. In 2002, a survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as "something else". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as "something else". A 2007 report said that 14.4% of young US women identified themselves as bisexual/lesbian, with 5.6% of the men identifying as gay or bisexual. Also in 2007, an article in the 'Health' section of The New York Times stated that "1.5 percent of American women and 1.7 percent of American men identify themselves [as] bisexual."
In 2008 Kate Brown was elected as the Oregon Secretary of State, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
=== 2010s ===
In 2011, one of the demands of 2009's National Equality March was met as the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was ended, allowing bisexuals, lesbians, and gay men in the U.S. military to be open about their sexuality.
San Francisco's Human Rights Commission released a report on bisexual visibility in 2011, marking the first time any governmental body released such a report. Its findings indicated that self-identified bisexuals made up the largest single population within the LGBT community in the United States. In each of the report's studies, more women identified as bisexual than lesbian, though fewer men identified as bisexual than gay. Also in 2011, a longitudinal study of sexual minority women (bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian) found that over 10 years, "more women adopted bisexual/unlabeled identities than relinquished them". Of those who began the study identifying as bisexual, 92% identified as bisexual or unlabeled 10 years later, and 61% of those who began as unlabeled identified as bisexual or unlabeled 10 years later.
In September 2012, Berkeley, California, became the first city in America to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals. The Berkeley City Council unanimously and without discussion declared September 23 as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day. In 2013 on Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, the White House held a closed-door meeting with about 30 bisexual advocates so they could meet with government officials and discuss issues of specific importance to the bisexual community; this was the first bi-specific event ever hosted by any White House. Another important contribution to bisexual visibility came in 2014, when the Bisexual Research Collaborative on Health (BiRCH) was founded to search for ways to raise public awareness of bisexual health issues, as well as to continue high-level discussions of bisexual health research and plan a national conference.
As for law and politics, in November 2012 Kyrsten Sinema was elected to the House of Representatives, becoming the first openly bisexual member of Congress in American history. In 2013 BiLaw, the first American national organization of bisexual lawyers, law professors, law students, and their allies, was founded. In February 2015 Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, upon the resignation of Oregon's chief executive. On June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage, legalizing it throughout the United States; this increased the rights of bisexual people in America wishing to marry their same-sex partners. Another important victory came later that year, when the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission concluded that Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act does not allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination. In 2016, Kate Brown was elected as governor of Oregon, and thus became the first openly bisexual person elected as a United States governor (and indeed the first openly LGBT person elected as such). In 2018, Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person to win a major party nomination to run for a U.S. Senate seat, and later that year she became the first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate. As well, Kate Brown was re-elected that year as governor of Oregon. In 2020 Christy Holstege became the first openly bisexual mayor in America, as mayor of Palm Springs, California.
In the first large-scale government survey measuring Americans' sexual orientation, the NHIS reported in July 2014 that 0.7 percent of Americans identify as bisexual. A 2016 survey cited by CNN said that bisexuality was increasing in the United States, with 5.5% of women and 2% of men identifying as bisexual compared with 3.9% and 1.2% respectively in an earlier survey. However the NHIS reported the same year that bisexuality was at .8% for men, and 1.2% for women, only changing slightly the next year.
In 2017, the Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are bisexual or gay.
In 2018 America's first city-wide Bi Pride event was held, in West Hollywood.
=== 2020s ===
In 2021 Pennsylvania governor Tom Wolf became the first governor in the United States to issue a statement recognizing Bisexual Pride Day. Estimates of Bisexual and fluid Americans range from ten to fifty million.
== Notable American bisexuals ==
Gregg Araki is an independent filmmaker. He is involved in New Queer Cinema. Araki self-identified as gay until 1997, when he entered a relationship with actress Kathleen Robertson, whom he directed in Nowhere.
Billie Joe Armstrong, lead singer for the band Green Day.
Drew Barrymore, actress and director, came out as bisexual in an interview with Contact Music in 2003, where she said "Do I like women sexually? Yeah, I do. Totally. I have always considered myself bisexual." Barrymore was quoted in 2004 as saying, "A woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful. Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else. When I was younger I used to go with lots of women."
Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, as governor of Oregon, in 2015. She had been elected as the Oregon Secretary of State in 2008, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
Aaron Carter, a musician, came out as bisexual via Twitter on August 5, 2017.
John Cheever, novelist, had sexual relationships with both men and women and was described by his son as bisexual.
Margaret Cho, comedian.
Clive Davis is a record producer and music industry executive. He has won five Grammy Awards and is a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a non-performer. From 1967 to 1973, Davis was the president of Columbia Records. He came out as bisexual in 2013.
Raúl Esparza is a Cuban-American stage actor, singer, and voice artist noted for his award-winning performances in Broadway shows. He came out as bisexual in 2007.
Megan Fox, an actress and model, came out as bisexual in 2009.
Lady Gaga, a multiplatinum-selling singer and LGBT rights activist, came out as bisexual in 2009.
Jack Gantos is an American author of children's books renowned for his fictional character Joey Pigza, a boy with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Gantos has won several literary awards, including the Newbery Honor, the Newbery Medal, the Printz Honor, and the Sibert Honor from the American Library Association.
Angelina Jolie, an Academy Award-winning actress, came out as bisexual in 2003. When asked if she was bisexual, Jolie responded, "Of course. If I fell in love with a woman tomorrow, would I feel that it's okay to want to kiss and touch her? If I fell in love with her? Absolutely! Yes!"
Orlando Jordan is an openly bisexual wrestler.
Romona Lofton, better known by her pen name Sapphire, is an American author and performance poet. She is best known for her novel Push.
Robyn Ochs helped found the Boston Bisexual Network in 1983, and the Bisexual Resource Center in 1985. She is also the editor of the Bisexual Resource Guide and the coeditor of the anthology Getting Bi: Voices of Bisexuals Around the World.
Michelle Rodriguez is an American actress, screenwriter, and disc jockey. Rodriguez got her breakout role in the independent film Girlfight, which was met with critical acclaim for her performance as a troubled boxer, and earned her several awards, including the Independent Spirit Award and Gotham Award for Best Debut Performance. The following year, she made her Hollywood debut starring as Letty Ortiz in the blockbuster film The Fast and the Furious, and reprised her role with its sequels Fast & Furious and Fast & Furious 6.
Kyle Schickner is a film producer, writer, director, actor, and bisexual rights activist. He is the founder of FenceSitter Films, a production company devoted to entertainment for sexual minorities, women, and ethnic minorities. While in college, inspired by hearing a talk given by bisexual rights activist Lani Ka'ahumanu, he formed BIAS (Bisexuals Achieving Solidarity), the first college bisexual rights group in the United States.
Kyrsten Sinema, elected to the House of Representatives in 2012 and the Senate in 2018, is the first openly bisexual member of Congress and the first openly bisexual Senator in American history.
Ron Jackson Suresha is an author and anthologist of books centering on bisexual and gay men's subcultures, particularly the Bear community.
Mike White is an American writer, director, actor, and producer for television and film and the winner of the Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award for Chuck & Buck. He was co-creator, co-executive producer, writer and actor for the HBO series Enlightened.
== Timeline of bisexual American history ==
1892: The word "bisexual" is first used in English in the sense of being sexually attracted to both males and females in Charles Gilbert Chaddock's direct translation of Kraft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis.
1914: The first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in A Florida Enchantment, by Sidney Drew.
1966: Bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (aka Donny the Punk) (née Robert Martin, 1946–1996) founded the Student Homophile League at Columbia University and New York University; in 1967 Columbia University was the first University in the United States to officially recognize a gay student group.
1969: The Stonewall Rebellion, considered the beginning of the modern LGBT rights movement, occurred at the Stonewall bar in 1969. Bar patrons, including bisexuals, stood up to the police during a raid.
1970: In commemoration of the Stonewall Rebellion, the first LGBT pride march was held. Bisexual activist Brenda Howard is known as the "Mother of Pride" for her work in coordinating this march.
1972: Bill Beasley, a bisexual veteran of the Civil Rights Movement, was the core organizer of first Los Angeles Gay Pride March and active with the Gay Liberation Front.
1972: A Quaker group, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality, issued the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality" supporting bisexuals. The Statement, which may have been "the first public declaration of the bisexual movement" and "was certainly the first statement on bisexuality issued by an American religious assembly," appeared in the Quaker Friends Journal and The Advocate in 1972. Presently Quakers have varying opinions on LGBTQ people and rights, with some Quaker groups more accepting than others.
1974: In New York City Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Bisexual Forum, the first support group for the bisexual community.
1977: Alan Rockway co-authored the first successful gay rights ordinance put to public vote in America, in Dade County, Florida. When Anita Bryant initiated the anti-gay "Save Our Children" campaign in response to the ordinance, Dr. Rockway conceived of and initiated a national "gaycott" of Florida orange juice. The Florida Citrus Commission canceled Ms. Bryant's million dollar contract as a result of the "gaycott".
1978: Dr. Fritz Klein first described the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG), which attempts to measure sexual orientation by expanding upon the earlier Kinsey scale, in his 1978 book The Bisexual Option.
1979: A. Billy S. Jones, a founding member of National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gays, helped organize the first black gay delegation to meet with President Carter's White House staff. Jones was also a core organizer of the 1979 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, and was a key organizer for "Third world conference: When will the ignorance end?" the first national gay and lesbian people of color conference.
1979: Dr. Marvin Colter and John Soroczak co-founded Arete, The Bisexual Center of Southern California in Whittier, California, a support and social group for bisexuals.
1983: The Boston Bisexual Women's Network, the oldest existing bisexual women's group, was founded in 1983 and began publishing their bi-monthly newsletter, BI Women. It is the longest-existing bisexual newsletter in the US.
1983: BiPOL, the first and oldest bisexual political organization, was founded in San Francisco by Autumn Courtney, Lani Ka'ahumanu, Arlene Krantz, David Lourea, Bill Mack, Alan Rockway, and Maggi Rubenstein.
1984: BiPOL sponsored the first bisexual rights rally, which was held outside the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. The rally featured nine speakers from civil rights groups allied with the bisexual movement.
1984: A. Billy S. Jones helped organize the first federally funded national "AIDS in the Black Community Conference" in Washington, D.C.
1984: The First East Coast Conference on Bisexuality (which was also the first regional bisexual conference in the US) was held at the Storrs School of Social Work at the University of Connecticut, with about 150 people participating.
1985: The Bisexual Resource Center (BRC) was founded.
1985: Cynthia Slater (1945-1989), an early outspoken bisexual and HIV positive woman, organized the first Women's HIV/AIDS Information Switchboard.
1986: BiPOL's Autumn Courtney was elected co-chair of San Francisco's Lesbian Gay Freedom Day Pride Parade Committee; she was the first openly bisexual person to hold this sort of position in the United States.
1987: Veneita Porter, director of the New York State Office of AIDS Discrimination, helped design the first educational projects and trainings for state workers, hearing judges and legal staff.
1987: The New York Area Bisexual Network (NYABN) was founded.
1987: The East Coast Bisexual Network established the first Bisexual History Archives with Robyn Ochs' initial collection; archivist Clare Morton hosted researchers.
1987: The Bay Area Bisexual Network, the oldest and largest bisexual group in the San Francisco Bay Area, was founded by Lani Ka'ahumanu, Ann Justi and Maggi Rubenstein.
1987: A group of 75 bisexuals marched in the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights, which was the first nationwide bisexual gathering. The article "The Bisexual Movement: Are We Visible Yet?", by Lani Ka'ahumanu, appeared in the official Civil Disobedience Handbook for the March. It was the first article about bisexuals and the emerging bisexual movement to be published in a national lesbian or gay publication.
1988: Gary North published the first national bisexual newsletter, called Bisexuality: News, Views, and Networking.
1989: In 1989 Cliff Arnesen testified before the U.S. Congress on behalf of bisexual, lesbian, and gay veteran's issues. He was the first veteran to testify about bisexual, lesbian, and gay issues and the first openly non-heterosexual veteran to testify on Capitol Hill about veteran's issues in general. He testified on May 3, 1989, during formal hearings held before the U.S. House Committee on Veterans Affairs: Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations.
1990: The North American Bisexual Network, the first national bisexual organization, was founded. NABN would later change its name to BiNet USA. It had its first meeting at the first National Bisexual Conference in America. This first conference was held in San Francisco, and sponsored by BiPOL. Bisexual health was one of eight workshop tracks at the conference, and the "NAMES Project" quilt was displayed with bisexual quilt pieces. Over 450 people attended from 20 states and 5 countries, and the mayor of San Francisco sent a proclamation "commending the bisexual rights community for its leadership in the cause of social justice", and declaring June 23, 1990 Bisexual Pride Day. The conference also inspired attendees from Dallas to create the first bisexual group in Texas, called BiNet Dallas.
1990: Susan Carlton offered the first academic course on bisexuality in America at UC Berkeley.
1990: A film with a relationship between two bisexual women, called Henry and June, became the first film to receive the NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
1991: Psychologists Sari Dworkin and Ron Fox became the founding co-chairs of the Task Force on Bisexual Issues of Division 44, the gay and lesbian group in the American Psychological Association.
1991: Liz Highleyman co-founded the Boston ACT UP IV League needle exchange, one of the first in the US.
1991: The Bay Area Bisexual Network began publishing the first national bisexual quarterly magazine, Anything That Moves: Beyond the Myths of Bisexuality, founded by Karla Rossi, who was the managing editor of the editorial collective until 1993.
1991: One of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement, Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out, an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka'ahumanu, was published.
1992: The Bisexual Connection (Minnesota) sponsored the First Annual Midwest Regional Bisexual Conference, BECAUSE (Bisexual Empowerment Conference: A Uniting, Supportive Experience).
1992: The South Florida Bisexual Network and the Florida International University's Stonewall Students Union co-sponsored the First Annual Southeast Regional Bisexual Conference. Thirty-five people from at least four southeastern states attended.
1992: Colorado voters approved by initiative an amendment to the Colorado state constitution (Amendment 2) that would have prevented any city, town, or county in the state from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to recognize bisexuals or gay people as a protected class.
1992-1994: Lani Ka'ahumanu served as project coordinator for an American Foundation for AIDS Research grant awarded to Lyon-Martin Women's Health Services. This was the first grant in the U.S. to target young high risk bisexual and lesbian women for HIV/AIDS prevention/education research. She created the "Peer Safer Sex Slut Team" with Cianna Stewart.
1993: Sheela Lambert wrote, produced, and hosted the first television series by and for bisexuals, called Bisexual Network. It aired for 13 weeks on NYC Public Access Cable.
1993: Ron Fox wrote the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research.
1993: The First Annual Northwest Regional Conference was sponsored by BiNet USA, the Seattle Bisexual Women's Network, and the Seattle Bisexual Men's Union. It was held in Seattle, and fifty-five people representing Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Montana, and British Columbia attended.
1993: The March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. As a result of lobbying by BiPOL (San Francisco), openly bisexual people held key leadership roles in local and regional organizing for the March, and for the first time bisexuals were included in the title of the March. Also, Lani Ka'ahumanu spoke at the rally, and over 1,000 people marched with the bisexual group. Coinciding with the March, BiNet USA, the Bisexual Resource Center (BRC), and the Washington, DC–-based Alliance of Multicultural Bisexuals (AMBi) sponsored the Second National Conference Celebrating Bisexuality in Washington, DC. Over 600 people attended from the US and Europe, making it at the time the largest Bisexual Conference ever held.
1993: Ron Fox authored the first large scale research study on bisexual identity, and established and maintained a comprehensive bibliography on bi research.
1996: In the Supreme Court case Romer v. Evans, the Court ruled in a 6–3 decision that the state constitutional amendment in Colorado preventing protected status based upon bisexuality or homosexuality did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause.
1997: Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality.
1996: Angel Fabian co-organized the National Task Force on AIDS Prevention's first Gay/Bisexual Young Men of Color Summit at Gay Men of Color Conference, Miami, Florida.
1997: At an LGBT PrideFest in Connecticut in 1997, Evelyn Mantilla came out as America's first openly bisexual state official.
1998: The first bisexual pride flag, designed by Michael Page, was unveiled on December 5, 1998.
1998: The American Institute of Bisexuality, a charity, was founded on July 23, 1998, by Fritz Klein M.D. to promote research and education about bisexuality.
1998: BiNet USA hosted the First National Institute on Bisexuality and HIV/AIDS.
1999: The first Celebrate Bisexuality Day, also known as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, was organized by Michael Page, Gigi Raven Wilbur, and Wendy Curry. It is now observed every September 23.
1999: Dr. Fritz Klein founded the Journal of Bisexuality, the first academic, quarterly journal on bisexuality.
1999: Marshall Miller founded the BiHealth Program at Fenway Community Health, the first funded bisexual-specific program targeting bisexual people and MSMW (men who have sex with men and women) and WSWM (women who have sex with men and women) who don't identify as bisexual. The program published "Safer sex for bisexuals and their partners" brochures.
2000: The first anthology by bisexual people of faith, Blessed Bi Spirit (Continuum International 2000), was published. It was edited by Debra Kolodny.
2002: Pete Chvany, Luigi Ferrer, James Green, Loraine Hutchins and Monica McLemore presented at the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Intersex Health Summit, held in Boulder, Colorado, marking the first time bisexual people, transgender people, and intersex people were recognized as co-equal partners on the national level rather than gay and lesbian "allies" or tokens.
2002: Robyn Ochs delivered the first bi-focused keynote during the National Association of Lesbian and Gay Addiction Professionals.
2003: The Union for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to the bisexual and transgender communities, issuing a resolution titled, "Support for the Inclusion and Acceptance of the Transgender and Bisexual Communities".
2003: Women of Reform Judaism issued a statement describing their support for human and civil rights and the struggles of the bisexual and transgender communities, and saying, "Women of Reform Judaism accordingly: Calls for civil rights protections from all forms of discrimination against bisexual and transgender individuals; Urges that such legislation allows transgender individuals to be seen under the law as the gender by which they identify; and Calls upon sisterhoods to hold informative programs about the transgender and bisexual communities."
2003: The North American Conference on Bisexuality hosted a Bi Health Summit organized by Cheryl Dobinson, Luigi Ferrer and Ron Fox, and the first Bi People of Color Summit was coordinated by Angel Fabian and Penelope Williams.
2003: The Center for Sex and Culture, founded by Carol Queen and Robert Lawrence in 1994, opened its archive and sexuality research library, becoming the first public non-profit community-based space designed for adult sex education, including continuing professional education.
2003: Loraine Hutchins and Linda Poelzl graduated from The Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Sexuality's first California Sexological Bodyworkers Certification Training as part of new movement of somatic erotic educators.
2004: Lani Ka'ahumanu, Bobbi Keppel and the Safer Sex Sluts presented the first Safer Sex Workshop given at a joint national conference with American Society on Aging and National Association on Aging.
2005: The Queens Chapter of PFLAG announced the creation of the "Brenda Howard Memorial Award". This was the first time a major American LGBT organization named an award after an openly bisexual person.
2006: After a multi-year campaign, a Bisexual category was added to the Lambda Literary Awards, starting with the 2006 Awards.
2008: Kate Brown was elected as the Oregon Secretary of State in the 2008 elections, becoming America's first openly bisexual statewide officeholder.
2009: In October 2009, LGBT activist Amy Andre was appointed as executive director of the San Francisco Pride Celebration Committee, making her San Francisco Pride's first openly bisexual woman of color executive director.
2011: San Francisco's Human Rights Commission released a report on bisexual visibility, titled "Bisexual Invisibility: Impacts and Regulations". This was the first time any governmental body released such a report. The report showed, among other things, that self-identified bisexuals made up the largest single population within the LGBT community in the United States. In each study included in the report, more women identified as bisexual than lesbian, though fewer men identified as bisexual than gay.
2012: City Councilmember Marlene Pray joined the Doylestown, Pennsylvania council in 2012, though she resigned in 2013; she was the first openly bisexual office holder in Pennsylvania.
2012: Kyrsten Sinema (D-AZ) became the first openly bisexual person elected to the US Congress.
2012: On September 18, 2012, Berkeley, California, became the first city in the U.S. to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals. The Berkeley City Council unanimously and without discussion declared Sept. 23 as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day.
2013: On Celebrate Bisexuality Day, also known as Bisexual Pride and Bi Visibility Day, the White House held a closed-door meeting with almost 30 bisexual advocates so they could meet with government officials and discuss issues of specific importance to the bisexual community; this was the first bi-specific event ever hosted by any White House.
2013: The Bi Writers Association, which promotes bisexual writers, books, and writing, announced the winners of its first Bisexual Book Awards. An awards ceremony was held at the Nuyorican Poets Café in New York City.
2013: BiLaw, the first American national organization of bisexual lawyers, law professors, law students, and their allies, was founded.
2014: Conner Mertens of the Division III Willamette Bearcats came out as bisexual, becoming the first active college football player at any level to come out.
2014: The Bisexual Resource Center, based in Boston, Massachusetts, declared March 2014 as the first Bisexual Health Awareness Month, with the theme "Bi the Way, Our Health Matters Too!"; it included the first social media campaign to address disparities in physical and mental health facing the bisexual community.
2014: The Bisexual Research Collaborative on Health (BiRCH) was founded to search for ways to raise public awareness of bisexual health issues, as well as to continue high-level discussions of bisexual health research and plan a national (American) conference.
2014: The book Bisexuality: Making the Invisible Visible in Faith Communities, the first book of its kind, was published. It is by the American authors Marie Alford-Harkey and Debra W. Haffner.
2014: BiNet USA declared the seven days surrounding Celebrate Bisexuality Day to be Bi Awareness Week, also called Bisexual Awareness Week. The week begins the Sunday before Celebrate Bisexuality Day.
2015: Kate Brown became the first openly bisexual governor in the United States, as governor of Oregon when the old governor resigned.
2015: J. Christopher Neal became the first openly bisexual New York City LGBT Pride March Grand Marshal.
2016: Kate Brown was elected as governor of Oregon, and thus became the first openly bisexual person elected as a United States governor (and indeed the first openly LGBT person elected as such).
2017: The Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are bisexual or gay.
2017: The American Institute of Bisexuality provided funding for The Center for Sex Education's publication of 25 Great Lesson Plans About Sexual Orientation, which includes a number of resources and lesson plans on how to teach about bisexuality. Edited by T. Clark, T. Gilbert, K. Rayne.
2018: Megan Hunt, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ person elected to the state legislature of Nebraska.
2018: Katie Hill was elected as California’s first openly bisexual person, and first openly queer woman, to be a member of Congress.
2018: Mike Jacobs became the first sitting judge in the United States to come out as bisexual.
2018: Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person to win a major party nomination to run for a U.S. Senate seat.
2018: America's first city-wide Bi Pride event was held, in West Hollywood.
2018: Kyrsten Sinema became the first openly bisexual person elected to the U.S. Senate.
2019: Antonio Brown was elected as Atlanta's first openly bisexual councilman.
2019: A one-day conference for bi+ people, Unico[r]n, was held on October 12, 2019, in San Francisco.
2020: The first San Francisco and East Bay BiCon was held on February 1 and 2, 2020, in San Francisco and Oakland.
2020: Christy Holstege became the first openly bisexual mayor in America, as mayor of Palm Springs, California.
2020: Alex Lee became the California State Assembly’s first openly bisexual member.
2020: Jessica Benham, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ+ woman elected to the Pennsylvania General Assembly.
2021: Pennsylvania governor Tom Wolf became the first governor in the United States to issue a statement recognizing Bisexual Pride Day.
2024: Molly Cook, who was openly bisexual, became the first openly LGBTQ+ person elected to the Texas Senate.
== See also ==
History of bisexuality
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bi America: Myths, Truths, and Struggles of an Invisible Community, by William E. Burleson (Apr 7, 2005)
Bisexuality in the United States, an anthology edited by Paula Rodriguez Rust (Nov 15, 1999)
== External links ==
The Bisexuality-Aware Professionals Directory: A listing of professionals who are sensitive to the unique needs of bisexual clientele
BiNet USA - A national (American) bisexuality organization
The Bisexual Resource Center based in Boston, Massachusetts
A Brief History of the Bisexual Movement, by BiNet Usa
A Brief Trip Thru Bisexual NYC's History
Timeline: The Bisexual Health Movement in the U.S., by BiNet USA
Timeline of D.C. Bi History, by the Rainbow History Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Samir_Farag | Ahmed Samir Farag | Ahmed Samir Farag (Arabic: أحمد سمير فرج; born 20 May 1986) is an Egyptian footballer who plays for El-Daklyeh and Egyptian national football team. Farag mainly plays as a left back but can play as a left midfielder and left winger.
In June 2008, Farag was chosen to the Egypt national football team and took a place in the line-up for the five matches Egypt played in 2010 World Cup Qualifiers. He made his debut match against Congo DR on 1 June 2008.
He was included in the Egypt national under-21 football team in two successive world championships, 2005 World Youth Cup held in Netherlands and 2003 World Youth Cup in UAE. After his performance in 2003, Farag signed his first professional contract with FC Sochaux-Montbéliard at the age of 17, transferring from Al Ahly of Egypt. He was nominated for Young Player of the Year in Africa in 2005. In 2011, he won the best player prize in the Nile Basin Tournament, in Egypt. On 27 February 2014, he joined Zamalek SC for 2 and a half years.
== Honours ==
Zamalek SC
Egypt Cup (1): 2014
== References ==
== External links ==
Ahmed Samir Farag – UEFA competition record (archive) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motaz_Azaiza#:~:text=Motaz%20Hilal%20Azaiza%20(Arabic%3A%20%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B2,a%20Palestinian%20photojournalist%20from%20Gaza. | Motaz Azaiza | Motaz Hilal Azaiza (Arabic: معتز هلال عزايزة; born (1999-01-30)30 January 1999) is a Palestinian photojournalist from Gaza. He is known for covering the Gaza war, drawing a large social media following. In 2023, he was named Man of the Year by GQ Middle East and one of his photos, showing a girl trapped in rubble from an Israeli air strike, was named one of Time's top 10 photos of 2023, and was featured on Time's list of the 100 most influential people of 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Azaiza was raised in the Deir al-Balah Camp in the Israeli-occupied Gaza Strip. He attended Al-Azhar University in Gaza, graduating in 2021 with a degree in English studies. As of 2023, he was employed by UNRWA.
== Career ==
=== Early career ===
Prior to the Gaza war, Azaiza's online posts mostly focused on photographing daily life in his native Gaza Strip. He told The Guardian he did not intend to become a war journalist and wished "people knew me for my art, I wanted to capture the beauty of my people". His dream was to become a travel photographer according to Grazia UK, but he could not yet afford the visa expenses. Although he covered the 2014 Gaza War and the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, his social media accounts did not gain much attention at the time. There are few foreign journalists in the Gaza Strip due to Israel and Egypt denying them access to the territory, which has led to Azaiza becoming a key reporter on the ground in Gaza.
=== 2023–present ===
Before the Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October 2023, Azaiza's profile on Instagram had approximately 25,000 followers. On 13 October, his Instagram account was restricted, but access was restored the following day. His follower count had increased to one million by 17 October, nine million by October 30, 12.5 million by November 3, and 13 million by November 7. As of 27 December, Azaiza's Instagram profile had 17.5 million followers, with the number reaching over 18 million by January 2024.
In January 2024, Azaiza appeared on Mehdi Hasan's final show with MSNBC to discuss the dangers of reporting from Gaza under Israel's bombardment. Later that month, after 108 days of reporting, Azaiza and some of his family evacuated to Egypt and then Doha, Qatar via Al-Arish Airport, their first time on a plane. Azaiza subsequently began meeting with ministers, diplomats, and media figures to share his accounts, frustrated that his attempts to broadcast what was happening in Gaza had not changed things.
On his first civilian flight, Azaiza flew to Istanbul on 26 February 2024, beginning his travels to "show, tell and speak more". He then went to Geneva, Switzerland on 8 March for the FIFDH, appearing on a panel with Farah Nabulsi and Mohamed Jabaly at the premiere of Jabaly's film Life is Beautiful. Azaiza visited American universities for talks in April, including a Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) panel, and went to London in May, where he joined protests and gave a speech on Nakba Day.
In August, English band Massive Attack invited Azaiza to speak on stage at their Bristol concert, which garnered an audience of over 30 thousand. He also paid visit to Derry, where he was welcomed by mayor Lilian Seenoi-Barr and interviewed by actress Jamie-Lee O'Donnell. In September, he featured on the BBC News programme HARDTalk.
== Personal life ==
On 11 October 2023, at least 15 of Azaiza's relatives were killed in an Israeli airstrike on the Deir al-Balah Camp, shortly after the outbreak of the Gaza war.
In a February 2024 interview with The Guardian, Azaiza mentioned the traumatic flashbacks and feelings of guilt and hopelessness he experienced after leaving Gaza.
== Accolades ==
In November 2023, GQ Middle East named Azaiza their Man of the Year, with editor Ahmad Ali Swaid stating that "he reminds us that no matter who we are or where we're from, it's us – ordinary people, men, and women – who have the power to enact that very change that we want to see."
Azaiza's photograph, "Seeing Her Through My Camera", part of his extensive coverage of Gaza during the Gaza war, was listed among Time's top 10 photos of 2023. In late October, following an Israeli airstrike, Azaiza used a low shutter speed on his camera to capture the moment, revealing a young girl trapped under rubble at the Al Nusairat refugee camp. This technique allowed him to witness her in the darkness where the naked eye couldn't confirm her condition before a Civil Defense rescue worker's light illuminated her face.
After arriving in Istanbul in February 2024, Azaiza accepted his 2023 TRT World Citizen Award.
Azaiza was featured on Time's list of the 100 most influential people of 2024 in April. In June, Azaiza was awarded the Freedom Prize in Normandy, France. Azaiza was one of four Palestinian journalists to be nominated for the 2024 Nobel Peace Prize.
== See also ==
Bisan Owda
Wael Al-Dahdouh
Plestia Alaqad
Killing of journalists in the Gaza war
History of Palestinian journalism
== References ==
== External links ==
Motaz Azaiza on Instagram |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre | Jallianwala Bagh massacre | The Jallianwala Bagh massacre (IPA: [dʒəlɪjãːʋaːlaː baːɣ, baːɡ]), also known as the Amritsar massacre, took place on 13 April 1919. A large crowd had gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab, British India, during the annual Baisakhi fair to protest against the Rowlatt Act and the arrest of pro-Indian independence activists Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal. In response to the public gathering, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer surrounded the people with Gurkha and Sikh infantrymen of the Indian Army. The Jallianwala Bagh could only be exited on one side, as its other three sides were enclosed by buildings. After blocking the exit with his troops, Dyer ordered them to shoot at the crowd, continuing to fire even as the protestors tried to flee. The troops kept on firing until their ammunition was low and they were ordered to stop. Estimates of those killed vary from 379 to 1,500 or more people; over 1,200 others were injured, of whom 192 sustained serious injury. Britain has never formally apologised for the massacre, but expressed deep "regret" in 2019.
The massacre caused a re-evaluation by the Imperial British military of its role when confronted with civilians to use "minimal force whenever possible" (although the British Army was not directly involved in the massacre; the Indian Army was a separate organisation). However, in the light of later British military actions during the Mau Mau rebellion in the Kenya Colony, historian Huw Bennett has pointed out that this new policy was not always followed. The army was retrained with less violent tactics for crowd control.
The level of casual brutality and the lack of any accountability stunned the entire nation, resulting in a wrenching loss of faith of the general Indian public in the intentions of the United Kingdom. The attack was condemned by the Secretary of State for War, Winston Churchill, as "unutterably monstrous", and in the UK House of Commons debate on 8 July 1920 Members of Parliament voted 247 to 37 against Dyer. The ineffective inquiry, together with the initial accolades for Dyer, fuelled great widespread anger against the British among the Indian populace, leading to the non-cooperation movement of 1920–22.
== Background ==
=== Defence of India Act ===
During World War I, British India contributed to the British war effort by providing men and resources. Millions of Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian administration and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. Bengal and Punjab remained sources of anti-colonial activities. Revolutionary attacks in Bengal, associated increasingly with disturbances in Punjab, were enough to nearly paralyse the regional administration. Of these, a pan-Indian mutiny in the British Indian Army planned for February 1915 was the most prominent amongst a number of plots formulated between 1914 and 1917 by Indian nationalists in India, the United States and Germany.
The planned February mutiny was ultimately thwarted when British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadar Movement, arresting key figures. Mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed. In the context of the British war effort and the threat from the separatist movement in India, the Defence of India Act 1915 was passed, limiting civil and political liberties. Michael O'Dwyer, then the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, was one of the strongest proponents of the act, in no small part due to the Ghadarite threat in the province.
=== The Rowlatt Act ===
The costs of the protracted war in money and manpower were great. High casualty rates in the war, increasing inflation after the end, compounded by heavy taxation, the deadly 1918 flu pandemic, and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The pre-war Indian nationalist sentiment was revived as moderate and extremist groups of the Indian National Congress ended their differences to unify. In 1916, the Congress was successful in establishing the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the All-India Muslim League. British political concessions and Whitehall's India Policy after World War I began to change, with the passage of Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms, which initiated the first round of political reform in the Indian subcontinent in 1917. However, this was deemed insufficient in reforms by the Indian political movement. Mahatma Gandhi, recently returned to India, began emerging as an increasingly charismatic leader under whose leadership civil disobedience movements grew rapidly as an expression of political unrest.
The recently crushed Ghadar conspiracy, the presence of Raja Mahendra Pratap's Kabul mission in Afghanistan (with possible links to Bolshevik Russia), and a still-active revolutionary movement especially in Punjab and Bengal (as well as worsening civil unrest throughout India) led to the appointment of a sedition committee in 1918 chaired by Sidney Rowlatt, an Anglo-Egyptian judge. It was tasked to evaluate German and Bolshevik links to the militant movement in India, especially in Punjab and Bengal. On the recommendations of the committee, the Rowlatt Act, an extension of the Defence of India Act 1915 to limit civil liberties, was enacted.
The passage of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 caused large-scale political unrest throughout India. Ominously, in 1919, the Third Anglo-Afghan War began in the wake of Amir Habibullah's assassination and the institution of Amanullah Khan in his place. As a reaction to the Rowlatt Act, Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from his Bombay seat, writing in a letter to the Viceroy, "I, therefore, as a protest against the passing of the Bill and the manner in which it was passed tender my resignation ... a Government that passes or sanctions such a law in times of peace forfeits its claim to be called a civilised government". Gandhi's call for protest against the Rowlatt Act achieved an unprecedented response of furious unrest and protests.
== Before the massacre ==
Especially in Punjab, the situation was deteriorating rapidly, with disruptions of rail, telegraph, and communication systems. The movement was at its peak before the end of the first week of April, with some recording that "practically the whole of Lahore was on the streets, the immense crowd that passed through Anarkali Bazaar was estimated to be around 20,000". Many officers in the Indian army believed revolt was possible, and they prepared for the worst. The British Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, Michael O'Dwyer, is said to have believed that these were the early and ill-concealed signs of a conspiracy for a coordinated revolt planned around May, on the lines of the 1857 revolt, at a time when British troops would have withdrawn to the hills for the summer.
The Amritsar massacre, and other events at about the same time, have been described by some historians as the result of a concerted plan by the Punjab administration to suppress such a conspiracy. James Houssemayne Du Boulay is said to have posited a direct causal relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tense situation in Punjab, and the British response that ended in the massacre.
On 10 April 1919, there was a protest at the residence of Miles Irving, the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar. The demonstration was to demand the release of two popular leaders of the Indian Independence Movement, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, who had been arrested by the government and moved to a secret location. Both were proponents of the Satyagraha movement led by Gandhi. A military picket shot at the crowd, killing several protesters and setting off a series of violent events. Riotous crowds carried out arson attacks on British banks, killed several British people and assaulted two British women.
On 11 April, Marcella Sherwood, an elderly English missionary, fearing for the safety of the approximately 600 Indian children under her care, was on her way to shut the schools and send the children home. While travelling through a narrow street called the Kucha Kurrichhan, she was caught by a mob who violently attacked her. She was rescued by some local Indians, including the father of one of her pupils, who hid her from the mob and then smuggled her to the safety of Gobindgarh Fort. After visiting Sherwood on 19 April, the local commander of Indian Army forces, Brigadier General Dyer, enraged at the assault, issued an order requiring every Indian man using that street to crawl its length on his hands and knees as a punishment. Dyer later explained to a British inspector: "Some Indians crawl face downwards in front of their gods. I wanted them to know that a British woman is as sacred as a Hindu god and therefore they have to crawl in front of her, too." He also authorised the indiscriminate public whipping of locals who came within lathi length of a police officer. Marcella Sherwood later defended Dyer, describing him as "the saviour of the Punjab".
For the next two days, the city of Amritsar was quiet, but violence continued in other parts of Punjab. Railway lines were cut, telegraph posts destroyed, government buildings burnt, and three Europeans murdered. By 13 April, the British government had decided to put most of Punjab under martial law. The legislation restricted a number of civil liberties, including freedom of assembly; gatherings of more than four people were banned.
On the evening of 12 April, the leaders of the hartal in Amritsar held a meeting at the Hindu College–Dhab Khatikan. At the meeting, Hans Raj, an aide to Kitchlew, announced a public protest meeting would be held at 16:30 the following day in the Jallianwala Bagh, to be organised by Muhammad Bashir and chaired by a senior and respected Congress Party leader, Lal Kanhyalal Bhatia. A series of resolutions protesting against the Rowlatt Act, the recent actions of the British authorities and the detention of Satyapal and Kitchlew was drawn up and approved, after which the meeting adjourned.
== The massacre ==
On Sunday, 13 April 1919, Dyer, convinced a major insurrection could take place, banned all meetings. This notice was not widely disseminated, and many villagers gathered in the Bagh to celebrate the Baisakhi festival and to peacefully protest against the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
At 09:00 on the morning of 13 April 1919, the traditional festival of Baisakhi, Dyer proceeded through Amritsar with several city officials, announcing the implementation of a pass system to enter or leave the city, a curfew beginning at 20:00 that night, and a ban on all processions and public meetings of four or more persons. The proclamation was read and explained in English, Urdu, Hindi, and Punjabi, but many either paid it no heed or learned of it only later. Meanwhile, local police had received intelligence of the planned meeting in the Jallianwala Bagh through word of mouth and plainclothes detectives in the crowds. Dyer was informed of the meeting at 12:40 and returned to his base at around 13:30 to decide how to handle it.
By mid-afternoon, thousands of Indians had gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh (garden) near the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar. Many who were present had been worshipping earlier at the Golden Temple and were merely passing through the Bagh on their way home. The Bagh was (and remains today) an open area of 6–7 acres (2.4–2.8 ha), roughly 200 by 200 yards (180 m × 180 m) in size, and surrounded on all sides by walls roughly 10 feet (3.0 m) in height. Balconies of houses three to four stories tall overlooked the Bagh, and five narrow entrances opened onto it, several with lockable gates. Although it was planted with crops during the rainy season, for much of the rest of the year it served as a local meeting place and recreation area. In the centre of the Bagh was a samadhi (cremation site) and a large well partly filled with water which measured about 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter.
Apart from the pilgrims passing through, Amritsar had filled up over the preceding days with farmers, traders, and merchants who were attending the annual Baisakhi horse and cattle fair. Because the city police closed the fair at 14:00 that afternoon, many of those who had been attending it drifted into the Jallianwala Bagh, further increasing the number of people who happened to be there when the massacre began.
Dyer arranged for an aeroplane to overfly the Bagh and estimate the size of the crowd, which he reported was about 6,000; however, the Hunter Commission estimates that a crowd of between 10,000 and 20,000 had assembled by the time Dyer arrived. Dyer and Deputy Commissioner Miles Irving, the senior civil authority for Amritsar, took no actions to prevent the crowds from assembling or to disperse them peacefully. This would later be a serious criticism levelled at both Dyer and Irving.An hour after the meeting began as scheduled at 17:30, Dyer arrived at the Bagh with a group of 50 troops. All fifty were armed with .303 Lee–Enfield bolt-action rifles. Dyer may have specifically chosen troops from the Gurkha and Sikh ethnic groups due to their proven loyalty to the British. He had also brought two armoured cars armed with machine guns; however, the vehicles could not enter the compound through the narrow entrances. The Jallianwala Bagh was surrounded on all sides by houses and buildings and had only five narrow entrances, most of which were kept permanently locked. The main entrance was relatively wide, but was guarded heavily by the troops backed by the armoured vehicles so as to prevent anyone from getting out.
Without warning the crowd to disperse, Dyer ordered his troops to block the main exits and begin shooting toward the densest sections of the crowd in front of the available narrow exits, where panicked crowds were trying to leave the Bagh. Firing continued for approximately ten minutes. Unarmed civilians, including men, women, elderly people and children were killed. A cease-fire was ordered after the troops fired about one third of their ammunition. He stated later that the purpose of this action "was not to disperse the meeting but to punish the Indians for disobedience."
The following day Dyer stated in a report, "I have heard that between 200 and 300 of the crowd were killed. My party fired 1,650 rounds". Apart from the many deaths that resulted directly from the shooting, a number of people died by being crushed in the stampedes at the narrow gates or by jumping into the solitary well on the compound to escape the shooting. A plaque, placed at the site after independence, states that 120 bodies were removed from the well. Dyer imposed a curfew time that was earlier than usual; as a result, the wounded could not be moved from where they had fallen and many of them therefore died of their wounds during the night.
== Casualties ==
The number of total casualties is disputed. The following morning's newspapers quoted an erroneous initial figure of 200 casualties, offered by the Associated Press, e.g.,
"News has been received from the Punjab that the Amritsar mob has again broken out in a violent attack against the authorities. The rebels were repulsed by the military and they suffered 200 casualties."
The Government of Punjab, criticised by the Hunter Commission for not gathering accurate figures, only offered the same approximate figure of 200. When interviewed by the members of the committee a senior civil servant in Punjab admitted that the actual figure could be higher. The Sewa Samiti society independently carried out an investigation and reported 379 deaths, and 192 seriously wounded. The Hunter Commission based their figures of 379 deaths, and approximately 3 times that number injured, suggesting 1,500 casualties. At the meeting of the Imperial Legislative Council held on 12 September 1919, the investigation led by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya concluded that there were 42 boys among the dead, the youngest of them only 7 months old. The Hunter commission confirmed the deaths of 337 men, 41 boys and a six-week-old baby.
In July 1919, three months after the massacre, officials were tasked with finding who had been killed by inviting inhabitants of the city to volunteer information about those who had died. This information was incomplete due to fear that those who participated would be identified as having been present at the meeting, and some of the dead may not have had close relations in the area.
Winston Churchill reported nearly 400 slaughtered, and three or four times the number wounded to the Westminster Parliament, on 8 July 1920.
Since the official figures were obviously flawed regarding the size of the crowd (6,000–20,000), the number of rounds fired and the period of shooting, the Indian National Congress instituted a separate inquiry of its own, with conclusions that differed considerably from the British Government's inquiry. The casualty number quoted by the Congress was more than 1,500, with approximately 1,000 being killed.
Indian nationalist Swami Shraddhanand wrote to Gandhi of 1,500 deaths in the incident.
The British Government tried to suppress information of the massacre, but news spread in India and widespread outrage ensued; details of the massacre did not become known in Britain until December 1919.
== Aftermath ==
This event caused many moderate Indians to abandon their previous loyalty to the British and become nationalists distrustful of British rule.
Dyer reported to his superiors that he had been "confronted by a revolutionary army", to which Major General William Beynon replied via telegram: "Your action correct and Lieutenant Governor approves." O'Dwyer requested that martial law should be imposed upon Amritsar and other areas, and this was granted by Viceroy Lord Chelmsford. Thousands were detained in the subsequent days, some being sentenced to penal transportation. According to historian Harish Puri, at least 115 people were killed by security forces in the days after 13 April.
Both Secretary of State for War Winston Churchill and former Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, however, openly condemned the attack, Churchill referring to it as "unutterably monstrous" and Asquith calling it "one of the worst, most dreadful, outrages in the whole of our history". In the House of Commons debate of 8 July 1920, Churchill said, "The crowd was unarmed, except with bludgeons. It was not attacking anybody or anything ... When fire had been opened upon it to disperse it, it tried to run away. Pinned up in a narrow place considerably smaller than Trafalgar Square, with hardly any exits, and packed together so that one bullet would drive through three or four bodies, the people ran madly this way and the other. When the fire was directed upon the centre, they ran to the sides. The fire was then directed to the sides. Many threw themselves down on the ground, the fire was then directed down on the ground. This was continued to 8 to 10 minutes, and it stopped only when the ammunition had reached the point of exhaustion."
After Churchill's speech in the House of Commons debate, MPs voted 247 to 37 against Dyer and in support of the Government. Cloake reports that despite the official rebuke, many Britons still "thought him a hero for saving the rule of British law in India."
Rabindranath Tagore received the news of the massacre by 22 May 1919. He tried to arrange a protest meeting in Calcutta and finally decided to renounce his British knighthood as "a symbolic act of protest". In the repudiation letter, dated 31 May 1919 and addressed to the Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford, he wrote "I ... wish to stand, shorn, of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen who, for their so called insignificance, are liable to suffer degradation not fit for human beings."
"The enormity of the measures taken by the Government in Punjab for quelling some local disturbances has, with a rude shock, revealed to our minds the helplessness of our position as British subjects in India ... [T]he very least that I can do for my country is to take all consequences upon myself in giving voice to the protest of the millions of my countrymen, surprised into dumb anguish of terror. The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in the incongruous context of humiliation ..."
=== Dyer's response and motivation ===
Dyer wrote an article in the Globe of 21 January 1921, entitled, "The Peril to the Empire". It commenced with "India does not want self-government. She does not understand it." Dyer wrote later that:
...There should be an eleventh commandment in India - "Thou shalt not agitate'. All that the cultivator and the factory worker want is just and clear laws applicable to all alike. He does not always know why his passions have been roused and whether he is being misled, who is there to tell him but the Sahib? And now it seems that the Sahib is not allowed to tell him. He does not want an exchange of rulers...
...India will not be desirous or capable of self-government for generations, and when self-government does come, it will not be the leaders of revolt who will rule. The very names of most of the extremists smell in the nostrils of Indian manhood...
...Self-government for India is a horrible pretence which would set the people of the country at each other's throats long before the beginnings of constructive work were made possible. Under self-government, India would commit suicide; but our politicians would be guilty of murder as associates in the crime...
...Gandhi will not lead India to capable self-government. The British Raj must continue, firm and unshaken in its administration of justice to all men, to carry out the job it has taken in hand...
In his official response to the Hunter commission that inquired into the shooting, Dyer was unremorseful and stated: "I think it quite possible that I could have dispersed the crowd without firing but they would have come back again and laughed, and I would have made, what I consider, a fool of myself."
=== Hunter Commission ===
On 14 October 1919, after orders issued by the Secretary of State for India Edwin Montagu, the Government of India announced the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab. Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission. It was named after the chairman, William, Lord Hunter, former Solicitor-General for Scotland and Senator of the College of Justice in Scotland. The stated purpose of the commission was to "investigate the recent disturbances in Bombay, Delhi and Punjab, about their causes, and the measures taken to cope with them". The members of the commission were:
Lord Hunter, chairman of the commission
Mr Justice George C. Rankin of Calcutta
Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, vice-chancellor of Bombay University and advocate of the Bombay High Court
W.F. Rice, member of the Home Department
Major-General George Barrow, KCB, KCMG, GOC Peshawar Division
Pandit Jagat Narayan, lawyer and member of the Legislative Council of the United Provinces
Thomas Smith, member of the Legislative Council of the United Provinces
Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan, lawyer from Gwalior State
H.C. Stokes, secretary of the commission and member of the Home Department
After meeting in New Delhi on 29 October, the commission took statements from witnesses over the following weeks. Witnesses were called in Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bombay, and Lahore. Although the commission as such was not a formally constituted court of law, meaning witnesses were not subject to questioning under oath, its members managed to elicit detailed accounts and statements from witnesses by rigorous cross-questioning. In general, it was felt the commission had been very thorough in its enquiries. After reaching Lahore in November, the commission wound up its initial inquiries by examining the principal witnesses to the events in Amritsar. The commission held its official sittings at the Lahore Town Hall near Anarkali Bazaar.
On 19 November, Dyer was ordered to appear before the commission. Although his military superiors had suggested he be represented by legal counsel at the inquiry, Dyer refused this suggestion and appeared alone. Initially questioned by Lord Hunter, Dyer stated he had come to know about the meeting at the Jallianwala Bagh at 12:40 hours that day but did not attempt to prevent it. He said that he had gone to the Bagh with the deliberate intention of opening fire if he found a crowd assembled there. Dyer told the commission, "I think it quite possible that I could have dispersed the crowd without firing, but they would have come back again and laughed, and I would have made, what I consider, a fool of myself." Dyer further reiterated his belief that the crowd in the Bagh was one of "rebels who were trying to isolate my forces and cut me off from other supplies. Therefore, I considered it my duty to fire on them and to fire well".
After Mr. Justice Rankin had questioned Dyer, Sir Chimanlal Setalvad enquired:
Sir Chimanlal: Supposing the passage was sufficient to allow the armoured cars to go in, would you have opened fire with the machine guns?
Dyer: I think probably, yes.
Sir Chimanlal: In that case, the casualties would have been much higher?
Dyer: Yes.
Dyer further stated that his intentions had been to strike terror throughout Punjab and in doing so, to reduce the moral stature of the "rebels". He said he did not stop the shooting when the crowd began to disperse because he thought it was his duty to keep shooting until the crowd was dispersed fully, and he believed that minimal shooting would not prove effective. In fact, he continued the shooting until the ammunition was almost exhausted. He stated that he did not make any effort to tend to the wounded after the shooting: "Certainly not. It was not my job. Hospitals were open and they could have gone there."
Exhausted from the rigorous cross-examination questioning and unwell, Dyer was then released. Over the next several months, while the commission wrote its final report, the British press, as well as many MPs, turned increasingly hostile towards Dyer as the full extent of the massacre and his statements at the inquiry became widely known. Lord Chelmsford refused to comment until the commission had been wound up. In the meanwhile, Dyer became seriously ill with jaundice and arteriosclerosis, and he was hospitalised.
Although the members of the commission were divided by racial tensions following Dyer's statement, and though the Indian members decided to write a separate minority report, the commission's final report, comprising six volumes of evidence and released on 8 March 1920, unanimously condemned Dyer's actions: In "continuing firing as long as he did, it appears to us that General Dyer committed a grave error." Dissenting members argued that the martial law regime's use of force was wholly unjustified. "General Dyer thought he had crushed the rebellion and Sir Michael O'Dwyer was of the same view", they wrote, "[but] there was no rebellion which required to be crushed."
The commission's report concluded that:
Lack of notice to disperse from the Bagh, in the beginning, was an error.
The length of firing showed a grave error.
Dyer's motive of producing a sufficient moral effect was to be condemned.
Dyer had overstepped the bounds of his authority.
There had been no conspiracy to overthrow British rule in the Punjab.
The minority report of the Indian members further added that:
Proclamations banning public meetings were insufficiently distributed.
Innocent people were in the crowd, and there had been no violence in the Bagh beforehand.
Dyer should have either ordered his troops to help the wounded or instructed the civil authorities to do so.
Dyer's actions had been "inhuman and un-British" and had greatly injured the image of British rule in India.
The Hunter Commission did not impose any penal or disciplinary action because Dyer's actions were condoned by various superiors (later upheld by the Army Council). The Legal and Home Members on the Viceroy's Executive Council ultimately decided that, though Dyer had acted in a callous and brutal way, military or legal prosecution would not be possible due to political reasons. However, he was finally found guilty of a mistaken notion of duty and relieved of his command on 23 March. He had been recommended for a CBE as a result of his service in the Third Afghan War; this recommendation was cancelled on 29 March 1920.
Reginald Dyer was disciplined by removal from his appointment, was passed over for promotion and was prohibited from employment in India. He died in 1927.
=== Rioting in Gujranwala ===
Two days after the massacre, on 15 April 1919, riots occurred in Gujranwala protesting against the killings at Amritsar. Police and aircraft were used against the demonstrators, resulting in 12 deaths and 27 injuries. The officer commanding the Royal Air Force in India, Brigadier General N D K MacEwen, later stated that:
I think we can fairly claim to have been of great use in the late riots, particularly at Gujranwala, where the crowd when looking at its nastiest was absolutely dispersed by a machine using bombs and Lewis guns.
=== Compensation ===
British authorities awarded compensation to European subjects following the massacre. Starting in 1920, Indian subjects demanded the same compensation for Indians whose family members were killed or maimed as a result of brute imperial force. They also demanded a statement of regret from British authorities. British authorities initially resisted any form of payment but then agreed fearing political backlash from Indian subjects. British authorities raised the money to compensate Indian families through indemnities and taxes leveraged on Indian subjects. In 1922, the British government settled over 700 claims. The total amount in compensation allocated to Indian families was less than half of what was distributed among nearly a dozen European individuals.
=== Assassination of Michael O'Dwyer ===
On 13 March 1940, at Caxton Hall in London, Udham Singh, an Indian independence activist from Sunam who had witnessed the events in Amritsar and who had been wounded there, shot and killed Michael O'Dwyer, the lieutenant-governor of Punjab at the time of the massacre, who had approved Dyer's action and was believed to have been the main planner.
Some, such as the nationalist newspaper Amrita Bazar Patrika, made statements supporting the killing. The common people and revolutionaries glorified the action of Udham Singh. Much of the press worldwide recalled the story of Jallianwala Bagh and alleged that O'Dwyer was responsible for the massacre. Singh was termed a "fighter for freedom" and his action was referred to in The Times newspaper as "an expression of the pent-up fury of the down-trodden Indian People". Reporter and historian William L. Shirer wrote the next day, "Most of the ... Indians I know [other than Gandhi] will feel this is divine retribution. O'Dwyer bore a share of responsibility in the 1919 Amritsar massacre, in which Gen. Dyer shot 1,500 Indians in cold blood. When I was at Amritsar eleven years after [the massacre] in 1930, the bitterness still stuck in the people there."
In fascist countries, the incident was used for anti-British propaganda: Bergeret, published in large scale from Rome at that time, while commenting upon the Caxton Hall assassination, ascribed the greatest significance to the circumstance and praised the action of Sardar Udham Singh as courageous. The Berliner Börsen Zeitung termed the event "The torch of Indian freedom". German radio reportedly broadcast: "The cry of tormented people spoke with shots."
At a public meeting in Cawnpore (now Kanpur), a spokesman stated that "at last an insult and humiliation of the nation had been avenged". Similar sentiments were expressed in numerous other places across the country. Fortnightly reports of the political situation in Bihar mentioned: "It is true that we had no love lost for Sir Michael. The indignities he heaped upon our countrymen in Punjab have not been forgotten." In its 18 March 1940 issue Amrita Bazar Patrika wrote: "O'Dwyer's name is connected with Punjab incidents which India will never forget." The New Statesman observed: "British conservatism has not discovered how to deal with Ireland after two centuries of rule. Similar comment may be made on British rule in India. Will the historians of the future have to record that it was not the Nazis but the British ruling class which destroyed the British Empire?"
Singh told the court at his trial:
I did it because I had a grudge against him. He deserved it. He was the real culprit. He wanted to crush the spirit of my people, so I have crushed him. For full 21 years, I have been trying to wreak vengeance. I am happy that I have done the job. I am not scared of death. I am dying for my country. I have seen my people starving in India under the British rule. I have protested against this, it was my duty. What greater honour could be bestowed on me than death for the sake of my motherland?
Singh was hanged for the murder on 31 July 1940. At that time, many, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi, condemned the murder as senseless even if it was courageous. In 1952, Nehru (by then Prime Minister) honoured Udham Singh with the following statement, which appeared in the daily Partap:
I salute Shaheed-i-Azam Udham Singh with reverence who had kissed the noose so that we may be free.
Soon after this recognition by the Prime Minister, Udham Singh received the title of Shaheed, a name given to someone who has attained martyrdom or done something heroic on behalf of their country or religion.
== Monument and legacy ==
A trust was founded in 1920 to build a memorial at the site after a resolution was passed by the Indian National Congress. In 1923, the trust purchased land for the project. A memorial, designed by American architect Benjamin Polk, was built on the site and inaugurated by President of India Rajendra Prasad on 13 April 1961, in the presence of Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders. A flame later was added to the site.
The bullet marks remain on the walls and adjoining buildings to this day. The well into which many people jumped and drowned attempting to save themselves from the bullets is also a protected monument inside the park.
=== Formation of the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee ===
Shortly after the massacre, the official Sikh clergy of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar conferred upon Dyer the Saropa (the mark of distinguished service to the Sikh faith or, in general, humanity), sending shock waves among the Sikh community. On 12 October 1920, students and faculty of the Amritsar Khalsa College called a meeting to strengthen the Nationalistic Movement. The students pushed for an anti-British movement and the result was the formation of the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandak Committee on 15 November 1920 to manage and to implement reforms in Sikh shrines.
=== Visit by Queen Elizabeth II ===
Although Queen Elizabeth II had not made any comments on the incident during her state visits in 1961 and 1983, she spoke about the events at a state banquet in India on 13 October 1997:
It is no secret that there have been some difficult episodes in our past – Jallianwala Bagh, which I shall visit tomorrow, is a distressing example. But history cannot be rewritten, however much we might sometimes wish otherwise. It has its moments of sadness, as well as gladness. We must learn from the sadness and build on the gladness.
While some Indians welcomed the expression of regret and sadness in the Queen's statement, others criticised it for being less than an apology. Prime Minister of India Inder Kumar Gujral defended the Queen, saying that she had not even been born at the time of the events and should not be required to apologise.
On 14 October 1997, the Queen visited Jallianwala Bagh and paid her respects with a 30‑second moment of silence. During the visit, she wore a dress of a colour described as pink apricot or saffron, which is of religious significance to Hindus and Sikhs, as well as one of the colours on India's flag. She removed her shoes while visiting the monument and laid a wreath of marigolds in memorial.
During her visit to the monument, there were protests in the city of Amritsar, with people waving black flags and chanting "Queen, go back." Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip merely signed the visitor's book; the fact that they did not leave any comment regretting the incident was criticised.
During the same visit, Philip and his guide Partha Sarathi Mukherjee came to a plaque stating that "about two thousand Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims ... were martyred in a non-violent struggle" at the site.
"That's a bit exaggerated," Philip asserted, "it must include the wounded." Mukherjee ... asked Philip how he had come to this conclusion. "I was told about the killings by General Dyer's son," Mukherjee recalls the Duke as saying, "I'd met him while I was in the Navy." These statements by Philip drew widespread condemnation in India. Indian journalist Praveen Swami wrote in Frontline magazine:
That [this was] the solitary comment Prince Philip had to offer after his visit to Jallianwala Bagh[,] ... [and] the only aspect of the massacre that exercised his imagination, caused offence. It suggested that the death of 379 people was in some way inadequate to appall the royal conscience, in the way the death of 2,000 people would have. Perhaps more important of all, the staggering arrogance that Prince Philip displayed in citing his source of information on the tragedy made clear the lack of integrity in the wreath-laying.
=== Demands for an apology ===
There are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologise for the massacre. Winston Churchill, on 8 July 1920, urged the House of Commons to punish Dyer. Churchill, who described the massacre as "monstrous", succeeded in persuading the House to forcibly retire Dyer but would have preferred to have seen him disciplined.
An apology of sorts was made at the time in a statement by Sir William Vincent, the home member of the Viceroy's Council, during a debate on the Punjab disturbances. This statement expressed the deep regret of the Government of India and made clear that the actions taken were wrong and repudiated by the government. Vincent said that "overdrastic and severe action, excessive use of force and acts ... reasonably interpreted as designed to humiliate Indian people ... cannot but be regarded as unpardonable (and) morally indefensible." In addition, the Indian Government reported in despatches to the UK government that Dyer's actions were far beyond what was necessary and violated the principle of using reasonable and minimum force. A manual was created after the massacre to instruct officers in their use of force, which was to be avoided unless absolutely necessary.
In February 2013, David Cameron became the first serving British prime minister to visit the site; he laid a wreath at the memorial and described the Amritsar massacre as "a deeply shameful event in British history, one that Winston Churchill rightly described at that time as monstrous. We must never forget what happened here and we must ensure that the UK stands up for the right of peaceful protests". Cameron did not deliver an official apology. This was criticised by some commentators. Writing in The Telegraph, Sankarshan Thakur stated: "Over nearly a century now British protagonists have approached the 1919 massacre ground of Jallianwala Bagh thumbing the thesaurus for an appropriate word to pick. 'Sorry' has not been among them."
The issue of apology resurfaced during the 2016 India visit of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and the Duchess of Cambridge when both decided to skip the memorial site from their itinerary. In 2017, Indian author and politician Shashi Tharoor suggested that the Jalianwala Bagh centenary in 2019 could be a "good time" for the British to apologise to the Indians for wrongs committed during the colonial rule. Visiting the memorial on 6 December 2017, London's mayor Sadiq Khan called on the British government to apologise for the massacre.
In February 2019, the British House of Lords began discussing and debating the massacre.
On 12 April 2019, a ceremony was held in Amritsar just before the centenary anniversary of the massacre. Although she did not issue an apology, British Prime Minister Theresa May called the 1919 shooting of unarmed civilians a "shameful scar", echoing the 2013 statement made by David Cameron.
=== National memorial event in the UK ===
On 15 April 2019, a national memorial event titled "Jallianwala Bagh 100 Years On" was held in the British Parliament, hosted by Jasvir Singh and organised by City Sikhs and the Faiths Forum for London. Testimonies of survivors were read from the book Eyewitness at Amritsar. There were traditional musical performances, and a minute's silence was held to remember those who had been killed a century earlier.
=== The Asian Awards ===
In April 2019 The Asian Awards honoured the Martyrs of Jallianwala Bagh with the prestigious Founders Award. It was accepted by the nephew of Bhagat Singh, Jagmohan Singh.
=== 2021 assassination attempt on Queen Elizabeth II ===
On Christmas Day, 2021, Jaswant Singh Chail entered the grounds of Windsor Castle, where Queen Elizabeth II was living, intending to assassinate her with a crossbow. In a video he posted to Snapchat, he said "This is revenge for those who have died in the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre. It is also revenge for those who have been killed, humiliated and discriminated on because of their race". He was arrested before entering the castle, and in February 2023, admitted three counts of treason, the first charge of treason in the UK since 1981.
In a televised hearing Mr Justice Hilliard sentenced Chail to nine years with a further five years on extended licence. Under the hybrid order, Chail will be transferred from Broadmoor psychiatric hospital to serve his sentence in prison when he is well enough.
== Arts and representations ==
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre is a common subject of literature and film.
=== Literature ===
1932: Noted Hindi poet Subhadra Kumari Chauhan wrote a poem, "Jallianwalla Bagh Mein Basant", (Spring in the Jallianwalla Bagh) in memory of the slain in her anthology Bikhre Moti (Scattered Pearls).
1981: Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children portrays the massacre from the perspective of a doctor in the crowd, saved from the gunfire by a well-timed sneeze.
2009: Bali Rai's novel, City of Ghosts, is partly set around the massacre, blending fact with fiction and magical realism. Dyer, Udham Singh and other real historical figures feature in the story.
=== Films ===
1977: The massacre is portrayed in the Hindi movie Jallian Wala Bagh starring Vinod Khanna, Parikshat Sahni, Shabana Azmi, Sampooran Singh Gulzar, and Deepti Naval. The film was written, produced and directed by Balraj Tah with the screenplay by Gulzar. The film is a part-biopic of Udham Singh (played by Parikshit Sahni) who assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in 1940. Portions of the film were shot in the UK notably in Coventry and surrounding areas.
1982: The massacre is depicted in Richard Attenborough's film Gandhi with the role of General Dyer played by Edward Fox. The film depicts most of the details of the massacre as well as the subsequent inquiry by the Hunter commission.
2000: Shaheed Udham Singh, a Hindi language film is based on the JallianWala Bagh Massacre and the assassination of Michael O'Dwyer by Udham Singh.
2002: In the Hindi film The Legend of Bhagat Singh directed by Rajkumar Santoshi, the massacre is reconstructed with the child Bhagat Singh as a witness, eventually inspiring him to become a revolutionary in the Indian independence movement.
2006: Portions of the Hindi film Rang De Basanti nonlinearly depict the massacre and the influence it had on the freedom fighters.
2007: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is mentioned in the final debate scene on civil disobedience, portrayed in the film The Great Debaters.
2012: A few shots of the massacre are captured in the movie Midnight's Children, a Canadian-British film adaptation of Salman Rushdie's 1981 novel of the same name directed by Deepa Mehta.
2017: The Hindi language film Phillauri refers to the massacre as the reason the spirit of the primary character portrayed by Anushka Sharma cannot find peace as her lover lost his life in Amritsar and was unable to return to their village for their wedding. The movie depicts the massacre and the following stampede, with the climax shot on-location at the modern-day Jallianwallah Bagh memorial.
2021: Sardar Udham, a Hindi language film is based on the JallianWala Bagh Massacre and the assassination of Michael O'Dwyer by Udham Singh.
2025: Kesari Chapter 2, a Hindi-language historical courtroom drama film, based on the book The Case That Shook The Empire by Raghu Palat and Pushpa Palat, focusing on the Indian lawyer C. Sankaran Nair and the aftermath of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
=== Television ===
1984: The massacre is recounted in the seventh episode of Granada TV's 1984 series The Jewel in the Crown, told by the fictional widow of a British officer who is haunted by the inhumanity of it and who tells how she came to be reviled because she ignored the honours to Dyer and instead donated money to the Indian victims.
2014: The British period drama Downton Abbey makes a reference to the massacre in the eighth episode of season 5 as "that terrible Amritsar business". The characters of Lord Grantham, Isobel Crawley and Shrimpy express their disapproval of the massacre when Lord Sinderby supports it.
2019: The UK's BBC broadcast historian Zareer Masani's Amritsar 1919: Remembering a British Massacre was broadcast.
2019: the UK's Channel 4 broadcast "The Massacre That Shook the Empire" on Saturday 13 April at 9 p.m. in which writer Sathnam Sanghera examined the 1919 massacre and its legacy.
2019: The UK's BBC broadcast a special "Thought for the Day" on Friday 12 April presented by Jasvir Singh to mark the anniversary.
== See also ==
Vidurashwatha
Babrra massacre
Charan Paduka massacre on the Makar Sankranti festival (14 January 1930) in Chhatarpur, called the "Jallianwala Bagh of Madhya Pradesh": General Fischer ordered the firing on non-violent Indian freedom fighters resulting in 21 deaths and many injured.
Massacre of Chumik Shenko
Patharighat massacre – Jallianwala of Assam
List of massacres in India
Bloody Sunday, a day of IRA assassinations in Ireland and revenge attacks by the Royal Irish Constabulary on a crowd at Croke Park and on prisoners at Dublin Castle in 1920
Sétif and Guelma massacre
== References ==
== Notes ==
== Further reading ==
Collett, Nigel (2006). The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer.
Draper, Alfred (1985). The Amritsar Massacre: Twilight of the Raj.
Hopkirk, Peter (1997). Like Hidden Fire: The Plot to Bring Down the British Empire. Kodansha Globe. ISBN 1-56836-127-0.
Judd, Dennis (1996). "The Amritsar Massacre of 1919: Gandhi, the Raj and the Growth of Indian Nationalism, 1915–39", in Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present. Basic Books. pp. 258–272.
Lloyd, Nick (2011). The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of One Fateful Day.
Narain, Savita (1998). The historiography of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, 1919. New Delhi: Spantech and Lancer. 76 pp. ISBN 1-897829-36-1
Swinson, Arthur (1964). Six Minutes to Sunset: The Story of General Dyer and the Amritsar Affair. London: Peter Davies.
Wagner, Kim A. "Calculated to Strike Terror': The Amritsar Massacre and the Spectacle of Colonial Violence." Past Present (2016) 233#1: 185–225. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtw037
Jalil, Rakhshanda "Jallianwala Bagh: Literary Responses in Prose & Poetry, 2019". Niyogi Books. ISBN 978-9386906922
== External links ==
Amritsar: 1920 – Minutes of Evidence taken before the Hunter Committee – UK Parliament Living Heritage
Debate on this incident in the British Parliament
Black Chapter of Indian History – Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
An NPR interview with Bapu Shingara Singh – the last known surviving witness.
Churchill's speech Archived 19 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine after the incident.
Amritsar Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh Archived 11 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Singh, Gajendra: Amritsar, Massacre of, in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Ladies_Football_Association | English Ladies Football Association | The English Ladies' Football Association (ELFA) was formed in 1921 and active until 1922. It was arguably a direct response to the Football Association (FA)’s ban on women's football teams. The first meeting of the ELFA was held several weeks after the ban and Leonard Bridgett, the manager and coach of Stoke Ladies, was its first president. Bridgett helped to organise the first and only English Ladies Football Association Challenge Cup competition in the spring of 1922. 24 teams entered the competition and the winners were Stoke Ladies, who beat Doncaster and Bentley Ladies 3–1 on 24 June 1922.
The ELFA folded in over a year, and women continued to play in local parks and even dog-tracks, with no money or infrastructural support from the Football Association, no resources, coaches or pitches. These restrictions stayed in place for fifty years and were only lifted in 1971.
== History ==
Women's football had already been established before World War I but it had not been well received until the Football League suspended all of its matches after the 1914–15 season. As a generation of young men signed up to serve their country, the women took on traditional male roles, which had been previously considered unsuitable for women and their physical frame. The most familiar image was the munitions factory girl, who enjoyed kickabouts during her breaks. As the war progressed, women's football transformed into a more formalised sport with many women's teams emerging from munitions factories. At the time, it was organised for fund-raising for war charities. At first, people flock to see the so-called munitionettes take on teams of injured soldiers and women from other factories. Eventually, they started to enjoy the matches for the skill and ability of the women players. In August 1917, the Munitionettes' Cup was established, with the first winners being Blyth Spartans.
However, when the war was over, the factories started closing and women who had been liberated during wartime was forced to return to their "right and proper place" in society. No longer seen as being moral and appropriate, football was now considered to be unladylike and dangerous for women's health by so-called medical experts and physicians. On 5 December 1921, the FA cited strong opinions about football's unsuitability for females. They even requested the clubs belonging to the Association to refuse the use of their grounds for woman's matches.
In response, on 10 December 1921, a meeting was held in Liverpool. It was attended by representatives of about 30 women's football teams. The meeting resulted in the establishment of the English Ladies Football Association (ELFA), with a league of 57 teams of amateur players. The ELFA's goals were to support women footballers, popularise the game amongst women and assist charity. One of the first teams to declare their intention of joining was Chorley Ladies FC, who had 60 members and who had raised over £3,000 for charity.
W. Henley was appointed as Secretary of the Association's pro team. He was assigned to set up another meeting in Liverpool for which about 60 clubs were expected to be present. The meeting actually took place in Blackburn on 17 December with representatives attending from 57 clubs, and expressions of interest were sent by many others unable to be present. After a long discussion, some changes in the rules were accepted to accommodate women players, including:
Size of playing field will be altered.
Introduction of a lighter ball.
Eliminating charging
Use of hands will be allowed to protect face.
=== Appointed officers of the Association ===
President - Leonard Bridgett (Trent Vale)
Vice-president - Fred K. Selman (Coventry)
Vice-president - T. Foley (Darwen)
Vice-president - Harry Longworth (Fleetwood)
Vice-president - Thomas Ballham (Stoke)
Vice-president - Mrs Barraclough (Huddersfield)
=== Activity ===
On 7 January 1922, a meeting between the ELFA's officers took place in Manchester, where they approved the ball to be used and maximum and minimum pitch sizes. The President, Leonard Bridgett, presented a cup for the Ladies' English Cup Competition. The meeting selected a representative team for the forthcoming match in Grimsby on 21 January against the Grimsby and District Ladies (formerly Cleethorpes Ladies).
On 18 February 1922, a Council meeting took place at the Queen's Hotel in Birmingham. An ELFA's deputation met representatives of the Northern Union (Rugby), and their ground ban was removed for ELFA-affiliated clubs. The draw for the first round of the ELFA Cup competition was also organised then. 23 clubs participated in the competition and the results are as follows:
ELFA 1st Round 18 March 1922
ELFA Cup second Round 22 April 1922
ELFA Cup third round 20 May 1922
ELFA Cup Semi Final
== Influence and legacy ==
Despite being short-lived, the ELFA built the foundation for the revival of interest and development of women's football. Preston Ladies faced Edinburgh Ladies for a British trophy named the Ladies' Football World Championship, on at least two occasions in the 1930s. Preston won in 1937 by a 5–1 score, but the trophy went to Edinburgh in 1939, beating Preston 5–2 in an apparently longer club competition.
A successor to the ELFA, the Women's Football Association (WFA), was established in 1969. Under the WFA, women's game continued to grow, with a national England team and a premier league. However, the WFA was also a voluntary-led organisation and had rather limited resources. Even at the top levels, matches organised by the Association were often rescheduled or cancelled. In the 1970s, there was an international recommendation for all football authorities to include the women's game and the Sex Discrimination Act, which contained a clause exempting sports, was passed in 1975. However, it was only until 1992 that the FA finally decided to lift the ban on women's game and bring it under their formal control.
In March 2018, the National Football Museum opened an extension to its permanent gallery dedicated to women's football. The extension included the English Ladies Football Association Winner's Medal awarded to Lilian Bridgett of Stoke Ladies in 1922.
== References == |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.