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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir | Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir | Jammu and Kashmir has many lakes, rivers, and glaciers. Significant rivers that flow through Jammu & Kashmir from the Himalayas are Jhelum, Chenab and Ravi These river basins are located at a higher elevation facilitating huge hydro power potential.
== List of rivers ==
Jammu & Kashmir rivers fall into three river systems.
=== Indus River System ===
Indus River (Main)
Ladakh, in Ladakh the main tributaries of Indus are Suru, Nubra and Zanskar rivers.
Suru River (Indus tributary; flows through Kargil)
Dras River (Joins Suru near Kargil)
Shingo River (Tributary of Suru)
Nubra River (Indus tributary in Ladakh)
Zanskar River (Major Indus tributary; merges at Nimmu)
Yapola River (Tributary of Zanskar, which merges with Indus)
Markha River
Jammu and Kashmir, in J&K the main tributaries of Indus are Chenab and Jhelum.
Chenab River (Largest tributary of Indus in J&K)
Marusudar River (Largest tributary of Chenab, joins near Kishtwar)
Neeru River (Joins Chenab near Bhadarwah)
Kalnai River (Join Kalgoni River in Donadi 7km Joins Chenab in Thathri)
Tawi River (Politically significant; flows through Jammu city)
Jhelum River (Major tributary of Indus; flows through Srinagar)
Veshaw River (Joins Jhelum near Kulgam)
Sandran River (Flows through Budgam)
Lidder River (Major tributary; originates from Kolahoi Glacier)
Rambi Ara (Joins Jhelum near Sopore)
Poonch River
Nala Palkhu (Sub-tributary)
Kishanganga River (Becomes Neelum River in Pakistan; originates near Gurez)
Sind River (Joins Jhelum near Shadipora)
=== Ravi River System ===
Ravi River (Forms boundary between J&K and Himachal Pradesh)
Ujh River (Politically significant; flows near Kathua)
=== Jhelum River System ===
Jhelum River (Main), Independent drainage in Kashmir Valley
Brengi River (Bringhi River) (Joins Jhelum near Anantnag)
Dudhganga River (Rises in Pir Panjal, flows into Jhelum near Srinagar, flows from Ludurmarg and rises in the central Pir Panjal range near Tatakooti Peak. Two mountain streams, the Sangesafed Stream and Yachera Stream, form this river. This river flows through Batmalu Swamp near Srinagar.
== Lakes ==
There are around 1230 water bodies in Jammu & Kashmir, the major lakes include the following:
Listed from north to south:
Upper North Kashmir
Harmukh mountain alpine area, north of Sri Nagar and south of Gurez-Markoot-Dawar-Tulail Valley
Madhumati Mata Lake, north of Gangabal and south of Gurez-Markoot-Dawar-Tulail Valley
Gangabal Lake, also called Haramukh Ganga, an alpine high-altitude oligotrophic lake
Nundkol Lake, immediate south of Gangabal Lake
KundSar Lake, west of Nundkol Lake.
Sheera Sar Lake, west of Nundkol Lake.
Sarbal Sar Lake, west of Nundkol Lake.
North Kashmir
Wular Lake, northwest of Sri Nagar
Manasbal Lake, between Wular Lake and Sri Nagar
Sri Nagar
Khushal Sar
Anchar Lake, south of Khushal Sar
Nageen Lake (Nagin Lake), south of Khusal Sar and interconnected to Dal Lake
Dal Lake, east of Nageen Lake
South Kashmir
?
Jammu Division
Mansar Lake,
Saruinsar (also spelled Surinsar) refers to Surinsar Lake, a picturesque lake located in the Samba district of Jammu and Kashmir, India
== Dams and hydroelectricity ==
Dams in Jammu & Kashmir, categorised by Operational, Under Construction, and Proposed.
Chenab River Basin
Baglihar Dam (Operational since 2008)
River: Chenab (Near Ramban)
Capacity: 900 MW
Dul Hasti Hydroelectric Plant (Operational since 2007)
River: Chenab (Between Kishtwar and Doda)
Capacity: 390 MW
Salal Dam (Operational since 1987)
River: Chenab (Near Reasi)
Capacity: 690 MW
Ratle Hydroelectric Plant (Operational since 2024)
River: Chenab (Near Drabshalla)
Capacity: 850 MW
Pakal Dul Dam (Under Construction, expected 2025)
River: Marusudar (Tributary of Chenab)
Capacity: 1,000 MW
Kwar Hydroelectric Project (Proposed)
River: Chenab (Near Kishtwar)
Capacity: 540 MW
Kiru Hydroelectric Project (Proposed)
River: Chenab (Between Dul Hasti and Kwar)
Capacity: 624 MW
Jhelum River Basin
Uri Dam (Operational since 1997)
River: Jhelum (Near LOC, Uri)
Capacity: 480 MW
Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project (Operational since 2018)
River: Kishanganga/Neelum (Gurez Valley)
Capacity: 330 MW
Lower Kalnai Hydroelectric Project (Under Construction)
River: Kalnai (Tributary of Jhelum)
Capacity: 48 MW
Upper Sind Hydroelectric Project (Proposed)
River: Sind (Tributary of Jhelum)
Capacity: 250 MW
Indus River Basin (Ladakh Region)
Nimoo Bazgo Hydroelectric Plant (Operational since 2014)
River: Indus (Near Alchi, Ladakh)
Capacity: 45 MW
Chutak Hydroelectric Plant (Operational since 2012)
River: Suru (Tributary of Indus, Kargil)
Capacity: 44 MW
Bursar Hydroelectric Project (Proposed)
River: Marusudar (Chenab tributary)
Capacity: 800 MW
Ravi River Basin
No major dams in J&K; projects exist downstream in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh states in India, such as Ranjit Sagar Dam (600 MW) on Ravi on border of J&K and Himachal Pradesh.
== Issues ==
Rivers flowing through Jammu and Kashmir also contribute to the Water politics and Water conflict dimension of the larger Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts. J&K government in India continues to reject the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) as detrimental to the interest of J&K, this treaty was suspended by India in 2025 after 2025 Pahalgam attack in Indian-held Kashmir allegedly by Pakistan-backed terrorists. Indo-Pakistani water dispute of 1948 was predecessor to the IWT. Pakistan has formed the Indus River System Authority to manage and distribute the water of IWT rivers among Pakistani provinces.
== See also ==
Rivers of India
Rigvedic rivers, Northwest Greater India
Irrigation in India
India–Pakistan relations
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarumal#History | Yarumal | Yarumal is a municipality in the Antioquia Department, Colombia. The municipality (three parishes and 20 villages) has an area of 738.3 km2 (285.1 sq mi). The population was 41,542 at the 2018 census. Its average elevation is 2,265 m (7,431 ft) above sea level.
It has a minor basilica, Our Lady of Mercy, which is a parish church of architectural note.
It gave its name to the Yarumal Society for the Foreign Missions (M.X.Y./I.M.E.Y.), a Medellín-based Latin Catholic Society of Apostolic Life of Pontifical Right for Men, which despite its name is especially active in Colombian missions.
== History ==
Yarumal was founded in 1787 as San Luis de Gongora. Municipal status was granted in 1821.
=== Name ===
The current name of Yarumal comes from a local plant of the family Moraceae, known in botanical Latin as Cecropia peltata L.
== Health ==
An unusually large proportion of the inhabitants suffer from early-onset Alzheimer's disease, which is caused by the gene mutation E280A. The genetic mutation is thought to have come from a Spanish conquistador. Approximately 5,000 residents will develop early-onset Alzheimer's. Half of the affected residents were shown to have developed symptoms by their early 40s.
== Climate ==
Yarumal has a subtropical highland climate (Cfb). It has heavy rainfall year round.
== Notable people ==
Jhon Jairo Velásquez (1962-2020), cartel hitman and You Tube personality
== See also ==
Yarumal climbing salamander, indigenous in Colombia
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsong_Church | Hillsong Church | Hillsong Church, commonly known as Hillsong, is a charismatic Christian megachurch and a Christian association of churches based in Australia. The original church was established in Baulkham Hills, New South Wales, as Hills Christian Life Centre by Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie Houston, in 1983. Hillsong was a member of the Australian Christian Churches – the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God – until 2018, when it separated to form a new denomination. The church is known for its contemporary worship music, with groups such as Hillsong Worship, Hillsong United and Hillsong Young & Free with many musical credits and hits charting all over the world.
Hillsong and its music have been highly successful globally, with its presence described as a global corporate brand. However, a series of scandals and criticisms have negatively affected its image in recent years. In March 2022, Houston stepped down as global senior pastor after an internal investigation found that he had breached the church's moral code of conduct for pastors by engaging in inappropriate behaviour with women on two occasions in the 2010s. In February 2023, Phil and Lucinda Dooley, who had been acting in the position since January 2022, took over as global senior pastors.
== History ==
=== Beginnings: 1977–1999 ===
In 1977, six years before the establishment of what would become Hillsong Church, Brian Houston's father Frank founded the Sydney Christian Life Centre (Sydney CLC) in Waterloo, New South Wales, in inner-city Sydney, in what was described by scholar Sam Hey as "a neo-Pentecostal megachurch". Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie, started holding services at a school hall in Baulkham Hills, establishing Hills Christian Life Centre (Hills CLC) in 1983. Both Sydney CLC and Hills CLC were affiliated with the Australian Christian Churches (ACC), the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God.
Hills CLC's growth into a megachurch through the 1980s and 1990s was largely driven by young people attracted by its contemporary worship music, and by its practice of planting churches internationally. In 1992, Hills CLC planted London Christian Life Centre as an independent church, with Gerard and Sue Keehan as pastors; it was renamed Hillsong London in 2000 and gradually grew to twelve locations across the United Kingdom. Kyiv Christian Life Centre, now Hillsong Kyiv, was also planted in newly independent Ukraine in 1992.
In 1997, Hills CLC moved into a new building at Baulkham Hills' Norwest Business Park. The church merged with Sydney CLC in May 1999, after Frank Houston had been exposed as a paedophile. Brian Houston became senior pastor of both churches for eighteen months. The multi-campus church was renamed Hillsong Church in 2001.
=== 21st century ===
Between 2008 and 2018, Hillsong Church planted more churches in Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Israel, Canada and Mexico. Hillsong also branched out into the United States, establishing sixteen locations by 2022.
In September 2018, Hillsong left the Australian Christian Churches—of which Brian Houston had been national superintendent/president from 1997 to 2009—to become an autonomous denomination, identifying itself more as a global and charismatic church. According to both Hillsong and ACC, the parting was amicable. Of the decision to spin itself off into its own denomination, Houston wrote, "We do not intend to function as a denomination in the traditional sense of the word... We are a denomination purely for practical reasons related to having the ability to ordain our pastors in Australia to legally conduct weddings as marriage celebrants operating under the rites of Hillsong Church". Houston added that they had not shifted doctrinally and that the ACC was still their "tribe". In 2018, it had 80 churches.
In October 2020, Hillsong purchased the Festival Hall venue in Melbourne to become the home of Hillsong Church Melbourne City's weekly church services after undergoing renovations to better suit the new uses.
In October 2021, Hillsong bought the Golders Green Hippodrome in London, England, with the intention of holding Sunday services there.
Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse of a child by his father, of which he became aware in the 1990s. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley. Then in March 2022, following revelations of misconduct complaints by two women, he permanently stepped down from church leadership. Two weeks after this scandal, 9 of the 16 Hillsong Churches in the United States announced their decisions to leave the Hillsong global network.
In August 2022, Hillsong was sued by an Australian whistleblower in federal court there, alleging that the megachurch had moved millions of dollars overseas to avoid the charities regulator, the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC). The whistleblower alleged that Hillsong made "large cash gifts" to Houston and his family using tax-free money.
In August 2023, Brian Houston was acquitted of covering up his father's crimes.
== Statistics ==
According to a census published by the association in 2024, it would have 28 churches in Australia and in 27 countries.
Hillsong had 100,000 people in 14 countries in September 2015,increasing to 130,000 people in 21 countries in 2019. and
Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the church started measuring online attendees instead of regular attendees, which they stated average 444,000 per weekend.
== Branding ==
Hillsong has been described as a "global corporate brand", and "Australia's most powerful brand", with its fast global growth assisted by the spectacle of its huge conferences, the popularity of its music releases, young people's attraction to the charismatic leaders, Hillsong Television, its messaging and language (described by critics as "health and wealth"), customer service, targeting of children, presence on social media, and merchandising.
== Governance ==
The church is governed by the Hillsong Global Board and a group of elders known as the Hillsong Eldership, headed by Pastors Phil and Lucinda Dooley since 2022. The elders lead the church spiritually, whereas the board of directors manages the corporate administration appointed for one year, with renewable terms.
The founders, Brian and Bobbie Houston, had been the global senior pastors of Hillsong Church. On 31 January 2022, it was announced that Phil and Lucinda Dooley, pastors of the South African church, would be acting global senior pastors in Houston's absence until the end of 2022, after Brian Houston stepped down owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse by his father, of which he was later acquitted.
Brian Houston was also chairman of the board, until his resignation from this position in January 2022. Since 2021, the chairman of the Hillsong Global board is Steve Crouch. He is the husband of long-term pastor Donna Crouch and former accountant to the church. George Aghajanian is general manager as well as a director of Hillsong Church Australia and its international entities.
In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned from the board of Hillsong Church and from his role as global senior pastor as a result of breaching the moral code of the church in his behaviour with two women.
== Locations and ministries ==
Hillsong has a global presence, with churches and ministries in Australia, Indonesia, Philippines and Japan, many European countries, Canada, US, South Africa, and, in Latin America, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay as of February 2022.
Hillsong's various ministries include Hillsong Music, Hillsong Kids, Hillsong Youth, Hillsong Sisterhood, Hillsong Men, Hillsong Conference, Hillsong CityCare, Hillsong International Leadership College, TBN Inspire (branded as Hillsong Channel from June 2016 to 31 December 2021), TV & Film, Hillsong Performing Arts Academy and Hillsong Health Centre. Their total facilities are estimated to be worth around A$100 million.
=== Hillsong College ===
Two campuses of the Hillsong International Leadership College arose from the two churches that are now Hillsong Church, the Sydney Christian Life Centre and Hills Christian Life Centre. Both original colleges had similar goals of creating courses in ministry and leadership development based in a local church setting. With an emphasis on the creative arts, theological education was based on the ministry model.
The Sydney college was originally founded in 1983 by David Johnston and located at Arncliffe as the "International Institute for Creative Ministries" (IICM), but in 1989 Johnston parted ways with IICM, bringing the college under the auspices of Wesley Mission. That college moved to the Wesley Centre in Pitt Street, Sydney, and after a few name changes became Wesley Institute (now Excelsia College).
In 1988, Hills Christian Life Centre developed a training arm of IICM, under Ian Fuller. It was first known as Power Ministry School, then in 1992 Power Ministry College, under Steve Kelly. In 1993 the Hillsong School and a School of Music was established to train young musicians. In 1996, after Mark Hopkins took over as director, the Hillsong School and the School of Music were merged to form the Hills Leadership College.
In 1990, Robert Fergusson became principal at the Sydney location and switched the focus to practical ministry training. Classes, at this time accommodating around 50-70 students, were moved back to the church site and the name changed to Aquila College of Ministries in 1993. After Hills CLC merged with Sydney CLC (referred to as its "parent church") in 1999, in early 2000 the Sydney college merged with the Hills Leadership College to become Hillsong International Leadership College, with Duncan Corby appointed principal of its "City campus". It was approved as a registered training organisation in December 2002, and by 2007 there were around 900 full-time students enrolled across the two campuses, the majority from overseas.
In February 2016, Duncan Corby was dean of the college, while Catrina Henderson was principal. and it was still trading as Hillsong International Leadership College. In late 2016 it shortened its name to simply Hillsong College, and as of 2022 has campuses in Sydney and Phoenix, Arizona, and has an online curriculum. The official trading name of the city campus is Sydney Christian Life Centre Pty Ltd, and one of its tax-deductible charitable funds is called the International Institute for Creative Ministries Library Trust Fund.
=== Hillsong Sisterhood ===
Bobbie Houston has been especially influential in Hillsong's ministry for women, called Sisterhood. She is a mentor to many of Hillsong's women leaders. Although Hillsong generally supports the traditional roles of wife and mother for women, the church's position is that their ministries "empower" women. Riches found via interviews with attendees that the ministries increased women's choice regarding around sexuality and child rearing; encouraged women to start small businesses and to take on promotions at work; facilitated women's participation in cultural events, as well as promoted women's voices in religious teaching and public life. Church members have described Hillsong's leadership development as a process that supports women's movement from timid, supportive wife into leadership roles within the church. The Sisterhood is involved in issues such as HIV/AIDS, domestic violence and human trafficking. Their midweek gathering is primarily for women. It is attended by all female staff members and is the foundation of Hillsong's women's ministries. The Thursday meeting for mothers includes businesswomen, and special quarterly "Sisterhood United" night meetings include working women. Members of the church say that her authority as a leader comes from "a Pentecostal understanding of Spirit empowerment".
=== Australia ===
Hillsong has multiple campuses around Australia. As of February 2022, in New South Wales it has Baulkham Hills, two Sydney city campuses (one the location of the original Sydney CLC), several around various suburbs, and one each in Newcastle and Wollongong. There are also one or two churches in major cities in all of the other states except for South Australia. It also has churches in 30 countries across the world, and as of February 2022 reports 150,000 regular attendees globally.
==== Avalon Theatre ====
Hillsong purchased the heritage-listed Avalon Theatre in Hobart, Tasmania, for $2.55 million in 2020. The theatre underwent renovations in 2022.
==== Hillsong CityCare ====
In 1986, a social engagement program called CityCare was established in New South Wales, offering various community services including personal development programs, counselling services, a health centre and youth mentoring. CityCare's "street teams" worked within the community to care for, feed and clothe the homeless.
In July 2008, concerns were raised by some teachers, parents, and experts about the Hillsong City Care Shine program for girls being run in New South Wales public schools, community groups and the juvenile justice system. The concerns include that the program is "inappropriate for troubled young women, that the under-qualified facilitators are reinforcing gender stereotypes and that some parents have not been properly informed" and that "the program encourages girls to be subservient by teaching them that they need to be attractive to men". Hillsong claimed that parents were supportive and that the program broke down barriers in a group situation. In a further response, Hillsong denied that the program had been used for evangelism, but a teacher's federation representative insisted that children had been exposed to religious content, such as people relating stories about finding religion and joining the Hillsong Church.
== Beliefs ==
Hillsong was formerly affiliated with Australian Christian Churches (the Assemblies of God in Australia), part of Pentecostal Christianity. The church's beliefs are evangelical and charismatic.
Hillsong's positions on non-central doctrines of the faith are diverse, although individuals have taken a public stand on many topical issues in contemporary Christianity in keeping with mainstream Pentecostalism; for example, the church's founder opposes abortion and supports teaching creationism in schools. Hillsong has also declared support for Creationism and Intelligent Design and believes this should be taught in schools.
Hillsong's prosperity teachings have been criticised by Christian leaders Tim Costello and George Pell. Subsequent statements by Costello indicated that he was satisfied with changes made by Brian Houston to Hillsong's teaching in response to criticism. Costello also wrote a foreword to Hillsong's 2019 annual report. Hillsong's teachings have been commented on favourably by Peter Costello, Tim Costello's brother, also a Baptist and a former Treasurer of Australia, who has defended the church against accusations of unorthodoxy.
== Media and events ==
=== Music ===
Hillsong has been described by popular music scholar Tom Wagner as a "confluence of sophisticated marketing techniques and popular music". The music of Hillsong United and Hillsong Worship are credited with driving Hillsong's global popularity. Through the 1980s and 1990s, the congregation grew from 45 members to nearly 20,000 and emerged as a significant influence in the area of contemporary worship music. This was a result of strategic marketing that targeted younger generations and Hillsong's success at establishing itself as a global music standard.
Hillsong Church has produced over 40 albums, which have sold over 11 million copies. Albums are produced for different target audiences including Hillsong Kids for children. Hillsong Chapel features acoustic arrangements, which are "quieter" than the electric guitar, keyboard and drums that are typical of Hillsong's music. Hillsong's albums are produced by Hillsong Music Australia. Hillsong's congregational music has been the dominant source of the church's influence in the Charismatic Christianity movement.
Music is central to worship at the church. Hillsong's worship leaders have generally enjoyed a high-profile international position. Early worship leaders included Geoff Bullock and Darlene Zschech. Zschech was Hillsong's second worship leader, and Hillsong achieved international acclaim during her ministry. Zschech's "Shout to the Lord" was an early hit for Hillsong in the mid-1990s. In 2008, Reuben Morgan became Hillsong's third worship leader.
Hillsong's worship music has been widely influential not only in Pentecostal churches, but more broadly in Evangelical churches. Many of Hillsong's "worship expressions" have been incorporated into Evangelical services including raised hands, vocal utterance and dance. Hillsong Music has released over 40 albums since 1992, many of them achieving gold status in Australia and one of them, People Just Like Us, achieving platinum status. The church's 2004 live praise and worship album For All You've Done reached No. 1 in the mainstream Australian album charts (ARIA).
In September 2012, Hillsong produced The Global Project, a collection of their most popular songs released in nine different languages including Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Mandarin, Indonesian, German, French, Swedish and Russian.
==== Hillsong Worship ====
The Hillsong Worship albums, formerly led by Darlene Zschech and Reuben Morgan and previously named Hillsong Live before 2014, all achieved gold status in Australia. The live album series was recorded at the Sydney campus(es) and then edited and produced by Hillsong Music Australia. The worship series began as a compilation of songs and developed into studio recorded albums. To help make Hillsong Music mainstream, an agreement with Warner Music Australia took place in 1999. In 2003, Sony Music Australia also signed with Hillsong Music to make the group even more mainstream. In 2018, Hillsong Worship won its first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song for "What a Beautiful Name".
==== Hillsong United ====
Hillsong United was conceived as the youth arm of the worship ministry, producing annual live albums similarly to Hillsong Live, with a focus on alternative rock. As the members grew older, United has since transitioned into a band with currently an eleven-member fixed lineup of Hillsong musicians as well as a focus on studio albums compared to the Worship and Young & Free ministries. Their song "Oceans (Where Feet May Fail)" was No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs list for a full year. It was the No. 1 song on the Billboard Christian Songs chart in 2014 and 2016, No. 2 for 2015, and the No. 1 song of the 2010s decade. The New York Times described their music as "ornate mainstream arena rock but with God-only lyrics that are vetted for adherence to theology". Joel Houston, Hillsong's creative director and former lead pastor of Hillsong New York, leads Hillsong United.
==== Hillsong Young & Free ====
Hillsong Young & Free was established in 2012 as a new youth branch of Hillsong's ministry. Hillsong Church has been successful at adjusting the musical style of their ministries to keep up with changing musical trends. Hillsong Young & Free was launched to attract postmillennial youth worshippers. The style of music in this particular ministry reflects features of musical genres that are popular with this target demographic, including electronic dance music. Laura Toggs and Peter Toganivalu were founders of the collective, while Toggs was also one of the vocalists of Young & Free prior to her resignation from Hillsong in 2023.
==== Hillsong Kids ====
Hillsong Kids is music designed for and by Hillsong's children's ministry. The albums Jesus Is My Superhero and Super Strong God were included on Natalie Gillespie's "Best Christian Children's Albums" lists for 2005 and 2006, respectively (published in Christianity Today).
=== Television ===
In late March 2022, Network 10 removed Hillsong-produced television programs from its schedules and video on demand service 10Play. The removal came amid controversies involving Brian Houston, who resigned from his position as senior pastor after being indicted in a misconduct investigation by the ministry. Since then, Brian Houston has announced through X, formerly known as Twitter, that he would be launching a new church in 2024. This would consist of weekly services through an online platform.
=== Hillsong Channel ===
On 9 March 2016, Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), the American religious broadcaster, announced a partnership with Hillsong that saw TBN's digital terrestrial television (DTT) sub-channel, The Church Channel, rebranded as the broadcast version of Hillsong Channel on 1 June 2016. The American linear channel was rebranded as TBN Inspire on 1 January 2022, and the international versions followed suit in April 2022, though Hillsong remained a partner in the network. Due to the scandals associated with Brian Houston in relation to Hillsong Church, TBN removed Hillsong Channel from their network. It has since been replaced by similar Christian content. In substitute to the channel, they will be providing non-pulpit teachings, worship programs, documentary, and a one-hour flagship program.
=== Hillsong Conference ===
Hillsong Conference is a mid-year week long annual conference in Sydney, London and New York City each year. First started in 1986, it has grown to be the largest annual conference in Australia as of January 2022.
The Australian conference is hosted by Hillsong Church and lead pastors Brian and Bobbie Houston and involves a variety of guests from across the globe. Baptist minister Michael Frost described the 2011 conference as having, "a kind of electric, almost carnival atmosphere ... the delegates were full of anticipation and excitement".
In 2014, the New York event was held in Madison Square Garden, while the London conference was held in The O2 Arena over three days and has continued to be held at this venue until at least 2018.
== Media appearances ==
On 16 September 2016, the documentary Hillsong: Let Hope Rise, directed by Michael John Warren, was released to cinemas across the United States. The film had gone through two other media companies, Warner Bros. and Relativity Media. It was set to be released the year prior in April, but had complications with the distribution rights. The film was picked up by Pure Flix Entertainment and released the following year. The documentary explores Hillsong's beginnings and its rise to prominence as an international church. The focus is on the band Hillsong United as they write songs for their upcoming album and work toward a performance at The Forum in Inglewood, California.
In 2022–2023, various programs charting the rise and demise of Hillsong were aired on a number of media platforms. In March 2022, Discovery+ released a documentary series, Hillsong: A Megachurch Exposed, revealing the allegations related to child-sex crimes, marital affairs, and the mishandling of money given from the congregants to the church. In March 2023, satirical news outlet The Betoota Advocate partnered with Paramount to release a new satirical series on TV which would include an episode about Hillsong. The Herald Sun produced an investigative podcast called Faith on Trial. In June of that year, ex-Hillsong member Marc Fennell presented The Kingdom on SBS Television.
=== FX: The Secrets of Hillsong ===
On 19 May 2023, Hulu released a four-part documentary series, The Secrets of Hillsong, across the United States and Australia, in association to Vanity Fair. The series was directed by Stacy Lee and produced by Scout Productions and Vanity Fair Studios. The four episodes speak on a variety of topics regarding various scandals related to Hillsong Church, specifically in the United States and Australia. Throughout the series, there are conversations and interviews with former congregants, journalists, and former pastors Carl Lentz and Laura Lentz.
The show begins with an introduction of the former pastor Carl Lentz and his process of creating a revival in the city of New York through their new location, Hillsong NYC, that opened on 17 October 2010. The church quickly evolved into a megachurch and started attracting various big-name celebrities like Justin Bieber, the Kardashian-Jenner family, Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, Kyrie Irving, and Jay-Z. In 2020, the church's reputation began declining, and people began speaking out about their experience in the Hillsong Church, along with Carl Lentz's Instagram post about being unfaithful to his wife of 17 years. Among the troubles at Hillsong, former congregants reported allegations of racism, sexual abuse, homophobia, and being taken advantage of when offering their services for free to help the church.
Towards the end of the documentary series, viewers learn that Frank Houston, the man who founded Sydney Christian Life Centre, had been involved in a series of acts of pedophilia and his son, Pastor Brian Houston, was hiding the crimes of his father. This resulted in Brian Houston being charged with obscuring the truth about his father's past. Brian did not provide any comments regarding this topic to the Vanity Fair producers for the series.
== Political influence ==
Hillsong Church has attracted support from high-profile politicians, especially from the Liberal Party of Australia. In 1998, Brian Houston met with the prime minister of Australia, John Howard, and most of his cabinet at Parliament House in Canberra before sharing prayers. In 2002, Howard opened the Hillsong Convention Centre at the Baulkham Hills location. In 2004 and 2005, the Treasurer of Australia, Peter Costello, spoke at its annual conferences. Mark Latham, the Leader of the Opposition, declined Hillsong's invitation to the 2004 conference, although Bob Carr, the Premier of New South Wales (from the New South Wales Labor Party), attended the 2005 conference.
Liberal MP for Mitchell, Alan Cadman, and two Family First Party senate candidates, Joan Woods and Ivan Herald, who failed to win senate seats, were featured in a Hillsong circular during the election, with members being asked to pray for them.
Hillsong's high-profile involvement with political leaders has been questioned in the media, and publicly, the church has distanced itself from advocating certain political groups and parties, including the fledgling Family First party. Brian Houston has replied to these criticisms by stating, "I think people need to understand the difference between the church being very involved in politics and individual Christians being involved in politics."
In 2008, Sydney inner city publication Central Magazine stated that Hillsong had donated A$600 to a Member of the Legislative Council, Kristina Keneally (ALP), for the tickets of a fundraising dinner, featuring the New South Wales' planning minister, Frank Sartor (ALP), as a guest speaker one month before the 2007 state election, despite Hillsong's own statement of corporate governance declaring that "Hillsong Church does not make financial contributions to or align itself with any political party or candidate." A Hillsong staff member, Maria Ieroianni, said that no donation had been made and that the dinner was not a fundraiser. Hillsong also issued a statement on their website denying that the money was a donation. According to the Central Magazine article, Keneally has described the dinner as a fundraiser and the money from Hillsong as a donation. The article also states that these descriptions are confirmed by the records of the New South Wales Electoral Commission.
Prime Minister Scott Morrison opened the 2019 Hillsong annual conference, shortly after the May 2019 federal election. He is not a member of Hillsong, being part of the Horizon Church's congregation.
== Controversies ==
Hillsong has been criticised by politicians, media, community groups, Christian leaders and former members such as Tanya Levin. Criticisms have included Hillsong's finances, its ties to controversial organisations, its attitudes towards LGBTQ+ people and its treatment of critics as well as scandals involving Brian Houston and other prominent church leaders.
=== Finances ===
Criticisms have been levelled at Hillsong in regard to its finances, particularly its use of government grants when it reportedly made A$40 million in 2004, and A$50 million in 2010.
In 2005, Hillsong was accused of spending most of the money it received through government grants for programs to assist the Riverstone Aboriginal Community Association (RACA) on their own staff salaries. The federal government acknowledged that A$80,000 from the grant money had been used to pay Hillsong Emerge CEO Leigh Coleman, who was only indirectly involved in the programs. One program, designed to give microloans to Indigenous Australians, paid A$315,000 to Hillsong staff over the course of a year, though only granted six loans averaging A$2,856 each during that time. Hillsong's application for the grant listed the RACA as a co-funder, though the RACA denied ever offering funding, saying they were never in a position to do so. In 2006, Hillsong were stripped of A$414,000 from the grant on the grounds they had faked the Indigenous endorsement that was required to obtain it. Hillsong were also accused of offering the RACA A$280,000 in order to silence their complaints regarding the matter, which they declined; a Hillsong spokesperson stated the offer of money was "not an attempt to silence RACA but amicably resolve the issue."
Pushes for a charity commission in Australia have stemmed from claims that religious organisations like Hillsong avoid taxes by paying their staff in tax-exempt fringe benefits. In 2010, The Sunday Telegraph reported that the Houston family was enjoying a lavish lifestyle, almost entirely tax-free, including vehicles and expense accounts.
In early 2023, it was announced that 153 staff members accepted voluntary redundancies in 2022, a cost-cutting method that reportedly will save the church close to $10 million. The moves were made following the accusations that the church had been extravagantly spending money and participating in fraud. The move comes alongside an independent review into the church's financial structure.
=== Sexual abuse by founder's father ===
Frank Houston, the father of Hillsong Church founder Brian Houston, was a pastor in New Zealand and Australia who sexually abused boys over the course of his ministry. One of the nine identified victims was routinely subjected to sexual abuse in the 1960s and 1970s when he was 7 to 12 years old. In 1999, his mother reported the abuse to the Assemblies of God denomination. Although Brian Houston, then national president of the Assemblies of God denomination in Australia, was legally obligated to report the crime, he allegedly did not do so. Brian Houston stated that he felt it reasonable not to report the crime when it came to light at the time that the victim was an adult, and when the victim did not want the crime reported (an assertion that was denied by the victim). The victim later testified to the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse that Frank Houston offered him AU$10,000 as compensation at a McDonald's in the presence of Nabi Saleh. During an internal church investigation, Frank Houston eventually confessed to the crime. The commission also heard that he was involved in the sexual abuse of other children in New Zealand. Frank Houston resigned from his church in 2000 which, then lacking a pastor, was merged into Hillsong Church. A further internal investigation by the Assemblies of God in Australia, in conjunction with the Assemblies of God in New Zealand, found six additional child sexual abuse allegations that were regarded as credible.
On 5 August 2021, NSW Police issued a warrant for Brian Houston to attend the Downing Centre Local Court in Sydney on 5 October, alleging that Houston concealed child sexual abuse by his late father, Frank. Houston was in the United States at the time of being charged. He has denied the charges and his lawyer stated he intended to plead not guilty. Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, as court proceedings were likely to be protracted. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley.
In August 2023, Brian Houston was found not guilty of covering up his father's sex crimes.
=== Views on homosexuality ===
The church has been criticised for its stance on homosexuality issues. It considers homosexual practice sinful, and does not allow homosexuals to assume leadership roles. It issued a statement in February 2019 stating that it was inclusive; however, Houston had formerly said that Hillsong would accept those who did not follow a "homosexual lifestyle".
In 2014, Brian Houston discussed being more understanding of homosexuals. Later, he clarified his position after being criticised by some Christians for allegedly supporting homosexuality. In a statement released on Hillsong's website, he stated: "Nowhere in my answer did I diminish biblical truth or suggest that I or Hillsong Church supported gay marriage."
=== Mercy Ministries ===
Hillsong has been criticised for its involvement with Mercy Ministries, an evangelical charity with an anti-abortion view and a conservative perspective on homosexuality. Hillsong responded by praising the work of Mercy Ministries and stating that they "are not involved in the operational aspects of the organisation". The church also said, "We have heard many wonderful testimonies about how the work of Mercy has helped the lives of young women facing often debilitating and life-controlling situations. Some would even say that Mercy Ministries has saved their life [sic]." Mercy Ministries in Australia was shut down on 31 October 2009, citing "extreme financial challenges and a steady drop in [their] support base". Hillsong had distanced itself from the organisation previously despite still funding it, and staffing elements of it.
=== Former members' criticisms ===
Hillsong's attitude towards criticism was portrayed negatively by former member Tanya Levin in her book People in Glass Houses: An Insider's Story of a Life In and Out of Hillsong. Specific criticisms covered authoritarian church governance, lack of financial accountability, resistance to free thought, strict fundamentalist teachings and lack of compassion. In an interview with Andrew Denton, Levin further discussed her experience of Hillsong, which she described as "toxic Christianity".
Many former church members have accused the church of exploiting volunteers, due to overwork, lack of recognition and interference in privacy.
=== Guglielmucci cancer claim scandal ===
On 20 August 2008, Michael Guglielmucci, a then pastor of Planetshakers Church, composed "Healer", a song about his experience of cancer. He was invited by Hillsong to add his song to the album This Is Our God. Later, he confessed that he had lied about having cancer. Hillsong leadership told the press they were unaware of this situation and that the suspended pastor was seeking professional help. The Australian Christian Churches promised that all money donated by listeners inspired by the song would either be returned or donated to charity. "Healer" has since been removed from further releases of the album.
=== Mark Driscoll appearance ===
In 2015, American preacher Mark Driscoll was invited to attend the Hillsong annual conference. When it was revealed that Driscoll had made offensive comments about women, Brian Houston announced that Driscoll would no longer attend the conference. However, a pre-recorded interview with Driscoll was played during the conference.
=== Black Lives Matter movement ===
Gary Clarke, then pastor of Hillsong London, was criticised for refusing to comment on the murder of George Floyd in the US, having said on 30 May 2020, "For me to be railing as a pastor about something that's going on in another country, I'm not really sure that's going to help anyone." Both Clarke and Houston subsequently apologised for the comments and, in early 2021, Clarke and his wife Cathy were moved into an international leadership role. In early June 2020, Hillsong came out in support of Black Lives Matter in the US, with Brian Houston stating that they are "committed as a Church to playing our part in seeing racism eradicated ... until that becomes a reality, we will continue to say black lives matter".
In response to the Black Lives Matter protests, Hillsong held a panel discussion, with members consisting of people of colour of diverse backgrounds who were involved with the church, such as Hillsong Darwin pastor and Aboriginal Australian academic Robyn Ober.
=== Carl Lentz affairs ===
Hillsong pastor Carl Lentz helped to lead Hillsong's first church in the United States, in New York City, in 2010. Lentz became friends with singer Justin Bieber and developed a celebrity following. Hillsong expanded on the East Coast under Lentz, but some members felt that it became unduly focused on fashion, and on servicing the desires of its pastors and its famous patrons. Church volunteers were allegedly expected to work long hours, and were reportedly treated as second-class citizens and gaslighted. Around 2017, two Hillsong volunteers who attempted to convey their concerns about Lentz to Hillsong leadership were allegedly intercepted and dismissed.
In 2020, Hillsong fired Lentz after finding that he had engaged in "more than one extra-marital affair" and was currently involved in one. Lentz's lover stated that Hillsong is not "genuine. That's the truth. It's a money machine ... and I think it's wrong ... I think [Lentz] is a victim of his own church. He gave his life to this church, and that's how they played him."
=== Sexual assault reporting ===
In early 2021, Vanity Fair, the Christian Post and News.com.au reported that a female student at Hillsong Leadership College named Anna Crenshaw had been indecently assaulted by a married Hillsong administrator named Jason Mays, the son of the church's director of human resources. In January 2020, Mays had pleaded guilty to indecent assault and received two years probation and mandatory counselling. Though Mays received a 12-month ban from ministry, he was subsequently reinstated to his ministry role and volunteered with singing at worship services. Crenshaw criticised Hillsong's leadership for downplaying the incident and not holding Mays accountable for his actions. Brian Houston subsequently apologised for his Tweet questioning Crenshaw's version of events. That same month, several Hillsong Leadership College students penned a letter criticising the church leadership for allowing Mays to remain on staff despite his indecent assault conviction.
In September 2021, 60 Minutes aired a segment called "Hillsong Hell" featuring Crenshaw and a second woman known as "Katherine", who alleged that she had been raped by a fellow church member on church premises in 2018. Both women alleged that Hillsong had ignored their complaints and tried to downplay the incidents. According to 60 Minutes, Hillsong sees itself as the victim when it is criticised and cares more about protecting itself than investigating accusations, noting that Mays had pleaded guilty to assaulting Crenshaw yet retained his job at Hillsong. Brian Houston subsequently posted a Twitter message questioning Crenshaw's version of events and also gave an interview with Eternity magazine portraying the church as the victim of allegations.
Hillsong criticised the 60 Minutes report, saying it was "factually wrong, sensationalised, unbalanced and highly unethical". Hillsong stated that it had investigated both incidents and reported the assault on Crenshaw to police in May 2019. It defended its decision to retain Mays on the grounds that the magistrate had described the offence as "low-level", that Mays had expressed remorse for his actions, and that Crenshaw's account was contradicted by other witnesses. It also claimed that "Katherine" had been unwilling to provide details about the date and perpetrator of the alleged rape, and was unwilling to take the matter to the police. Nine News journalist Tom Steinfort criticised Hillsong's response as "tone-deaf" and accused the church leadership of victim blaming.
=== COVID-19 rule breaches ===
In January 2022, during the COVID-19 pandemic, participants at a Hillsong youth camp at the Glenrock scout camp near Newcastle, New South Wales, were filmed dancing and singing without masks. While the state government's public health order did not apply to religious gatherings, singing and dancing at most recreational and public venues and gatherings was prohibited. NSW Health ordered the organisers of the Hillsong youth camp to stop singing and dancing after public outcry and media coverage from a video of the youth camp. The Premier of New South Wales, Dominic Perrottet, stated that he was "completely shocked" by the video from the event. In response, Hillsong apologised for reinforcing the perception that they were not complying with the public health order and stated that they would comply with health authorities' instructions and maintained that the youth camp was not a music festival. While New South Wales Police personnel spoke with organisers of the youth camp, they declined to issue a fine. All attendees were tested before arriving at the camp.
=== Resignations of senior pastors ===
In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned his position as global senior pastor after an internal investigation into his misconduct began. It was reported that in both 2013 and 2019 he had engaged in inappropriate behaviour with women connected to the church.
Hillsong Dallas pastor Reed Bogard resigned in January 2021, two weeks before an internal investigation found that he had been accused of raping a female junior colleague while serving at Hillsong New York City. According to the report, the married Bogard had been having an affair with the colleague between 2013 and 2014, and Hillsong Australia had been aware of the affair in the second half of 2014 but had declined to take action. Hillsong paused the Dallas campus in April 2021 following Bogard's resignation.
On 24 March 2022, Sam Collier, the lead pastor of Hillsong Atlanta, established less than a year earlier, resigned, citing the ongoing scandals and allegations towards senior figures in Hillsong church. Collier was the first African-American pastor to lead a Hillsong church. He announced plans to establish his own church.
In late March 2022, Hillsong Phoenix lead pastor, Terry Crist, announced that his church would be leaving the Hillsong global network, citing a loss of confidence in Hillsong's Global Board leadership in the wake of the resignation of founder Houston.
As of 6 April 2022, nine Hillsong branches in the US had separated from the church since the revelations about Houston.
On 10 May 2023, Houston's daughter Laura Toggs and her husband Peter Toganivalu, founders and global pastors of youth ministry group Hillsong Young & Free, announced to the church that they were leaving Hillsong, citing that they were called by God elsewhere.
Several worship leaders from Hillsong have since departed the church, including Toggs, Brooke Ligertwood, Taya Gaukrodger, and Benjamin William Hastings.
=== Property acquisition ===
An investigative report on ABC TV's 7.30 program on 6 April 2022 revealed that Hillsong had acquired many properties that had been hidden behind a web of entities across the world. It had done this in part by assuming financial control over other churches, starting with Garden City Church in 2009, which later transferred over 12 properties in Brisbane to one of the Hillsong charities, with no transfer of money. It has also taken control of the finances of at least one church in Sydney, which has since broken away. It took over Hillsong Kyiv in 2014, coercing its then pastors to hand over assets and leave Hillsong. An investigator from the Trinity Foundation in Dallas found that Hillsong owned at least three condominiums in New York City, a US$3.5-million home in California and 31 properties in Arizona, expected to be worth a total of US$40 million by 2023. Its corporate and financial structures mean that the church is protected against litigation which demands large payouts to plaintiffs.
=== Criticism by Hillsong leadership ===
On 19 March 2022, John Mays, head of people and development in the church, wrote a letter to the global leadership recommending that the Houstons should be dismissed from the church, saying that they had contributed to "many unhealthy people practices... over many years". He alleged that Brian Houston had a "strong, immovable, leadership disposition together with a distinct lack of personal accountability", and that Bobbie was not a victim, but also shared the responsibility of maintaining accountability. He said that the motive behind his letter was "to support Hillsong employees" rather than personal malice, and that he joined in celebrating aspects of the Houstons' legacy.
== See also ==
C3 Church Global
Transformational Christianity – Modern evangelical movement
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Blaine, Lech (May 2020). "Hillsong's strange tides". The Monthly.
Hardy, Elle (18 March 2020). "The House That Brian Built: Inside The Global Empire That Is Hillsong". GQ.
Hardy, Elle (2 October 2021). "In reckoning with its demons, Hillsong will be forced to move away from what made it powerful". The Guardian.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._Jayakumar | D. Jayakumar | D. Jayakumar is an Indian politician and was a Member of the 15th Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu. He was the Speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly until his resignation on 29 September 2012. He was elected to the Tamil Nadu legislative assembly from Royapuram constituency as an Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam candidate in the 1991, 2001, 2006, 2011 elections and 2016 elections for five terms. During the Tamil Nadu legislative Assembly 2021, he again contested in Royapuram Constituency and lost the election. He served in various cabinet positions starting from 1991 - Forests, Fisheries, Information Technology, Electricity and Finance. He is one among the senior leaders of AIADMK. In October 2020, he was appointed to 11 member Steering Committee of AIADMK and also serves as its Organizing Secretary. In the TN 2021 Election for Royapuram constituency, he was defeated by dmk candidate. He had represented Royapuram five times - 1991, 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016.
== Personal ==
He is a boxer and so was his father. Other details: BSc from Pachayappas College, Chennai. BL from Madras Law College.
== Elections contested ==
=== Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly Elections ===
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_of_Resistance | Road of Resistance | "Road of Resistance" is a song by the Japanese Kawaii metal band Babymetal. The song was released worldwide as a digital single on February 1, 2015 by Toy's Factory, serving as the lead single off the international re-release of the album Babymetal, as well the opening track from Metal Resistance. The official live music video gaining over 34 million views on YouTube.
== Background and release ==
The song would be used to mark the beginning of the band's lore, Metal Resistance Episode III, at the concert held on November 8, 2014 at O2 Brixton Academy in London, which was also the final tour date for the band's Babymetal World Tour 2014.
A trailer for the song was released on January 5, 2015, integrating footage from the debut performance of the song in London. The song was first released as a digital bonus track off the live album Live at Budokan: Red Night, with limited editions of the album containing a download card with a code to download the song at no additional charge. The song was later released as a dedicated digital single on the iTunes Store on February 1, 2015.
Li and Totman are featured on guitars, although they are listed as featured artists in various regions of the re-release of the album Babymetal, on which the song appears as a bonus track, mainly in the United Kingdom.
== Composition ==
Rolling Stone described the song as "power metal" with "shiny pop harmonies". Rock Sound called the song "everything we’d expect from [Babymetal] with a bit of Dragonforce’s exhilarating, flame-fingered guitar added in for good measure." Matt Evans of The List called the song an "empowering hyperspeed anthem". According to Kadokawa, the song consists of twin shred guitars courtesy of Li and Totman, with a dynamic sound derived of melodic speed metal. The lyrics are described as a narrative on the Metal Resistance, which the band adopted on their world tour. It has also been considered the "final stage" of Babymetal and the prologue to Metal Resistance, and a transition performance that demonstrates the band's growth from the previous album.
According to Su-metal, the song refers to the Metal Resistance lore, described as "the story of Babymetal traveling across the world in the hopes of creating a new metal to unify the world as we break through the barriers of language and borders. In the middle of the song there is a part where we go, ‘Wow, Wow’ and this is where our fans from around the world can sing with us at our concerts. I hope people will listen to our album and support us at our shows." Yuimetal stated in an interview with Metal Hammer that "Road of Resistance" is her favorite song from Metal Resistance, explaining that it "has been performed at so many concerts, so a lot of memories are jam-packed. The lyrics are positive, the sound is so cool, and [the] dance is so powerful."
== Reception ==
"Road of Resistance" received generally favorable reviews from music critics, with most praise of the collaborative work between DragonForce and the band. Preston Phro of RocketNews24 called the song a "great start to the album", with the guitars played by DragonForce giving the song a "fun, over-the-top feel". Adrian Peel of Digital Journal called the opening track "manic, yet surprisingly tuneful". It received numerous accolades, including being named Best Metal Song of 2015 at the 2015 Loudwire Music Awards.
The song charted at number 22 on the Billboard World Digital Songs chart for the week of February 21, 2015.
== Live performances ==
"Road of Resistance" premiered at a concert as part of the band's Back to the USA / UK Tour 2014 at O2 Academy, Brixton. The song was unofficially dubbed "The One", after the final lines of narration preceding the performance. However, that title would later be used for another song on the band's second album.
The song was later performed at the encore of the show Legend "2015" New Year Fox Festival on January 10, 2015. The performance was later uploaded to YouTube on May 6, 2015.
== Track listing ==
Digital download
"Road of Resistance" – 5:19
== Credits and personnel ==
Recording and management
Recorded by Watametal and Adrian Breakspear
Mixed by Ettore Rigotti
Personnel
Suzuka Nakamoto (Su-metal) – vocals
Yui Mizuno (Yuimetal) – vocals
Moa Kikuchi (Moametal) – vocals
Key Kobayashi (Kobametal / Kxbxmetal / Kitsune of Metal God) – executive producer, lyrics
Miki Watanabe (Mk-metal) – lyrics
Norikazu Nakayama (Norimetal) – music
Nobuaki Miyasaka (Mish-Mosh) – music, arrangement
Sari Miyasaka (Mish-Mosh) – music, arrangement
Keiji Kusama (Kyt-metal) – music
Kyoto – arrangement
Leda – bass
Herman Li – guitar (courtesy of Electric Generation Recordings Ltd. and Warner Music Japan Inc.)
Sam Totman – guitar (courtesy of Electric Generation Recordings Ltd. and Warner Music Japan Inc.)
Credits adapted from Metal Resistance liner notes and Google Play.
== Charts ==
== Release history ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Discography on the Babymetal official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sculptor) | Robert Adams (sculptor) | Robert Adams (5 October 1917 – 5 April 1984) was an English sculptor and designer. Whilst not widely known outside of artistic circles, he was nonetheless regarded as one of the foremost sculptors of his generation. In a critical review of a retrospective mounted by the Gimpel Fils gallery in London in 1993, Brian Glasser of Time Out magazine described Adams as "the neglected genius of post-war British sculpture", a sentiment echoed by Tim Hilton in the Sunday Independent, who ranked Adams' work above that of his contemporaries, Ken Armitage, Reg Butler, Lynn Chadwick and Bernard Meadows.
== Education and early life ==
Adams attended the village school in Hardingstone, Northamptonshire, now a suburb of the town of Northampton. He lived there until 1951. He left school at age 14 and did various manual jobs, firstly as a van-boy for a printer and later with the agricultural engineering company, Cooch & Sons, where experience gained in crafting metals proved useful in his later artistic creations.
From 1937 to 1946 he attended evening classes part-time in life drawing and painting at the Northampton School of Art.
During the Second World War, Adams was a conscientious objector, but joined the Civil Defence as a fire warden.
== Career ==
Some of his first sculptures were exhibited in London between 1942 and 1944 as part of group shows by artists working for Civil Defence
In April 1946 he exhibited fourteen of his early oil portraits in the Northampton Public Library.
Between 23 November 1947 and 3 January 1948, he held his first one-man exhibition at Gimpel Fils Gallery, 84 Duke Street, London.
From 1949 until 1959 he taught at the Central School of Art and Design in London. Whilst there he came into contact with Victor Pasmore and artists such as Kenneth Martin and Mary Martin who were pursuing the development of Constructivist ideas in Britain.
In the period 1950 to 1980 he was recognised as one of Britain's foremost abstract sculptors. His work was exhibited at the Venice Biennale in 1952 and again when he represented Britain with a retrospective occupying two galleries in 1962.
Some of his works are in the Tate Britain collection and the modern art in New York, Rome, and Turin, the São Paulo Museum of Modern Art and several other locations worldwide but he is virtually unknown in his home town. Apocalyptic Figure was commissioned by the Arts Council England for the Festival of Britain in 1951. Some of his large-scale sculptures can be seen at The Custom House, London, Heathrow Airport, Shell Mex House, London, and the Musiktheater im Revier, Gelsenkirchen, Germany. One of his works is in the Contemporary Art Museum of Macedonia.
He had a retrospective at the Northampton Art Gallery in 1971.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Biwott#:~:text=Biwott%20then%20served%20as%20a,Economics%20under%20a%20Commonwealth%20scholarship. | Nicholas Biwott | Nicholas Kipyator Kiprono arap Biwott (22 February 1940 – 11 July 2017) was a Kenyan businessman, politician, and philanthropist, who worked in the governments of the fathers of Kenyan independence, Jomo Kenyatta and Daniel arap Moi. He held eight senior civil servant and ministerial positions that included Minister of State (1979–82), Minister of Energy (1984-1985, 1990), Minister of East African and Regional Co-operation (1998–99) and Minister of Regional Development, Science, and Technology (1982).
Biwott was widely regarded as one of the most powerful and competent ministers of president Moi's government. He was also at the forefront of efforts to deepen regional cooperation. Former president Uhuru Kenyatta eulogised Biwott as a "patriot and diligent leader, who spent decades building schools and hospitals and spearheading every other kind of development including marketing Kenya abroad".
== Early life ==
Biwott was born in Tot, Chebior village, Elgeyo-Marakwet District in the Rift Valley Province of British Kenya, on 22 February 1940 to Maria Soti and Joseph Cheserem Soti, a market trader and cattle herder in Eldoret. He attended Tambach Intermediate School from 1951 to 1954, after which he joined Kapsabet High School.
After finishing secondary school in 1959, Biwott began working at the Department of Information in Eldoret, after which he published the Kalenjin monthly newsletter with Kendagor Bett.
He attended the University of Melbourne, Australia, from 1962 to 1964, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics and Political Science, as well as a Diploma in Public Administration.
Biwott then served as a District Officer in Nkubu in the South Imenti Division of Meru District from 1964 to 1965, returning to the University of Melbourne in 1966 to study for a master's degree in Economics under a Commonwealth scholarship.
== Political career ==
Biwott was a member of parliament for 28 years. In 1974, he ran unsuccessfully as a prospective MP for the Keiyo South Constituency. At the next election (1979), he was successful, standing on KANU ticket in Keiyo-Marakwet, retaining the seat in 1983 and 1988. In 1992, 1997, and 2002 he was elected the MP for Keiyo South Constituency. In the Parliamentary elections held on 27 December 2007, running on a KANU ticket, he lost his seat to Jackson Kiptanui Arap Kamai of the Orange Democratic Party (ODM). The ODM swept to victory in all but one of KANU's seats on the Rift Valley.
Following the 2002 election, Biwott served on the Devolution Committee of the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission. Biwott was the only Member of Parliament who abstained on the Constitutional Referendum held in 2005, stating that the Draft Constitution 'would divide the country along ethnic lines'. The draft Constitution was rejected at the Referendum.
In 2005, Biwott contested for the leadership of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), the former ruling party founded by the late Mzee Kenyatta, but lost the post to Uhuru Kenyatta following a decision by the Kenyan High Court.
== Service in government of Kenya ==
=== District Officer ===
Biwott entered government service in 1965 as the District Officer, in South Imenti and Tharaka, Meru District (January 1965–66). As District Officer Biwott instituted, on a 'harambee' basis, community fundraising programmes to aid the development of local irrigation projects and roads, to build a health centre at Nkwene and schools at Nkubu and Kanyakine, develop employment at the Igoji quarries and promote the planting of coffee and tea. He was also actively involved in the resettlement of previously European owned land through the 'Land Transfer' programme, part of the 'Million Acres' scheme, and played a central role in the rehabilitation of the Mau Mau, many of whom still remained in the Mau Forest four years after the end of the 'Emergency', helping to persuade them to give up violence and organising the resettlement of many on to their own land.
=== Ministry of Agriculture ===
Having completed his master's degree in Australia in 1968, Nicholas Biwott returned to public service in the Ministry of Agriculture, GOK, Personal Assistant to Minister Bruce MacKenzie (1968–70). He coordinated cereal production, the marketing of cereal crops and the management of the Ministry's fertiliser policy, and helped develop research into new strains of wheat and maize more suited to the growing conditions in Kenya. He played a similar co-ordinating role for the Ministry's work with the East African Council of Ministers (MacKenzie was also a member of the council), guiding Kenya's policy in the region in the development of ports, railways and the East African Airways.
=== Treasury ===
In 1971 Nicholas Biwott moved to the Treasury as Senior Secretary under the Minister of Finance and Economic Planning, Mwai Kibaki. In 1972, he created and headed the External Aid Division and technical assistance program dealing with external resources, bringing in experts and arranging cultural exchanges. Notably, he helped facilitate the establishment of the French School in Nairobi (now called the Lycee Denis Diderot), the French Cultural Centre with the Alliance de Francais, and the German Friederich Ebert Stiftung Foundation in co-operation with the Goethe Institut.
=== Ministry of Home Affairs ===
In late 1978, Nicholas Biwott transferred to the Ministry of Home Affairs on the personal recommendation of President Kenyatta to work with his vice-president and the Minister of Home Affairs, Daniel arap Moi.
In 1974, Biwott stood as a candidate for the Keiyo South constituency in the general election of that year but was narrowly defeated.
Following the 1974 election, Nicholas Biwott was recalled to the Ministry of Home Affairs as Under Secretary (1974–78) to Minister Daniel arap Moi, Kenya's vice-president. With the ageing President Kenyatta unable to fulfil all the functions of the presidency, Moi took a leading role in the East African region with the result that Nicholas Biwott spent much of the next four years dealing with the Organisation of African Unity, the Commonwealth, the 'non-aligned' states and promoting the 'good neighbourliness' policy with states bordering Kenya.
Kenyatta's death in 1978 saw Daniel arap Moi elevated to the presidency and Nicholas Biwott promoted to Deputy Permanent Secretary in the Office of the President (1978–79).
=== Minister of State ===
Following the election of 1979 (in which he was elected Member of Parliament for 1979 Keiyo South election, a seat he retained until December 2007), Nicholas Biwott returned to the Office of the President but now promoted to Minister of State (1979–82) with responsibility for science and technology, cabinet affairs, land settlement, and immigration.
Under his auspices the Kenya Medical Research Institute was established in the same year to carry out health science research in Kenya. (Now in its 31st year, KEMRI continues its work as "a leading centre of excellence in the promotion of quality health").
=== Minister of Regional Development, Science and Technology ===
In September 1982, he was appointed Minister of Regional Development, Science, and Technology. Learning from examples of other regional development policies, notably in Australia and Tennessee in the US, he created two regional development authorities, the Lake Basin Development Authority and the Kerio Valley Development Authority.
=== Minister of Energy ===
In September 1983, Nicholas Biwott was made Minister of Energy and Regional Development and in March 1988 (following a reorganisation of ministry portfolios) he became Minister of Energy, a post he held until January 1991.
Over the next seven years, he was instrumental in establishing the National Oil Corporation, the building of National Oil storage facilities near Nairobi and connecting them to the Mombasa refinery, and extending the pipeline from Nairobi to Kisumu and Eldoret. This period that saw rapid advances in efforts to improve Kenya's electricity supply and delivery with a rural electrification programme, work beginning on the Sondu Miriu Dam, and the completions of the Masinga Multi Purpose Dam, the Kiambere Hydro Electric Dam and the Turkwell Hydro Electric Multi Purpose Dam.
=== Minister of East African and Regional Co-operation ===
Although he remained a member of parliament, Biwott held no position in the Government of Kenya from 1991 until he re-entered government as Minister of State in the Office of the President of East Africa in 1997 before, in January 1998, he established and was appointed Minister of the new Ministry of East African and Regional Co-operation (1998–99).
Nicholas Biwott played a central role in COMESA – the Common Market for East and Central Africa, co-ordinating with COMESA partner Ministers legislation for an East African Road network, legislation for an East African Legislative Assembly, and becoming Chairman of both COMESA and of the East Africa Council of Ministers.
=== Minister of Trade and Industry, Tourism and East African Cooperation ===
In September 1999, Biwott's ministerial portfolio was expanded when he became Minister of Trade and Industry, Tourism, and East African Cooperation (1999–2001), a post he held for the next three years during which he established a Tourist Trust Fund with the European Union, set up the Tourist Police and re-introduced the East Africa Safari Rallies.
Biwott's promotion of Kenyan tourism met with some praise. He was variously described as "the hardest working minister of tourism Kenya has ever had" and as "the best minister of tourism in 25 years".
In May 2001, (following a further reorganisation of Ministry responsibilities) Nicholas Biwott continued as the Minister of Trade and Industry and East African Tourism (2001–02). Over the next eighteen months he established the Small Medium Trade Trust Fund with the European Union, introduced an Intellectual Property bill which was passed as an Act, accomplished a free trade area with COMESA, established the Africa Trade Insurance Agency to cover foreign investments against political risk, and served as Chairman of the African Caribbean Pacific Group (ACP) at the World Trade Organization.
== Businessman ==
Biwott led an active business life and was regarded as one of Kenya's most successful entrepreneurs.
As a teenager in the late 1950s, Biwott worked alongside his father who had established a successful fruit and vegetable business in Eldoret. The young Biwott also borrowed small amounts of money from a local bank with which to expand his own business sideline selling meat products and eggs. Nicholas Biwott continued to expand his own business and in the late 1960s formed ABC Foods selling food and animal feed products.
Within a few years, Nicholas Biwott was able to invest in farms and businesses, taking advantage of the post-independence banking policies at the time by which Kenyans were granted loans on favourable terms. In 1969, aged 29, Biwott purchased the Eldoret Town International Harvester (IH) dealership (now FMD trading as Lima Ltd). He also purchased a dairy farm in the same year, started an importer exporter business in 1972, purchased two wheat farms in 1974, invested in the sole agency for IH in Kenya for agricultural tractors and implements in 1975, and purchased a local air operator in 1977 (now Air Kenya).
Biwott's business philosophy of purchasing small or failing businesses, investing and re-investing in them over many years, appears to have paid dividends. He is now regarded as one of Kenya's wealthiest businessmen.
Biwott's businesses in Kenya employ thousands of people and one company of which he is the major shareholder, has for many years been listed among Kenya's top 10 corporate taxpayers.
== Philanthropy ==
Mr Biwott supported a number of projects in the areas of education, health and medicine, and assisting small businesses. In 2008, he established the Mbegu Trust 'to develop education and opportunity in Kenya'.
Nicholas Biwott took a personal and active role in the development of education in Kenya, particularly the education of girls, through the building of numerous schools. These included the Maria Soti Educational Centre a model school for girls from all backgrounds built as a tribute to his mother, as well as the Biwott Secondary School.
Biwott also played an active role in raising funds for the building of many other colleges and educational projects, and was the founder and patron of the Keiyo South Education Foundation that provides bursaries to needy students for primary and secondary education.
Health and Medical Services
Nicholas Biwott led the development of multiple health and medical service projects, including at least two sub-district hospitals, three health centres and eight dispensaries.
For many years, he also worked for and supported the National Fund for the Disabled of Kenya, of which from 1980 he was a member and trustee of the Management Committee, and the Advocacy, Publicity and Fundraising Committee, and ultimately its chairman.
== Controversy ==
Nicholas Biwott's name is raised by political detractors regarding several controversies, largely dating to the years 1989–92. His supporters maintain that the allegations, none of which have ever been proved, arose from the campaign at the time to introduce multi-party democracy in Kenya coupled with Biwott's association with President Moi.
The most serious of the allegations surrounding Biwott is the fact of his being named as a person of interest by Scotland Yard detective John Troon in his final report on the 1990 murder of Kenya's Foreign Affairs Minister Robert Ouko. Troon's basis for naming Biwott in his final report on the Ouko murder was based on statements by two witnesses: Marianne Brinner-Mattern and Dominico Airgahi. The testimony of these witnesses has since come under scrutiny.
Marianne Brinner-Mattern and Dominico Airgahi were directors of a company known as ‘BAK Group’. In 1987, ‘BAK Group’ had been awarded a contract by the Kenyan Government to revamp a Molasses plant in Kisumu, Kenya. The contract was terminated before Ouko’s death because of the company’s failure to raise bilateral funding and to conduct an agreed-upon feasibility study. The study was subsequently awarded to US company F.C. Schaffer who were nominated and paid for by the US Embassy and USAID under the leadership of Dalmas Otieno, the then Minister of Industry since assuming the ministry from Dr Robert Ouko.
Before Ouko’s murder, the ‘BAK Group’ were claiming $150,000 in damages from the Kenyan Government on the grounds of an unfair contract termination. After Ouko’s death, their damages claim on the Kenyan Government rose to $5.975 million. As it later emerged, while Airaghi and Briner-Mattern were dealing with the Kenya Government, Airaghi was on bail having been convicted of fraud and extortion by a court in Milan in 1987. Briner-Mattern had been a key witness in that court hearing; the Milanese judge presiding said of her witness testimony that it was best to draw a “compassionate veil” over her statements, further commenting on her “unreliability” as a witness.
Ten government officials, including Biwott, were held in police custody for questioning for two weeks in November 1991, but a Kenyan Police investigation concluded that there was no 'evidence to support the allegations that Biwott was involved in the disappearance and subsequent death of the late minister Dr. Robert John Ouko'.
In December 2003, Biwott issued a formal complaint against New Scotland Yard through his lawyer on the basis that Troon's investigation was 'fundamentally flawed and, in many cases erroneous' and called on New Scotland Yard 'to investigate Troon and to issue an apology. The request was ultimately turned down in December 2004 by the Metropolitan Police as the original investigation 'did not involve a citizen of the United Kingdom, potential suspect, or even witnesses', and because 'the resources of the Metropolitan Police are limited'. Another reason given for the refusal by the Metropolitan Police to review the case was that the Kenyan Parliamentary Select Committee (PSC) was investigating the death of Dr Robert Ouko and that it was 'open to Mr Biwott to make any representations he wishes to that Inquiry'.
The Select Committee's proceedings, however, were abruptly terminated as Nicholas Biwott began to give his testimony. The PSC led by Gor Sunguh would not allow the cross-examination of witnesses by Nicholas Biwott’s lawyers. Some members of the Committee decided they could not continue serving on the Committee. Six members – Paul Muite, Mirugi Kariuki, Dr Abdulahi Ali, Njoki S. Ndung’u and Otieno Kajwang – resigned during its hearings. Four others left to take up other appointments. New members were appointed to the Committee. At the end there were 10 members, of which four did not sign Sungu’s report.
Parliament in 2005 refused to consider Sungu’s report. It was tabled again on December 8, 2010, but was rejected by Members of parliament for being “shoddy” and for having been used “to settle political scores”.
=== Defamation ===
In 2000, High Court Judge Alnashir Visram awarded Mr Biwott a record damages of Sh30 million, the biggest settlement in a defamation case in Kenya. Biwott was awarded the Sh30 million damages after he sued a British journalist, Chester Stern, and others for linking him to the Ouko murder in a book entitled 'Dr Iain West's Casebook'. Chester Stern and the book's publishers, Little Brown, stated that they would "vigorously defend" the action but ultimately they did not do so and the case was uncontested.
Judge Visram ruled that author and pathologist lain West and journalist Chester Stern, the book’s co-authors, pay KES 15 million in compensatory damages and another KES 15 million in exemplary damages. Bookpoint and Bookstop, popular Nairobi bookshops, also paid Biwott 10 million in damages for stocking copies of the book Dr Ian West's Casebook.
A number of local dailies were also sued by Biwott over the coverage of this defamatory story. In March of 2002, Kalamaka Ltd., the publisher of the People Daily newspaper, was found guilty of the “unmitigated and defenceless character assassination” of Mr. Biwott. Biwott was awarded Kshs 20 million in damages.
Biwott's case is said to have contributed to the development of defamation law in Kenya. Biwott's case was referenced in 2005 in a defamation and libel case filed by former Chief Justice Evans Gicheru. Gicheru had sued Andrew Morton, author of a biography on the president "Moi -The making of an African statesman" and the publisher Michael O Mara Books.
== Death, memorial and funeral ==
On the morning of 11 July 2017, Biwott died of complications arising from kidney failure at the Nairobi hospital.
A memorial service was held at Milimani AIC on 18 July 2017. On the 20th of July, a second memorial service was held at the Maria Soti Girls Educational Centre Kaptarakwa, in Keiyo, Elgeyo/Marakwet County. Over 20,000 people attended his memorial services.
In the final speech of the funeral, President Uhuru Kenyatta eulogized the late Biwott as a "true patriot".
"When the history of this country is written, it will include many men and women in this country who quietly but firmly and confidently are responsible for what Kenya is today – a sound country, a stable country with a growing economy. And Nicholas Biwott is one of those people."
Nicholas Biwott was buried in a wooden casket contrary to some misleading information that circulated in the Kenyan social media space prior to his burial, alleging that he would be buried in a gold coffin.
References
Cohen, David William & Odhiambo, E. S. Atieno (2004). The Risks of Knowledge: Investigations into the Death of the Hon. Minister John Robert Ouko in Kenya, 1990. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-1597-2. Ohio University
== External links ==
Parliament.go.ke
Nicholas Biwott: Kenya's power broker
Hon.Nicholas Biwott 1940-2017 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen#:~:text=61%C2%A0m%20(200%C2%A0ft)%20%2D%20June%201%2C%202013%20in%20Lake%20Van%2C%20Turkey | Şahika Ercümen | Şahika Ercümen (born 16 January 1985) is a Turkish dietitian and world record holder free-diver.
Born on January 16, 1985, in Çanakkale, she was educated at the Gazi Primary School, and received a secondary education at the Milli Piyango Anatolian High School in her hometown. For her higher education, she moved to Ankara, and became a dietitian graduating from the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics at Başkent University's Faculty of Health Sciences.
Her participation in underwater sports began with scuba diving and underwater rugby. For twelve years, she is interested in various branches of underwater sports, and is a member of four national teams since 2001. She participated with the underwater hockey, underwater rugby, underwater orienteering and free diving national teams in the World and European Championships.
== Achievements ==
Her 110 m (360 ft) long dynamic apnea under ice (DYN) that was achieved on February 11, 2011, in Lake Weissensee, Austria, found entry into the Guinness Book of World Records for both for men and women. Former records were 70 m (230 ft) for women and 108 m (354 ft) for men.
Şahika Ercümen is former world record holder of constant weight with fins at sea (CWT) discipline with 70 m (230 ft) set in Dahab, Egypt on November 10, 2011 (recognized by CMAS). The former record belonged to Tanya Streeter with 67 m (220 ft). The same day at the same place, she set another CMAS-recognized world record diving 60 m (200 ft) deep in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF).
On June 1, 2013, she broke her own world record diving in the VNF discipline to a depth of 61 m (200 ft) in saline soda waters of Lake Van, eastern Turkey (recognized by CMAS). She stated that she preferred the site for her world-record free-diving attempt because she wanted to call world's attention to the migration of Pearl Mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), also called Lake Van fish.
She set a new free-diving world record in the VNF discipline reaching the 91 m (299 ft) depth mark in 2:49 minutes at Kaş, Antalya, southern Turkey on July 23, 2014. Former record in this discipline, which was set the previous year, belonged to Derya Can, another Turkish diver.
On October 22, 2016, Ercümen set a new world record off Kaş, Turkey diving to a depth of 110 m (360 ft) in the variable weight apnea with fins at sea (VWT) discipline in 2:44 minutes. Her record was recognized by CMAS officials at site.
She set a new CMAS world record for women diving in sweet water of Lake Salda in Yeşilova, Burdur Province, Turkey to 65 m (213 ft) in 1:58 minutes. The previous world record was at 55 m (180 ft).
On 26 October 2021, she set a new world record in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF) category at Kaş, Antalya, Turkey with 100 m (330 ft), which is valid for women and men.
In October 2025, she set a new world record of 106 meters in the variable weight apnea without fins at sea category, diving to 107 meters with the slogan “Let Gaza breathe, let darkness turn to light” to draw attention to Gaza.
== World records ==
DYN under ice
110 m (360 ft) - February 11, 2011 in Lake Weissensee, Austria
CWT
70 m (230 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
VNF
60 m (200 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
61 m (200 ft) - June 1, 2013 in Lake Van, Turkey
91 m (299 ft) - July 23, 2014 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
100 m (330 ft) - October 26, 2021 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
107 m (351 ft) - October17, 2025 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
VWT
110 m (360 ft) - October 22, 2016 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
Fresh water
65 m (213 ft) - October 26, 2018 in Lake Salda, Yeşilova, Burdur, Turkey
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Jacobsson | Frank Jacobsson | Frank Charles "Sanny" Jacobsson (6 July 1930 – 26 February 2017) was a Swedish professional footballer who spent his entire career as a winger for the club GAIS in the Swedish Allsvenskan.
== Professional career ==
Jacobsson spent his entire professional career with GAIS, from 1949 to 1960. Jacobsson played an important role in the 1953–54 Allsvenskan season, by scoring 4 goals in the last 3 games of the season. These matches were title deciders in a close race to end the season, and helped GAIS win their first Allsvenskan in 23 years.
From 1960 to 1961, Jacobsson managed Vårgårda IK.
== Personal life ==
Jacobsson was born in the United States to a Swedish father and Italian mother, and moved to Sweden at a young age. Jacobsson played professional football alongside his brother, Karl-Alfred Jacobsson, with GAIS and the Sweden men's national football team. His son, Roberto Jacobsson, was also associated with GAIS as a manager and player.
== Honours ==
=== Club ===
GAIS
Allsvenskan (1): 1953–54
== References ==
== External links ==
Frank Jacobsson at National-Football-Teams.com
Svensk Fotboll Profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein | Jeffrey Epstein | Jeffrey Edward Epstein (January 20, 1953 – August 10, 2019) was an American financier and child sex offender. He began his professional career as a teacher at the Dalton School. After his dismissal from the school in 1976, he entered the banking and finance sector, working at Bear Stearns in various roles, before starting his own firm. Epstein cultivated an elite social circle and procured many women and girls whom he and his associates sexually abused.
In 2005, police in Palm Beach, Florida, began investigating Epstein after a parent reported that he had sexually abused her 14-year-old daughter. Federal officials identified 36 girls, some as young as 14 years old, whom Epstein had allegedly sexually abused. Epstein pleaded guilty and was convicted in 2008 by a Florida state court of procuring a child for prostitution and of soliciting a prostitute. He was convicted of only these two crimes as part of a controversial plea deal agreed by the US Department of Justice's Alex Acosta, and he served almost 13 months in custody but with extensive work release.
Epstein was arrested again on July 6, 2019, on federal charges for the sex trafficking of minors in Florida and New York. He died in his jail cell on August 10, 2019. Barbara Sampson, the New York City medical examiner, ruled that his death was a suicide by hanging. Forensic pathologist Michael Baden has disputed the ruling, and there has been significant public skepticism about the true cause of his death, resulting in conspiracy theories. In July 2025, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released CCTV footage to support the conclusion that Epstein died by suicide in his jail cell. When the Department of Justice released the footage, approximately 2 minutes and 53 seconds of it was missing, and the video was found to have been modified despite the FBI's claim that it was raw.
Since Epstein's death precluded the possibility of pursuing criminal charges against him, a judge dismissed all criminal charges on August 29, 2019. Epstein had a decades-long association with the British socialite Ghislaine Maxwell, who recruited young girls for him, leading to her 2021 conviction on US federal charges of sex trafficking and conspiracy for helping him procure girls, including a 14-year-old, for child sexual abuse and prostitution.
According to The New York Times, Epstein made much of his fortune by providing tax and estate services to billionaires. He was also a renowned social networker, whose vast network included business people, royalty, politicians and academics. His friendships with public figures including Prince Andrew, Donald Trump, and Bill Clinton have attracted significant controversy. Documents released by the House Democratic Caucus in September 2025 show that he maintained connections with Peter Thiel, Elon Musk, Bill Gates, Larry Summers, and Steve Bannon. The documents included over 20,000 pages of Epstein emails dating from 2011 to 2018, many of which included conversations about Donald Trump.
== Early life ==
Jeffrey Edward Epstein was born on January 20, 1953, in Brooklyn, a borough of New York City. His parents, Pauline "Paula" Stolofsky (1918–2004) and Seymour George Epstein (1916–1991), were Jewish and had married in 1952 shortly before his birth. Pauline worked as a school aide and was a homemaker. Seymour worked for the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation as a groundskeeper and gardener.
Jeffrey was the older of two siblings; he and his brother Mark grew up in the neighborhood of Sea Gate, a private gated community in Coney Island, Brooklyn. Within the family, Epstein was nicknamed Bear, while Mark was called Puggie. A childhood friend described Paula as “a wonderful mother and homemaker,” and neighbors remembered the parents as being quiet and humble.
Epstein attended local public schools, first attending Public School 188, and then Mark Twain Junior High School nearby and usually earned money by tutoring classmates. Acquaintances considered Epstein "sweet and generous", although "quiet and nerdy", and nicknamed him "Eppy". "He was just an average boy, very smart in math, slightly overweight, freckles, always smiling", a female friend later described.
In 1967, Epstein attended the National Music Camp at the Interlochen Center for the Arts. He began playing the piano when he was five, and was regarded as a talented musician by friends. He graduated in 1969 from Lafayette High School at age 16, having skipped two grades. Later that year, he attended advanced math classes at Cooper Union until he changed colleges in 1971. From September 1971, he attended the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University, where he studied mathematical physiology, but left without receiving a degree in June 1974.
== Career ==
=== Private school teacher (1974–1976) ===
At age 21, Epstein started working in September 1974 as a physics and mathematics teacher for teens at the Dalton School on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. Donald Barr, who served as the headmaster until June 1974, was known to have made several unconventional recruitments at the time, although it is unclear whether he had a direct role in hiring Epstein. Three months after Barr's departure, Epstein began to teach at the school, despite his lack of credentials.
Epstein allegedly showed inappropriate behavior toward underage female students at the time, paying them constant attention, and even showing up at a party where young people were drinking, according to a former student. Other former students also often saw him flirting with female students. Eventually, Epstein became acquainted with Alan Greenberg, the chief executive officer of Bear Stearns, whose son and daughter were attending the school. Greenberg's daughter, Lynne Koeppel, pointed to a parent-teacher conference where Epstein influenced another Dalton parent into advocating for him to Greenberg. In June 1976, after Epstein was dismissed from Dalton for "poor performance", Greenberg offered him a job at Bear Stearns.
=== Bear Stearns (1976–1981) ===
Epstein joined Bear Stearns in 1976 as a low-level junior assistant to a floor trader. He swiftly moved up to become an options trader, working in the special products division, and then advised the bank's wealthiest clients, such as Seagram president Edgar Bronfman, on tax mitigation strategies. Jimmy Cayne, the bank's later chief executive officer, praised Epstein's skill with wealthy clients and complex products. In 1980, four years after joining Bear Stearns, Epstein became a limited partner. In 1981, Epstein was asked to leave Bear Stearns for, according to his sworn testimony, being guilty of a "Reg D violation". Even though Epstein departed abruptly, he remained close to Cayne and Greenberg and was a client of Bear Stearns until its collapse in 2008.
=== Financial troubleshooter (1981–1987) ===
In August 1981, Epstein founded his own consulting firm, Intercontinental Assets Group Inc. (IAG), which assisted clients in recovering stolen money from fraudulent brokers and lawyers. Epstein described his work at this time as being a high-level bounty hunter. He told friends that he worked sometimes as a consultant for governments and the very wealthy to recover embezzled funds, while at other times he worked for clients who had embezzled funds. Spanish actress and heiress Ana Obregón was one such wealthy client, whom Epstein helped in 1982 to recover her father's millions in lost investments, which had disappeared when Drysdale Government Securities collapsed because of fraud.
In the mid-1980s, Epstein traveled multiple times between the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. While in London, Epstein met Steven Hoffenberg. They had been introduced through Douglas Leese, a defense contractor, and John Mitchell, the former US attorney general. An anonymous source met with Epstein and Leese as early as 1981. Epstein also stated to some people at the time that he was an intelligence agent. Epstein associate Hoffenberg in 2020 alleged that Epstein was recruited in the 1980s by Leese to work for British intelligence, and that Hoffenberg introduced Epstein to Robert Maxwell.
During the 1980s, Epstein possessed an Austrian passport that had his photo, but with a false name. The passport showed his place of residence as Saudi Arabia. In 2017, "a former senior White House official" reported that Alexander Acosta, the US Attorney for the Southern District of Florida who had handled Epstein's criminal case at the end of the George W. Bush administration, had stated to interviewers of President Donald Trump's first transition team: "I was told Epstein 'belonged to intelligence' and to 'leave it alone'", and that Epstein was "above his pay grade."
During this period, one of Epstein's clients was the Saudi Arabian businessman Adnan Khashoggi, who was the middleman in transferring American weapons from Israel to Iran as part of the Iran–Contra affair in the 1980s. Khashoggi had been introduced to him by Leese. Khashoggi was one of several defense contractors that he knew.
=== Towers Financial Corporation (1987–1993) ===
Steven Hoffenberg hired Epstein in 1987 as a consultant for Towers Financial Corporation (unaffiliated with the company of the same name founded in 1998, and acquired by Old National Bancorp in 2014), a collection agency that bought debts people owed to hospitals, banks, and phone companies. Hoffenberg set Epstein up in offices in the Villard Houses in Manhattan and paid him US$25,000 per month for his consulting work (equivalent to $69,000 in 2024).
Hoffenberg and Epstein then refashioned themselves as corporate raiders using Towers Financial as their raiding vessel. One of Epstein's first assignments for Hoffenberg was to implement what turned out to be an unsuccessful bid to take over Pan American World Airways in 1987. A similar unsuccessful bid in 1988 was made to take over Emery Air Freight Corp. During this period, Hoffenberg and Epstein worked closely together and traveled everywhere on Hoffenberg's private jet.
In 1993, Towers Financial Corporation imploded when it was exposed as one of the biggest Ponzi schemes in American history, losing over US$450 million of its investors' money (equivalent to $1 billion in 2024). In court documents, Hoffenberg claimed that Epstein was intimately involved in the scheme. Epstein left the company by 1989 and was never charged for involvement in the massive investor fraud committed. It is unknown if Epstein acquired any stolen funds from the Towers Ponzi scheme.
=== J. Epstein & Company (1988–2019) ===
In 1988, while Epstein was still consulting for Hoffenberg, he founded his financial management firm, J. Epstein & Company. The company was said by Epstein to have been formed to manage the assets of clients with more than US$1 billion in net worth, although others have expressed skepticism that he was restrictive of the clients that he took.
The only publicly known billionaire client of Epstein was Leslie Wexner, chairman and CEO of L Brands (formerly The Limited, Inc.) and Victoria's Secret. In 1986, Epstein met Wexner through their mutual acquaintances, insurance executive Robert Meister and his wife, in Palm Beach. A year later, Epstein became Wexner's financial adviser and served as his right-hand man. Within the year, Epstein had sorted out Wexner's entangled finances. In July 1991, Wexner granted Epstein full power of attorney over his affairs. The power of attorney allowed Epstein to hire people, sign checks, buy and sell properties, borrow money, and do anything else of a legally binding nature on Wexner's behalf. Epstein managed Wexner's wealth and various projects such as the building of his yacht, the Limitless. It was during this time that Southern Air Transport relocated its headquarters to service Wexner's brands, and that Epstein dated models like Stacey Williams. Epstein represented himself as a global talent scout for Victoria's Secret during this time and used this powerful position to sexually manipulate young women.
By 1995, Epstein was a director of the Wexner Foundation and Wexner Heritage Foundation. He was also the president of Wexner's Property, which developed part of the town of New Albany outside Columbus, Ohio, where Wexner lived. Epstein made millions in fees by managing Wexner's financial affairs. Although never employed by L Brands, he frequently corresponded with the company executives. Epstein often attended Victoria's Secret fashion shows, and hosted the models at his New York City home, as well as helping aspiring models get work with the company.
In 1996, Epstein changed the name of his firm to the Financial Trust Company and, for tax advantages, based it on the island of St. Thomas in the US Virgin Islands. By relocating to the US Virgin Islands, Epstein was able to reduce federal income taxes by 90 percent. The US Virgin Islands acted as an offshore tax haven, while at the same time offering the advantages of being part of the United States banking system; Epstein, who capitalized on his relation with Jes Staley while the latter was employed by JP Morgan, maintained close relations with that bank's subsidiary in the USVI.
In 2002, according to New York Magazine, his financial-administrative staff numbered 150 employees (among whom 20 accountants) across three sites: Villard House in Manhattan, the Wexner operation in Columbus, and St Thomas USVI.
Although it took 12 years to deliver the story, as Matthew Goldstein of the New York Times tells it, JP Morgan banker Jes Staley and CEO Jamie Dimon had a falling-out over Staley's client Epstein sometime around 2012, after in October 2011 the general counsel of the bank, Stephen Cutler, complained to Staley and others that Epstein was "not an honorable person in any way. He should not be a client." During the meeting with Staley, Epstein, and Cutler, Cutler was reassured when Epstein lied to him directly and even brought up Bill Gates as a character reference. The bank did not discard Epstein until, facing increased pressure from federal regulators, 2013, coincidentally the year of Staley's departure from the bank. Epstein thereafter moved his trade to the American affiliate of Deutsche Bank.
According to Forbes in 2025, the great majority of Epstein's wealth between 1999 and 2018 came from $490 million in fees, (most of that from two billionaires, Leslie Wexner, $200 million, and Leon Black, $170 million) with the remaining $310 million reported as income during that period by his companies as being from investment returns, and was worth $600 million when he died.
In the course of his life Epstein engaged with no fewer than 75 lawyers, including Alan Dershowitz, Kenneth Starr, Roy Black and Jay Lefkowitz. Senator Ron Wyden said in Congress that the US Treasury Department file on Epstein detailed from one account no less than 4,725 wire transfers that totalled $1.1 billion, and that he had extensive financial correspondence from Russian banks over his sex trafficking activities. Another report from Forbes says that between four banks (JPMorgan Chase, Deutsche Bank, Bank of New York Mellon and Bank of America) the transfers totalled more than $1.9 billion.
==== Liquid Funding and the Bear Stearns explosion (2000–2008) ====
Epstein was the president of the Bermuda-incorporated company Liquid Funding Ltd. between 2000 and 2007. The company was an early pioneer in expanding the kind of debt that could be accepted on repurchase, or the repo market, which involves a lender giving money to a borrower in exchange for securities that the borrower then agrees to buy back at an agreed-upon later time and price. The innovation of Liquid Funding, and other early companies, was that instead of having stocks and bonds as the underlying securities, it had commercial mortgages and investment-grade residential mortgages bundled into complex securities as the underlying security.
Liquid Funding was initially 40 percent owned by Bear Stearns. Through the help of credit rating agencies—Standard & Poor's, Fitch Ratings and Moody's Investors Service—the new bundled securities were able to be created for companies so that they received a gold-plated AAA rating. The implosion of complex securities, because of their inaccurate ratings, led to the collapse of Bear Stearns in March 2008 and set in motion the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent Great Recession. If Liquid Funding were left holding large amounts of such securities as collateral, it could have lost large amounts of money.
In August 2006, a month after the federal investigation of him began, Epstein invested $57 million in the Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage hedge fund. The SEC filings for the Bear Stearns fund show that Epstein's Financial Trust Company controlled the votes of a 10-percent share. This fund was highly leveraged in mortgage-backed collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).
On April 18, 2007, an investor in the fund, who had $57 million invested, discussed redeeming his investment. At this time, the fund had a leverage ratio of 17:1, which meant for every dollar invested there were 17 dollars of borrowed funds; therefore, the redemption of this investment would have been equivalent to removing $1 billion from the thinly traded CDO market. The selling of CDO assets to meet the redemptions that month began a repricing process and general freeze in the CDO market. The repricing of the CDO assets caused the collapse of the fund three months later in July, and the eventual collapse of Bear Stearns in March 2008. Losses to investors in the two Bear Stearns funds were estimated to exceed $1.6 billion.
By the time the Bear Stearns fund began to fail in May 2007, Epstein had begun to negotiate a plea deal with the US Attorney's Office concerning imminent charges for sex with minors. In August 2007, a month after the fund collapsed, the US attorney in Miami, Alexander Acosta, entered into direct discussions about the plea agreement. Acosta brokered a lenient deal, according to him, because he had been ordered by higher government officials, who told him that Epstein was an individual of importance to the government.
As part of the negotiations, according to the Miami Herald, Epstein provided "unspecified information" to the Florida federal prosecutors for a more lenient sentence and was supposedly "Unnamed investor #1" for the New York federal prosecutors in their unsuccessful June 2008 criminal case against Cioffi and Tannen, two of the managers of the failed Bear Stearns hedge fund.
Alan Dershowitz, one of Epstein's attorneys in the 2008 criminal case, told Fox Business Network in 2019, "We would have been touting that if he had [cooperated]. The idea that Epstein helped in any prosecution is news to me." Moody's reported that on April 18, 2008 "all outstanding rated liabilities" of Liquid Funding were "paid in full". At the time the liquidator had not yet sold the beleaguered fund to its new owner as of May 1: JP Morgan.
==== Epstein & Zuckerman (2003–2004) ====
In 2003, New York Daily News publisher Mortimer Zuckerman partnered with Epstein, advertising executive Donny Deutsch, and investor Nelson Peltz in a bid to acquire New York magazine. The ultimate buyer was Bruce Wasserstein, a longtime Wall Street investment banker, who paid US$55 million, over US$10 million above the offer from Zuckerman, Epstein, Deutsch, and Peltz.
In 2004, Epstein and Zuckerman committed up to US$25 million to finance Radar, a celebrity and pop culture magazine founded by Maer Roshan. Epstein and Zuckerman were equal partners in the venture. Roshan, as its editor-in-chief, retained a small ownership stake. It folded after three issues as a print publication and became exclusively an online one.
==== Zwirn (2002–2008) ====
Between 2002 and 2005, Epstein invested $80 million in the D.B. Zwirn Special Opportunities Fund, a hedge fund that invested in illiquid debt securities. In November 2006, Epstein attempted to redeem his investment after he was informed of accounting irregularities in the fund. By this time, his investment had grown to $140 million. The D.B. Zwirn fund refused to redeem the investment. Hedge funds that invest in illiquid securities typically have years-long "lockups" on their capital for all investors and require redemption requests to be made in writing 60 to 90 days in advance. The fund was closed in 2008, and its remaining assets of approximately $2 billion, including Epstein's investment, were transferred to Fortress Investment Group when that firm bought the assets in 2009. Epstein later went to arbitration with Fortress over his redemption attempt. The outcome of that arbitration is not publicly known.
==== Epstein and Barak: Carbyne (2014–2019) ====
After his first arrest, Epstein began an interest in the surveillance industry. Epstein maintained a close relationship with former Israeli prime minister and defense minister Ehud Barak, exchanging private emails with him and meeting more than 30 times between 2013 and 2017. He also facilitated Barak's interactions with prominent figures, including Peter Thiel, as well as Sergey Belyakov and Viktor Vekselberg, who were connected to Vladimir Putin's circle. These interactions are documented in the leaked Barak–Epstein emails released by the Handala hacker group, whose authenticity has been partially corroborated by independent reporting, including The Sunday Times.
In business, Epstein leveraged his relationship with Barak to get access to Thiel. In 2015, Epstein invested in Reporty Homeland Security (later rebranded as Carbyne), a startup headed by Barak which developed advanced emergency communication technologies. The company's leadership included CEO Amir Elihai, a former special forces officer, and director Pinchas Bukhris, a former defense ministry director general and commander of IDF cyber unit 8200. In many years, Epstein's acquaintances had repeatedly encouraged Thiel to meet him. Reid Hoffman, Thiel's friend from the PayPal Mafia, directly introduced the two and joined some meetings.
Epstein pitched Reporty to Thiel-founded Valar Ventures in 2016; although the firm declined, Valar partner Andrew McCormack indicated they might revisit the venture once the company matured. Epstein had previously invested US$40 million into funds managed by Valar in 2015 and 2016. In 2018, another Thiel co-founded firm, Founders Fund, participated in Carbyne's $15 million Series B funding round (non-leading role). Between 2014 and 2016, Thiel had half a dozen scheduled meetings with Epstein at his townhouse, including with other people such as Woody Allen and Kathryn Ruemmler. There is no record of Thiel's social visits to one of Epstein's homes or flights on his private jet.
==== Other businesses ====
Barak discussed with Epstein in the leaked Barak–Epstein emails about meeting Putin's ally Viktor Vekselberg on the 6th and 8th day of June 2014. An email sent in April 2015 shows that Barak asked Epstein for his opinion on Vekselberg-backed Fifth Dimension, a startup which later shut down after being sanctioned in 2018 by the US for alleged election meddling.
In August 2018 Epstein said in a New York Times interview that he was helping Elon Musk to find a new chairman for Tesla when Musk was in trouble with the SEC over his comments that he would privatize the car manufacturer.
=== Geopolitical activities (2012–2019) ===
==== Ivory Coast security agreement ====
Between 2012 and 2014, Epstein assisted former Israeli prime minister and defense minister Ehud Barak in what began as a private business initiative involving internal security-related projects in Ivory Coast, according to documents released by the U.S. House Oversight Committee from Epstein's files and leaked emails from Barak. Epstein played an operational role in advancing the effort: he coordinated Barak's meetings during the UN General Assembly, connected him with Ivory Coast President Alassane Ouattara's chief of staff and other officials, and helped arrange connections with the president's family. Barak, meanwhile, commissioned former Israeli intelligence officers to produce technical plans for nationwide phone and internet monitoring. The private initiative later was the bases of a 2014 defense and internal-security agreement between Israel and Ivory Coast.
==== Mongolia security initiative ====
Epstein performed similar facilitation work as in Ivory Coast for Barak in Mongolia. He assisted in the promotion of Israeli surveillance technology for the Mongolian government. During this period, the Israeli intelligence officer Yoni Koren – a longtime associate and former aide to Barak – stayed multiple times at Epstein's Manhattan residence, including while serving in Barak's office in 2013 and again during extended visits in 2014 and 2015.
== Video, photo and email archives ==
Multiple well-placed sources told Vicky Ward that Epstein lacked a moral compass, and decided to compromise influential people "by recording them doing things they wouldn't want made public."
Ghislaine Maxwell, Epstein's long-term girlfriend and companion, told a friend that Epstein's private island in the Virgin Islands was completely wired for video and the friend believed that Maxwell and Epstein were videotaping everyone on the island as an insurance policy. When police raided his Palm Beach residence in 2006, two hidden cameras were discovered in his home. It was also reported that Epstein's mansion in New York was wired extensively with a video surveillance system.
Maria Farmer, an artist who worked for Epstein in 1996, noted that Epstein showed her a media room in the New York mansion where there were people monitoring the pinhole cameras throughout the house. The media room was accessed through a hidden door. She stated that in the media room "there were men sitting here. And I looked on the cameras, and I saw toilet, toilet, bed, bed, toilet, bed." She added that "It was very obvious that they were, like, monitoring private moments."
Epstein allegedly "lent" girls to powerful people to ingratiate himself with them and also to gain possible blackmail information. According to the Department of Justice, he kept compact discs locked in his safe in his New York mansion with handwritten labels that included the description: "young [name] + [name]".
Epstein implied that he had blackmail material when he told a New York Times reporter in 2018, off the record, that he had dirt on powerful people, including information about their sexual proclivities and recreational drug use.
In August 2025, author Michael Wolff remarked that Epstein's email archives, which were seized when the FBI raided Herbert Strauss house and took possession of his computers, are likely to incriminate others.
== Audio recordings ==
In 2003, Bloomberg journalist David Bank spoke on Little St. James with Epstein in a 5-hour long interview, which Bank left unpublished prior to Epstein's death.
In 2017, Epstein spoke in interviews, over the course of more than one hundred hours, with journalist Michael Wolff, which began to be released in November 2024, as part of Wolff's Fire and Fury podcast.
== Legal issues ==
Maria Farmer alleges that she reported that Epstein raped her to the New York City Police Department and the FBI in 1996 but nothing was done and his depravity went unpunished for a decade longer. In October 2007, transgender model Ava Cordero alleged that Epstein had abused her and filed suit accordingly, however it was dismissed, with press at the time instead making allegations about Cordero's mental health and mocking her gender identity. Virginia Giuffre was among the first of Epstein's accusers to reveal her identity to the public, in 2011.
=== First criminal case (2005–2011) ===
==== Initial developments (2005–2006) ====
According to The Washington Post, in November 2004, Palm Beach police were tipped about young women coming and going from Epstein's home. In March 2005, a woman contacted Florida's Palm Beach Police Department and alleged that her 14-year-old stepdaughter had been taken to Epstein's mansion by an older girl. While there, she was allegedly paid $300 (equivalent to $480 in 2024) to strip and massage Epstein. She had allegedly undressed, but left the encounter wearing her underwear. Palm Beach Police began a 13-month undercover investigation of Epstein, including a search of his home. During the investigation, Palm Beach police chief Michael Reiter publicly accused the Palm Beach County state prosecutor, Barry Krischer, of being too lenient and called for help from the FBI.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) then became involved. Subsequently, the police alleged that Epstein had paid several girls to perform sexual acts with him. Interviews with five alleged victims and seventeen witnesses under oath, a high-school transcript and other items found in Epstein's trash and home allegedly showed that some of the girls involved were under 18, the youngest being 14, with many under 16. The police search of Epstein's home found two hidden cameras and large numbers of photos of girls throughout the house, some of whom the police had interviewed in the course of their investigation. Adriana Ross, a former model from Poland who became an Epstein assistant, reportedly removed computer drives and other electronic equipment from the financier's Florida mansion before Palm Beach Police searched the home as part of their investigation. The court documents record that a search of Epstein's residence by Palm Beach Police detective Joseph Recarey in 2005 uncovered an incriminating Amazon receipt containing books on sadomasochism.
A former employee told the police that Epstein would receive massages three times a day. Eventually the FBI compiled reports on "34 confirmed minors" eligible for restitution (increased to 40 in the non-prosecution agreement) whose allegations of sexual abuse by Epstein included corroborating details. Julie Brown's 2018 exposés in the Miami Herald identified 80 victims and located about 60 of them. She quotes the then police chief Reiter as saying "This was 50-something 'shes' and one 'he'—and the 'shes' all basically told the same story." Details from the investigation included allegations that 12-year-old triplets were flown in from France for Epstein's birthday, and flown back the following day after being sexually abused by the financier. It was alleged that young girls were recruited from Brazil and other South American countries, former Soviet countries, and Europe, and that Jean-Luc Brunel's "MC2" modeling agency was also supplying girls to Epstein, who actually financed the French agency.
In May 2006, Palm Beach police filed a probable cause affidavit saying that Epstein should be charged with four counts of unlawful sex with minors and one count of sexual abuse. On July 27, 2006, Epstein was arrested by the Palm Beach Police Department on state felony charges of procuring a minor for prostitution and solicitation of a prostitute. He was booked at the Palm Beach County jail and later released on a $3,000 bond. State prosecutor Krischer later convened a Palm Beach County grand jury, which was usually only done in capital cases. Presented evidence from only two victims, the grand jury returned a single charge of felony solicitation of prostitution, to which Epstein pleaded not guilty in August 2006. Epstein's defense lawyers included Roy Black, Gerald Lefcourt, Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz, and former US solicitor general Ken Starr. Linguist Steven Pinker also assisted.
==== Non-prosecution agreement (NPA) (2006–2008) ====
In July 2006, the FBI began its own investigation of Epstein, nicknamed "Operation Leap Year". Epstein's lawyers met with federal prosecutors, asking them to end the federal investigation so Epstein could instead face a single Florida charge of solicitation of a prostitute. The federal investigation continued nonetheless, and in May 2007 federal prosecutor Marie Villafaña drafted a 53-page, 60-count indictment. She also wrote an 82-page memo for her supervisors, who included Alexander Acosta, then the US Attorney for the Southern District of Florida; Jeffrey Sloman, then the First Assistant US Attorney; and Matthew Menchel, then the chief of the Miami criminal division.
Acosta agreed to a plea deal, which Alan Dershowitz helped to negotiate, to grant immunity from all federal criminal charges to Epstein, along with four named co-conspirators and any unnamed "potential co-conspirators". According to the Miami Herald, the non-prosecution agreement "essentially shut down an ongoing FBI probe into whether there were more victims and other powerful people who took part in Epstein's sex crimes." At the time, this halted the investigation and sealed the indictment. The Miami Herald said: "Acosta agreed, despite a federal law to the contrary, that the deal would be kept from the victims."
Acosta later said he offered a lenient plea deal because he was told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence", was "above his pay grade" and to "leave it alone". Epstein agreed to plead guilty in Florida state court to two felony prostitution charges, serve 18 months in prison, register as a sex offender, and pay restitution to three dozen victims identified by the FBI. The plea deal was later described as a "sweetheart deal".
A federal judge later found that the prosecutors had violated victims' rights by concealing the agreement from the victims and instead urging them to have "patience". According to an internal review conducted by the Department of Justice's Office of Professional Responsibility, released in November 2020, Acosta showed "poor judgment" in granting Epstein a non-prosecution agreement and failing to notify Epstein's alleged victims about the agreement.
In 2019, Judge Kenneth Marra for the US District Court for the Southern District of Florida adjudicated that the Acosta NPA document had violated the Crime Victims' Rights Act. A later Appeals court judgment called the Acosta NPA "a national disgrace". The terms of the Acosta NPA were revealed only after Bradley Edwards, the representative of two of Epstein's teenaged victims, and press lawyers successfully sued to make them public.
==== Conviction and sentencing (2008–2011) ====
On June 30, 2008, after Epstein pleaded guilty to a state charge of procuring for prostitution a girl below age 18, he was sentenced to eighteen months in prison. While most convicted sex offenders in Florida are sent to state prison, Epstein was instead housed in a private wing of the Palm Beach County Stockade and, according to the sheriff's office, was, after 3+1⁄2 months, allowed to leave the jail on "work release" for up to twelve hours a day, six days a week. This contravened the sheriff's own policies requiring a maximum remaining sentence of ten months and making sex offenders ineligible for the privilege. He was allowed to come and go outside of specified release hours.
Epstein's cell door was left unlocked, and he had access to the attorney room where a television was installed for him, before he was moved to the Stockade's previously unstaffed infirmary. He worked at the office of a foundation he had created shortly before reporting to jail; he dissolved it after serving his time. The Sheriff's Office received $128,000 from Epstein's non-profit to cover the costs of additional services provided during his work release. His office was monitored by "permit deputies" whose overtime was paid by Epstein. They were required to wear suits and check in "welcomed guests" at the "front desk". Later, the Sheriff's Office said these guest logs were destroyed per the department's "records retention" rules, although the Stockade visitor logs were not. Epstein was allowed to use his own driver to drive him between jail and his office and other appointments.
Epstein served almost 13 months of his 18-month sentence before being released on July 22, 2009, and placed on a year of probation on house arrest until August 2010. His early release after 13 of 18 months served was because he provided information regarding Bear Stearns executives Ralph Cioffi and Matthew Tannin, whose conduct was scrutinized by the SDNY court in In re Bear Stearns Companies, Inc. Securities, Derivative and ERISA Litigation, before the bank was acquired by JPMorgan Chase.
While on probation, he was allowed numerous trips on his corporate jet to his residences in Manhattan and the US Virgin Islands. He was allowed long shopping trips and walks around Palm Beach "for exercise". After a contested hearing in January 2011, and an appeal, he stayed registered in New York State as a "level three" (high risk of repeat offense) sex offender, a lifelong designation.
At that hearing, the Manhattan assistant district attorney, Jennifer Gaffney, argued unsuccessfully that the level should be reduced to a low-risk "level one" and was chided by the judge. Despite opposition from Epstein's lawyer that he had a "main" home in the US Virgin Islands, the judge confirmed he personally must check in with the New York Police Department every 90 days. Though Epstein had been a level-three registered sex offender in New York since 2010, the New York Police Department never enforced the 90-day regulation, though non-compliance is a felony.
==== Reactions ====
The immunity agreement and Epstein's lenient treatment were the subject of ongoing public dispute. The Palm Beach police chief accused the state of giving him preferential treatment, and the Miami Herald said US attorney Acosta gave Epstein "the deal of a lifetime". Following Epstein's arrest in July 2019, on sex trafficking charges, Acosta resigned as Secretary of Labor effective July 19, 2019.
After the accusations against Epstein became public, several persons and institutions returned donations that they had received from him, including Eliot Spitzer, Bill Richardson, and the Palm Beach Police Department. Harvard University announced it would not return any money. Various charitable donations that Epstein had made to finance children's education were also questioned.
On June 18, 2010, Epstein's former house manager, Alfredo Rodriguez, was sentenced to 18 months' incarceration after being convicted on an obstruction charge for failing to turn over to police, and subsequently trying to sell, a journal in which he had recorded Epstein's activities. FBI special agent Christina Pryor reviewed the material and agreed it was information "that would have been extremely useful in investigating and prosecuting the case, including names and contact information of material witnesses and additional victims."
=== Second set of criminal charges (2019) ===
==== Sex trafficking charges ====
On July 6, 2019, Epstein was arrested when he returned to the US from France by the FBI-NYPD Crimes Against Children Task Force at Teterboro Airport in New Jersey on charges of sex trafficking during the years 2002 to 2005. He was jailed at the Metropolitan Correctional Center in New York City. According to witnesses and sources on the day of his arrest, about a dozen FBI agents forced open the door to his Manhattan townhouse, the Herbert N. Straus House, with search warrants. The search of his townhouse turned up evidence of sex trafficking and also found "hundreds—and perhaps thousands—of sexually suggestive photographs of fully—or partially—nude females." Some of the photos were confirmed as those of underage females. In a locked safe, compact discs were found with handwritten labels including the descriptions: "Young [Name] + [Name]", "Misc nudes 1", and "Girl pics nude". Ann Coulter alleges that the videotapes were mishandled and as a result those now in possession of the FBI may not be complete.
Also found in the safe were $70,000 in cash, 48 diamonds, and a fraudulent Austrian passport, which expired in 1987, that had Epstein's photo but another name. The passport had numerous entrance and exit stamps, including entrance stamps that showed the use of the passport to enter France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia in the 1980s. The passport showed his place of residence as Saudi Arabia. According to his attorneys, Epstein had been advised to acquire the passport because "as an affluent member of the Jewish faith", he was in danger of being kidnapped while traveling abroad.
On July 8, prosecutors with the Public Corruption Unit of the Southern District of New York under Geoffrey Berman charged him with sex trafficking and conspiracy to traffic minors for sex. The grand jury indictment alleges that "dozens" of underage girls were brought into Epstein's mansions for sexual encounters. Judge Kenneth Marra was to decide whether the non-prosecution agreement that protected Epstein from the more serious charges should still stand.
Epstein requested to be released on bond, offering to post $100 million with the condition that he would also submit to house arrest in his New York City mansion. US district judge Richard M. Berman denied the request on July 18, saying that Epstein posed a danger to the public and a serious flight risk to avoid prosecution. On August 29, 2019, 19 days after Epstein was found dead in his jail cell, the case against Epstein was closed by Judge Berman. Prosecutors stated they would continue an investigation for potential co-conspirators.
==== Investigation in France ====
On August 23, 2019, the prosecutor's office in Paris, France, opened a preliminary investigation into Epstein, after Yael Mellul wrote to the Paris prosecutor to report the international dimensions of the pedophile network involving Jeffrey Epstein, criticizing the slow pace of justice. He is being investigated for rape and sexual assault of minors under and over the age of 15, criminal association with a view to committing crimes, and association with criminals with a view to committing offenses. The prosecutors said that the goal of the investigation is to find possible crimes committed in France and elsewhere against French citizens. An associate of Epstein, modeling agent Jean-Luc Brunel, was arrested during this investigation, but was found dead in his jail cell in 2022.
=== Birthday book release ===
In September 2025, the House Oversight Committee released a 2003 birthday album created for Epstein's 50th birthday, titled The First Fifty Years. The album contained letters and drawings from various associates.
One letter in the collection was attributed to Donald Trump, though Trump has denied writing or signing it and his legal team has challenged its authenticity. Media coverage noted that the release drew renewed attention to Epstein's political and social connections.
=== Civil cases ===
== Personal life ==
Epstein had high self-regard and rose to his peak because he was skilled at human relations: "I saw lots of people doing lots of hard work, and hard work didn't translate into success either. It wasn't what you knew or how hard you worked. In fact, the people who were doing construction on Telegraph Avenue at that time, you know, coming in at seven o'clock in the morning and spending 12 hours working, they looked like they still were neither happy nor successful, so it was not, you know, and what I learned from [my job at the] Dalton [School], lots of it in fact, turns out to not necessarily be who you are but who you came in contact with."
=== Romances and procuresses ===
Girlfriends of Epstein include Eva Andersson-Dubin and Ghislaine Maxwell, daughter of British-Israeli publisher Robert Maxwell.
==== Eva Anderson-Dubin (1980s) ====
Epstein dated Andersson-Dubin for an 11-year period mostly in the 1980s. After her marriage to Glenn Dubin in 1994, she and her husband remained friends with Epstein.
==== Ghislaine Maxwell (1991–2006?) ====
Epstein met Maxwell, daughter of disgraced media baron Robert Maxwell, by 1991. Epstein had Ghislaine come to the US in 1991 to recover from her grief following her father's death. She was later implicated by several of Epstein's accusers as procuring or recruiting underage girls in addition to being, for an extended period, Epstein's chief girlfriend.
Epstein household employees testified in 2009 that Maxwell had a central role in his public and private life, referring to her as his "main girlfriend" who handled the hiring, supervising, and firing of staff starting around 1992. In 1995, Epstein renamed one of his companies the Ghislaine Corporation in Palm Beach, Florida; the company was dissolved in 1998. In 2000, Maxwell moved into a 7,000-square-foot townhouse, less than ten blocks from Epstein's New York mansion. This townhome was purchased for $5 million by an anonymous limited liability company, with an address that matches the office of J. Epstein & Co. Representing the buyer was Darren Indyke, Epstein's longtime lawyer. A picture of Epstein and Maxwell, sitting at a cabin on Queen Elizabeth II's Balmoral estate, around 1999, at the invitation of then prince Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor was shown to her jury to establish their status as romantic partners. In a 2003 Vanity Fair article, Epstein refers to Maxwell as "my best friend". In January 2003, for a 50th birthday gift, Maxwell assembled an album of well-wishes from his friends; among the bawdy greetings was one from Donald Trump. Two decades later, in July 2025, with Epstein files in the public spotlight, the Wall Street Journal revealed details of the album.
According to Virginia Giuffre, Epstein and Maxwell sought to use her as a surrogate mother for a baby they were planning to have together.
==== Karyna Shuliak (2010–2019) ====
Epstein's last female partner was Karyna Shuliak. He maintained his relationship even while jailed in 2019. She is "one of the largest beneficiaries" of several of his financial arrangements that continue post-mortem. She is Belarusian by birth and was nicknamed "the inspector" because of her "jealousy" and the care with which she combed through his agenda and contact list. The pair's relationship began after Epstein was released from jail in 2010 for procuring a child for prostitution and she was the last person to speak on the phone with Epstein. The couple had been together in Paris before his return to the US and his arrest as he deplaned, which she witnessed. He paid for her education as a dentist, her mother's medical care and the purchase of her parents' house in Belarus. She did not think he sounded suicidal when she spoke to him hours before his death, in a 15-minute call not logged and not recorded by his guards, as ought to have been the practice.
=== Juvenile victims ===
Virginia Giuffre said Epstein "picked vulnerable victims... By the time she was 13, she was living on the streets, where she was abused by older men. Life with Epstein provided a kind of security; he paid her, got her an apartment, and took her to New Mexico, London, Paris, Tangiers, and his island." A woman attested in a lawsuit that Epstein employed her to procure underage girls, including at the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and she had witnessed a rape by Epstein.
Anouska De Georgiou, who says "Jeffrey thought that we were disposable", came to Epstein via modelling. Chauntae Davies and Rachel Benavidez came via massage services. Epstein manipulated Benavidez when they met at Zorro Ranch over two years, only to expel her from his circle when she refused to sign a non-disclosure agreement. Benavidez said: "He provided me with promises of continuing education and a clientele that's a world-class clientele. And that's kind of how he lured his tentacles into me."
Ruslana Korshunova was 18 when she boarded Epstein's jet on her way to his USVI residence on June 7, 2006. They were accompanied by former UFC fighter Stephanie Tidwell, his bodyguard Igor Zinoviev, personal chef Lance Calloway, and assistant Sarah Kellen, on the Lolita Express. When Korshunova was 20, she committed suicide, jumping from her apartment's balcony.
Attorney Brad Edwards, who represents more than 200 victims, notes that while Epstein sexually abused all these women and girls, only a small percentage were sent to be sexually abused by other men, who were also a select few.
=== Acquaintances ===
Epstein was a longtime acquaintance of Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor and Tom Barrack, and attended parties with or otherwise frequented many prominent people, including Harvey Weinstein, David Copperfield, Bill Clinton, George Stephanopoulos, Mark Zuckerberg, Reid Hoffman, Elon Musk, Donald Trump, Katie Couric, Woody Allen, Jeff Bezos, Sergey Brin, Larry Page, Lewis Ranieri, Ronald Perelman, Tom Pritzker, Naomi Campbell, and Stephen Hawking. Two printed phone directories belonging to Epstein, commonly referred to as the "black books", included Rupert Murdoch, Michael Bloomberg, Andrew Cuomo, John Kerry, Richard Branson, Alec Baldwin, David Koch, and Michael Jackson. These books included Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak, British prime minister Tony Blair, and Saudi Arabian crown prince Mohammed bin Salman.
Epstein was involved with Sarah Ferguson and Maxwell maintains he bailed Ferguson out of financial difficulties. However, Epstein's relationship with Ferguson would become very hostile by April 2011. Epstein was seen at least once talking with Princess Diana; he negotiated a 1993 divorce settlement for Lynn Forester before she married Evelyn de Rothschild. Lady de Rothschild re-introduced Epstein to Alan Dershowitz; they had known each other at least since 1997, when their friendship was revealed by flight logs in 2015. Dershowitz said that "outside of his immediate family" he only showed manuscripts before they were published to his friend Epstein.
Epstein took Bill Clinton, Kevin Spacey and Chris Tucker on a trip aboard his Boeing 727 jet. Clinton and Trump said they never visited Little Saint James, an island Epstein had owned since 1998, until his death. A Freedom of Information Act request in 2017 for U.S. Secret Service records found no evidence that Clinton ever visited Epstein's island, with Ghislaine Maxwell also later revealing in August 2025 that Clinton, who ceased having contact with Epstein in 2003, was connected to Epstein through her. However, Clinton was listed on Epstein's flight logs at least 11 times with Sarah Kellen between 2002 and 2003.
In 2014 Epstein asked journalist Michael Wolff, an acquaintance, to write his biography. Dr Andrew Lownie, author of Entitled: The Rise and Fall of the House of York, remarks that Epstein circulated among his houseguests "catalogs of photographs. We know that there were books of photographs passed around Epstein's homes where powerful men could choose the [women] they wanted to meet." Epstein was a longtime acquaintance of Mette-Marit, crown princess of Norway, with whom he stayed in contact for several years after his release from prison.
Disgust with Epstein was cited by Melinda French Gates as one of the reasons for her divorce of Bill Gates, who met Epstein after he had been convicted for paedophilia. Bill Gates's relationship with Epstein started in 2011, a few years after Epstein's conviction, and continued for years. In 2021, Gates said he met with Epstein because he hoped Epstein could provide money for philanthropic work, though nothing came of it. Gates added, "It was a huge mistake to spend time with him, to give him the credibility of being there."
Political strategist Steve Bannon and Epstein were introduced not long after Bannon's 2017 ejection from the White House. Bannon met with Epstein several times at his mansion in New York. Via text message in August 2018, Epstein coached Bannon on messaging. In 2019, Bannon interviewed Epstein, generating 15 hours of video, to help prepare him for a 60 Minutes interview that never occurred.
==== Pre-penal Epstein ====
Michael Wolff, who met Epstein around 2001, advised him on press relations, and told Epstein that if he wanted a low profile it would be better not to return calls from reporters and issue a standard "no comment". Epstein took the opposite tack, leading to profiles in October 2002 by New York Magazine, and March 2003 by Vanity Fair. Wolff met Epstein at a party which included Malcolm Gladwell, Steven Pinker, John Brockman and David Rockwell. Epstein asked Rockwell to critique his architectural plans for Little St. James island. These events may have occurred in 2002 when Geraldine Laybourne is documented in the logs to have been a passenger between JFK and MRY. Wolff says TED conferences served Epstein as hunting grounds for interesting personalities who would otherwise have been outside his circle of acquaintance.
==== Post-penal Epstein ====
After his 2008 incarceration, Epstein was shunned by some acquaintances. Hollywood hostess Peggy Siegal helped facilitate his return to elite company through dinner parties at Herbert Straus house, and allowing his attendance at Oscar parties. Siegal, who was Epstein's connection to the entertainment world, was quoted: "He said he'd served his time and assured me that he changed his ways." But USVI attorney-general Denise George alleged in a 2020 lawsuit that Epstein raped girls on his island as young as 11.
As socialite Anne Hearst said, if Siegal's "personally P.R.'ing you as a friend, you'll wind up at the right hand of God." Weeks after Epstein's release, Siegal got Epstein an invitation to a screening of Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps in a Southampton NY mansion where he met with old friend Leon Black, then-Commerce Secretary Wilbur Ross and Rudy Giuliani. Siegal tempted Katie Couric, George Stephanopoulos, Charlie Rose, Chelsea Handler, Woody Allen and Soon-Yi Previn to attend a dinner organised in 2011 by Epstein for Prince Andrew; Stephanopoulos now says it was a mistake. Since Epstein's death, Siegal has been shunned by several in the film industry, as she is seen as one of Epstein's tools.
Brockman did not end his friendship with Epstein after the latter's conviction. Brockman's literary dinners, often held during the TED Conference, were, for several years after Epstein's conviction, funded by Epstein as documented in tax filings. This allowed Epstein to mingle with scientists, startup icons and tech billionaires.
==== Association with Trump ====
From the 1990s to mid-2000s, Epstein often socialized with Donald Trump. Trump, Epstein, and Tom Barrack were like a "set of nightlife musketeers" on the social scene. Epstein and Trump socialized in New York and Palm Beach, where they both had houses. In 2002 Trump remarked: "I've known Jeff for fifteen years. Terrific guy. He's a lot of fun to be with. It is even said that he likes beautiful women as much as I do, and many of them are on the younger side. No doubt about it – Jeffrey enjoys his social life." In 2019, Trump said "I knew him like everybody in Palm Beach knew him", stating four times he had not been "a fan" of Epstein and that he had not spoken to him in about 15 years. A video shot in 1992 surfaced showing them partying together at Mar-a-Lago. According to The Washington Post, someone who knew Epstein and Trump noted "they were tight...each other's wingmen."
In 2004, Epstein and Trump's friendship ran into trouble when they became embroiled in a bidding war for a $40 million mansion, Maison de L'Amitié, auctioned in Palm Beach. Trump won for $41 million, and sold it 4 years later for $95 million to billionaire Dmitry Rybolovlev. That was the last time Epstein and Trump were recorded to have interacted. By 2007, Trump reportedly banned Epstein from his Mar-a-Lago club for unseemly pursuit of young girls. The ban allegation was included in court documents filed by attorney Bradley Edwards, although Edwards later said it was a rumor he could not confirm. Epstein told Wolff in 2017: "I was Donald's closest friend for ten years", and Wolff opines after Trump's election Epstein feared Trump, because over their long friendship each had accumulated information that could incriminate the other. In August 2025 The Daily Beast published an article which claimed Epstein had remained a member at Mar-a-Lago for years after the date on which Trump had claimed to cancel Epstein's membership.
==== Association with Clinton ====
In 2002, a spokesman of Clinton lauded Epstein as "a committed philanthropist" with "insights and generosity". Epstein was on the board of Rockefeller University, a member of the Trilateral Commission and the Council on Foreign Relations, and a major donor to Harvard University. Epstein visited the White House while Clinton was president on four known occasions. In 1993, he went to a donor event at the White House with Maxwell. He also met with Clinton aide Mark Middleton on at least three occasions at the White House. In 1995, financier Lynn Forester discussed "Epstein and currency stabilization" with Clinton. Epstein traded large amounts in the unregulated forex market. In 1995, Epstein attended a fundraiser dinner for Clinton which included 14 other people including Ron Perelman, Don Johnson and Jimmy Buffett.
=== Notable criminal associates ===
Epstein associated with Harvey Weinstein, and they had a favourite outdoor table at a restaurant in the Hamptons. However, Epstein severed his relationship with Weinstein when the latter "acted too aggressively with one of his 'favorite girls.'"
=== Club memberships ===
Epstein was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1995 to 2009, the Trilateral Commission, the Rockefeller Institute, and the Institute of International Education.
=== Lolita Express ===
Epstein, who often is pictured with or in a Gulfstream G550 jet, owned company JEGE with which he chartered it, and owned a Boeing 727 and traveled in it frequently, logging "600 flying hours a year ... usually with guests on board." The jet was nicknamed the Lolita Express by locals in the Virgin Islands, because of its frequent arrivals at Little Saint James with underage girls.
Forbes reports that between 1990 and 2001, the Lolita jet was owned by Wexner, who then transferred it for an undisclosed sum to Epstein. Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor and Bill Clinton flew on Epstein's planes. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. was interviewed in the course of his 2024 bid for the presidency, and came clean about his travels with Epstein. In 2003, Epstein flew to Cuba with Colombian president Andrés Pastrana Arango at the invitation of Cuban president Fidel Castro. According the Miami Herald, Epstein was considering relocating to Cuba to evade US law enforcement.
Trump flew at least six times on Epstein's planes between 1993 and 1997. According to Michael Corcoran, Trump flew Epstein on his own airplane at least once. In September 2002, Epstein flew Clinton, Kevin Spacey, and Chris Tucker to Africa in this jet. Flight records obtained in 2016 show Clinton flew 27 times on the jet. In 2019, a Clinton spokesperson stated that, in 2002 and 2003, Clinton took four trips on Epstein's airplane, making stops on three continents, all with his staff and Secret Service detail.
=== Wealth ===
According to Forbes, most of Epstein's wealth between 1999 and 2018 came from $490 million in fees, (mainly from billionaires Leslie Wexner, $200 million, and Leon Black, $170 million) with the remaining $310 million reported as income by his companies from investment returns. Due to the US Virgin Islands' tax exemptions, his corporations saved $300 million in taxes and paid an effective tax rate of 4%, even though the top marginal tax rate was 39%. In 2025 Epstein's estate received $105 million in tax refunds.
Les Wexner was one source of Epstein's original wealth. An assistant of Epstein stated he got his fortune started through Robert Maxwell, the media mogul father of Ghislaine. When Epstein pleaded guilty in 2008 to soliciting and procuring prostitution, his lawyers stated he had a net worth of over a billion dollars. Several sources have questioned the extent of Epstein's wealth and his status as a billionaire. According to The New York Times, "Epstein's fortune may be more illusion than fact". He lost "large sums of money" in the 2008 financial crisis, and "friends and patrons"—including billionaire Leslie Wexner—"deserted him" following his pleading guilty to prostitution charges. New York magazine claimed "there's scant proof" of Epstein's "financial bona fides", and Forbes ran an article entitled "Why sex offender Jeffrey Epstein is not a billionaire."
Spencer Kuvin, an attorney for three Epstein victims, stated that "he and his team 'pursued every possible angle' to find out Epstein's net worth but found much of it to be offshore." An investigation by the Miami Herald of the Swiss Leaks documents indicated Epstein had financial accounts with millions of dollars in offshore tax havens. In the Paradise Papers, records showed that Epstein in 1997, became a client of Appleby, a Bermuda-based law firm which specialized in the creation of offshore companies and investment vehicles. A client profile of Epstein described his job cryptically as the "Manager of Fortune".
Federal prosecutors on July 12, 2019, stated in court documents that, based on records from one financial institution, Epstein had assets worth at least $500 million and earned more than $10 million a year. The extent of his wealth, however, was unknown, since he had not filled a financial affidavit for his bail application. According to Bloomberg News, "Today, so little is known about Epstein's current business or clients that the only things that can be valued with any certainty are his properties." The Miami Herald in their investigation of the Paradise Papers and Swiss Leaks documents concluded that Epstein's wealth is likely spread secretly across the globe.
In 2020, Epstein estate's finances revealed it had paid out nearly $50 million to more than 100 women who brought claims to the "Epstein Victims Compensation Fund" set up in the US Virgin Islands. By February 2021, the estate was valued at about $240 million, down from estimates of $630 million a year earlier. This prompted the attorney general of the US Virgin Islands, Denise George, to file an emergency motion seeking the immediate asset freeze. She contended in the court filing, which the victims joined, that the estate executors had "mismanaged" the money.
=== Residences ===
In a 2003 Bloomberg interview he said: "I can't be totally wacko in what I do. It affects lots of other people who will get angry with what I do because then it affects me again. But on my own island or on my own ranch, I can think the thoughts I want to think. I can do the work I want to do and I'm free to explore as I see fit."
==== Southern District of New York ====
Epstein owned the Herbert N. Straus House on 9 East 71st Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. It was originally purchased for $13.2 million in 1989 by Epstein's mentor, Les Wexner, who renovated it. Epstein moved into it in 1995 after Wexner married and moved with his wife to Columbus, Ohio, to raise their family. He took full possession of the mansion in 1998, when he paid Wexner $20 million. The house was valued in 2019 by federal prosecutors at $77 million, while the city assessed it at $56 million. The mansion is reputedly the largest private residence in Manhattan at 21,000 sq ft (2,000 m2).
Hidden under a flight of stairs, there is a lead-lined bathroom fitted with closed-circuit television screens and telephone, concealed in a cabinet under the sink. The house has a heated sidewalk to melt away the snow. The entrance hall is lined with prosthetic eyeballs made in England for injured soldiers.
Previous to his final Manhattan home at Herbert Straus House, Epstein resided in a spacious townhouse, which was a former Iranian government building taken over by the State Department during the Iranian revolution, at 34 East 69th Street. He leased it for a rate of $15,000 a month between 1992 and 1995.
Before the Herbert Straus house was sold to Epstein by Wexner, Wexner purchased in 1988 the adjacent townhouse at 11 East 71st Street. As in the case of the 9 East 71st Street house, Epstein was on the deed of the 11 East 71st Street house as the trustee. The 11 East 71st Street townhouse was sold in 1996 to the Comet trust, which as of 2019 held part of the assets of the de Gunzburg/Bronfman family. That same townhouse, 11 East 71st Street, was sold in 1998 to Howard Lutnick, Trump's secretary of commerce since 2025, who still owns the property as of 2025.
==== US Virgin Islands ====
Epstein owned two islands in the US Virgin Islands: Little Saint James, a private island near Saint Thomas in the US Virgin Islands purchased in 1998 which includes a mansion and guest houses, and the neighboring island of Great Saint James purchased in 2016.
It came to light after his second arrest that Epstein owned 50% of the American Yacht Harbour at Red Hook; the other half was owned by Trump associate Andrew Farkas. The partnership came about in 2007 when Epstein was having financial, regulatory and legal problems.
He structured two financial shells called Financial Trust Company (FTC) and Southern Trust around his activities there; this Trust's bank was JPMorganChase and the bank settled a lawsuit with the Attorney General there in 2022 for $105 million over allegations it helped a criminal enterprise to prosper. Epstein's Southern Trust "made fraudulent misrepresentations to the Virgin Islands Economic Development Authority regarding its qualifications for Economic development corporation tax benefits." The bank said the Trust obtained $300 million in tax credits, and paid the US Virgin Islands police. Epstein's estate was nearing settlement of another lawsuit filed by the Attorney General in March 2022.
According to Forbes, the FTC generated fee income from 2000 to 2006 of $300 million. FTC's main business was attentive to Wexner. After the two men fell out in 2007 and over the next six years, the FTC generated less than $5 million. The FTC was Epstein's primary source of income for the earlier period. According to Forbes the Southern Trust was attentive to the needs of Leon Black, and this trust business was set up in 2013 as the result of discussions between the principals. Southern Trust was headquartered at American Yacht Harbour, and was a "DSB-Providing extensive DNA database & data mining" according to government filings.
In 2023, Attorney-General of the US Virgin Islands Denise George was fired from her job by Governor Albert Bryan Jr. days after she filed charges against JP MorganChase over Epstein and his Southern Trust, which she characterized as a criminal enterprise. The wife of the Democratic governor of the USVI from 2007 to 2015, John de Jongh, was employed by the Southern Trust, in addition to being on the board of directors of the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation.
Stephen Deckoff, the founder of Black Diamond Capital Management, bought Epstein's islands in 2023 for $60 million.
==== Southern District of Florida ====
Epstein had a 14,000-square-foot, six-bedroom residence at 358 El Brillo Way in Palm Beach, Florida, which he purchased in 1990. It is two miles north of Mar-a-Lago and was bought for $18.5 million in 2021 by a property developer who demolished it and changed the address.
Ann Coulter maintains that the state attorney for Palm Beach in 2006, Barry Krischer, treated Epstein lightly after the police investigation turned up 17 girls who signed affidavits against him. Under Krischer, the state grand jury indicted him for solitication. After federal attorney Alex Acosta became involved, Epstein pled guilty to procuring a person under 18 for prostitution and was punished by day-release.
==== District of New Mexico ====
Epstein had a 7,500-acre (30 km2) ranch named Zorro Ranch near Stanley, New Mexico, purchased in 1993 for roughly $12 million.
==== Southern District of Ohio ====
Epstein owned a mansion outside Columbus, Ohio, at 5025 East Dublin Granville Road near Wexner's home, from 1992 to 1998, which he purchased from his mentor. It was there that he and Maxwell molested Marie Farmer who was prevented from leaving by his security guards, though that allegation was not tested in court because of the settlement that she signed with the Epstein estate before trial. In the event, she was rescued by her father 12 hours after her illegal detention.
==== France ====
Epstein possessed seven units in an apartment building near the Arc de Triomphe at 22 Avenue Foch in Paris.
==== Palm Beach residence gallery ====
==== Manhattan residence gallery ====
=== Offices ===
Epstein rented offices for his business dealings in the Villard House at 457 Madison Avenue. Steven Hoffenberg originally set up the offices for Epstein in 1987 when he was consulting for Tower Financial. Epstein used these offices until at least 2003. Around this time, Wolff saw the financier in his office, which in the past were the offices of Random House. Wolff noted that Epstein's offices were a strange place which did not have a corporate feel. Wolff stated that the offices were "almost European. It's old—old-fashioned, unrehabbed in its way." Wolff continued that "the trading floor is filled with guys in yarmulkes. Who they are, I have no idea. They're like a throwback, a bunch of guys from the fifties. So here is Jeffrey in this incredibly beautiful office, with pieces of art and a view of the courtyard, and he seems like the most relaxed guy in the world. You want to say 'What's going on here?' and he gives you that Cheshire smile."
Epstein rented multiple apartment units for his employees, models, and guests since the 1990s at 301 East 66th Street. Most of the apartment complex at this address is owned by Ossa properties, which is owned by Jeffrey Epstein's brother, Mark, who purchased the complex in the early 1990s from Wexner.
Over the years Epstein housed friends at 11 East 71st Street, including ex-girlfriend Eva Andersson, now married to his hedge-fund friend Glenn Dubin, and former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak. He has housed some of his workers, including his pilot, housekeeper and office work staff, in the apartment complex. Epstein has housed underage girls. On August 6, 2012, a model and party promoter, who lived above another of the modeling agency's locations in Manhattan, died of what some consider to be a suspicious drug overdose.
=== Political donations ===
In 2002 Epstein said "I invest in people — be it politics or science. It's what I do." From 1989 until 2003, Epstein donated more than $139,000 to US Democratic Party federal candidates and committees and over $18,000 to Republican Party candidates and groups. Epstein contributed $10,000 to refurbish the West Wing of the White House in 1993, which bought him and Maxwell photos with Bill Clinton. He was noted for his contributions to senators Al d'Amato and George J. Mitchell.
Epstein contributed $50,000 to Democrat Bill Richardson's successful campaign for Governor of New Mexico in 2002 and again for his successful run for reelection in 2006. He contributed $15,000 to Democrat Gary King's successful campaign for Attorney General of New Mexico. He contributed $35,000 to King's 2014 campaign for Governor. Other contributions in New Mexico included $10,000 toward Jim Baca's campaign to become head of the land commission and $2,000 toward Santa Fe County sheriff Jim Solano's bid for reelection. In 2010, Epstein received a notice from New Mexico Department of Public Safety which said, "You are not required to register [as a sex offender] with the state of New Mexico." This was in contravention of federal law, which appears to say the conviction in Florida required him to register in New Mexico. In 2018, Epstein contributed $30,000 to Stacey Plaskett, the local Democrat Congresswoman of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
=== Alleged connections to intelligence agencies ===
Epstein was rumored in 2021 by Vicky Ward in Rolling Stone to be associated with intelligence agencies, and bragged to a journalist that he knew the owner of the African port of Djibouti so well that he could use it for contraband. Journalists Dylan Howard, Melissa Cronin and James Robertson linked Epstein to the Israeli Mossad in their book Epstein: Dead Men Tell No Tales. They relied for the most part on the former Israeli intelligence officer Ari Ben-Menashe. According to him, Epstein's activities as a spy served to gather compromising material on powerful people in order to blackmail them. There is a possible connection to the Mossad via Ghislaine Maxwell, whose father Robert Maxwell is said to have had contacts with the Mossad. Epstein's victim Virginia Giuffre alleged Epstein to be an intelligence asset, linking on Twitter to a Reddit page, that alleged Epstein was a spy, running a blackmail operation.
As US attorney in Florida, the later US secretary of labor Alexander Acosta reached a settlement with Epstein's lawyers in 2008, which allowed him to receive a light prison sentence. Acosta later reportedly stated that he was told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence" and that the issue was above his "pay grade". According to Acosta, he was pushed to give him a good deal. Former CIA director and diplomat William J. Burns met with Epstein three times. According to a CIA spokesperson, Burns hoped that Epstein would help him "transition to the private sector".
According to the Dossier Center, Epstein had ties at least as early as 2014 to Russian civil servant Sergei Belyakov, a graduate of the FSB Academy and sometime head of the St. Petersburg Economic Forum; during this engagement he advised Russian government circles on how to circumvent international sanctions against the country. According to journalist Michael Wolff, Epstein told him he flew at least once to Moscow, in 2017, to meet with Vladimir Putin, to whom Epstein bragged repeatedly about providing services in the final decade of his life. In 2020 reportedly his Belarusian "girlfriend" had yet to be investigated by Bill Barr's FBI.
John Mark Dougan was the deputy sheriff of Palm Beach County (where Epstein was first arrested) until his dismissal in 2009. He was then recruited by Russian intelligence and worked as a disseminator of disinformation on behalf of the Russian government. According to British media reports, Dougan may have come into possession of some of Epstein's kompromat, which he allegedly copied and handed over to Russia. Other intelligence agencies may also have obtained the material.
Ghislaine Maxwell told Todd Blanche in his July 2025 prison interview of her, that tales of Epstein's involvement with intelligence agencies during her relationship with him are "bullshit". Previously Maxwell maintained that Epstein's planes were "wire-tapped" for "leverage" and in conversation with Christina Oxenberg she speculated that the audio and video recordings could potentially incriminate co-conspirators and high-profile figures who were associates of Epstein.
According to emails that came to light in November 2025, an Israeli intelligence officer stayed at Epstein's apartment in Manhattan several times between 2013 and 2016. The emails also showed that Epstein was involved in the negotiation of security agreements between Israel and Mongolia and between Israel and the Ivory Coast. Epstein also attempted to establish a backchannel between the Russian and Israeli governments during the Syrian civil war.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 1991, Epstein was one of four donors who pledged to raise US$2 million for a Hillel student building Rosovsky Hall at Harvard University. In the 1990s Epstein donated $10,000 to the White House Historical Association. In 2000, Epstein established the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation, which funds science research and education. Prior to 2003, the foundation funded Martin Nowak's research at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 2003, Epstein pledged donations totaling US$30 million to create a mathematical biology and evolutionary dynamics program at Harvard which was run by Martin Nowak. The actual amount received from Epstein was US$6.5 million. Epstein was friends with and funded Gerald Edelman, Stephen Kosslyn, Danny Hillis, and Lawrence Krauss.
In 2019, Forbes deleted a 2013 article that called Epstein "one of the largest backers of cutting edge science" after The New York Times revealed that its author, Drew Hendricks, had been paid $600 to submit it falsely as his own.
According to attorney Gerald B. Lefcourt, Epstein was "part of the original group that conceived of the Clinton Global Initiative" and in 2006 he donated $25,000 to the Clinton Foundation.
Epstein co-organized a science event with illusionist and skeptic Al Seckel called the Mindshift Conference. The conference took place in 2010 on Epstein's private island Little Saint James. In attendance were scientists Murray Gell-Mann, Leonard Mlodinow, and Gerald Jay Sussman. The true extent of Epstein's donations is unknown. The Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation fails to disclose information which other charities routinely disclose. In 2015, the Attorney General of the state of New York was reported to be trying to gain information but was refused since the charities were based outside of the state and did not solicit in New York State. According to a New York Times investigation, an Epstein-owned charity donated $2.3 million to former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak between 2004 and 2006, and invested $1 million in a partnership with Barak in 2015. It was reported that Barak met with Epstein "dozens of times" from 2013 onwards.
Epstein, besides making donations through the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation, made charitable donations through his three private charities: Epstein Interest, the COUQ Foundation, and Gratitude American Ltd. According to federal tax filings, Epstein donated $30 million between 1998 and 2018, through these charities. Following his death, several scientists and institutions—including Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)—came under criticism for accepting money from Epstein, with some offering to give away money donated by Epstein.
==== Interest in eugenics and transhumanism ====
Beginning in the early-2000s Epstein developed an interest in "improving" the human race through genetic engineering and artificial intelligence, including using his own sperm. He addressed the scientific community at various events and occasions and communicated his fascination with eugenics. It was reported in 2019 that Epstein had planned to "seed the human race with his DNA" by impregnating up to 20 women using his New Mexico compound as a "baby ranch", where mothers would give birth to his offspring. He was an advocate of cryonics and his idiosyncratic version of transhumanism, and said he intended to have his penis and head frozen.
In response to the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation donations, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania said: "Scientists need funding for important work ... if the funding is for legitimate scientific work, there is nothing wrong with accepting support from a billionaire. However it would have been wrong for scientists to accept his funding if they were aware that he was planning a eugenics experiment that might draw legitimacy from his association with them." Professor George Church apologized for meeting Epstein after his 13-month sentence in 2009, saying: "There should have been more conversations about, should we be doing this, should we be helping this guy? There was just a lot of nerd tunnel vision."
=== Health and wellness ===
Epstein had recurring sleep issues. Deepak Chopra consulted for Epstein in relation to his sleep issues from 2016-19. In jail Epstein also experienced sleep issues and was given a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine.
Epstein is believed to have been partially under the care of the longevity doctor Peter Attia.
== Death ==
On July 23, 2019, Epstein was found injured and semiconscious at 1:30 a.m. on the floor of his cell, with marks around his neck. His cellmate, former New York City police officer Nicholas Tartaglione, who was awaiting trial for four counts of murder, was questioned about Epstein's condition. He denied having any knowledge of what happened. Correctional staff suspected attempted suicide, but did not rule out the possibility it was staged or that he was assaulted by another inmate. According to NBC News, two sources said that Epstein might have tried to hang himself, a third said the injuries were not serious and could have been staged, and a fourth source said that an assault by his cellmate had not been ruled out. After that incident, he was placed on suicide watch. Six days later, on July 29, 2019, Epstein was taken off suicide watch and placed in a special housing unit with another inmate. Epstein's close associates said he was in "good spirits".
When Epstein was placed in the special housing unit, the jail informed the Justice Department that he would have a cellmate, and that a guard would look into the cell every 30 minutes. These procedures were not followed on the night of his death. On August 9, 2019, Epstein's cellmate was transferred out, but no one took his place. Later in the evening, contrary to the jail's normal procedure, Epstein was not checked every 30 minutes. The two guards who were assigned to check his jail unit that night fell asleep and did not check on him for about three hours; the guards falsified related records. The two cameras in front of Epstein's cell were also claimed to have malfunctioned that night.
Epstein was found dead in his cell at the Metropolitan Correctional Center (MCC) in New York City at 6:30 a.m. EDT on August 10, 2019. The Bureau of Prisons said lifesaving measures were initiated immediately upon the discovery of Epstein's body. Emergency responders were called and he was taken to a hospital. On August 10, 2019, the Bureau of Prisons and US attorney general William Barr called the death an apparent suicide, although no final determination had been made. The United States Department of Justice's Inspector General's investigation report released on June 27, 2023, criticized jail officials for repeated "negligence, misconduct, and outright job performance failures" in connection with Epstein's incarceration and death. It also denied the suggestion that what happened was anything other than a suicide. In May 2025, the FBI announced plans to release surveillance footage from the night of Epstein's death, aiming to address ongoing conspiracy theories. Deputy Director Dan Bongino stated that the video clearly shows Epstein alone in his cell, with no evidence of outside involvement, reaffirming the official ruling of suicide.
=== Autopsy ===
On August 11, 2019, an autopsy was performed. It appeared likely that Epstein had thrown himself violently off the cell's top bunk, which would explain the damage he suffered, other than strangulation. The preliminary result of the autopsy found that Epstein sustained multiple breaks in his neck bones. Among the bones broken in Epstein's neck was the hyoid bone. Such breaks of the hyoid bone can occur from those who hang themselves from some substantial height, e.g. jumping from a chair into the rope, but they are more common in victims of homicide by strangulation. A 2010 study found broken hyoids in 25 percent of cases of hangings. A larger study conducted from 2010 to 2016 found hyoid damage in just 16 of 264, or six percent, of cases of hangings. Hyoid bone breaks become more common with age, as the bones become more brittle. Forensic pathologist Cyril Wecht noted that hanging by leaning forward would not result in broken cervical bones.
On August 16, 2019, Barbara Sampson, the New York City medical examiner, ruled Epstein's death a suicide by hanging. The medical examiner, according to Epstein's defense counsel, only saw nine minutes of footage from one security camera to help her arrive at her conclusion. Epstein's defense lawyers were not satisfied with the conclusion of the medical examiner and were conducting their own independent investigation into the cause of Epstein's death, including taking legal action, if necessary, to view the pivotal camera footage near his cell during the night of his death. Epstein's lawyers said that the evidence concerning Epstein's death was "far more consistent" with murder than suicide. Michael Baden, an independent pathologist hired by the Epstein estate, observed the autopsy. In October 2019, Baden said that Epstein had experienced a number of injuries—among them a broken bone in his neck—that "are extremely unusual in suicidal hangings and could occur much more commonly in homicidal strangulation." Baden stated that he thinks that the evidence points to homicide rather than suicide.
=== Final will ===
On August 18, 2019, it was reported that Epstein had signed his last will and testament on August 8, 2019, two weeks after being found injured in his cell and two days before his death. Until this time, Epstein had been depositing money in other inmates' commissary accounts to avoid being attacked.
=== Burial ===
Following the autopsy, Epstein's body was claimed by his brother Mark. On September 5, 2019, Epstein's body was interred in an unmarked crypt next to those of his parents at the I.J. Morris Star of David Cemetery in Palm Beach, Florida. The names of his parents were also removed from their crypt in order to prevent vandalism.
=== Investigations ===
Attorney General Barr ordered an investigation by the Department of Justice inspector general in addition to the investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, saying he was "appalled" by Epstein's death in federal custody. Two days later Barr said there had been "serious irregularities" in the prison's handling of Epstein, promising: "We will get to the bottom of what happened, and there will be accountability." On August 14, 2019, Manhattan federal court judge Richard M. Berman, who was overseeing Epstein's criminal case, wrote to the Metropolitan Correctional Center warden Lamine N'Diaye inquiring as to whether an investigation into the millionaire's apparent suicide would include a probe into his prior (July 23) injuries. Judge Berman wrote that, to his knowledge, it has never been definitively explained what they concluded about the incident.
The national president of the Council of Prison Locals C-33, E. O. Young, stated that prisons "can't ever stop anyone who is persistent on killing themselves." 124 inmates killed themselves while in federal custody during the period 2010-2016, or 20 prisoners per year, out of an inmate population of 180,000. The previous reported inmate suicide in the MCC facility in Manhattan was in 1998. The union leader Young said it was unclear if there was video of Epstein's hanging or direct observations by jail officials. He said that while cameras are ubiquitous in the facility, he did not believe that the interior of inmates' cells was within their range. Young said union officials had long been raising concerns regarding staffing, as the Trump administration had imposed a hiring freeze and budget cuts on the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), adding: "All this was caused by the administration."
President Serene Gregg, of the American Federation of Government Employees Local 3148, said MCC was functioning with fewer than 70 percent of the needed correctional officers, forcing many to work mandatory overtime and 60-to-70-hour workweeks. In previous congressional testimony, Attorney General Barr admitted the BOP was "short" about 4,000 to 5,000 employees. He had lifted the freeze and was working to recruit sufficient new officers to replace those who had departed.
Epstein's attorneys asked Judge Berman to probe their client's death, alleging they could provide evidence that the incident resulting in his death was "far more consistent with assault" than suicide. One week after having signed his final will, it had been reported that at least one camera in the hallway outside Epstein's cell had footage that was unusable, although other usable footage was recorded in the area. Two cameras that malfunctioned in front of Epstein's cell were sent to an FBI crime lab for examination. Federal prosecutors subpoenaed up to 20 correctional officers concerning the cause of Epstein's death.
On November 19, 2019, federal prosecutors in New York charged Metropolitan Correctional Center guards Michael Thomas and Tova Noel with creating false records, and with conspiracy, after video footage obtained by prosecutors revealed that Epstein had, against regulation, been in his cell unchecked for eight hours prior to being found dead. On May 22, 2021, the two guards admitted they falsified records but were spared from any time behind bars under a deal with federal prosecutors. As part of a deferred prosecution agreement, on May 25, both officers pleaded guilty to falsifying records and conspiracy to defraud the United States. They were sentenced to six months supervisory release and were required to perform 100 hours of community service. On December 19, 2023, New York judge Loretta Preska ordered a list with names of more than 170 Epstein associates to be unsealed on January 1, 2024. Anyone on the list had until January 1 to appeal to have their name removed.
In February 2025, the second Trump administration's attorney general Pam Bondi stated that Jeffrey Epstein's client list was "sitting on my desk" for review, and in June, Elon Musk alleged that President Trump himself was in the Epstein files. On July 8, Bondi and FBI head Kash Patel announced that there was no client list, no evidence that Epstein had blackmailed anyone, that Epstein had killed himself, and released footage showing a partial view of a common area and obscured view of the stairs leading to Epstein's cell block—though that footage was not able to be independently verified. A minute was found missing from the footage soon after, where the clock jumps from 11:58:58 to 12:00:00. A Wired investigation found that the video had been modified despite the FBI's claim that it was raw, and that nearly three minutes were cut out of the video. CBS News cited an unnamed government official, who said that the video had been deliberately edited to remove a minute, and an unedited version is in possession of the FBI.
On July 15, 2025, Rep Thomas Massie submitted House Resolution 119-581, co-sponsored by Ro Khanna, to force the Department of Justice to release the Epstein files. The same pair announced on August 12 that they would bring a number of Epstein's victims to the Capitol on September 3, the day the House returns from August vacation. Massie told ABC's Jonathan Karl:
[this motion] would force a full release of the files. It has the force of law. It's not a subpoena. It's not a pretty please would you release the files. It's the force of law.. It's emblematic of the promise that President Trump brought with him to the White House, how he energized so many people who had checked out of the political system. He was going to be the guy who holds all the rich and powerful and politically connected people accountable, and that's why there's so much disappointment right now.
On August 25, 2025, the House Oversight Committee issued a subpoena to Acosta requesting his testimony in the Epstein file. His name was not in the initial batch of subpoenas the committee sent out earlier in August, which included Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton and former attorneys general Loretta Lynch, Eric Holder, William Barr, Merrick Garland, Jeff Sessions and Alberto Gonzales. Acosta's testimony is scheduled for September 19.
On September 4, James O'Keefe published on Twitter an exposé on Deputy Chief Joseph Schnitt of DOJ Special Operations, in which the latter said that there were "thousands and thousands of pages of files" relating to Epstein and that the DOJ would "redact every Republican or conservative person in those files", while also "[leaving] all the liberal, Democratic people in those files." Epstein's brother Mark Epstein would allege much the same on November 17, stating he had heard from "a pretty good source" that a team in Virginia was "sanitizing" and "scrubbing the files to take Republican names out."
On November 12, 2025, Adelita Grijalva gave the final 218th signature to Thomas Massie's discharge position, forcing the creation of the Epstein Files Transparency Act.
== In popular culture ==
Epstein's death became the subject of widespread controversy and debate, with the belief that his death was a homicide becoming a popular meme.
=== Artworks ===
On July 1, 2020, a statue of Epstein was left outside the City Hall in Albuquerque, New Mexico as a satirical commentary on opposition to the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials.
A sculpture of Epstein frolicking with Trump titled Best Friends Forever was produced by an anonymous art group aliased "The Secret Handshake" in protest of their relationship. Its September 2025 debut at the National Mall made national news when the United States Park Police assigned with protecting the sculpture dismantled it.
=== Documentaries ===
HBO is creating a limited series on Epstein's life and death to be directed and executive produced by Adam McKay.
Sony Pictures Television is additionally developing a miniseries based on Epstein's life.
The Netflix documentary series Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich premiered in May 2020.
The Lifetime documentary Surviving Jeffrey Epstein premiered in August 2020.
=== Film and television ===
In the season four finale of the CBS series The Good Fight, "The Gang Discovers Who Killed Jeffrey Epstein", the plot revolves around Epstein's death.
Footage of Trump and Epstein talking at the 1992 Mar-a-Lago party appears in the 2020 mockumentary comedy film Borat Subsequent Moviefilm, where the footage is shown inspiring Borat to gift his teen daughter to someone in Trump's inner circle (with Borat deciding on Mike Pence, and later Rudy Giuliani). Later in the film, one of Borat's children also changes his name to Jeffrey Epstein.
The Onion premiered in October 2025 a 20-minute satirical mockumentary, Jeffery Epstein: Bad Pedophile.
In the 2025 Smiling Friends episode "Le Voyage Incroyable de Monsieur Grenouille", a caricature of Epstein is briefly seen wearing "I'm with stupid" novelty t-shirts with Mr. Frog, a character that was a contentious television personality-turned-president of the United States.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
=== Articles ===
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "Even from jail, sex abuser manipulated the system. His victims were kept in the dark". Miami Herald.
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "For years, Jeffrey Epstein abused teen girls, police say. A timeline of his case". Miami Herald.
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "How a future Trump Cabinet member gave a serial sex abuser the deal of a lifetime". Miami Herald.
Bruck, Connie (August 5, 2019). "Devil's Advocate: Alan Dershowitz's long, controversial career – and the accusations against him". The New Yorker. pp. 32–47.
Coaston, Jane; North, Anna (July 10, 2019). "Jeffrey Epstein, the convicted sex offender who is friends with Donald Trump and Bill Clinton, explained". Vox.
Sherman, Gabriel (July–August 2021). "The mogul and the monster". Vanity Fair. Vol. 730. pp. 60–65, 133–134.
Stewart, James B. (August 12, 2019). "The Day Jeffrey Epstein Told Me He Had Dirt on Powerful People". The New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
=== Books ===
Dylan Howard; Melissa Dylan; James Robertson: Epstein: Dead Men Tell No Tales. Simon and Schuster, 2019, ISBN 978-1-5107-5823-0.
Bradley J. Edwards; Brittany Henderson: Relentless Pursuit: My Fight for the Victims of Jeffrey Epstein. Simon & Schuster, 2020, ISBN 978-1-4711-9529-7.
Barry Levine: The Spider: Inside the Criminal Web of Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell. Crown, 2020, ISBN 978-0-593-23718-2.
Julie K. Brown: Perversion of Justice. The Jeffrey Epstein Story. Dey Street, 2021, ISBN 978-0-06-300058-2.
Sarah Ransome: Silenced No More. Surviving My Journey to Hell and Back. HarperOne, 2021, ISBN 978-0-06-321371-5.
Whitney Alyse Webb: One Nation Under Blackmail: The Sordid Union Between Intelligence and Organized Crime that Gave Rise to Jeffrey Epstein. Trine Day, 2022, ISBN 978-1-63424-301-8. (online)
== External links ==
Jeffrey Epstein's Little Black Book (Epstein's first discovered redacted contact book)
Jeffrey Epstein's Other Black Book (Epstein's second discovered redacted contact book)
Jeffrey Epstein Flight Logs
2007 Non-prosecution agreement
State of Florida vs. Jeffrey E. Epstein (Criminal Information, 2008) Archived September 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Jeffrey Epstein collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Collected news at the New York Daily News
FBI records
Epstein Indictment |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System#:~:text=On%20September%2014%2C%202007%2C%20the,fail%20as%20soon%20as%202010. | Global Positioning System | The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based hyperbolic navigation system owned by the United States Space Force and operated by Mission Delta 31. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where signal quality permits. It does not require the user to transmit any data, and operates independently of any telephone or Internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. It provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. Although the United States government created, controls, and maintains the GPS system, it is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
== Overview ==
The GPS project was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973. The prototype spacecraft was launched in 1978 and the full constellation of 24 satellites became operational in 1993. After Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down when it mistakenly entered Soviet airspace, President Ronald Reagan determined that the GPS system would be made available for civilian use as of 1988; however, initially this civilian use was limited to an average accuracy of 100 meters (330 ft) by use of Selective Availability (SA), a deliberate error introduced into the GPS data that military receivers could correct for.
As civilian GPS usage grew, there was increasing pressure to remove this error. The SA system was temporarily disabled during the Gulf War, as a shortage of military GPS units meant that many US soldiers were using civilian GPS units sent from home. In the 1990s, Differential GPS systems from the US Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, and similar agencies in other countries began to broadcast local GPS corrections, reducing the effect of both SA degradation and atmospheric effects (that military receivers also corrected for). The U.S. military had also developed methods to perform local GPS jamming, meaning that the ability to globally degrade the system was no longer necessary. As a result, United States President Bill Clinton signed a bill ordering that Selective Availability be disabled on May 1, 2000; and, in 2007, the US government announced that the next generation of GPS satellites would not include the feature.
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block III satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) which was authorized by the U.S. Congress in 2000. When Selective Availability was discontinued, GPS was accurate to about 5 meters (16 ft). GPS receivers that use the L5 band have much higher accuracy of 30 centimeters (12 in), while those for high-end applications such as engineering and land surveying are accurate to within 2 cm (3⁄4 in) and can even provide sub-millimeter accuracy with long-term measurements. Consumer devices such as smartphones can be accurate to 4.9 m (16 ft) or better when used with assistive services like Wi-Fi positioning.
As of July 2023, 18 GPS satellites broadcast L5 signals, which are considered pre-operational prior to being broadcast by a full complement of 24 satellites in 2027.
== History ==
The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, combining ideas from several predecessors, including classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites, for use by the United States military, and became fully operational in 1993. Civilian use was allowed from the 1980s. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A. Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. The work of Gladys West on the creation of the mathematical geodetic Earth model is credited as instrumental in the development of computational techniques for detecting satellite positions with the precision needed for GPS.
The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator System, developed in the early 1940s. In 1955, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity—detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational field using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial satellites. Special and general relativity predicted that the clocks on GPS satellites, as observed by those on Earth, run 38 microseconds faster per day than those on the Earth. The design of GPS corrects for this difference; because without doing so, GPS calculated positions would accumulate errors of up to 10 kilometers per day (6 mi/d).
=== Predecessors ===
When the Soviet Union launched its first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) monitored its radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC I computer to perform the heavy calculations required.
Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem: pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required them to know the submarine's location.) This led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in TRANSIT.
TRANSIT was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required for GPS.
In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.
Although there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation of a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. It is also the reason for the ultra-secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.
Precise navigation would enable United States ballistic missile submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The USAF, with two-thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (comparable to the Soviet SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.
In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN System. A follow-on study, Project 57, was performed in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born". That same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in GPS" and promised increased accuracy for U.S. Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs.
Updates from the Navy TRANSIT system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) continued making advances with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, second launched in 1969, with the third in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock into orbit and the fourth launched in 1977.
Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. The SECOR system included three ground-based transmitters at known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.
=== Development ===
With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program. Satellite orbital position errors, induced by variations in the gravity field and radar refraction among others, had to be resolved. A team led by Harold L. Jury of Pan Am Aerospace Division in Florida from 1970 to 1973, used real-time data assimilation and recursive estimation to do so, reducing systematic and residual errors to a manageable level to permit accurate navigation.
During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created. Later that year, the DNSS program was named Navstar. Navstar is often erroneously considered an acronym for "NAVigation System using Timing And Ranging" but was never considered as such by the GPS Joint Program Office (TRW may have once advocated for a different navigational system that used that acronym). With the individual satellites being associated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites, Navstar-GPS. Ten "Block I" prototype satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985 (an additional unit was destroyed in a launch failure).
The effect of the ionosphere on radio transmission was investigated in a geophysics laboratory of Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory, renamed to Air Force Geophysical Research Lab (AFGRL) in 1974. AFGRL developed the Klobuchar model for computing ionospheric corrections to GPS location. Of note is work done by Australian space scientist Elizabeth Essex-Cohen at AFGRL in 1974. She was concerned with the curving of the paths of radio waves (atmospheric refraction) traversing the ionosphere from NavSTAR satellites.
After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 carrying 269 people, was shot down by a Soviet interceptor aircraft after straying in prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good. The first Block II satellite was launched on February 14, 1989, and the 24th satellite was launched in 1994. The GPS program cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment but including the costs of the satellite launches, has been estimated at US$5 billion (equivalent to $11 billion in 2024).
Initially, the highest-quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded, in a policy known as Selective Availability. This changed on May 1, 2000, with U.S. President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive to turn off Selective Availability to provide the same accuracy to civilians that was afforded to the military. The directive was proposed by the U.S. Secretary of Defense, William Perry, in view of the widespread growth of differential GPS services by private industry to improve civilian accuracy. Moreover, the U.S. military was developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional basis. Selective Availability was removed from the GPS architecture beginning with GPS-III.
Since its deployment, the U.S. has implemented several improvements to the GPS service, including new signals for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all users, all the while maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment. Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U.S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and the commercial market. As of early 2015, high-quality Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provided horizontal accuracy of better than 3.5 meters (11 ft), although many factors such as receiver and antenna quality and atmospheric issues can affect this accuracy.
GPS is owned and operated by the United States government as a national resource. The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS. The Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996 to 2004. After that, the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and related systems. The executive committee is chaired jointly by the Deputy Secretaries of Defense and Transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level officials from the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and NASA. Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison.
The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to "maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis" and "develop measures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses".
=== Timeline and modernization ===
In 1972, the U.S. Air Force Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman Air Force Base) conducted developmental flight tests of four prototype GPS receivers in a Y configuration over White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites.
In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.
In 1983, after Soviet Union interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed, although it had been publicly known as early as 1979, that the CA code (Coarse/Acquisition code) would be available to civilian users.
By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.
Beginning in 1988, command and control of these satellites was moved from Onizuka AFS, California to the 2nd Satellite Control Squadron (2SCS) located at Schriever Space Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.
The Gulf War from 1990 to 1991 was the first conflict in which the military widely used GPS.
In 1991, DARPA's project to create a miniature GPS receiver successfully ended, replacing the previous 16 kg (35 lb) military receivers with a 1.25 kg (2.8 lb) all-digital handheld GPS receiver.
In 1991, TomTom, a Dutch sat-nav manufacturer, was founded.
In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was inactivated and replaced by the 50th Space Wing.
By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), with a full constellation (24 satellites) available and providing the Standard Positioning Service (SPS).
Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April 1995, signifying full availability of the military's secure Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive declaring GPS a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety, and in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as GPS III.
On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing civilian users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.
In 2004, the United States government signed an agreement with the European Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's Galileo system.
In 2004, United States President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing.
In November 2004, Qualcomm announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile phones.
In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.
On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground segment Control System was transferred to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.
On May 19, 2009, the United States Government Accountability Office issued a report warning that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.
On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure, saying: "There's only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard."
On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software incompatibility with 8,000 to 10,000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation Limited of Sunnyvale, California.
On February 25, 2010, the U.S. Air Force awarded the contract to Raytheon Company to develop the GPS Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS navigation signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization.
July 24, 2020, operation of the GPS constellation is transferred to the newly established U.S. Space Force as part of its establishment.
On October 13, 2023, the Space Force activated PNT Delta (Provisional) to manage US navigation warfare assets. 2SOPS and GPS operations were realigned under this new Delta.
=== Awards ===
On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the US's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the U.S. Air Force, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago".
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003:
Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and an engineer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to Navigation).
Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.
GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006. Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010, for his role in space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part of Project 621B. In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame.
On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity. On December 6, 2018, Gladys West was inducted into the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame in recognition of her work on an extremely accurate geodetic Earth model, which was ultimately used to determine the orbit of the GPS constellation. On February 12, 2019, four founding members of the project were awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering with the chair of the awarding board stating: "Engineering is the foundation of civilisation; ...They've re-written, in a major way, the infrastructure of our world."
== Principles ==
The GPS satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the reference atomic clocks at the ground control stations; any drift of the clocks aboard the satellites from the reference time maintained on the ground stations is corrected regularly. Since the speed of radio waves (speed of light) is constant and independent of the satellite speed, the time delay between when the satellite transmits a signal and the ground station receives it is proportional to the distance from the satellite to the ground station. With the distance information collected from multiple ground stations, the location coordinates of any satellite at any time can be calculated with great precision.
Each GPS satellite carries an accurate record of its own position and time, and broadcasts that data continuously. Based on data received from multiple GPS satellites, an end user's GPS receiver can calculate its own four-dimensional position in spacetime; However, at a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and the deviation of its own clock from satellite time).
=== More detailed description ===
Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier wave with modulation) that includes:
A pseudorandom code (sequence of ones and zeros) that is known to the receiver. By time-aligning a receiver-generated version and the receiver-measured version of the code, the time of arrival (TOA) of a defined point in the code sequence, called an epoch, can be found in the receiver clock time scale
A message that includes the time of transmission (TOT) of the code epoch (in GPS time scale) and the satellite position at that time
Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite ranges plus time difference between the receiver and GPS satellites multiplied by speed of light, which are called pseudo-ranges. The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs.
In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional Cartesian coordinates with origin at the Earth's center) and the offset of the receiver clock relative to the GPS time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation equations to process the TOFs.
The receiver's Earth-centered solution location is usually converted to latitude, longitude and height relative to an ellipsoidal Earth model. The height may then be further converted to height relative to the geoid, which is essentially mean sea level. These coordinates may be displayed, such as on a moving map display, or recorded or used by some other system, such as a vehicle guidance system.
As of 2025, these core principles are being enhanced by the ongoing modernization of the GPS constellation with the introduction of GPS III and GPS IIIF satellites. These next-generation satellites feature more advanced atomic clocks for even greater timekeeping accuracy and broadcast more powerful, secure, and interoperable signals (such as L1C, L2C, and L5). This improves the precision of the time-of-flight (TOF) measurements and provides better resistance to signal interference, enhancing the reliability of the position calculation for all users.
=== User-satellite geometry ===
Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect.
It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at the intersection of three spheres. While simpler to visualize, this is the case only if the receiver has a clock synchronized with the satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range differences). There are marked performance benefits to the user carrying a clock synchronized with the satellites. Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to compute a position solution. If it were an essential part of the GPS concept that all users needed to carry a synchronized clock, a smaller number of satellites could be deployed, but the cost and complexity of the user equipment would increase.
=== Receiver in continuous operation ===
The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm, sometimes called a tracker, that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times—in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements is processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new measurements with the tracker prediction. In general, a tracker can (a) improve receiver position and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction.
The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed or direction can be computed only with a delay, and that derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance traveled between two position measurements drops below or near the random error of position measurement. GPS units can use measurements of the Doppler shift of the signals received to compute velocity accurately. More advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a compass or an inertial navigation system to complement GPS.
=== Non-navigation applications ===
GPS requires four or more satellites to be visible for accurate navigation. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-of-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than for the basic position calculations, do not use it at all.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship on the open ocean usually has a known elevation close to 0m, and the elevation of an aircraft may be known. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.
== Structure ==
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.
=== Space segment ===
The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV), in medium Earth orbit, and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbital period is one-half of a sidereal day, about 11 hours and 58 minutes, so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from everywhere on the Earth's surface (see animation at right). The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90°) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30°, 105°, 120°, and 105° apart, which sum to 360°.
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi); orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (16,500 mi), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day. This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.
As of February 2019, there are 31 satellites in the GPS constellation, 27 of which are in use at a given time with the rest allocated as stand-bys. A 32nd was launched in 2018, but as of July 2019 is still in evaluation. More decommissioned satellites are in orbit and available as spares. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve accuracy but also improves reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail. With the expanded constellation, nine satellites are usually visible at any time from any point on the Earth with a clear horizon, ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed for a position.
=== Control segment ===
The control segment (CS) is composed of:
a master control station (MCS),
an alternative master control station,
four dedicated ground antennas, and
six dedicated monitor stations.
The MCS can also access Satellite Control Network (SCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Space Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, Florida, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington, DC. The tracking information is sent to the MCS at Schriever Space Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Space Force. Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.
When a satellite's orbit is being adjusted, the satellite is marked unhealthy, so receivers do not use it. After the maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again. The operation control segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports GPS users and keeps the GPS operational and performing within specification.
OCS replaced the 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces.
OCS will continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System (OCX), is fully developed and functional. The U.S. Department of Defense has claimed that the new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for enhancing GPS's mission capabilities, enabling U.S. Space Force to enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and domestic and international users. The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk. It is designed to provide 50% sustainment cost savings through efficient software architecture and Performance-Based Logistics. In addition, GPS OCX is expected to cost millions of dollars less than the cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.
The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS modernization and provides information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.
OCX will have the ability to control and manage GPS legacy satellites as well as the next generation of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of military signals.
Built on a flexible architecture that can rapidly adapt to changing needs of GPS users allowing immediate access to GPS data and constellation status through secure, accurate and reliable information.
Provides the warfighter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to enhance situational awareness.
Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and L5) and has M-code capability, which the legacy system is unable to do.
Provides significant information assurance improvements over the current program including detecting and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating during such attacks.
Supports higher volume near real-time command and control capabilities and abilities.
On September 14, 2011, the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX Preliminary Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase of development. The GPS OCX program missed major milestones and pushed its launch into 2021, 5 years past the original deadline. According to the Government Accounting Office in 2019, the 2021 deadline looked shaky.
The project remained delayed in 2023, and was (as of June 2023) 73% over its original estimated budget. In late 2023, Frank Calvelli, the assistant secretary of the Air Force for space acquisitions and integration, stated that the project was estimated to go live some time during the summer of 2024.
The US Space Force accepted delivery of OCX Blocks I and II from contractor RTX on July 1, 2025, over 8 years behind schedule and roughly $4 billion over budget due to its monolithic development and constant feature creep while in process. If current Government Accountability Office estimates hold, the new system will enter service in December 2025.
OCX Block 3F is currently in development to enable command and control of GPS IIIF satellites, currently slated to begin launching in 2027.
=== User segment ===
The user segment (US) is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user.
GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format. This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.
Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol. Although this protocol is officially defined by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA), references to this protocol have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth.
== Applications ==
While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant civilian applications as well.
GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching.
=== Civilian ===
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.
Amateur radio: clock synchronization required for several digital modes such as FT8, FT4 and JS8; also used with APRS for position reporting; is often critical during emergency and disaster communications support.
Atmosphere: studying the troposphere delays (recovery of the water vapor content) and ionosphere delays (recovery of the number of free electrons). Recovery of Earth surface displacements due to the atmospheric pressure loading.
Astronomy: both positional and clock synchronization data is used in astrometry and celestial mechanics and precise orbit determination. GPS is also used in both amateur astronomy with small telescopes as well as by professional observatories for finding extrasolar planets.
Automated vehicle: applying precise vehicle location, coupled with highly detailed maps, provides the context needed for cars and trucks to function without a human driver.
Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other applications. The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency services could locate 911 callers. Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs from Nextel upon launch, followed by Sprint in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.
Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time signals (±10 ns) is second only to the atomic clocks they are based on, and is used in applications such as GPS disciplined oscillators.
Disaster relief/emergency services: many emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities.
GPS-equipped radiosondes and dropsondes: measure and calculate the atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up to 27 km (89,000 ft) from the Earth's surface.
Radio occultation for weather and atmospheric science applications.
Fleet tracking: used to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.
Geodesy: determination of Earth orientation parameters including the daily and sub-daily polar motion, and length-of-day variabilities, Earth's center-of-mass – geocenter motion, and low-degree gravity field parameters.
Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS to locate devices that are attached to or carried by a person, vehicle, or pet. The application can provide continuous tracking and send notifications if the target leaves a designated (or "fenced-in") area.
Geotagging: applies location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data) and other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1.
GPS aircraft tracking
GPS for mining: the use of RTK GPS has significantly improved several mining operations such as drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying. RTK GPS provides centimeter-level positioning accuracy.
GPS data mining: It is possible to aggregate GPS data from multiple users to understand movement patterns, common trajectories and interesting locations. GPS data is today used in transportation and disaster engineering to forecast mobility in normal and evacuation situations (e.g., hurricanes, wildfires, earthquakes).
GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an approaching point of interest.
Mental health: tracking mental health functioning and sociability.
Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements, as well as precise positions in real-time with a support of orbit and clock corrections.
Orbit determination of low-orbiting satellites with GPS receiver installed on board, such as GOCE, GRACE, Jason-1, Jason-2, TerraSAR-X, TanDEM-X, CHAMP, Sentinel-3, and some cubesats, e.g., CubETH.
Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate timestamping of power system measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.
Recreation: for example, Geocaching, Geodashing, GPS drawing, waymarking, and other kinds of location based mobile games such as Pokémon Go.
Reference frames: realization and densification of the terrestrial reference frames in the framework of Global Geodetic Observing System. Co-location in space between Satellite laser ranging and microwave observations for deriving global geodetic parameters.
Robotics: self-navigating, autonomous robots using GPS sensors, which calculate latitude, longitude, time, speed, and heading.
Sport: used in football and rugby for the control and analysis of the training load.
Surveying: surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property boundaries.
Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquakes. Between earthquakes GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and deformation to estimate seismic strain buildup for creating seismic hazard maps.
Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology in automotive navigation systems.
==== Restrictions on civilian use ====
The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above 60,000 ft (18 km) above sea level and 1,000 kn (500 m/s; 2,000 km/h; 1,000 mph), or designed or modified for use with unmanned missiles and aircraft, are classified as munitions (weapons)—which means they require State Department export licenses. This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Vendor interpretations differ. The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach 30 km (100,000 feet). These limits only apply to units or components exported from the United States. A growing trade in various components exists, including GPS units from other countries. These are expressly sold as ITAR-free.
=== Military ===
As of 2009, military GPS applications include:
Navigation: Soldiers use GPS to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate troop and supply movement. In the United States armed forces, commanders use the Commander's Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital Assistant.
Frequency-Hopping Radio Clock Coordination: Military radio systems using frequency hopping modes, such as SINCGARS and HAVEQUICK, require all radios within a network to have the same time input to their internal clocks (+/-4 seconds in the case of SINCGARS) to be on the correct frequency at a given time. Military GPS receivers, such as the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) and Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR), are used by radio operators within a radio network to properly input an accurate time to said radios internal clock. More modern military radios have internal GPS receivers that synchronize the internal clock automatically.
Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air targets before flagging them as hostile. These weapon systems pass target coordinates to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage targets accurately. Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets.
Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles, precision-guided munitions and artillery shells. Embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 g or about 118 km/s2 (260,000 mph/s) have been developed for use in 155-millimeter (6.1 in) howitzer shells.
Search and rescue.
Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed more closely.
GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor called a bhangmeter, an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor), that form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System. General William Shelton has stated that future satellites may drop this feature to save money.
GPS type navigation was first used in war in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, before GPS was fully developed in 1995, to assist Coalition Forces to navigate and perform maneuvers in the war. The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of GPS to being jammed, when Iraqi forces installed jamming devices on likely targets that emitted radio noise, disrupting reception of the weak GPS signal.
GPS's vulnerability to jamming is a threat that continues to grow as jamming equipment and experience grows. GPS signals have been reported to have been jammed many times over the years for military purposes. Russia seems to have several objectives for this approach, such as intimidating neighbors while undermining confidence in their reliance on American systems, promoting their GLONASS alternative, disrupting Western military exercises, and protecting assets from drones. China uses jamming to discourage US surveillance aircraft near the contested Spratly Islands. North Korea has mounted several major jamming operations near its border with South Korea and offshore, disrupting flights, shipping and fishing operations. Iranian Armed Forces disrupted the civilian airliner plane Flight PS752's GPS when it shot down the aircraft.
In the Russo-Ukrainian War, GPS-guided munitions provided to Ukraine by NATO countries experienced significant failure rates as a result of Russian electronic warfare. Excalibur artillery shells efficiency rate hitting targets dropped from 70% to 6% as Russia adapted its electronic warfare activities.
=== Timekeeping ===
==== Leap seconds ====
While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain new leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI – GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed to the on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground clocks.
The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC. As of January 2017, GPS time is 18 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second added to UTC on December 31, 2016. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific time zone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits).
==== Accuracy ====
GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift relative to International Atomic Time that the atomic clocks in GPS transmitters experience. Most receivers lose some accuracy in their interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to about 100 nanoseconds.
==== Relativistic corrections ====
The GPS implements two major corrections to its time signals for relativistic effects: one for relative velocity of satellite and receiver, using the special theory of relativity, and one for the difference in gravitational potential between satellite and receiver, using general relativity. The acceleration of the satellite could also be computed independently as a correction, depending on purpose, but normally the effect is already dealt with in the first two corrections.
==== Format ====
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). It happened the second time at 23:59:42 UTC on April 6, 2019. To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern in the future the modernized GPS civil navigation (CNAV) message will use a 13-bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).
== Communication ==
The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
=== Message format ===
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message on L1 (C/A and P/Y) and L2 (P/Y) frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750 seconds (12+1⁄2 minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.
The first subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week, as well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second and the third subframes contain the ephemeris – the precise orbital parameters for the satellite. The fourth and fifth subframes contain the almanac, which contains coarse orbit and status information for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as data related to error correction. Thus, to obtain an accurate satellite location from this transmitted message, the receiver must demodulate the message from each satellite it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. To collect all transmitted almanacs, the receiver must demodulate the message for 732 to 750 seconds or 12+1⁄2 minutes.
All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies, encoding signals using unique code-division multiple access (CDMA) so receivers can distinguish individual satellites from each other. The system uses two distinct CDMA encoding types: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P(Y)) code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military and other NATO nations who have been given access to the encryption code can access it.
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is sufficiently stable for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally, data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission updates that delay data upload.
=== Satellite frequencies ===
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the satellites is 10.22999999543 MHz to compensate for relativistic effects that make observers on the Earth perceive a different time reference with respect to the transmitters in orbit. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code that is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to the user.
The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used to transmit data from the satellites to ground stations. This data is used by the United States Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System (USNDS) to detect, locate, and report nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in the Earth's atmosphere and near space. One usage is the enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.
The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization. This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that provides this signal was launched in May 2010. On February 5, 2016, the 12th and final Block IIF satellite was launched. The L5 consists of two carrier components that are in phase quadrature with each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key (BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train. "L5, the third civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety-of-life applications for aviation and provide improved availability and accuracy."
In 2011, a conditional waiver was granted to LightSquared to operate a terrestrial broadband service near the L1 band. Although LightSquared had applied for a license to operate in the 1525 to 1559 band as early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the FCC asked LightSquared to form a study group with the GPS community to test GPS receivers and identify issues that might arise due to the larger signal power from the LightSquared terrestrial network. The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared (formerly MSV and SkyTerra) applications until November 2010, when LightSquared applied for a modification to its Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization. This filing (SAT-MOD-20101118-00239) amounted to a request to run several orders of magnitude more power in the same frequency band for terrestrial base stations, essentially repurposing what was supposed to be a "quiet neighborhood" for signals from space as the equivalent of a cellular network. Testing in the first half of 2011 has demonstrated that the effects from the lower 10 MHz of spectrum are minimal to GPS devices (less than 1% of the total GPS devices are affected). The upper 10 MHz intended for use by LightSquared may have some effect on GPS devices. There is some concern that this may seriously degrade the GPS signal for many consumer uses. Aviation Week magazine reports that the latest testing (June 2011) confirms "significant jamming" of GPS by LightSquared's system.
=== Demodulation and decoding ===
Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver.
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern. There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data.
Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission and the satellite position at this time. For more information see Demodulation and Decoding, Advanced.
== Navigation equations ==
=== Problem statement ===
The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of satellite position and the time sent (s) are designated as [xi, yi, zi, si] where the subscript i denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2, ..., n, where n ≥ 4. When the time of message reception indicated by the on-board receiver clock is
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{\displaystyle {\tilde {t}}_{i}}
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{\displaystyle t_{i}={\tilde {t}}_{i}-b}
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{\displaystyle {\tilde {t}}_{i}-b-s_{i}}
, where si is the satellite time. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled is
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{\displaystyle \left({\tilde {t}}_{i}-b-s_{i}\right)c}
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For n satellites, the equations to satisfy are:
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{\displaystyle d_{i}=\left({\tilde {t}}_{i}-b-s_{i}\right)c,\;i=1,2,\dots ,n}
where di is the geometric distance or range between receiver and satellite i (the values without subscripts are the x, y, and z components of receiver position):
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{\displaystyle d_{i}={\sqrt {(x-x_{i})^{2}+(y-y_{i})^{2}+(z-z_{i})^{2}}}}
Defining pseudoranges as
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{\displaystyle p_{i}=\left({\tilde {t}}_{i}-s_{i}\right)c}
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{\displaystyle p_{i}=d_{i}+bc,\;i=1,2,...,n}
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Since the equations have four unknowns [x, y, z, b]—the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias—signals from at least four satellites are necessary to attempt solving these equations. They can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods. Existence and uniqueness of GPS solutions are discussed by Abell and Chaffee. When n is greater than four, this system is overdetermined and a fitting method must be used.
The amount of error in the results varies with the received satellites' locations in the sky, since certain configurations (when the received satellites are close together in the sky) cause larger errors. Receivers usually calculate a running estimate of the error in the calculated position. This is done by multiplying the basic resolution of the receiver by quantities called the geometric dilution of position (GDOP) factors, calculated from the relative sky directions of the satellites used. The receiver location is expressed in a specific coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country-specific system.
=== Geometric interpretation ===
The GPS equations can be solved by numerical and analytical methods. Geometrical interpretations can enhance the understanding of these solution methods.
==== Spheres ====
The measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors. In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of these spheres; see trilateration (more generally, true-range multilateration). Signals from at minimum three satellites are required, and their three spheres would typically intersect at two points. One of the points is the location of the receiver, and the other moves rapidly in successive measurements and would not usually be on Earth's surface.
In practice, there are many sources of inaccuracy besides clock bias, including random errors as well as the potential for precision loss from subtracting numbers close to each other if the centers of the spheres are relatively close together. This means that the position calculated from three satellites alone is unlikely to be accurate enough. Data from more satellites can help because of the tendency for random errors to cancel out and also by giving a larger spread between the sphere centers. But at the same time, more spheres will not generally intersect at one point. Therefore, a near intersection gets computed, typically via least squares. The more signals available, the better the approximation is likely to be.
==== Hyperboloids ====
If the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite i and the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite j are subtracted, pi − pj, the common receiver clock bias (b) cancels out, resulting in a difference of distances di − dj. The locus of points having a constant difference in distance to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperbola on a plane and a hyperboloid of revolution (more specifically, a two-sheeted hyperboloid) in 3D space (see Multilateration). Thus, from four pseudorange measurements, the receiver can be placed at the intersection of the surfaces of three hyperboloids each with foci at a pair of satellites. With additional satellites, the multiple intersections are not necessarily unique, and a best-fitting solution is sought instead.
==== Inscribed sphere ====
The receiver position can be interpreted as the center of an inscribed sphere (insphere) of radius bc, given by the receiver clock bias b (scaled by the speed of light c). The insphere location is such that it touches other spheres. The circumscribing spheres are centered at the GPS satellites, whose radii equal the measured pseudoranges pi. This configuration is distinct from the one described above, in which the spheres' radii were the unbiased or geometric ranges di.
==== Hypercones ====
The clock in the receiver is usually not of the same quality as the ones in the satellites and will not be accurately synchronized to them. This produces pseudoranges with large differences compared to the true distances to the satellites. Therefore, in practice, the time difference between the receiver clock and the satellite time is defined as an unknown clock bias b. The equations are then solved simultaneously for the receiver position and the clock bias. The solution space [x, y, z, b] can be seen as a four-dimensional spacetime, and signals from at minimum four satellites are needed. In that case each of the equations describes a hypercone (or spherical cone), with the cusp located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the satellite. The receiver is at the intersection of four or more of such hypercones.
=== Solution methods ===
==== Least squares ====
When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simultaneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the number of receiver channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).
Using more than four involves an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution; such a system can be solved by a least-squares or weighted least squares method.
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{\displaystyle \left({\hat {x}},{\hat {y}},{\hat {z}},{\hat {b}}\right)={\underset {\left(x,y,z,b\right)}{\arg \min }}\sum _{i}\left({\sqrt {(x-x_{i})^{2}+(y-y_{i})^{2}+(z-z_{i})^{2}}}+bc-p_{i}\right)^{2}}
==== Iterative ====
Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common approach is by iteration on a linearized form of the equations, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm.
The GPS was initially developed assuming use of a numerical least-squares solution method—i.e., before closed-form solutions were found.
==== Closed-form ====
One closed-form solution to the above set of equations was developed by S. Bancroft. Its properties are well known; in particular, proponents claim it is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative least squares methods.
Bancroft's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical, and can be used for four or more satellites. When four satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equation. Bancroft's method provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the case), only one is a near-Earth sensible solution.
When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. A case has been made that iterative methods, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm approach for solving over-determined non-linear least squares problems, generally provide more accurate solutions.
Leick et al. (2015) states that "Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution."
Other closed-form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear.
=== Error sources and analysis ===
GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results and the expected size of those errors. GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects, but some residual errors remain uncorrected. Error sources include signal arrival time measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric effects (ionospheric/tropospheric delays), ephemeris and clock data, multipath signals, and natural and artificial interference. Magnitude of residual errors from these sources depends on geometric dilution of precision. Artificial errors may result from jamming devices and threaten ships and aircraft or from intentional signal degradation through selective availability, which limited accuracy to ≈ 6–12 m (20–40 ft), but has been switched off since May 1, 2000.
== Accuracy enhancement and surveying ==
== Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers ==
In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation". With respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers "must use receivers that reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum". For the last 30 years, GPS receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue.
The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for satellite-to-ground use owned by LightSquared is the Mobile Satellite Service band. Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services, to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service. In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz. In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to their satellite system – known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) – "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service." This authorization was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Space Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), U.S. Department of the Interior, and U.S. Department of Transportation.
In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers—such as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire—to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz. In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices although the FCC's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed changes to the maximum number of ground-based LightSquared stations or the maximum power at which these stations could operate. The January 2011 order makes final authorization contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carried out by a LightSquared led working group along with GPS industry and Federal agency participation. On February 14, 2012, the FCC initiated proceedings to vacate LightSquared's Conditional Waiver Order based on the NTIA's conclusion that there was currently no practical way to mitigate potential GPS interference.
GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use spectrum beyond the GPS-allocated band. In some cases, GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400 MHz of spectrum in either direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz, because mobile satellite services in those regions are broadcasting from space to ground, and at power levels commensurate with mobile satellite services. As regulated under the FCC's Part 15 rules, GPS receivers are not warranted protection from signals outside GPS-allocated spectrum. This is why GPS operates next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and also why the Mobile Satellite Service band operates next to GPS. The symbiotic relationship of spectrum allocation ensures that users of both bands are able to operate cooperatively and freely.
The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) licensees such as LightSquared to construct a small number of ancillary ground-based towers in their licensed spectrum to "promote more efficient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum". In those 2003 rules, the FCC stated: "As a preliminary matter, terrestrial [Commercial Mobile Radio Service ('CMRS')] and MSS ATC are expected to have different prices, coverage, product acceptance and distribution; therefore, the two services appear, at best, to be imperfect substitutes for one another that would be operating in predominantly different market segments ... MSS ATC is unlikely to compete directly with terrestrial CMRS for the same customer base...". In 2004, the FCC clarified that the ground-based towers would be ancillary, noting: "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service." In July 2010, the FCC stated that it expected LightSquared to use its authority to offer an integrated satellite-terrestrial service to "provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile providers and enhance competition in the mobile broadband sector". GPS receiver manufacturers have argued that LightSquared's licensed spectrum of 1525 to 1559 MHz was never envisioned as being used for high-speed wireless broadband based on the 2003 and 2004 FCC ATC rulings making clear that the Ancillary Tower Component (ATC) would be, in fact, ancillary to the primary satellite component. To build public support of efforts to continue the 2004 FCC authorization of LightSquared's ancillary terrestrial component vs. a simple ground-based LTE service in the Mobile Satellite Service band, GPS receiver manufacturer Trimble Navigation Ltd. formed the "Coalition To Save Our GPS".
The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference issue before the network is allowed to operate. According to Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, airline pilots with the type of systems that would be affected "may go off course and not even realize it". The problems could also affect the Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control system, United States Defense Department guidance, and local emergency services including 911.
On February 14, 2012, the FCC moved to bar LightSquared's planned national broadband network after being informed by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), the federal agency that coordinates spectrum uses for the military and other federal government entities, that "there is no practical way to mitigate potential interference at this time". LightSquared is challenging the FCC's action.
== Similar systems ==
Following the United States's deployment of GPS, other countries have also developed their own satellite navigation systems. These systems include:
The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed at the same time as GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. GLONASS reception in addition to GPS can be combined in a receiver thereby allowing for additional satellites available to enable faster position fixes and improved accuracy, to within two meters (6.6 ft). In October 2011, the full orbital constellation of 24 satellites enabled full global coverage. The GLONASS satellites' designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version, GLONASS-K2, launched in 2023.
China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System began global services in 2018 and finished its full deployment in 2020. It consists of satellites in three different orbits, including 24 satellites in medium-circle orbits (covering the world), 3 satellites in inclined geosynchronous orbits (covering the Asia-Pacific region), and 3 satellites in geostationary orbits (covering China).
The Galileo navigation satellite system, a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner countries, began operation in 2016, and has been fully deployed by 2020. In November 2018, the FCC approved use of Galileo in the US. As of September 2024, there are 25 launched satellites that operate in the constellation. It is expected that the next generation of satellites will begin to become operational after 2026 to replace the first generation, which can then be used for backup capabilities.
Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy in Asia-Oceania, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023.
The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (Operational name 'NavIC', Navigation with Indian Constellation), deployed by India.
== Backup system ==
In the event of adverse space weather or the deployment of an anti-satellite weapon against GPS, the United States has no terrestrial backup system. The potential cost of such an event to the U.S. economy is estimated at $1 billion per day. The LORAN-C system was turned off in North America in 2010 and Europe in 2015. eLoran is proposed as an American terrestrial backup system, but as of 2024 has not received approval or funding.
China continues to operate LORAN-C transmitters, and Russia has a similar system called CHAYKA ("Seagull").
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). United States Coast Guard. September 1996. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2013. Retrieved August 22, 2008.
Parkinson; Spilker (1996). The global positioning system. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-106-3.
Mendizabal, Jaizki; Berenguer, Roc; Melendez, Juan (2009). GPS and Galileo. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-159869-9.
Bowditch, Nathaniel (2002). The American Practical Navigator – Chapter 11 Satellite Navigation . United States government.
Global Positioning System. Open Courseware from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2012.
Milner, Greg (2016). Pinpoint: How GPS is Changing Technology, Culture, and Our Minds. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-08912-7.
== External links ==
FAA GPS FAQ
GPS.gov – General public education website created by the U.S. Government |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_5#:~:text=The%20first%20successful%20launch%20of,a%20MaqSat%20B2%20payload%20simulator. | Ariane 5 | Ariane 5 is a retired European heavy-lift space launch vehicle operated by Arianespace for the European Space Agency (ESA). It was launched from the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana. It was used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), low Earth orbit (LEO) or further into space. The launch vehicle had a streak of 82 consecutive successful launches between 9 April 2003 and 12 December 2017. In development since 2014, Ariane 6, a direct successor system was first launched in 2024.
The system was designed as an expendable launch vehicle by the Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), the French government's space agency, in cooperation with various European partners. Despite not being a direct derivative of its predecessor launch vehicle program, it was classified as part of the Ariane rocket family. Aérospatiale, and later ArianeGroup, was the prime contractor for the manufacturing of the vehicles, leading a multi-country consortium of other European contractors. Ariane 5 was originally intended to launch the Hermes spacecraft, and thus it was rated for human space launches.
Since its first launch, Ariane 5 was refined in successive versions: "G", "G+", "GS", "ECA", and finally, "ES". The system had a commonly used dual-launch capability, where up to two large geostationary belt communication satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA (Système de Lancement Double Ariane, meaning "Ariane Double-Launch System") carrier system. Up to three, somewhat smaller, main satellites are possible depending on size using a SPELTRA (Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement Triple Ariane, which translates to "Ariane Triple-Launch External Carrier Structure"). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, could be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.
Following the launch of 15 August 2020, Arianespace signed the contracts for the last eight Ariane 5 launches, before it was succeeded by the new Ariane 6 launcher, according to Daniel Neuenschwander, director of space transportation at the ESA. Ariane 5 flew its final mission on 5 July 2023.
== Vehicle description ==
=== Cryogenic main stage ===
Ariane 5's cryogenic H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5G, G+, and GS) was called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique — Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consisted of a 5.4 m (18 ft) diameter by 30.5 m (100 ft) high tank with two compartments, one for liquid oxygen and one for liquid hydrogen, and a Vulcain 2 engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of 1,390 kN (310,000 lbf). The H173 EPC weighed about 189 t (417,000 lb), including 175 t (386,000 lb) of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it re-entered the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.
=== Solid boosters ===
Attached to the sides were two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5G and G+) solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French Étages d'Accélération à Poudre — lit. 'Powder Acceleration Stages'), each weighing about 277 t (611,000 lb) full and delivering a thrust of about 7,080 kN (1,590,000 lbf). They were fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminium fuel (18%) and HTPB (14%). They each burned for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs were usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but, like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, they could be recovered with parachutes, and this was occasionally done for post-flight analysis. Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs, Ariane 5 boosters were not reused. The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission in 2009. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.
The French M51 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) shared a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.
In February 2000, the suspected nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers before the government could get to it.
=== Second stage ===
The second stage was on top of the main stage and below the payload. The original Ariane — Ariane 5G — used the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables — Storable Propellant Stage), which was fueled by monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogen tetroxide, containing 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) of storable propellant. The EPS was subsequently improved for use on the Ariane 5G+, GS, and ES.
The EPS upper stage was capable of repeated ignition, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.
Ariane 5ECA used the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique — Cryogenic Upper Stage), which was fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The ESC used the HM7B engine previously used in the Ariane 4 third stage. The propellent load of 14.7 tonne allowed the engine to burn for 945 seconds while providing 6.5 tonne of thrust. The ESC provided roll control during powered flight and full attitude control during payload separation using hydrogen gas thrusters. Oxygen gas thrusters allowed longitudinal acceleration after engine cutoff. The flight assembly included the Vehicle Equipment Bay, with flight electronics for the entire rocket, and the payload interface and structural support.
=== Fairing ===
The payload and all upper stages were covered at launch by a fairing for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads. It was jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached, typically above 100 km (62 mi; 54 nmi). It was made by Ruag Space and since flight VA-238 it was composed of 4 panels.
=== Launch preparations ===
With the exception of the solid rocket boosters (for safety and cost reasons), the components were assembled in Europe, and then shipped to French Guyana by boat. Once at Kourou, the components were assembled in the Launcher Integration Building (BIL), then transfered into the Final Assembly Building (BAF) for mating the payload and fairing, before the completed rocket was transfered to the Launch Zone (ZL) for fueling and launch.
== Variants ==
== Launch pricing and market competition ==
As of November 2014, the Ariane 5 commercial launch price for launching a "midsize satellite in the lower position" was approximately €50 million, competing for commercial launches in an increasingly competitive market.
The heavier satellite was launched in the upper position on a typical dual-satellite Ariane 5 launch and was priced higher than the lower satellite, on the order of €90 million as of 2013.
Total launch price of an Ariane 5 – which could transport up to two satellites to space, one in the "upper" and one in the "lower" positions – was around €150 million as of January 2015.
== Cancelled plans for future developments ==
=== Ariane 5 ME ===
The Ariane 5 ME (Mid-life Evolution) was in development into early 2015, and was seen as a stopgap between Ariane 5ECA/Ariane 5ES and the new Ariane 6. With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version. ESA halted funding for the development of Ariane 5ME in late 2014 to prioritize development of Ariane 6.
The Ariane 5ME was to use a new upper stage, with increased propellant volume, powered by the new Vinci engine. Unlike the HM-7B engine, it was to be able to restart several times, allowing for complex orbital maneuvers such as insertion of two satellites into different orbits, direct insertion into geosynchronous orbit, planetary exploration missions, and guaranteed upper stage deorbiting or insertion into graveyard orbit. The launcher was also to include a lengthened fairing up to 20 m (66 ft) and a new dual launch system to accommodate larger satellites. Compared to an Ariane 5ECA model, the payload to GTO was to increase by 15% to 11,500 kg (25,400 lb) and the cost-per-kilogram of each launch was projected to decline by 20%.
==== Development ====
Originally known as the Ariane 5ECB, Ariane 5ME was to have its first flight in 2006. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008.
In 2009, EADS Astrium was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.
On 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5ME qualification flight was scheduled for mid-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.
On 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5ME and instead focus on Ariane 6, which was expected to have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).
=== Solid propellant stage ===
Work on the Ariane 5 EAP motors was continued in the Vega programme. The Vega 1st stage engine – the P80 engine – was a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing was made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle was developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improved the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle had electromechanical actuators which replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.
These developments could maybe have made their way back into the Ariane programme, but this was most likely an inference based on early blueprints of the Ariane 6 having a central P80 booster and 2-4 around the main one. The incorporation of the ESC-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would have delivered 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) to LEO. This would have been developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design might not have been possible if the higher Max-Q for the launch of this launch vehicle would have posed a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.
== Ariane 6 ==
The design brief of the next generation launch vehicle Ariane 6 called for a lower-cost and smaller launch vehicle capable of launching a single satellite of up to 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) to GTO. However, after several permutations the finalized design was nearly identical in performance to the Ariane 5, focusing instead on lowering fabrication costs and launch prices. As of March 2014, Ariane 6 was projected to be launched for about €70 million per flight, about half of the Ariane 5 price.
Initially development of Ariane 6 was projected to cost €3.6 billion. In 2017, the ESA set 16 July 2020 as the deadline for the first flight. The Ariane 6 successfully completed its maiden flight on 9 July 2024.
== Notable launches ==
Ariane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64-bit floating-point value to 16-bit signed integer value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error) because the floating-point value was too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. The software had been written for the Ariane 4 where efficiency considerations (the computer running the software had an 80% maximum workload requirement) led to four variables being protected with a handler while three others, including the horizontal bias variable, were left unprotected because it was thought that they were "physically limited or that there was a large margin of safety". The software, written in Ada, was included in the Ariane 5 through the reuse of an entire Ariane 4 subsystem despite the fact that the particular software containing the bug, which was just a part of the subsystem, was not required by the Ariane 5 because it has a different preparation sequence than the Ariane 4.
The second test flight (L502, on 30 October 1997) was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully, but it could not reach the intended orbit. A subsequent test flight (L503, on 21 October 1998) proved successful and the first commercial launch (L504) occurred on 10 December 1999 with the launch of the XMM-Newton X-ray observatory satellite.
Another partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis telecommunications satellite was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental ion propulsion system.
The next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the Envisat environmental satellite successfully reached an orbit of 800 km (500 mi) above the Earth in the 11th launch. At 8,111 kg (17,882 lb), it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the first ATV on 9 March 2008, at 19,360 kg (42,680 lb).
The first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (STENTOR and Hot Bird 7), valued at about €630 million, was lost in the Atlantic Ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the Rosetta mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. The failure of the first ECA launch was the last failure of an Ariane 5 until flight 241 in January 2018.
On 27 September 2003, the last Ariane 5G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, SMART-1), in Flight 162. On 18 July 2004, an Ariane 5G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, Anik F2, weighing almost 6,000 kg (13,000 lb).
The first successful launch of the Ariane 5ECA took place on 12 February 2005. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and a military launch (of a Helios 2A observation satellite) delayed the attempt.
On 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaicom 4, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at 6,505 kg (14,341 lb), into orbit.
On 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway F2 for DirecTV and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the launch vehicle's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than 8,000 kg (18,000 lb).
On 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle set a new commercial payload lifting record of 8,200 kg (18,100 lb). The dual-payload consisted of the Thaicom 5 and Satmex 6 satellites.
On 4 May 2007, the Ariane 5ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the Astra 1L and Galaxy 17 communication satellites with a combined weight of 8,600 kg (19,000 lb), and a total payload weight of 9,400 kg (20,700 lb). This record was again broken by another Ariane 5ECA, launching the Skynet 5B and Star One C1 satellites, on 11 November 2007. The total payload weight for this launch was of 9,535 kg (21,021 lb).
On 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5ES-ATV was launched to deliver the first ATV called Jules Verne to the International Space Station (ISS). The ATV was the heaviest payload ever launched by a European launch vehicle, providing supplies to the space station with necessary propellant, water, air and dry cargo. This was the first operational Ariane mission which involved an engine restart in the upper stage. The ES-ATV Aestus EPS upper stage was restartable while the ECA HM7-B engine was not.
On 1 July 2009, an Ariane 5ECA launched TerreStar-1 (now EchoStar T1), which was then, at 6,910 kg (15,230 lb), the largest and most massive commercial telecommunication satellite ever built at that time until being overtaken by Telstar 19 Vantage, at 7,080 kg (15,610 lb), launched aboard Falcon 9. The satellite was launched into a lower-energy orbit than a usual GTO, with its initial apogee at roughly 17,900 km (11,100 mi).
On 28 October 2010, an Ariane 5ECA launched Eutelsat's W3B (part of its W Series of satellites) and Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation (B-SAT)'s BSAT-3b satellites into orbit. But the W3B satellite failed to operate shortly after the successful launch and was written off as a total loss due to an oxidizer leak in the satellite's main propulsion system. The BSAT-3b satellite, however, is operating normally.
The VA253 launch on 15 August 2020 introduced two small changes that increased lift capacity by about 85 kg (187 lb); these were a lighter avionics and guidance-equipment bay, and modified pressure vents on the payload fairing, which were required for the subsequent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. It also debuted a location system using Galileo navigation satellites.
On 25 December 2021, VA256 launched the James Webb Space Telescope towards a Sun–Earth L2 halo orbit. The precision of trajectory following launch led to fuel savings credited with potentially doubling the lifetime of the telescope by leaving more hydrazine propellant on board for station-keeping than was expected. According to Rudiger Albat, the program manager for Ariane 5, efforts had been made to select components for this flight that had performed especially well during pre-flight testing, including "one of the best Vulcain engines that we've ever built."
=== GTO payload weight records ===
On 22 April 2011, the Ariane 5ECA flight VA-201 broke a commercial record, lifting Yahsat 1A and Intelsat New Dawn with a total payload weight of 10,064 kg (22,187 lb) to transfer orbit. This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5ECA flight VA-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of 10,182 kg (22,447 lb) into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA-212 with 10,317 kg (22,745 lb) sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016, the GTO record was raised to 10,730 kg (23,660 lb), on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further 5 kg (11 lb), up to 10,735 kg (23,667 lb) on 24 August 2016 with the launch of Intelsat 33e and Intelsat 36. On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to 10,865 kg (23,953 lb) carrying ViaSat-2 and Eutelsat-172B. In 2021 VA-255 put 11,210 kg into GTO.
=== VA241 anomaly ===
On 25 January 2018, an Ariane 5ECA launched SES-14 and Al Yah 3 satellites. About 9 minutes and 28 seconds after launch, a telemetry loss occurred between the launch vehicle and the ground controllers. It was later confirmed, about 1 hour and 20 minutes after launch, that both satellites were successfully separated from the upper stage and were in contact with their respective ground controllers, but that their orbital inclinations were incorrect as the guidance systems might have been compromised. Therefore, both satellites conducted orbital procedures, extending commissioning time. SES-14 needed about 8 weeks longer than planned commissioning time, meaning that entry into service was reported early September instead of July. Nevertheless, SES-14 is still expected to be able to meet the designed lifetime. This satellite was originally to be launched with more propellant reserve on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle since the Falcon 9, in this specific case, was intended to deploy this satellite into a high inclination orbit that would require more work from the satellite to reach its final geostationary orbit. The Al Yah 3 was also confirmed healthy after more than 12 hours without further statement, and like SES-14, Al Yah 3's maneuvering plan was also revised to still fulfill the original mission. As of 16 February 2018, Al Yah 3 was approaching the intended geostationary orbit, after series of recovery maneuvers had been performed. The investigation showed that invalid inertial units' azimuth value had sent the vehicle 17° off course but to the intended altitude, they had been programmed for the standard geostationary transfer orbit of 90° when the payloads were intended to be 70° for this supersynchronous transfer orbit mission, 20° off norme. This mission anomaly ended the 82 consecutive launch success streak from 2003.
== Launch history ==
=== Launch statistics ===
Ariane 5 launch vehicles had accumulated 117 launches, 112 of which were successful, yielding a 95.7% success rate. Between April 2003 and December 2017, Ariane 5 flew 83 consecutive missions without failure, but the launch vehicle suffered a partial failure in January 2018.
=== List of launches ===
All launches are from Guiana Space Centre, ELA-3.
== See also ==
List of Ariane launches
Ariane 6, two initial variants
Heavy-lift launch vehicle
Comparison of orbital launchers families
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (ESA, beyond Ariane 5)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ariane 5 Overview at Arianespace
Ariane 5 Programme Information at Astrium |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Freedom_Force_(TV_series) | The Freedom Force (TV series) | The Freedom Force is a 1978 animated television series produced by Filmation and aired on CBS as a segment of Tarzan and the Super 7. It showcased a superhero team gathered from around the world by the heroine Isis to help fight evil. While the heroine had previously appeared in the live-action television series The Secrets of Isis, actress Joanna Cameron did not reprise her role for the animated series.
Only five episodes were produced.
== Team members ==
Isis, goddess of the elements
Hercules, world's mightiest man, alumnus of the Space Sentinels
Merlin, master of magic
Sinbad, hero of the seven seas
Super Samurai, giant of justice, alter ego of the young Japanese boy Toshi
Hercules often rides Pegasus, Merlin uses a flying carpet, and Sinbad's sidekick Lamprey offers comic relief.
== Voice cast ==
Michael Bell: Merlin, Toshi / Super Samurai, Sinbad
Diane Pershing: Isis
Bob Denison: Hercules
== Episodes ==
The Dragon Riders (written by Don Heckman)
The Freedom Force must end a war between two tribes who dogfight in the air.
The Scarlet Samurai (written by Gerry Boudreau)
Toshi's new friend is jealous of his powers, and an evil wizard plans to exploit this for revenge against the boy's father, a wizard who defeated the evil wizard long ago.
The Plant Soldiers (written by Tom Swale)
An evil wizard steals the Necklace of Osiris using it to control the Nile and a magical army of walking plant soldiers.
Pegasus' Odyssey (written by Gerry Boudreau)
Pegasus is captured by an evil sorceress out to seek revenge on Hercules.
The Robot (written by Buzz Dixon)
An inventor's mechanical giant is out to prove itself more powerful than the Freedom Force.
== Home media ==
BCI Eclipse LLC (under its Ink & Paint classic animation entertainment brand) (under license from Entertainment Rights) released all 5 episodes of The Freedom Force on DVD in Region 1 on August 22, 2006, along with all 13 episodes of Space Sentinels, presented uncut, digitally remastered for optimum audio and video quality, and in story continuity order, an earlier series that featured several of the same characters. The digitally-remastered presentation features scripts and Spanish language tracks for all 5 episodes, a gallery featuring original images, early presentation images, trivia and interviews with creators Lou Scheimer, Buzz Dixon, Darrell McNeil, Michael Reaves, Robert Kline and David Wise, as well as numerous special features related to Space Sentinels and Filmation in general.
As of 2009, this release has been discontinued and is out of print as BCI Eclipse has ceased operations.
In addition, a single episode, "The Plant Soldiers", was included as a bonus feature on the DVD release of the live-action The Secrets of Isis series.
== References ==
== External links ==
The Freedom Force at IMDb
Freedom Force Entry at International Super Heroes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidhu_Moose_Wala | Sidhu Moose Wala | Shubhdeep Singh Sidhu (11 June 1993 – 29 May 2022), known professionally as Sidhu Moose Wala, was an Indian singer and rapper. He worked predominantly in Punjabi-language music and cinema. Moose Wala is considered to be one of the most influential and successful Punjabi rappers of all time and to many, among the greatest Indian musicians of his generation.
In 2020, Moose Wala was named by The Guardian among 50 up and coming artists. He also became the first Punjabi and Indian singer to perform at Wireless Festival and won four awards at the Brit Asia TV Music Awards.
Moose Wala rose to mainstream popularity with his track "So High". In 2018, he released his debut album PBX 1, which peaked at number 66 on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart. His singles "47" and "Mera Na" were ranked on the UK Singles Chart.
Born in Moosa, Punjab, Moose Wala began his career in 2016 as a songwriter for the song "License" by Ninja, and as lead artist in 2017 with Gurlez Akhtar for a duet song, "G Wagon". Following his debut, he collaborated with Brown Boyz for various tracks. Moose Wala's tracks peaked on the UK Asian Music chart. His song "Bambiha Bole" was among the top five on the Global YouTube music chart. In 2021, he released Moosetape, tracks from which charted globally including on the Billboard Global 200, Billboard Global Excl. US, Canadian Hot 100, UK Asian, and New Zealand Hot charts. He has the most number-one singles on the Billboard India Songs chart. It became the first Indian album to have more than 1 billion streams on Spotify.
In 2021, Moose Wala joined the Indian National Congress (INC) political party and unsuccessfully contested the 2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election for Mansa.
He was shot dead by unidentified assailants on 29 May 2022; a Canada-based gangster, known as Goldy Brar and a member of the Lawrence Bishnoi gang, claimed responsibility for the killing, which the police said was the culmination of an inter-gang rivalry. On 23 June 2022, his first posthumous single, "SYL", was released.
Moose Wala's lyrics and themes promoting gun culture and violence were often seen as controversial in India. Subsequently, he had faced legal challenges for his support of gun culture and his inflammatory lyrics.
== Early life ==
Shubhdeep Singh Sidhu was born in the village of Moosa in the Mansa district of Punjab, India to Balkaur Singh and his mother is Charan Kaur, members of the Jat Sikh community.
Moose Wala studied at Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana and graduated with a degree in electrical engineering in 2016. He admired and was influenced by rapper Tupac Shakur. He started listening to hip-hop music as a student in sixth grade, and was trained in music by Harvinder Bittu in Ludhiana. According to statements he made while campaigning, he chose Sidhu Moose Wala (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਧੂ ਮੂਸੇ ਵਾਲਾ, lit. 'Sidhu from Moosa') for his stage name as a tribute to his home village of Moosa.
After graduation, Moose Wala moved to Brampton, Ontario, Canada, as an international student. While living there he studied at Humber College.
== Career ==
=== 2017–2018: Rise to fame ===
Moose Wala released his first song "G Wagon" in 2017 while living in Brampton. Later that year, he had his breakthrough with the song "So High", a gangster rap with music producer Byg Byrd. The song won him the 2017 Best Lyricist award at the Brit Asia TV Music Awards. Following this, he joined Brown Boys Records along with Sunny Malton and Byg Byrd.
He began to perform live shows in India in 2018, and performed numerous shows in Canada. He continued his success with singles like "Issa Jatt", "It's All About You", and "Just Listen". In May 2018, he released the single "Tochan", followed by "Famous" which entered the UK Asian Top 40 Chart.
At the 2018 PTC Punjabi Music Awards, he was nominated for the Best New Age Sensation award for "Issa Jatt". In August 2018, he released his first film soundtrack song, "Dollar", for the film Dakuaan Da Munda.
Following various successful songs with music publisher Humble Music, he began releasing songs independently in 2018, starting with "Warning Shots", a diss track targeting Karan Aujla's track "Lafaafe".
In October 2018, he released his debut album PBX 1 under T-Series, in the pop music genre with hip-hop influences. The album charted on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart, and won the Best Album Award at the 2019 Brit Asia TV Music Awards. The album was followed by the release of most of his tracks under his own label, as well as tracks from other artists.
=== 2019–2022: Established singer ===
In February 2019 Moose Wala released "Legend" under his own record label, and it won the Brit Asia TV Kuflink Best Track of the Year Award that year.In the same month, he released "Chosen" and "Outlaw", and in April, he released "East Side Flow", which was followed by "Mafia Style" with Aman Hayer. In June, his concert at the Surrey Music Festival was cancelled due to security concerns stemming from violence at his previous performances.
In August, he collaborated with Bohemia on "Same Beef", which was a huge hit. In September, he released two film soundtrack songs: "Dogar" for Teri Meri Jodi and "Jatti Jeone Morh Wargi", featuring Sonam Bajwa, for Ardab Mutiyaran. In October, he released "47", featuring British rappers Mist and Stefflon Don, which entered the top 20 on the UK Singles Chart. The song also charted on the New Zealand top 40 singles chart.
In 2019, Spotify included him in its list of the most popular artists in Punjab, along with Maninder Buttar and Karan Aujla.
In January 2020, Moose Wala was featured along with Nseeb on Prem Dhillon's track "Old Skool". The song was followed by "Tibeyan Da Putt", which topped the iTunes charts and was ranked at number 8 on the Apple Music charts in India. His second studio album, Snitches Get Stitches, was released under his own label in May 2020. That same month, he released the single "Dear Mama" on his mother's birthday.
In June 2020, he collaborated with Amrit Maan on the song "Bambiha Bole". whose music video was viewed over ten million times within twenty-four hours. The song reached number one in India and entered the top 50 in Canada and New Zealand on the Apple Music charts.It topped the UK Asian chart and also entered the top 5 of the Global YouTube charts. On 31 August 2020, he officially launched his record label, 5911 Records.In September 2020, he released "Game" with Shooter Kahlon. It was his first song to appear on the Canadian Hot 100 chart by Billboard. Also, "Game" is the most commented Indian song on YouTube with over 5 million comments.
In May 2021, Moose Wala released his third studio album, Moosetape. The album charted on the New Zealand Top 40 Albums chart by Recorded Music NZ. Singles from the album charted on various international charts including the Billboard Global 200, Canadian Hot 100, and New Zealand Hot Singles charts. On 12 September 2021, he performed at the Wireless Festival in London with Mist. Moose Wala was the first Indian singer to perform at this festival.
In April 2022, Moose Wala released the EP No Name featuring AR Paisley, Mr. Capone-E and Sunny Malton, The EP performed well on various music charts. It reached number 50 on the Canadian Albums Chart, and the song "Never Fold" debuted at number 92 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. The songs also charted internationally. In New Zealand, "Never Fold" peaked at number 19, while "0 to 100" and "Love Sick" reached numbers 34 and 39, respectively. In the UK, "Never Fold" topped the Punjabi chart at number 4, followed by "0-100" at number 9 and "Everybody Hurts" at number 10.
Before his death, Sidhu Moose Wala released two songs, "The Last Ride" and "Levels". "Levels" was his last song, released in May 2022. These songs made it to the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart. "The Last Ride" reached number 26 and "Levels" reached number 32. Additionally, both songs appeared on the Billboard Global Excl. US chart, with "The Last Ride" at number 103 and "Levels" at number 195.
=== Posthumous Releases ===
In June 2022, his single "SYL" (a reference to the Satluj Yamuna link canal) posthumously peaked at 27 on the Canadian Hot 100, 81 in Australia, 3 in India, and 200 on the Global Excl. US chart.
In April 2023, Sidhu's unreleased song "Mera Na", a collaboration with Burna Boy, was released posthumously. The song charted on several international music charts. In Canada, it peaked at number 14 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart on 22 April 2023. Globally, the song reached number 102 on the Billboard Global Excl. US chart. In New Zealand, it peaked at number 2 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart. In the UK, the song reached number 87 on the UK Singles Chart and number 27 on the UK Indie Singles Chart.
"Chorni", a collaboration with Divine, was released in July 2023 and went on to chart on several international music charts. The song achieved notable success, peaking at number 27 on the Canada Hot 100 chart and number 7 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart. Another song, "Watch Out", a collaboration with Sikander Kahlon, was released in November 2023, which also gained significant traction, reaching number 33 on the Canada Hot 100 chart, number 11 on the New Zealand Hot Singles Chart, and number 3 on the UK Asian Chart.
Sidhu's song "Drippy", a collaboration with AR Paisley, was released in February 2024. The song charted on several international music charts. In Canada, it peaked at number 9 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. Globally, the song reached number 152 on the Billboard Global Excluding US chart. In New Zealand, it peaked at number 11 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart and number 1 on the UK Asian Singles Chart.
Sidhu released another titled "410" in collaboration with Sunny Malton in April 2024. He also collaborated with Fredo and Steel Banglez on a song released in August 2023. Both songs charted on the Canada Hot 100, New Zealand, and UK music charts.
=== Acting ===
Moose Wala made his debut in Punjabi cinema with the film Yes I Am Student under his own production company Jatt Life Studios. The film was directed by Tarnvir Singh Jagpal and written by Gill Raunta. In 2019, Moose Wala appeared in Teri Meri Jodi. In June 2020, he announced another film titled Gunah. On 22 August 2021, he released the teaser of his upcoming movie, Moosa Jatt, starring Sweetaj Brar and directed by Tru Makers. On 24 August 2021, he announced his new film Jattan Da Munda Gaun Lagya, directed by Amberdeep Singh, which was set for release on 18 March 2022.
== Public Image ==
Sidhu Moose Wala's public image was complex. As a celebrated music icon, he was admired for his unique style and authenticity. However, his lyrics often sparked controversy, with critics accusing him of promoting violence. Despite this, Sidhu Moose Wala remained steadfast and defended his views, subsequently earning a strong following and leaving a lasting impact on Punjabi music. Raja Kumari called Sidhu Moose Wala her "Gentle Giant", stating, "He played a huge role in popularizing Punjabi music and creating opportunities for female artists like me." Honey Singh credited Sidhu Moose Wala for taking Punjabi Music to the global stage.
Badshah called Sidhu Moose Wala a legend, noting his legacy and decision to remain connected to his community roots despite achieving global success.
== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
Sidhu Moose Wala lived in his home village Moosa, which his fans often visited to meet him. He was very attached to his grandmother and kept his hair long at her request, a practice considered very important in Sikhism. In contrast, his father was unable to keep his hair due to an accident. On 17 March 2024, two years after his death, Sidhu's parents had a second son via in vitro fertilisation.
=== Feuds ===
Moose Wala had a rivalry with Karan Aujla; both have replied to each other through songs, on social media, and in live performances. Both have also been criticised for songs promoting violence. In an interview their mutual colleague Elly Mangat disclosed that the dispute between them began when Moose Wala's video targeting Aujla in his song was leaked to Aujla's management, and they threatened to attack Moose Wala. Following the incident, both started targeting each other on social media. The rivalry was resolved temporarily until Aujla released a diss track, "Lafaafe", which Moose Wala responded to with "Warning Shots". Aujla in an interview stated that he did not write the track "Lafaafe" and did not reveal anything about their rivalry, but praised Moose Wala's work. After his death, Aujla paid tribute with the song "Maa".
=== Legal issues and controversies ===
At the time of his death, Moose Wala was facing criminal charges for promoting gun culture and violence. Two of the charges were related to obscene scenes.
In May 2020, two videos featuring him went viral on social media: one showed him training to use an AK-47 with assistance from police officers, and the other showed him using a personal pistol. The six officers who had assisted him were suspended following the incident. On 19 May, he was booked under two sections of the Arms Act. The police began conducting raids to find Moose Wala, but he hid to evade arrest. On 2 June, the Barnala District Court rejected a plea for anticipatory bail for Moose Wala and five accused officers.
On 6 June 2020, Moose Wala was fined by police in Nabha because his car windows were tinted darker than what was permissible, and he was allowed to leave despite being wanted on outstanding charges; he incorrectly told the officers that he was already out on bail. In July, he joined the police investigation and was granted regular bail. That month, he released a single titled "Sanju", comparing himself to actor Sanjay Dutt, who was also arrested under the Arms Act. Indian sport shooter Avneet Sidhu criticised the song and called out Moose Wala for promoting gun culture. The next day, a case was registered against him for releasing the song. In an interview, Moose Wala alleged that he was being deliberately targeted by some news channels and lawyers.
=== References to Mai Bhago ===
In September 2019, his song "Jatti Jeone Morh Wargi" was deemed inappropriate by Sikh leaders for using the name of Mai Bhago, a 17th-century Sikh warrior woman. Sikh delegations and Akali Dal leaders demanded a ban on the song, subsequently lodging complaints against Moose Wala in Mansa and Bathinda. Moose Wala later apologised on social media and in March 2020 appeared before the Sikh religious body Akal Takht in a hearing over the incident.
=== References to Khalistan movement ===
In December 2020, Moose Wala released the single "Panjab: My Motherland" in support of the Indian farmers protest against the 2020 Indian agriculture acts, which featured clips of orthodox Sikh militant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and speeches made by Khalistan supporter Bharpur Singh Balbir in the late 1980s. In an interview Moose Wala said that Khalistan means a 'pure place' (Hindi: पवित्र-स्थान), like it was under the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, where people of all religions lived in harmony. Similarly Sidhu clarified in the interview that Khalistan, to him, means the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, not a separate country. He emphasised that he is an Indian citizen, living in India, and has a deep connection to the country.
== Politics ==
Moose Wala actively campaigned for his mother, Charan Kaur, who won the sarpanch election for Moosa in December 2018.
On 3 December 2021, Moose Wala joined the INC to contest the 2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election. Nazar Singh Manshahia, the INC assemblyman from Mansa, revolted and opposed Moose Wala's candidacy. Obtaining only 20.52% votes from the Mansa constituency, Moose Wala lost to the Aam Aadmi Party's Vijay Singla by a margin of 63,323 votes.
During the 2022 election, a case under Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code was filed against Moose Wala for his violation of the election code of conduct. He had held a door-to-door campaign in Mansa after the campaigning deadline.
On 11 April 2022, Moose Wala released a song titled "Scapegoat", in which he laments his failure in the 2022 elections. The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) claimed that Moose Wala insinuated through his song that the voters of Punjab were gadara (Punjabi: ਗੱਦਾਰ, lit. 'traitors') for electing the AAP. They also claimed that his song perpetuated the INC's "anti-Punjab" mentality and demanded an answer from the party's state unit president, Amrinder Singh Raja Warring, on whether he endorsed Moose Wala's views.
=== Electoral results ===
== Assassination ==
Moose Wala was shot dead by unidentified assailants in his car on 29 May 2022 in Jawaharke village of Mansa at age of 28. According to police, Lawrence Bishnoi's gang initially claimed responsibility for the murder in an unverified Facebook post, which Bishnoi denied making, and he was being held by the Punjab Police as of June 2022 and was considered the "mastermind" of the murder by officials.
According to police, at around 5:10 pm, Moose Wala left his house with his cousin Gurpreet Singh and neighbour Gurwinder Singh. Moose Wala was driving his black Mahindra Thar SUV to his aunt's house in Barnala. At 5:30 pm when the SUV reached Jawaharke, two other cars intercepted and blocked it. Thirty rounds were fired during the incident, which also injured two other men. Moose Wala fired back at the attackers using his pistol. After the shootout, the attackers left the scene. His father took Moose Wala to the civil hospital in Mansa, where he was declared dead.
Moose Wala was among the 424 people whose police security was reduced or entirely removed the day before, in preparation for the anniversary of Operation Blue Star, leaving him with two commandos instead of the earlier four. At the time of the incident, Moose Wala was travelling in his private car accompanied by two others instead of his bullet-proof vehicle with the commandos. According to his friends, Moose Wala did not take his security along with him, as his Thar SUV could not accommodate five people.
=== Aftermath ===
According to police, the Bishnoi gang claimed they killed Moose Wala to avenge the murder of an Akali leader, Vicky Middukhera, in 2021. Moose Wala's aide was purported by the Bishnoi gang of having a role in the killing of Middukhera, though there is no legal evidence to support this. Canadian gangster of Punjabi origin Satinder Singh a.k.a. Goldy Brar claimed responsibility for the murder. Brar, a close associate of Bishnoi, claimed that his "Punjab module" carried out the shooting. Both Brar and Bishnoi have criminal cases against them in India. The Punjab Police later confirmed Bishnoi's involvement.
According to the police report, Moose Wala's father revealed that Moose Wala had been receiving death threats from gangsters for extortion purposes, a statement corroborated by singer Mika Singh.
Punjab Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann condemned the murder. Calling Moose Wala "a cultural icon of Punjab", he expressed shock and grief about his death and condoled the aggrieved family. Mann ordered an investigation into why Moose Wala's security was reduced by the Punjab Police two days prior. He also announced the setting up of a judicial commission headed by a sitting judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court to investigate the killing. Numerous celebrities offered their condolences on social media.
Police found bullets from an AN-94 Russian assault rifle and a pistol at the spot of the killing. Police had detained six suspects of the incident from the state of Uttarakhand. On 30 May, one of the murder suspects was detained by the Punjab Police while he was hiding among the pilgrims of Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib.
On 30 May, the Delhi unit of the INC staged a protest near AAP leader Arvind Kejriwal's residence holding the AAP-ruled Government of Punjab responsible for the incident, blaming their decision to curtail Moose Wala's security cover.
His autopsy was carried out by five doctors, and the event was videographed. According to post mortem reports, Moose Wala received 19 bullet injuries, and he died within 15 minutes of being shot due to the wounds.
Moose Wala was cremated in his ancestral village on 31 May. His last rites were performed on his farmland.
On 3 June, Bishnoi allegedly admitted to being involved in the murder and that he had a rivalry with Moose Wala. On 8 June, a bhog ceremony was arranged in Mansa. On 3 July, Ankit Sirsa was arrested by Delhi police for being one of the shooters involved in the killing. On 20 July, gangsters Manpreet Mannu and Jagrup Rupa, suspected of involvement in Moose Wala's killing, were gunned down by the Punjab Police. On 26 July, India TV reported that Punjab Police arrested the last absconding shooter, Deepak Mundi. However, The Indian Express reported that he was arrested on 11 September near the Bengal-Nepal border.
=== Politics ===
Before the Sangrur Lok Sabha by-election in 2022, the INC had used pictures of Moose Wala in its election song. The family of Moose Wala made a public appeal to political parties and individuals, asking them to not use his name for political or personal motives. The move was also criticised by the Aam Aadmi Party.
== Legacy and remembrance ==
On 3 June 2022, Punjab Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann announced the construction of a cancer hospital and sports stadium in remembrance of Moose Wala.
On 8 June 2022, the Brampton, Canada city council passed a motion to commission a giant mural which would be painted by a local artist and to plant a tree in the singer's honour. In June 2023, the mural was finished.
In June 2022, a turban-tying competition was organised by the Shri Guru Ram Dass welfare society in Amritsar in his memory, due to him being a turban-wearing Sikh.
Punjabi language singer Prem Dhillon released a tribute song, "Ain't died in vain", dedicated to Moose Wala on 16 June 2022. Posthumously, on his 29th birthday, Moose Wala received a tribute from his fans when the billboards of New York City's Times Square were used to play his songs.
Garry Sandhu released the tribute song "Jigar Da Tota", dedicated to Moose Wala.
On 5 June 2022, two murals in California, USA were made in tribute of Moose Wala. Rapper Bohemia also visited them and broke down in tears after an emotional tribute.
On 17 June 2022, Canadian rapper Drake played two of Moose Wala's singles "295" & "G-Shit" from Moosetape in remembrance on his debut radio show Table for One on Sound42. Drake later launched a t-shirt collection to honour Moose Wala, wearing one at a concert in Canada on 28 July.
On 25 July 2022, Punjabi Virsa, a Pakistan-based literary society, honoured Moose Wala with the Waris Shah International Award.
In November 2022, Nigerian artist Burna Boy met with Moose Wala's parents for their blessings and offered his condolences. Burna and music producer Steel Banglez honoured them with a portrait of their son made from crystals. Burna also paid tribute to Moose Wala previously, when he broke down on stage while giving a tribute to the late singer.
Sunny Malton, who was formerly in the Punjabi group Brown Boys with Moose Wala, released a tribute song "Letter to Sidhu" in November 2022.
In April 2023, the third posthumous release from Moose Wala, titled "Mera Na", was unveiled in advance of the one-year anniversary of his passing. The song, which features Burna Boy and Steel Banglez, was composed by the latter and quickly gained millions of plays.
In May 2023, award-winning British rapper Tion Wayne released the song "Healing" which paid tribute to the late Moose Wala. It features Moose Wala's father (Balkaur Singh Sidhu), his 5911 Tractor and his village of Moosa. Wayne had previously collaborated with Moose Wala on the song "Celebrity Killer" in 2022.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
PBX 1 (2018)
Snitches Get Stitches (2020)
Moosetape (2021)
=== Extended play ===
No Name (2022)
Moose Print (2025)
== Filmography ==
=== Actor ===
== Tours ==
Brown Boys Tour/PBX 1 Tour (2018–2019)
Solo New Zealand/Italy/India Live Shows (2019–2020)
Back to Business World Tour with Sunny Malton (2022–2023)
Rebel (24 August 2018)
== See also ==
List of murdered hip hop musicians
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Sidhu Moose Wala at AllMusic
Sidhu Moose Wala discography at Discogs
Sidhu Moose Wala at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea#:~:text=On%2028%20May%202019%2C%20the,Korea%2C%20Syria%2C%20and%20Venezuela. | Eritrea | Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. Its capital and largest city is Asmara. The country is bordered by Ethiopia to the south, Sudan to the west, and Djibouti to the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The country has a total area of approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands.
Hominid remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that the area may contain significant records related to human evolution. The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, was established during the first or second century AD. It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century. Beginning in the 12th century, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held fluctuating control over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast. Eritrea's central highlands, known as Mereb Melash ("Beyond the Mereb"), were the northern frontier region of the Ethiopian kingdoms and were ruled by a governor titled the Bahr Negus ("King of the Sea").
In the 16th century, the Ottomans conquered the Eritrean coastline. In May 1865, much of the coastal lowlands came under the rule of the Khedivate of Egypt, until it was transferred to Italy in February 1885. Beginning in 1885–1890, Italian troops systematically spread out from Massawa toward the highlands, eventually resulting in the formation of the colony of Italian Eritrea in 1889, establishing the present-day boundaries of the country. Italian rule continued until 1942, when Eritrea was placed under British Military Administration during World War II; following a UN General Assembly decision in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea. The Eritrean secessionist movement organized the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1961 and fought the Eritrean War of Independence until Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991. Eritrea gained de jure independence in 1993 after an independence referendum.
Contemporary Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognized ethnic groups, each of which has a distinct language. The most widely spoken language is Tigrinya. The others are Tigre, Saho, Kunama, Nara, Afar, Beja, Bilen and Arabic. Tigrinya, Arabic and English serve as the three working languages. Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either from the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. In Eritrea, ethnic Tigrinyas make up about 50% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are several Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic groups. Most people in the country adhere to Christianity or Islam, with a small minority adhering to traditional faiths.
Eritrea is one of the world's least developed countries. It is a unitary one-party presidential republic and a de facto totalitarian dictatorship, in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held. Isaias Afwerki has served as president since its official independence in 1993. The country's human rights record is among the worst in the world. The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated. Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela. It was part of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development until withdrawing in December 2025, "accusing the organisation of 'becoming a tool against' countries like itself."
Asmara was designated a World Heritage Site in 2017 for its well-preserved modernist architecture, which reflects the influence of Italian colonial urban planning and design.
== Etymology ==
The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient (originally Greek) name for the Red Sea, the Erythraean Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea). The name persisted throughout subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation, and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
Madam Buya, a fossil found at an Eritrean archaeological site by Italian anthropologists, has been identified as among the oldest hominid fossils found to date. This fossil has been said to reveal significant stages in human evolution and to represent a possible link between the earlier Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens. Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old, making her the oldest skeletal find of her kind. It is believed that the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was a major site of human evolution and may contain other archaeological links between Homo erectus hominids and anatomically modern humans.
During the last interglacial period (roughly 130,000 to 115,000 years ago), the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team (which was composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch, and French scientists) discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125,000 years old, near the Gulf of Zula, south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.
=== Antiquity ===
Tools found in the Barka Valley, dating from 8,000 BC, appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area. Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas.
Excavations in and near Agordat, in central Eritrea, yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. This included ceramics dated to between 2,500 and 1,500 BC.
Around 2,000 BC, parts of Eritrea were likely part of the Land of Punt, a kingdom first mentioned in the twenty-fifth century BC. It was known for producing and exporting gold, aromatic resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions, especially a well-documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1,469 BC, during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes by Hatshepsut and shortly after the beginning of her rule as the pharaoh of ancient Egypt.
Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient, pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in East Africa. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.
==== D'mt ====
Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Evidence of a massive temple complex at Yeha suggests that it was most likely Dʿmt's capital. Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Matara were important Dʿmt cities located in southern Eritrea.
The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After Dʿmt fell in the fifth century BC, the plateau was dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the first century, when one of these polities, the Kingdom of Aksum, was able to reunite the area.
==== Kingdom of Aksum ====
The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the fourth century BC and achieving prominence by the first century AD.
According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.
The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres). Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.
Christianity was the first world religion adopted in modern Eritrea. The oldest monastery, Debre Sina, dates back to the fourth century, and Debre Libanos was built in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the thirteenth century, during which Debre Libanos was a seat of religious power.
In the seventh century AD, early Muslims from Mecca, at least companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah. They reportedly built the first African mosque: the Mosque of the Companions in Massawa.
The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency.
=== Early Modern Period ===
Pre-colonial Eritrea had four distinct regions, divided by geography and in limited contact with each other. The Abyssinian, Tigrinya-speaking Christians controlled the highlands, the nomadic Tigre and Beni Amer clans the western lowlands, the Arabic Muslims the regions Massawa and Dahlak, and the pastoralist Afars the Dankalia region.
After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands fell under the domain of the Christian Zagwe dynasty, and later the influence of the Ethiopian Empire. The area was first known as Ma'ikele Bahri ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river), and later renamed the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya). The region, ruled by a local governor called the Bahr Negash, was first documented in an obscure land grant of the 11th-century Zagwe king Tatadim. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash one of his seyyuman or "appointed ones". Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob strengthened imperial presence in the area by increasing the power of the Bahr Negash and placing him above other local chiefs, establishing a military colony of settlers from Shewa, and forcing the Muslims on the coast to pay tribute.
The first Westerner to document a visit to Eritrea was Portuguese explorer Francisco Álvares in 1520. He recounted his journey through the principality ruled by the Bahr Negash, highlighting three key cities, with Debarwa as the capital. He then detailed the border demarcation at the Mereb River with the province of Tigray and recounted the difficulties in transporting certain goods across the border. His books have the first description of the local powers of Tigray and the Bahr Negash.
The contemporary coast of Eritrea formed a route to the region of Tigray, where the Portuguese had a small colony, and to the interior Ethiopian allies of the Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristóvão da Gama in the military campaign that eventually defeated the Adal Sultanate in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543.
By 1557, the Ottomans had succeeded in occupying all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the following two decades, an area that stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan. The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as the Habesh Eyalet, with a capital at Massawa. When the city became of secondary economic importance, the administrative capital moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah.
The Turks tried to occupy the highlands of Eritrea in 1559, but withdrew after they encountered resistance, pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian Emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently, by 1589, they were once again compelled to withdraw to the coast. The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.
In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu established the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands into the Sultanate of Aussa. The northern coastline of Denkel was dominated by a number of smaller Afar sultanates, such as the Sultanate of Rahayta, the Sultanate of Beylul and the Sultanate of Bidu.
=== Italian Eritrea ===
The boundaries of present-day Eritrea were established during the Scramble for Africa. On 15 November 1869, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Italian missionary Giuseppe Sapeto, on behalf of the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal. In 1882, the Italian government formally took possession of the Assab colony from its commercial owners and expanded their control to include Massawa (and most of the Eritrean coastal lowlands) after the Egyptians withdrew from Eritrea in February 1885.
In the power vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli) signed the same year, Menelik II of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.
In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. They also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the Italian army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo-Abyssinian Wars.
Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened many new factories that produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were approximately 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industry also increased the populations of Italians and Eritreans residing in cities. The number of Italians in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industry, trade and fruit plantations were expanded across the nation. Some plantations were owned by Eritreans.
In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just-conquered Ethiopia into the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana). This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.
After 1935, art deco architecture was widely employed in Asmara. The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that only halted with Italy's involvement in World War II. These included the Fiat Tagliero Building and Cinema Impero. In 2017, the city was declared a World Heritage Site, described by UNESCO as featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences.)
=== British administration ===
Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country. The decade of British administration saw significant restructuring of the Eritrean economy. Until 1945, the British and Americans relied on Italian equipment and skilled labor for wartime needs and Allied support in the Middle East. This economic boom, fueled by substantial Italian involvement, lasted until the end of the war, when the Eritrean economy faced a combination of recession and depression. War factories that had employed thousands shut down, and Italians began to be repatriated. Additionally, many small manufacturing plants established between 1936 and 1945 were forced to close due to intense competition from factories in Europe and the Middle East.
The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could decide its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning Eritrea's status, the British administration continued until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia. After the peace treaty with Italy was signed in 1947, the United Nations sent a Commission of Enquiry to decide the fate of the colony.
=== Annexation by Ethiopia ===
In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Selassie laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations, the debate over the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians, as a reward for their support during World War II. The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested for the United Nations General Assembly to hold an immediate referendum to settle the question of Eritrean sovereignty.
The United Nations Commission of Enquiry arrived in Eritrea in early 1950, and after about six weeks, returned to New York to submit its report. Two reports were presented. The minority report, presented by Pakistan and Guatemala, proposed that Eritrea be independent after a period of trusteeship. The majority report, presented by Burma, Norway, and the Union of South Africa, called for Eritrea to be incorporated into Ethiopia.
Following the adoption of U.N. Resolution 390A(V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States. The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own new flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but did guarantee the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.
=== Independence ===
In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals, and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.
In the 1980s, a non-government organization called the Eritrea Inter-Agency Consortium (EIAC) aided in the development projects for the Eritrean Liberation movement.
Following a referendum in Eritrea supervised by the United Nations (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. As of 2024, there have been no elections. On May 28, 1993, Eritrea was admitted into the United Nations as the 182nd member state.
== Geography ==
Eritrea is located in East Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E.
The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, holds the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy, arid coastline.
Eritrea is split into three ecoregions. Extending along the coast, a hot, arid plain is narrow in the west and widens towards the east. These coastal lowlands are part of the Djibouti xeric shrublands ecoregion. The cooler, more fertile highlands reach up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and are a northern extension of the Ethiopian Highlands, home to montane grasslands and woodlands. Habitats here vary, from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands. Filfil receives over 1,100 mm of rainfall annually. There is a steep escarpment along the eastern side of the highlands, which is the western wall of the East African Rift. The western slope of the highlands is more gradual, descending to interior lowlands. Southwestern Eritrea is drained by the Atbara River, which flows northwestwards to join the Nile. The northwestern slope of the highlands is drained by the Barka River, which flows northwards into Sudan to empty into the Red Sea. Western Eritrea is part of the Sahelian Acacia savanna, which extends across Africa south of the Sahara from Eritrea to Senegal.
The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 m (9,902 ft) above sea level. Eritrea has volcanic activity in the southeastern parts of the country. In 2011, Nabro Volcano erupted.
Eritrea's major urban areas include its capital city Asmara, the port town of Asseb in the southeast, the towns of Massawa to the east, the town of Keren to the north, and the central town Mendefera.
Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation, and desertification.
Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
In 2006, Eritrea announced that it would become the world's first country to make its entire coast an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its hundreds of islands, will come under governmental protection.
=== Climate ===
Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the temperate zone, subtropical climate zone, and tropical climate zone.
The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The variation of landscape and topography across the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea creates a diversity of climate. The highlands have a temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semi-arid. Distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate also varies based on seasonal and altitudinal differences.
Due to its physical diversity, Eritrea is one of the few countries where one can experience "four seasons in a day". In the highlands (up to 3000m above sea level), the hottest month is usually May, with temperatures reaching 30 C, whereas winter occurs during December to February when temperatures can be as low as 10 C at night. The capital, Asmara, is temperate year-round.
In the lowlands and the coastal areas, summer occurs from June to September, when temperatures can reach 40 C. Winter in the lowlands occurs from February to April, when temperatures are between 21 and 35 C.
A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Eritrea to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change are high.
=== Biodiversity ===
Eritrea has a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds and is home to a large number of mammals; 126 species of mammals, 90 species of reptiles, and 19 species of amphibians have been recorded. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing wildlife numbers throughout Eritrea. Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare, African wild cat, Black-backed jackal, African golden wolf, Genet, Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, and warthog. Dorcas gazelle are common on the coastal plains and in Gash-Barka.
Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka region. Dik-diks may be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass may be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx, and crocodiles. The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common.
Historically, a small population of African bush elephants roamed some parts of the country. Between 1955 and 2001, there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, however, and they were thought to have fallen victim to the War of Independence. In December 2001, a herd of approximately 30 elephants, including 10 juveniles, was observed near the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons: the baboons use water holes dug by the elephants, and the elephants use baboon vocalizations from the tree tops as an early warning system. It is estimated that there are approximately 100 African bush elephants left in Eritrea.
The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country. In Gash-Barka, snakes such as the saw-scaled viper are common. Puff adders and red spitting cobras are widespread and may be found in the highlands. In coastal areas, common marine species include dolphins, dugongs, whale sharks, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta rays. 500 fish species, 5 marine turtles, and at least 8 cetaceans have been recorded in the country.
Eritrea also harbours many endemic species, including insects, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, and plants.
Over 700 plants have been recorded in Eritrea, including marine plants and seagrass. 26% of Eritrea is arable land. Eritrea has many diverse habitats, including tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, shrublands, xeric shrublands, deserts, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and mangrove forests.
All of Eritrea's national parks are protected, which include Dahlak Marine National Park, Nakfa Wildlife Reserve, Gash-Setit Wildlife Refuge, Semenawi Bahri National Park, and Yob Wildlife Reserve.
== Government and politics ==
The People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal party in Eritrea. Other political groups are not allowed to organize, though the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; as of 2025, none have ever been held in the country. President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since independence in 1993.
In May 2001, a group of senior government officials and prominent members of the ruling party (PFDJ), known as the G-15, wrote an open letter to President Isaias Afwerki. This letter called the president to implement the ratified constitution, enact democratic reforms, and establish the rule of law. In September 2001, the Eritrean government arrested 11 of the signatories and subjected them to incommunicado detention. The crackdown also targeted independent media outlets and multiple independent journalists, including Dawit Isaac. To this day, they remain imprisoned without charge or trial.
In 1993, 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest were appointed. As the report by the United Nations Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004. The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea's first president, Isaias Afwerki, in 1993. Following his election, Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "Western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera, for example, the president stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?" According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Eritrea is 2nd lowest ranked worldwide and the lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa.
=== National, regional, and local elections ===
Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete, the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that the peace agreement is formally implemented. However, local elections were held for a time in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were in 2010 and 2011.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts.
The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on water catchment basins.
=== Foreign relations ===
Eritrea is a member of the United Nations and the African Union. It is an observing member of the Arab League, alongside Brazil and Venezuela. The nation holds a seat on the United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the World Customs Organization.
The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Since January 2011, the Eritrean government has appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.
Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense, due to territorial disputes over the Doumeira Islands and Hanish Islands respectively.
On 28 May 2019, the United States removed Eritrea from the "Counterterror Non-Cooperation List" which also includes Iran, North Korea, Syria, and Venezuela. Moreover, Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a U.S. congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years.
Along with Belarus, Syria, and North Korea, Eritrea was one of only four countries not including Russia to vote against a United Nations General Assembly resolution condemning Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine.
==== Relations with Ethiopia ====
After the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, Eritrea and Ethiopia entered a relationship of cautious mutual tolerance which lasted until May 1998. The Eritrean–Ethiopian War lasted from 1998 to 2000, claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides and cost hundreds of millions of dollars. The impetus involved a major border conflict, notably around Badme and Zalambessa, and was not resolved until 2018.
Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemates punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. The stalemate led the president of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia, with the Eleven Letters penned by the president to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders' continued support to the opposition in each other's countries. In 2011, The United Nations released a report which stated that Eritrean agents planted bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa. Eritrea denied the claims.
A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 9 July 2018. The next day, they signed a joint declaration that formally ended the Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict.
In 2020, Eritrean troops intervened in the Tigray War on the side of the Ethiopian government. In April 2021, Eritrea confirmed its troops were fighting in Ethiopia.
=== Military ===
The Eritrean Defence Forces are the official armed forces of the State of Eritrea, which are one of the largest in Africa.
Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months minimum, which includes six months of military training and 12 months during the regular school year to complete their last year of high school. Since the 2000s, national service has been open-ended, and the practice has received significant international criticism.
The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service. According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code Eritrea adopted during independence, failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years, respectively. National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis"; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.
=== Legal profession ===
According to the NYU School of Law, the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea. Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88/96, among other domestic laws, there is no bar association. The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the court judges. The Community Court's standing on women in the legal profession is unclear, but elected women judges have reserved seats.
=== Human rights ===
Eritrea is a one-party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. According to Human Rights Watch, the government's human rights record is considered among the worst in the world. Most countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of arbitrary arrest and detentions, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are illegal in Eritrea.
The nation's human rights record has been criticized by the United Nations. Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited. Those who practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison. By 2009, the number of political prisoners was in the range of 10,000–30,000, there was widespread and systematic torture and extrajudicial killings, with "anyone" for "any or no reason", including children of eight years old, people more than 80 years old, and ill people, and Eritrea was "one of the world's most totalitarian and human rights-abusing regimes". During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 Eritrean-Ethiopian War, many atrocities were committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.
In June 2016, a 500-page United Nations Human Rights Council report accused the Eritrean government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service (6.5 years on average), and forced labour, and it indicated that among state officials, sexual harassment, rape, and sexual servitude practices are widespread. Barbara Lochbihler of the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights said the report detailed 'very serious human rights violations', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea. The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the commission's report as being "wild allegations" that were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit". Representatives of the United States and China disputed the report's language and accuracy.
All Eritreans between 18 and 40 years of age must complete mandatory national service, which includes military service. This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia, as a means to protect Eritrea's sovereignty, to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace. Eritrea's national service requires long, indefinite conscription (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country to avoid.
In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions, they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights?", "Who determines what are human rights?", and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights?".
In 2007, the Eritrean government banned female genital mutilation. In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision, citing health concerns and individual freedom as primary concerns. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice.
In 2009, a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea was formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government. Since the movement's creation, no significant effort has been made by the Eritrean government to improve its record on human rights.
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region. Eritrea continued this support in 2020.
Eritrea claims Western media stories of the country are decontextualized, sometimes fabricated, and usually deployed to build a regime change narrative.
It claims it's being targeted for not conforming to the West's agenda for African countries, for instance by refusing to accept humanitarian foreign aid. Eritrea aspires to be self-reliant and, since 2005, has rejected foreign aid because it sees aid as a hindrance to true economic development. In 2006 alone, Eritrea walked away from US$200 million in foreign aid and refused a US$100 million loan from the World Bank. Besides accusing the West of demonization through smear campaigns, it also sees itself as targeted by sanctions and Western-supported war against Eritrea through the Ethiopian TPLF. It also accuses the West of luring Eritreans abroad by granting many Eritreans political asylum.
=== Media freedom ===
Eritrea lacks media freedom, as all independent media has been banned since September 2001. No foreign or national media are authorised to operate in the country. All media outlets in Eritrea are from the government's Ministry of Information. The state-owned news agency censors news about external events. In 2025, Press Freedom Index and Reporters Without Borders rated Eritrea's press freedom the lowest out of 180 countries. Eritrea also received the last place in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2021, 2024, and 2025. According to the BBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media", and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[They] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse... Not a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara." In December 2024, the Committee to Protect Journalists found to Eritrea to be the worst jailer of journalists in Sub-Africa, keeping 16 journalists in prison without trial.
The 2024 Edelstam Prize was awarded to journalist Dawit Isaak, whom Eritrean authorities have imprisoned since 2001 without legal process.
== Economy ==
In 2020, the IMF estimated Eritrea's GDP at $2.1 billion, or $6.4 billion on a PPP basis.
Between 2016 and 2019, Eritrea had a GDP growth between 7.6% and 10.2%, down from the peak at 30.9% in 2014. In 2023, the GDP growth is expected to be 2.8%, a decrease due to factors such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the effects of COVID-19 on value chains. However, the country's economy is expecting a steady growth in coming years.
In 2021, mining and agriculture accounted for 20% of the GDP. As of 2020, remittances from abroad were estimated to account for 12% of GDP.
=== Mining ===
In 2021, mining accounted for about 20% of GDP. In 2013, the pickup in growth had been attributed to the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha Mine by Canadian Nevsun Resources (now Chinese Zijin Mining), the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa, and investment in Eritrea's copper, zinc, and Colluli potash mining operations by Australian and Chinese mining companies.
=== Agriculture ===
Since independence, Eritrea has constructed 187 dams, each with a capacity of over 50,000 m3 and the biggest ones with a capacity of 350 million m3 in size. These have been built to combat drought and for agriculture, fishing, and energy purposes. In addition, 600 micro-dams have been built.
=== Energy ===
Annual consumption of petroleum in 2001 was estimated at 370,000 tons. Eritrea has no domestic petroleum production; the Eritrean Petroleum Corporation conducts purchases through international competitive tender. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, opportunities exist for both on- and offshore oil and natural gas exploration; however, these prospects have yet to come to fruition. The use of wind energy, solar power, and hydropower has slightly increased, due to the growth of solar power manufacturing companies in the country. The Eritrean government has expressed interest in developing alternative energy sources, including geothermal, solar, and wind power.
=== Tourism ===
Tourism made up 2% of Eritrea's economy up to 1997. After 1998, revenue from the industry fell to one-quarter of 1997 levels. In 2006, it made up less than 1% of the country's GDP.
Eritrea is a member of World Tourism Organization which calculated that the country's international tourism receipts in 2002 were US$73 million. Sources from 2015 state that most tourists are members of the Eritrean diaspora. Overall visitors have steadily increased in recent years and annual visitors were 142,000 as of 2016.
Tourism in Eritrea has seen increased attention in later years. For instance, in 2019, the country was added to National Geographic's Cool List. Highlighted areas included the capital, Asmara, known for its art deco architecture; the Dahlak Islands; and the country's wilderness areas. Lonely Planet also lists the capital Asmara, the Dahlak Islands, the city of Massawa and archeological sites as top attractions.
The nation's flagship carrier, Eritrean Airlines, had no scheduled service as of July 2023. International visitors rely on alternatives such as Ethiopian Airlines and Turkish Airlines to get to the country.
The government has started a twenty-year tourism development plan entitled "the 2020 Eritrea Tourism Development Plan" to develop the country's tourist industry, aiming to enhance the rich cultural and natural resources of the country. The country participates in many trade fairs to promote its tourist industry.
=== Transportation ===
Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports, railways, and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime, and aerial transportation.
The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest road level is tertiary, which serves local interests. Typically, tertiary roads are improved earth roads that are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons, these roads typically become impassable. The middle road level is secondary. These are typically single-layered asphalt roads that connect district capitals and regional capitals. Primary roads are paved with asphalt throughout their entire length and carry traffic between major cities and towns in Eritrea.
As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm (3 ft 1+3⁄8 in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The Eritrean Railway was built between 1887 and 1932. Badly damaged during World War II and in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final section closed in 1978. After independence, rebuilding efforts commenced, and the first section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section from Massawa to Asmara was fully rebuilt and available for service.
Rehabilitation of the remainder and rolling stock has occurred in recent years. Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability. Further rebuilding is planned. The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa has been inoperative since 1978, except for an approximately 5-kilometre stretch in Massawa reopened in 1994. A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara and is under reconstruction.
During the war, Eritrea continued to develop its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Wefri Warsay Yika'alo program. The most significant of these projects were the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb and the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts.
== Demographics ==
Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with some proposing numbers as low as 3.5 million and others as high as 6.4 million. Eritrea has never conducted an official government census, and the 1984 Ethiopian census, the last census conducted in Ethiopia before Eritrea's independence in 1993, recorded a population of 2,621,566. In 2020, the proportion of children below the age of 15 was 41.1%, 54.3% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.5% were 65 or older.
In 2015, there was a major outflow of emigrants from Eritrea. The Guardian attributed the emigration to Eritrea being "a totalitarian state where most citizens fear arrest at any moment and dare not speak to their neighbours, gather in groups or linger long outside their homes", with a major factor being the conditions and long durations of conscription in the Eritrean Army. At the end of 2018, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that about 507,300 Eritreans were refugees who had fled Eritrea.
=== Urbanization ===
=== Ethnic composition ===
There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea. No independent census has been conducted, but the Tigrinya people make up approximately 55% and Tigre people make up approximately 30% of the population. A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic-speaking communities of the Cushitic branch, such as the Saho, Hedareb, Afar, and Bilen. There are also several Nilotic ethnic groups, some of which are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue, and many minorities speak more than one language.
The Arabic Rashaida people represent approximately 2% of Eritrea's population. They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the nineteenth century, from the Hejaz region.
In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship except through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the state. According to 1931 Italian census, of the 600,573 inhabitants in Eritrea, 4,188 were Italians, making up about 0.7% of the population. In 1941, Eritrea had approximately 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 Eritreans are of Italian descent.
=== Languages ===
Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages". Eritrea has nine national languages which are Tigrinya, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, and Saho. Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as de facto working languages, with English used in university education and many technical fields. While Italian, the former colonial language, holds no government-recognised status in Eritrea, it is spoken by a few monolinguals and in commerce at times, and Asmara had the Scuola Italiana di Asmara, an Italian government-operated school that was shut down in 2020. Some native Eritreans also assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke an Italian-Tigrinya pidgin: Eritrean Italian.
Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Other Afroasiatic languages in the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country. The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho. In addition, Nilo-Saharan languages (Kunama and Nara) are natively spoken by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic groups that live in the western and northwestern part of the country.
Smaller groups speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognized Dahlik and Arabic (the Hejazi and Hadhrami dialects spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively).
=== Religion ===
The two main religions followed in Eritrea are Christianity and Islam. However, the number of adherents of each faith is subject to debate. According to the Pew Research Center, as of 2020, 62.9% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 36.6% followed Islam, and 0.4% practiced traditional African religions. The remainder observed Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, other faiths (<0.1% each), or were religiously unaffiliated (0.1%). The U.S. Department of State estimated that as of 2019, 49% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 49% followed Islam, and 2% observed other religions, including traditional faiths and animism. The World Religion Database reports that in 2020, 47% of the population were Christian and 51% were Muslim. Christianity is the oldest world religion practiced in the country, and the first Christian monastery Debre Sina was built during the fourth century.
Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, the Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), and the Evangelical Lutheran church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process. Among other things, the government registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship.
The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed" or "radical" versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, and numerous other Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named Jehovah's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others. The government treats Jehovah's Witnesses especially harshly, denying them ration cards and work permits. Jehovah's Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994.
In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).
=== Health ===
Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for health, in particular child health. Life expectancy at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 66.44 years in 2020; maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years, a number that has increased to 66.44 in 2020. Immunisation and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%). The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006. The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.
However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Although the number of physicians increased from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 people, this is still very low. Malaria and tuberculosis are common. HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%. The fertility rate is about 4.1 births per woman. Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002 but is still high. Similarly, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002 but still is only 28.3%. Severe infection is a major cause of death in newborns. Per-capita expenditure on health is low.
=== Education ===
There are five levels of education in Eritrea: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are nearly 1,270,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education. There are approximately 824 schools, two universities, (the University of Asmara and the Eritrea Institute of Technology), and several smaller colleges and technical schools.
The Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT) is a technological institute located near the town of Himbrti, Mai Nefhi outside Asmara. The institute has three colleges: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. The institute began with approximately 5,500 students during the 2003–2004 academic year. The EIT was opened after the University of Asmara was reorganized. According to the Ministry of Education, the institution was established, as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city, Asmara. Accordingly, several similar colleges have also been established in other parts of the country. The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science, engineering, and education. The University of Asmara is the oldest in the country and was opened in 1958. It is not currently operating.
As of 2018, the overall adult literacy rate in Eritrea is 76.6% (84.4% for men and 68.9% for women). For youth 15–24, the overall literacy rate is 93.3% (93.8% for men and 92.7% for women).
Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years.
Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that 70% to 90% of school-aged children attend primary school; approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45:1 at the elementary level and 54:1 at the secondary level. Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels, respectively.
Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low-income households.
== Culture ==
Eritrean culture encompasses the collective cultural heritage of the various populations native to Eritrea and the rich culture inherited through its long history. Modern-day Eritrea is also defined by the struggle for independence. The nation has a rich oral and literary tradition, which ranges across all nine ethnic groups and includes poetry and proverbs, songs and chants, folk tales, histories, and legends. It also has a rich history in theatre and painting, often colourful and depicting a reflection of the Eritrean people's history.
One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony. Coffee (Ge'ez ቡን būn) is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a staple of daily life. The coffee is served in three brews or rounds: the first is called awel in Tigrinya (meaning "first"), the second is called kalaay (meaning "second"), and the third round is called bereka (meaning "to be blessed").
Traditional Eritrean attire is highly varied among its ethnic groups. In larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing for Christian Tigrinya highlanders consists of bright white gowns (called zurias) for women and a white shirt and pants for men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowlands, women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music, jewelry, fragrances, and fabrics, as many other populations in the region.
=== World Heritage Site and Italian architecture ===
On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.
The city has thousands of Art Deco, futurist, modernist, and rationalist buildings, constructed during the period of Italian Eritrea. Asmara, a small town in the nineteenth century, began a period of rapid growth in1889. The city also became a place "to experiment with radical new designs", mainly futuristic and Art Deco inspired. Though city planners, architects, and engineers were largely European and members of the indigenous population were largely used as construction workers, Asmarinos still identify with their city's legacy.
The city includes examples of most early twentieth-century architectural styles. Some buildings are neo-Romanesque, such as the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Cubist influences show on the Africa Pension Building and on a small collection of buildings. The Fiat Tagliero Building shows the peak of Futurism, just as it became fashionable in Italy. In recent times, some more functional buildings have been built in Asmara.
Many buildings such as opera houses, hotels, and cinemas were built during this period. Some notable buildings include the Art Deco Cinema Impero (opened in 1937 and considered a leading example of Art Deco architecture), Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral and Asmara Opera, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, the neoclassical Asmara city hall.
A statement from UNESCO read:
It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.
=== Music ===
Eritrea's ethnic groups each have distinct styles of music and accompanying dances. The best-known Tigrinya traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the strung krar, kebero, begena, masenqo, and the wata. Tigrinya singer Helen Meles is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range. Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, the late Yemane Ghebremichael and the late Abraham Afewerki.
Dancing plays an important role in Eritrean society. The nine ethnic groups have many exuberant dances. Styles differ among the ethnic groups; for instance, the Bilen and Tigre styles involve shaking their shoulders, while standing and rotating in a circle towards the end of the dance. This differs from the Tigrinya style, which involves first dancing rotating anti-clockwise and later speeding up the pace of the dance and ceasing the circular rotation. The Kunama ethnic group has dances with ritual significance, including "tuka (rites of passage); indoda (prayers for rain); sangga-nena (peaceful mediation); and shatta (showcases of endurance and courage)". They are often fast-paced and are accompanied by drum beats.
=== Cuisine ===
A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb, or fish. Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles that of neighboring Ethiopia, though Eritrean cooking tends to feature more seafood than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location. Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter" in texture than Ethiopian meals, using less seasoned butter and spices and more tomatoes, as in the tsebhi dorho delicacy.
Additionally, due to its colonial history, Eritrean cuisine features more Italian influences than Ethiopian cooking, including more pasta and use of curry powders and cumin. Italian Eritrean cuisine originated in the colonial Kingdom of Italy, when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought pasta to Italian Eritrea, which is now one of the main foods eaten in Asmara. Common dishes are "pasta al sugo e berbere" (pasta with tomato sauce and berbere spice), lasagna, and "cotoletta alla Milanese" (veal Milanese).
In addition to coffee, local alcoholic beverages are enjoyed. These include sowa, a bitter drink made from fermented barley, and mies, a fermented honey wine.
=== Sport ===
Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea.
Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period. The Tour of Eritrea, a multi-stage cycling event, was first held in 1946 and most recently held in 2017.
Eritrea's national cycling teams are ranked first on the African continent, with the men's team ranked 16th globally as of February 2023.
The Eritrean national cycling team has won the African Continental cycling championship several years in a row. In 2013, the women's team won the gold medal in the African Continental Cycling Championships for the first time, and again in 2015 and 2019. The men's team has won gold in the African Continental cycling championships eight times between 2010 and 2022.
Eritrea has more than 500 elite cyclists of both genders. More than 20 Eritrean riders have signed professional contracts to international cycling teams. In 2015, Daniel Teklehaimanot and Merhawi Kudus became the first cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France. In 2022, Biniam Girmay was the first African rider to win both Gent-Wevelgem and a stage in one of the Grand Tours during Giro d'Italia. Three-time African female champion Mossana Debesay became the first African female cyclist to compete in the Olympics, representing Eritrea in the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics
Eritrean athletes in other sports have also seen some success in the international arena. Eritrean athlete Zersenay Tadese formerly held the world record in the half marathon. In 2015, marathon runner Ghirmay Ghebreslassie became the first Eritrean to win gold at a World Championships in Athletics for his country. Eritrea made its Winter Olympic debut in Pyeongchang, South Korea, 2018. Eritrea's team was represented by their flagbearer, Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda, who competed in alpine ski.
Neither the Eritrean national men or women's national football team currently have a world ranking, despite being a member association of global governing body FIFA.
== See also ==
Outline of Eritrea
== References ==
Christine, Owen. "Navigating difference between Tigrigna and Tigrinya". Navigating Differences: Tigrigna vs Tigrinya 16 December 2010
Hailemariam, Chefena; Kroon, Sjaak; Walters, Joel (1999). "Multilingualism and Nation Building: Language and Education in Eritrea" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 20 (6): 474–493. doi:10.1080/01434639908666385. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
=== Government ===
Ministry of Information of Eritrea Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine (official government website).
EriTV News, Music, Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television
Eritrea. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Eritrea web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Wikimedia Atlas of Eritrea
=== Others ===
Eritrea profile from BBC News.
Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, United Nations Human Rights Council Report, 8 June 2015
HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea
Documentary on Women's liberation in Eritrea
Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)).
Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway (in Italian)
Atlas of Eritrea Archived 15 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
About Eritrea (in Italian)
Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea from International Futures.
=== Magazines ===
Special section about Eritrea from Espresso online magazine Archived 15 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine (in Italian)
History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cox_(statistician)#Awards | David Cox (statistician) | Sir David Roxbee Cox (15 July 1924 – 18 January 2022) was a British statistician and educator. His wide-ranging contributions to the field of statistics included introducing logistic regression, the proportional hazards model and the Cox process, a point process named after him.
He was a professor of statistics at Birkbeck College, London, Imperial College London and the University of Oxford, and served as Warden of Nuffield College, Oxford. The first recipient of the International Prize in Statistics, he also received the Guy, George Box and Copley medals, as well as a knighthood.
== Early life ==
Cox was born in Birmingham on 15 July 1924. His father was a die sinker and part-owner of a jewellery shop, and they lived near the Jewellery Quarter. The aeronautical engineer Harold Roxbee Cox was a distant cousin. He attended Handsworth Grammar School, Birmingham. He received a Master of Arts in mathematics at St John's College, Cambridge, and obtained his PhD from the University of Leeds in 1949, advised by Henry Daniels and Bernard Welch. His dissertation was entitled Theory of Fibre Motion.
== Career ==
Cox was employed from 1944 to 1946 at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, from 1946 to 1950 at the Wool Industries Research Association in Leeds, and from 1950 to 1955 worked at the Statistical Laboratory at the University of Cambridge. From 1956 to 1966 he was Reader and then Professor of Statistics at Birkbeck College, London. In 1966, he took up the Chair position in Statistics at Imperial College London where he later became head of the mathematics department. In 1988 he became Warden of Nuffield College and a member of the Department of Statistics at Oxford University. He formally retired from these positions in 1994, but continued to work at Oxford.
Cox supervised, collaborated with, and encouraged many notable researchers prominent in statistics. He collaborated with George Box on a study of transformations such as the Box–Cox transformation and they were especially delighted to be credited as Box and Cox. He was the doctoral advisor of David Hinkley, Peter McCullagh, Basilio de Bragança Pereira, Wally Smith, Gauss Moutinho Cordeiro, Valerie Isham, Henry Wynn, Claudio Di Veroli and Jane Hutton. He served as president of the Bernoulli Society from 1979 to 1981, of the Royal Statistical Society from 1980 to 1982, and of the International Statistical Institute from 1995 to 1997. He was an Honorary Fellow of Nuffield College and St John's College, Cambridge, and was a member of the Department of Statistics at the University of Oxford.
== Personal life ==
In 1947, Cox married Joyce Drummond, and they had four children. He died on 18 January 2022, at the age of 97. He is buried in Wolvercote cemetery.
== Research ==
Cox made pioneering and important contributions to numerous areas of statistics and applied probability, of which the best known are:
Logistic regression, which is employed when the variable to be predicted is categorical (i.e., can take a limited number of values, e.g., gender, race (in the US census)), binary (a special case of categorical with only two values - e.g., success/failure, disease/no disease), or ordinal, where the categories can be ranked (e.g., pain intensity can be absent, mild, moderate, severe, unbearable). Cox's 1958 paper and further publications in the 1960s addressed the case of binary logistic regression.
The proportional hazards model, which is widely used in the analysis of survival data, was developed by him in 1972. An example of the use of the proportional hazards model is in survival analysis in medical research. The model can be used in clinical trials to investigate time-based information about cohorts of patients, such as their response to exposure to certain chemical substances.
The Cox process was named after him.
== Awards ==
Cox received numerous awards and honours for his work. He was awarded the Guy Medals in Silver (1961) and Gold (1973) of the Royal Statistical Society. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1973. The next year, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1985. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1990. Cox became an Honorary Fellow of the British Academy in 1997 and was a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was a Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences and a foreign member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1990, he won the Kettering Prize and Gold Medal for Cancer Research for "the development of the Proportional Hazard Regression Model." In 2010 he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society "for his seminal contributions to the theory and applications of statistics", the same year in which he was elected a foreign fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He was also the first ever recipient of the International Prize in Statistics. He received the award in 2016. In 2013 Cox was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 2016, he won the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Basic Sciences category jointly with Bradley Efron, for the development of "pioneering and hugely influential" statistical methods that have proved indispensable for obtaining reliable results in a vast spectrum of disciplines from medicine to astrophysics, genomics or particle physics.
== Publications ==
Cox wrote or co-authored over 300 papers and books. From 1966 to 1991 he was the editor of Biometrika. His books are as follows:
Planning of experiments (1958)
Queues (Methuen, 1961). With Walter L. Smith
Renewal Theory (Methuen, 1962).
The theory of stochastic processes (1965). With Hilton David Miller
Analysis of binary data (1969). With Joyce Snell
Theoretical statistics (1974). With D. V. Hinkley
Problems and Solutions in Theoretical Statistics (1978). With D. V. Hinkley
Point Processes (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1980). With Valerie Isham
Applied statistics, principles and examples (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1981). With Joyce Snell
Analysis of survival data (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1984). With David Oakes
Asymptotic techniques for use in statistics. (1989) With Ole E. Barndorff-Nielsen
Inference and asymptotics (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 1994). With Ole E. Barndorff-Nielsen
Multivariate dependencies: models, analysis and interpretation (Chapman & Hall, 1995). With Nanny Wermuth
The theory of design of experiments. (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2000). With Nancy M. Reid
Complex stochastic systems (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2000). With Ole E. Barndorff-Nielsen and Claudia Klüppelberg
Components of variance (Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2003). With P. J. Solomon
Principles of Statistical Inference (Cambridge University Press, 2006). ISBN 978-0-521-68567-2
Selected Statistical Papers of Sir David Cox 2 Volume Set
Principles of Applied Statistics (CUP). With Christl Donnelly
He was named editor of the following books:
D. R. Cox; D. M. Titterington, eds. (1991). Complex Stochastic Systems. Royal Society. ISBN 978-0-85403-453-6.
D. R. Cox, ed. (1992). The Collected Works of John W. Tukey: Factorial and ANOVA. Vol. VII. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-412-06321-3.
D. R. Cox; D. V. Hinkley; Ole E. Barndorff-Nielsen, eds. (1996). Time series models in econometrics, finance and others. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-412-72930-0.
D. M. Titterington; D. R. Cox, eds. (2001). Biometrika: One Hundred Years. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850993-6.
The following book was published in his honour:
Celebrating Statistics: Papers in honour of Sir David Cox on his 80th birthday ISBN 978-0-19-856654-0
== See also ==
Logrank test
== References ==
"'I would like to think of myself as a scientist, who happens largely to specialise in the use of statistics'– An interview with Sir David Cox". Statistics Views. John Wiley & Sons. 24 January 2014. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
== External links ==
Sir David Cox – homepage at web-site of University of Oxford.
The certificate of election to the Royal Society is available at Cox, David Roxbee
There are two photographs at Portraits of Statisticians
Cox's time in the Cambridge Statistical Laboratory is recounted in The History of the Cambridge Statistical Laboratory Archived 19 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
David Roxbee Cox at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_Makhana#:~:text=Subsequently%2C%20in%20April%202022%2C%20it,from%20the%20Government%20of%20India. | Mithila Makhana | Mithila Makhana (botanical name: Euryale ferox) is a special variety of aquatic fox nut cultivated in Mithila region
of Bihar state in India and in Nepal.
In Mithila, Makhana is also termed as Makhan. It is one of the three prestigious cultural identities of Mithila: Pond, Fish and Makhan (Maithili language: पग-पग पोखरि, माछ, मखान). It is also used in the Kojagara festival celebrated for newly married couples among the Maithil Brahmins and Kaysaths.
== Geographical indication tag ==
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour facilitated in getting a geographical indication (GI) tag for Mithila Makhana, which it received in April 2022. Darbhanga MP Gopal Jee Thakur had led these efforts by demanding a GI tag for Mithila Makhana many times in the Parliament of India.
GI has been registered in the name of Mithilanchal Makhana Utpadak Sangh, Purnia. The Postal Department of India started a courier service for delivering Mithila Makhana in Bihar from 28 January 2021.
== Globalization ==
In the recent years Mithila Makhana has got popularity as a superfood in the global market. Indian prime minister Narendra Modi called makhana as a superfood while addressing a rally in Bhagalpur on 24 February 2025. Its demand is rapidly increasing in the markets of the western world. The US has become the largest consumer as well as the largest importer of the makhana. Similarly Canada and Australia are the next two big importers of Makhana after USA. According to media reports, it has also been termed as "The Black Diamond". India is the largest exporter of Makhana in the world. Similarly the Mithila region is the largest producer of Makhana in India. The Mithila region covers 80 percent of the total cultivation of Makhana in India. The prime minister Narendra Modi on 24 February 2025 announced that Makhana should be reached the market around the world.
== Government initiatives ==
On February 2025, the union finance minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced, during the speech of 2025 budget, to set up Makhana Board in Bihar. The major aims of the Makhana Board would be to enhance production, processing, value addition, and marketing of the makhana cultivated in the Mithila region of Bihar in India. On 23 February 2025, the union agriculture minister Shivraj Singh Chauhan arrived at the campus of Makhana Research Centre in Darbhanga to address and discuss about the formation of the proposed Makhana Board with the farmers involved in the cultivation of the Mithila Makhana in the region. On 24 February 2025, the prime minister Narendra Modi also repeated the formation of the proposed Makhana Board, while addressing a rally in Bhagalpur.
== See also ==
Darbhanga
Madhubani, India
Madhubani art
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishari_bin_Rashid_Alafasy#Awards_and_recognition | Mishari bin Rashid Alafasy | Qari Mishary bin Rashid Alafasy (Arabic: مشاري بن راشد العفاسي) is a Kuwaiti qāriʾ (Quran reciter), imam, preacher, and nasheed artist. He studied at the College of the Holy Quran at the Islamic University of Madinah, where he specialized in the ten qira'at (canonical methods of Quranic recitation) and tafsir (Quranic exegesis).
In addition to his Qur’anic recitation, Alafasy has released several nasheed albums. While he recites performs in Arabic, he has also recorded nasheeds in other languages, including Japanese, Turkish, English and French.
Mishary bin Rashid Alafasy is today one of the most well recognized voices in Nashid and Quran recitations, with his own YouTube channel having 11.6 million subscribers. For instance, 2 of his recorded Nashids have amassed more than 200 million views on YouTube, with 1 recitation of Surah Baqarah amassing nearly 100 million views. Dozens of his Nashids and Quran recitations alike have at least 10 million views on YouTube. His voice is almost always available on any commonly used Quran listening apps.
== Awards and recognition ==
On October 25 2008, Alafasy was awarded the first Arab Creativity Oscar by the Arab Creativity Union in Egypt. The event was sponsored by the Secretary-General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa as a recognition of Alafasy's role in promoting Islamic principles and teachings.
In 2012, he was named the best Quran reciter by About.com magazine as part of the Readers' Choice Awards.
In June 2024, he received a diamond button for being the first Islamic channel to reach 10 million subscribers on YouTube.
== References ==
== External links ==
Nasheed From "Hearts Be Merciful Album"(2012)
Alafasy's Ramadan nasheed, August 2023
Recitation by Sheikh Mishary Rashed Al-afasy
Recitation Of Mishari
Alafasy Albums
Alafasy Recitations on Islamway
SunniPath Library – Quran Recitation by Mishary Rashed al-Efasy
Info of Sheikh Mishary Rashed Al-afasy |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haumea_(mythology) | Haumea (mythology) | Haumea (Hawaiian: [həuˈmɛjə]) is the goddess of fertility and childbirth in Hawaiian mythology. She is the mother of many important deities, such as Pele, Kāne Milohai, Kāmohoaliʻi, Nāmaka, Kapo, and Hiʻiaka. She was killed by Kaulu. Haumea is one of the most important Hawaiian gods, and her worship is among the oldest on the Hawaiian islands.
== Mythology ==
With the help of a magic stick called the Mākālei, Haumea repeatedly transforms herself from an old woman to a young girl, and returns to her homeland periodically to marry one of her offspring, thus giving birth to continuous generations of humans. Eventually, her identity is found out by Kio, which angers her, causing her to leave humanity behind.
Haumea is said to have given humans the ability to give birth naturally. In a story, she visited Muleiula, the daughter of a chieftain who was experiencing painful childbirth, during which she discovered that humans only gave birth by cutting open the mother. Seeing this, Haumea created a potion out of the Kani-ka-wī tree (Spondias dulcis), which allowed the mother to push out the baby naturally.
== Relationships ==
Haumea is the sister of the gods Kāne and Kanaloa, and sometimes also the wife of Kanaloa. Some traditions identify Haumea with Papahānaumoku, the goddess of the Earth, and wife of the sky god Wākea.
=== Offspring ===
With Kanaloa, Haumea gave birth to the war god Kekaua-kahi, the volcano goddess Pele, as well as Pele's brothers and sisters, including Hiʻiaka. Except for Pele, who was born the normal way, her children were born from various parts of her body. From her head, for example, were born Laumiha, Kahaʻula, Kahakauakoko, and Kauakahi.
==== Kumulipo ====
According to the Kumulipo, a Hawaiian creation chant, Haumea's offspring are:
Children by Mulinaha:
Laumiha
Kahaʻula
Kahakauakoko
Children by Kanaloa:
Kauakahi
Grandchildren:
Kauahulihonua
Haloa
Waia
Hinanalo
Nanakahili
Wailoa
Kiʻo (last born)
== Death ==
== Legacy ==
On September 17, 2008, the International Astronomical Union named the fifth known dwarf planet in the Solar System Haumea. The planet's two moons were named after Haumea's daughters: Hiʻiaka, the goddess born from the mouth of Haumea, and Namaka, the water spirit born from Haumea's body.
== See also ==
Haumia-tiketike
Papahānaumoku
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
Craig, Robert D. (2004). Handbook of Polynesian Mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 128-129. ISBN 1-57607-895-7.
== External links ==
Sacred texts |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eremiaphila_bifasciata | Eremiaphila bifasciata | Eremiaphila bifasciata is a species of praying mantis in the family Eremiaphilidae.
== See also ==
List of mantis genera and species
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chancellors_and_vice-chancellors_of_Jamia_Millia_Islamia | List of chancellors and vice-chancellors of Jamia Millia Islamia | The chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia is the ceremonial head of the university. The vice-chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia is the executive head of the university.
== Chancellors of JMI ==
The chancellors of JMI are as follows.
Hakim Ajmal Khan (1920–1927)
Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari (1928–1936)
Abdul Majeed Khwaja (1936–1962)
Zakir Husain (1963–1969)
Mohammad Hidayatullah (1969–1985)
Khurshed Alam Khan (1985–1990)
S. M. H. Burney (1990–1995)
Khurshed Alam Khan (1995–2001)
Fakhruddin T. Khorakiwala (2002–2011).
Mohammad Ahmed Zaki (2012–2017)
Najma Heptulla (2017- 2023)
Mufaddal Saifuddin (2023–Incumbent)
== Vice chancellors of JMI ==
The vice chancellors of JMI are as follows.
Mohammad Ali Jouhar (1920–1923)
Abdul Majeed Khwaja (1923–1925)
Dr. Zakir Husain (1926–1948)
Mohammad Mujeeb (1948–1973)
Masud Husain Khan (1973–1978)
Anwar Jamal Kidwai (1978–1983)
Ali Ashraf (1983–1989)
Syed Zahoor Qasim (1989–1991)
Bashiruddin Ahmad (1991–1996)
Mohammad Ahmed Zaki (1997–2000)
Syed Shahid Mahdi (2000–2004)
Mushirul Hasan (2004–2009)
Najeeb Jung (2009–2013)
Talat Ahmad (2014–2018)
Najma Akhtar (2019–2023) (First women Vice-Chancellor)
Mazhar Asif (2024– )
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalina_Hristova | Kalina Hristova | Kalina A. Hristova is a Bulgarian–American engineer. She is a professor of materials science and engineering at Johns Hopkins University's Whiting School of Engineering.
== Early life and education ==
Hristova received her Bachelor of Science degree and Master's degree in physics from Sofia University in 1987 and 1988, respectively, before moving to the United States. She subsequently earned her PhD in mechanical engineering and materials science from Duke University in 1994 and worked as a post-doctoral associate and research scientist at the University of California, Irvine. During college, she became fascinated by the organization of the biological membrane.
== Career ==
Upon completing her PhD, Hristova joined the faculty of the Whiting School of Engineering where she focused her research in membrane biophysics and biomolecular materials. In 2007, Hristova received the Biophysical Society’s Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award for "her extraordinary and outstanding scientific achievements in biophysics research." As an associate professor of materials science and engineering, Hristova and her research team developed new tools and techniques that "allowed her to take pictures and make measurements that reveal how the rogue protein is behaving in the cell membrane."
In 2014, Hristova served as one of the guest editors for a special issue of Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. During the summer of 2016, Hristova and her research team developed a fluorescence-based technique that allowed membrane receptors to precisely measure receptor interactions in living cells. Later in October, she was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society "for the development of quantitative methods to probe membrane protein interactions and to reveal the mechanism of activation of membrane receptors."
During the Western African Ebola virus epidemic, Hristova co-authored Ebola Virus Delta Peptide Is a Viroporin to describe an effort to slow the virus's spread. She began the study after suspecting that the delta peptides could weaken the protective membranes that surround cells in a patient’s gastrointestinal tract. Following this, she was elected a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering "for the development of quantitative methods revealing the mechanism of activation of membrane receptors implicated in human cancers." In 2019, Hristova received a funding award from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences for her project "Seeking the Biophysical Principles that Govern RTK Activation."
== References ==
== External links ==
Kalina Hristova publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherie_Johnson | Cherie Johnson | Cherie Johnson (born November 21, 1975) is an American actress, writer, film producer, and author. She is known for her roles on Punky Brewster as Punky's best friend Cherie and Family Matters, where she played Laura Winslow's best friend Maxine Johnson for eight seasons (1990–1998).
In 2009, she wrote, starred in, and produced the independent film I Do... I Did!, playing Vivian. Johnson has so far produced eight films. In 2010, she made writer debut when she released her book Around The World Twice. In 2011, she released her second, writing, Two Different Walks Of Life A Celebrity and Average Housewife. Her third novel Peaches and Cream is available. Her book Stupid Guys Diary was released in August 2013.
== Background and career ==
Johnson's beginnings in show business are attributed to her late maternal uncle, David W. Duclon, a successful screenwriter and TV producer, who was known for his work on Happy Days in the 1970s. Duclon encouraged his niece's desire to act, and secured her an audition. In 1984, after two seasons as executive producer of NBC's Silver Spoons (co-created by Howard Leeds), Duclon successfully pitched a new pilot to the network about an orphaned young girl who is taken in by a curmudgeonly older man. The concept won the approval of NBC programming chief Brandon Tartikoff, who named the titular character, and series, Punky Brewster (after a girl he had known in his youth). Johnson was cast by NBC in the role of Punky's (Soleil Moon Frye) best friend, the character modeled and named after herself. Punky Brewster was an immediate success among young audiences, and Johnson continued as the fictional Cherie throughout the series' run (1984–86 on NBC, and 1987–88 in first-run syndication).
In 1990, Johnson began playing Maxine "Max" Johnson, the best friend of Laura Winslow (Kellie Shanygne Williams) on ABC's Family Matters, appearing in the recurring role until the series' end in 1998. Duclon was again her employer, as he served as one of the executive producers of Family Matters during Johnson's run on the show. In addition to her starring roles, Johnson has made guest appearances on The Parkers and other different work. She has also appeared on Days of Our Lives. In the early 2000s, Johnson began producing films. In 2009, she wrote, starred in, and produced the film I Do... I Did!. In 2010, she starred in many films Lights Out, Nobody Smiling and Guardian of Eden. She then signed on to appear in the romantic film Fanaddict, which was shot in 2011 and is slated for release later in 2013.
In 2020, NBC confirmed a 10-episode revival of Punky Brewster on its Peacock streaming service. Soleil Moon Frye and Johnson reprised their roles.
=== Writer ===
Her first novel, Around The World Twice, was released August 10, 2010. On April 14, 2011, Johnson also released a poetry book with her I Do...I Did! co-writer, entitled Two Different Walks of Life. Her second novel was Peaches and Cream, and her book of diary entries Stupid Guys Diary was released August 2014 . Little Cherie Dresses Herself, a children's book wrote in two languages, was released 2016. Writing has become Johnson's second career choice; she is also the assistant editor of Fever magazine and was formerly the executive director for Dimez magazine, and was contributing writer for Temptation magazine and Glam Couture magazine, where she did a monthly article titled "Cherie Picking". In 2016, she accepted a position at Fever magazine.
== Personal life ==
Johnson joined Shadow Play Entertainment's literacy campaign, called "Take Time to Read", as the national spokesperson, sharing her thoughts on why reading is so important no matter what career people choose. She has stated that her favorite musical artists are Prince and Dr. Dre. Johnson has also explained that she is a big sports fanatic; her favorite team is the Pittsburgh Steelers, and she is a fan of former NBA player Paul Pierce. During an interview, Johnson described herself as somewhat of a nerd and a homebody and that she loves to read, write, paint, eat and travel. She also stated she doesn't watch any TV nor many movies, but she loves music and her family. She has also stated she is somewhat of a "Twitter-holic" and is often tweeting.
Johnson announced on 11/24/25 that she is newly engaged to be married.
Johnson spends her free time working with many children's charities, and she is also on the Alzheimer's Association board.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Writings ==
2010: Around the World Twice
2011: Two Different Walks of Life: "A Celebrity and Average Housewife"
2012: August 7 novel Peaches & Cream
2013: "Stupid Guys Diary"
2018: "Lil Cherie Dresse's Herself"
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Cherie Johnson at IMDb
Cherie Johnson's channel on YouTube
Cherie Johnson on Twitter |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bachelorette_(American_TV_series)_season_7 | The Bachelorette (American TV series) season 7 | The seventh season of The Bachelorette, an ABC reality television series, premiered on May 23, 2011. This season featured 27-year-old Ashley Hebert, a dentist and a dance instructor from Madawaska, Maine. Hebert finished in third place on season 15 of The Bachelor featuring Brad Womack.
The season concluded on August 1, 2011, with Hebert accepting a proposal from 34-year-old construction manager J.P. Rosenbaum. The couple married on December 1, 2012, and have two children. In October 2020, Hebert and Rosenbaum announced their separation and subsequently divorced the following year, making them the first divorce in the Bachelor franchise.
== Contestants ==
Biographical information according to ABC official series site, plus footnoted additions.
(ages stated are at time of contest)
=== Future appearances ===
==== The Bachelor ====
Ben Flajnik was chosen as the lead of the sixteenth season of The Bachelor.
==== Bachelor Pad ====
Ames Brown, Blake Julian, and William Holman returned for the second season of Bachelor Pad. Ames quit in week 2. William was eliminated in week 4. Blake and his partner, Erica Rose, were eliminated in week 5, finishing in 5th place.
Nick Peterson returned for the third season of Bachelor Pad. He finished as the sole winner for that season.
==== Bachelor in Paradise ====
Nick returned for the second season of Bachelor in Paradise. He left Paradise in a relationship with Samantha Steffen.
==== Other appearances ====
Jon Ellsworth appeared as a contestant in the Bachelors vs. Bachelorettes special on the season 7 of Wipeout.
== Call-out order ==
The contestant received the first impression rose
The contestant received a rose during a date
The contestant was eliminated
The contestant was eliminated outside the rose ceremony
The contestant was eliminated during a date
The contestant quit the competition
The previously eliminated contestant asked for a chance to return, but was denied
The contestant won the competition
== Episodes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles | 2020 French Open – Men's singles | Three-time defending champion Rafael Nadal defeated Novak Djokovic in the final, 6–0, 6–2, 7–5 to win the men's singles tennis title at the 2020 French Open. It was his record-extending 13th French Open title and 20th major title overall, equaling Roger Federer's all-time record of men's singles titles. For an Open Era record fourth time in his career, Nadal did not lose a set during the tournament (following 2008, 2010, and 2017). For the first time in French Open history, neither the men's nor women's singles champions lost a set during their tournaments. Nadal also became the first player, male or female, to win 100 matches at the French Open, and only the second man, after Federer at the Australian Open and Wimbledon, to win 100 matches at the same major.
Djokovic was attempting to become the first man in the Open Era to achieve a double career Grand Slam, a feat he would accomplish the following year. Instead, he suffered his worst-ever defeat in a major final, winning only seven games and suffering his first, and only bagel (0–6 set).
Taylor Fritz and Lorenzo Sonego played the longest tiebreak in French Open history in the third round: Sonego won the third set tiebreak 19–17.
Jannik Sinner was the first man to reach the quarterfinals on his tournament debut since Nadal won in 2005, and the youngest quarterfinalist since Djokovic in 2006. He was the first man born in the 21st century to reach a major quarterfinal.
Nadal and Sinner's quarterfinal match was the first men's match to start at night in French Open history. Their match, played under cold and windy conditions, started after 10:00 pm CEST and finished at 1:26 am, the first French Open match to finish after midnight.
== Seeds ==
All seedings per ATP rankings.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
== Draw ==
Key
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
==== Section 1 ====
==== Section 2 ====
==== Section 3 ====
==== Section 4 ====
=== Bottom half ===
==== Section 5 ====
==== Section 6 ====
==== Section 7 ====
==== Section 8 ====
== Other entry information ==
=== Wild cards ===
=== Protected ranking ===
=== Qualifiers ===
=== Lucky losers ===
=== Withdrawals ===
== References ==
== External links ==
2020 French Open – Men's draws and results at the International Tennis Federation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getty_Center | Getty Center | The Getty Center, in Los Angeles, California, US, is a campus of the Getty Museum and other programs of the Getty Trust. The $1.3 billion center opened to the public on December 16, 1997, and is well known for its architecture, gardens, and views overlooking Los Angeles. The center sits atop a hill connected to a visitors' parking garage at the bottom of the hill by a three-car, cable-pulled hovertrain people mover.
Located in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, the center is one of two locations of the J. Paul Getty Museum and draws 1.8 million visitors annually. (The other location is the Getty Villa in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of [
Los Angeles.) The center branch of the museum features pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, and decorative arts; and photographs from the 1830s through present day from all over the world. In addition, the museum's collection at the center includes outdoor sculpture displayed on terraces and in gardens and the large Central Garden designed by Robert Irwin. Among the artworks on display is the Vincent van Gogh painting Irises.
Designed by architect Richard Meier, the campus also houses the Getty Research Institute (GRI), the Getty Conservation Institute, the Getty Foundation, and the J. Paul Getty Trust. The center's design included special provisions to address concerns regarding earthquakes and fires.
== Location and history ==
Originally, the Getty Museum started in J. Paul Getty's house located in Pacific Palisades in 1954. He expanded the house with a museum wing. In the 1970s, Getty built a replica of an Italian villa on his home's land to better house his collection, which opened in 1974. After Getty's death in 1976, the entire property was turned over to the Getty Trust for museum purposes. However, the collection outgrew the site, which has since been renamed the Getty Villa, and management sought a location more accessible to Los Angeles. The purchase of the land upon which the center is located, a campus of 24 acres (9.7 ha) on a 110-acre (45 ha) site in the Santa Monica Mountains above Interstate 405, surrounded by 600 acres (240 ha) kept in a natural state, was announced in 1983. The top of the hill is 900 feet (270 m) above sea level, high enough that on a clear day it is possible to see not only the Los Angeles skyline but also the San Bernardino Mountains, and San Gabriel Mountains to the east as well as the Pacific Ocean to the west.
The price tag of the center totaled $733 million which includes $449 million for construction, $115 million for the land and site work, $30 million for fixtures and equipment, and $139 million for insurance, engineers' and architects' fees, permits and safety measures, according to Stephen D. Rountree, former director of the Getty's building program and director of operations and planning for the trust.
Current appraisal for the property fluctuates with the market, but in June 2013 the land and buildings were estimated at $3.853 billion (art not included).
In 1984, Richard Meier was chosen to be the architect of the center. After an extensive conditional-use permit process, construction by the Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company began in August 1989. The construction was significantly delayed, with the planned completion date moved from 1988 to 1995 (as of 1990). By 1995, however, the campus was described as only "more than halfway complete".
The center ultimately opened to the public on December 16, 1997. Although the total project cost was estimated to be $350 million as of 1990, it was later estimated to be $1.3 billion. After the center opened, the villa closed for extensive renovations and reopened on January 28, 2006, to focus on the arts and cultures of ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. Currently, the museum displays collections at both the Getty Center and the Getty Villa in Pacific Palisades.
In 2005, after a series of articles in the Los Angeles Times about the spending practices of the Getty Trust and its then-president Barry Munitz, the California Attorney General conducted an investigation of the Getty Trust and found that no laws had been broken. The trust agreed to appoint an outside monitor to review future expenditures. The Getty Trust experienced financial difficulties in 2008 and 2009 and cut 205 of 1,487 budgeted staff positions to reduce expenses. Although the Getty Trust endowment reached $6.4 billion in 2007, it dropped to $4.5 billion in 2009. The endowment rebounded to $6.2 billion by 2013.
== Architecture ==
Meier has exploited the two naturally occurring ridges (which diverge at a 22.5 degree angle) by overlaying two grids along these axes. These grids serve to define the space of the campus while dividing the import of the buildings on it. Along one axis lie the galleries and along the other axis lie the administrative buildings. Meier emphasized the two competing grids by constructing strong view lines through the campus. The main north–south axis starts with the helipad, then includes a narrow walkway between the auditorium and north buildings, continues past the elevator kiosk to the tram station, through the rotunda, past the walls and support columns of the exhibitions pavilion, and finally the ramp besides the west pavilion and the central garden. Its corresponding east–west visual axis starts with the edge of the scholar's wing of the Getty Research Institute (GRI), the walkway between the central garden and the GRI, the overlook to the azalea pool in the central garden, the walkway between the central garden and the west pavilion, and finally the north wall of the west pavilion and the courtyard between the south and east pavilions.
The main axes of the museum grid that is offset by 22.5 degrees begins with the arrival plaza, carries through the edge of the stairs up to the main entrance, aligns with the columns supporting the rotunda as well as the center point of the rotunda, aligns with travertine benches in the courtyard between the pavilions, includes a narrow walkway between the west and south pavilions, a staircase down to the cactus garden and ends in the garden. The corresponding cross axis starts with the center point of the circle forming the GRI library garden, then passing to the center of the entrance rotunda, and aligning with the south wall of the rotunda building. Although all of the museum is aligned on these alternative axes, portions of the exhibitions pavilion and the east pavilion are aligned on the true north–south axis as a reminder that both grids are present in the campus.
The primary grid structure is a 30-inch (760 mm) square; most wall and floor elements are 30-inch (760 mm) squares or some derivative thereof. The buildings at the Getty Center are made from concrete and steel with either travertine or aluminium cladding. Around 1,200,000 square feet (110,000 m2) of travertine was used to build the center.
Throughout the campus, numerous fountains provide white noise as a background. The initial design has remained intact; however benches and fences have been installed around the plaza fountains to discourage visitors from wading into the pools. Some additional revisions have been made in deference to the Americans with Disabilities Act.
The north promontory is anchored by a circular grass area, which serves as a heliport in case of emergencies, and the south promontory is anchored by a succulent plant and cactus garden. The complex is also encircled by access roads that lead to loading docks and staff parking garages on both the west and east sides of the buildings. The hillside around the complex has been planted with California Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) trees.
The museum has a seven-story deep underground parking garage with over 1,200 parking spaces. There is a cost for parking in the garage depending on the day of the week and time visited.
An automated three-car, cable-pulled hovertrain people mover, the "Getty Center Tram", takes passengers between the parking garage at the bottom of the hill and the museum at the top of the hill. The tram runs continuously throughout the day.
Its roof has an outdoor sculpture garden.
== Arrival court and central rotunda ==
Visitors typically arrive at a tram station in the arrival plaza located between the administrative buildings and the museum entrance. A large set of steps leads to the main doors of the rotunda building. The rotunda building houses information desks, two orientation theatres and museum shops. It also holds a grand staircase that starts a path toward the paintings located on the second floor of each art pavilion. The rotunda opens to the south to a terrace that links all five of the museum pavilions. A separate building to the west of the arrival plaza and stairs holds a cafeteria and restaurant. Next to the restaurant is a stone arch, which separates the museum from the GRI. Stairs from the terrace connecting the GRI and the restaurant lead down to the central garden.
== Museum ==
The J. Paul Getty Museum's estimated 1.8 million visitors annually make it one of the most visited museums in the United States. The collection of the J. Paul Getty Museum on display at the Getty Center includes "pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, and decorative arts; and 19th- and 20th-century American and European photographs". The paintings include:
Arii Matamoe (The Royal End) by Paul Gauguin (1892). The museum's director, Michael Brand, stated that the purchase of the painting was "one of the key moments in the history of our collection". The literal translation of the Tahitian words of the title are "noble" and "sleeping eyes", which implies "death".
Irises by Vincent van Gogh (1889). The museum purchased the painting in 1990; it had sold for $53.9 million in 1987.
Portrait of a Halberdier by Pontormo (1528–1530). When the museum bought the painting for $35.2 million at an auction in 1989, "the price more than tripled the previous record at auction for an Old Master painting".
A copy of Portrait of Louis XIV, which measures 114 x 62-5/8 inches, by the workshop of Hyacinthe Rigaud (after 1701).
Getty's extensive photograph collection is located on the lower level of the west pavilion.
The museum building consists of a three-level base building that is closed to the public and provides staff workspace and storage areas. Five public, two-story towers on the base are called the North, East, South, West and the Exhibitions Pavilions. The Exhibitions Pavilion acts as the temporary residence for traveling art collections and the Foundation's artwork for which the permanent pavilions have no room. The permanent collection is displayed throughout the other four pavilions chronologically: the north houses the oldest art while the west houses the newest. The first-floor galleries in each pavilion house light-sensitive art, such as illuminated manuscripts, furniture, or photography. Computer-controlled skylights on the second-floor galleries allow paintings to be displayed in natural light. The second floors are connected by a series of glass-enclosed bridges and open terraces, both of which offer views of the surrounding hillsides and central plaza. Sculpture is also on display at various points outside the buildings, including on various terraces and balconies. The lower level (the highest of the floors in the base) includes a public cafeteria, the terrace cafe, and the photography galleries.
Programs at the museum consist of exhibitions, family workshops, school visits, performances, talks, and tours. Brochures at the museum have been provided for youth who visit the museum to engage them in a sort of scavenger hunt for exhibits and art throughout the museum along with fun facts regarding items listed on the brochure.
== Central Garden ==
The 134,000-square-foot (12,400 m2) Central Garden at the Getty Center is the work of artist Robert Irwin. Planning for the garden began in 1992, construction started in 1996, and the garden was completed in December 1997.
Irwin was quoted as saying that the Central Garden "is a sculpture in the form of a garden, which aims to be art". Water plays a major role in the garden. A fountain near the restaurant flows toward the garden and appears to fall into a grotto on the north garden wall. The resulting stream then flows down the hillside into the azalea pool. The designers placed rocks and boulders of varying size in the stream bed to vary the sounds from the flowing water. A tree-lined stream descends to a plaza, while the walkway criss-crosses the stream, which continues through the plaza, and goes over a stone waterfall into a round pool. A maze of azaleas floats in the pool, around which is a series of specialty gardens. More than 500 varieties of plant material are used for the Central Garden, but the selection is "always changing, never twice the same".
After the original design, an outdoor sculpture garden, called the "Lower Terrace Garden" was added in 2007 on the west side of the central garden just below the scholar's wing of the GRI building.
== Getty Research Institute (GRI) ==
The Getty Research Institute (GRI) is "dedicated to furthering knowledge and advancing understanding of the visual arts". Among other holdings, GRI's research library contains over 900,000 volumes of books, periodicals, and auction catalogs; special collections; and two million photographs of art and architecture. GRI's other activities include exhibitions, publications, and a residential scholars program. At the Getty Center, GRI is located to the west of the museum. The round building encircles a landscaped garden and is located to the west of the central garden. The main entrance of GRI is connected by a terrace to the main arrival court of the museum, with outdoor sculptures placed along the route. GRI has one art gallery on its entrance level that is open to the public.
== Other offices ==
Meier also designed three other buildings located next to the north promontory and offset at a 22.5 degree angle from the main axis of the museum pavilions. The north-most building is an auditorium. Next to it is the North Building, with the East Building sitting between the North Building and the rotunda. The main entrance to the East Building is flanked by two round silos that hold its elevators. A bridge over a sunken courtyard links the main entrance of the East Building to the main walkway that connects the auditorium and North Buildings to the rotunda. These buildings house the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI), the J. Paul Getty Trust and the Getty Foundation. These buildings are generally closed to the public except for special events held in the auditorium. They are linked to the museum both by landscaped terraces and by an enclosed glass walkway that leads from the main rotunda.
GCI, which is headquartered at the Getty Center but also has facilities at the Getty Villa, commenced operation in 1985. It "serves the conservation community through scientific research, education and training, model field projects, and the dissemination of the results of both its own work and the work of others in the field" and "adheres to the principles that guide the work of the Getty Trust: service, philanthropy, teaching, and access". GCI has activities in both art conservation and architectural conservation.
The Getty Foundation awards grants for "the understanding and preservation of the visual arts". In addition, it runs the Getty Leadership Institute for "current and future museum leaders". Its offices are north of the museum. The foundation offices are located in the two administrative buildings that are north of the museum. The J. Paul Getty Trust, which oversees the Getty Conservation Institute, Getty Foundation, Getty Research Institute, and J. Paul Getty Museum, also has offices there.
== Preparation for natural disasters ==
=== Earthquakes ===
Although the center's site was thought to have little motion during earthquakes, which are frequent in the Los Angeles area, in 1994, as the center was being constructed, the Northridge earthquake struck. It caused "disturbing hairline cracks... in the welds and plated joints of the steel framework". As a result, the steelwork through the site was retrofitted. The center's buildings are thought to be able to survive an earthquake of 7.5 magnitude on the Richter scale.
=== Fires ===
The Getty Center's architect, Richard Meier, has incorporated a robust anti-fire engineering, leading the Getty to later describe itself as "the safest place for art during a fire". The buildings are made of travertine, chosen specifically for its fire-resistant qualities, concrete and protected steel. These are surrounded by travertine plazas with well-irrigated landscaping that is designed to slow down the spread of fire. Oak trees are regularly pruned so that their canopies remain high off the ground. The native flammable chaparral was removed and fire-resistant poverty weed was added to the slopes around the center. Each year, a herd of goats is rented to clear brush on the surrounding hills. Additionally, the roofs of the Getty buildings are covered with fire-resistant crushed stone. At the north end of the center, a tank with 1,000,000 US gal (3,800,000 L) of water, together with a grass-covered helipad, allow helicopters to collect water. The access ramp from the entry plaza to the museum was constructed to allow a fire truck to pass over it.
Interiors have walls made of reinforced concrete or fire-protected steel, outfitted with automatic fire doors to seal off areas of the building. The air system is designed to maintain a pressure flow that keeps smoke from entering the building during a fire outside. In the 16 electrical transformers at the center, silicone fluid is used as a coolant "with less risk of ignition" than hydrocarbon coolant. The sprinkler system, described as a "last resort", is designed to balance "between the potential damage of a fire and the risk of water damage to valuable artwork".
In 2017, the Skirball Fire nearly spread to the Getty Center, when an ember drifted over to the Getty hill on December 6. The damp earth, soaked with 1.2 million gallons of water from the Getty's network of irrigation pipes, is said to have prevented the fire from spreading and it was put out by the fire department with no further damage. During the January 2025 Southern California wildfires, the Getty Center was placed in the mandatory evacuation zone due to the spread of the Palisades Fire.
== Panoramic view looking south ==
== In popular culture ==
The 2013 videogame Grand Theft Auto V features a museum based on the Getty Center, called the Kortz Center.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
The Getty
J. Paul Getty Museum
Architecture of the Getty Center (800 photographs categorized by location and by subject of photograph)
Gardens of the Getty Center (LandLiving.com)
Microsoft Virtual Earth view of the Center at a different angle |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party#March_on_Rome | National Fascist Party | The National Fascist Party (Italian: Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) was a political party in Italy, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian fascism and as a reorganisation of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat. The party ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 when Fascists took power with the March on Rome until the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943, when Mussolini was deposed by the Grand Council of Fascism. The National Fascist Party was succeeded by the Republican Fascist Party in the territories under the control of the Italian Social Republic, and it was ultimately dissolved at the end of World War II.
The National Fascist Party was rooted in Italian nationalism and the desire to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy was the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the idea of continued expansion of the Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea. The party also supported social conservative stances.
Fascists promoted a corporatist economic system, whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes. Moreover, the PNF strongly advocated autarky.
Italian Fascism, similarly to German Fascism (Nazism), opposed liberalism, but did not seek a reactionary restoration of the pre-French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed, and not in line with a forward-looking direction on policy. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy, as well as a solid belief that Italy was destined to become the hegemonic power in Europe.
The National Fascist Party along with its successor, the Republican Fascist Party, are the only parties whose re-formation is banned by the Constitution of Italy: "It shall be forbidden to reorganize, under any form whatsoever, the dissolved Fascist party."
== History ==
=== Historical background ===
After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that perceived slight to Italian nationalism in presenting Fascism as best suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems.
In 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield to Yugoslavia the Croatian seaport of Fiume (Rijeka), a mostly Italian city of little nationalist significance, until early 1919. Moreover, elsewhere Italy was then excluded from the wartime secret Treaty of London (1915) it had concorded with the Triple Entente, wherein Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join the enemy by declaring war against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in exchange for territories at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims (see Italia irredenta).
In September 1919, the nationalist response of outraged war hero Gabriele D'Annunzio was declaring the establishment of the Italian Regency of Carnaro. To his independent Italian state, he installed himself as the Regent Duce (Leader) and promulgated the Carta del Carnaro (Charter of Carnaro, 8 September 1920), a politically syncretic constitutional amalgamation of right-wing and left-wing politics – anarchist, proto-fascist and democratic republican ideas – which much influenced the politico-philosophic development of early Italian fascism. Consequent to the Treaty of Rapallo (1920), the metropolitan Italian military deposed the Regency of Duce D'Annunzio on Christmas 1920. In the development of the fascist model of government, D'Annunzio was a nationalist and not a fascist, whose legacy of political–praxis ("Politics as Theatre") was stylistic (ceremony, uniform, harangue and chanting) and not substantive, which Italian fascism artfully developed as a government model.
Founded in Rome during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, the National Fascist Party marked the transformation of the paramilitary Fasci Italiani di Combattimento into a more coherent political group (the Fasci di Combattimento had been founded by Mussolini in Milan's Piazza San Sepolcro on 23 March 1919).
The Fascist Party was instrumental in directing and popularising support for Mussolini's ideology. In the early years, groups within the PNF called Blackshirts (squadristi) built a base of power by violently attacking socialists and their institutions in the rural Po Valley, thereby gaining the support of landowners. Compared to its predecessor, the PNF abandoned republicanism to turn decisively towards the right-wing of the political spectrum.
=== March on Rome ===
On 28 October 1922, Mussolini attempted a coup d'état, titled the March on Rome by Fascist propaganda, in which almost 30,000 fascists took part. The quadrumvirs leading the Fascist Party, General Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo (one of the most famous ras), Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, organised the March while the Duce stayed behind for most of the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organisers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.
On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress in Naples: "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy". Meanwhile, the Blackshirts, who had occupied the Po plain, took all strategic points of the country. On 26 October, former prime minister Antonio Salandra warned current prime minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would govern quietly at his side. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Facta (who had resigned the next day on 29 October 1922 but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the king about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the king would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order. On 30 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right-wing part of the population.
The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 31 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the conquest of power which fascism later celebrated, but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasised free market and laissez-faire economics. This proved overly optimistic, as Mussolini's corporatist view stressed total state power over businesses as much as over individuals, via governing industry bodies ("corporations") controlled by the Fascist party, a model in which businesses retained the responsibilities of property, but few if any of the freedoms.
Even though the coup failed in giving power directly to the Fascist Party, it nonetheless resulted in a parallel agreement between Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III that made Mussolini the head of the Italian government. On 15 December, the Grand Council of Fascism was founded and it was the supreme organ of the PNF.
=== Fascist government ===
After a drastic modification of electoral legislation (the Acerbo Law), the Fascist Party clearly won the highly controversial elections of April 1924. In early 1925, Mussolini dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a total dictatorship. From that point onward, the PNF was effectively the only legally permitted party in the country. This status was formalised by a law passed in 1928 and Italy remained a one-party state until the end of the Fascist regime in 1943. The new laws were strongly criticised by the leader of the Socialist Party Giacomo Matteotti during his speech in Parliament and a few days later Matteotti was kidnapped and killed by fascist blackshirts.
After taking sole power, the Fascist regime began to impose the Fascist ideology and its symbolism throughout the country. Party membership in the PNF became necessary to seek employment or gain government assistance. The fasces adorned public buildings, Fascist mottos and symbols were displayed in art and a personality cult was created around Mussolini as the nation's saviour called "Il Duce", "The Leader". The Italian parliament was replaced in duties by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, solely filled with Fascist Party members. The PNF promoted Italian imperialism in Africa and staunchly promoted racial segregation and white supremacy of Italian settlers in the colonies.
In 1930 came the Youth Fasces of Combat. The 1930s were characterised by the secretary Achille Starace, "faithful" to Mussolini and one of the few fascist secretaries from Southern Italy, who launched a campaign of Fascism in the country made up of a wave of ceremonies and rallies and the creation of organisations which aimed to frame the country and the citizen in all its manifestations (both public and private). To regiment youth movements, Starace brought the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) under the direct control of the PNF and the Youth Fasces that were dissolved and merged into the new Gioventù Italiana del Littorio (GIL).
On 27 May 1933, party membership was declared a basic requirement for public office. On 9 March 1937, it became mandatory if one wanted access to any public office and from 3 June 1938 those who did not join the party could not work. In 1939, Ettore Muti replaced Starace at the helm of the party, a fact that testifies to the increasing influence of Galeazzo Ciano, the Minister of Foreign Affairs and son-in-law of Mussolini.
On 10 June 1940, from the balcony of Palazzo Venezia Mussolini announced the entry of Italy into World War II on the side of Hitler's Germany.
=== The Fall of Mussolini ===
On 25 July 1943, following a request from Dino Grandi due to the failure of the war the Grand Council of Fascism overthrew Mussolini by asking the King to resume his full authority in officially removing Mussolini as prime minister, which he did. Mussolini was imprisoned, and the Fascist organizations immediately collapsed and the party was officially banned by Pietro Badoglio's government on 27 July.
After the Nazi-engineered Gran Sasso raid liberated Mussolini in September, the PNF was revived as the Republican Fascist Party (Partito Fascista Repubblicano – PFR; 13 September), as the single party of the Northern and Nazi-protected Italian Social Republic (the Salò Republic). Its secretary was Alessandro Pavolini. The PRF did not outlast Mussolini's execution and the disappearance of the Salò state in April 1945, amidst the final Allied offensive in Italy.
== Ideology ==
Italian Fascism was rooted in Italian nationalism and Georges Sorel's revolutionary syndicalism that eventually evolved into national syndicalism in Italy. Most Italian revolutionary syndicalist leaders were not only "founders of the Fascist movement", but later held key positions in Mussolini's administration. They sought to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists claimed that modern Italy is the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy and historically supported the creation of an Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonisation by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea.
Italian Fascism promoted a corporatist economic system whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes.
Italian Fascism opposed liberalism, but rather than seeking a reactionary restoration of the pre-French Revolutionary world, which it considered to have been flawed as it had a forward-looking direction. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its typical opposition to nationalism, but was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people, alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy.
=== Nationalism ===
Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of Risorgimento by incorporating Italia Irredenta ("unredeemed Italy") into the state of Italy. The National Fascist Party founded in 1921 declared that the party was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy".
It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance and promotes the cultural identity of Romanitas ("Roman-ness"). Italian Fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a "Third Rome", identifying ancient Rome as the "First Rome" and Renaissance-era Italy as the "Second Rome". Italian Fascism has emulated ancient Rome and Mussolini in particular emulated ancient Roman leaders, such as Julius Cæsar as a model for the Fascists' rise to power and Augustus as a model for empire-building. Italian Fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the Doctrine of Fascism (1932) ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini, declared:
The Fascist state is a will to power and empire. The Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, empire is not only territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, which directly or indirectly guides other nations, without the need to conquer a single square kilometre of territory.
Fascism emphasised the need for the restoration of the Mazzinian Risorgimento tradition that pursued the unification of Italy, that the Fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in the Giolittian-era Italy. Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories to Italy.
To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. The Fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The Fascists were outraged after World War I, when the agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919.
The Fascist regime supported annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province, resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of total population of 1.3 million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization.
The Fascist regime supported annexation of Albania, claimed that Albanians were ethnically linked to Italians through links with the prehistoric Italiotes, Illyrian and Roman populations and that the major influence exerted by the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania justified Italy's right to possess it. The Fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that — because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in Southern Italy already — the incorporation of Albania was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state. The Fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus – particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the Fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonising Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to gradually transform it into an Italian land. The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the 18th century.
To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the italianità of the island. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy.
To the north of Italy, the Fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland (the Romansch are a people with a Latin-based language). In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the Gotthard Pass". The Fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515. Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. Also during the summer of 1940, Galeazzo Ciano met with Adolf Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the Western Alps, which would have left Italy also with the canton of Valais in addition to the claims raised earlier.
To the south, the regime claimed the archipelago of Malta, which had been held by the British since 1800. Mussolini claimed that the Maltese language was a dialect of Italian, and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilisation were promoted. Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937, when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia.
Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of North Africa were Italy's Fourth Shore and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being a "return" of Italy to North Africa. In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship" which required such people to be literate in the Italian language and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only.
Tunisia, a French protectorate since 1881, had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. Upon entering World War II, Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as the province of Constantine of Algeria from France.
To the south, the Fascist regime held interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded Portugal as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on its colonies and mismanagement of them and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies. Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain.
=== Totalitarianism ===
In 1925, the PNF declared that Italy's Fascist state was to be totalitarian. The term "totalitarian" had initially been used as a pejorative accusation by Italy's liberal opposition that denounced the Fascist movement for seeking to create a total dictatorship. However, the Fascists responded by accepting that they were totalitarian, but presented totalitarianism from a positive viewpoint. Mussolini described totalitarianism as seeking to forge an authoritarian national state that would be capable of completing Risorgimento of the Italia Irredenta, forge a powerful modern Italy and create a new kind of citizen – politically active Fascist Italians.
The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) described the nature of Italian Fascism's totalitarianism, stating the following:
Fascism is for the only liberty which can be a serious thing, the liberty of the state and of the individual in the state. Therefore for the fascist, everything is in the state, and no human or spiritual thing exists, or has any sort of value, outside the state. In this sense fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state which is the synthesis and unity of every value, interprets, develops and strengthens the entire life of the people.
American journalist H. R. Knickerbocker wrote in 1941: "Mussolini's Fascist state is the least terroristic of the three totalitarian states. The terror is so mild in comparison with the Soviet or Nazi varieties, that it almost fails to qualify as terroristic at all." As example he described an Italian journalist friend who refused to become a Fascist. He was fired from his newspaper and put under 24-hour surveillance, but otherwise not harassed; his employment contract was settled for a lump sum and he was allowed to work for the foreign press. Knickerbocker contrasted his treatment with the inevitable torture and execution under Stalin or Hitler, and stated "you have a fair idea of the comparative mildness of the Italian kind of totalitarianism".
However, since World War II, historians have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian Fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. One-tenth of the population of the Italian colony of Libya died during the Fascist era, including from the use of gassings, concentration camps, starvation and disease; in Ethiopia during and after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, a quarter of a million Ethiopians died.
=== Corporatist economics ===
Italian Fascism promotes a corporatist economic system. The economy involves employer and employee syndicates being linked together in corporative associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. It supports criminalisation of strikes by employees and lockouts by employers, as it deems these acts prejudicial to the national community as a whole.
=== Age and gender roles ===
The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called Giovinezza ("The Youth"). Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people that will affect society.
Italian Fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality. Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered abnormal sexual behaviour. It deemed homosexuality as deviant sexual conduct. The Fascist state also criminalised the dispersion of birth control as well as abortion and created laws that taxed bachelors. Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth. Fascist Italy reflected the belief of most Italians that homosexuality was wrong and even went as far as to create punitive laws against homosexuals. Instead of the traditional Catholic teaching that it was a sin, a new approach was taken based on then-modern psychoanalysis that it was a social disease. Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.
Mussolini perceived women's primary role to be childbearers while men were warriors, once saying that "war is to man what maternity is to the woman". In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families and initiated policies designed to reduce the number of women employed. Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation. In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women working was "incompatible with childbearing". Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force".
=== Tradition ===
Italian Fascism believed that the success of Italian nationalism required a clear sense of a shared past amongst the Italian people, along with a commitment to a modernised Italy. In a famous speech in 1926, Mussolini called for Fascist art that was "traditionalist and at the same time modern, that looks to the past and at the same time to the future".
Traditional symbols of Roman civilisation were used by the Fascists, particularly the fasces that symbolised unity, authority and the exercise of power. Other traditional symbols of ancient Rome used by the Fascists included the she-wolf of Rome. The fasces and the she-wolf symbolised the shared Roman heritage of all the regions that constituted the Italian nation. In 1926, the fasces was adopted by the Fascist government of Italy as a symbol of the state. In that year, the Fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces. This was stopped by the strong opposition of Italian monarchists. Afterwards, the Fascist government in public ceremonies raised the national tricolour flag along with a Fascist black flag. Years later, after Mussolini was deposed by the King and rescued by German forces in 1943, the Italian Social Republic founded by Mussolini and the Fascists did incorporate the fasces on the state's war flag, which was a variant of the Italian tricolour national flag.
The issue of the rule of monarchy or republic in Italy was an issue that changed several times through the development of Italian Fascism. Initially Italian Fascism was republican and denounced the Savoy monarchy. However, Mussolini tactically abandoned republicanism in 1922 and recognised that the acceptance of the monarchy was a necessary compromise to gain the support of the establishment to challenge the liberal constitutional order that also supported the monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III had become a popular ruler in the aftermath of Italy's gains after World War I and the army held close loyalty to the King. Thus any idea of overthrowing the monarchy was discarded as foolhardy by the Fascists at this point. Importantly, Fascism's recognition of monarchy provided Fascism with a sense of historical continuity and legitimacy. The Fascists publicly identified King Victor Emmanuel II – the first King of a reunited Italy, who had initiated the Risorgimento – along with other historic Italian figures, such as Gaius Marius, Julius Cæsar, Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and others, for being within a tradition of dictatorship in Italy that the Fascists declared that they emulated. However, this compromise with the monarchy did not yield a cordial relationship between the King and Mussolini. Although Mussolini formally accepted the monarchy, he pursued and largely achieved reduction of the power of the King to that of a figurehead. The King initially held complete nominal legal authority over the military through the Statuto Albertino. That ended during the Fascist regime when Mussolini created the position of First Marshal of the Empire in 1938. This was a two-person position of control over the military held by both the King and the head of government. It had the effect of eliminating the King's previously exclusive legal authority over the military by giving Mussolini equal legal authority. In the 1930s, Mussolini became aggravated by the monarchy's continued existence due to envy of the fact that his counterpart in Germany Adolf Hitler was both head of state and head of government of a republic; and Mussolini in private denounced the monarchy and indicated that he had plans to dismantle the monarchy and create a republic with himself as head of state of Italy upon an Italian success in the then-anticipated major war about to erupt in Europe.
After Mussolini was deposed by the King in 1943 and Italy switched sides from the Axis to the Allies, Italian Fascism returned to republicanism and condemnation of the monarchy. On 18 September 1943, Mussolini made his first public address to the Italian people since his rescue from arrest by German forces. He commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Italian Fascism. On the topic of the monarchy removing him from power and dismantling the Fascist regime, Mussolini stated that "[i]t is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime" and that "[w]hen a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being...The state we want to establish will be national and social in the highest sense of the word; that is, it will be Fascist, thus returning to our origins." The Fascists at this point did not denounce the House of Savoy in the entirety of its history. They credited Victor Emmanuel II for his rejection of "scornfully dishonourable pacts" and denounced Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Victor Emmanuel II by entering a dishonourable pact with the Allies.
The relationship between Italian Fascism and the Catholic Church was mixed, as originally it was highly anti-clerical and hostile to Catholicism. From the middle to late 1920s, anti-clericalism lost ground in the movement as Mussolini in power sought accord with the Church. In 1929, the Italian government signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See, a concordat between Italy and the Catholic Church that created the Vatican City enclave, a sovereign state governed by the papacy. This ended years of tension between the Church and the Italian government after Italy annexed the Papal States in 1870. Italian Fascism justified its adoption of antisemitic laws in 1938 by claiming that Italy was fulfilling the Christian religious mandate of the Catholic Church that had been initiated by Pope Innocent III in the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. At that time, the Pope issued oppressive laws for Jews in Christian lands, including requiring distinctive clothing.
== Influence outside Italy ==
The National Fascist Party model was very influential beyond Italy. In the twenty-one-year interbellum period, many political scientists and philosophers sought ideological inspiration from Italy. Mussolini's establishment of law and order to Italy and its society was praised by Winston Churchill, Sigmund Freud, George Bernard Shaw and Thomas Edison, as the Fascist Government combated organised crime and the Mafia with violence and vendetta (honour).
Italian Fascism influenced Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, the Russian Fascist Organization, Brit HaBirionim, the British Union of Fascists, the Romanian National Fascist Movement (the National Romanian Fascia and National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement). The Sammarinese Fascist Party established a government in San Marino with a politico-philosophic basis that was essentially Italian Fascism. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Milan Stojadinović established his Yugoslav Radical Union, which was based on Fascism. Party members wore green shirts, Šajkača caps and used the Roman salute. Stojadinović also took to calling himself Vodja. In Switzerland, pro-Nazi Colonel Arthur Fonjallaz of the National Front became an ardent Mussolini admirer after visiting Italy in 1932 and advocated the Italian annexation of Switzerland, whilst receiving Fascist foreign aid. The country was host for two Italian politico-cultural activities: the International Centre for Fascist Studies (CINEF — Centre International d' Études Fascistes), and the 1934 congress of the Action Committee for the Universality of Rome (CAUR — Comitato d' Azione della Università de Roma). In Spain, the writer Ernesto Giménez Caballero, in Genio de España (The Genius of Spain, 1932) called for the Italian annexation of Spain, led by Mussolini presiding an international Latin Catholic empire. He then progressed to be closely associated with Falangism, leading to discarding the Spanish annexation to Italy. In India, Italian Fascism and particularly the Opera Nazionale Balilla, influenced B.S. Moonje and the Hindu Mahasabha. In Brazil, Italian Fascism played a role in inspiring and financing Plínio Salgado's Brazilian Integralist Action.
== Legacy ==
Although the National Fascist Party was outlawed by the postwar Constitution of Italy, a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Historically, the largest neo-fascist party was the Italian Social Movement (Movimento Sociale Italiano), whose best result was 8.7% of votes gained in the 1972 general election. The MSI was disbanded in 1995 and was replaced by National Alliance, a conservative party that distanced itself from Fascism (its founder, former foreign minister Gianfranco Fini, declared during an official visit to State of Israel that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). National Alliance and a number of neo-fascist parties were merged in 2009 to create the short-lived People of Freedom party led by then Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, which eventually disbanded after the defeat in the 2013 general election. By now, many former members of MSI and AN joined Brothers of Italy, like Giorgia Meloni, Ignazio La Russa, Adolfo Urso, Francesco Lollobrigida, Daniela Santanchè, Luca Ciriani, Tommaso Foti, Nello Musumeci, Gianni Alemanno, Giovanni Donzelli, Nicola Procaccini, Andrea Delmastro Delle Vedove, Luca Ciriani, Marcello Gemmato, Paola Frassinetti, Galeazzo Bignami, Claudio Barbaro, Isabella Rauti, Wanda Ferro, Edmondo Cirielli, Giovanbattista Fazzolari, Alessio Butti, Francesco Acquaroli, Marco Marsilio, Federico Mollicone and Romano Maria La Russa.
== Secretaries of the PNF ==
Michele Bianchi (November 1921 – January 1923)
multiple presidency (January 1923 – October 1923)
Triumvirate: Michele Bianchi, Nicola Sansanelli, Giuseppe Bastianini
Francesco Giunta (15 October 1923 – 22 April 1924)
multiple presidency (23 April 1924 – 15 February 1925)
Quadrumvirate: Roberto Forges Davanzati, Cesare Rossi, Giovanni Marinelli, Alessandro Melchiorri
Roberto Farinacci (15 February 1925 – 30 March 1926)
Augusto Turati (30 March 1926 – 7 October 1930)
Giovanni Giuriati (October 1930 – December 1931)
Achille Starace (December 1931 – 31 October 1939)
Ettore Muti (31 October 1939 – 30 October 1940)
Adelchi Serena (30 October 1940 – 26 December 1941)
Aldo Vidussoni (26 December 1941 – 19 April 1943)
Carlo Scorza (19 April 1943 – 27 July 1943)
== Election results ==
=== Italian Parliament ===
== Party symbols ==
== Slogans ==
Viva il Duce! ("Long live the Leader!")
Saluto al Duce! ("Hail the Leader!")
Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State") – Benito Mussolini (October 1925)
La guerra è per l'uomo, come la maternità è per la donna ("War is to man, as motherhood is to woman")
Viva la morte ("Long live death [sacrifice]")
Credere, obbedire, combattere ("Believe, obey, fight")
Vincere e vinceremo! ("Win and we will win!")
Libro e moschetto - fascista perfetto ("Book and rifle - perfect Fascist")
Se avanzo, seguitemi. Se indietreggio, uccidetemi. Se muoio, vendicatemi ("If I advance, follow me. If I retreat, kill me. If I die, avenge me")
La libertà non è diritto è un dovere ("Liberty is not a right it is a duty")
Noi tireremo diritto (literally "We will go straight" or "We shall go forward")
== See also ==
Glossary of Fascist Italy
Fascism
Fascism and ideology
Italian fascism
Revolutionary nationalism
Squadrismo
Ranks and insignia of the National Fascist Party
Italian fascism and racism
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Renzo De Felice, Le interpretazioni del fascismo, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1977
Renzo De Felice, I rapporti tra fascismo e nazionalsocialismo fino all'andata al potere di Hitler. 1922-1933. Appunti e documenti. Anno accademico 1970-1971, Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1971
Renzo De Felice, Autobiografia del fascismo. Antologia di testi fascisti, 1919-1945, Minerva italica, Bergamo, 1978
Renzo De Felice, Intellettuali di fronte al fascismo. Saggi e note documentarie, Bonacci, Roma, 1985
Renzo De Felice, Fascismo, Prefazione di Sergio Romano, Introduzione di Francesco Perfetti, Luni Editrice, Milano-Trento, 1998. ISBN 88-7984-109-2
Renzo De Felice, Breve storia del Fascismo, Mondadori, Milano, 2002
Carlo Galeotti, Achille Starace e il vademecum dello stile fascista, Rubbettino, 2000 ISBN 88-7284-904-7
Carlo Galeotti, Benito Mussolini ama molto i bambini..., Galeotti editore, 2022
Carlo Galeotti, Saluto al Duce!, Gremese, 2001
Carlo Galeotti, Credere obbedire combattere, Stampa alternativa, 1996
Paola S. Salvatori, La seconda Mostra della Rivoluzione fascista, in "Clio", XXXIX, 3, 2003, pp. 439–459
Paola S. Salvatori, La Roma di Mussolini dal socialismo al fascismo. (1901-1922), in «Studi Storici», XLVII, 2006, 3, pp. 749–780
Paola S. Salvatori, L'adozione del fascio littorio nella monetazione dell'Italia fascista, in "Rivista italiana di numismatica e scienze affini", CIX, 2008, pp. 333–352
Paola S. Salvatori, Liturgie immaginate: Giacomo Boni e la romanità fascista, in "Studi Storici", LIII, 2012, 2, pp. 421–438
== External links ==
THE DOCTRINE OF FASCISM / BENITO MUSSOLINI (1932)
Fascist Italy and the Jews: Myth versus Reality Archived 27 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine an online lecture by Dr. Iæl Nidam-Orvieto of Yad Vashem |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speak_Your_Mind | Speak Your Mind | Speak Your Mind is the debut studio album by English singer Anne-Marie, released on 27 April 2018, through Major Tom's, Asylum Records, and Atlantic Records. Anne-Marie announced the album, a pop and EDM record, on the 21st of February, 2018, and it was made available for pre-order two days later. The album was recorded from 2015 to 2018 at various studios, and the production was handled by Jennifer Decilveo, Nick Monson, Amir Amor, Chris Loco, Marshmello, The Invisible Men, MNEK, TMS, Teddy Geiger, Fred Ball, Fraser T. Smith, Jack Patterson of Clean Bandit, Mark Ralph, David Guetta, and Steve Mac, alongside others. Producer Marshmello makes a guest appearance and is the sole guest on the album's standard track listing, although producers Clean Bandit and David Guetta, alongside Sean Paul, appear on the album's various reissues.
The album was supported by seven singles. The lead single, "Alarm", was commercially successful, charting at number 16 on the UK singles chart and number 7 on the ARIA Charts in Australia, where the single was certified 2× Platinum. It would eventually peak at number 3 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the United States. The second single, "Ciao Adios" was more successful in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 9 on the UK singles chart and certifying 2× Platinum. The third and fourth singles, "Heavy" and "Then" were modestly successful in the UK, while the fifth single, "Friends" (featuring Marshmello) was successful worldwide, charting at number 4 on the UK singles chart, while becoming Anne-Marie's first single on the Billboard Hot 100 and topping multiple charts worldwide. The sixth single, "2002" was also commercially successful, becoming Anne-Marie's highest-charting solo single in the UK, while the seventh and final single, "Perfect to Me", a remix of the album track "Perfect", was modestly successful in the UK.
Upon the release of Speak Your Mind, the album received generally favourable reviews from music critics. The album was also a commercial success, peaking at number 3 in both the UK Albums (OCC) chart and the Scottish Albums (OCC) chart. It also peaked at number 4 in the Irish Albums (IRMA) chart and number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100. In the UK, it was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 300,000 units in the country. It was also certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and 2× Platinum by Music Canada (MC). The album would later be reissued with bonus tracks, including the chart-topping Sean Paul–Clean Bandit collaboration "Rockabye", Anne-Marie's most successful hit, and the modestly successful David Guetta collaboration "Don't Leave Me Alone". To promote the album, Anne-Marie went on the Speak Your Mind Tour from 2018 to 2019, featuring supporting acts such as Lennon Stella and Goody Grace.
== Background ==
Talking to Polish pop culture magazine Luvpop about the album's title, Anne-Marie said:
"I just feel like that's what I did on the album. I'm not a shy person anyway, I speak my mind a lot and I am not... I don't hold anything in, I am honest with people and open. And I've just feel that's what I've been like on this album, so it kinda makes sense."
== Singles ==
"Alarm" was released as the lead single from Speak Your Mind on 20 May 2016. The single became Anne-Marie's first major worldwide hit, peaking at No. 16 on the UK Singles Chart. The single additionally reached the top 20 in as Australia and Scotland, as well as the top 40 in seven countries. It was certified Platinum in the UK, Australia, and Poland, and Gold in the US and Canada. The music video for the song, also released on 20 May 2016, was directed by Malia James and filmed in Mexico City. It is loosely inspired by Baz Luhrmann's 1996 film Romeo + Juliet.
"Ciao Adios" was released as the second official single on 10 February 2017. The single became her first top ten hit in the UK, reaching No. 9, while also reaching the top ten in Belgium, Netherlands, Poland, and Scotland. It was also certified 2× Platinum in the UK and the Netherlands, Platinum in Australia, Germany, and Poland, and Gold in Canada. The single had moderate success elsewhere. The "Ciao Adios" music video was released on 9 March 2017 on YouTube and features Anne-Marie with her girl gang dancing in Marrakech, Morocco, with plenty of colors.
"Heavy" was released on 22 September 2017 as the third single from the record. It failed to replicate the success of "Alarm" and "Ciao Adios", reaching the top 40 in the UK, and only charting in a couple other territories. The music video for "Heavy" was released on 16 October 2017. "Then" was released on 15 December 2017 as the fourth single. The single reached No. 87 in the UK charts and peaked at number 15 on the Tipparade chart in the Netherlands, alongside certifying Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 200,000 units in the country, alongside "Heavy".
"Friends", a collaboration with American DJ Marshmello, was released as the fifth single on 9 February 2018. It reached the top ten in the UK, Ireland, and Hungary, as well as the top forty in twelve countries. The song additionally became Anne-Marie's first US Billboard Hot 100 entry as a lead artist, where it peaked at number 11. It would eventually be certified 6× Platinum in Canada, 4× Platinum in the US and Australia, and 3× Platinum in the UK. The music video, directed by Hannah Lux Davis, was released on 16 February 2018. In the visual, Anne-Marie and a group of female friends host a house party. Marshmello keeps avoiding being asked to leave. However, as Anne-Marie attempts to kick him out, he keeps finding ways to get back into the house, which annoys Anne-Marie and her friends.
"2002" was released as the sixth single on 20 April 2018. The song debuted at number 8 in the United Kingdom, becoming Anne-Marie's fourth UK top 10 hit, before later climbing to number three, making it Anne-Marie's highest-charting song as a lead artist. It also reached the top ten in Ireland, Scotland, and Australia, and was certified 8× Platinum in the US, 5× Platinum in Canada, 4× Platinum in the UK, and 2× Platinum in Austria and the US. A remixed version of "Perfect" retitled "Perfect to Me" was released as a single on 2 November 2018. It has reached number 57 in the United Kingdom, where it was certified Gold.
=== Promotional singles and other songs ===
On 21 October 2016, a stripped version of the song "Peak" was released. It later became the main version of the song, and was included on Speak Your Mind as the first promotional single. It was specifically included as a bonus track on the Japan edition and digital deluxe edition of the album. Despite not being released as singles, the songs "Can I Get Your Number" and "Trigger" also charted, with the latter peaking at number 59 on the Irish Singles Chart.
== Promotion ==
=== Speak Your Mind Tour ===
In 2018, Anne-Marie announced the Speak Your Mind Tour in support of her debut album. The tour consisted of 5 legs, taking place in Australia, Asia, Europe and North America. The tour began on 20 August 2018, in Los Angeles, and concluded on 19 June 2019, in London. Goody Grace, Mahalia, Kojey Radical, Ella Watson, Cellarr (then known as "OpenSide"), Glades, and Lennon Stella.
==== Tour dates ====
==== Setlist ====
This setlist represents the set from the show at O2 Academy in Leeds and may not represent the setlist for the remainder of the tour.
"Bad Girlfriend"
"Cry"
"Do It Right"
"Heavy"
"Perfect"
"Trigger"
"Ciao Adios"
"Can I Get Your Number "
"Don't Leave Me Alone"
"Alarm"
"Then"
"Rockabye"
"2002"
"Friends"
== Critical reception ==
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Speak Your Mind has an average score of 62 based on eight reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
== Commercial performance ==
=== Anglosphere ===
In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 3 on the UK Official Album Chart. It was also certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 300,000 units. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 26 on the UK Official Album Chart, and by the end of 2019, the album was positioned at number 62 on the chart. In the United States of America, the album charted at number 31 on the Billboard 200, and would later be certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for equivalent sales of 1,000,000 units in the country. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 182 on the Billboard 200.
In Australia, the album was positioned at number 18 on the ARIA Charts. In Canada, the album charted at number 16 on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart, and was certified 2× Platinum by Music Canada (MC) for equivalent sales of 160,000 units. In New Zealand, the album charted at number 31 on the New Zealand Albums Chart.
=== Europe ===
In Austria, the album charted at number 16 on the Ö3 Austria chart and was certified Gold by IFPI Austria (IFPI AUT) for equivalent sales of 7,500 units in the country. In Belgium, the album charted at number 31 on the Ultratop chart in Wallonia and peaked at number 3 on the same chart in Flanders. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 37 on the Ultratop chart in Flanders, and, by the end of 2019, the album was positioned at number 162 on the same chart. In the Czech Republic, the album charted at number 9 on the Czech Albums Chart. In Finland, the album charted at number 11 on the Official Finnish Charts. In France, the album charted at number 66 on the French Albums Chart and was certified Gold by SNEP for equivalent sales of 50,000 units in the country. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 177 on the French Albums Chart.
In Germany, the album charted at number 24 on the Offizielle Top 100. In Ireland, the album charted at number 4 on the Irish Albums Chart. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 11 on the Irish Albums Chart. By the end of 2019, the album was positioned at number 42 on the chart. In Italy, the album charted at number 78 on the Italian Albums Chart. In the Netherlands, the album charted at number 17 on the Dutch Album Top 100 and was certified Gold by NVPI for equivalent sales of 20,000 units in the country. In Norway, although the album did not chart, it was still certified 3× Platinum by IFPI Norge (IFPI NOR) for equivalent sales of 60,000 units.
In Poland, the album charted at number 40 on the Polish Albums Chart and was certified Gold by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV) for equivalent sales of 10,000 units in the country. In Portugal, the album charted at number 50 on the Portuguese Albums Chart. In Slovakia, the album charted at number 9 on the Slovak Albums Chart. In Spain, the album charted at number 27 on the Spanish Albums Chart. In Sweden, the album charted at number 33 on the Sverigetopplistan chart. In Switzerland, the album charted at number 10 on the Swiss Hitparade chart.
=== Other countries ===
In Japan, the album charted at number 185 on the Oricon Album Chart. In Scotland, the album charted at number 3 on the Scottish Albums Chart. In Singapore, although the album did not chart, it was certified Gold by Recording Industry Association Singapore (RIAS) for equivalent sales of 5,000 units. In South Korea, the album charted at number 3 on the Circle Music Chart. By the end of 2018, the album was positioned at number 80 on the chart.
== Reissues ==
The album was first reissued in Japan on the 27th of April, 2018, the same day as the original album's worldwide release. The reissue featured two bonus tracks, included the promotional single "Peak (Stripped)" and "Karate", the title track to Anne-Marie's debut extended play (EP) of the same name. The deluxe edition of the album, released on the same day as the original album, featured four bonus tracks, included the hit single "Rockabye", a collaboration with Clean Bandit and Sean Paul. The digital deluxe edition featured the previous tracks, alongside "Peak" from the Japanese edition and "Rockabye" from the standard deluxe edition. The digital deluxe edition would later be reissued with the David Guetta collaboration "Don't Leave Me Alone".
=== Singles ===
"Rockabye" (Clean Bandit featuring Sean Paul and Anne-Marie) was originally released on the 21st of October, 2016, as the lead single to Clean Bandit's second studio album, What Is Love? (2018). Upon its release, the single topped charts in the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Sweden, and Switzerland, alongside peaking at number 4 on the Canadian Singles Chart and number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. It would additionally be certified 7× Platinum in Canada and Italy, 5× Platinum in Australia, 4× Platinum in the UK, 3× Platinum in the US, and 2× Platinum in Germany and Switzerland.
"Don't Leave Me Alone" (David Guetta featuring Anne-Marie) was originally released on the 27th of July, 2018, as the sixth single to Guetta's seventh studio album, 7 (2018). Upon its release, the single was modestly successful, charting at number 18 on the UK singles chart and making other charts worldwide, with a peak at number 2 on Ultratop's Belgium Dance chart. It was also certified Platinum in Australia, Canada, and Poland.
== Track listing ==
=== Notes ===
^[a] originally appears on her debut EP Karate
^[b] signifies an additional producer
"2002" contains elements of:
"Oops!... I Did It Again" written by Max Martin and Rami Yacoub.
"99 Problems" written by Tracy Marrow, Alphonso Henderson and George Clinton Jr.
"Bye Bye Bye" written by Andreas Carlsson, Jacob Schulze and Kristian Lundin.
"The Next Episode" written by Andre Young, Calvin Broadus, Melvin Bradford, David Axelrod and Brian Bailey.
"Ride wit Me" written by William DeBarge, Eldra DeBarge, Etterlene Jordan, Jason Epperson, Lavell Webb and Cornell Haynes.
"...Baby One More Time" written by Max Martin.
== Personnel ==
Credits for Speak Your Mind adapted from AllMusic.
=== Studios ===
==== Recording locations ====
==== Mixing and mastering locations ====
=== Performers and vocals ===
=== Production ===
=== Technical ===
=== Artwork ===
Michael Furlong – photography
Sam Nicholson – doodle artwork
Baby – design
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirwaiz_Umar_Farooq | Mirwaiz Umar Farooq | Mirwaiz Mohammad Umar Farooq (born 23 March 1973) is the 14th Mirwaiz of Kashmir. He is a Kashmiri separatist political leader. He is also an Islamic religious cleric of Kashmir Valley.
In October 2014, Farooq was listed as one of The 500 Most Influential Muslims by the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre, Jordan. He came in the list for the 11th time in a row, in the year 2024.
As the Mirwaiz of Kashmir and chairman of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference, Umar Farooq has an important religious and political role in the Kashmir Valley. He is seen as the spiritual leader of Kashmir's Muslims. Farooq served as the chairman of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference from 1993 to 1998, and after its split has served as the chairman of his own faction since 2004.
== Early life ==
At the age of 17, following the assassination of his father by unknown gunmen, Mirwaiz Maulvi Farooq, the leader of the Awami Action Committee, Farooq united 23 Kashmiri pro-freedom organizations into the All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC). Mirwaiz Maulvi Farooq's funeral procession on 21 May 1990, witnessed the bloodshed near the Islamia College, wherein 72 people, including four women, were killed; his body was dropped in the middle of the road. This roused public sentiment and gave leverage to Mirwaiz Umar Farooq's political work in the valley. He has constantly tried to raise awareness about the Kashmir issue internationally. He was also shown among the Asian Heroes by Time magazine. He maintains that dialogue must take place with India and Pakistan, so long as the Kashmiri aspirations are heard as well.
He became the 14th Mirwaiz (Kashmiri term for the traditional preacher of Muslims in Kashmir) on 30 May 1990.
Rediff On The NeT's Chindu Sreedharan interviewed him in 1997, in which he described the role of Mirwaiz in Kashmir politics:-
"My family played a major role in evolving politics here. The first party, the Muslim Conference, was established in the valley in 1931. My great grandfather, the then Mirwaiz headed it. In fact, it was he who introduced Sheikh Abdullah to the people. Later, Abdullah formed the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference and my grandfather was exiled to Pakistan where he died.
My father then took over. In 1963, he formed another party -- the People's Action Committee -- which stood for giving people their basic rights. Till 1990 when he was assassinated, he was campaigning for that cause. So all along, the political role has been present in the institution of the Mirwaiz."
== Education ==
Before joining Kashmir politics, Farooq was an alumnus of Burn Hall School in Srinagar. He had an interest in computer science and wanted to become a software engineer. He holds a postgraduate degree in Islamic Studies called ‘Moulvi Fazil’, and a PhD from the Jamia Millia Islamia, on the topic "Politico-Islamic role of Shah-e-Hamdan", a 14th-century Islamic scholar who introduced Islam in the Valley.
== Political career ==
The All Parties Hurriyat Conference, an alliance of Kashmiri political and social organisations seeking a referendum, was formed in September 1993 and Farooq was elected as its first chairman due to it consisting mostly of secular organisations, despite Syed Ali Shah Geelani being the initial choice. Geelani replaced him as chairman of the organisation in 1998.
The appointment of Mohammad Abbas Ansari as chairman precipitated a crisis in the Hurriyat and it split in September 2003 with the breakaway faction electing Geelani as its chairman. Farooq was appointed by the faction led by Ansari to try to re-unify the organisation. Ansari resigned from his position on 7 July 2004 and Farooq was appointed as the interim chairman in his place. Farooq however stated that he would not take over the position and only the executive council will appoint one after being formed. He accepted the position after being appointed by the executive council on 8 August 2004. He was re-elected as chairman of the faction for two years in 2006, and 2009.
=== 2016 arrest ===
Farooq was arrested when he marched towards Eidgah on Friday. A statement issued by Hurriyat Conference (m) said that in accordance with the joint resistance program of the ‘Eidgah Chalo’ today, Mirwaiz Umar Farooq was detained outside his Nigeen residence as soon as he tried to march towards ‘Eidgah.
Earlier, Syed Ali Geelani too was arrested.
After than Jammu & Kashmir Ittihadul Muslimeen president Maulana Masroor Abbas Ansari was arrested by police from his residence at Nawa Kadal before Friday prayers.
He had tried to lead march towards Eidgah. Then thousands of people protest in Srinagar for their leaders arrest.
=== 2019 arrest ===
On 4 August 2019, Mirwaiz was put under house arrest, a day before the Union government revoked the special status of the erstwhile state into two union territories. A report published by India Today, on September 20, 2019 stated that Moderate Hurriyat leader Mirwaiz Umar Farooq, signed bond to secure his release.
On 22 September 2023, he was released from house arrest, after over 4 years in incarceration in his Srinagar residence. A week before his release, high court, had issued a notice asking the Jammu and Kashmir administration to respond to a Habeas Corpus petition challenging the “illegal confinement” of Mirwaiz Umar Farooq.
Since his house arrest on 4 August 2019, Mirwaiz was continuously disallowed from conducting sermon and offering Friday prayers for 212 consecutive Fridays, until his release on 22 September 2023 by Jammu and Kashmir administration, after over 4 years and
was allowed to lead prayers at Jamia Masjid, Srinagar. Mirwaiz addressed a large gathering in Jamia Masjid. Referring to Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Mirwaiz said that "this was not an era of war".
On 15 October 2023, he was again put under house arrest and barred from offering Friday prayers.
== Clash with central govt ==
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) on 12 march declared two Jammu and Kashmir-based parties—Awami Action Committee headed by Hurriyat Conference chairman and cleric Mirwaiz Umar Farooq and Jammu and Kashmir Ittihadul Muslimeen (JKIM) chairman and shia leader Maulana Masroor Abbas Ansari—as unlawful associations and banned them with immediate effect for a period of next five years.
"Jammu & Kashmir Ittihadul Muslimeen and Awami Action Committee have been declared unlawful associations under UAPA. These organisations were found inciting people to cause law and order situations, posing a threat to the unity and integrity of Bharat," Union Home Minister Amit Shah posted on X.
He said that anyone found involved in activities against the nation's peace, order and sovereignty is bound to face the "crushing blow" of the Modi government.
The Home Ministry, in its official order, stated that JKIM, chaired by Masroor Abbas Ansari, is indulging was unlawful activities, which were prejudicial to the integrity, sovereignty and security of the country. "The members of the JKIM have remained involved in supporting terrorist activities and anti-India propaganda for fuelling secessionism in Jammu and Kashmir," the order read. Similarly, for AAC, the MHA said its members have remained involved in supporting terrorist activities and anti-India propaganda to fuel secessionism in J&K. “The leaders and members of the AAC have been involved in mobilising funds for perpetrating unlawful activities including supporting secessionist, separatist and terrorist activities in J&K,” the notification read.
It stated that different FIRs have been registered against Umar Farooq for anti-India speeches and for supporting bandh calls and calling for polls boycott.
According to the notification, the Central government is of the opinion that if there is no immediate curb or control of the unlawful activities of the AAC, it will use this opportunity to continue these and advocate secession of J&K while disputing its accession to the Union of India.
The Centre alleged that the leaders and members of JKIM have been involved in "mobilising funds" for perpetrating unlawful activities, including supporting secessionist, separatist and terrorist activities in Jammu and Kashmir. The Ministry said JKIM members showed sheer disrespect towards the constitutional authority and constitutional set up of the country. "The JKIM involved in promoting and aiding the secession of Jammu and Kashmir from India by indulging in anti-national and subversive activities; sowing seeds of discontent among the people; inciting people to destabilise law and order, encouraging the use of arms to cause secession of Jammu and Kashmir from the Union of India and promoting hatred against the established Government," the order read.
The MHA said that the Central Government is firmly of the opinion that having regard to the activities of the Jammu and Kashmir Ittehadul Muslimeen (JKIM), it is necessary to declare the JKIM as an unlawful association with immediate effect.
== Personal life ==
Farooq has been married to Kashmiri-American Sheeba Masoodi since 2002. They have three children.
Sheeba Masoodi is the youngest daughter of Sibtain Masoodi, a doctor from the Barzulla locality of Srinagar (famous for its Bone and Joints Hospital), who settled in Buffalo, New York in the early 70s.
== See also ==
All Parties Hurriyat Conference
Mirwaiz
MaulanaMohammad Abbas Ansari
Syed Ali Shah Geelani
Maulana Masroor Abbas Ansari
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukul_Dey#:~:text=The%20entire%20family%20of%20Mukul,arts%20and%20crafts%20as%20well. | Mukul Dey | Mukul Chandra Dey (23 July 1895 – 1 March 1989) was one of five children of Purnashashi Devi and Kula Chandra Dey. He was a student of Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan and is considered as a pioneer of drypoint-etching in India. The entire family of Mukul Dey had artistic talents, the brother Manishi Dey was a well-known painter, and his two sisters, Annapura and Rani Chanda, were accomplished in arts and crafts as well.
Mukul Dey was married to Bina Roy, who was from Khanakul, Bengal. They had one daughter named Manjari, whom they affectionately called Bukuma. Manjari was later married to Shantanu Ukil, a leading painter of the Bengal School of Art.
== Early years ==
He was the first Indian artist to travel abroad for the purpose of studying printmaking as an art. While in Japan in 1916, Mukul Dey studied under Yokoyama Taikan and Kanzan Shimomura at Tokyo and Yokohama. At Yokohama Rabindranath Tagore and Mukul Dey lived as guests of Japanese silk-merchant Tomitaro Hara at his famous residential complex Sankeien, enjoying a rare opportunity to study classical Chinese and Nihonga style Japanese paintings. Especially the masterpieces of Sesshu Toyo.
Dey received his initial training at Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan. He then travelled to America from Japan in 1916 to learn the technique of etching under James Blanding Sloan and Bertha Jaques in Chicago, to whom Dey was introduced by American artist Roi Partridge and his wife Imogen Cunningham. Mukul Dey remained a life-member of Chicago Society of Etchers. On his return to India in 1917, Dey concentrated on creating etchings as a fine art. He also supported himself through making portrait drawings of the rich and famous, and turned these into etchings. In 1920 Dey once again travelled abroad for the purpose of study, this time learning etching and engraving under Frank Short and Muirhead Bone. He studied at both the Slade School of Fine Art and the Royal College of Art in London. At Slade School of Art Mukul Dey was a student of Professor Henry Tonks.
An exhibition of Dey's drawings and paintings were shown, including ten copies of paintings at Ajanta and 1 at the Bagh Caves, courtesy of Lady Grant, at 59 Onslow Square, London, on 4 February 1924. His work had already been shown at the Royal Academy and the New English Art Club.
According to the Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, when Mukul was in America,
he showed Szukalski his drawings, which impressed the artist. He then told Szukalski of his desire to venture into Paris, to "finish his study", despite the extreme disapproval of this decision by Mukul's mentor, Tagore. Szukalski thought of Paris as a factory for the "brainwashing of the public of every nation", into thinking Kandinski, Picasso, etc., were masters. Szukalski told Mukul, "You are already a fine artist, but with your silly anticipation of finding miraculous Culture in Europe, you will swallow as a new religion any pseudo-movement, any Ism of the misfits who abuse painting and sculpture with combs, forks and brushes stuck in their noses to give an easy semblance of individuality. Later come to Europe, with enough belief in yourself to look upon European Decadence with CONTEMPT and the ability to select really worthy examples of Art from all ages and Cultures". This argument persuaded Mukul to return to Santiniketan, to the delight of Tagore.
Mukul Dey chose an essentially Western medium to portray various sides of Indian life. Unlike artists such as Haren Das, whose woodcut printing technique was more indigenous to Indian culture, Dey concentrated on drypoint etching, a thoroughly European practice. Regardless of his adopted Western technique, Dey chose subjects such as river scenes in Bengal, traditional baul singers, the markets of Calcutta, or the life of Santhal villagers in the Birbhum district, near the Santiniketan art school. When the Tagore family of Kolkata created the Vichitra Club at their ancestral home of Jorasanko, Mukul Dey became an active member. At Vichitra Club the young and upcoming artists like Nandalal Bose, Asit Kumar Haldar, Mukul Dey and Narayan Kashinath Deval were encouraged to experiment in ever new creative mediums and art forms.
In 1925, Dey published a book on the cave paintings in Ajanta and Bagh, which he cherished and used as an inspiration. The vibrant language of the descriptions reflect his enthusiasm for the cave paintings. He later published and illustrated various other books during his career.
== Professional career ==
Dey was appointed the first Indian Principal of the Government School of Art, Calcutta, in 1928. Since Dey was committed to imposing an Indian identity on the then British-controlled art establishment, he quickly drove teachers too closely linked with Company School painting out of the institution. While at Government School of Art, Calcutta Mukul Dey was responsible for starting a women's section there. Prior to his time only men could join this institution as art students.
Gracefully drawn images of Bengali villagers executed in dry-point have become what Dey is most associated with. Some of his finer works are dry-point etchings that have been hand-coloured with watercolors, coloured pencils, or thin washes of ink. Dey is also remembered for his portraits of various Indian personalities, including members of the Tagore and Tata families, Albert Einstein, and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He also depicted lesser known personalities, such as Josephine MacLeod, the promoter of Swami Vivekananda's Ramakrishna order at Belur Math. Incidentally, it was Josephine MacLeod who first brought Okakura Kakuzo to India from Japan in 1901–1902.
Manishi Dey, the younger brother of Mukul, was a member of the Progressive Artists' Group and a prominent painter of the Bengal School of Art. In contrast to his more steady brother Mukul, Manishi travelled tirelessly throughout India.
== Legacy ==
Mukul Dey's works are found in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, the Indian Museum, Kolkata, the National Gallery of Modern Art NGMA in Mumbai, and the National Gallery of Art, New Delhi. The Mukul Dey Archives are housed at Mukul Dey's former home, named Chitralekha, at Santiniketan.
He was also the illustrator for many book projects, one of his earliest was a scholarly book Shantiniketan Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore, which he illustrated for the later Nobel Prize winner in 1916.
== Bibliography ==
Pearson, WW. with illustrations by Mukul Chandra Dey. Shantiniketan: The Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore. The Macmillan Company, 1916.
Mukul Chandra Dey. My Pilgrimages To Ajanta Bagh. Published in English by George H. Doran Co, New York, USA, 1925. [3]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Twenty Portraits. 1943 [4]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Birbhum Terracottas. 1959 [5]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Amar Kotha, ed. Visva Bharati, 1995 A posthumously published autobiography. [6]
== References ==
== External links ==
Mukul Dey Archives
Delhi Art Gallery
Online Museum of Contemporary Indian Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Album_of_Familiar_Music | The American Album of Familiar Music | The American Album of Familiar Music is a radio program of popular music broadcast from October 11, 1931, to June 17, 1951, first on NBC, then on ABC. Directed by James Haupt, the show was produced by Frank and Anne Hummert, better remembered today for creating Ma Perkins and numerous other soap operas. On a typical broadcast a listener was likely to hear "an aria from opera, a Strauss waltz and the latest popular hit."
Sponsored by Bayer Aspirin, the show highlighted performances by a variety of vocalists, instrumentalists, and vocal groups. When it began on October 11, 1931 on NBC, the lead vocalists were Frank Munn and Virginia Rea, two of early radio's top stars because of their previous appearances as "Paul Oliver" and "Olive Palmer" on The Palmolive Hour (1927–31). Ring Lardner observed, "under any name, they sound as sweet." Lardner outlined his "perfect radio program" for The New Yorker magazine, and found a place for The Revelers along with Paul Whiteman and Fanny Brice.
In the late 1930s, Munn was joined on the program by soprano Jean Dickenson (1937–51), "Nightingale of the Airwaves." Another co-star with Munn during that period was Lucy Monroe, who sang The Star-Spangled Banner at every New York Yankees opening day and every Yankees World Series between 1945 and 1960.
Other singers featured on the program were Margaret Daum, Elizabeth Lennox, Vivian Della Chiesa, Donald Dame, and the dozen members of the Buckingham Choir. Vocalist Evelyn MacGregor (1899-1967) was also heard on The American Melody Hour.
Walter Gustave "Gus" Haenschen, who led the orchestra, composed the opening theme song, "Dream Serenade," with lyrics by Alfred Bryan. The line-up also included violin soloist Bertram Hirsch, the piano duo of Victor Arden and Phil Ohman, and a quartet billed as “The Henchmen,” after Haenschen. The show's announcers were George Ansbro, André Baruch, Howard Claney and Roger Krupp. The 30-minute show aired Sunday evenings at 9:00 p.m. until 1933 when it moved to 9:30 p.m.
In 1938, the Hummerts did away with the studio audience after concluding that the music sounded better with fewer people in the studio, and fewer breaks due to applause. Musical Director and Conductor Gus Haenschen, who wrote many of the program's arrangements, ensured that the orchestra played softly as the announcer introduced each selection, thereby achieving a musical continuity from the opening to the close of each broadcast.
In 1945, when Munn left the show for retirement, he was replaced by Frank Parker. In 1952, Parker was replaced by tenor Earl William, the stage name of Earl Sauvain. Baritone Michael Roberts and pianist Ernest Ulmer were also added to the cast in 1952.
After the NBC run ended on November 19, 1950, the series moved a week later (November 26) to ABC where it was still broadcast Sundays at 9:30 p.m., continuing until the June 17, 1951 final network broadcast. From then until June 20, 1954, the orchestra, chorus and soloists toured the United States, and its performances were broadcast on local stations.
== References ==
== External links ==
Radio Guide (January 10, 1937)
Transcriptions: Radio Music Services
RadioWebLinks
Jerry Haendiges Vintage Radio Logs: Recollections at 30 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Aim%C3%A9_Louis_Dumoulin#:~:text=In%201810%2C%20Dumoulin%20published%20a,a%20precursor%20to%20modern%20comics. | François Aimé Louis Dumoulin | François Aimé Louis Dumoulin (French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃swa eme lwi dymulɛ̃]; 10 August 1753 – 16 February 1834) was a Swiss painter and engraver.
== Biography ==
Although he received some education in technical drawing, Dumoulin was initially intended for a commercial career. In 1772, he sailed to England and to America the next year. Arriving in Grenada, he made business while drawing plans and views for the governor.
From 1776 to 1782, Dumoulin was a witness to the American War of Independence, drawing several naval battles between the French Navy and the British Royal Navy.
Returned to Vevey in 1783, he turned his sketches of the battles into oil paintings and watercolours, earning his life diving drawing lessons.
Between 1795 and 1797, Dumoulin was in Paris, where he took lessons in anatomy, copied ancient paintings in the Louvre, attended the Academy and the School of naval constructions. Two of his paintings of naval battles were exposed at the 1796 Salon.
Back to Vevey in 1797, he opened a class in technical drawing.
In 1810, Dumoulin published a collection of 150 engravings themed on the journey of Robinson Crusoe, which is considered to be a precursor to modern comics.
== Sources and references ==
=== Bibliography ===
Carl Brun, Schweizerisches Künstler-Lexikon, Frauenfeld, 1905–1917, p. 397.
Paul Morand, Monsieur Dumoulin à l’Isle de la Grenade, Paudex, 1976 [biographie fictive et littéraire avec des reproductions en couleur des œuvres du Musée historique de Vevey].
Françoise Bonnet Borel, «Dumoulin, peintre veveysan», dans Vibiscum, 2, 1991, p. 59-97.
Annie Renonciat, « Le Robinson de Dumoulin : un roman en 150 estampes (ca 1810) », dans 9e Art, Les Cahiers du musée de la bande dessinée, Angoulême, n° 8, janvier 2003, p. 10-19.
Thierry Smolderen, « Ceci n’est pas une bulle ! - Structures énonciatives du phylactère », 2006
=== Notes and references ===
== External links ==
Works by François Aimé Louis Dumoulin at Project Gutenberg
"Dumoulin, François Aimé Louis". SIKART Lexicon on art in Switzerland. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusevsky_District | Gusevsky District | Gusevsky District (Russian: Гу́севский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion), one of the fifteen in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. As a municipal division, it is incorporated as Gusevsky Urban Okrug. It is located in the east of the oblast. The area of the district is 654.9 square kilometers (252.9 sq mi). Its administrative center is the town of Gusev. Population: 37,142 (2010 census); 37,461 (2002 Census); 37,533 (1989 Soviet census). The population of Gusev accounts for 76.1% of the district's total population.
== Geography ==
The district is situated in the east of the oblast and is sparsely populated. The rivers in the district include the Pissa and the Angrapa. The southern parts of the district are dominated by forests; in the northern parts forests and steppe pasture prevail.
== Administrative and municipal status ==
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Gusevsky District is one of the fifteen in the oblast. The town of Gusev serves as its administrative center.
As a municipal division, the district has been incorporated as Gusevsky Urban Okrug since June 10, 2013. Prior to that date, the district was incorporated as Gusevsky Municipal District, which was subdivided into one urban settlement and four rural settlements.
== Economy ==
The economy is centered on agriculture. The main railway line and road from Kaliningrad to Moscow pass through the district.
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Калининградская областная Дума. Закон №463 от 27 мая 2010 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Калининградской области», в ред. Закона №450 от 3 июля 2015 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Калининградской области "Об административно-территориальном устройстве Калининградской области"». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Калининградская правда" (вкладыш "Ведомости Правительства Калининградской области"), №112, 26 июня 2010 г. (Kaliningrad Oblast Duma. Law #463 of May 27, 2010 On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Kaliningrad Oblast, as amended by the Law #450 of July 3, 2015 On Amending the Law of Kaliningrad Oblast "On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Kaliningrad Oblast". Effective as of the day of the official publication.).
Правительство Калининградской области. Постановление №640 от 30 августа 2011 г. «Об утверждении реестра объектов административно-территориального деления Калининградской области», в ред. Постановления №877 от 21 ноября 2011 г «О внесении изменения в Постановление Правительства Калининградской области от 30 августа 2011 г. №640». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Калининградская правда" (вкладыш "Официально"), №170, 15 сентября 2011 г. (Government of Kaliningrad Oblast. Resolution #640 of August 30, 2011 On the Adoption of the Registry of the Objects of the Administrative-Territorial Divisions of Kaliningrad Oblast, as amended by the Resolution #877 of November 21, 2011 On Amending the Resolution of the Government of Kaliningrad Oblast #640 of August 30, 2011. Effective as of the day of the official publication.).
Калининградская областная Дума. Закон №230 от 29 мая 2013 г. «О преобразовании Гусевского городского поселения, Калининского, Кубановского, Маяковского и Михайловского сельских поселений путём объединения поселений и наделении вновь образованного городского поселения статусом городского округа». Вступил в силу по истечении 10 дней со дня официального опубликования, за исключением статей 4, 5. Опубликован: "Калининградская правда", №92, 31 мая 2013 г.. (Kaliningrad Oblast Duma. Law #230 of May 29, 2013 On the Transformation of Gusevskoye Urban Settlement, Kalininskoye, Kubanovskoye, Mayakovskoye, and Mikhaylovskoye Rural Settlements by Merging the Settlements and Granting the Newly Formed Urban Settlement Urban Okrug Status. Effective as of the day which is 10 days after the day of the official publication, with the exception of Articles 4, 5.). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_Hospital | Cherry Hospital | Cherry Hospital is an inpatient regional referral psychiatric hospital located in Goldsboro, North Carolina, United States. As one of three psychiatric hospitals operated by the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, it provides services to 38 counties in the eastern region of North Carolina. It is part of the Division of State Operated Healthcare Facilities within the Department of Health and Human Services, which oversees and manages 14 state-operated healthcare facilities that treat adults and children with mental illness, developmental disabilities, and substance use disorders. The Division's psychiatric hospitals provide comprehensive inpatient mental health services to people with psychiatric illness who cannot be safely treated at a lower level of care.
Cherry Hospital's treatment units include Adolescent, Adult Acute Admissions, Geriatric Admissions, Psychiatric Rehabilitation, and Psychiatric Medical to serve those with complex acute care needs, providing a level of care not available in their own communities.
== History ==
In 1877, the North Carolina General Assembly appointed a committee to recommend the selection of a site for a facility for the black mentally ill which would serve the state. On April 11, 1878, 171 acres (69 ha) of land two miles (3 km) west of Goldsboro were purchased. The site was described by Governor Zebulon Baird Vance as ideal for a hospital building because of good elevation in a high state of cultivation and central location for the black population.
On August 1, 1880, the first patient was admitted to the then named "Asylum for Colored Insane". Since that time, there have been several name changes including: The Eastern North Carolina Insane Asylum, Eastern Hospital, and State Hospital at Goldsboro. The name was changed to Cherry Hospital in 1959 in honor of Governor R. Gregg Cherry, who focused his administration on expanding mental health services and increasing hospital facilities and personnel during his tenure.
The bed capacity for the hospital when established was seventy-six but over one hundred patients were crowded into the facility by Christmas of 1880. On March 5, 1881, the Eastern North Carolina Insane Asylum was incorporated and a board of nine directors appointed. A separate building was established for treating tubercular patients. In addition, a building for the criminally insane was opened in 1924.
For the first eighty-five years of its history, Cherry Hospital served the entire black population for the State of North Carolina. In 1965, the hospital joined other state hospitals in implementing the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Cherry began serving patients from the thirty-three counties in the Eastern Region in 1965 by providing services for all races. Black patients at Cherry were transferred to hospitals in their appropriate region while Cherry received white patients from other hospitals in other regions.
=== Cherry Farm ===
From the opening of the institution, much of the cultivation was performed on the hospital grounds under the management of the steward. By 1960, Cherry Farm had 2,300 acres in cultivation, including fruit trees, an apple orchard, vegetables, and sugar cane, with livestock consisting of hogs, chickens, turkeys and cows. The farm supplied the hospital's requirement of milk, eggs, and pork (except cured bacon), 70% of the hospital's beef requirement; nothing was sold except hides.
=== Early treatment ===
The early treatment program was mainly custodial, while able-bodied patients worked on the farm. In 1884, a battery was purchased as electricity was said to be beneficial to the treatment of early insanity. An occupational therapist was employed in 1932, but therapy was mainly confined to the farm, laundry, kitchen and yard work. During the 1930s and 1940s, laxatives, castor oil, salts, aspirin, and sedatives were the standard medications given to patients. Hydrotherapy was attempted, but soon abandoned. Seclusion in the form of 6’x9’ steel cages was also utilized, but was completely removed from the treatment program in 1956. Chapel facilities and chaplain services were not available until the early 1950s, but selected patients were allowed to visit churches in Goldsboro under the supervision of an attendant.
By 1955, tranquilizing medications were widely used and helped revolutionize patient treatment. As a result of extensive use of psychotropic drugs, the rate of discharges began to increase and the length of hospitalization decreased. While discharges increased, the admission rate also increased significantly and the resident population remained virtually stable at approximately 3,000 patients between 1950 and 1965. The highest rate of occupancy was approximately 3,500 patients. During its first 100 years of service, Cherry Hospital served 91,045 patients.
=== From segregation to integration ===
For the first 85 years of its history, Cherry Hospital served only the mentally ill African-American population for the entire state of North Carolina, and remained the only mental hospital available to those citizens until the mid-1960s. The hospital remained segregated until 1965, when, to comply with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Cherry Hospital joined other state mental institutions in implementing the law, initiating the desegregation of the patient population. The state was divided into four (4) regions, with each region containing a mental hospital for adults. Cherry Hospital began to provide services to all races from the thirty-three designated counties in the Eastern Region of North Carolina. African-American patients at Cherry Hospital were transferred to hospitals within their appropriate region, while white patients designated for the Eastern Region were received and admitted from other hospitals in other regions.
=== Cemeteries ===
There are two cemeteries located on the old campus of Cherry Hospital. One is located behind the Chase Laundry Building where patients were interred between 1905 and 1928; the other is located behind the McFarland Building where the earliest known interment is 1927. It is known that there are 3000 people buried on the grounds, with approximately 700 graves marked with upright brass crosses bearing patient names and dates. A monument in memoriam of the patients interred on the old Cherry Hospital campus was dedicated on June 3, 2004. The two known burial grounds mentioned above may account for those buried since 1905 but do not account for those buried between 1880 and 1905. It is known that there have been over 3800 people buried on the hospital grounds since 1913.
=== Dorothea Dix influence ===
The mid-nineteenth century in North Carolina marked a time of great change in the methods of caring for the mentally ill. Despite the push by other states to develop and build asylums, North Carolina continued to resist these efforts due to the high cost of construction. North Carolina was twelfth of the original 13 colonies to pass legislation allowing for the construction of a state hospital. The efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix were of paramount importance in swaying legislators to consider the cost savings, and fundamental humanity, of treating the insane. Dix addressed the North Carolina General Assembly in 1848, petitioning the members to establish formal, humane institutional care for those suffering from mental illness. Her advocacy efforts, including those of North Carolina General Assembly Representative Kenneth Rayner, led to the beginning of construction of the first asylum in North Carolina. Only two other asylums for the mentally ill, Broughton Hospital in Morganton and Cherry Hospital in Goldsboro, were approved and built before the turn of the twentieth century in North Carolina.
A Founders Gallery exhibit, located in the first floor lobby of the New Cherry Hospital, was established to pay tribute to the influence and impact of the efforts championed by Dorothea Dix to care for the mentally ill.
== "New" Cherry Hospital ==
In the fall of 2016, the old Cherry Hospital facility closed and was replaced by a new psychiatric facility of the same name, located at 1401 West Ash Street, Goldsboro, North Carolina, on a site approximately one-half mile from the old hospital. The new hospital, designed by Perkins+Will, of Durham, North Carolina, is a single structure, three-story building containing approximately 410,000 square feet, including 9.4 acres of floor space, consisting of residential patient care units, therapy and medical facilities, and service and administrative support areas. The site, including buildings, parking lots, grounds and buffer zones, covers approximately 51 acres and is located on a 171-acre tract. The basic construction contract for the building, utilities, and grounds was awarded to Archer Western Contractors, LTD, of Morrisville, North Carolina. Total funding for the new construction, design, medical equipment, furniture, telecommunications, information technology, equipment and other necessities totaling $138,325,814 was derived from special indebtedness bonds approved by the North Carolina General Assembly.
A Groundbreaking Ceremony was held at the new site on October 1, 2010, with then Governor Beverly Eves Perdue and North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Lanier M. Cansler in attendance. A subsequent Dedication and Official Ribbon-Cutting Ceremony was held on August 30, 2016, with then Governor Pat McCrory, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Rick Brajer, and Deputy Secretary Dale Armstrong in attendance.
The previous hospital, located at 201 Stevens Mill Road, Goldsboro, North Carolina, was composed of several buildings disseminated campus-wide. The new hospital provides expanded services and additional capacity encompassed in one building. Amenities include a modern laboratory, dental and radiology departments and equipment, internal and external courtyards, a treatment mall (known as the "Hope and Wellness Center") decorated with flexible pictures hung magnetically, gymnasium and exercise room, library equipped with computers, cosmetology and barber shops, and anti-ligature doors/hinges/hooks and tempered glass.
The process of transferring patients to the new hospital was initiated in late September 2016. A press release on the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services website, dated October 5, 2016, states all patients were safely moved and now occupy the new Cherry Hospital as of Thursday, September 29, 2016.
== Counties served ==
Cherry Hospital serves patients from thirty-eight (38) Eastern North Carolina counties including: Beaufort, Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Camden, Carteret, Chowan, Columbus, Craven, Cumberland, Currituck, Dare, Duplin, Edgecombe, Gates, Greene, Hertford, Hyde, Johnston, Jones, Lenoir, Martin, Nash, New Hanover, Northampton, Onslow, Pamlico, Pasquotank, Pender, Perquimans, Pitt, Robeson, Sampson, Scotland, Tyrrell, Washington, Wayne, and Wilson.
== Services provided ==
Cherry Hospital employs licensed psychiatrists, internal and family medicine physicians, and mid-level practitioners who provide short and long term mental health care and services to adolescents, adults and geriatric patients. Comprehensive treatment includes physical and diagnostic, with utilization of an array of therapeutic approaches including group, behavior, milieu therapy, occupational, as well as recreational and creative arts therapies.
== Treatment units ==
Cherry Hospital's treatment units include:
The Adolescent Unit is a specialty unit providing inpatient treatment for mentally, emotionally, and behaviorally disturbed adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17. The unit provides diagnostic evaluation that includes psychiatric, medical, nursing, individual and group therapy, family counseling, nutritional services, therapeutic activities, structured group living, vocational evaluation and rehabilitation, and interagency correlation. Adolescents are enrolled in a year-round accredited school program ("Riverbend School"), which allows patients to remain up-to date in their education while receiving the care they need.
The Adult and Acute Admissions Unit is for patients between the ages of 18 and 60. It is designed for patients who are admitted in crisis and with many types of mental illness. It is a short term unit and family and community involvement is encouraged to assist with the transition back to the community.
The Geriatric Admissions Unit provides treatment for patients 60 years and older. While most of the patients in the unit have confusion and/or disorientation associated with dementia, there are others with persistent mental illness. Although patients are usually ambulatory, many suffer from age-related physical illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, arthritis or cardiovascular disease. Most require some assistance with their basic needs. The objective of the unit is re-motivation, reorientation, and rehabilitation of patients in an effort to return them to their community and families.
The Psychiatric Rehabilitation Unit provides treatment and rehabilitation services to adults 18 and older with severe and persistent psychiatric illness. Efforts are aimed at reducing symptoms and developing the skills needed to achieve independent functioning. Patients participate in work therapy, Therapaws, and in counseling sessions. A wellness clinic is part of the patients' program in order to familiarize them with routine health checks and to encourage follow-up with physicians after discharge.
The Psychiatric Medical Unit is a unit for the treatment of psychiatric patients with physical illness who cannot be managed on a general psychiatric unit due to the nature and severity of the medical illness. Patients are admitted to this unit from other hospital units.
== Riverbend School ==
Riverbend School, housed within the new Cherry Hospital facility, is an accredited school program for adolescent patients between the ages of 12 and 17. Classrooms are structured as small groups for multi-age and grade, including both regular and special education classes. Liaison teachers work with home-school personnel, parents/guardians, and staff to meet each student's individual needs.
== Expanded capacity ==
Cherry Hospital expanded its capacity by more than 100 psychiatric beds following the move to a new facility in 2016. Now, a 300-bed facility, Cherry Hospital has the capacity to serve 130+ adults, 28 adolescents, 35 geriatric, 10 medical psychiatric, and 104 psychiatric rehabilitation. There are 12 patient care units that include 228 bedrooms with one bathroom per room, 146 private bedrooms and 82 semi-private bedrooms.
== Accreditations ==
Cherry Hospital is accredited by the North Carolina Medical Society to provide Continuing Medical Education (CME) to physicians and is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation(ANCC). The hospital provides continuing education to psychologists, social workers, and teachers by working closely with Area Health Education Centers (AHEC) Eastern AHEC, Southeast AHEC, Southern Regional AHEC, and North Carolina Psychological Association.
The Joint Commission, 2012 Top Performer on Key Quality Measures
North Carolina Medical Society
American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation
College of American Pathologists
Member, North Carolina Hospital Association
== Teaching affiliations and internships ==
Cherry Hospital is affiliated with thirteen (13) schools of nursing. Annually, these schools complete clinical rotations in various treatment areas. The objective of the clinical experience is to provide nursing students with learning opportunities regarding the care of individuals with mental health needs.
Appalachian University
Campbell University
Coastal Carolina Community College
East Carolina University
Edgecombe Community College
James Sprunt Community College
Johnston Community College
Lenoir Community College
Sampson Community College
University of Mount Olive
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Wayne Community College
Wilson Tech Community College
Cherry Hospital is affiliated with several colleges and universities for internship placements in the areas of social work, psychology, teaching (exceptional children), dental hygiene, pharmacy and therapeutic recreation, and has affiliations with colleges/universities in other states for occupational therapy internships. The hospital is routinely utilized as a teaching site for both the Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University and Campbell University where psychiatry residents, fellows and medical students train with the hospital's professional staff holding clinical faculty appointments.
== Cherry Hospital Museum ==
The Cherry Hospital Museum is located in the Special Services house on the old hospital campus, located at 201 Stevens Mill Road, in Goldsboro, North Carolina. Displaying written documents, photographs and other artifacts, the museum depicts the history of the psychiatric hospital opened in 1880 for the African American mentally ill from all 100 counties of North Carolina.
Due to the damage sustained by the effects of the flooding of Hurricane Matthew in October 2016, the museum officially closed its doors on Friday, January 13, 2017. All artifacts housed in the museum were moved to storage with future plans to rotate these pieces and display them in exhibits in the Founders Gallery, located in the First Floor of the New Cherry Hospital. An electronic presentation of these artifacts will be featured on electronic message boards located throughout the new hospital.
== Cherry Foundation, Inc. ==
The Cherry Foundation is a not-for-profit and tax exempt organization established to provide further assistance to those affected by mental illness while admitted at Cherry Hospital This organization is a separate entity from Cherry Hospital and was officially recognized and chartered March 31, 1997, by the State of North Carolina, and was granted federal tax-exempt status, 501(c)(3) by Internal Revenue Service guidelines. Tax deductible contributions and gifts made to the foundation are utilized directly for the therapeutic care of the patients.
== References ==
== External links ==
NC DHHS - Division of State Operated Healthcare Facilities
The Joint Commission - Accreditation/Quality Report for Cherry Hospital
Photos of Cherry Hospital
"Moving Forward" - The Progress of the New Cherry Hospital
Cherry Hospital Museum
The Cherry Foundation, Inc. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amason_Kingi | Amason Kingi | Amason Jeffah Kingi (born 1973) is a Kenyan politician currently serving as the Speaker of the Senate of Kenya. He is a member and leader of the Pamoja African Alliance party, which he founded. The party is part of the Kenya Kwanza alliance. He served as the first governor of Kilifi County from 2013 to 2022, having been elected twice to the position.
He formed his own party, Pamoja African Alliance which later joined the United Democratic Alliance, FORD–Kenya, the Amani National Congress and other small parties to form the Kenya Kwanza alliance, which was elected into government in the 2022 Kenyan general election.
== Career ==
Kingi studied law and graduated from the University of Nairobi in 1998. As a member of the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), he was elected to represent the Magarini Constituency in parliament during the 2007 Kenyan parliamentary election.
His growing reputation was spotted by president Mwai Kibaki and prime minister Raila Odinga, who gave him a position as Minister for the East African Community in the Grand Coalition government that was formed after the 2007 post-election violence. He served as Minister for Fisheries Development from 2010 to 2013.
Kingi ran for and won the governorship of Kilifi County in 2013, and he was reelected in 2017. He established the Pamoja African Alliance party in an effort to free coastal Kenya from ODM's control. This party originally aligned itself with Azimio la Umoja, which supported Raila Odinga for president, but severed relations with the group in 2022 and joined Kenya Kwanza, which supported William Ruto. Kenya Kwanza and Ruto won the 2022 elections, and Kingi was elected Speaker of the Senate.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leelavati_Award | Leelavati Award | The Leelavati Award is an award for outstanding contribution to public outreach in mathematics. It is named after the 12th-century mathematical treatise "Lilavati" devoted to arithmetic, algebra, and the decimal system written by the Indian mathematician Bhāskara II, also known as Bhaskara Achārya. In the book the author posed, in verse form, a series of problems in (elementary) arithmetic to one Leelavati (perhaps his daughter) and followed them up with hints to solutions. This work appears to have been the main source of learning arithmetic and algebra in medieval India. The work was also translated into Persian and was influential in West Asia.
== History ==
The Leelavati Prize was handed out for the first time at the closing ceremony of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) 2010 in Hyderabad, India. Established by the Executive Organising Committee (EOC) of the ICM with the endorsement of the IMU Executive Committee (EC), the Leelavati Prize was initiated as a one-time international award for outstanding public outreach work for mathematics. The award was so well received at the conference and in the mathematical press that the IMU decided to turn the prize into a recurring four-yearly award and the award ceremony a regular feature of every ICM closing ceremony.
The Leelavati prize is not intended to reward mathematical research but rather outreach activities in the broadest possible sense. It carries a cash prize of 1,000,000 Indian Rupees (14,000 US dollars) together with a citation, and is sponsored by Infosys since 2014.
== Laureates ==
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Leelavati Prize - IMU website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajo_Nuevo_Bank | Bajo Nuevo Bank | Bajo Nuevo Bank, also known as the Petrel Islands (Spanish: Bajo Nuevo, Islas Petrel), is a small, uninhabited reef with some small grass-covered islets, located in the western Caribbean Sea at 15°53′N 78°38′W, with a lighthouse on Low Cay at 15°51′N 78°38′W. The closest neighboring land feature is Serranilla Bank, located 110 kilometres (68 miles) to the west.
The reef was first shown on Dutch maps dating to 1634 but was given its present name in 1654. Bajo Nuevo was rediscovered by the English pirate John Glover in 1660. The reef is now subject to a sovereignty dispute involving Colombia, Jamaica, and the United States. On 19 November 2012, regarding Nicaraguan claims to the islands, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found, unanimously, that the Republic of Colombia has sovereignty over both Bajo Nuevo and Serranilla Banks, although the judgment does not analyze or mention the competing claims of Jamaica or the United States.
== Geography ==
Bajo Nuevo Bank is about 26 km (16 mi) long and 9 km (5.6 mi) wide. The satellite image shows two distinct atoll-like structures separated by a deep channel 1.4 km (0.87 mi) wide at its narrowest point. The larger southwestern reef complex measures 15.4 km (9.6 mi) northeast-southwest, and is up to 9.4 km (5.8 mi) wide, covering an area of about 100 km2 (39 sq mi). The reef partially dries on the southern and eastern sides. The smaller northeastern reef complex measures 10.5 km (6.5 mi) east-west and is up to 5.5 km (3.4 mi) wide, covering an area of 45 km2 (17 sq mi). The land area is minuscule by comparison.
The most prominent cay is Low Cay, in the southwestern atoll. It is 300 m (330 yd) long and 40 m (44 yd) wide (about 1 ha or 2.5 acres), no more than 2 m (6.6 ft) high, and barren. It is composed of broken coral, driftwood, and sand. The light beacon on Low Cay is a 21 m (69 ft) metal tower, painted white with a red top. It emits a focal plane beam of light as two white flashes of light every 15 seconds. The beacon was erected in 1982, and reconstructed by the Colombian Ministry of National Defence in February 2008. It is currently maintained by the Colombian National Navy and overseen by the state's Maritime Authority.
== Territorial dispute ==
Bajo Nuevo Bank is the subject of conflicting claims made by several sovereign states. In most cases, the dispute stems from attempts by a state to expand its exclusive economic zone over the surrounding seas.
Colombia currently claims the area as a part of the department of San Andrés and Providencia. Naval patrols in the area are carried out by the San Andrés fleet of the Colombian Navy. Colombia maintains that it has claimed these territories since 1886 as part of the geographic archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia. This date is disputed by other claimant states, who argue that Colombia had not claimed the territory by name until recently.
Jamaica's claim was largely considered to be resolved since entering into several bilateral agreements with Colombia. Between 1982 and 1986, the two states maintained a formal agreement which granted regulated fishing rights to Jamaican vessels within the territorial waters of Bajo Nuevo and nearby Serranilla Bank. Jamaica's signing of this treaty was regarded by critics as a de facto recognition of Colombian sovereignty over the two banks. However, the treaty is now extinguished, as Colombia declined to renew it upon its expiration in August 1986.
In November 1993, Colombia and Jamaica agreed upon a maritime delimitation treaty establishing the "Joint Regime Area" to cooperatively manage and exploit living and non-living resources in designated waters between the two aforementioned banks. However, the territorial waters immediately surrounding the cays themselves were excluded from the zone of joint-control, as Colombia considers these areas to be part of its coastal waters. The exclusion circles were defined in the chart attached to the treaty as "Colombia's territorial sea in Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo", even though the treaty mentioned the dispute over territorial waters. The agreement came into force in March 1994.
Nicaragua formerly claimed all the islands on its continental shelf, covering an area of over 50,000 km2 in the Caribbean Sea, including Bajo Nuevo Bank and all islands associated with the San Andrés and Providencia archipelagoes. It had persistently pursued this claim against Colombia in the International Court of Justice (ICJ), filing cases in both 2001 and 2007. The dispute originated in the debated validity and applicability of the Esguerr–Bárcenas treaty, exchanged with Colombia in March 1928. Nicaragua formally accepted the ICJ's 2012 ruling of Colombian sovereignty in a 2014 constitutional amendment.
The United States claim was made on 22 November 1869 by James W. Jennett under the provisions of the Guano Islands Act. Most claims made by the U.S. over the guano islands in this region were officially renounced in a treaty with Colombia dated September 1972. However, Bajo Nuevo Bank was not mentioned in the treaty, and Article 7 of the treaty states that matters not specifically mentioned in the treaty are not subject to its terms. The United States considers the bank an insular area.
Honduras, before its ratification of a maritime boundary treaty with Colombia on 20 December 1999, had previously also laid claim to Bajo Nuevo and nearby Serranilla Bank. Both states agreed upon a maritime demarcation in 1986 that excluded Honduras from any control over the banks or their surrounding waters. This bilateral treaty ensured that Honduras implicitly recognized Colombia's sovereignty over the disputed territories. Nicaragua disputed Honduras's legal right to hand over these areas before the ICJ.
== See also ==
Alice Shoal
List of Guano Island claims
Rosalind Bank
== References ==
== External links ==
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bajo Nuevo Bank
Website with a map of San Andrés and Providencia, Serranilla Bank, Bajo Nuevo Bank and Rosalind Bank Archived 2 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Aerial picture of Bajo Nuevo Bank at the Wayback Machine (archived 23 December 2010) – the website is related to San Andrés and Providencia.
WorldStatesmen – lists the bank under the United States.
Rowlett, Russ. "Lighthouses of Northern Colombia". The Lighthouse Directory. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_FIFA_World_Cup#:~:text=Ellis%20Park%20Stadium%20and%20Moses,Rustenburg%20hosted%20six%20matches%20each. | 2010 FIFA World Cup | The 2010 FIFA World Cup was the 19th FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national football teams. It took place in South Africa from 11 June to 11 July 2010. The bidding process for hosting the tournament finals was open only to African nations. In 2004, the international football federation, FIFA, selected South Africa over Egypt and Morocco to become the first African nation to host the finals.
The matches were played in 10 stadiums in nine host cities around the country, with the opening and final played at the Soccer City stadium in South Africa's largest city, Johannesburg. Thirty-two teams were selected for participation via a worldwide qualification tournament that began in August 2007. In the first round of the tournament finals, the teams competed in round-robin groups of four teams for points, with the top two teams in each group proceeding. These 16 teams advanced to the knockout stage, where three rounds of play decided which teams would participate in the final.
In the final, Spain, the European champions, beat third-time losing finalists the Netherlands 1–0 after extra time to win their first world title. Spain became the eighth nation to win the tournament and the first European nation to win a World Cup hosted outside its home continent: all previous World Cups held outside Europe had been won by South American nations. It was also the first time that the FIFA World Cup was passed between two different nations representing the same continent (as the previous cup holder had been Italy, who won the 2006 edition). Spain became the first national team to win the tournament after losing the first match at the finals and the first team since 1978 to win a World Cup after losing a game in the group stage. As a result of their win, Spain represented the World in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. Host nation South Africa were eliminated in the group stage, as were both 2006 World Cup finalists, Italy and France. It was the first time that the hosts had been eliminated in the group stage and the first of three successive World Cups that the defending champions would be eliminated in the group stage. New Zealand, with their three draws, were the only undefeated team in the tournament, but they were also eliminated in the group stage.
== Host selection ==
Africa was chosen as the host for the 2010 World Cup as part of a short-lived rotation policy, abandoned in 2007, to rotate the event among football confederations. Five African nations placed bids to host the 2010 World Cup: Egypt, Morocco, South Africa and a joint bid from Libya and Tunisia.
Following the decision of the FIFA Executive Committee not to allow co-hosted tournaments, Tunisia withdrew from the bidding process. The committee also decided not to consider Libya's solo bid as it no longer met all the stipulations laid down in the official List of Requirements.
The winning bid was announced by FIFA president Sepp Blatter at a media conference on 15 May 2004 in Zürich; in the first round of voting, South Africa received 14 votes, Morocco received 10 and Egypt no votes. South Africa, which had narrowly failed to win the right to host the 2006 event, was thus awarded the right to host the tournament. Campaigning for South Africa to be granted host status, Nelson Mandela had previously spoken of the importance of football in his life, stating that while incarcerated in Robben Island prison playing football "made us feel alive and triumphant despite the situation we found ourselves in". With South Africa winning their bid, an emotional Mandela raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy.
During 2006 and 2007, rumours circulated in various news sources that the 2010 World Cup could be moved to another country. Franz Beckenbauer, Horst R. Schmidt, and, reportedly, some FIFA executives expressed concern over the planning, organisation, and pace of South Africa's preparations. FIFA officials repeatedly expressed their confidence in South Africa as host, stating that a contingency plan existed only to cover natural catastrophes, as had been in place at previous FIFA World Cups.
=== Bribery and corruption ===
On 28 May 2015, media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high-ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US$10 million in bribes to then-FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members.
On 4 June 2015, FIFA executive Chuck Blazer, having co-operated with the FBI and the Swiss authorities, confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cup bids. Blazer stated, "I and others on the FIFA executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup."
On 6 June 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had actually won the vote, but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead.
== Qualification ==
The qualification draw for the 2010 World Cup was held in Durban on 25 November 2007. As the host nation, South Africa qualified automatically for the tournament. As in the previous tournament, the defending champions were not given an automatic berth, and Italy had to participate in qualification. With a pool of entrants comprising 204 of the 208 FIFA national teams at the time, the 2010 World Cup shares with the 2008 Summer Olympics the record for most competing nations in a sporting event.
Slovakia was making its first appearance as an independent nation but had previously been represented as part of the Czechoslovakia team (that had last played in the 1990 tournament); North Korea qualified for the first time since 1966; Honduras and New Zealand were both making their first appearances since 1982; Algeria were at the finals for the first time since the 1986 competition; and Greece qualified for the first time since 1994. Serbia also made its first appearance as an independent nation, having previously been present as Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1930, as SFR Yugoslavia from 1950 to 1990, as FR Yugoslavia in 1998 and as Serbia and Montenegro in 2006.
Teams that failed to qualify for this tournament included Saudi Arabia, which had qualified for the previous four tournaments; Tunisia and Croatia, both of whom had qualified for the previous three finals; Costa Rica, Ecuador, Poland and Sweden, who had qualified for the previous two editions; 2006 quarter-finalists Ukraine and Euro 2008 semi-finalists Russia and Turkey. The highest ranked team not to qualify was Croatia (ranked 10th), while the lowest ranked team that did qualify was North Korea (ranked 105th).
As of 2025, this was the last time North Korea, Slovakia and Slovenia qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, and the last time Belgium, Iran, and Croatia (only time) failed to qualify.
=== List of qualified teams ===
The following 32 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, qualified for the final tournament.
== Preparations ==
Five new stadiums were built for the tournament, and five of the existing venues were upgraded. Construction costs were expected to be R8.4 billion (just over US$1 billion or €950 million).
South Africa also improved its public transport infrastructure within the host cities, including Johannesburg's Gautrain and other metro systems, and major road networks were improved. In March 2009, Danny Jordaan, the president of the 2010 World Cup organising committee, reported that all stadiums for the tournament were on schedule to be completed within six months.
The country implemented special measures to ensure the safety and security of spectators in accordance with standard FIFA requirements, including a temporary restriction of flight operation in the airspace surrounding the stadiums.
At a ceremony to mark 100 days before the event, FIFA president Sepp Blatter praised the readiness of the country for the event.
=== Construction strike ===
On 8 July 2009, 70,000 construction workers who were working on the new stadiums walked off their jobs. The majority of the workers receive R2500 per month (about £192, €224 or US$313), but the unions alleged that some workers were grossly underpaid. A spokesperson for the National Union of Mineworkers said to the SABC that the "no work no pay" strike would go on until FIFA assessed penalties on the organisers. Other unions threatened to strike into 2011. The strike was swiftly resolved and workers were back at work within a week of it starting. There were no further strikes and all stadiums and construction projects were completed in time for the kick off.
== Prize money ==
The total prize money on offer for the tournament was confirmed by FIFA as US$420 million (including payments of US$40 million to domestic clubs), a 60 percent increase on the 2006 tournament. Before the tournament, each of the 32 entrants received US$1 million for preparation costs. Once at the tournament, the prize money was distributed as follows:
US$8 million – To each team eliminated at the group stage (16 teams) ($11.54 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$9 million – To each team eliminated in the round of 16 (8 teams) ($12.98 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$14 million – To each team eliminated in the quarter-finals (4 teams) ($20.19 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$18 million – Fourth placed team ($25.95 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$20 million – Third placed team ($28.84 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$24 million – Runner up ($34.61 million in 2024 US dollars)
US$30 million – Winner ($43.26 million in 2024 US dollars)
In a first for the World Cup, FIFA made payments to the domestic clubs of the players representing their national teams at the tournament. This saw a total of US$40 million paid to domestic clubs. This was the result of an agreement reached in 2008 between FIFA and European clubs to disband the G-14 group and drop their claims for compensation dating back to 2005 over the financial cost of injuries sustained to their players while on international duty, such as that from Belgian club Charleroi S.C. for injury to Morocco's Abdelmajid Oulmers in a friendly game in 2004, and from English club Newcastle United for an injury to England's Michael Owen in the 2006 World Cup.
== Venues ==
In 2005, the organisers released a provisional list of 12 venues to be used for the World Cup: Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg (two venues), Kimberley, Klerksdorp, Nelspruit, Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, Pretoria, and Rustenburg. This was narrowed down to the ten venues that were officially announced by FIFA on 17 March 2006.
The altitude of several venues affected the motion of the ball and player performance, although FIFA's medical chief downplayed this consideration. Six of the ten venues were over 1,200 m (3,900 ft) above sea level, with the two Johannesburg venues—FNB Stadium (also known as Soccer City) and Ellis Park Stadium—the highest at approximately 1,750 m (5,740 ft).
FNB Stadium, Cape Town Stadium, and Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium in Port Elizabeth were the most-used venues, each hosting eight matches. Ellis Park Stadium and Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban hosted seven matches each, while Loftus Versfeld Stadium in Pretoria, Free State Stadium in Bloemfontein and Royal Bafokeng Stadium in Rustenburg hosted six matches each. Peter Mokaba Stadium in Polokwane and Mbombela Stadium in Nelspruit hosted four matches each, but did not host any knockout-stage matches.
The following stadiums were all upgraded to meet FIFA specifications:
=== Team base camps ===
The base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. In February 2010, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team. Fifteen teams were in Gauteng Province, while six teams were based in KwaZulu-Natal, four in the Western Cape, three in North West Province, and one each in Mpumalanga, the Eastern Cape, and the Northern Cape.
== Final draw ==
The FIFA Organising Committee approved the procedure for the final draw on 2 December 2009. The seeding was based on the October 2009 FIFA World Ranking and seven squads joined hosts South Africa as seeded teams for the final draw. No two teams from the same confederation were to be drawn in the same group, except allowing a maximum of two European teams in a group.
The group draw was staged in Cape Town, South Africa, on 4 December 2009 at the Cape Town International Convention Centre. The ceremony was presented by South African actress Charlize Theron, assisted by FIFA Secretary General Jérôme Valcke. The balls were drawn by English football star David Beckham and African sporting figures Haile Gebrselassie, John Smit, Makhaya Ntini, Matthew Booth and Simphiwe Dludlu.
== Opening ceremony ==
== Referees ==
FIFA's Referees' Committee selected 29 referees through its Refereeing Assistance Programme to officiate at the World Cup: four from the AFC, three from the CAF, six from CONMEBOL, four from CONCACAF, two from the OFC, and ten from UEFA. English referee Howard Webb was chosen to referee the final, making him the first person to referee both the UEFA Champions League final and the World Cup final in the same year.
== Squads ==
As with the 2006 tournament, each team's squad for the 2010 World Cup consisted of 23 players. Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23-player squad by 1 June 2010. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game.
Of the 736 players participating in the tournament, over half played their club football in five European domestic leagues; those in England (117 players), Germany (84), Italy (80), Spain (59) and France (46). The English, German and Italian squads were made up of entirely home based players, while only Nigeria had no players from clubs in their own league. In all, players from 52 national leagues entered the tournament. FC Barcelona of Spain was the club contributing the most players to the tournament, with 13 players of their side travelling, 7 with the Spanish team, while another 7 clubs contributed 10 players or more.
In another first for South Africa 2010, one squad included three siblings. Jerry, Johnny, and Wilson Palacios made history thanks to their inclusion in Honduras's 23-man list. Unusually, the game between Germany and Ghana had two brothers playing for opposite nations, with Jérôme Boateng and Kevin-Prince Boateng playing respectively.
== Match summary ==
The 32 national teams involved in the tournament together played a total of 64 matches starting from the group stage matches and progressing to the knockout stage matches, with teams eliminated through the various progressive stages. Rest days were allocated during the various stages to allow players recovery during the tournament. Preliminary events were also held in celebration of the World Cup event. All times listed in the table below are in South African Standard Time (UTC+02).
== Group stage ==
All times are South Africa Standard Time (UTC+2).
The tournament match schedule was announced in November 2007. In the first round, or group stage, the 32 teams were divided into eight groups of four, with each team playing the other three teams in their group once. Teams were awarded three points for a win, one point for a draw and none for a defeat. The top two teams in each group advanced to the round of 16.
The South American teams performed strongly, with all five advancing to the round of 16 (four as group winners), and four further advancing to the quarter-finals. However, only Uruguay advanced to the semi-finals.
Of the six African teams, only Ghana advanced to the round of 16. South Africa became the first host nation in World Cup history to be eliminated in the first round, despite beating France and drawing with Mexico, while Ghana and Ivory Coast were the only other African teams to win a match. The overall performance of the African teams, in the first World Cup to be hosted on the continent, was judged as disappointing by observers such as Cameroon great Roger Milla.
Only six out of the thirteen UEFA teams advanced to the round of 16, a record low since the introduction of this stage in 1986. Nonetheless, the final was contested by two European teams. In another World Cup first, the two finalists from the preceding tournament, Italy and France, were eliminated at the group stage, with Italy becoming the third defending champions to be eliminated in the first round after Brazil in 1966 and France in 2002. New Zealand, one of the lowest-ranked teams, surprised many by drawing all three of their group matches, ending the tournament as the only undefeated team.
=== Group A ===
=== Group B ===
=== Group C ===
=== Group D ===
=== Group E ===
=== Group F ===
=== Group G ===
=== Group H ===
== Knockout stage ==
All times listed are South African Standard Time (UTC+2).
The knockout stage comprised the 16 teams that advanced from the group stage of the tournament. There were four rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round. The successive rounds were the round of 16, quarter-finals, semi-finals, and the final. There was also a play-off to decide third and fourth place. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by thirty minutes of extra time; if scores were still level, there was a penalty shoot-out to determine who progressed to the next round.
=== Bracket ===
=== Round of 16 ===
In this round, each group winner (A to H) was paired against the runner-up from another group.
South American teams again performed strongly in the round of 16, with four teams advancing to the quarter-finals including Brazil who defeated fellow South Americans Chile.
European teams performed even more strongly in the sense that all matches between a European and a non-European team were won by the European team. In the previous edition (2006), they had also achieved this.
England's 4–1 loss to Germany was their biggest ever margin of defeat at a World Cup finals. It was also the first time that a World Cup finals match between these two traditional rivals had a decisive result in regulation time, their four previous meetings all being tied at 90 minutes; two were settled in extra time, one in a penalty shoot-out, and one remained a draw as part of a group stage.
Ghana defeated the United States after extra time to become the third African team to reach the last eight (after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002), and the only African team to have achieved both a top 8 finish and a separate top 16 finish (in 2006).
Paraguay and Ghana reached the quarter-finals for the first time.
The round was marked by some controversial referees' decisions, including:
A disallowed goal by England in their 4–1 loss against Germany, where the shot by Frank Lampard was seen to cross substantially over the goal line when shown on television broadcast replays.
An allowed goal by Argentina in their 3–1 win over Mexico, where Argentine striker Carlos Tevez was seen to be offside when shown on television broadcast replays, which were shown inside the stadium shortly after the incident.
FIFA President Sepp Blatter took the unusual step of apologising to England and Mexico for the decisions that went against them, saying: "Yesterday I spoke to the two federations directly concerned by referees' mistakes [...] I apologised to England and Mexico. The English said thank you and accepted that you can win some and you lose some and the Mexicans bowed their head and accepted it." Blatter also promised to re-open the discussion regarding devices which monitor possible goals and make that information immediately available to match officials, saying: "We will naturally take on board the discussion on technology and have the first opportunity in July at the business meeting." Blatter's call came less than four months after FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said the door was closed on goal-line technology and video replays after a vote by the IFAB.
=== Quarter-finals ===
The three quarter-finals between European and South American teams all resulted in wins for Europeans. Germany had a 4–0 victory over Argentina, and the Netherlands came from behind to beat Brazil 2–1, handing the Brazilians their first loss in a World Cup match held outside Europe (other than in a penalty shoot-out) since 1950 when Uruguay won the decisive match 2–1. Spain reached the final four for the first time since 1950 after a 1–0 win over Paraguay. Uruguay, the only South American team to reach the semi-finals, overcame Ghana in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw in which Ghana missed a penalty at the end of extra time after Luis Suárez handled the ball on the line.
=== Semi-finals ===
The Netherlands qualified for the final for the third time with a 3–2 win over Uruguay. Spain reached their first ever final with a 1–0 victory over Germany. As a result, it was the first World Cup final not to feature at least one of Brazil, Italy, Germany or Argentina. It also guaranteed that there would be a new World Cup champion, as neither Spain nor the Netherlands had won the tournament before.
=== Third place play-off ===
Germany defeated Uruguay 3–2 to secure third place. Germany holds the record for most third-place finishes in the World Cup (4), while Uruguay holds the record for most fourth-place finishes (3).
=== Final ===
The final was held on 11 July 2010 at Soccer City, Johannesburg. Spain defeated the Netherlands 1–0, with an extra time goal from Andrés Iniesta. Iniesta scored the latest winning goal in a FIFA World Cup final (116th minute). The win gave Spain their first World Cup title, becoming the eighth team to win it. This made them the first new winner without home advantage since Brazil in 1958, and the first team to win the tournament after having lost their opening game.
A large number of fouls were committed in the final match. Referee Howard Webb handed out 14 yellow cards, more than doubling the previous record for this fixture, set when Argentina and West Germany shared six cards in 1986, and John Heitinga of the Netherlands was sent off for receiving a second yellow card. The Netherlands had chances to score, most notably in the 60th minute when Arjen Robben was released by Wesley Sneijder to be one-on-one with Spain's goalkeeper Iker Casillas, only for Casillas to save the shot with an outstretched leg. For Spain, Sergio Ramos missed a free header from a corner kick when he was unmarked. Iniesta finally broke the deadlock in extra time, scoring a volleyed shot from a pass by Cesc Fàbregas.
This result marked the first time that two different teams from the same continent had won successive World Cups (following Italy in 2006), and saw Europe reaching 10 World Cup titles, surpassing South America's nine titles. Spain became the first team since West Germany in 1974 to win the World Cup as European champions. The result also marked the first time that a European nation had won a World Cup that was not hosted on European soil.
A closing ceremony was held before the final, featuring singer Shakira. Afterwards, the former South African President Nelson Mandela made a brief appearance on the pitch, wheeled in by a motorcart.
== Statistics ==
=== Goalscorers ===
South African winger Siphiwe Tshabalala was the first player to score a goal in the competition, in their 1–1 draw against Mexico, the opening game of the tournament. Danish defender Daniel Agger was credited with the first own goal of the tournament, in his side's 2–0 loss to the Netherlands. Argentine striker Gonzalo Higuaín was the only player to score a hat-trick in the tournament, in Argentina's 4–1 win over South Korea, the match where the second and last own goal was scored. It became the 49th World Cup hat-trick in the history of the tournament.
Spain set a new record for the fewest goals scored by a World Cup-winning team, with eight. The previous record low was 11, set by Brazil in 1994, England in 1966, and Italy in 1938. Spain had the fewest goalscorers for a champion as well (three – Villa with five goals, Iniesta with two and Puyol with one). They also had the fewest goals conceded for a champion (2), equal with Italy (2006) and France (1998). Spain's victory marked the first time that a team won the World Cup without conceding a goal in the knockout stage.
The four top scorers in the tournament had five goals each. All of the four top scorers also came from the teams that finished in the top four, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Uruguay. The Golden Boot went to Thomas Müller of Germany who had three assists, compared to one for the three others. The Silver Boot went to David Villa of Spain, who played a total of 635 minutes, and the Bronze Boot to Wesley Sneijder of the Netherlands, who played 652 minutes. Diego Forlán of Uruguay had five goals and one assist in 654 minutes. A further three players scored four goals.
Only 145 goals were scored at South Africa 2010, the lowest of any FIFA World Cup since the tournament switched to a 64-game format. This continued a downward trend since the first 64-game finals were held 12 years earlier, with 171 goals at France 1998, 161 at Korea/Japan 2002 and 147 at Germany 2006.
5 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
=== Discipline ===
28 players were suspended after being shown two consecutive yellow cards (13 players), a single red card (8 players), or a yellow card followed by a red card (7 players).
=== Final standings ===
Shortly after the final, FIFA issued a final ranking of every team in the tournament. The ranking was based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. All 32 teams are ranked based on criteria which have been used by FIFA. The final ranking was as follows:
== Awards ==
=== Main awards ===
Golden Boot: Thomas Müller
Golden Glove: Iker Casillas
Best Young Player: Thomas Müller
FIFA Fair Play Trophy: Spain
=== All-Star Team ===
FIFA released an All-Star Team based on the Castrol performance index in its official website.
=== Dream Team ===
For the first time, FIFA published a Dream Team decided by an online public vote. People were invited to select a team (in a 4–4–2 formation) and best coach; voting was open until 23:59 on 11 July 2010, with entrants going into a draw to win a prize.
Six of the eleven players came from the Spanish team, as did the coach. The remainder of the team comprised two players from Germany, and one each from Brazil, the Netherlands and Uruguay.
== Marketing ==
=== Sponsorship ===
The sponsors of the 2010 World Cup are divided into three categories: FIFA Partners, FIFA World Cup Sponsors and National Supporters.
=== Vuvuzelas ===
The 2010 finals amplified international public awareness of the vuvuzela, a long horn blown by fans throughout matches. Many World Cup competitors complained about the noise caused by the vuvuzela horns, including France's Patrice Evra, who blamed the horns for the team's poor performance. Other critics include Lionel Messi, who complained that the sound of the vuvuzelas hampered communication among players on the pitch, and broadcasting companies, which complained that commentators' voices were drowned out by the sound.
Others watching on television complained that the ambient audio feed from the stadium contained only the sounds of the vuvuzelas with the usual sounds of people in the stands drowned out. A spokesperson for ESPN and other networks said that they were taking steps to minimise the ambient noise on their broadcasts. The BBC also investigated the possibility of offering broadcasts without vuvuzela noise.
== Symbols ==
=== Mascot ===
The official mascot for the 2010 World Cup was Zakumi, an anthropomorphised African leopard with green hair, presented on 22 September 2008. His name came from "ZA" (the international abbreviation for South Africa) and the term kumi, which means "ten" in various African languages. The mascot's colours reflected those of the host nation's playing strip – yellow and green.
=== Match ball ===
The match ball for the 2010 World Cup, manufactured by Adidas, was named the Jabulani, which means "bringing joy to everyone" in Zulu. It was the 11th World Cup match ball made by the German sports equipment maker; it featured 11 colours, representing each player of a team on the pitch and the 11 official languages of South Africa. A special match ball with gold panels, called the Jo'bulani, was used at the final in Johannesburg.
The ball was constructed using a new design, consisting of eight thermally bonded, three-dimensional panels. These were spherically moulded from ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) and thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU). The surface of the ball was textured with grooves, a technology developed by Adidas called GripnGroove that was intended to improve the ball's aerodynamics. The design received considerable academic input, being developed in partnership with researchers from Loughborough University, United Kingdom. The balls were made in China, using latex bladders made in India, thermoplastic polyurethane-elastomer from Taiwan, ethylene vinyl acetate, isotropic polyester/cotton fabric, and glue and ink from China.
Some football stars complained about the new ball, arguing that its movements were difficult to predict. Brazilian goalkeeper Júlio César compared it to a "supermarket" ball that favored strikers and worked against goalkeepers. Argentinian coach Diego Maradona said: "We won't see any long passes in this World Cup because the ball doesn't fly straight." However, a number of Adidas-sponsored players responded favourably to the ball.
=== Music ===
The official song of the 2010 World Cup "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)", was performed by the Colombian singer Shakira and the band Freshlyground from South Africa, and is sung in both English and Spanish. The song is based on a traditional African soldiers' song, "Zangalewa". Shakira and Freshlyground performed the song at the pre-tournament concert in Soweto on 10 June. It was also sung at the opening ceremony on 11 June and at the closing ceremony on 11 July.
The official mascot song of the 2010 World Cup was "Game On".
The official anthem of the 2010 World Cup was "Sign of a Victory" by R. Kelly with the Soweto Spiritual Singers, which was also performed at the opening ceremony.
== Event effects ==
=== Social ===
Tournament organiser Danny Jordaan dismissed concerns that the attack on the Togo national team which took place in Angola in January 2010 had any relevance to the security arrangements for the World Cup. There were also reports of thefts against visitors to the country for the World Cup. Tourists from China, Portugal, Spain, South Korea, Japan and Colombia had become victims of crime. On 19 June after the match between England and Algeria, a fan was able to break through the FIFA-appointed security staff at Green Point stadium and gain access to the England team dressing room. The breach took place shortly after Prince William and Prince Harry had left the room. The trespasser was then released before he could be handed over to the Police. The Football Association lodged a formal complaint with FIFA and demanded that security be increased.
==== Resettlement and eviction ====
As with many "hallmark events" throughout the world, the 2010 FIFA World Cup has been connected to evictions, which many claim are meant to 'beautify the city', impress visiting tourists, and hide shackdwellers. On 14 May 2009, the Durban-based shack-dwellers' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo took the KwaZulu-Natal government to court over their controversial Elimination and Prevention of Re-Emergence of Slums Act, meant to eliminate slums in South Africa and put homeless shackdwellers in transit camps in time for the 2010 World Cup.
Another prominent controversy surrounding preparations for the World Cup was the N2 Gateway housing project in Cape Town, which planned to remove over 20,000 residents from the Joe Slovo Informal Settlement along the busy N2 Freeway and build rental flats and bond-houses in its place in time for the 2010 World Cup. NGOs, international human rights organisations, and the Anti-Eviction Campaign have publicly criticised the conditions in Blikkiesdorp and said that the camp has been used to accommodate poor families evicted to make way for the 2010 World Cup.
However some have argued that evictions are ordinarily common in South Africa and that in the lead up to the tournament many evictions were erroneously ascribed to the World Cup.
=== Economy ===
Some groups experienced complications in regards to scheduled sporting events, advertising, or broadcasting, as FIFA attempted to maximise control of media rights during the Cup. Affected parties included an international rugby union Test match, a South African airline and some TV networks, all of whom were involved in various legal struggles with World Cup organisers.
During the tournament, group ticket-holders who did not utilise all their allotted tickets led to some early-round matches having as many as 11,000 unoccupied seats.
While the event did help to boost the image of South Africa, it turned out to be a major financial disappointment. Construction costs for venues and infrastructure amounted to £3 billion (€3.6 billion), and the government expected that increased tourism would help to offset these costs to the amount of £570 million (€680 million). However, only £323 million (€385 million) were actually taken in as 309,000 foreign fans came to South Africa, well below the expected number of 450,000.
Local vendors were prohibited from selling food and merchandise within a 1.5 kilometre radius of any stadium hosting a World Cup match. For a vendor to operate within the radius, a registration fee of R60,000 (approximately US$7,888 or €6,200) had to be paid to FIFA. This fee was out of most local vendors' reach, as they are simple one-man-operated vendors. This prevented international visitors from experiencing local South African food. Some local vendors felt cheated out of an opportunity for financial gain and spreading South African culture in favour of multinational corporations.
FIFA president Sepp Blatter declared the event "a huge financial success for everybody, for Africa, for South Africa and for FIFA," with revenue to FIFA of £2.24 billion (€2 billion).
=== Quality ===
In a December 2010 Quality Progress, FIFA President Blatter rated South Africa's organisational efforts a nine out of 10 scale, declaring that South Africa could be considered a plan B for all future competitions. The South African Quality Institute (SAQI) assisted in facility construction, event promotion, and organisations. The main issue listed in the article was lack of sufficient public transportation.
== Media ==
=== Broadcasting ===
The 2010 FIFA World Cup was expected to be the most-watched television event in history. Hundreds of broadcasters, representing about 70 countries, transmitted the Cup to a TV audience that FIFA officials expect to exceed a cumulative 26 billion people, an average of approximately 400 million viewers per match. FIFA estimated that around 700 million viewers would watch the World Cup final.
New forms of digital media have also allowed viewers to watch coverage through alternative means. "With games airing live on cell phones and computers, the World Cup will get more online coverage than any major sporting event yet," said Jake Coyle of the Associated Press.
In the United States, ABC, ESPN, and ESPN2 averaged a 2.1 rating, 2,288,000 households and 3,261,000 viewers for the 64 World Cup games. The rating was up 31 percent from a 1.6 in 2006, while households increased 32 percent from 1,735,000 and viewers rose from 2,316,000. The increases had been higher while the US remained in the tournament. Through the first 50 games, the rating was up 48 percent, households increased 54 percent and viewers rose 60 percent. Univision averaged 2,624,000 viewers for the tournament, up 17 percent, and 1,625,000 households, an increase of 11 percent. An executive of the Nielsen Company, a leading audience research firm in the US, described the aggregate numbers for both networks' coverage of the match between the United States and Ghana as "phenomenal". Live World Cup streaming on ESPN3.com pulled in some of the largest audiences in history, as 7.4 million unique viewers tuned in for matches. In total, ESPN3.com generated 942 million minutes of viewing or more than two hours per unique viewer. All 64 live matches were viewed by an average of 114,000 persons per minute. Most impressive were the numbers for the semi-final between Spain and Germany, which was viewed by 355,000 people per minute, making it ESPN3.com's largest average audience ever.
=== Filming ===
Sony technology was used to film the tournament. 25 of the matches were captured using 3D cameras. Footage was captured in 3D through Sony's proprietary multi-image MPE-200 processors, housed in specially designed 3D outside broadcast trucks. It supplied its flagship HDC-1500 cameras as well as its new HDC-P1 unit, a compact, point-of-view (POV)-type camera with 3, 2/3-inch CCD sensors. The 3D games were produced for FIFA by Host Broadcast Services.
=== Video games ===
In PlayStation Home, Sony released a virtual space based on the 2010 FIFA World Cup in the Japanese version of Home on 3 December 2009. This virtual space is called the "FevaArena" and is a virtual stadium of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, featuring different areas for events, a FIFA mini-game, and a shop with FIFA related content.
On 27 April 2010, EA Sports released the official 2010 World Cup video game.
=== FIFA Fan Fest ===
FIFA expanded the FIFA Fan Fest, hosting in Sydney, Buenos Aires, Berlin, Paris, Rome, Rio de Janeiro, and Mexico City, as well as several venues around South Africa. The Durban Fan Fest was the most popular in South Africa during the tournament followed by the Cape Town Fan Fest.
== See also ==
2010 Kampala bombings, a series of terrorist bombings in Kampala, Uganda, timed to coincide with the final match
Listen Up! The Official 2010 FIFA World Cup Album
Paul the Octopus and Mani the parakeet, animals who predicted results of the matches
Waka Waka (This Time for Africa), the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup
== References ==
== External links ==
2010 FIFA World Cup Official Site (Archived)
2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa , FIFA.com
The official 2010 host country website
Official Technical Report
RSSSF Archive of finals |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria_Niemeyer_Francke#:~:text=Francke%20became%20the%20first%20executive,Pharmacy%20from%201944%20to%201964. | Gloria Niemeyer Francke | Gloria Niemeyer Francke (April 28, 1922 – August 3, 2008) was an American pharmacist. She became assistant director of the American Pharmacists Association (APhA) Division of Hospital Pharmacy (1946–1956); executive secretary of the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists (1949–1960); and research associate for the Audit of Pharmaceutical Service in Hospitals (1956–1964).
A native of Dillsboro, Indiana, Gloria Niemeyer earned her B.S. degree in Pharmacy from Purdue University in 1942 and her Pharm.D in 1971 from the University of Cincinnati.
She then served as a drug literature specialist at the National Library of Medicine (1965–1967); as a clinical pharmacy teaching coordinator for the Veterans Administration Hospital in Cincinnati (1967–1971); as secretary of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (1968–1978); and as Chief of the program evaluation branch in the Alcohol and Drug Dependence Service, Veterans Administration (1971–1975).
She rejoined the APhA staff (1975–1985) and was elected Honorary President in 1986 and received the Remington Honor Medal in 1987.
She served as a member of the APhA Foundation Advisory Committee. The society's Gloria Niemeyer Francke Leadership Mentor Award is named for her.
Francke became the first executive secretary of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists [ASHP] in 1949 and was Associate Editor of the American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy from 1944 to 1964.
In 1995, Francke was awarded the Donald Francke Medal by the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists for "significant international contributions to advance pharmacy practice."
== Journalism and publications ==
Francke's journalistic achievements include:
Assistant editor of the Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 1946–1947
Associate editor of the American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 1944–1964
Co-author of Mirror to Hospital Pharmacy (1964) and Perspectives in Clinical Pharmacy (1972)
== Marriage ==
She was married to Donald E. Francke, who founded Drug Intelligence (now Annals of Pharmacotherapy). Following his death in 1978, she became the owner of Drug Intelligence Publications.
== References ==
== External links ==
Biodata |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamia_Millia_Islamia#:~:text=Islamia%20metro%20station.-,Founders,of%20the%20Indian%20independence%20movement. | Jamia Millia Islamia | Jamia Millia Islamia is a public and research university located in Delhi, India. Originally established at Aligarh, United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India) during the British Raj in 1920, it moved to its current location in New Delhi, Okhla in 1935. It was given the deemed status by the University Grants Commission in 1962. Jamia Millia Islamia became a central university by an act of the Indian parliament which was passed on 26 December 1988.
The university was founded by Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Mahmud Hasan Deobandi, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Abdul Majeed Khwaja, Zakir Hussain, Mahatma Gandhi and Maulana Azad. Its foundation stone was laid by Mahmud Hasan Deobandi, the leader of Silk Letter Movement and the first student of Darul Uloom Deoband along with his fellow Mohammed Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, and Abdul Majid Khwaja.
Jauhar served as its first vice-chancellor from 1920 to 1923, and Khan served as the first chancellor from 1920 to 1927. On 26 May 2017, Najma Heptulla became 11th and the first woman Chancellor of the university, and Najma Akhtar became the first woman to hold the post of Vice Chancellor in April 2019 and served until 12 November 2023. On 13 March 2023, Mufaddal Saifuddin was elected the 12th Chancellor of the university.
In 2020, Jamia Millia Islamia was ranked 1st among all central universities in the country in rankings released by Ministry of Education of India. In December 2021, the university received an 'A++' ranking by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC).
== History ==
Jamia Millia Islamia was established in Aligarh on 29 October 1920 by nationalist leaders and students of Aligarh Muslim University.
Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, and Abdul Majeed Khwaja were its founding members. It was established in response to demands by a group of students and teachers from the Aligarh Muslim University for a new National Muslim University which would be free from government influence as they perceived the administration of Aligarh Muslim University to be pro-British.
=== Foundation ===
The founding members included Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari. The foundation stone of the university was laid by Mahmud Hasan Deobandi, an Islamic scholar and activist of the Indian independence movement who was invited to Aligarh to preside over the ceremony. His speech was prepared and read aloud by his student Shabbir Ahmad Usmani. Its subsequent makers included Abdul Majeed Khwaja, Abid Hussain, Mohammad Mujeeb and Zakir Hussain.
The foundation committee of Jamia included Kifayatullah Dehlawi, Hussain Ahmad Madani, Syed Sulaiman Nadwi, Abdul Haq, Abdul Bari Firangi Mahali, Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, Sanaullah Amritsari, Syed Mahmud, and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
It was conceived as a national institution that would offer progressive education and an emphasis on Indian nationalism to students from all communities, particularly Muslims. Hussain described “the movement of Jamia Millia Islamia as a struggle for education and cultural renaissance that aims to prepare a blueprint for Indian Muslims which may focus on Islam but simultaneously evolve a national culture for common Indian.” The emergence of Jamia was supported by Mahatma Gandhi, who felt that Jamia Millia Islamia could shape lives of students on the basis of a shared culture and worldview, so Gandhi sent his youngest son Devdas Gandhi to teach Hindi in Jamia.
In 1925, Jamia Millia Islamia moved from Aligarh to Karol Bagh, New Delhi. On 1 March 1935, the foundation stone for a school building was laid at Okhla, then a nondescript village in the southern outskirts of Delhi. In 1936, all institutions of Jamia Millia Islamia except Jamia Press, the Maktaba, and the library moved to the new campus.
The University Grants Commission gave Jamia Millia Islamia the deemed status in 1962. Subsequently, on 26 December 1988, it attained the status of a central university through an act of the Indian parliament.
In 2006, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia paid a visit to the university and donated ₹130 crore(US$30 million) for the construction of a library and a research center.
=== 2019 Jamia Millia Islamia attack ===
In 2019, the university emerged as a center of the Citizenship Amendment Act protests after the act was passed by the Parliament. On 13 December 2019, Delhi Police tried to forcefully dismiss the protest of students and threw tear gas inside the campus on students to control their agitation. On 15 December 2019, police entered the campus on the pretext of trying to catch the mob that destroyed public peace outside the university campus. Many students sustained injuries because of the police brutality and it sparked protests in several other universities.
== Campus ==
The campus is distributed over a large area in the Okhla area of Delhi. The university's cricket ground, Nawab Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi Sports Complex, has hosted tournaments and Indian women's cricket matches. This ground also hosted the University Cricket Championship in 2013. Jamia has centers of learning and research, including the Anwar Jamal Kidwai Mass Communication Research Centre (MCRC), Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Faculty of Fine Arts, Centre for Theoretical Physics and the Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar Academy of International Studies. Jamia Millia Islamia joined the green campaign and installed 2,250-kilowatt solar panels on the campus. To commemorate 100 years of existence, the existing Gate No. 13 of the university was remodelled and named Centenary Gate, which was inaugurated on university's 103rd foundation day.
Former Vice-Chancellor, Najma Akhtar, at centenary convocation on 23 July 2023 announced that the university has obtained approval from the Central government to establish a medical college.
=== Sports ===
Jamia won its first gold and silver medal in wrestling in 1977 at the All India Inter University Championship.
Ranji Trophy and Vijaya Trophy matches are an annual event at the Nawab Mansur Ali Khan Pataudi Sports Complex. In the past, Jamia has hosted Women's Cricket Test matches, Women's World Cup matches and Blind's Cricket World Cup matches. The facilities were used as practice ground for Commonwealth Games as well.
The ground within its periphery also consists of a central indoor games stadium. The sports complex has facilities for: Cricket, Football, Lawn Tennis Court, Volleyball Court, Badminton, Basketball, Jogging Track, Athletics, Table Tennis, Yoga, Snooker Room and Hockey. The Complex is equipped with gymnasium and sports equipment.
=== Library ===
The University Library System, consisting of a centralized and departmental libraries and archives, has over 600,000 and approximately 143,000 subject-specific books, Urdu book collections; 5000 rare books; and 2230 rare manuscripts. The library subscribes to open access to videos; e-resources; eBooks; e-journals; other academic materials; databases; MOOCs courses. The Digital Resource Centre has 100 workstations as a gateway for online resources and 200 computers for students. The library is open to all students of Jamia Millia Islamia. Besides this, there are subject collection in libraries of some faculties and centres.
=== Health facilities ===
The university provides free medical facilities for students, teaching and non-teaching staff through Ansari Healthcare Centre, Faculty of Dentistry, Centre for Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Services and Unani Pharmacy.
=== Mosques ===
The campus contains the Central Mosque which is located opposite to the central library and has a capacity of over 1000 people. This mosque is situated on Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar Marg, Delhi.
== Organisation and administration ==
=== Governance ===
The governing officials of the university include the Amir-i-Jamia (chancellor), the Shaikh-ul-Jamia (vice-chancellor), the Naib Shaikh-ul-Jamia (Pro-Vice-Chancellor) and the Musajjil (Registrar). The President of India is the Visitor of the university. The Anjuman or University Court is the supreme authority of the university and has the power to review the acts of the Majlis-i-Muntazimah (Executive Council) the Majlis-i-Talimi (Academic Council) and the Majlis-i-Maliyat (Finance Committee). The Executive Council is the highest executive body of the university. The Academic Council is the highest academic body of the university and is responsible for the maintenance of standards of instruction, education and examination within the university.
In 2017, Najma Heptulla was appointed as the Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia. In 2019, Najma Akhtar was appointed as the first woman vice-chancellor and served till 12 November 2023. In 2023, Syedna Mufaddal Saifuddin succeeded Najma Heptulla and was appointed as the Chancellor. In 2024, Jawaharlal Nehru University professor Mazhar Asif was appointed as the Vice Chancellor of the university.
=== Faculties ===
Jamia Millia Islamia has eleven faculties under which it offers academic and extension programs.
==== Faculty of Law ====
Established in 1989, the Faculty of Law offered only the three-year LL.B. course until the early 2000s, but started additionally offering the integrated 5 Years B.A. LL.B(Hons.) course for UG students from the academic year 2002–2003. The faculty offers apart from a five-year integrated B.A. LL.B (Hons.) programme, a two-year post-graduate programme (LLM) in three specialised streams (personal law, corporate law and criminal law) and a Ph.D. programme. It also offers two-year Executive LL.M programme for working professionals. JMI offers two Post Graduate Diploma Programmes are PG Diploma in Air Space Law and PG Diploma in Labour Law. The faculty secured the 6th rank among law schools in India as per NIRF Ranking 2024.
==== Faculty of Engineering and Technology ====
The Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET) was established in 1985. It has several departments offering programmes in PhD, M.Tech., M.Sc., B.Tech. and B.Sc. including Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computer Engineering, Aeronautics, Applied Sciences & Humanities and Environmental Science. They also provide specialization courses for master's degrees such as Artificial Intelligence, Data Sciences, VLSI Design and Technology, Solid State Technology, Environmental Science and Engineering, Earthquake Engineering, Machine Design, Thermal Engineering, Production and Industrial Engineering, Electrical Power Management System, Control & Instrumental System, Electronics, Energy Science and Management, Energy Science and Technology, Environmental Health Risk and Safety Management. In the Times Higher Education Subject Ranking-2024, JMI ranked 401–500 in Engineering and Technology. Within India its rank is 11 among all higher education institutions while among universities it is 2nd position. JMI was placed at 501–600 in computer science, while among Indian Institutions it has been ranked at 16th position and at 7th among Indian universities.
==== Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics ====
Jamia Millia Islamia is the only Central university with a Faculty of Architecture & Ekistics. The architecture program was started in 2001–2002. This Faculty has three departments- Department of Architecture, Department of Planning and Department of Design and Innovation. This faculty which offers two- bachelor degree courses in Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch) and Bachelor of Design (B.Des), Nine Masters courses, one PG Diploma and PhD. The courses include undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral studies in subjects such as Architecture, Architecture Pedagogy, Healthcare Architecture, Building Services, Recreational Architecture, Urban Regeneration, Ekistics, Master of Planning (M.Plan) and Master of Design (M.Des). P.G. Diploma in Fire Safety, Lifts and Plumbing Services
==== Faculty of Humanities and Languages ====
This Faculty has nine departments offering programmes in PhD, M Phil (pre-PhD), Postgraduate, Undergraduate, Diploma and Certificate courses.
The faculty has departments for Bachelors, Masters and PhD including Arabic, English, Hindi, History and Culture, Islamic Studies, Persian, Iranology, Urdu, Sanskrit and Foreign Languages such as Korean, Japanese, Turkish, German, French and Spanish & Latin American. Sanskrit Department also offers two certificate programmes are Sanskrit and Yoga. Foreign Language Department also offers Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma courses in Pashto, Persian, French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Portuguese, Turkish, Chinese, Korean and Uzbek. Islamic Studies has been a subject at Jamia Millia Islamia since its inception. It was instituted as a separate department in 1988. The department has been headed by Zayn al-Abidin Sajjad Meerthi. The department publishes an annual magazine, Sada e Jauhar.
==== Faculty of Fine Arts ====
This Faculty has six departments offering programmes in PhD, Master of Fine Arts (MFA), Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), diploma and certificate courses. The subjects taught include Painting, Sculpture, Applied Arts, Art Education, Graphic Art, Art History & Art Appreciation, Curatorial Practices, Art Management and Conceptual Art Practice. Certificate programmes are Design and Innovation, Textile Design, Creative Photography, Calligraphy, Art Appreciation & Art Writing, Art & Aesthetics, and Graphic Art (Print Making) The campus has an art gallery named after the Indian painter M. F. Hussain.
==== Faculty of Social Sciences ====
The Faculty of Social Sciences consists of nine departments. These include the departments for Social Sciences, Psychology, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Social Work, Adult Continuing Education and Extension, Commerce and Business Studies, Library and Information Science.
The Faculty of Social Sciences is based around Gulistan-e-Ghalib and is commonly referred to as the Main Campus.
==== Faculty of Sciences ====
The Faculty of Sciences consists of five departments, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Geography and Computer Science. In addition, there are three associated centres namely FTK- Centre for Information Technology, Centre for Theoretical Physics and Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.
==== Faculty of Life Sciences ====
The faculty of Life Sciences, based in Srinivasa Ramanujan Block at Mujeeb Bagh Campus, consists of two departments, Biosciences and Biotechnology, which offers courses in Ph.D., postgraduate, undergraduate and diploma in Unani Pharmacy and Ph.D. Unani Medicine.
==== Faculty of Education ====
The Teachers’ Training Institute was established in 1938 under the inspiring leadership of Hussain for the purpose of training teachers for Basic Schools according to the scheme of Basic Education. Later, it was renamed as Teachers’ College. The college initiated Teacher Education Programme for Art and Craft Teachers and in Art Education. The Faculty of Education, through its two departments namely Educational Studies and Institute of Advanced Studies in Education, formerly known as the department of Teacher Training and Non-Formal Education runs 12 different programmes including B.Ed., M.Ed., M.A. The Faculty also offers diploma, M.Phil. and Doctoral programme in Education.
==== Faculty of Dentistry ====
This faculty offers B. D. S. programs.
==== Faculty of Management Studies ====
The faculty consists of three departments for Management Studies, Hospital Management & Hospice Studies, and Tourism & Hospitality Management.
=== Centers ===
==== AJK Mass Communication Research Center ====
The Mass Communication Research Centre was established in 1982 by Anwar Jamal Kidwai, then vice-chancellor (later chancellor) of Jamia Millia Islamia. The centers offers postgraduate courses in Mass Communication. The FTK-Centre for Information Technology provides internet facility for the faculty members, staff, research scholars, and students.
The centre offers courses including Master of Arts courses in Mass Communication, Convergent Journalism, Development Communication, Visual Effect and Animation as well as postgraduate diplomas in, Still Photography and Visual Communication, Acting and Broadcast Technology.
==== Centre for Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Sciences ====
The centre offers courses including, (B.P.T) Bachelor of Physiotherapy, M.P.T. (Sports), M.P.T. (Orthopaedics), M.P.T. (Neurology), M.P.T. (Cardiopulmonary) and the doctorate in philosophy.
==== Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology ====
The centre aims to promote research in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology, with potential applications towards fulfilling national strategic needs. The main research focus of the centre includes nano-fabrication and nano-device, nano-materials and nano-structures, nano-biotechnology and nano-medicine, nano-structure characterization and measurements. Its offers PhD and M.Tech. (Nanotechnology) courses.
==== Centre for Spanish and Latin American Studies ====
The centre offers part-time Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma courses in five languages: French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Russian. It also offers M.Phil/PhD in European Studies and Latin American Studies.
==== MMAJ Academy of International Studies ====
Formerly Academy of Third World Studies, MMAJ Academy of International Studies was established in 1988 under the initiative of then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to conduct inter-disciplinary research on social, political and economic issues pertaining to the developing countries. Subsequently, it was renamed after one of the co-founders of Jamia Millia Islamia, Maulana Mohamad Ali Jauhar.
The academy offers M.Phil. and Ph.D. programmes in International Studies, postgraduate courses (Politics: International and Area Studies) and language courses in Uzbek and Chinese. It also has its own library and documentation centre, named after Abid Husain.
=== Other centers ===
Jamia's other academic and non-academic centers include Dr. Zakir Husain Institute of Islamic Studies, Centre for Distance and Open Learning, Nelson Mandela Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution, Multidisciplinary Centre for Advance Research and Studies (MCARS), Centre for Theoretical Physics, FTK-Centre For Information Technology, Centre for Jawaharlal Nehru Studies, Centre for Comparative Religions and Civilizations, Centre for West Asian Studies, Dr. K.R. Narayanan Centre for Dalit and Minorities Studies, Academy of Professional Development of Urdu Medium Teachers, Centre for North East Studies and Policy Research, India – Arab Cultural Centre, Centre for Culture Media & Governance, Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, UGC-Human Resource Development Centre, Centre for Coaching and Career Planning, Jamia's Premchand Archives & Literary Centre, Deen Dayal Upadhyay Kaushal Kendra, Sarojini Naidu Centre for Women's Studies, University Counseling & Guidance Centre, Centre for Early Childhood Development and Research and Centre for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (CIE).
=== Schools ===
Jamia Millia Islamia also imparts education from nursery to senior secondary level. Its schools include:
Balak Mata Centre
Gerda Philipsborn Day Care Centre
Mushir Fatma Jamia Nursery School
Jamia Middle School
Jamia Senior Secondary School
Jamia Girls Senior Secondary School
Syed Abid Husain Senior Secondary School
== Rankings ==
Internationally, Jamia Millia Islamia was ranked 851–900 in the QS World University Rankings of 2025 and 206 in Asia in 2024. It was ranked 501–600 in the world by the London-based Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2024, 148 in Asia in 2024 and 172 among emerging economies in 2022. In 2024, Jamia Millia Islamia was ranked 256 out of 1169 universities worldwide in the Moscow-based Round University Ranking. According to U.S. News & World Report 2024-2025, Jamia Millia Islamia is ranked 718 in Best Global Universities and 205 in Asia and 8 in India.
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI) was ranked 13th in India overall by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2024, 6th in law ranking, 7th in architecture ranking, 8th in the dental ranking, 24th in the engineering ranking, 19th in research institutes and 25th in the management ranking.
JMI was ranked third among universities in the country by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2024.
== Cultural Festival ==
Jamia Millia Islamia organizes various cultural festivals including the annual festival. The university organises Talimi Mela on its Foundation Day of 29 to 30 October every year.
Jamia has also the legacy of celebrating national cultural festival called MiRAAS. It was initiated by Dean Students of Welfare where various cultural and competitive events were organised by the students. It was not being organised after 2017.
== Alumni ==
Since its inception, Jamia Millia Islamia has produced alumni across various disciplines, including, Shah Rukh Khan, Kabir Khan, Mouni Roy, Arfa Khanum Sherwani, Barkha Dutt, Anjana Om Kashyap, Ampareen Lyngdoh, Kunwar Danish Ali, Tabish Mehdi, Virendar Sehwag, Imran Raza Ansari, Danish Siddiqui and Mohammad Najeeb Qasmi.
== See also ==
Distance Education Council
Education in Delhi
Education in India
List of universities in India
Universities and colleges in India
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan_Agnew | Clan Agnew | Clan Agnew (Scottish Gaelic: Clann Mac a' Ghnìomhaid) is a Scottish clan from Galloway in the Scottish Lowlands.
== History ==
=== Origins ===
The origin of the name Agnew is disputed, although it is likely to have been Norman, from the Agneaux or Aygnell family in the Barony d'Agneaux. It was said that the Agnews first settled in England and then moved to Ireland c. 1365 becoming the Lords of Larne before coming over to Lochnaw in the mid 14th century. The first record of the Norman name in Scotland is William des Aigneus who is witness to a charter signed in Liddesdale between Randulf de Soules and Jedburgh Abbey c. 1200.
A separate and less likely origin has also been suggested through the Celtic natives of Ulster, the O'Gnimh, who were the hereditary poets or bards of the O'Neills of Clanaboy, and who acquired the anglicized name of Agnew. This origin supports Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh (1631/1691) lawyer and heraldic writer who wrote "Agnew - The Chief is Agnew of Lochnaw, whose predecessors came from Ireland, Rego 2do, being a son of ye Lord Agnews, alias Lord of Larne. There he gott the keeping of the King's castell of Lochnaw, and was made Heritable Constable yrof". Hector McDonnell suggests that the O'Gnimhs and the Agnews descend from Alastair (d.1299), second son of Domhnall (d. 1249), son of Raghnall (d. 1207), son of Somerled, Lord of the Isles (d. 1164). This would give the Agnews a shared origin with the Clan Donald.
=== 15th and 16th centuries ===
Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw was granted the lands and constableship of Lochnaw Castle by Charter dated 10 November 1426 from William Douglas of Leswalt. In 1451 he was appointed Sheriff of Wigtown, an honour still held by his direct descendants.
Patrick Agnew 4th of Lochnaw died shortly after the Battle of Flodden, possibly from wounds. Andrew Agnew 5th of Lochnaw was killed at the Battle of Pinkie in 1547, fighting against the English.
=== 17th century ===
Sir Patrick Agnew was MP for Wigtownshire from 1628 to 1633, and again from 1643 to 1647. On 28 July 1629 he was made a baronet of Nova Scotia. Agnew married Lady Anne Stewart, daughter of the first Earl of Galloway. When he died in 1661, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Andrew, who would also be returned as MP for Wigtownshire. He had been created Sheriff of both Kirkcudbright and Wigtown in the 1650s, while Scotland was part of the Protectorate with England.
=== 18th century ===
Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw 5th Bt married a kinswoman, Eleanor Agnew of Lochryan, with whom he had twenty one children. He was a distinguished soldier commanding the 21st Foot (which later became the Royal Scots Fusiliers) against the French at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743. King George II of Great Britain, the last British monarch to lead troops in battle, remarked to Agnew that French cavalry had been let among his regiment. Sir Andrew replied, "Yes, please your Majesty, but they didna win back again". He became a Lieutenant General and Governor of Tynemouth Castle.
During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the Clan Agnew continued their support of the British Government. Sir Andrew held Blair Castle, seat of the Duke of Atholl, against Jacobite forces. Agnew's forces were near starvation when Charles Edward Stuart called the Jacobite forces to retreat to Inverness to meet the advance of Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. See main article: Siege of Blair Castle.
=== 19th Century ===
Sir Andrew Agnew, 7th Baronet (1793–1849) who married Madeline, daughter of Sir David Carnegie of Pitarrow Bt (later the Earl of Southesk) was an MP for Wigtonshire 1830-37 and a strong promoter of the Sabbath Observance Bills. Sir Andrew Agnew, 8th Baronet married Lady Louisa Noel, daughter of the 1st Earl of Gainsborough. He served in the 93rd Highlanders in Canada and was MP for Wigtonshire.
=== Principal branches ===
The principal branches of the Clan Agnew include:
the Agnews of Croach or Lochryan, descending from William 2nd son of Andrew Agnew 2nd of Lochnaw (now the Wallaces of Lochryan)
the Agnews of Sheuchan descended from Patrick 3rd son of Sir Patrick Agnew of Lochnaw 1st Bt, whose eventual heiress Margaret married John Vaus of Barnbarroch who under a 1757 entail assumed the name Vans-Agnew (now Vans of Barnbarroch)
the Agnews of Kilwaughter, near Larne in Northern Ireland. The precise connection is not known, but the evidence points to the early Agnews of Kilwaughter being kin to the Agnews of Lochnaw
The Agnews of Dalreagle descend from Alexander Agnew a natural son of Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw 3rd Bt, whose great-grandson was Major General Patrick Alexander Agnew 4th of Dalreagle of the Honorable East India Company.
== Tartan ==
the Scottish Register of Tartans list one tartan for Agnew, created in 1976 and also registered with the Lord Lyon in 1978.
== Clan Chief ==
Clan chief: Sir Crispin Agnew of Lochnaw, 11th Baronet (Agnew baronets), King's Counsel and Rothesay Herald, whose heir is Mark Agnew of Lochnaw yr. The genealogy of the chiefly family can be found at the Red Book of Scotland.
== Castles ==
Lochnaw Castle was the seat of the chief of Clan Agnew until it was sold in 1948. It is now in private ownership, but well known for its fishing[1]
Galdenoch Castle, built between 1547 and 1570 still a ruin and part of Galdenoch Farm was the home of the Agnews of Galdenoch who descended from Gilbert 2nd son of Sir Andrew Agnew 5th of Lochnaw who was in possession of Galdenoch in 1574.
== See also ==
Agnew (surname)
== References ==
== External links ==
https://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/atoc/agnew2.html
Clan Agnew on ScotClans.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3) | List of EC numbers (EC 3) | This list contains a list of EC numbers for the third group, EC 3, hydrolases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald.
== EC 3.1: Acting on Ester Bonds ==
=== EC 3.1.1: Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.1.1: carboxylesterase
EC 3.1.1.2: arylesterase
EC 3.1.1.3: triacylglycerol lipase
EC 3.1.1.4: phospholipase A2
EC 3.1.1.5: lysophospholipase
EC 3.1.1.6: acetylesterase
EC 3.1.1.7: acetylcholinesterase
EC 3.1.1.8: cholinesterase
EC 3.1.1.9: deleted, a side reaction of EC 3.1.1.8 cholinesterase
EC 3.1.1.10: tropinesterase
EC 3.1.1.11: pectinesterase
EC 3.1.1.12: deleted, identical with EC 3.1.1.1 carboxylesterase
EC 3.1.1.13: sterol esterase
EC 3.1.1.14: chlorophyllase
EC 3.1.1.15: L-arabinonolactonase
EC 3.1.1.16: deleted, mixture of EC 5.3.3.4 (muconolactone Δ-isomerase) and EC 3.1.1.24 (3-oxoadipate enol-lactonase)
EC 3.1.1.17: gluconolactonase
EC 3.1.1.18: deleted, now included with EC 3.1.1.17 gluconolactonase
EC 3.1.1.19: uronolactonase
EC 3.1.1.20: tannase
EC 3.1.1.21: deleted, now known to be catalysed by EC 3.1.1.1, carboxylesterase and EC 3.1.1.3, triacylglycerol lipase.
EC 3.1.1.22: hydroxybutyrate-dimer hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.23: acylglycerol lipase
EC 3.1.1.24: 3-oxoadipate enol-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.25: 1,4-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.26: galactolipase
EC 3.1.1.27: 4-pyridoxolactonase
EC 3.1.1.28: acylcarnitine hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.29: aminoacyl-tRNA hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.30: D-arabinonolactonase
EC 3.1.1.31: 6-phosphogluconolactonase
EC 3.1.1.32: phospholipase A1
EC 3.1.1.33: 6-acetylglucose deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.34: lipoprotein lipase
EC 3.1.1.35: dihydrocoumarin hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.36: limonin-D-ring-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.37: steroid-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.38: triacetate-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.39: actinomycin lactonase
EC 3.1.1.40: orsellinate-depside hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.41: cephalosporin-C deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.42: chlorogenate hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.43: α-amino-acid esterase
EC 3.1.1.44: 4-methyloxaloacetate esterase
EC 3.1.1.45: carboxymethylenebutenolidase
EC 3.1.1.46: deoxylimonate A-ring-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.47: 1-alkyl-2-acetylglycerophosphocholine esterase
EC 3.1.1.48: fusarinine-C ornithinesterase
EC 3.1.1.49: sinapine esterase
EC 3.1.1.50: wax-ester hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.51: phorbol-diester hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.52: phosphatidylinositol deacylase
EC 3.1.1.53: sialate O-acetylesterase
EC 3.1.1.54: acetoxybutynylbithiophene deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.55: acetylsalicylate deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.56: methylumbelliferyl-acetate deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.57: 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylate lactonase
EC 3.1.1.58: N-acetylgalactosaminoglycan deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.59: juvenile-hormone esterase
EC 3.1.1.60: bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate esterase
EC 3.1.1.61: protein-glutamate methylesterase
EC 3.1.1.62: Now listed as EC 3.5.1.47, N-acetyldiaminopimelate deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.63: 11-cis-retinyl-palmitate hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.64: retinoid isomerohydrolase
EC 3.1.1.65: L-rhamnono-1,4-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.66: 5-(3,4-diacetoxybut-1-ynyl)-2,2′-bithiophene deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.67: fatty-acyl-ethyl-ester synthase
EC 3.1.1.68: xylono-1,4-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.69: Now EC 3.5.1.89, N-acetylglucosaminylphosphatidylinositol deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.70: cetraxate benzylesterase
EC 3.1.1.71: acetylalkylglycerol acetylhydrolase
EC 3.1.1.72: acetylxylan esterase
EC 3.1.1.73: feruloyl esterase
EC 3.1.1.74: cutinase
EC 3.1.1.75: poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase
EC 3.1.1.76: poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) depolymerase
EC 3.1.1.77: acyloxyacyl hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.78: polyneuridine-aldehyde esterase
EC 3.1.1.79: hormone-sensitive lipase
EC 3.1.1.80: acetylajmaline esterase
EC 3.1.1.81: quorum-quenching N-acyl-homoserine lactonase
EC 3.1.1.82: pheophorbidase
EC 3.1.1.83: monoterpene ε-lactone hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.84: cocaine esterase
EC 3.1.1.85: pimelyl-(acyl-carrier protein) methyl ester esterase
EC 3.1.1.86: rhamnogalacturonan acetylesterase
EC 3.1.1.87: fumonisin B1 esterase
EC 3.1.1.88: pyrethroid hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.89: protein phosphatase methylesterase-1
EC 3.1.1.90: all-trans-retinyl ester 13-cis isomerohydrolase
EC 3.1.1.91: 2-oxo-3-(5-oxofuran-2-ylidene)propanoate lactonase
EC 3.1.1.92: 4-sulfomuconolactone hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.93: mycophenolic acid acyl-glucuronide esterase
EC 3.1.1.94: versiconal hemiacetal acetate esterase
EC 3.1.1.95: aclacinomycin methylesterase
EC 3.1.1.96: D-aminoacyl-tRNA deacylase
EC 3.1.1.97: methylated diphthine methylhydrolase
EC 3.1.1.98: [Wnt protein] O-palmitoleoyl-L-serine hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.99: 6-deoxy-6-sulfogluconolactonase
EC 3.1.1.100: chlorophyllide a hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.101: poly(ethylene terephthalate) hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.102: mono(ethylene terephthalate) hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.103: teichoic acid D-alanine hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.104: 5-phospho-D-xylono-1,4-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.105: 3-O-acetylpapaveroxine carboxylesterase
EC 3.1.1.106: O-acetyl-ADP-ribose deacetylase
EC 3.1.1.107: apo-salmochelin esterase
EC 3.1.1.108: iron(III)-enterobactin esterase
EC 3.1.1.109: iron(III)-salmochelin esterase
EC 3.1.1.110: xylono-1,5-lactonase
EC 3.1.1.111: phosphatidylserine sn-1 acylhydrolase
EC 3.1.1.112: isoamyl acetate esterase
EC 3.1.1.113: ethyl acetate hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.114: methyl acetate hydrolase
EC 3.1.1.115: D-apionolactonase
EC 3.1.1.116: sn-1-specific diacylglycerol lipase
EC 3.1.1.117: (4-O-methyl)-D-glucuronate—lignin esterase
EC 3.1.1.118: phospholipid sn-1 acylhydrolase
=== EC 3.1.2: Thioester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.2.1: acetyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.2: palmitoyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.3: succinyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.4: 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.5: hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.6: hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.7: glutathione thiolesterase
EC 3.1.2.8: Now included with EC 3.1.2.6 hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.9: S-acetoacetylhydrolipoate hydrolase deleted
EC 3.1.2.10: formyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.11: acetoacetyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.12: S-formylglutathione hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.13: S-succinylglutathione hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.14: oleoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.15: covered by EC 3.4.19.12, ubiquitinyl hydrolase 1
EC 3.1.2.16: citrate lyase deacetylase
EC 3.1.2.17: (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.18: ADP-dependent short-chain-acyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.19: ADP-dependent medium-chain-acyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.20: acyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.21: dodecanoyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.22: palmitoyl[protein] hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.23: 4-hydroxybenzoyl-CoA thioesterase
EC 3.1.2.24: transferred entry now EC 3.13.1.3, 2′-hydroxybiphenyl-2-sulfinate desulfinase.
EC 3.1.2.25: phenylacetyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.26: Now EC 2.8.3.25, bile acid CoA transferase
EC 3.1.2.27: choloyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.28: 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoyl-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.1.2.29: fluoroacetyl-CoA thioesterase
EC 3.1.2.30: (3S)-malyl-CoA thioesterase
EC 3.1.2.31: dihydromonacolin L-[lovastatin nonaketide synthase] thioesterase
EC 3.1.2.32: 2-aminobenzoylacetyl-CoA thioesterase
=== EC 3.1.3: Phosphoric Monoester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.3.1: alkaline phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.2: acid phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.3: phosphoserine phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.4: phosphatidate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.5: 5′-nucleotidase
EC 3.1.3.6: 3′-nucleotidase
EC 3.1.3.7: 3′(2′),5′-bisphosphate nucleotidase
EC 3.1.3.8: 3-phytase
EC 3.1.3.9: glucose-6-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.10: glucose-1-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.11: fructose-bisphosphatase
EC 3.1.3.12: trehalose-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.13: [[Recent studies have shown that this is a partial activity of ((EnzExplorer|5.4.2.11)), phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent)|Recent studies have shown that this is a partial activity of EC 5.4.2.11, phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent)]]
EC 3.1.3.14: methylphosphothioglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.15: histidinol-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.16: protein serine/threonine phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.17: (phosphorylase) phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.18: phosphoglycolate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.19: glycerol-2-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.20: phosphoglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.21: glycerol-1-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.22: mannitol-1-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.23: sugar-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.24: sucrose-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.25: inositol-phosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.26: 4-phytase
EC 3.1.3.27: phosphatidylglycerophosphatase
EC 3.1.3.28: ADP-phosphoglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.29: N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.30: The activity may be that of an acid phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.31: The activity may be that of an acid phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.32: polynucleotide 3′-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.33: polynucleotide 5′-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.34: deoxynucleotide 3′-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.35: thymidylate 5′-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.36: phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.37: sedoheptulose-bisphosphatase
EC 3.1.3.38: 3-phosphoglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.39: streptomycin-6-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.40: guanidinodeoxy-scyllo-inositol-4-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.41: 4-nitrophenylphosphatase
EC 3.1.3.42: glycogen-synthase-D] phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.43: [pyruvate dehydrogenase (acetyl-transferring)]-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.44: [acetyl-CoA carboxylase]-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.45: 3-deoxy-manno-octulosonate-8-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.46: fructose-2,6-bisphosphate 2-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.47: [hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (NADPH)]-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.48: protein-tyrosine-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.49: [pyruvate kinase]-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.50: sorbitol-6-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.51: dolichyl-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.52: [3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate dehydrogenase (2-methylpropanoyl-transferring)]-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.53: [myosin-light-chain] phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.54: fructose-2,6-bisphosphate 6-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.55: caldesmon-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.56: inositol-polyphosphate 5-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.57: inositol-1,4-bisphosphate 1-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.58: sugar-terminal-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.59: alkylacetylglycerophosphatase
EC 3.1.3.60: phosphoenolpyruvate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.61: deleted, as its existence has not been established
EC 3.1.3.62: multiple inositol-polyphosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.63: 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol-1-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.64: phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.65: Now included with EC 3.1.3.64, phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.66: phosphatidylinositol-3,4-bisphosphate 4-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.67: phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate 3-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.68: 2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.69: glucosylglycerol 3-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.70: mannosyl-3-phosphoglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.71: 2-phosphosulfolactate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.72: 5-phytase
EC 3.1.3.73: adenosylcobalamin/α-ribazole phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.74: pyridoxal phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.75: phosphoethanolamine/phosphocholine phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.76: lipid-phosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.77: acireductone synthase
EC 3.1.3.78: phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 4-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.79: mannosylfructose-phosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.80: 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate 3-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.81: Transferred entry, now EC 3.6.1.75, diacylglycerol diphosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.82: D-glycero-β-D-manno-heptose 1,7-bisphosphate 7-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.83: D-glycero-α-D-manno-heptose 1,7-bisphosphate 7-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.84: ADP-ribose 1′′-phosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.85: glucosyl-3-phosphoglycerate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.86: phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate 5-phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.87: 2-hydroxy-3-keto-5-methylthiopentenyl-1-phosphate phosphatase
EC 3.1.3.88: 5′′-phosphoribostamycin phosphatase
=== EC 3.1.4: Phosphoric Diester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.4.1: phosphodiesterase I
EC 3.1.4.2: glycerophosphocholine phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.3: lecithinase C
EC 3.1.4.4: phospholipase D
EC 3.1.4.5: Now EC 3.1.21.1, deoxyribonuclease I
EC 3.1.4.6: Now EC 3.1.22.1, deoxyribonuclease II
EC 3.1.4.7: Now EC 3.1.31.1, micrococcal nuclease
EC 3.1.4.8: Now EC 3.1.27.3, ribonuclease T1
EC 3.1.4.9: Now EC 3.1.30.2, Serratia marcescens nuclease
EC 3.1.4.10: Now EC 4.6.1.13, phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase
EC 3.1.4.11: phosphoinositide phospholipase C
EC 3.1.4.12: sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.13: serine-ethanolaminephosphate phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.14: [acyl-carrier-protein] phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.15 : transferred to EC 2.7.7.89, adenylyl-[glutamateammonia ligase] phosphorylase
EC 3.1.4.16: 2′,3′-cyclic-nucleotide 2′-phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.17: 3′,5′-cyclic-nucleotide phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.18: Now EC 3.1.16.1, spleen exonuclease
EC 3.1.4.19: Now EC 3.1.13.3, oligonucleotidase
EC 3.1.4.20: Now EC 3.1.13.1, exoribonuclease II
EC 3.1.4.21: Now EC 3.1.30.1, Aspergillus nuclease S1
EC 3.1.4.22: Now EC 3.1.27.5, pancreatic ribonuclease
EC 3.1.4.23: Now EC 3.1.27.1, ribonuclease T2
EC 3.1.4.24: deleted
EC 3.1.4.25: Now EC 3.1.11.1, exodeoxyribonuclease I
EC 3.1.4.26: deleted
EC 3.1.4.27: Now EC 3.1.11.2, exodeoxyribonuclease III
EC 3.1.4.28: Now EC 3.1.11.3, exodeoxyribonuclease (lambda-induced)
EC 3.1.4.29: deleted
EC 3.1.4.30: Now EC 3.1.21.2, deoxyribonuclease IV (phage-T4-induced)
EC 3.1.4.31: Now EC 3.1.11.4
EC 3.1.4.32: deleted
EC 3.1.4.33: deleted
EC 3.1.4.34: deleted
EC 3.1.4.35: 3′,5′-cyclic-GMP phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.36: Now with EC 3.1.4.43
EC 3.1.4.37: 2′,3′-cyclic-nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.38: glycerophosphocholine cholinephosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.39: alkylglycerophosphoethanolamine phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.40: CMP-N-acylneuraminate phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.41: sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase D
EC 3.1.4.42: glycerol-1,2-cyclic-phosphate 2-phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.43: glycerophosphoinositol inositolphosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.44: glycerophosphoinositol glycerophosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.45: N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphodiester α-N-acetylglucosaminidase
EC 3.1.4.46: glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.47: Now EC 4.6.1.14, glycosylphosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase
EC 3.1.4.48: dolichylphosphate-glucose phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.49: dolichylphosphate-mannose phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.50: glycosylphosphatidylinositol phospholipase D
EC 3.1.4.51: glucose-1-phospho-D-mannosylglycoprotein phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.52: cyclic-guanylate-specific phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.53: 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.54: N-acetylphosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolysing phospholipase D
EC 3.1.4.55: phosphoribosyl 1,2-cyclic phosphate phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.56: 7,8-dihydroneopterin 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.57: phosphoribosyl 1,2-cyclic phosphate 1,2-diphosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.58: RNA 2′,3′-cyclic 3′-phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.59: cyclic-di-AMP phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.60: pApA phosphodiesterase
EC 3.1.4.61: cyclic 2,3-diphosphoglycerate hydrolase
=== EC 3.1.5: Triphosphoric Monoester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.5.1: dGTPase
=== EC 3.1.6: Sulfuric Ester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.6.1: arylsulfatase (type I)
EC 3.1.6.2: steryl-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.3: glycosulfatase
EC 3.1.6.4: N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.5: deleted
EC 3.1.6.6: choline-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.7: cellulose-polysulfatase
EC 3.1.6.8: cerebroside-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.9: chondro-4-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.10: chondro-6-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.11: disulfoglucosamine-6-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.12: N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.13: iduronate-2-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.14: N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.15: N-sulfoglucosamine-3-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.16: monomethyl-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.17: D-lactate-2-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.18: Glucuronate-2-sulfatase
EC 3.1.6.19: (R)-specific secondary-alkylsulfatase (type III)
EC 3.1.6.20: S-sulfosulfanyl-L-cysteine sulfohydrolase
EC 3.1.6.21: linear primary-alkylsulfatase
EC 3.1.6.22: branched primary-alkylsulfatase
=== EC 3.1.7: Diphosphoric Monoester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.7.1: prenyl-diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.2: guanosine-3′,5′-bis(diphosphate) 3′-diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.3: monoterpenyl-diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.4: Now recognized as two enzymes EC 4.2.1.133, copal-8-ol diphosphate synthase and EC 4.2.3.141, sclareol synthase
EC 3.1.7.5: geranylgeranyl diphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.6: farnesyl diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.7: Now EC 4.2.3.194, (–)-drimenol synthase
EC 3.1.7.8: Now known to be a partial activity of EC 2.5.1.153, adenosine tuberculosinyltransferase.
EC 3.1.7.9: Now known to be a partial activity of EC 2.5.1.153, adenosine tuberculosinyltransferase
EC 3.1.7.10: (13E)-labda-7,13-dien-15-ol synthase
EC 3.1.7.11: geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.1.7.12: (+)-kolavelool synthase
=== EC 3.1.8: Phosphoric Triester Hydrolases ===
EC 3.1.8.1: aryldialkylphosphatase
EC 3.1.8.2: diisopropyl-fluorophosphatase
=== EC 3.1.11: Exodeoxyribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.11.1: exodeoxyribonuclease I
EC 3.1.11.2: exodeoxyribonuclease III
EC 3.1.11.3: exodeoxyribonuclease (lambda-induced)
EC 3.1.11.4: exodeoxyribonuclease (phage SP3-induced)
EC 3.1.11.5: exodeoxyribonuclease V
EC 3.1.11.6: exodeoxyribonuclease VII
EC 3.1.11.7: Now EC 3.6.1.71, adenosine-5′-diphospho-5′-[DNA] diphosphatase
EC 3.1.11.8: Now EC 3.6.1.70, guanosine-5′-diphospho-5′-[DNA] diphosphatase
=== EC 3.1.13: Exoribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.13.1: exoribonuclease II
EC 3.1.13.2: exoribonuclease H
EC 3.1.13.3: oligonucleotidase
EC 3.1.13.4: poly(A)-specific ribonuclease
EC 3.1.13.5: ribonuclease D
=== EC 3.1.14: Exoribonucleases Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.14.1: yeast ribonuclease
=== EC 3.1.15: Exonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.15.1: venom exonuclease
=== EC 3.1.16: Exonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.16.1: spleen exonuclease
=== EC 3.1.21: Endodeoxyribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.21.1: deoxyribonuclease I
EC 3.1.21.2: deoxyribonuclease IV
EC 3.1.21.3: type I site-specific deoxyribonuclease
EC 3.1.21.4: type II site-specific deoxyribonuclease
EC 3.1.21.5: type III site-specific deoxyribonuclease
EC 3.1.21.6: CC-preferring endodeoxyribonuclease
EC 3.1.21.7: deoxyribonuclease V
EC 3.1.21.8: T4 deoxyribonuclease II
EC 3.1.21.9: T4 deoxyribonuclease IV
EC 3.1.21.10: crossover junction endodeoxyribonuclease
=== EC 3.1.22: Endodeoxyribonucleases Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.22.1: deoxyribonuclease II
EC 3.1.22.2: Aspergillus deoxyribonuclease K1
EC 3.1.22.3: now EC 3.1.21.7
EC 3.1.22.4: crossover junction endodeoxyribonuclease
EC 3.1.22.5: deoxyribonuclease X
=== EC 3.1.23: and EC 3.1.24 now EC 3.1.21.3, EC 3.1.21.4 and EC 3.1.21.5 ===
Deleted sub-subclasses.
=== EC 3.1.25: Site-Specific Endodeoxyribonucleases Specific for Altered Bases ===
EC 3.1.25.1: deoxyribonuclease (pyrimidine dimer)
EC 3.1.25.2: Now EC 4.2.99.18, DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase
=== EC 3.1.26: Endoribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.26.1: Physarum polycephalum ribonuclease
EC 3.1.26.2: ribonuclease α
EC 3.1.26.3: ribonuclease III
EC 3.1.26.4: ribonuclease H
EC 3.1.26.5: ribonuclease P
EC 3.1.26.6: ribonuclease IV
EC 3.1.26.7: ribonuclease P4
EC 3.1.26.8: ribonuclease M5
EC 3.1.26.9: ribonuclease (poly-(U)-specific)
EC 3.1.26.10: ribonuclease IX
EC 3.1.26.11: tRNase Z
EC 3.1.26.12: ribonuclease E
EC 3.1.26.13: retroviral ribonuclease H
=== EC 3.1.27: Endoribonucleases Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.27.1: Now EC 4.6.1.19, ribonuclease T2, since the primary reaction is that of a lyase
EC 3.1.27.2: Now EC 4.6.1.22, Bacillus subtilis ribonuclease, since the reaction catalysed is that of a lyase
EC 3.1.27.3: Now EC 4.6.1.24, ribonuclease T1, since the primary reaction is that of a lyase
EC 3.1.27.4: Now EC 4.6.1.20, ribonuclease U2, since the primary reaction is that of a lyase
EC 3.1.27.5: Now EC 4.6.1.18, pancreatic ribonuclease.
EC 3.1.27.6: Now EC 4.6.1.21, Enterobacter ribonuclease, since the primary reaction is that of a lyase
EC 3.1.27.7: ribonuclease F
EC 3.1.27.8: ribonuclease V
EC 3.1.27.9: Now EC 4.6.1.16, tRNA-intron lyase
EC 3.1.27.10: Now EC 4.6.1.23, ribotoxin,
=== EC 3.1.30: Endoribonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.30.1: Aspergillus nuclease S1
EC 3.1.30.2: Serratia marcescens nuclease
=== EC 3.1.31: Endoribonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters ===
EC 3.1.31.1: micrococcal nuclease
== EC 3.2: Glycosylases ==
=== EC 3.2.1: Glycosidases, i.e. enzymes hydrolysing O- and S-glycosyl compounds ===
EC 3.2.1.1: α-amylase
EC 3.2.1.2: β-amylase
EC 3.2.1.3: glucan 1,4-α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.4: cellulase
EC 3.2.1.5: deleted
EC 3.2.1.6: endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase
EC 3.2.1.7: inulinase
EC 3.2.1.8: endo-1,4-β-xylanase
EC 3.2.1.9: deleted
EC 3.2.1.10: oligo-1,6-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.11: dextranase
EC 3.2.1.12: Now included with EC 3.2.1.54, cyclomaltodextrinase
EC 3.2.1.13: Now included with EC 3.2.1.54, cyclomaltodextrinase
EC 3.2.1.14: chitinase
EC 3.2.1.15: polygalacturonase
EC 3.2.1.16: deleted
EC 3.2.1.17: lysozyme
EC 3.2.1.18: exo-α-sialidase
EC 3.2.1.19: deleted
EC 3.2.1.20: α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.21: β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.22: α-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.23: β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.24: α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.25: β-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.26: β-fructofuranosidase (invertase)
EC 3.2.1.27: deleted
EC 3.2.1.28: α,α-trehalase
EC 3.2.1.29: Now included with EC 3.2.1.52, β-N-acetylhexosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.30: Now included with EC 3.2.1.52, β-N-acetylhexosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.31: β-glucuronidase
EC 3.2.1.32: endo-1,3-β-xylanase
EC 3.2.1.33: amylo-α-1,6-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.34: Now included with EC 3.2.1.35, hyaluronoglucosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.35: hyaluronoglucosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.36: hyaluronoglucuronidase
EC 3.2.1.37: xylan 1,4-β-xylosidase
EC 3.2.1.38: β-D-fucosidase
EC 3.2.1.39: glucan endo-1,3-β-D-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.40: α-L-rhamnosidase
EC 3.2.1.41: pullulanase
EC 3.2.1.42: GDP-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.43: β-L-rhamnosidase
EC 3.2.1.44: Now EC 3.2.1.211, endo-(13)-fucoidanase and EC 3.2.1.212, endo-(14)-fucoidanase
EC 3.2.1.45: glucosylceramidase
EC 3.2.1.46: galactosylceramidase
EC 3.2.1.47: Now known to be catalyzed by EC 3.2.1.22, α-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.48: sucrose α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.49: α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.50: α-N-acetylglucosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.51: α-L-fucosidase
EC 3.2.1.52: β-N-acetylhexosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.53: β-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.54: cyclomaltodextrinase
EC 3.2.1.55: non-reducing end α-L-arabinofuranosidase
EC 3.2.1.56: glucuronosyl-disulfoglucosamine glucuronidase
EC 3.2.1.57: isopullulanase
EC 3.2.1.58: glucan 1,3-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.59: glucan endo-1,3-α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.60: glucan 1,4-α-maltotetraohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.61: mycodextranase
EC 3.2.1.62: glycosylceramidase
EC 3.2.1.63: 1,2-α-L-fucosidase
EC 3.2.1.64: 2,6-β-fructan 6-levanbiohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.65: levanase
EC 3.2.1.66: Deleted entry: The activity is covered by EC 3.2.1.40, α-L-rhamnosidase
EC 3.2.1.67: galacturan 1,4-α-galacturonidase
EC 3.2.1.68: isoamylase
EC 3.2.1.69: Now included with EC 3.2.1.41, pullulanase
EC 3.2.1.70: glucan 1,6-α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.71: glucan endo-1,2-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.72: xylan 1,3-β-xylosidase
EC 3.2.1.73: licheninase
EC 3.2.1.74: glucan 1,4-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.75: glucan endo-1,6-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.76: L-iduronidase
EC 3.2.1.77: mannan 1,2-(1,3)-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.78: mannan endo-1,4-β-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.79: Now included with EC 3.2.1.55, non-reducing end α-L-arabinofuranosidase
EC 3.2.1.80: fructan β-fructosidase
EC 3.2.1.81: β-agarase
EC 3.2.1.82: exo-poly-α-digalacturonosidas
EC 3.2.1.83: κ-carrageenase
EC 3.2.1.84: glucan 1,3-α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.85: 6-phospho-β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.86: 6-phospho-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.87: capsular-polysaccharide endo-1,3-α-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.88: non-reducing end β-L-arabinopyranosidase
EC 3.2.1.89: arabinogalactan endo-β-1,4-galactanase
EC 3.2.1.90: Deleted, not sufficiently characterised.
EC 3.2.1.91: cellulose 1,4-β-cellobiosidase (non-reducing end)
EC 3.2.1.92: peptidoglycan β-N-acetylmuramidase
EC 3.2.1.93: α,α-phosphotrehalase
EC 3.2.1.94: glucan 1,6-α-isomaltosidase
EC 3.2.1.95: dextran 1,6-α-isomaltotriosidase
EC 3.2.1.96: mannosyl-glycoprotein endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.97: endo-α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.98: glucan 1,4-α-maltohexaosidase
EC 3.2.1.99: arabinan endo-1,5-α-L-arabinanase
EC 3.2.1.100: mannan 1,4-mannobiosidase
EC 3.2.1.101: mannan endo-1,6-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.102: blood-group-substance endo-1,4-β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.103: keratan-sulfate endo-1,4-β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.104: steryl-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.105: 3α(S)-strictosidine β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.106: mannosyl-oligosaccharide glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.107: protein-glucosylgalactosylhydroxylysine glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.108: lactase
EC 3.2.1.109: endogalactosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.110: identical to EC 3.2.1.97, endo-α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.111: 1,3-α-L-fucosidase
EC 3.2.1.112: 2-deoxyglucosidase
EC 3.2.1.113: mannosyl-oligosaccharide 1,2-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.114: mannosyl-oligosaccharide 1,3-1,6-α-mannosidas
EC 3.2.1.115: branched-dextran exo-1,2-α-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.116: glucan 1,4-α-maltotriohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.117: amygdalin β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.118: prunasin β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.119: vicianin β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.120: oligoxyloglucan β-glycosidase
EC 3.2.1.121: polymannuronate hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.122: maltose-6′-phosphate glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.123: endoglycosylceramidase
EC 3.2.1.124: 3-deoxy-2-octulosonidase
EC 3.2.1.125: raucaffricine β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.126: coniferin β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.127: 1,6-α-L-fucosidase
EC 3.2.1.128: glycyrrhizin hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.129: endo-α-sialidase
EC 3.2.1.130: glycoprotein endo-α-1,2-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.131: xylan α-1,2-glucuronosidase
EC 3.2.1.132: chitosanase
EC 3.2.1.133: glucan 1,4-α-maltohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.134: difructose-anhydride synthase
EC 3.2.1.135: neopullulanase
EC 3.2.1.136: glucuronoarabinoxylan endo-1,4-β-xylanase
EC 3.2.1.137: mannan exo-1,2-1,6-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.138: Now EC 4.2.2.15, anhydrosialidase
EC 3.2.1.139: α-glucuronidase
EC 3.2.1.140: lacto-N-biosidase
EC 3.2.1.141: 4-α-D-{(1→4)-α-D-glucano}trehalose trehalohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.142: limit dextrinase
EC 3.2.1.143: poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.144: 3-deoxyoctulosonase
EC 3.2.1.145: galactan 1,3-β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.146: β-galactofuranosidase
EC 3.2.1.147: thioglucosidase
EC 3.2.1.148: [[The activity is most probably attributable to ((EnzExplorer|4.4.1.21)), S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase|The activity is most probably attributable to EC 4.4.1.21, S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase]]
EC 3.2.1.149: β-primeverosidase
EC 3.2.1.150: oligoxyloglucan reducing-end-specific cellobiohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.151: xyloglucan-specific endo-β-1,4-glucanase
EC 3.2.1.152: mannosylglycoprotein endo-β-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.153: fructan β-(2,1)-fructosidase
EC 3.2.1.154: fructan β-(2,6)-fructosidase
EC 3.2.1.155: xyloglucan-specific endo-processive β-1,4-glucanase
EC 3.2.1.156: oligosaccharide reducing-end xylanase
EC 3.2.1.157: ι-carrageenase
EC 3.2.1.158: α-agarase
EC 3.2.1.159: α-neoagaro-oligosaccharide hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.160: identical to EC 3.2.1.155, xyloglucan-specific exo-β-1,4-glucanase
EC 3.2.1.161: β-apiosyl-β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.162: λ-carrageenase
EC 3.2.1.163: 1,6-α-D-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.164: galactan endo-1,6-β-galactosidase
EC 3.2.1.165: exo-1,4-β-D-glucosaminidase
EC 3.2.1.166: heparanase
EC 3.2.1.167: baicalin-β-D-glucuronidase
EC 3.2.1.168: hesperidin 6-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-β-D-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.169: protein O-GlcNAcas
EC 3.2.1.170: mannosylglycerate hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.171: rhamnogalacturonan hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.172: unsaturated rhamnogalacturonyl hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.173: rhamnogalacturonan galacturonohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.174: rhamnogalacturonan rhamnohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.175: β-D-glucopyranosyl abscisate β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.176: cellulose 1,4-β-cellobiosidase (reducing end)
EC 3.2.1.177: α-D-xyloside xylohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.178: β-porphyranase
EC 3.2.1.179: gellan tetrasaccharide unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.180: unsaturated chondroitin disaccharide hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.181: galactan endo-β-1,3-galactanase
EC 3.2.1.182: 4-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-oxo-3,4-dihydro-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-2-yl glucoside β-D-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.183: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (hydrolysing)
EC 3.2.1.184: UDP-N,N′-diacetylbacillosamine 2-epimerase (hydrolysing)
EC 3.2.1.185: non-reducing end β-L-arabinofuranosidase
EC 3.2.1.186: protodioscin 26-O-β-D-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.187: (Ara-f)3-Hyp β-L-arabinobiosidase
EC 3.2.1.188: avenacosidase *
EC 3.2.1.189: dioscin glycosidase (diosgenin-forming)
EC 3.2.1.190: dioscin glycosidase (3-O-β-D-Glc-diosgenin-forming)
EC 3.2.1.191: ginsenosidase type III
EC 3.2.1.192: ginsenoside Rb1 β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.193: ginsenosidase type I
EC 3.2.1.194: ginsenosidase type IV
EC 3.2.1.195: 20-O-multi-glycoside ginsenosidase
EC 3.2.1.196: limit dextrin α-1,6-maltotetraose-hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.197: β-1,2-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.198: α-mannan endo-1,2-α-mannanase
EC 3.2.1.199: sulfoquinovosidase
EC 3.2.1.200: exo-chitinase (non-reducing end)
EC 3.2.1.201: exo-chitinase (reducing end)
EC 3.2.1.202: endo-chitodextinase
EC 3.2.1.203: carboxymethylcellulase
EC 3.2.1.204: 1,3-α-isomaltosidase
EC 3.2.1.205: isomaltose glucohydrolase
EC 3.2.1.206: oleuropein β-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.207: mannosyl-oligosaccharide α-1,3-glucosidase
EC 3.2.1.208: glucosylglycerate hydrolase
EC 3.2.1.209: endoplasmic reticulum Man9GlcNAc2 1,2-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.210: endoplasmic reticulum Man8GlcNAc2 1,2-α-mannosidase
EC 3.2.1.211: endo-(1→3)-fucoidanase
EC 3.2.1.212: endo-(1→4)-fucoidanase
EC 3.2.1.213: galactan exo-1,6-β-galactobiohydrolase (non-reducing end)
EC 3.2.1.214: exo β-1,2-glucooligosaccharide sophorohydrolase (non-reducing end)
=== EC 3.2.2: Hydrolysing N-Glycosyl Compounds ===
EC 3.2.2.1: purine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.2: inosine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.3: uridine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.4: AMP nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.5: NAD+ glycohydrolase
EC 3.2.2.6: ADP-ribosyl cyclase/cyclic ADP-ribose hydrolase
EC 3.2.2.7: adenosine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.8: ribosylpyrimidine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.9: adenosylhomocysteine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.10: pyrimidine-5′-nucleotide nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.11: β-aspartyl-N-acetylglucosaminidase
EC 3.2.2.12: inosinate nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.13: 1-methyladenosine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.14: NMN nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.15: DNA-deoxyinosine glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.16: methylthioadenosine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.17: deoxyribodipyrimidine endonucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.18: Now included with EC 3.5.1.52, peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase
EC 3.2.2.19: ADP-ribosylarginine hydrolase
EC 3.2.2.20: DNA-3-methyladenine glycosylase I
EC 3.2.2.21: DNA-3-methyladenine glycosylase II, MAG1
EC 3.2.2.22: rRNA 'N-glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.23: DNA-formamidopyrimidine glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.24: ADP-ribosyl-[dinitrogen reductase] hydrolase
EC 3.2.2.25: N-methyl nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.26: futalosine hydrolase
EC 3.2.2.27: uracil-DNA glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.28: double-stranded uracil-DNA glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.29: thymine-DNA glycosylase
EC 3.2.2.30: aminodeoxyfutalosine nucleosidase
EC 3.2.2.31: adenine glycosylase
=== EC 3.2.3: Hydrolysing S-Glycosyl Compounds ===
Deleted sub-subclass
== EC 3.3: Acting on Ether Bonds ==
=== EC 3.3.1: Thioether and trialkylsulfonium hydrolases ===
EC 3.3.1.1: adenosylhomocysteinase
EC 3.3.1.2: S-adenosyl-L-methionine hydrolase (L-homoserine-forming)
EC 3.3.1.3: [[The activity is most probably attributable to ((EnzExplorer|4.4.1.21)), S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase|The activity is most probably attributable to EC 4.4.1.21, S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase]]
=== EC 3.3.2: Ether Hydrolases ===
EC 3.3.2.1: isochorismatase
EC 3.3.2.2: alkenylglycerophosphocholine hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.3: Now known to comprise two enzymes, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (EC 3.3.2.9) and soluble epoxide hydrolase (EC 3.3.2.10)
EC 3.3.2.4: trans-epoxysuccinate hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.5: Now included in EC 3.3.2.2, lysoplasmalogenase
EC 3.3.2.6: leukotriene-A4 hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.7: hepoxilin-epoxide hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.8: limonene-1,2-epoxide hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.9: microsomal epoxide hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.10: soluble epoxide hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.11: cholesterol-5,6-oxide hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.12: oxepin-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.3.2.13: chorismatase
EC 3.3.2.14: 2,4-dinitroanisole O-demethylase
EC 3.3.2.15: trans-2,3-dihydro-3-hydroxyanthranilic acid synthase
== EC 3.4: Acting on peptide bonds – Peptidase ==
=== EC 3.4.1 α-amino acyl peptide hydrolases (discontinued) ===
EC 3.4.1.1: Now EC 3.4.11.1, leucyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.1.2: Now EC 3.4.11.2, membrane alanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.1.3: Now EC 3.4.11.4, tripeptide aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.1.4: Now EC 3.4.11.5, prolyl aminopeptidase
=== EC 3.4.2 Peptidyl amino acid hydrolases (discontinued) ===
EC 3.4.2.1: Now EC 3.4.17.1, carboxypeptidase A
EC 3.4.2.2: Now EC 3.4.17.2, carboxypeptidase B
EC 3.4.2.3: Now EC 3.4.17.4, Gly-Xaa carboxypeptidase
=== EC 3.4.3: Dipeptide hydrolases (deleted sub-subclass) ===
EC 3.4.3.1: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.3.2: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.3.3: Now EC 3.4.13.3, Xaa-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.3.4: Now EC 3.4.13.5, Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.3.5: Now EC 3.4.11.2, membrane alanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.3.6: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.3.7: Now EC 3.4.13.9, Xaa-Pro dipeptidase
=== EC 3.4.4 Peptidyl Peptide Hydrolases (discontinued) ===
EC 3.4.4.1: Now EC 3.4.23.1, pepsin A
EC 3.4.4.2: Now EC 3.4.23.2, pepsin B
EC 3.4.4.3: Now EC 3.4.23.4, chymosin
EC 3.4.4.4: Now EC 3.4.21.4, trypsin
EC 3.4.4.5: Now EC 3.4.21.1, chymotrypsin
EC 3.4.4.6: Now EC 3.4.21.1, chymotrypsin
EC 3.4.4.7: Now covered by EC 3.4.21.36, pancreatic elastase and EC 3.4.21.37, leukocyte elastase
EC 3.4.4.8: Now EC 3.4.21.9, enteropeptidase
EC 3.4.4.9: Now EC 3.4.14.1, dipeptidyl-peptidase I
EC 3.4.4.10: Now EC 3.4.22.2, papain
EC 3.4.4.11: Now EC 3.4.22.6, chymopapain
EC 3.4.4.12: Now EC 3.4.22.3, ficain
EC 3.4.4.13: Now EC 3.4.21.5, thrombin
EC 3.4.4.14: Now EC 3.4.21.7, plasmin
EC 3.4.4.15: Now EC 3.4.23.15, renin
EC 3.4.4.16: Now covered by the microbial serine proteinases EC 3.4.21.62 (subtilisin), EC 3.4.21.63 (oryzin), EC 3.4.21.64 (endopeptidase K), EC 3.4.21.65 (thermomycolin), EC 3.4.21.66 (thermitase) and EC 3.4.21.67 (endopeptidase So)
EC 3.4.4.17: Now covered by the microbial aspartic proteinases EC 3.4.23.20 (penicillopepsin), EC 3.4.23.21 (rhizopuspepsin), EC 3.4.23.22 (endothiapepsin), EC 3.4.23.23 (mucorpepsin), EC 3.4.23.24 (candidapepsin), EC 3.4.23.25 (saccharopepsin), EC 3.4.23.26 (rhodotorulapepsin), EC 3.4.21.103 (physarolisin), EC 3.4.23.28 (acrocylindropepsin), EC 3.4.23.29 (polyporopepsin) and EC 3.4.23.30 (pycnoporopepsin)
EC 3.4.4.18: Now EC 3.4.22.10, streptopain
EC 3.4.4.19: Now EC 3.4.24.3, microbial collagenase
EC 3.4.4.20: Now EC 3.4.22.8, clostripain
EC 3.4.4.21: Now EC 3.4.21.34 (plasma kallikrein) and EC 3.4.21.35 (tissue kallikrein)
EC 3.4.4.22: Now EC 3.4.23.3, gastricsin
EC 3.4.4.23: Now EC 3.4.23.5, cathepsin D
EC 3.4.4.24: Now covered by EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain)
EC 3.4.4.25: deleted
=== EC 3.4.11 Aminopeptidases ===
EC 3.4.11.1: leucyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.2: membrane alanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.3: cystinyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.4: tripeptide aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.5: prolyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.6: aminopeptidase B
EC 3.4.11.7: glutamyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.8: Now EC 3.4.19.3, pyroglutamyl-peptidase I
EC 3.4.11.9: Xaa-Pro aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.10: bacterial leucyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.11: Deleted
EC 3.4.11.12: Deleted
EC 3.4.11.13: Clostridial aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.14: cytosol alanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.15: aminopeptidase Y
EC 3.4.11.16: Xaa-Trp aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.17: tryptophanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.18: methionyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.19: D-stereospecific aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.20: aminopeptidase Ey
EC 3.4.11.21: aspartyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.22: aminopeptidase I
EC 3.4.11.23: PepB aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.24: aminopeptidase S
EC 3.4.11.25: β-peptidyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.11.26: intermediate cleaving peptidase 55
=== EC 3.4.12 Peptidylamino-acid hydrolases or acylamino-acid hydrolases (deleted sub-subclass) ===
EC 3.4.12.1: Now EC 3.4.16.5 (carboxypeptidase C) and EC 3.4.16.6 (carboxypeptidase D)
EC 3.4.12.2: Now EC 3.4.17.1, carboxypeptidase A
EC 3.4.12.3: Now EC 3.4.17.2, carboxypeptidase B
EC 3.4.12.4: Now EC 3.4.16.2, lysosomal Pro-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.5: Now EC 3.5.1.28, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase
EC 3.4.12.6: Now EC 3.4.17.8, muramoyl-pentapeptidase carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.7: Now EC 3.4.17.3, lysine carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.8: Now EC 3.4.17.4, Gly-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.9: aspartate carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.10: Now EC 3.4.19.9, γ-glutamyl hydrolase
EC 3.4.12.11: Now EC 3.4.17.6, alanine carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.12.12: Now EC 3.4.16.5 (carboxypeptidase C) and EC 3.4.16.6 (carboxypeptidase D)
EC 3.4.12.13: γ-glutamylglutamate carboxypeptidase
=== EC 3.4.13 Dipeptidases ===
EC 3.4.13.1: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.2: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.3: The activity is covered by EC .4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase and EC 3.4.13.20, β-Ala-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.4: Xaa-Arg dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.5: Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.6: Now EC 3.4.11.2, membrane alanyl aminopeptidase
EC 3.4.13.7: Glu-Glu dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.8: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.9: Xaa-Pro dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.10: Now EC 3.4.19.5, β-aspartyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.13.11: Now EC 3.4.13.19, membrane dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.12: Met-Xaa dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.13: Now EC 3.4.13.3, Xaa-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.14: Deleted
EC 3.4.13.15: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.16: Deleted
EC 3.4.13.17: non-stereospecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.18: cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.19: membrane dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.20: β-Ala-His dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.21: dipeptidase E
EC 3.4.13.22: D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptidase
EC 3.4.13.23: cysteinylglycine-S-conjugate dipeptidase
=== EC 3.4.14 Dipeptidyl peptidases and tripeptidyl peptidases ===
EC 3.4.14.1: dipeptidyl-peptidase I
EC 3.4.14.2: dipeptidyl-peptidase II
EC 3.4.14.3: Now EC 3.4.19.1, acylaminoacyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.14.4: dipeptidyl-peptidase III
EC 3.4.14.5: dipeptidyl-peptidase IV
EC 3.4.14.6: dipeptidyl-dipeptidase
EC 3.4.14.7: Deleted
EC 3.4.14.8: Now EC 3.4.14.10, tripeptidyl-peptidase II
EC 3.4.14.9: tripeptidyl-peptidase I
EC 3.4.14.10: tripeptidyl-peptidase II
EC 3.4.14.11: Xaa-Pro dipeptidyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.14.12: Xaa-Xaa-Pro tripeptidyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.14.13: γ-D-glutamyl-Llysine dipeptidyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.14.14: [mycofactocin precursor peptide] peptidase
=== EC 3.4.15 Peptidyl dipeptidases ===
EC 3.4.15.1: peptidyl-dipeptidase A
EC 3.4.15.2: Now EC 3.4.19.2, peptidyl-glycinamidase
EC 3.4.15.3: Now EC 3.4.15.5, peptidyl-dipeptidase Dcp
EC 3.4.15.4: Peptidyl-dipeptidase B
EC 3.4.15.5: Peptidyl-dipeptidase Dcp
EC 3.4.15.6: cyanophycinase
=== EC 3.4.16 Serine type carboxypeptidases ===
EC 3.4.16.1: Transferred entry: serine carboxypeptidase. Now EC 3.4.16.6, carboxypeptidase D
EC 3.4.16.2: lysosomal Pro-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.16.3: Now included with EC 3.4.16.5, carboxypeptidase C
EC 3.4.16.4: serine-type D-Ala-D-Ala carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.16.5: carboxypeptidase C
EC 3.4.16.6: carboxypeptidase D
=== EC 3.4.17 Metallocarboxypeptidases ===
EC 3.4.17.1: carboxypeptidase A
EC 3.4.17.2: carboxypeptidase B
EC 3.4.17.3: lysine carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.4: Gly-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.5: Deleted
EC 3.4.17.6: alanine carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.7: Now EC 3.5.1.28, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase
EC 3.4.17.8: muramoylpentapeptide carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.9: Now included with EC 3.4.17.4, Gly-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.10: carboxypeptidase E
EC 3.4.17.11: glutamate carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.12: carboxypeptidase M
EC 3.4.17.13: Muramoyltetrapeptide carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.14: zinc D-Ala-D-Ala carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.15: carboxypeptidase A2
EC 3.4.17.16: membrane Pro-Xaa carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.17: tubulinyl-Tyr carboxypeptidase
EC 3.4.17.18: carboxypeptidase T
EC 3.4.17.19: Carboxypeptidase Taq
EC 3.4.17.20: carboxypeptidase U
EC 3.4.17.21: Glutamate carboxypeptidase II
EC 3.4.17.22: metallocarboxypeptidase D
EC 3.4.17.23: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
EC 3.4.17.24: tubulin-glutamate carboxypeptidase
=== EC 3.4.18 Cysteine type carboxypeptidases ===
EC 3.4.18.1: cathepsin X
=== EC 3.4.19 Omega peptidases ===
EC 3.4.19.1: acylaminoacyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.19.2: peptidyl-glycinamidase
EC 3.4.19.3: pyroglutamyl-peptidase I
EC 3.4.19.4: Deleted
EC 3.4.19.5: β-aspartyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.19.6: pyroglutamyl-peptidase II
EC 3.4.19.7: N-formylmethionyl-peptidase
EC 3.4.19.8: now EC 3.4.17.21, glutamate carboxypeptidase II
EC 3.4.19.9: folate γ-glutamyl hydrolase
EC 3.4.19.10: Now EC 3.5.1.28, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase
EC 3.4.19.11: γ-Dglutamyl-meso-diaminopimelate peptidase
EC 3.4.19.12: ubiquitinyl hydrolase 1
EC 3.4.19.13: glutathione γ-glutamate hydrolase
EC 3.4.19.14: leukotriene-C4 hydrolase
EC 3.4.19.15: desampylase
EC 3.4.19.16: glucosinolate γ-glutamyl hydrolase
=== EC 3.4.21: Serine proteases ===
EC 3.4.21.1: chymotrypsin
EC 3.4.21.2: chymotrypsin C
EC 3.4.21.3: metridin
EC 3.4.21.4: trypsin
EC 3.4.21.5: thrombin
EC 3.4.21.6: coagulation factor Xa
EC 3.4.21.7: plasmin
EC 3.4.21.8: Now EC 3.4.21.34 (plasma kallikrein) and EC 3.4.21.35 (tissue kallikrein)
EC 3.4.21.9: enteropeptidase
EC 3.4.21.10: acrosin
EC 3.4.21.11: Now EC 3.4.21.37, leukocyte elastase
EC 3.4.21.12: α-lytic endopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.13: Now EC 3.4.16.6, carboxypeptidase D
EC 3.4.21.14: now EC 3.4.21.67, endopeptidase So
EC 3.4.21.15: Now EC 3.4.21.63, oryzin
EC 3.4.21.16: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.17: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.18: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.19: glutamyl endopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.20: cathepsin G
EC 3.4.21.21: coagulation factor VIIa
EC 3.4.21.22: coagulation factor IXa
EC 3.4.21.23: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.24: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.25: cucumisin
EC 3.4.21.26: prolyl oligopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.27: coagulation factor XIa
EC 3.4.21.28: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A
EC 3.4.21.29: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A
EC 3.4.21.30: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A
EC 3.4.21.31: Now EC 3.4.21.73, u-plasminogen activator
EC 3.4.21.32: brachyurin
EC 3.4.21.33: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.34: plasma kallikrein
EC 3.4.21.35: tissue kallikrein
EC 3.4.21.36: pancreatic elastase
EC 3.4.21.37: leukocyte elastase
EC 3.4.21.38: coagulation factor XIIa
EC 3.4.21.39: chymase
EC 3.4.21.40: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.41: Complement subcomponent C1r
EC 3.4.21.42: complement subcomponent C1s
EC 3.4.21.43: classical-complement-pathway C3/C5 convertase
EC 3.4.21.44: Now EC 3.4.21.43, classical-complement-pathway C3/C5 convertase
EC 3.4.21.45: complement factor I
EC 3.4.21.46: complement factor D
EC 3.4.21.47: alternative-complement-pathway C3/C5 convertase
EC 3.4.21.48: cerevisin
EC 3.4.21.49: hypodermin C
EC 3.4.21.50: lysyl endopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.51: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.52: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.53: edopeptidase La
EC 3.4.21.54: γ-renin
EC 3.4.21.55: venombin AB
EC 3.4.21.56: Now considered to be EC 3.4.21.25, cucumisin
EC 3.4.21.57: leucyl endopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.58: Deleted
EC 3.4.21.59: tryptase
EC 3.4.21.60: scutelarin
EC 3.4.21.61: kexin
EC 3.4.21.62: subtilisin
EC 3.4.21.63: oryzin
EC 3.4.21.64: endopeptidase K
EC 3.4.21.65: thermomycolin
EC 3.4.21.66: thermitase
EC 3.4.21.67: endopeptidase So
EC 3.4.21.68: t-plasminogen activator
EC 3.4.21.69: protein C (activated)
EC 3.4.21.70: pancreatic endopeptidase E
EC 3.4.21.71: pancreatic elastase II
EC 3.4.21.72: IgA-specific serine endopeptidase
EC 3.4.21.73: u-plasminogen activator
EC 3.4.21.74: venombin A
EC 3.4.21.75: furin
EC 3.4.21.76: myeloblastin
EC 3.4.21.77: semenogelase
EC 3.4.21.78: granzyme A
EC 3.4.21.79: granzyme B
EC 3.4.21.80: streptogrisin A
EC 3.4.21.81: streptogrisin B
EC 3.4.21.82: glutamyl endopeptidase II
EC 3.4.21.83: oligopeptidase B
EC 3.4.21.84: limulus clotting factor C
EC 3.4.21.85: limulus clotting factor B
EC 3.4.21.86: limulus clotting enzyme
EC 3.4.21.87: Now EC 3.4.23.49, omptin
EC 3.4.21.88: repressor LexA
EC 3.4.21.89: signal peptidase I
EC 3.4.21.90: togavirin
EC 3.4.21.91: flavivirin
EC 3.4.21.92: endopeptidase Clp
EC 3.4.21.93: proprotein convertase 1
EC 3.4.21.94: proprotein convertase 2
EC 3.4.21.95: snake venom factor V activator
EC 3.4.21.96: lactocepin
EC 3.4.21.97: assemblin
EC 3.4.21.98: hepacivirin
EC 3.4.21.99: spermosin
EC 3.4.21.100: sedolisin
EC 3.4.21.101: xanthomonalisin
EC 3.4.21.102: C-terminal processing peptidase
EC 3.4.21.103: physarolisin
EC 3.4.21.104: mannan-binding lectin-associated serine protease-2
EC 3.4.21.105: rhomboid protease
EC 3.4.21.106: hepsin
EC 3.4.21.107: peptidase Do
EC 3.4.21.108: HtrA2 peptidase
EC 3.4.21.109: matriptase
EC 3.4.21.110: C5a peptidase
EC 3.4.21.111: aqualysin 1
EC 3.4.21.112: site-1 protease
EC 3.4.21.113: pestivirus NS3 polyprotein peptidase
EC 3.4.21.114: equine arterivirus serine peptidase
EC 3.4.21.115: infectious pancreatic necrosis birnavirus Vp4 peptidase
EC 3.4.21.116: SpoIVB peptidase
EC 3.4.21.117: stratum corneum chymotryptic enzyme
EC 3.4.21.118: kallikrein 8
EC 3.4.21.119: kallikrein 13
EC 3.4.21.120: oviductin
EC 3.4.21.121: Lys-Lys/Arg-Xaa endopeptidase
=== EC 3.4.22 Cysteine proteases ===
EC 3.4.22.1: cathepsin B
EC 3.4.22.2: papain
EC 3.4.22.3: ficain
EC 3.4.22.4: Now EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain)
EC 3.4.22.5: Now EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain)
EC 3.4.22.6: chymopapain
EC 3.4.22.7: asclepain
EC 3.4.22.8: clostripain
EC 3.4.22.9: Now EC 3.4.21.48, cerevisin
EC 3.4.22.10: streptopain
EC 3.4.22.11: Now EC 3.4.24.56, insulysin
EC 3.4.22.12: Now EC 3.4.19.9, γ-glutamyl hydrolase
EC 3.4.22.13: Deleted
EC 3.4.22.14: actinidain
EC 3.4.22.15: cathepsin L
EC 3.4.22.16: cathepsin H
EC 3.4.22.17: Now EC 3.4.22.53, calpain-2
EC 3.4.22.18: Now EC 3.4.21.26, prolyl oligopeptidase
EC 3.4.22.19: Now EC 3.4.24.15, thimet oligopeptidase
EC 3.4.22.20: Deleted
EC 3.4.22.21: Now EC 3.4.25.1, proteasome endopeptidase complex
EC 3.4.22.22: Now EC 3.4.24.37, saccharolysin
EC 3.4.22.23: Now EC 3.4.21.61, kexin
EC 3.4.22.24: Cathepsin T
EC 3.4.22.25: Glycyl endopeptidase
EC 3.4.22.26: Cancer procoagulant
EC 3.4.22.27: cathepsin S
EC 3.4.22.28: picornain 3C
EC 3.4.22.29: picornain 2A
EC 3.4.22.30: Caricain
EC 3.4.22.31: Ananain
EC 3.4.22.32: Stem bromelain
EC 3.4.22.33: Fruit bromelain
EC 3.4.22.34: Legumain
EC 3.4.22.35: Histolysain
EC 3.4.22.36: caspase-1
EC 3.4.22.37: Gingipain R
EC 3.4.22.38: Cathepsin K
EC 3.4.22.39: adenain
EC 3.4.22.40: bleomycin hydrolase
EC 3.4.22.41: cathepsin F
EC 3.4.22.42: cathepsin O
EC 3.4.22.43: cathepsin V
EC 3.4.22.44: nuclear-inclusion-a endopeptidase
EC 3.4.22.45: helper-component proteinase
EC 3.4.22.46: L-peptidase
EC 3.4.22.47: gingipain K
EC 3.4.22.48: staphopain
EC 3.4.22.49: separase
EC 3.4.22.50: V-cath endopeptidase
EC 3.4.22.51: cruzipain
EC 3.4.22.52: calpain-1
EC 3.4.22.53: calpain-2
EC 3.4.22.54: calpain-3
EC 3.4.22.55: caspase-2
EC 3.4.22.56: caspase-3
EC 3.4.22.57: caspase-4
EC 3.4.22.58: caspase-5
EC 3.4.22.59: caspase-6
EC 3.4.22.60: caspase-7
EC 3.4.22.61: caspase-8
EC 3.4.22.62: caspase-9
EC 3.4.22.63: caspase-10
EC 3.4.22.64: caspase-11
EC 3.4.22.65: peptidase 1 (mite)
EC 3.4.22.66: calicivirin
EC 3.4.22.67: zingipain
EC 3.4.22.68: Ulp1 peptidase
EC 3.4.22.69: SARS coronavirus main proteinase
EC 3.4.22.70: sortase A
EC 3.4.22.71: sortase B
=== EC 3.4.23 Aspartic endopeptidases ===
EC 3.4.23.1: pepsin A
EC 3.4.23.2: pepsin B
EC 3.4.23.3: gastricsin
EC 3.4.23.4: chymosin
EC 3.4.23.5: cathepsin D
EC 3.4.23.6: Now EC 3.4.23.30, pycnoporopepsin
EC 3.4.23.7: Now EC 3.4.23.20, penicillopepsin
EC 3.4.23.8: Now EC 3.4.23.25, saccharopepsin
EC 3.4.23.9: Now EC 3.4.23.21, rhizopuspepsin
EC 3.4.23.10: Now EC 3.4.23.22, endothiapepsin
EC 3.4.23.11: Deleted entry
EC 3.4.23.12: nepenthesin
EC 3.4.23.13: Deleted
EC 3.4.23.14: Deleted
EC 3.4.23.15: renin
EC 3.4.23.16: HIV-1 retropepsin
EC 3.4.23.17: pro-opiomelanocortin converting enzyme
EC 3.4.23.18: aspergillopepsin I
EC 3.4.23.19: aspergillopepsin II
EC 3.4.23.20: penicillopepsin
EC 3.4.23.21: rhizopuspepsin
EC 3.4.23.22: endothiapepsin
EC 3.4.23.23: mucorpepsin
EC 3.4.23.24: candidapepsin
EC 3.4.23.25: saccharopepsin
EC 3.4.23.26: rhodotorulapepsin
EC 3.4.23.27: Now EC 3.4.21.103, physarolisin
EC 3.4.23.28: acrocylindropepsin
EC 3.4.23.29: polyporopepsin
EC 3.4.23.30: pycnoporopepsin
EC 3.4.23.31: scytalidopepsin A
EC 3.4.23.32: scytalidopepsin B
EC 3.4.23.33: Now EC 3.4.21.101, xanthomonalisin
EC 3.4.23.34: cathepsin E
EC 3.4.23.35: barrierpepsin
EC 3.4.23.36: signal peptidase II
EC 3.4.23.37: Now EC 3.4.21.100, pseudomonalisin
EC 3.4.23.38: plasmepsin I
EC 3.4.23.39: plasmepsin II
EC 3.4.23.40: phytepsin
EC 3.4.23.41: yapsin 1
EC 3.4.23.42: thermopsin
EC 3.4.23.43: prepilin peptidase
EC 3.4.23.44: nodavirus endopeptidase
EC 3.4.23.45: memapsin 1
EC 3.4.23.46: memapsin 2
EC 3.4.23.47: HIV-2 retropepsin
EC 3.4.23.48: plasminogen activator Pla
EC 3.4.23.49: omptin
EC 3.4.23.50: human endogenous retrovirus K endopeptidase
EC 3.4.23.51: HycI peptidase
EC 3.4.23.52: preflagellin peptidase
=== EC 3.4.24: Metallopeptidases ===
EC 3.4.24.1: atrolysin A
EC 3.4.24.2: Deleted entry: Sepia proteinase
EC 3.4.24.3: microbial collagenase
EC 3.4.24.4: now EC 3.4.24.40 serralysin
EC 3.4.24.5: Deleted entry: lens neutral proteinase. Now included with EC 3.4.22.53 (calpain-2) and EC 3.4.25.1 (proteasome endopeptidase complex)
EC 3.4.24.6: leucolysin
EC 3.4.24.7: interstitial collagenase
EC 3.4.24.8: Transferred entry: Achromobacter iophagus collagenase. Now EC 3.4.24.3, microbial collagenase
EC 3.4.24.9: Deleted entry: Trichophyton schoenleinii collagenase
EC 3.4.24.10: Deleted entry: Trichophyton mentagrophytes keratinase
EC 3.4.24.11: neprilysin
EC 3.4.24.12: envelysin
EC 3.4.24.13: IgA-specific metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.14: procollagen N-endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.15: thimet oligopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.16: neurolysin
EC 3.4.24.17: stromelysin 1
EC 3.4.24.18: meprin A
EC 3.4.24.19: procollagen C-endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.20: peptidyl-Lys metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.21: astacin
EC 3.4.24.22: stromelysin 2
EC 3.4.24.23: matrilysin
EC 3.4.24.24: gelatinase a
EC 3.4.24.25: vibriolysin
EC 3.4.24.26: pseudolysin
EC 3.4.24.27: thermolysin
EC 3.4.24.28: bacillolysin
EC 3.4.24.29: aureolysin
EC 3.4.24.30: coccolysin
EC 3.4.24.31: mycolysin
EC 3.4.24.32: β-lytic metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.33: peptidyl-Asp metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.34: neutrophil collagenase
EC 3.4.24.35: gelatinase B
EC 3.4.24.36: leishmanolysin
EC 3.4.24.37: saccharolysin
EC 3.4.24.38: gametolysin
EC 3.4.24.39: deuterolysin
EC 3.4.24.40: serralysin
EC 3.4.24.41: atrolysin B
EC 3.4.24.42: atrolysin C
EC 3.4.24.43: atroxase
EC 3.4.24.44: atrolysin E
EC 3.4.24.45: atrolysin F
EC 3.4.24.46: adamalysin
EC 3.4.24.47: horrilysin
EC 3.4.24.48: ruberlysin
EC 3.4.24.49: bothropasin
EC 3.4.24.50: bothrolysin
EC 3.4.24.51: ophiolysin
EC 3.4.24.52: trimerelysin I
EC 3.4.24.53: trimerelysin II
EC 3.4.24.54: mucrolysin
EC 3.4.24.55: pitrilysin
EC 3.4.24.56: insulysin
EC 3.4.24.57: O-sialoglycoprotein endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.58: russellysin
EC 3.4.24.59: mitochondrial intermediate peptidase
EC 3.4.24.60: dactylysin
EC 3.4.24.61: nardilysin
EC 3.4.24.62: magnolysin
EC 3.4.24.63: meprin B
EC 3.4.24.64: mitochondrial processing peptidase
EC 3.4.24.65: macrophage elastase
EC 3.4.24.66: choriolysin L
EC 3.4.24.67: choriolysin H
EC 3.4.24.68: tentoxilysin
EC 3.4.24.69: bontoxilysin
EC 3.4.24.70: oligopeptidase A
EC 3.4.24.71: endothelin-converting enzyme 1
EC 3.4.24.72: fibrolase
EC 3.4.24.73: jararhagin
EC 3.4.24.74: fragilysin
EC 3.4.24.75: lysostaphin
EC 3.4.24.76: flavastacin
EC 3.4.24.77: snapalysin
EC 3.4.24.78: gpr endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.79: pappalysin-1
EC 3.4.24.80: membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase-1
EC 3.4.24.81: ADAM10 endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.82: ADAMTS-4 endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.83: anthrax lethal factor endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.84: Ste24 endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.85: S2P endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.86: ADAM 17 endopeptidase
EC 3.4.24.87: ADAMTS13 endopeptidase
=== EC 3.4.25 Threonine endopeptidases ===
EC 3.4.25.1: proteasome endopeptidase complex
EC 3.4.25.2: HslU—HslV peptidase
EC 3.4.99.7: Deleted entry: euphorbain
EC 3.4.99.8: Deleted entry: Gliocladium proteinase
EC 3.4.99.9: Deleted entry: hurain. Now considered to be EC 3.4.21.25, cucumisin
EC 3.4.99.10: Transferred entry: insulinase. Now EC 3.4.24.56, insulysin
EC 3.4.99.11: Deleted entry: Streptomyces alkalophilic keratinase
EC 3.4.99.12: Deleted entry: Trichophyton mentagrophytes keratinase
EC 3.4.99.13: Transferred entry: β-lytic proteinase (Mycobacterium sorangium). Now EC 3.4.24.32 EC 3.4.24.32, β-lytic metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.14: Deleted entry: mexicanain
EC 3.4.99.15: Deleted entry: Paecilomyces proteinase
EC 3.4.99.16: Deleted entry: Penicillium notatum extracellular proteinase
EC 3.4.99.17: Deleted entry: peptidoglycan endopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.18: Deleted entry: pinguinain
EC 3.4.99.19: Transferred entry: renin. Now EC 3.4.23.15, renin
EC 3.4.99.20: Deleted entry: scopulariopsis proteinase
EC 3.4.99.21: Deleted entry: solanain. Now considered EC 3.4.21.25, cucumisin
EC 3.4.99.22: Transferred entry: staphylokinase. EC 3.4.24.29, aureolysin
EC 3.4.99.23: Deleted entry: tabernamontanain. Now considered EC 3.4.21.25, cucumisin
EC 3.4.99.24: Deleted entry: Tenebrio α-proteinase
EC 3.4.99.25: Transferred entry: trametes acid proteinase. EC 3.4.23.21, rhizopuspepsin
EC 3.4.99.26: Transferred entry: urokinase. Now EC 3.4.21.68, t-plasminogen activator
EC 3.4.99.27: Deleted entry: Echis carinatus prothrombin-activating proteinase
EC 3.4.99.28: Transferred entry: Oxyuranus scutellatus prothrombin-activating proteinase. EC 3.4.21.60 EC 3.4.21.60, scutelarin
EC 3.4.99.29: Deleted entry: Myxobacter AL-1 proteinase I
EC 3.4.99.30: Transferred entry: Myxobacter AL-1 proteinase II. EC 3.4.24.20, peptidyl-Lys metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.31: Transferred entry: tissue endopeptidase degrading collagenase synthetic substrate. EC 3.4.24.15, thimet oligopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.32: Transferred entry: Armillaria mellea neutral proteinase. Now EC 3.4.24.20, peptidyl-Lys metalloendopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.33: Deleted entry: cathepsin R
EC 3.4.99.34: Deleted entry: mytilidase
EC 3.4.99.35: Transferred entry: premurein-leader peptidase. Now EC 3.4.23.36, signal peptidase II
EC 3.4.99.36: Transferred entry: leader peptidase. Now EC 3.4.21.89, signal peptidase I
EC 3.4.99.37: Deleted entry: RecA peptidase
EC 3.4.99.38: Transferred entry: pro-opiomelanotropin-converting proteinase. Now EC 3.4.23.17, pro-opiomelanocortin converting enzyme
EC 3.4.99.39: Deleted entry: pseudomurein endopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.40: Deleted entry: pro-gonadoliberin proteinase
EC 3.4.99.41: Transferred entry: mitochondrial processing peptidase. Now EC 3.4.24.64, mitochondrial processing peptidase
EC 3.4.99.42: Deleted entry: leucyllysine endopeptidase
EC 3.4.99.43: Transferred entry: thermopsin. Npw EC 3.4.23.42, thermopsin
EC 3.4.99.44: Transferred entry: pitrilysin. Now EC 3.4.24.55, pitrilysin
EC 3.4.99.45: Transferred entry: insulinase. Now EC 3.4.24.56, insulysin
EC 3.4.99.46: Transferred entry: multicatalytic endopeptidase complex. Now EC 3.4.25.1, proteasome endopeptidase complex
== EC 3.5: Acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds ==
=== 3.5.1: In linear amides ===
EC 3.5.1.1: asparaginase
EC 3.5.1.2: glutaminase
EC 3.5.1.3: ω-amidase
EC 3.5.1.4: amidase
EC 3.5.1.5: urease
EC 3.5.1.6: β-ureidopropionase
EC 3.5.1.7: ureidosuccinase
EC 3.5.1.8: formylaspartate deformylase
EC 3.5.1.9: arylformamidase
EC 3.5.1.10: formyltetrahydrofolate deformylase
EC 3.5.1.11: penicillin amidase
EC 3.5.1.12: biotinidase
EC 3.5.1.13: aryl-acylamidase
EC 3.5.1.14: N-acyl-aliphatic-L-amino acid amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.15: aspartoacylase
EC 3.5.1.16: acetylornithine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.17: acyl-lysine deacylase
EC 3.5.1.18: succinyl-diaminopimelate desuccinylase
EC 3.5.1.19: nicotinamidase
EC 3.5.1.20: citrullinase
EC 3.5.1.21: N-acetyl-β-alanine deacetylas
EC 3.5.1.22: pantothenase
EC 3.5.1.23: ceramidase
EC 3.5.1.24: choloylglycine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.25: N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.26: N4-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase
EC 3.5.1.27: The activity is covered by EC 3.5.1.88, peptide deformylase
EC 3.5.1.28: N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase
EC 3.5.1.29: 2-(acetamidomethylene)succinate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.30: 5-aminopentanamidase
EC 3.5.1.31: formylmethionine deformylase
EC 3.5.1.32: hippurate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.33: N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.34: [[Identical with ((EnzExplorer|3.4.13.5)), Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase|Identical with EC 3.4.13.5, Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase]]
EC 3.5.1.35: D-glutaminase
EC 3.5.1.36: N-methyl-2-oxoglutaramate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.37: [[Delete, identical with ((EnzExplorer|3.5.1.26)) N(4)-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase|Delete, identical with EC 3.5.1.26 N4-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase]]
EC 3.5.1.38: glutamin-(asparagin-)ase
EC 3.5.1.39: alkylamidase
EC 3.5.1.40: acylagmatine amidase
EC 3.5.1.41: chitin deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.42: nicotinamide-nucleotide amidase
EC 3.5.1.43: peptidyl-glutaminase
EC 3.5.1.44: protein-glutamine glutaminase
EC 3.5.1.45: Now listed only as EC 6.3.4.6 urea carboxylase
EC 3.5.1.46: 6-aminohexanoate-dimer hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.47: N-acetyldiaminopimelate deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.48: acetylspermidine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.49: formamidase
EC 3.5.1.50: pentanamidase
EC 3.5.1.51: 4-acetamidobutyryl-CoA deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.52: peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase
EC 3.5.1.53: N-carbamoylputrescine amidase
EC 3.5.1.54: allophanate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.55: long-chain-fatty-acyl-glutamate deacylase
EC 3.5.1.56: N,N-dimethylformamidase
EC 3.5.1.57: tryptophanamidase
EC 3.5.1.58: N-benzyloxycarbonylglycine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.59: N-carbamoylsarcosine amidase
EC 3.5.1.60: N-(long-chain-acyl)ethanolamine deacylase
EC 3.5.1.61: mimosinase
EC 3.5.1.62: acetylputrescine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.63: 4-acetamidobutyrate deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.64: Nα-benzyloxycarbonylleucine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.65: theanine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.66: 2-(hydroxymethyl)-3-(acetamidomethylene)succinate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.67: 4-methyleneglutaminase
EC 3.5.1.68: N-formylglutamate deformylase
EC 3.5.1.69: glycosphingolipid deacylase
EC 3.5.1.70: aculeacin-A deacylase
EC 3.5.1.71: N-feruloylglycine deacylase
EC 3.5.1.72: D-benzoylarginine-4-nitroanilide amidase
EC 3.5.1.73: carnitinamidase
EC 3.5.1.74: chenodeoxycholoyltaurine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.75: urethanase
EC 3.5.1.76: arylalkyl acylamidase
EC 3.5.1.77: N-carbamoyl-D-amino-acid hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.78: glutathionylspermidine amidase
EC 3.5.1.79: phthalyl amidase
EC 3.5.1.80: Identical to EC 3.5.1.25, N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.81: N-acyl-D-amino-acid deacylase
EC 3.5.1.82: N-acyl-D-glutamate deacylase
EC 3.5.1.83: N-acyl-D-aspartate deacylase
EC 3.5.1.84: biuret amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.85: (S)-N-acetyl-1-phenylethylamine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.86: mandelamide amidase
EC 3.5.1.87: N-carbamoyl-L-amino-acid hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.88: peptide deformylase
EC 3.5.1.89: N-acetylglucosaminylphosphatidylinositol deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.90: adenosylcobinamide hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.91: N-substituted formamide deformylase
EC 3.5.1.92: pantetheine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.93: glutaryl-7-aminocephalosporanic-acid acylase
EC 3.5.1.94: γ-glutamyl-γ-aminobutyrate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.95: N-malonylurea hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.96: succinylglutamate desuccinylase
EC 3.5.1.97: acyl-homoserine-lactone acylase
EC 3.5.1.98: histone deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.99: fatty acid amide hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.100: (R)-amidase
EC 3.5.1.101: L-proline amide hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.102: 2-amino-5-formylamino-6-ribosylaminopyrimidin-4(3H)-one 5′-monophosphate deformylase
EC 3.5.1.103: N-acetyl-1-D-myo-inositol-2-amino-2-deoxy-α-D-glucopyranoside deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.104: peptidoglycan-N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.105: chitin disaccharide deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.106: N-formylmaleamate deformylase
EC 3.5.1.107: maleamate amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.108: UDP-3-O-acyl-N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.109: sphingomyelin deacylase
EC 3.5.1.110: ureidoacrylate amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.111: 2-oxoglutaramate amidase
EC 3.5.1.112: 2′-N-acetylparomamine deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.113: 2′′′-acetyl-6′′′-hydroxyneomycin C deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.114: N-acyl-aromatic-L-amino acid amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.115: mycothiol S-conjugate amidase
EC 3.5.1.116: ureidoglycolate amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.117: 6-aminohexanoate-oligomer endohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.118: γ-glutamyl hercynylcysteine S-oxide hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.119: Pup amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.120: Now EC 3.5.99.11, 2-aminomuconate deaminase (2-hydroxymuconate-forming)
EC 3.5.1.121: protein N-terminal asparagine amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.122: protein N-terminal glutamine amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.123: γ-glutamylanilide hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.124: protein deglycase
EC 3.5.1.125: N 2-acetyl-L-2,4-diaminobutanoate deacetylase
EC 3.5.1.126: oxamate amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.127: jasmonoyl-L-amino acid hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.128: deaminated glutathione amidase
EC 3.5.1.129: N 5-(cytidine 5′-diphosphoramidyl)-L-glutamine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.130: [amino group carrier protein]-lysine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.131: 1-carboxybiuret hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.132: [amino group carrier protein]-ornithine hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.133: N α-acyl-L-glutamine aminoacylase
EC 3.5.1.134: (indol-3-yl)acetyl-L-aspartate hydrolase
EC 3.5.1.135: N 4-acetylcytidine amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.1.136: N,N′-diacetylchitobiose non-reducing end deacetylase
=== 3.5.2: In cyclic amides ===
EC 3.5.2.1: barbiturase
EC 3.5.2.2: dihydropyrimidinase
EC 3.5.2.3: dihydroorotase
EC 3.5.2.4: carboxymethylhydantoinase
EC 3.5.2.5: allantoinase
EC 3.5.2.6: β-lactamase
EC 3.5.2.7: imidazolonepropionase
EC 3.5.2.8: Now included with EC 3.5.2.6, β-lactamase
EC 3.5.2.9: 5-oxoprolinase (ATP-hydrolysing)
EC 3.5.2.10: creatininase
EC 3.5.2.11: L-lysine-lactamase
EC 3.5.2.12: 6-aminohexanoate-cyclic-dimer hydrolase
EC 3.5.2.13: 2,5-dioxopiperazine hydrolase
EC 3.5.2.14: N-methylhydantoinase (ATP-hydrolysing)
EC 3.5.2.15: cyanuric acid amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.2.16: maleimide hydrolase
EC 3.5.2.17: hydroxyisourate hydrolase
EC 3.5.2.18: enamidase
EC 3.5.2.19: streptothricin hydrolase
EC 3.5.2.20: isatin hydrolase
=== 3.5.3: In linear amidines ===
EC 3.5.3.1: arginase
EC 3.5.3.2: guanidinoacetase
EC 3.5.3.3: creatinase
EC 3.5.3.4: allantoicase
EC 3.5.3.5: formimidoylaspartate deiminase
EC 3.5.3.6: arginine deiminase
EC 3.5.3.7: guanidinobutyrase
EC 3.5.3.8: formimidoylglutamase
EC 3.5.3.9: allantoate deiminase
EC 3.5.3.10: D-arginase
EC 3.5.3.11: agmatinase
EC 3.5.3.12: agmatine deiminase
EC 3.5.3.13: formimidoylglutamate deiminase
EC 3.5.3.14: amidinoaspartase
EC 3.5.3.15: protein-arginine deiminase
EC 3.5.3.16: methylguanidinase
EC 3.5.3.17: guanidinopropionase
EC 3.5.3.18: dimethylargininase
EC 3.5.3.19: Now EC 3.5.1.116, ureidoglycolate amidohydrolase
EC 3.5.3.20: diguanidinobutanase
EC 3.5.3.21: Methylenediurea deaminase
EC 3.5.3.22: proclavaminate amidinohydrolase
EC 3.5.3.23: N-succinylarginine dihydrolase
EC 3.5.3.24: N 1-aminopropylagmatine ureohydrolase
EC 3.5.3.25: N ω-hydroxy-L-arginine amidinohydrolase
EC 3.5.3.26: (S)-ureidoglycine aminohydrolase
=== 3.5.4: In cyclic amidines ===
EC 3.5.4.1: cytosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.2: adenine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.3: guanine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.4: adenosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.5: cytidine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.6: AMP deaminase
EC 3.5.4.7: ADP deaminase
EC 3.5.4.8: aminoimidazolase
EC 3.5.4.9: methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.10: IMP cyclohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.11: pterin deaminase
EC 3.5.4.12: dCMP deaminase
EC 3.5.4.13: dCTP deaminase
EC 3.5.4.14: Now included in EC 3.5.4.5, (deoxy)cytidine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.15: guanosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.16: GTP cyclohydrolase I
EC 3.5.4.17: adenosine-phosphate deaminase
EC 3.5.4.18: ATP deaminase
EC 3.5.4.19: phosphoribosyl-AMP cyclohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.20: pyrithiamine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.21: creatinine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.22: 1-pyrroline-4-hydroxy-2-carboxylate deaminase
EC 3.5.4.23: blasticidin-S deaminase
EC 3.5.4.24: sepiapterin deaminase
EC 3.5.4.25: GTP cyclohydrolase II
EC 3.5.4.26: diaminohydroxyphosphoribosylaminopyrimidine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.27: methenyltetrahydromethanopterin cyclohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.28: S-adenosylhomocysteine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.29: GTP cyclohydrolase IIa
EC 3.5.4.30: dCTP deaminase (dUMP-forming)
EC 3.5.4.31: S-methyl-5′-thioadenosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.32: 8-oxoguanine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.33: tRNA(adenine34) deaminase
EC 3.5.4.34: tRNAAla(adenine37) deaminase
EC 3.5.4.35: tRNA(cytosine8) deaminase
EC 3.5.4.36: mRNA(cytosine6666) deaminase
EC 3.5.4.37: double-stranded RNA adenine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.38: single-stranded DNA cytosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.39: GTP cyclohydrolase IV
EC 3.5.4.40: aminodeoxyfutalosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.41: 5'-deoxyadenosine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.42: N-isopropylammelide isopropylaminohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.43: hydroxydechloroatrazine ethylaminohydrolase
EC 3.5.4.44: ectoine hydrolase
EC 3.5.4.45: melamine deaminase
EC 3.5.4.46: cAMP deaminase
=== 3.5.5: In nitriles ===
EC 3.5.5.1: nitrilase
EC 3.5.5.2: ricinine nitrilase
EC 3.5.5.3: Now EC 4.2.1.104, cyanate hydratase
EC 3.5.5.4: cyanoalanine nitrilase
EC 3.5.5.5: arylacetonitrilase
EC 3.5.5.6: bromoxynil nitrilase
EC 3.5.5.7: aliphatic nitrilase
EC 3.5.5.8: thiocyanate hydrolase
=== 3.5.99: In other compounds ===
EC 3.5.99.1: riboflavinase
EC 3.5.99.2: aminopyrimidine aminohydrolase
EC 3.5.99.3: Now EC 3.5.4.43, hydroxydechloroatrazine ethylaminohydrolase
EC 3.5.99.4: Now EC 3.5.4.42, N-isopropylammelide isopropylaminohydrolase
EC 3.5.99.5: 2-aminomuconate deaminase
EC 3.5.99.6: glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase
EC 3.5.99.7: 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase
EC 3.5.99.8: 5-nitroanthranilic acid aminohydrolase
EC 3.5.99.9: 2-nitroimidazole nitrohydrolase
EC 3.5.99.10: 2-iminobutanoate/2-iminopropanoate deaminase
EC 3.5.99.11: 2-aminomuconate deaminase (2-hydroxymuconate-forming)
== EC 3.6: Acting on acid anhydrides ==
=== 3.6.1: In phosphorus-containing anhydrides ===
EC 3.6.1.1: inorganic diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.2: trimetaphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.3: adenosinetriphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.4: Now included with EC 3.6.1.3, adenosinetriphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.5: apyrase
EC 3.6.1.6: nucleoside diphosphate phosphatase
EC 3.6.1.7: acylphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.8: ATP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.9: nucleotide diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.10: endopolyphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.11: exopolyphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.12: dCTP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.13: ADP-ribose diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.14: adenosine-tetraphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.15: nucleoside-triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.16: CDP-glycerol diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.17: bis(5′-nucleosyl)-tetraphosphatase (asymmetrical))
EC 3.6.1.18: FAD diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.19: Now EC 3.6.1.9, nucleotide diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.20: 5′-acylphosphoadenosine hydrolase
EC 3.6.1.21: ADP-sugar diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.22: NAD+ diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.23: dUTP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.24: nucleoside phosphoacylhydrolase
EC 3.6.1.25: triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.26: CDP-diacylglycerol diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.27: undecaprenyl-diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.28: thiamine-triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.29: bis(5′-adenosyl)-triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.30: Now covered by EC 3.6.1.59 [m7GpppX diphosphatase] and EC 3.6.1.62 [m7GpppN-mRNA hydrolase].
EC 3.6.1.31: phosphoribosyl-ATP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.32: Now EC 3.6.4.1, myosin ATPase
EC 3.6.1.33: Now EC 3.6.4.2, dynein ATPase
EC 3.6.1.34: Transferred entry: H+-transporting ATP synthase. Now EC 3.6.3.14, H+-transporting two-sector ATPase
EC 3.6.1.35: Now EC 3.6.3.6, H+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.1.36: Now EC 3.6.3.10, H+/K+-exchanging ATPase
EC 3.6.1.37: Now EC 3.6.3.9, Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase
EC 3.6.1.38: Now EC 3.6.3.8, Ca2+-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.1.39: thymidine-triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.40: guanosine-5′-triphosphate,3′-diphosphate phosphatase
EC 3.6.1.41: bis(5′-nucleosyl)-tetraphosphatase (symmetrical)
EC 3.6.1.42: guanosine-diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.43: dolichyldiphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.44: oligosaccharide-diphosphodolichol diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.45: UDP-sugar diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.46: Now EC 3.6.5.1, heterotrimeric G-protein GTPase
EC 3.6.1.47: Now EC 3.6.5.3, protein-synthesizing GTPase
EC 3.6.1.49: Now EC 3.6.5.4, signal-recognition-particle GTPase
EC 3.6.1.50: Now EC 3.6.5.5, dynamin GTPase
EC 3.6.1.51: Now EC 3.6.5.6, tubulin GTPase
EC 3.6.1.52: diphosphoinositol-polyphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.53: Mn2+-dependent ADP-ribose/CDP-alcohol diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.54: UDP-2,3-diacylglucosamine diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.55: 8-oxo-dGTP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.56: 2-hydroxy-dATP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.57: UDP-2,4-diacetamido-2,4,6-trideoxy-β-L-altropyranose hydrolase
EC 3.6.1.58: 8-oxo-dGDP phosphatase
EC 3.6.1.59: 5′-(N7-methyl 5′-triphosphoguanosine)-[mRNA] diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.60: diadenosine hexaphosphate hydrolase (AMP-forming)
EC 3.6.1.61: diadenosine hexaphosphate hydrolase (ATP-forming)
EC 3.6.1.62: 5′-(N7-methylguanosine 5′-triphospho)-[mRNA] hydrolase
EC 3.6.1.63: α-D-ribose 1-methylphosphonate 5-triphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.64: inosine diphosphate phosphatase
EC 3.6.1.65: (d)CTP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.66: XTP/dITP diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.67: dihydroneopterin triphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.68: geranyl diphosphate phosphohydrolase
EC 3.6.1.69: 8-oxo-(d)GTP phosphatase
EC 3.6.1.70: guanosine-5′-diphospho-5′-[DNA] diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.71: adenosine-5′-diphospho-5′-[DNA] diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.72: DNA-3′-diphospho-5′-guanosine diphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.73: inosine/xanthosine triphosphatase
EC 3.6.1.74: mRNA 5′-phosphatase
=== 3.6.2: In sulfonyl-containing anhydrides ===
EC 3.6.2.1: adenylylsulfatase
EC 3.6.2.2: phosphoadenylylsulfatase
=== 3.6.3: Acting on acid anhydrides to catalyse transmembrane movement of substances ===
EC 3.6.3.1: phospholipid-translocating ATPase
EC 3.6.3.2: Now EC 7.2.2.14, P-type Mg2+ transporter
EC 3.6.3.3: Now EC 7.2.2.21, Cd2+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.4: Now EC 7.2.2.9, Cu2+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.5: Now EC 7.2.2.12, Zn2+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.6: Now EC 7.1.2.1, P-type H+-exporting transporter
EC 3.6.3.7: Now EC 7.2.2.3, P-type Na+ transporter
EC 3.6.3.8: Now EC 7.2.2.10, Ca2+-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.9: Now EC 7.2.2.13, Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase
EC 3.6.3.10: Now EC 7.2.2.19, H+/K+-exchanging ATPase
EC 3.6.3.11: "Cl–-transporting ATPase". The activity was only ever studied in crude extracts, and is an artifact
EC 3.6.3.12: Now EC 7.2.2.6, K+-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.13:Identical to EC 3.6.3.1, phospholipid-translocating ATPase
EC 3.6.3.14: Now EC 7.1.2.2, H+-transporting two-sector ATPase
EC 3.6.3.15: Now EC 7.2.2.1, Na+-transporting two-sector ATPase
EC 3.6.3.16: Now EC 7.3.2.7, arsenite-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.17: Now covered by various ABC-type monosaccharide transporters in sub-subclass EC 7.5.2
EC 3.6.3.18: Now EC 7.5.2.2, ABC-type oligosaccharide transporter
EC 3.6.3.19: Now EC 7.5.2.1, ABC-type maltose transporter
EC 3.6.3.20: Now EC 7.6.2.10, glycerol-3-phosphate-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.21: Now EC 7.4.2.1, ABC-type polar-amino-acid transporter
EC 3.6.3.22: Now EC 7.4.2.2, ABC-type nonpolar-amino-acid transporter
EC 3.6.3.23: Now EC 7.4.2.6, oligopeptide-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.24: Now EC 7.2.2.11, nickel-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.25: Now EC 7.3.2.3, sulfate-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.26: Now EC 7.3.2.4, nitrate-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.27: Now EC 7.3.2.1, ABC-type phosphate transporter
EC 3.6.3.28: Now EC 7.3.2.2, ABC-type phosphonate transporter
EC 3.6.3.29: Now EC 7.3.2.5, molybdate-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.30: Now EC 7.2.2.7, Fe3+-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.31: Now EC 7.6.2.11, polyamine-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.32: Now EC 7.6.2.9, quaternary-amine-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.33: Now EC 7.6.2.8, vitamin B12-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.34: now recognized to be at least three separate enzymes EC 7.2.2.16, iron(III) hydroxamate ABC transporter, EC 7.2.2.17, ferric enterobactin ABC transporter, and EC 7.2.2.18, ferric citrate ABC transporter
EC 3.6.3.35: Now EC 7.2.2.5, manganese-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.36: Now EC 7.6.2.7, taurine-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.37: Now EC 7.6.2.6, guanine-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.38: Now EC 7.6.2.12, ABC-type capsular-polysaccharide transporter
EC 3.6.3.39: Now EC 7.5.2.5, lipopolysaccharide-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.40: Now EC 7.5.2.4, teichoic-acid-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.41: Now EC 7.6.2.5, heme-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.42: Now EC 7.5.2.3, β-glucan-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.43: Now EC 7.4.2.5, peptide-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.44: Now EC 7.6.2.2, ABC-type xenobiotic transporter
EC 3.6.3.45: Now included with EC 3.6.3.44, xenobiotic-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.46: Now EC 7.2.2.2, ABC-type Cd2+ transporter
EC 3.6.3.47: Now EC 7.6.2.4, fatty-acyl-CoA-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.48: Now EC 7.4.2.7 as α-factor-pheromone transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.49: Now EC 5.6.1.6, channel-conductance-controlling ATPase
EC 3.6.3.50: Now EC 7.4.2.8, protein-secreting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.51: Now EC 7.4.2.3, mitochondrial protein-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.52: Now EC 7.4.2.4, chloroplast protein-transporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.53: Now EC 7.2.2.15, Ag+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.54: Now EC 7.2.2.8, Cu+-exporting ATPase
EC 3.6.3.55: Now EC 7.3.2.6, tungstate-importing ATPase
=== 3.6.4: Acting on acid anhydrides to facilitate cellular and subcellular movement ===
EC 3.6.4.1: Now EC 5.6.1.8, myosin ATPase
EC 3.6.4.2: Now EC 5.6.1.2, dynein ATPase
EC 3.6.4.3: Now EC 5.6.1.1, microtubule-severing ATPase
EC 3.6.4.4: Now EC 5.6.1.3, plus-end-directed kinesin ATPase
EC 3.6.4.5: Now EC 5.6.1.4, minus-end-directed kinesin ATPase
EC 3.6.4.6: vesicle-fusing ATPase
EC 3.6.4.7: peroxisome-assembly ATPase
EC 3.6.4.8: Now EC 5.6.1.5, proteasome ATPase
EC 3.6.4.9: Now EC 5.6.1.7, chaperonin ATPase
EC 3.6.4.10: non-chaperonin molecular chaperone ATPase
EC 3.6.4.11: Deleted, the activity has been shown not to take place
EC 3.6.4.12: DNA helicase
EC 3.6.4.13: RNA helicase
=== 3.6.5: Acting on GTP to facilitate cellular and subcellular movement ===
EC 3.6.5.1: heterotrimeric G-protein GTPase
EC 3.6.5.2: small monomeric GTPase
EC 3.6.5.3: protein-synthesizing GTPase
EC 3.6.5.4: signal-recognition-particle GTPase
EC 3.6.5.5: dynamin GTPase
EC 3.6.5.6: tubulin GTPase
== EC 3.7: Acting on carbon-carbon bonds ==
=== EC 3.7.1: In ketonic substances ===
EC 3.7.1.1: oxaloacetase
EC 3.7.1.2: fumarylacetoacetase
EC 3.7.1.3: kynureninase
EC 3.7.1.4: phloretin hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.5: acylpyruvate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.6: acetylpyruvate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.7: β-diketone hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.8: 2,6-dioxo-6-phenylhexa-3-enoate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.9: 2-hydroxymuconate-semialdehyde hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.10: cyclohexane-1,3-dione hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.11: cyclohexane-1,2-dione hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.12: cobalt-precorrin 5A hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.13: 2-hydroxy-6-oxo-6-(2-aminophenyl)hexa-2,4-dienoate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.14: 2-hydroxy-6-oxonona-2,4-dienedioate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.15: Now EC 4.2.1.138, (+)-caryolan-1-ol synthase
EC 3.7.1.16: Now EC 3.3.2.12, oxepin-CoA hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.17: 4,5:9,10-diseco-3-hydroxy-5,9,17-trioxoandrosta-1(10),2-diene-4-oate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.18: 6-oxocamphor hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.19: 2,6-dihydroxypseudooxynicotine hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.20: 3-fumarylpyruvate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.21: 6-oxocyclohex-1-ene-1-carbonyl-CoA hydratase
EC 3.7.1.22: 3D-(3,5/4)-trihydroxycyclohexane-1,2-dione acylhydrolase (ring-opening)
EC 3.7.1.23: maleylpyruvate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.24: 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.25: 2-hydroxy-6-oxohepta-2,4-dienoate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.26: 2,4-didehydro-3-deoxy-L-rhamnonate hydrolase
EC 3.7.1.27: neryl diphosphate diphosphatase
EC 3.7.1.28: 3-oxoisoapionate-4-phosphate transcarboxylase/hydrolase
== EC 3.8: Acting on halide bonds ==
=== EC 3.8.1: Acting on halide bonds ===
EC 3.8.1.1: Covered by EC 3.8.1.5, haloalkane dehalogenase.
EC 3.8.1.2: (S)-2-haloacid dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.3: haloacetate dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.4: Now EC 1.97.1.10, thyroxine 5′-deiodinase
EC 3.8.1.5: haloalkane dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.6: 4-chlorobenzoate dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.7: 4-chlorobenzoyl-CoA dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.8: atrazine chlorohydrolase
EC 3.8.1.9: (R)-2-haloacid dehalogenase
EC 3.8.1.10: 2-haloacid dehalogenase (configuration-inverting)
EC 3.8.1.11: 2-haloacid dehalogenase (configuration-retaining)
=== 3.8.2: In phosphorus-halide compounds (deleted sub-subclass) ===
EC 3.8.2.1: Now EC 3.1.8.2, diisopropyl-fluorophosphatase
== EC 3.9: act on phosphorus-nitrogen bonds ==
=== EC 3.9.1: Acting on phosphorus-nitrogen bonds (only sub-subclass identified to date) ===
EC 3.9.1.1: phosphoamidase
EC 3.9.1.2: protein arginine phosphatase
EC 3.9.1.3: phosphohistidine phosphatase
== EC 3.10: Acting on sulfur-nitrogen bonds ==
=== EC 3.10.1: Acting on sulfur-nitrogen bonds (only sub-subclass identified to date) ===
EC 3.10.1.1: N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase
EC 3.10.1.2: cyclamate sulfohydrolase
== EC 3.11: Acting on carbon-phosphorus bonds ==
=== EC 3.11.1: Acting on carbon-phosphorus bonds (only sub-subclass identified to date) ===
EC 3.11.1.1: phosphonoacetaldehyde hydrolase
EC 3.11.1.2: phosphonoacetate hydrolase
EC 3.11.1.3: phosphonopyruvate hydrolase
== EC 3.12: Acting on sulfur-sulfur bonds ==
=== EC 3.12.1: Acting on sulfur-sulfur bonds (only sub-subclass identified to date) ===
EC 3.12.1.1: trithionate hydrolase
== EC 3.13: Acting on carbon-sulfur bonds ==
=== EC 3.13.1: Acting on carbon-sulfur bonds (only sub-subclass identified to date) ===
EC 3.13.1.1: UDP-sulfoquinovose synthase
EC 3.13.1.2: Deleted, the activity is most probably attributable to EC 4.4.1.21, S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase
EC 3.13.1.3: 2′-hydroxybiphenyl-2-sulfinate desulfinase
EC 3.13.1.4: 3-sulfinopropanoyl-CoA desulfinase
EC 3.13.1.5: carbon disulfide hydrolase
EC 3.13.1.6: [CysO sulfur-carrier protein]-S-L-cysteine hydrolase
EC 3.13.1.7: Carbonyl sulfide hydrolase
EC 3.13.1.8: S-adenosyl-L-methionine hydrolase (adenosine-forming)
EC 3.13.1.9: S-inosyl-L-homocysteine hydrolase
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile | Joanna of Castile | Joanna of Castile (6 November 1479 – 12 April 1555), historically known as Joanna the Mad (Spanish: Juana la Loca), was the nominal queen of Castile from 1504 and queen of Aragon from 1516 to her death in 1555. She was the daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. Joanna was married by arrangement to the Austrian archduke Philip the Handsome on 20 October 1496. Following the deaths of her elder brother John, elder sister Isabella, and nephew Miguel between 1497 and 1500, Joanna became the heir presumptive to the crowns of Castile and Aragon. When her mother died in 1504, she became queen of Castile. Her father proclaimed himself governor and administrator of Castile.
In 1506, Joanna's husband Philip became king of Castile jure uxoris as Philip I, initiating the rule of the Habsburgs in the Spanish kingdoms. Philip died that same year. Despite being the ruling queen of Castile, Joanna had little effect on national policy during her reign as she was declared insane and confined in the Royal Palace in Tordesillas under the orders of her father, who ruled as regent until his death in 1516, when she inherited his kingdom as well. Her son Charles I became king, and during his reign Joanna was nominally co-monarch but remained confined until her death. Joanna died aged 75 in 1555, at which point her son Charles, the Holy Roman Emperor, became the sole ruler of Castile and Aragon.
== Early life ==
Joanna was born on 6 November 1479 in the city of Toledo in the Kingdom of Castile. She was the fourth but third surviving child and the second daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, both members of the House of Trastámara.
She had a fair complexion and brown eyes, and her hair colour was between strawberry-blonde and auburn, like her mother and her sister Catherine. Her siblings were Isabella, Queen of Portugal; John, Prince of Asturias; Maria, Queen of Portugal; and Catherine, Queen of England.
=== Education ===
Joanna was educated and formally trained for a significant marriage that, as a royal family alliance, would extend the kingdom's power and security as well as its influence and peaceful relations with other ruling powers. As an Infanta (princess), she was not expected to be heiress to the throne of either Castile or Aragon, although through deaths she later inherited both thrones.
Joanna's academic education consisted of canon and civil law, genealogy and heraldry, grammar, history, languages, mathematics, philosophy, reading, spelling and writing. Among the authors of classical literature she read were the Christian poets Juvencus and Prudentius, Church fathers Saint Ambrose, Saint Augustine, Saint Gregory, and Saint Jerome, and the Roman statesman Seneca.
In the Castilian court Joanna's main tutors were the Dominican priest Andrés de Miranda; educator Beatriz Galindo, who was a member of the queen's court; and her mother, the queen. Joanna's royal education included cooking, court etiquette, dancing, drawing, equestrian skills, music, and the needle arts of embroidery, needlepoint, sewing, spinning, and weaving. She studied the Iberian Romance languages of Castilian, Leonese, Galician-Portuguese and Catalan, and became fluent in French and Latin. She learned outdoor pursuits such as hawking and hunting. She was skilled at dancing and music; she played the clavichord, the guitar, and the monochord.
=== Marriage ===
In 1496, 16-year-old Joanna was betrothed to 18-year-old Philip of Austria, in the Low Countries. Philip's parents were Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and his first wife, Duchess Mary of Burgundy. The marriage was one of a set of family alliances between the Habsburgs and the Trastámaras designed to strengthen both against growing French power.
Joanna entered a proxy marriage at the Palacio de los Vivero in the city of Valladolid, Castile, where her parents had secretly married in 1469. In August 1496 Joanna left from the port of Laredo in northern Castile on the Atlantic's Bay of Biscay. Except for 1506, when she saw her younger sister Catherine, the then-Dowager Princess of Wales, she would never see her siblings again.
Joanna began her journey to Brabant in the Low Countries, which consisted of parts of the present day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Germany, on 22 August 1496. The formal marriage took place on 20 October 1496 in Lier, north of present-day Brussels. Between 1498 and 1507, she gave birth to six children, two boys and four girls, all of whom grew up to be either emperors or queens.
=== Princess of Asturias ===
The death of Joanna's brother John, the stillbirth of John's daughter, and the deaths of Joanna's older sister Isabella and Isabella's son Miguel made Joanna heiress to the Spanish kingdoms. Her remaining siblings were Maria (1482–1517) and Catherine (1485–1536), younger than Joanna by three and six years respectively.
In 1502, the Castilian Cortes of Toro recognised Joanna as heiress to the Castilian throne and Philip as her consort. She was named Princess of Asturias, the title traditionally given to the heir of Castile. Also in 1502, the Aragonese Cortes gathered in Zaragoza to swear an oath to Joanna as heiress; however, the Archbishop of Zaragoza, Alonso de Aragón expressed firmly that this oath could only establish jurisprudence by way of a formal agreement on the succession between the Cortes and the king.
In 1502, Philip, Joanna and a large part of their court traveled to Toledo for Joanna to receive fealty from the Cortes of Castile as Princess of Asturias, heiress to the Castilian throne, a journey chronicled in great detail by Antoon I van Lalaing (French: Antoine de Lalaing). Philip and the majority of the court returned to the Low Countries in the following year, leaving a pregnant Joanna in Madrid, where she gave birth to her fourth child, Ferdinand, later a central European monarch and Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand I.
== Reign ==
=== Queen of Castile ===
==== Succession ====
Upon the death of her mother in November 1504, Joanna became queen regnant of Castile and her husband jure uxoris its king in 1506. Joanna's father, Ferdinand II, lost his monarchical status in Castile although his wife's will permitted him to govern in Joanna's absence or, if Joanna was unwilling to rule herself, until Joanna's heir reached the age of 20.
Ferdinand refused to accept this; he minted Castilian coins in the name of "Ferdinand and Joanna, King and Queen of Castile, León and Aragon", and, in early 1505, persuaded the Cortes that Joanna's "illness is such that the said Queen Doña Joanna our Lady cannot govern". The Cortes then appointed Ferdinand as Joanna's guardian and the kingdom's administrator and governor.
Joanna's husband, Philip, was unwilling to accept any threat to his chances of ruling Castile and also minted coins in the name of "Philip and Joanna, King and Queen of Castile, Léon and Archdukes of Austria, etc." In response, Ferdinand embarked upon a pro-French policy, marrying Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII of France (and his own great-niece), in the hope that she would produce a son to inherit Aragon and perhaps Castile.
In the Low Countries, Joanna was kept in confinement, but when her father-in-law Maximilian (in semi-secrecy) visited them on 24 August 1505 she was released to welcome him. Maximilian tried to comfort Joanna with festivities and she spent weeks accompanying him in public events, during which she acted like a wise, prudent queen, as noted by the Venetian ambassador. To entertain Joanna, Philip and Maximilian (who was dressed incognito) jousted against each other at night, under torchlight. Maximilian told Philip that he could only succeed as a monarch if husband and wife were "una cosa medesima" (one and the same). After this, the couple reconciled somewhat. When Philip tried to gain support from Castilian nobles and prelates against Ferdinand though, Joanna firmly refused to act against her father.
Ferdinand's remarriage merely strengthened support for Philip and Joanna in Castile, and in late 1505 the pair decided to travel to Castile. Before they boarded the ship, Joanna forbade a ship with female attendants to join the trip, fearing that Philip would have illicit relationships with them. This action played right into Philip's and Ferdinand's propaganda against her. Leaving Flanders on 10 January 1506, their ships were wrecked on the English coast and the couple were guests of Henry, Prince of Wales (later Henry VIII), and Joanna's sister Catherine of Aragon at Windsor Castle. They weren't able to leave until 21 April, by which time civil war was looming in Castile.
Philip apparently considered landing in Andalusia and summoning the nobles to take up arms against Ferdinand in Aragon. Instead, he and Joanna landed at A Coruña on 26 April, whereupon the Castilian nobility abandoned Ferdinand en masse. Ferdinand met Philip at Villafáfila on 27 June 1506 for a private interview in the village church. To the general surprise, Ferdinand had unexpectedly handed over the government of Castile to his "most beloved children", promising to retire to Aragon. Philip and Ferdinand then signed the Treaty of Villafáfila secretly, agreeing that Joanna's "infirmities and sufferings" made her incapable of ruling and promising to exclude her from government and deprive the Queen of crown and freedom.
Ferdinand promptly repudiated the second agreement the same afternoon, declaring that Joanna should never be deprived of her rights as Queen Proprietress of Castile. A fortnight later, having come to no fresh agreement with Philip, and thus effectively retaining his right to interfere if he considered his daughter's rights to have been infringed upon, he abandoned Castile for Aragon, leaving Philip to govern in Joanna's stead.
==== Philip's death ====
By virtue of the agreement of Villafáfila, the procurators of the Cortes met in Valladolid, Castile on 9 July 1506. On 12 July, they swore allegiance to Philip I and Joanna together as King and Queen of Castile and León and to their son Charles as their heir-apparent. This arrangement only lasted for a few months.
On 25 September 1506, Philip died after a five-day illness in the city of Burgos in Castile. The probable cause of death was typhoid fever but there were rumors that his father-in-law, Ferdinand II, had poisoned him. Joanna was pregnant with their sixth child, a daughter named Catherine (1507–1578), who later became Queen of Portugal. As Joanna had no midwife at the time, she was assisted during childbirth by her lady-in-waiting, María de Ulloa.
By 20 December 1506, Joanna was in the village of Torquemada in Castile, attempting to exercise her rights to rule alone in her own name as Queen of Castile. The country fell into disorder. Her son and heir-apparent Charles, later Charles I, was a six-year-old child being raised in his aunt's care in northern European Flanders; her father, Ferdinand II, remained in Aragon, allowing the crisis to grow.
A regency council under Archbishop Cisneros was set up, against the queen's orders, but it was unable to manage the growing public disorder; plague and famine devastated the kingdom with supposedly half the population perishing of one or the other. The queen was unable to secure the funds required to assist her to protect her power. In the face of this, Ferdinand II returned to Castile in July 1507. His arrival coincided with a remission of the plague and famine, a development which quieted the instability and left an impression that his return had restored the health of the kingdom.
==== Father's regency ====
Ferdinand II and Joanna met at Hornillos, Castile, on 30 July 1507. Ferdinand then constrained her to yield her power over the Kingdom of Castile and León to himself. On 17 August 1507, three members of the royal council were summoned – supposedly in her name – and ordered to inform the grandees of her father Ferdinand II's return to power: "That they should go to receive his highness and serve him as they would her person and more." However, she made it evident that this was against her will, by refusing to sign the instructions and issuing a statement that as queen regnant she did not endorse the surrender of her own royal powers.
Nonetheless, she was thereafter queen in name only, and all documents, though issued in her name, were signed with Ferdinand's signature, "I the King". He was named administrator of the kingdom by the Cortes of Castile in 1510, and entrusted the government mainly to Archbishop Cisneros. He had Joanna confined in the Royal Palace in Tordesillas, near Valladolid in Castile, in February 1509 after having dismissed all of her faithful servants and having appointed a small retinue accountable to him alone. At this time, some accounts claim that she was insane or "mad", and that she took her husband's corpse with her to Tordesillas to keep it close to her.
==== Son as co-monarch ====
As a result of the death of her father, Ferdinand II, on 23 January 1516, Joanna became Queen of Aragon. Cisneros and the regency council hid the news of her father's death from her, pretending he still lived and ruled. Her then-17-year-old son Charles arrived in Asturias at the Bay of Biscay in October 1517. Until his arrival, the Crown of Aragon was governed by Archbishop Alonso de Aragón (an illegitimate son of Ferdinand) and her Crown of Castile was governed by Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros. On 4 November, Charles and his sister Eleanor met their mother Joanna at Tordesillas – there they secured from her the necessary authorisation to allow Charles to rule as her co-King of Castile and León and of Aragon. Despite her acquiescence to his wishes, her confinement would continue and Charles expanded the deceptions surrounding her, later hiding the 1519 death of Emperor Maximilian from her. The Castilian Cortes, meeting in Valladolid, spited Charles by addressing him only as Su Alteza ("Your Highness") and reserving Majestad ("Majesty") for Joanna. However, no one seriously considered rule by Joanna a realistic proposition.
In 1519, Charles I ruled the Crown of Aragon and its territories and the Crown of Castile and its territories, in personal union. In addition, that same year Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor. The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (and Navarre) remained in personal union until their jurisdictional unification in the early 18th century by the Nueva Planta decrees, while Charles eventually abdicated as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in favour of his brother Ferdinand, and as King of Spain in favour of his son Philip – an act that represented the "transition from a universal empire to defence of the interests of the 'Austrian family' (austriacismo), in other words, to a close alliance between two parts of the dynasty, aimed at guaranteeing the hegemony of Catholicism and of the dynasty within Europe".
==== Revolt of the Comuneros ====
In 1520, the Revolt of the Comuneros broke out in response to the perceived foreign Habsburg influence over Castile through Charles V. The rebel leaders demanded that Castile be governed in accordance with the supposed practices of the Catholic Monarchs. In an attempt to legitimise their rebellion, the Comuneros turned to Joanna. As the sovereign monarch, had she given written approval to the rebellion, it would have been legalised and would have triumphed.
In an attempt to prevent this, Don Antonio de Rojas Manrique, Bishop of Mallorca, led a delegation of royal councillors to Tordesillas, asking Joanna to sign a document denouncing the Comuneros. She demurred, requesting that he present her specific provisions. Before this could be done, the Comuneros in turn stormed the virtually undefended city and requested her support.
The request prompted Adrian of Utrecht, the regent appointed by Charles V, to declare that Charles would lose Castile if she granted her support. Although she was sympathetic to the Comuneros, she was persuaded by Ochoa de Landa and her confessor Fray John of Ávila that supporting the revolt would irreparably damage the country and her son's kingship, and she therefore refused to sign a document granting her support. The Battle of Villalar confirmed that Charles would prevail over the revolt.
==== Forced confinement ====
Charles ensured his domination and throne by having his mother confined for the rest of her life in the now-demolished Royal Palace in Tordesillas, Castile. Joanna's condition degenerated further. She apparently became convinced that some of the nuns that took care of her wanted to kill her. Reportedly it was difficult for her to eat, sleep, bathe, or change her clothes. Charles wrote to her caretakers: "It seems to me that the best and most suitable thing for you to do is to make sure that no person speaks with Her Majesty, for no good could come from it".
Her late mother's lady-in-waiting, Catalina de Medrano y Bravo de Lagunas, along with her husband, Hernando de Sandoval y Rojas, took part in the custody and care of Joanna in Tordesillas. Joanna also had her youngest daughter, Catherine of Austria, with her during Ferdinand II's time as regent, 1507–1516. Her older daughter, Eleanor of Austria, had created a semblance of a household within the palace rooms. In her final years, Joanna's physical state began to decline rapidly, with mobility ever more difficult.
== Death ==
Joanna died on Good Friday, 12 April 1555, at the age of 75 in the Royal Palace at Tordesillas. She is entombed in the Royal Chapel of Granada in Spain, alongside her parents, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, her husband Philip I and her nephew Miguel da Paz, Prince of Asturias.
== Disputed mental health claims ==
As a young woman, Joanna was known to be highly intelligent. Claims regarding her as "mad" are widely disputed. It was only after her marriage that the first suspicions of mental illness arose. Some historians believe she may have had melancholia, a depressive disorder, a psychosis, or a case of inherited schizophrenia. She may also have been unjustly painted as "mad" as her husband Philip the Handsome and her father, Ferdinand, had a great deal to gain from Joanna being declared sick or incompetent to rule.
The narrative of her purported mental illness is perpetuated in stories of the mental illness of her maternal grandmother, Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile, who, in widowhood, was exiled by her stepson to the castle of Arévalo in Ávila, Castile.
== Legacy ==
Bethany Aram argues that while she seemed to be unable or unwilling to rule herself, Joanna's major (political) significance lay with her defense of the rights of her descendants and thus the Habsburg dynasty. While she did have affection for Philip, her refusal to bury her husband (and attempt to bring his corpse to Granada so that he would lie beside her mother) was likely an attempt to ward off suitors and create a connection between Charles and Castile. Facing the leaders of the Comunero Revolt, she again chose the Habsburg dynasty over her Castilian heritage. Her fecundity provided Charles with many Habsburg siblings (and by extensions, these siblings' children) who upheld his rule. Sara T. Nalle agrees with Aram that this was Joanna's major success, while pointing out that Aram seems to gloss over the fact that Joanna's contemporaries did see her as different. Nalle opines that overall, Joanna was a troubled individual who, not trained for the political world, found herself surrounded by strong personalities, and had to face a shocking amount of cruelty and deceit.
== Arms ==
== Children ==
== Ancestry ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Biographies
Prawdin, Michael, The Mad Queen of Spain (1939)
Dennis, Amarie, Seek the Darkness: The Story of Juana La Loca, (1945)
Prescott, William H., History of Ferdinand and Isabella (1854)
Rosier, Johanna die Wahnsinnige (1890)
Tighe, Harry, A Queen of Unrest: The Story of Juana of Castile, Mother of Charles V., Born 1479, Died 1555 (1907).
Villa, R., La Reina doña Juana la Loca (1892)
Aram, Bethany, Juana the Mad: Sovereignty and Dynasty in Renaissance Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).
Fleming, Gillian B., Juana I: Legitimacy and Conflict in Sixteenth Century Castile (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
Assini, Adriana, Le rose di Cordova, Scrittura & Scritture, Napoli 2007
Fox, Julia, Sister Queens: The Noble, Tragic Lives of Katherine of Aragon and Juana, Queen of Castile (New York: Ballantine Books, 2011).
Bergenroth, G A. Introduction, Part 1, Calendar of State Papers, Spain; vol. 1, 1485–1509, (London, 1862), p. xlvii. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol1
Works cited
Miller, Townsend, Castles and the Crown. Coward-McCann: New York, 1963
Aram, Bethany, "Juana 'the Mad's' Signature: The Problem of Invoking Royal Authority, 1505–1507", Sixteenth Century Journal
Elliott, J.H., Imperial Spain, 1469–1716
de Francisco Olmos, José María: Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Juana la Loca fabricada en los Países Bajos (1505–1506), Revista General de Información y Documentación 2002, vol. 12, núm. 2 (Universidad complutense de Madrid).
de Francisco Olmos, José María: Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Carlos I fabricada en los Países Bajos (1517); Revista General de Información y Documentación 2003, vol. 13, núm. 2 (Universidad complutense de Madrid).
Juan-Navarro, Santiago, Maria Gomez, and Phyllis Zatlin. Juana of Castile: History and Myth of the Mad Queen. Newark and London: Bucknell University Press, 2008.
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C._season | 2021–22 Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. season | The 2021–22 season was the 120th season in the existence of Brighton & Hove Albion and the club's fifth consecutive season in the top flight of English football. In addition to the domestic league, Brighton & Hove Albion participated in this season's edition of the FA Cup and in the EFL Cup, where they exited both competitions in the fourth round. Brighton finished the season in ninth, their highest ever finish in the top flight, surpassing the 13th-place finish in the 1981–82 season.
== Summary ==
Brighton played three pre-season friendlies, the first coming against Rangers at Ibrox on 24 July where it finished in a goalless draw, with former Albion player Connor Goldson being the main attraction of the fixture. Their second friendly fixture came a week later, away at Luton Town with former Seagulls player and coach Nathan Jones managing The Hatters. Brighton prevailed, winning 3–1 with goals from Aaron Connolly, new summer signing Enock Mwepu and Percy Tau finding the net for the first time in an Albion shirt. Brighton's last pre-season friendly came on 7 August and the only friendly being played at home. With the return of most first team players including the likes of captain Lewis Dunk and Leandro Trossard, Albion fell to a 2–0 defeat to La Liga side Getafe.
Albion won their opening match of the season coming from behind to win 2–1 against Burnley at Turf Moor with goals from Neal Maupay and Alexis Mac Allister. Summer signing Enock Mwepu made his Brighton and Premier League debut with Shane Duffy making his first Albion appearance since the 2019–20 season. Brighton beat Watford 2–0 on 21 August, in the second match of the season with this being their best start in a top-flight campaign. It was also Albion's first match in front of a full stadium since March 2020.
Potter fielded a team of an average age of 20.5 years in the second round EFL Cup tie over Cardiff City with Jakub Moder and Andi Zeqiri grabbing their first Brighton goals in the 2–0 away win.
Brighton's first loss came on 28 August, a 2–0 home loss against Everton with Taylor Richards making his Albion league and Premier League debut. In the first derby game against bitter rivals Crystal Palace of the season away at Selhurst Park on 27 September, Brighton were trailing after Leandro Trossard conceded a penalty in which Wilfried Zaha scored and took Crystal Palace 1–0 up at the break. However, Joël Veltman hit a long ball into Neal Maupay from a poor Vicente Guaita goal kick and Maupay lobbed the keeper and scored a 90+5th-minute equaliser taking a point back to Sussex.
Brighton's second loss of the Premier League season came on 23 October, in their ninth game, losing 4–1 at home with Manchester City winning comfortably, scoring their first three goals in the space of 18 minutes. Four days later, Brighton were knocked of the EFL Cup, losing away to Leicester City on penalties after a 2–2 draw in which Mwepu scored his first goal for the club. Jürgen Locadia also made his first start – and only his second appearance – for the club in over two years. Three days later, away at Liverpool Brighton came from 2–0 down to draw 2–2, with Mwepu again on the scoresheet adding his first league goal for the club.
Potter made his 100th appearance as Brighton manager on 20 November, in the 2–0 away defeat against Aston Villa.
On 6 December, Brighton were drawn away to West Bromwich Albion in the third round FA Cup draw, which will be played on 8 January 2022. Albion's Premier League fixture with Tottenham Hotspur set to be played on 12 December was postponed three days prior to the match with Spurs having high numbers of COVID-19 cases. Brighton returned to action on 15 December, a midweek 1–0 home loss against Wolves, with several absences due to Covid, injury and suspension before the fixture against Manchester United scheduled for 18 December was also postponed, this time two days prior to kick off with Covid cases in both squads.
After a 12-game winless run dating back to 19 September, Brighton were able to hit two against Brentford without reply on Boxing Day and move back into the top half of the table. The result also meant that the Seagulls won the double over The Bees after beating them in the earlier away fixture in September.
Brighton beat West Brom in the third round of the FA Cup on 8 January 2022, with Odel Offiah making his first start for the club in the eventual 2–1 after extra-time away victory. Keeper Kjell Scherpen made his Albion debut in this game.
In the reverse fixture against Palace on 15 January, Pascal Groß had a penalty saved from Eagles keeper Jack Butland to deny Brighton of going 1–0 up. Maupay had a goal disallowed for a high boot on Butland moments later in the eventual 1–1 draw. Brighton got the equaliser through a Joachim Andersen own goal in the 87th minute thanks to a low pacey pass in front of goal from Maupay.
Brighton were knocked out of the FA Cup in the fourth round after losing 3–1 at Tottenham on 5 February after a Harry Kane double and a Solly March own goal, with Yves Bissouma giving Albion hope before Kane scored his second.
Brighton's record-breaking unbeaten league run of seven matches was ended on 15 February, in Potter's 100th league game in charge, losing 2–0 away to Manchester United at Old Trafford. Dunk was sent off shortly after Uniteds' opener. He was originally shown a yellow card by referee Peter Bankes, however, Bankes went to VAR and deemed Dunk to have denied Anthony Elanga a run on goal
After six straight defeats Brighton ended the run with a somewhat disappointing draw with Norwich City on 2 April, finishing 0–0 at home with a Neal Maupay penalty being stuck over the bar. A week later Brighton ended their run of seven games without a win in style, with a 2–1 away win over Arsenal. Mwepu scored and assisted on his first start since a long period out injured, with Moisés Caicedo making his Premier League debut where he assisted Mwepu's goal. Seven days later Albion were up in North London again, this time enjoying their time at the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium with Trossard scoring a 90th minute – scoring two goals in as many games – as Brighton made it six games unbeaten in the capital. Albion beat Wolves 3–0 at Molineux Stadium on 30 April, taking their points tally to 44 points breaking their record of 41 points in a Premier League season. The win also meant they had won 10 Premier League matches throughout the campaign, beating their previous record of nine.
On 7 May, a brilliant Brighton demolished a dreadful Manchester United 4–0 at the AMEX, with Brighton's biggest ever top flight result being their first home victory of 2022, which was also in front of a record crowd, 31,637. Moisés Caicedo and Marc Cucurella scored their first Albion goals with Pascal Groß scoring his first goal of the campaign and Trossard scoring one and assisting two others as Brighton beat United for the first time in eight games, ending their chances for 2022–23 UEFA Champions League qualification. At Albions' end of season awards, Marc Cucurealla won both Players' Player and Player of the Season in his debut season. Jeremy Sarmiento picked up Brighton's Young Player of the Season with Enock Mwepu winning The Seagulls Goal of the Season with his 20-yard strike against Liverpool in October. Brighton achieved their highest ever top flight finish, finishing in ninth place after beating West Ham 3–1 in the last game of the season, with Joël Veltman scoring his second ever goal for The Seagulls. The victory took their points tally to 51 points, 10 points higher than their previous record, and scoring 42 goals, their most in a Premier League season. This was also the first time since being in the Premier League where Brighton finished ahead of rivals Crystal Palace who finished in 12th.
== Players ==
As of 12 January 2022
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
== Transfers ==
=== Transfers in ===
=== Loans in ===
=== Loans out ===
=== Transfers out ===
== Pre-season friendlies ==
The Seagulls announced friendly matches against Rangers, Luton Town and Getafe as part of their pre-season preparations.
== Competitions ==
=== Overview ===
=== Premier League ===
==== League table ====
==== Results summary ====
==== Results by matchday ====
==== Matches ====
The league fixtures were announced on 16 June 2021.
=== FA Cup ===
Brighton were drawn away to West Bromwich Albion of the Championship on 6 December for the third round tie, which took place on 8 January 2022. The fourth round draw was held on 9 January, a day after Brighton's third round fixture in which they were drawn an away fixture against fellow Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur.
=== EFL Cup ===
Albion entered the competition in the second round stage and were drawn away to Cardiff City for the second round. In the third round draw Brighton were again to meet Welsh opposition again in Swansea City, this time at home. Brighton were drawn to an away fixture at Leicester City for 27 October, in their fourth round tie.
== Squad statistics ==
Note
• Florin Andone joined La Liga side Cádiz on 23 August on a season-long loan.
• Percy Tau joined Egyptian side Al Ahly on 26 August on a permanent deal.
• Michał Karbownik joined Greek side Olympiacos on 27 August on a season-long loan deal.
• Christian Walton signed on a season-long deal with Ipswich Town on 30 August. On 19 January 2022, Walton signed a permanent deal with The Tractor Boys.
• Andi Zeqiri moved to Bundesliga side FC Augsburg on 30 August where he will spend the season on loan at the club.
• Moises Caicedo joined Belgian side Beerschot on a season-long loan deal on 31 August. However, he was recalled to Brighton from his loan on 12 January 2022. His appearances in table are his overall total in current player section and total before he went out on loan in players who left the club section.
• Aaron Connolly joined EFL Championship side Middlesbrough on loan for the remainder of the season on 2 January 2022.
• Jürgen Locadia joined
Bundesliga club VfL Bochum on a permanent deal on 5 January 2022.
• Taylor Richards signed for Birmingham City on 8 January 2022 on a loan until the end of the season.
• Dan Burn signed for fellow Premier League side Newcastle United on a permanent deal on 31 January 2022.
• Kjell Scherpen joined Belgian side Oostende on loan for the remainder of the season on 31 January 2022.
== End of season awards ==
Player of the Season – Marc Cucurella
Players' Player of the Season – Marc Cucurella
Young Player of the Season – Jeremy Sarmiento
Goal of the season – Enock Mwepu v Liverpool - Premier League, 30 October 2021
== See also ==
2021–22 in English football
List of Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. seasons
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopetr%C3%A1n | Sopetrán | Sopetrán is a municipality of Colombia, located in the subregion west of the state of Antioquia. It is bounded to the north by the municipality of Olaya, to the east by the municipality of Belmira, to the south by the municipalities of San Jerónimo and Ebéjico, and to the west by the municipality of Santa Fe de Antioquia. The population was 13,748 at the 2018 census. It is 59 kilometers from the city of Medellin, the state capital of Antioquia. The municipality of Sopetrán has an area of 223 square kilometers.
As of 2007, Sopetrán was one of three municipalities along the Route of the Sun in western Antioquia, along with the municipalities of San Jerónimo and Santa Fe de Antioquia, with which Sopetrán shares much of its history. Since the opening of the West Fernando Gomez Martinez Tunnel in 2006, tourism in the region has tripled. The area is particularly suitable for ecotourism.
== History ==
Originally, the indigenous communities of the Nutabes and Tahamíes inhabited the municipality of Sopetrán. Before the arrival of the Spanish, the region was called Los Guamas. On February 22, 1616, the municipality of Sopetrán was officially established by Francisco Herrera and Campuzano, a native of Alcala de Henares in Spain. Herrera worshipped Our Lady of Sopetrán, and he is believed to have named the town after her.
Formerly, the town has been known by the names of Las Guamas, Vice Parish of Our Lady of Saladito of Cordoba, and Parish of Our Lady of the Assumption and Sopetrán.
The origin of the name Las Guamas was the lands that had been settled by the indigenous Guamas or Guacas many centuries prior, who engaged in agriculture, hunting, fishing, and salt mining. The latter caught the Spaniards' attention, who had been transporting salt from the sea for domestic use and to feed the newly imported cattle.
In 1814, Sopetrán achieved the status of a municipality.
== Climate ==
The town is located 716 meters above sea level. The town's climate is defined as tropical. During the summer, there is considerable rainfall, but the winter has comparatively little rainfall. The average temperature is around 24.9 °C (76.8 °F), and the average annual rainfall is 1360 mm (53.5 inches).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Matth%C3%A4us_Aigner | Joseph Matthäus Aigner | Joseph Matthäus Aigner (18 January 1818, Vienna – 19 February 1886, Vienna) was an Austrian portrait painter, who studied under Friedrich von Amerling and Carl Rahl. He painted portraits of Franz Joseph I of Austria and his wife Elizabeth, Franz Grillparzer, Friedrich Halm, Nikolaus Lenau, and Maximilian I of Mexico.
In 1847 he married actress Fanny Matras (1828–1878).
As commander of the Academic Legion during the 1848 revolutions in Vienna, Aigner was court-martialed for high treason and condemned to death. However, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz pardoned him.
According to Ripley's Believe It or Not!, a Capuchin friar, whose name Aigner never knew, saved his life three times, when he attempted to hang himself at ages 18 and 22 and when he was sentenced to death. Aigner killed himself with a pistol in Vienna in 1886, and the same friar presided over his funeral.
== Works ==
Portrait einer jungen blonden Dame mit Stirnlocken (18??)
Portrait of a lady with her dog (1863)
Portrait of Clementina Weyl (1865)
Portrait of a young boy wearing a coloured sash (1876)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Kleinberg | Jon Kleinberg | Jon Michael Kleinberg (born 1971) is an American computer scientist and the Tisch University Professor of Computer Science and Information Science at Cornell University known for his work in algorithms and networks. He is a recipient of the Nevanlinna Prize by the International Mathematical Union.
== Early life and education ==
Jon Kleinberg was born in 1971 in Boston, Massachusetts to Eugene Kleinberg, a mathematics professor at SUNY Buffalo, and Evelyn Kleinberg, a computer science researcher. His grandfather, Samuel Kleinberg, graduated from Cornell in 1934 and was a teacher of mathematics and physics at a high school in Brooklyn. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in computer science from Cornell University in 1993 and a PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1996. He is the older brother of fellow Cornell computer scientist Robert Kleinberg.
== Career ==
Since 1996 Kleinberg has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science at Cornell, as well as a visiting scientist at IBM's Almaden Research Center. His work has been supported by an NSF Career Award, an ONR Young Investigator Award, a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship, a Packard Foundation Fellowship, a Sloan Foundation Fellowship, and grants from Google, Yahoo!, and the NSF. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2011, he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2013 he became a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
== Research ==
Kleinberg is best known for his work on networks. One of his best-known contributions is the HITS algorithm, developed while he was at IBM. HITS is an algorithm for web search that builds on the eigenvector-based methods used in algorithms and served as the full-scale model for PageRank by recognizing that web pages or sites should be considered important not only if they are linked to by many others (as in PageRank), but also if they link to many others. Search engines themselves are examples of sites that are important because they link to many others. Kleinberg realized that this generalization implies two different classes of important web pages, which he called "hubs" and "authorities". The HITS algorithm is an algorithm for automatically identifying the leading hubs and authorities in a network of hyperlinked pages.
Kleinberg is also known for his work on algorithmic aspects of the small world experiment. He was one of the first to realize that Stanley Milgram's famous "six degrees" letter-passing experiment implied not only that there are short paths between individuals in social networks but also that people seem to be good at finding those paths, an apparently simple observation that turns out to have profound implications for the structure of the networks in question. The formal model in which Kleinberg studied this question is a two dimensional grid, where each node has both short-range connections (edges) to neighbours in the grid and long-range connections to nodes further apart. For each node v, a long-range edge between v and another node w is added with a probability that decays as the second power of the distance between v and w. This is generalized to a d-dimensional grid, where the probability decays as the d-th power of the distance.
Kleinberg has written numerous papers and articles as well as a textbook on computer algorithms, Algorithm Design, co-authored with Éva Tardos. Among other honors, he received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship also known as the "genius grant" in 2005 and the Nevanlinna Prize in 2006, an award that is given out once every four years along with the Fields Medal as the premier distinction in Computational Mathematics.
In 2010 he published his book "Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning About a Highly Connected World" at Cambridge University Press.
Cornell's Association of Computer Science Undergraduates awarded him the "Faculty of the Year" award in 2002.
== References ==
== External links ==
Still the Rebel King -Video
Interview with Jon Kleinberg, ACM Infosys Foundation Award recipient by Stephen Ibaraki
Yury Lifshits, Four Results of Jon Kleinberg: a talk for St. Petersburg Mathematical Society |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edappadi_K._Palaniswami | Edappadi K. Palaniswami | Edappadi Karuppa Palaniswami (born 12 May 1954) is an Indian politician who is the current leader of opposition in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly since May 2021. He served as the seventh chief minister of Tamil Nadu, from 2017 to 2021. He has been the general secretary of All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) since 28 March 2023. Previously, he has served in various leadership roles in the AIADMK since 2016.
Born in 1954 in Salem district in the erstwhile Madras State, Palaniswami was engaged in agriculture before joining electoral politics in 1974. He has represented Edappadi since 2011 as Member of the Legislative Assembly, previously also serving from 1989 to 1996. In the 1998 Indian general election, he was elected as Member of Parliament of the Lok Sabha representing Tiruchengode. Post the 2011 assembly elections, he served as the minister of highways and minor ports in the Jayalalithaa cabinet. After the 2016 assembly elections, he served as the minister of public works in the cabinet.
== Early and personal life ==
Palaniswami was born on 12 May 1954 to Karuppa Gounder and Thavasiyammal at Siluvampalayam, Salem district, Madras State (now Tamil Nadu). After completing school, he completed B.Sc. zoology from Sri Vasavi College. His parents were involved in agriculture and Palaniswami also chose to get involved in the same. He has two siblings, a brother Govindraj and a sister Ranjitham. He is married to Ratha and they have a son.
== Political career ==
=== Early years (1974-2010) ===
Palaniswami entered politics in 1974 enrolling himself as a volunteer in All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). He was first elected to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly in 1989, representing Edappadi constituency, and won the re-election in 1991 from the same constituency. He lost from the same constituency in the 1996 assembly elections. In the 1998 general election, he was elected Member of Parliament, representing Tiruchengodu constituency in the 12th Lok Sabha. He subsequently lost the 1999 and 2004 general elections from the same constituency. He contested again from Edappadi in the 2006 assembly elections and lost. He was appointed propaganda secretary of AIADMK in July 2006, replacing O. S. Manian and later as organising secretary in August 2007.
=== Cabinet minister (2011-17) ===
He was re-elected from Edappadi constituency in the 2011 assembly election. He was appointed as the minister of highways and minor ports in the Jayalalithaa cabinet. He served as the district secretary of AIADMK for Salem suburban district from June 2011 to April 2022. In 2014, he was appointed as the member of the disciplinary committee of AIADMK. He was again re-elected from the same constituency in the 2016 assembly election. After 2016 assembly elections, he also served as the ministry of public works in the cabinet. In 2016, he was appointed headquarters secretary of AIADMK, succeeding P. Palaniappan.
=== Chief minister (2017-21) ===
Palaniswami became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu in February 2017, following the resignation of O. Panneerselvam, who was the chief minister in the interim after the demise of former chief minister J. Jayalalithaa in December 2016. He was sworn in on 16 February 2017 along with a 32-member cabinet and also held charge of home, prohibition and excise.
In March 2017, he introduced the Kudimaramaththu scheme for restoring minor irrigation tanks and lakes in the state. In response to the introduction of mandatory NEET exams starting in 2017, Palaniswami government formed a high-level committee led by M. Anandakrishnan in May that year to reform the Tamil Nadu school education system. The school textbook syllabus and exam pattern for classes 1 to 12 were revised on par with CBSE standards in phases, starting from the 2018–19 academic year, to better prepare students for competitive exams.
In May 2018, police opened fire on protests against a copper plant owned by Vedanta that was allegedly polluting groundwater in Thoothukudi, killing 13 people. While the act was later termed as "self-defence" by a one-man commission, the Government of Tamil Nadu ordered the permanent closure of the plant on 28 May 2018.
On 15 August 2018, Palaniswami announced a 2% sub-quota in select government jobs and State Public Sector Undertakings for national, state, and international-level medal-winning sportspersons in games organised by recognised federations, later increasing it to 3% on 16 October 2018. His administration was lauded for its preparedness and efforts to tackle the Cyclone Gaja that hit Tamil Nadu in November 2018. In August 2019, Palaniswami introduced dedicated patrol vehicles (Amma patrol) to ascertain the security of women and children in public places.
In the 2019 Indian general election, AIADMK under the leadership of Palaniswami, contested in alliance with the Bharatiya Janata Party and won only a single seat. In 2019, Palaniswami launched the Yaadhum Oore programme aimed at garnering foreign investment in the state. He visited United States, United Kingdom and United Arab Emirates to promote the same. His administration created new districts such as Tenkasi, Kallakurichi, Tirupattur, Ranipet and Chengalpattu in 2019, and Mayiladuthurai in 2020, by carving them out from existing districts. After six decades of waiting by the people, Palaniswami laid the foundation stone for the ₹1,652-crore Athikadavu–Avinashi Groundwater Recharge and Drinking Water Supply Scheme on 28 February 2019, and the project work commenced on 25 December that year.
In February 2020, the Government of Tamil Nadu declared the Kaveri delta region as a protected special agriculture zone. In May 2020, the government passed an order for reservation of 7.5% of seats in government medical colleges to students from public schools while also announcing a plan to set up eleven new government medical colleges with 1,650 seats. After the first three phases of excavation by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Keezhadi between 2014 and 2017, the state department of archaeology took over further excavations in consultation with the ASI. In the fourth phase of excavations in 2017–18 done at a cost of ₹5.5 million (US$65,000), 5,820 artifacts and brick constructions dating back to the Sangam era were excavated. On 20 July 2020, Palaniswami laid the foundation for the Keezhadi museum in Sivaganga district to showcase the artefacts unearthed from Keezhadi excavation site.
Under his governance, Tamil Nadu was rated among the top states based on a composite index in the context of sustainable development according to the Public Affairs Index released by the Public Affairs Center in October 2020. During the coronavirus pandemic, Tamil Nadu was one of the few states that did not register negative growth. Tamil Nadu was ranked as the best performing big state from the year 2018 to 2021 based on a study conducted by India Today. On 5 January 2021, his government announced that the Thaipusam festival would be included in the list of public holidays every year.
==== Tussle with Pannerselvam ====
The tussle between Palaniswami and Pannerselvam started in October 2020 when minister for milk and dairy development K. T. Rajenthra Bhalaji tweeted that the party should go for elections, with Palaniswami as the chief ministerial candidate. A day before Balaji’s tweet, cooperative minister Sellur K. Raju said, "MLAs will elect the chief minister" when AIADMK wins the 2021 elections. Later, Panneerselvam made the announcement that Palaniswami would be the chief ministerial candidate of the AIADMK on 7 October 2020 at a meeting at the AIADMK office in Chennai.
=== Leader of the opposition (2021–present) ===
AIADMK lost the 2021 assembly elections and Palaniswami resigned as the chief-minister on 6 May 2021. He won for the third consecutive time from the Edappadi constituency and was elected as the leader of the opposition in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly.On 10 May 2021, the newly elected AIADMK MLAs convened to choose the new Leader of the Opposition, an important post equivalent to a cabinet minister. The meeting was inconclusive, with both Panneerselvam and Palaniswami staking claims to the post, while their supporters hurled charges against each other. This included a prolonged quarrel between the two sections of the party outside the party's head office, causing unrest. Supporters of Palaniswami believed that he should be the Leader of the Opposition due to the party's good performance in the election in western Tamil Nadu, the region he hails from; whereas, Panneerselvam's supporters felt that the party fared poorly in other regions of the state due to Palaniswami's wrong policies during his Chief Ministerial tenure. Eventually, Palaniswami was elected as the Leader of the Opposition.
In June 2022, district secretaries and senior party members of AIADMK spoke out against the “dual leadership” system of Palaniswami and O. Panneerselvam. The supporters of Palaniswami pushed for the change in the party's leadership structure to appoint him as the general secretary of AIADIMK ahead of the general council meeting on 23 June 2022, which was expected to elect the leadership of the party. In June 2022, Palaniswami wrote to Panneerselvam asserting the latter ceased to be the party coordinator as the amendments made to the party's bylaw in the 2021 December executive committee meeting were not recognised in the general council meeting held on 23 June.
On 11 July 2022, the general council of AIADMK abolished the dual leadership model, appointing Palaniswami as the interim chief and expelled Panneerselvam and his loyalists from the primary memberships of the party for "anti-party" activities. While on 17 August, the Madras High Court nullified the decisions of the AIADMK general council and ordered maintaining a status quo, a division bench later upheld the decisions and set aside the previous court order on 2 September 2022. On 23 February 2023, the Supreme Court of India upheld the later order of the Madras High Court, effectively handing the leadership of the party to Palaniswami. On 28 March 2023, AIADMK announced that Palaniswami was elected as the general secretary through party's general secretary election. On 20 April 2023, the Election Commission of India recognised Palaniswami as the general secretary, acknowledging the amendments to the party constitution and changes to list of office-bearers. On 20 August 2023, a conference was held at Madurai led by Palaniswami as a part of the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the founding of AIADMK. On 25 September 2023, Palaniswami led AIADMK officially left the National Democratic Alliance ahead of the 2024 Indian general election.
In the aftermath of the 2023 Chennai floods, Palaniswami demanded the chief minister of Tamil Nadu to release a white paper on the completed and ongoing stormwater drain work in Chennai and further criticised the state government for the lack of preparedness. In the 2024 general election, Palaniswami led AIADMK formed an alliance with Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam, Puthiya Tamilagam, and Social Democratic Party of India and contested 36 seats in the state of Tamil Nadu and one each in the union territories of Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The party-led alliance failed to win any seats in the elections. Palaniswami has been placed under Z+ scale category security by the Ministry of Home Affairs due to bomb threats since 5 July 2025.
Ahead of the 2026 Tamil Nadu Assembly elections, Palaniswami launched the Makkalai Kaappom, Thamizhagathai Meetpom (Let us protect the people and reclaim Tamil Nadu) statewide campaign tour covering all 234 constituencies in phases, starting from Mettupalayam in Coimbatore on July 7, 2025.
== Elections contested and positions held ==
=== Lok Sabha elections ===
=== Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly elections ===
=== Positions in Parliament of the Republic of India ===
=== Positions in Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly ===
== Awards and honours ==
=== Honorary doctorates ===
=== Other honours ===
== See also ==
Edappadi K. Palaniswami ministry
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Biographical Sketch in Lok Sabha Website
Official Biographical Sketch in Tamil Nadu Assembly Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_L._Peterson | Arthur L. Peterson | Arthur Laverne Peterson (June 27, 1926 – March 22, 2023) was an American educator and politician.
== Life and career ==
Peterson was born in Glyndon, Minnesota on June 27, 1926. He served in the United States Marine Corps during the Korean War. In 1947, he graduated from Yale University. He then received his master's degree from the University of Southern California in 1949. In 1962, he received his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Minnesota. He lived in Prescott, Wisconsin and worked for Eaton Plumbing and Heating. From 1951 to 1955, Peterson served in the Wisconsin Assembly and was a Republican. He taught political science at University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire and Ohio Wesleyan University.
In 1966, Peterson accepted the position of President at Thunderbird School of Global Management, then known as the American Institute for Foreign Trade. During his time at Thunderbird, Peterson would land his own personal plane at the campus which was once a WWII-era airfield. By the time of his departure to Pepperdine University in 1969, Peterson had helped Thunderbird achieve accreditation through the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools.
In 1989, Peterson taught political science at Rocky Mountain College in Billings, Montana.
He served in the Montana House of Representatives from 2000 to 2002 as a Republican. Peterson later lived in Billings, Montana.
Peterson was a candidate for California’s 39th congressional district, but he lost the primary.
Peterson died in Sun City, California on March 22, 2023, at the age of 96.
== Notable works ==
Peterson, Arthur L. "McCarthyism: Its Ideology and Foundations." PhD Diss., University of Minnesota, 1962.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jeffersons | The Jeffersons | The Jeffersons is an American sitcom television series created by Norman Lear, which aired on CBS from January 18, 1975, to July 2, 1985, lasting eleven seasons and 253 total episodes. Starring Isabel Sanford and Sherman Hemsley, the show revolved around a prosperous African-American couple who live in a high-rise apartment in Manhattan, New York City. The show is a spin-off of All in the Family, on which the Jeffersons had been the neighbors of the Bunkers.
== Premise ==
The show focuses on George and Louise Jefferson, a prosperous black couple who have been able to move from Queens to Manhattan owing to the success of George's dry-cleaning chain, Jefferson Cleaners. The show was launched as the second (and longest running) spin-off of All in the Family (after Maude), on which the Jeffersons had been the neighbors of Archie and Edith Bunker. The show was the creation of Norman Lear. The Jeffersons eventually evolved into more of a traditional sitcom, but episodes occasionally focused on serious issues such as alcoholism, racism, suicide, gun control, being transgender, the KKK, and adult illiteracy. The epithets nigger and honky were used occasionally, especially during the earlier seasons.
The Jeffersons had one spin-off, titled Checking In. The series was centered on the Jeffersons' housekeeper, Florence, who takes a job as cleaning management at a hotel. Checking In lasted only four episodes, after which Florence returned to The Jeffersons with the story that the hotel had burned down in a fire. The Jeffersons also shared continuity with the sitcom E/R, which featured Lynne Moody, who made a guest appearance in one episode of The Jeffersons. Sherman Hemsley guest-starred as George in two episodes of the series, which lasted for one season. The cancellation of The Jeffersons cleared the way for Marla Gibbs, who played Florence Johnston on the series, to move on to the NBC sitcom 227 in the fall of 1985, a year earlier than scheduled.
The Jeffersons ended in controversy after CBS abruptly canceled the series without allowing for a proper series finale. The cast was not informed until after the July 2, 1985, episode, "Red Robins"; actor Sherman Hemsley, who portrayed George Jefferson, said he learned that the show was canceled by reading it in the newspaper. Isabel Sanford (Louise Jefferson), who heard about the cancellation through her cousin who read it in the tabloids, publicly stated that she found the cancellation with no proper finale to be disrespectful on the network's part. Per an article in the May 8, 1985, Los Angeles Times, the series was cancelled by announcement at the CBS network "upfront" presentation the day before, nearly two months before the airing of the final episode. Actor Franklin Cover, who played Tom Willis, also heard about the cancellation while watching Entertainment Tonight.
The cast reunited in a stage play based on the sitcom. In season 5 episode 17 of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, titled "Will Is from Mars" (1995), the Jeffersons made a guest appearance as a couple in therapy class. In the 1996 series finale of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, the Jeffersons made a guest appearance as the buyers of the Banks family house. In an episode of Tyler Perry's House of Payne in 2011, Sherman Hemsley and Marla Gibbs reprised their roles of George Jefferson and Florence Johnston.
In 1985, Hemsley and Sanford (who was older than her TV husband by 21 years) made a special joint guest appearance in the Canale 5 comedy show Grand Hotel as the Jeffersons, acting with Italian actors Paolo Villaggio, the comic duo Franco & Ciccio, and Carmen Russo. They were guests in the fictional hotel and their voices were dubbed by Italian actors Enzo Garinei (George) and Isa di Marzio (Louise), who also dubbed their characters for the full series. As of 2023, the members still alive from the main cast include Marla Gibbs, Berlinda Tolbert, Damon Evans, and Jay Hammer.
== Series development ==
Louise Jefferson, played by Isabel Sanford, first appeared in the All in the Family episode "Lionel Moves Into the Neighborhood", which was broadcast on March 2, 1971. The episode, the eighth of the series, centers on Louise, her son Lionel, and her husband George moving next door to Archie and Edith Bunker in the working-class section of Queens. Lionel, played by Mike Evans, first appeared in "Meet the Bunkers", the premiere episode of All in the Family.
Norman Lear created the character of George Jefferson specifically for Hemsley. Lear originally intended for George to appear in the first season of the series, but Hemsley was starring in the Broadway musical Purlie at the time, and Lear decided to postpone introduction of the character until Hemsley was available. Lear created the character of Henry Jefferson, George's younger brother, who was portrayed by Mel Stewart which replaced George with Henry in the series's scripts until Purlie finished its run. Denzel Washington auditioned for an unspecified role, but his agent convinced him not to do it. Henry played as George when Louise felt embarrassed that George did not want to be in Archie Bunker's house due to prejudice. George was introduced in the episode "Henry's Farewell", and Hemsley and Stewart share their only scene together in its final minutes. The episode marked the final appearance of Henry throughout the series.
The idea of the Jeffersons "moving on up" came after three members of the Black Panthers who were fans of Lear's productions visited Lear's CBS office, raising issues with the creator over the portrayal of Black people on television, including his Maude spin-off series Good Times. "Every time you see a Black man on the tube, he is dirt poor, wears shit clothes, can't afford nothing," Lear recalled in his autobiography. Lear consulted with his associate Al Burton on the concept.
George, Louise, and Lionel continued to appear on All in the Family until 1975, when the spin-off The Jeffersons, also created by Lear, premiered. The characters of Lionel's multiracial fiancée, Jenny, and her family, all of whom first appeared in the 1974 All in the Family episode "Lionel's Engagement", were also written into the new series. However, the roles were all recast, with Berlinda Tolbert taking over the role of Jenny, veteran actor Franklin Cover playing her father, Tom Willis, whose first name was changed from Louis, as it was in their first All in the Family appearance, and Roxie Roker as her mother, Helen. Roker was asked during a casting interview if she would be comfortable with her character having a white husband. In response she showed a picture of her husband, Sy Kravitz, who was white.
== Synopsis ==
During the January 11, 1975 episode of All in the Family, titled "The Jeffersons Move Up", Edith Bunker gave a tearful good-bye to her neighbor Louise Jefferson as her husband George, their son Lionel, and she moved from a working-class section of Queens, New York, into the luxurious Colby East, a fictional high-rise apartment complex on East 63rd Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. The Jeffersons premiered the following week, on January 18, 1975.
George's career as a dry-cleaner began in the first season of All in the Family in the third episode "Archie's Aching Back" (though the character himself did not appear on-camera). After his car was rear-ended by a bus, he filed a civil action and won $5000, enough to open his first store in Queens. At the beginning of The Jeffersons, he was operating five stores throughout New York City, with another two opening during the following seasons.
Louise made friends with Tom and Helen Willis, an interracial couple with two adult children of their own (whom George derided as "zebras"): son Allan (played by Andrew Rubin in the first-season finale, and by Jay Hammer throughout season 5), a white-passing college drop-out; and daughter Jenny, an aspiring fashion designer. Jenny and Lionel became a couple, married on December 24, 1976, and later became the parents of a daughter, Jessica (played by Ebonie Smith). Lionel and Jenny experienced marital issues as evidenced in a two-part season 8 episode "The Separation", and divorced in the final season two-parter "Sayonara".
Marla Gibbs portrayed the role of Florence Johnston, the Jeffersons' back-talking, tough, wisecracking, and devoutly religious housekeeper. Florence often teased George, mostly about his short stature and receding hairline. One episode featured George requesting Florence to insult him, in order to get to a prospective business partner who was fond of her wisecracks.
Paul Benedict arrived as Harry Bentley, an amiable, kind, loyal yet eccentric British next-door neighbor, who worked as an interpreter at the United Nations. A frequent sight-gag of the show was George slamming the door in Bentley's face mid-conversation, usually during one of Bentley's stories which George invariably perceived as boring. Bentley also had a bad back, and frequently needed George to walk on it. He also became known for addressing the Jeffersons as "Mr. J" and "Mrs. J".
Zara Cully played George's mother, Olivia "Mother" Jefferson, who constantly disparaged her daughter-in-law. Cully, who had first appeared in the 1974 All in the Family episode "Lionel's Engagement", reprised her role. She appeared regularly in the first two seasons, but made sporadic appearances over the next two years, much thinner due to a severe case of pneumonia. Cully was written out in season 4 due to her death in 1978, from lung cancer. No episode was centered on Mother Jefferson's death, but it was occasionally mentioned in future episodes that she had died.
Ned Wertimer played their tip-hungry doorman, Ralph Hart, throughout the series. He was known for constantly stalling at the Jeffersons' door with his hand out waiting for a tip. Most of the cast usually didn't respond, but George almost always gave in. He also used it in a blackmail manner, usually requiring George to pay more in order to keep his mouth shut about something such as a stock tip. Ralph was also known for making up stories of him struggling to fulfill the Jeffersons' request to get more tips.
Danny Wells played Charlie, the owner and a bartender of a nearby bar to the Jeffersons apartment building. The cast commonly visited the bar for a drink or to attend a party. Charlie was also revealed to be an alcoholic in the season 11 episode "A Secret in the Back Room", in which Charlie is in denial, but the Jeffersons eventually get him to admit to his problem and advise him to get some help. His alcohol problem isn't referenced anymore throughout the series, but it is assumable Charlie overcame it.
=== Cast changes ===
Mike Evans ("Lionel") left the show after the first season; his replacement was Damon Evans (no relation), who took over the role until halfway through the fourth season. Damon Evans's last episode was "Lionel Gets the Business".
Mike Evans and Tolbert returned in the 1979–1980 season, with Tolbert's character, Jenny, pregnant with a daughter named Jessica. However, Mike Evans appeared for only one more season, along with Tolbert. The Jeffersons' sixth season peaked at No. 8 in the summer of 1980. The characters of Lionel and Jenny were written out by stating that they had marital problems, the result of which became a two-part episode storyline as the series' eighth-season premiere. The series' eighth season was the first African-American sitcom in years (since Sanford and Son) to peak in the top 5 (the series' eighth season debuted at No. 3).
Evans and Tolbert appeared in the two-part episode together; Evans made his final appearance in two episodes during the series' eleventh and final season. Tolbert became a regular guest star throughout the rest of the series. In the spring of 1981, Paul Benedict left the show for a season and a half, returning in the final two seasons of the series. However, the ratings sank below the top 30, and The Jeffersons aired its last episode, "Red Robins", on July 2, 1985.
== Cast ==
=== Main ===
=== Recurring ===
Ned Wertimer as Ralph Hart
Danny Wells as Charlie Clark
Ebonie Smith as Jessica Jefferson (season 11)
=== Notable guest appearances ===
Source
== Episodes ==
The Jeffersons had many two-part episodes, either over two consecutive weeks, or aired as an hour-long episode.
== Theme song ==
Ja'Net DuBois and Jeff Barry co-wrote The Jeffersons theme song, "Movin' On Up", which was sung by DuBois with a gospel choir.
The song was created after DuBois approached Norman Lear, suggesting she expand upon her brief roles on Good Times and explore a music-related project. In response, Lear suggested she try writing a theme song for a new show he was developing about a dry cleaner. Initially, DuBois struggled with the composition until her mother encouraged her to draw from her personal dream of providing her mother with a comfortable retirement. Inspired by that idea, DuBois wrote the song. When Lear heard it, he was amazed at how perfectly it captured the essence of The Jeffersons—despite the fact that he hadn't fully explained the show's concept to her. Lear went on to develop a full arrangement of the song to serve as the show's theme.
== Broadcast history and Nielsen ratings ==
The Jeffersons changed time slots at least 15 different times during its 11-year run, unusual for a popular long running series. The most common time slot was on Sunday night.
In its first season (1974–75), the show ranked at number four, surpassed by its parent series All in the Family (which landed at number one for the fifth year in a row). The show's ratings for the following two seasons placed it in the Top 30, but during the 1977–78 and 1978–79 seasons (the show's fourth and fifth seasons), it fell out of the top 30, ranking 52nd in Season 4 and 49th in Season 5.
It returned to the Top 10 in 1979–80, and at the end of the 1981–82 season, The Jeffersons finished third overall, only surpassed by fellow CBS series Dallas and 60 Minutes. The series would remain among the Top 20 for the next two seasons.
== Daytime reruns ==
The series was rebroadcast on CBS from February 4, 1980, to September 25, 1981.
== Home media ==
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first six seasons of The Jeffersons on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2007.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including The Jeffersons. They subsequently re-released the first two seasons on DVD on May 20, 2014.
On August 8, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment; they subsequently released the complete series on DVD in a 33-disc collection on December 9, 2014.
On April 28, 2015, Shout! released season 7 on DVD in Region 1. Season 8 was released on August 11, 2015.
== Awards and nominations ==
The Jeffersons received 14 Emmy Award nominations and won two awards. Marla Gibbs received nominations in Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series each year from 1981 to 1985, Sherman Hemsley received nomination in Best Actor in 1984, and Larry M. Harris won the Emmy for Outstanding Video Tape Editing for a Series in 1983.
Isabel Sanford was nominated for 7 consecutive Best Actress Emmys, from 1979-85. Her win in 1981 made her the first African-American actress to win an Emmy for Best Actress in a Comedy Series, and the second to win any Emmy Award; Gail Fisher, who played Peggy on the TV show Mannix, preceded her in 1970. Sanford was also the recipient of five of the eight Golden Globe Awards nominations the program received.
=== Criticism ===
Gregory Kane, journalist for The Baltimore Sun, called the series "demeaning" in 1999, criticizing Hemsley's "pimp roll walk", bigotry, loud mouth and low intelligence. "I hereby declare The Jeffersons stereotypical fare that depicts blacks in a buffoonish manner."
== Reunion Tour ==
In 1993, Sherman Hemsley, Isabel Sanford, Roxie Roker, Franklin Cover, and Marla Gibbs reunited for "The Jeffersons Live: The Movin' On Up Tour," AKA "The Best of the Jeffersons Live." The stage show included recreations of the episodes "A Whole Lot of Trouble," "Social Insecurity," and "My Wife... I Think I'll Keep Her." The tour began in Detroit, Michigan for a six-city stop, and eventually Roker dropped out, but Berlinda Tolbert (Jenny) and Ned Wertimer (Ralph) reprised their roles for the Los Angeles staging in 1994.
== 2019 special ==
On May 22, 2019, ABC broadcast Live in Front of a Studio Audience: Norman Lear's All in the Family and The Jeffersons, produced by Lear and Jimmy Kimmel and starring Woody Harrelson, Marisa Tomei, Jamie Foxx, Wanda Sykes, Ike Barinholtz, Kerry Washington, Ellie Kemper. Marla Gibbs reprised her role as Florence Johnston.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Mitchell, Gordon Whitey (2008). Hackensack to Hollywood: My Two Show Business Careers. BearManor Media: Albany, NY; ISBN 1-59393-121-2.
Moriarty, Jay (2020). Honky in the House: Writing & Producing The Jeffersons. Antler Publishing, LA, CA ISBN 978-1-7330795-8-7.
Newcomb, Horace (ed.) (1997). Encyclopedia of Television. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers: Chicago, IL; ISBN 1-884964-26-5.
== External links ==
The Jeffersons at IMDb
The Jeffersons at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kow_Nkensen_Arkaah | Kow Nkensen Arkaah | Kow Nkensen Arkaah (14 July 1927 – 25 April 2001) was a Ghanaian politician who was Vice-President of Ghana from 1993 to 1997. He was also a chief of Senya Beraku.
== Early life ==
Kow Arkaah was born on 14 July 1927 in Senya Beraku in the Central Region of the Gold Coast (now Ghana). He attended Mfantsipim School between 1941 and 1946, then Achimota College. He proceeded to the United States of America, where he obtained his first degree at Tufts College, after which he attended Harvard University for an MBA between 1952 and 1954.
== Career ==
Arkaah was an Assistant Sales Manager of Secony Oil Corporation of New York City. He later returned to his homeland. From 1954 to 1957, Arkaah worked as a Marketing Executive of Mobil Oil Ghana Limited. For the next 10 years up to 1968, Arkaah worked with the civil service, rising to become Principal Secretary between 1966 and 1968. He was head of the Ghana National Trading Corporation (GNTC), a huge national trading franchise at the time, the Ghana Airways airline and the Ghana National Procurement Agency. During 1965, he was the Chief Commercial Officer for foreign trade. He has also worked as a consultant in the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Yugoslavia and Ethiopia.
== Politics ==
Arkaah became the leader of the National Convention Party (NCP) prior to the 1992 presidential elections. His party formed an alliance with the National Democratic Congress (NDC) of Jerry Rawlings, and Every Ghanaian Living Everywhere (EGLE). As part of the deal, Arkaah became the vice-presidential candidate on Rawlings' ticket. Rawlings and Arkaah had a difficult working relationship throughout their four-year term. The high point was an alleged punch-up between them at a cabinet meeting on 28 December 1995. Rawlings alluded that there had been some form of misunderstanding. Arkaah styled himself the "stubborn cat" after that incident.
Arkaah became the leader of the Convention People's Party formed by the merger of the NCP and the People's Convention Party. The merger was announced on 29 January 1996. Arkaah, who continued as vice-president of Ghana, stood as a candidate in the 1996 presidential elections and lost. He was replaced in the Rawlings government by Professor John Atta Mills, a law lecturer, as Rawlings' deputy.
== Death ==
Arkaah was involved in a road traffic accident at Cantonments, Accra. He died of his injuries in Atlanta in the United States on 25 April 2001.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn_Shaw#:~:text=She%20resigned%20as%20Studio%2058's,was%20succeeded%20by%20Courtenay%20Dobbie. | Kathryn Shaw | Kathryn Shaw is a Canadian director, actor, and writer living in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. From 1985 to 2020 she was the Artistic Director of Studio 58, an acting and production training school at Langara College.
== History ==
Shaw graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in dramatic art from Whitman College and a Master of Fine Arts in acting from the Columbia University School of the Arts in New York City. Following graduation, she lived in Victoria, British Columbia for a short while before eventually moving to Vancouver.
Over the past few decades, she has directed some of Canada's most prestigious theatre companies. She has taught acting for professional and community groups across British Columbia, Winnipeg, Halifax, and has also been a guest instructor for the National Theatre School in Montreal, Quebec. Shaw has been on the Theatre BC committee, a parent organization to approximately 80 community theatre groups across British Columbia, as an adjudicator and dramaturge.
She began teaching at Studio 58 in 1974 while the school was under the direction of Antony Holland. She taught there for eleven years before replacing Holland as artistic director when he retired in 1985. Under her direction, Studio 58 has become recognized internationally as one of the premiere theatre training programs of Canada. She resigned as Studio 58's artistic director in 2020 and was succeeded by Courtenay Dobbie.
== Select directing credits ==
Measure for Measure - Bard on the Beach
Bachelor Brothers On Tour - The Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company
The Goat, or Who is Sylvia? - Presentation House Theatre
Skylight - Belfry Theatre
The Weir - Belfry Theatre & Western Canada Theatre Company
Death of a Salesman - Gateway Theatre
The Glass Menagerie - Gateway Theatre
The Great Depression - Green Thumb Theatre / Studio 58
A Midsummer Night's Dream - Studio 58
Mum's the word - Back Row Productions, Arts Club Theatre Company (creative consultant)
== Honours ==
In 1996 she received the UBCP/ACTRA Sam Payne Award in recognition of "humanity, integrity and the encouragement of new talent."
In 2001, she was on the first jury for the Siminovitch Prize in Theatre, which recognized an outstanding director from nominations received from across Canada.
In 2005 she was elected into the BC Entertainment Hall of Fame.
The recipient of two Jessie Richardson Theatre Awards for Direction and Best Production, and nominated for four other Jessie Richardson Awards.
2009-2010 Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) Bronze Teaching Excellence Award
In 2010, she was recognized as one of BC’s 100 most influential women by the Vancouver Sun.
2010 recipient of the Greater Vancouver Professional Theatre Alliance (GVPTA) Career Achievement Award
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86_Semele | 86 Semele | 86 Semele is a large and very dark main-belt asteroid with an orbital period of 5.5 years. It is rotating with a period of 16.6 hours, and varies in magnitude by 0.13 during each cycle. This object is classified as a C-type asteroid and is probably composed of carbonates.
Semele was discovered by German astronomer Friedrich Tietjen on January 4, 1866. It was his first and only asteroid discovery. It is named after Semele, the mother of Dionysus in Greek mythology.
The orbit of 86 Semele places it in a 13:6 mean motion resonance with the planet Jupiter. The computed Lyapunov time for this asteroid is only 6,000 years, indicating that it occupies a chaotic orbit that will change randomly over time because of gravitational perturbations of the planets. This Lyapunov time is the second lowest among the first 100 named minor planets.
== References ==
== External links ==
86 Semele at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
86 Semele at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party#:~:text=The%20People's%20Party%20has%20been,as%20the%20largest%20opposition%20party. | Pakistan People's Party | The Pakistan People's Party (PPP) is a Pakistani political party with a centre-left to leftist political position and a democratic socialist ideology. It is one of the three major mainstream political parties alongside the Pakistan Muslim League (N) and the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. It currently holds the most seats in the Senate, and second-most in the National Assembly; alongside leading a majoritarian government in Sindh and a coalition government in Balochistan.
Founded in 1967 in Lahore, when a number of prominent left-wing politicians in the country joined hands against the presidency of Ayub Khan, under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. It is a member of the Socialist International. The PPP's platform is socialist, liberal-progressive, and its stated priorities continue to include transforming Pakistan into a social-democratic state, promoting egalitarian values, establishing social justice, and maintaining a strong military.
Since its foundation in 1967, it has been a major centre-left populist in the country and the party's leadership has been dominated by the members of the Bhutto-Zardari family with Bilawal Bhutto-Zardari its chairman and Asif Ali Zardari as the president. Although, its power of center lies in Sindh and Balochistan, the party has been elected into leading the executive on five separate occasions (1970, 1977, 1988, 1993 and 2008), while on four occasions (1990, 1997, 2002 and 2013) it emerged as the largest opposition party.
In the 20th century, the party dominated the nation's politics and the two-party system in rival with the conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf while opposing the status quo policies in the country. In 2013, the party struggled to appeal its political narrative in the country, and, for the first time in its history, the party failed to secure its position to become majoritarian or in opposition in 2018 and in 2024. In foreign policy, the party supports liberal internationalism while advocating for stronger ties with the United Kingdom, China, and Russia.
== History ==
=== Foundation ===
On 30 November 1967, Meraj Muhammad, a devoted communist, was able to gather left-wing leaders in the residency of the Dr. Mubashir Hassan in Lahore, Punjab, that included the public intellectuals, J. A. Rahim, Ghulam Mustafa, A. H. Pirzada, Hayat Sherpao, and S. M. Rashid who were the founding members of the Pakistan Peoples Party, and announced the establishment on 1 December 1967. The convention elected Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as its first chairman when the latter was unable to challenge the leadership of the National Awami Party (NAP) from Wali Khan in 1966.
Its manifesto, titled Islam is our Religion; Democracy is our Politics; Socialism is our Economy; Power Lies with the People was written by Bengali communist J. A. Rahim, and published on 9 December 1967. The document, which was viewed as "Marxist", declared that "Only socialism, which creates equal opportunities for all, protects [people] from exploitation, removes the barriers of class distinction, and is capable of establishing economic and social justice. Socialism is the highest expression of democracy and its logical fulfillment".
==== Left-wing activism and populism ====
Despite controversially winning the presidential elections held in 1965, President Ayub Khan was widely disapproved for his economic policies that many saw as the distribution of wealth to the capitalist elite at the expense of ordinary people, evidenced by the drastic increase in income inequality and poverty. The economy suffered when Ayub Khan's administration entered in the war with India in 1965 which ended up in a compromise facilitated by the former Soviet Union. In public circles, the ceasefire was widely disapproved with foreign minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto went on to accuse Ayub Khan of "losing the war on the negotiating table", which led to his dismissal by Ayub Khan while he fiercely defended the peace agreement and called it in the best interest of the people.
Massive protests and strikes ensued against Ayub Khan, who responded by outlawing the political gatherings in the country. On 5 February 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced his program of regional autonomy for East Bengal at a news conference.
According to Philip E. Jones, the Peoples Party had three main ideological camps: Marxists, Islamic socialists and the landed elite. In 1968, Ayub Khan celebrated his government's "Decade of Development" which was widely disapproved of when the demonstrations erupted all over the country. In the same year, spontaneous students' movements erupted throughout the country, largely due to unemployment and economic hardship which saw the beginning of the student movements in the country. AT the same time, ideological differences emerged within the NAP, which led to a major split between the pro-Russian and pro-Chinese factions. The pro-Russian faction, led by Wali Khan in West, proposed a parliamentary route to power, whereas the pro-Chinese faction led by Moulana Bhashani in East advocated for a peasant revolution to overthrow Khan's administration. The vacuum on the left generated by the disunity of the National Awami Party was effectively filled by the Pakistan Peoples Party as a united front of opposition to Ayub Khan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, being shrewder in sensing the mood of the mass movement, had embarked upon the 'need for socialism' and other radical slogans. This PPP programme connected with the masses' moods, aspirations and sentiments; the PPP became the largest party of the masses in the history of Pakistan, almost overnight. The first activists and cadres who gave the PPP a foothold and standing were from the different Maoist groups and other scattered left activists. These groups were disillusioned and frustrated by the traditional Stalinist leadership of the left.
In 1968, Pakistan Peoples Party then launched and driven the massive public-relations and membership program, beginning in the Punjab province. The program directly targeted the country's poverty-stricken masses in rural areas with the left-wing oriented slogans "Land to the Landless" proved to be popular amongst the peasants and workforce, as the party promised not only to abolish the feudalism, but also to redistribute land. The working-classes quickly flocked to the new party, believing it to be a party dedicated to the destruction of capitalism in the country. The university students and professors who often bore the brunt of Ayub Khan's presidency during his decade-long rule were promised a better future with better educational and career opportunities. Many other members of society who had felt stifled and repressed by the press-control and heavy censorship practised by the authoritarian Ayub Khan administration also joined the new party, whose manifesto also attracted the country's numerous minorities.
The massive demonstration and public protests eventually led Ayub Khan to resign from the presidency on 25 March 1969 by inviting his army commander General Yahya Khan to take-over the government. President Yahya Khan imposed the martial law in the country with a promised to hold general elections within two years.
==== 1970 general election and 1971 war ====
On 31 March 1970, the Yahya administration enacted the legal framework, which was seen as the path for future constitution but also restored the provincial autonomy in the country, ideology, and aimed for establishing a unicameral legislature as the framework also called for general elections in 1970. In response, the Peoples Party decided to hold its national conference that was held in Hala, Sindh between 1–3 July 1970. At this conference, there were two different opinions on participating in the upcoming general election with some hardliners arguing for boycotting the elections but rather adopt methods of revolutionary insurrection to take power, whereas others emphasized the importance of partaking in parliamentary democracy. In the end, the decision to participate in the elections was taken.
On 4 January 1970, Bhutto officially launched his electoral campaign by addressing a public meeting at Nishtar Park in Karachi and then leading a campaign in Liaquat Garden in Rawalpindi and public speaking in parts of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The party published its ideology in newspapers such as Nusrat, Fatah, and Mussawat. The results of the general elections in 1970 showed that the Peoples Party won most of the seats in the four provinces shared together with the pro-Russian National Awami Party (NAP) and the conservative Pakistan Muslim League. The Peoples Party, in east, struggled to appeal its political narrative due to strong ethnic sentiments and against the identity politics led by the Awami League, which also failed to make any breakthrough or win any seats in western four provinces. Data published by the Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP) which showed that the Awami League had a clear mandate when it secured 160 seats out of the total 300 seats in the National Assembly, whereas the Peoples Party came second with 81 seats.
The Pakistan Peoples Party questioned the results and contested Awami League's mandate to form the central government as Awami League had failed to win won a single seat. To break the impasse, Bhutto proposed the continuation of the One Unit program, with two separate prime ministers for governing the wings. This proposal was rejected by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman who emphasized the implementation of Six Points for a more federal Pakistan; this proposal was rejected by Bhutto. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders, along with President General Yahya Khan, met in Dacca to try and resolve the constitutional crisis which ended up in bitter arguments on both sides. With Mujib calling for the nationwide strike, Bhutto, who feared a civil war, proposed to form a coalition with Rehman as Prime Minister and Bhutto as President, which was agreed upon by both sides.
This proposal was never made public when President Yaya Khan authorized the wide-range military operations in East and placing both Bhutto and Rehman on arrest orders in Central Jail Adiala. The news of arrest of Rehman eventually led to the liberation war and followed by the Indian intervention in East Bengal, cementing the defeat of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East and ceasefire in western front, and the independence of Bangladesh.
==== Post-war politics and reconstruction ====
The news of Yahya administration conceding to the surrender after Indian invasion in east sparked the spontaneous protests against the military and President Yahya Khan who ultimately resigned and handed over the control of the administration to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 20 December 1971. The party assumed the control what remained of Pakistan— the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralized. After becoming president, Bhutto in his first statement to foreign media correspondents said: Let us forget the past. We have made terrible mistakes and Pakistan is in a mess—— the worst crisis in our history. But we have been given a terrible bashing by the Western press and I ask you now to please get off our backs while we put our house in order.
In a televised media, the People's Party under Bhutto vowed to build a new Pakistan. On 2 January 1972, the People's Party announced a policy measure program of nationalization of industrial sector, including iron and steel, heavy engineering firms, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. A new labor policy was announced increasing the power of trade unions. Despite the core of the leadership of the party came from feudal background, the People's Party announced reforms limiting land ownership and the government take-over of more than a million acres to distribute to landless peasants.
More than 2,000 civil servants were dismissed on charges of corruption and those who protested against the policies. On foreign front, People's Party supported President Bhutto of negotiating the return of more than 93,000 prisoners of war and settlement with India that brought the areas occupied by India under the management of Pakistani government. Development of the nuclear weapons program also took place under the Bhutto's administration as part of the defense strategy to prevent foreign invasions on 20 January 1972. In 1972, the People's Party had to address the labor unrest when the steel workers intensified their demands and the whole country engulfed with periodic lockouts and encirclement of industries. Among them notable struggles were the emergence of a worker-led court under Abdur Rehman in Kot Lakhpat.
In 1973, the People's Party spearheaded the writings and the framework of the Constitution that placed the country's political structure towards the parliamentary democracy. In the Peoples Party's first budget of 1972–73, the healthcare and education were nationalized, with a record 42.3 percent of the total budget being allocated for the affordable healthcare and education program.
On 10 April 1973, the People's Party spearheaded the efforts to promulgated the Constitution which was approved by the National Assembly and the Senate, and it came into effect from 14 August 1973, the day Bhutto elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The People's Party initiated education reforms that expanded the school network to slums and small villages, creating basic health facilities, land reforms and housing schemes. However, these programs were affected by the global recession, fueled by the oil crises, and the failure of reforms resulted into rising inflation in 1974. The letter of credit of Pakistan was rejected by International Monetary Fund and World Bank and a massive capital flight was seen from the country to Eastern Europe. Dr Mubashar Hassan, then-finance minister under Bhutto's administration wrote in a note to core of the leadership of the People's Party: "We have been in office for more than six months. Many decisions have been taken but a growing implementation gap is becoming visible. Once the implementation gap sets in, the decline begins. We came to abolish the abominable status quo but the status quo is very much present..."
On the foreign policy, the People's Party moved towards building closer ties with the People's Republic of China, with Bhutto successfully negotiating an aid package worth $300 million for Pakistan and also writing off loans amounting to over $110 million.
In 1975–76, the serious issues began to emerge within the party's ranks, when Bhutto decided to utilize the state machinery to keep an eye on the activities of the Pakistan National Alliance– a rightwing conservative alliance led by the Pakistan Muslim League. The People's Party direction was geared towards centre-left when leftwing intellectuals – such as Malik Mirage, a law minister under Bhutto's administration, Mubashir Hassan, finance minister in Bhutto's administration– were asked to resign from their respective assignments. In September 1974, under pressure from religious organizations, the People's Party agreed on drafting and passing the constitutional amendment declaring the Ahmadiyya community to be non-Muslim. In 1976, the People's Party supported the authorization of the military operation in the Balochistan and dismissed the key ally, the National Awami Party, government by imposing the governor's rule in the province as a wider policy to fight against the feudalism in the province.
==== Redemption and two-party system ====
In 1977, the Pakistan People's Party led by Bhutto secured the landslide victory in general election over the conservative National Alliance but the opposition refused and denied the election results. Massive demonstration and protests broke out in the conservative strongholds of the country that forced the party to negotiate with the opposition and offered to hold another set of elections, also in 1977. although, in 1974, he had banned alcohol. Any attempts by the party to settle the issue with the opposition failed which led to General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the army chief at that time, imposed a martial law to ensure security in the country in 1977.
From 1979—88, the People's Party was a target of the various counterintelligence operations and was a proponent of organizing and leading the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD) under its elected chairperson Benazir Bhutto.
The Peoples Party spearheaded the pro-democratic movement in the country under Benazir Bhutto's direction against the martial law and boycotted the general elections in 1985.
After the death of General Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, the People's Party returned and assumed the control of the executive government after voted in majority during the general elections, with Benazir Bhutto becoming the first female head of government in the Muslim world. The issues relating to the economic recession, national security, industrial nationalization, and administration guidance that differs from the President Ishaq Khan, eventually led to the dismissal of the People's Party's government in 1990. The part lost the general election in 1990, which was said and later proved in court inquiries to be heavily rigged in favor of conservative alliance led by Fida Mohammad. In 2012, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared this election "rigged in favor" of the Pakistan Muslim League.
In 1993, the People's Party secured the majority in the general election, forming an unusual coalition with fundamentalist JUI(F) and the Awami National Party (ANP). The party dominated the two-party system facing the rival Pakistan Muslim League (N) on a conservative and status quo platform. The party under Benazir Bhutto faced the issues relating to the economic recession, war in Afghanistan on the western front, and identity politics in Karachi, Sindh. The party also suffered with internal factions mainly in three parliamentary groups: the Bhuttoists, the Parliamentarians and the Sherpaoists, with Bhuttoism becoming the most influential and powerful in Sindh and Balochistan. Internal opposition and disapproval of Asif Zardari and Benazir Bhutto's policies by her brother Murtaza Bhutto created a rift in their relations. Murtaza Bhutto was assassinated in a police shootout with the Sindh Police in 1996, with many pointing the finger of blame at his sister and her husband.
The assassination of Bhutto in a police shootout damaged the credibility of the party in its stronghold and was later dismissed by dismissed by the party's own elected President Farooq Leghari in September 1996. From 1996–2006, the People's Party worked on strengthening its vote bank in the rural areas of Sindh and eventually reached an understanding with the Pakistan Muslim League(N) in leading the Alliance for Restoration of Democracy (ARD) that effectively opposed the military-backed government of President Pervez Musharraf.
==== 21st century and current affairs ====
In 2007, the party faced the leadership crises when its presiding leader, Benazir Bhutto, was assassinated on 27 December 2007 but the party won the majority to control the executive after the general elections held in 2008. Initially reaching a compromise with its rival Pakistan Muslim League (N), the party spearheaded the efforts to impeach President Pervez Musharraf who later resigned. During this time, the party nominated Yousaf Raza Gillani for the premiership and Asif Ali Zardari for the presidency while forming a coalition alliance with Pakistan Muslim League (Q) in Punjab, Awami National Party in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, JUI(F) in Balochistan and Muttahida Qaumi Movement in Sindh. While on other hand, the Peoples Party claimed the exclusive mandate in Gilgit-Baltistan and Kashmir.
In 2010, President Zardari voluntarily transferred the powers and control of the executive Prime Minister's Secretariat which was ratified through the passage of the eighteenth amendment to the constitution as part of country's road to parliamentary democracy. In growing criticism on tackling foreign-bound terrorism from west, corruption, energy crises, and economic stagflation, the party struggled to project its overall political narratives but managed to maintain a large vote bank in deeper Sindh, Balochistan, and southern skirts of Punjab.
According to The Economist in 2017, the party "has become irrelevant outside their home province of Sindh."
== Electoral history ==
=== National Assembly elections ===
=== Senate of Pakistan Elections ===
=== Sindh Assembly elections ===
=== Punjab Assembly elections ===
=== Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly elections ===
=== Azad Kashmir Legislative Assembly Elections ===
=== Gilgit-Baltistan Assembly Elections ===
== Notable leadership ==
The first socialist and democratic convention attended by the leading 67 left-wing intellectuals who appointed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as the first and founding chair of the Pakistan Peoples Party. After his execution, the senior party leadership handed over the chairmanship of the party to his wife, Nusrat Bhutto, and held the position into the 1980s. In 1982, Nusrat Bhutto, ill with cancer, was given permission to leave Pakistan for medical treatment and remained abroad for several years. At that point her daughter, Benazir Bhutto, became acting head of the party while Nusrat technically remained its chairman and was referred to as such as late as September 1983. By January 1984, Benazir was being referred to as the party's chairman and subsequently secured the legal appointment by the senior leadership of Central Executive Committee at the convention held in 1984. She had been elected chairperson for life, which she remained until her assassination on 27 December 2007. Her nineteen-year-old son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari and his father Asif Ali Zardari were appointed party co-chairmen after assassination of Benazir Bhutto on 30 December 2007.
=== List of party's presidents ===
=== List of party's prime ministers ===
== Current structure and composition ==
The Central Executive Committee of the Pakistan Peoples Party of Pakistan serves as party's highest leadership, and apex governing authority, and is primarily responsible for promoting Peoples Party activities, promotion, media campaigning, welfare distribution, public policy and works. The CEC is the supreme parliamentary body in charge of setting out strategies and positions during and after elections. The CEC is currently chaired by Asif Ali Zardari, assisted by additional vice-chairmen, including all the major office bearers of the party. However, the CEC is focused on election campaigning and organizational strategy during the national parliamentary elections, overseeing the media works, ideological promotion, and the foreign policy. The public works, welfare distribution are partly managed at the municipal unit level up to the federal level, which supervise and give legal authority for such works.
The PPP-Young Organization is a youth-led party organisation that attempts to mobilise the youth for Peoples Party candidates for the Youth Parliament. The group's Trotskyist-Marxist wing, "The Struggle", which is internationally affiliated with International Marxist Tendency (IMT) pursues an entryist strategy by working inside party's student wing, the Peoples Students, a student-outreach organization with the goal of training and engaging the new generation of the Pakistan Peoples Party. The Peoples Party also has an active military-street wing, the Peoples' Aman Committee, controversially affiliated with the Pakistan Peoples Party.
Nationally, each province and territory has a provisional committee, made up of elected committee members as well as ex-officio committee members who elect its presidents. The local committees often coordinate campaign activities within their jurisdiction, oversee local conventions, and in some cases primaries or caucuses, and may have a role in nominating candidates for elected office under state law. All administration, campaign, and party policies required complete permission from the CEC's co-chairman and the vice-chairmen.
=== Ideology ===
In its inception, the notable communists from the Communist Party and socialists of the defunct Socialist Party gathered to form the Peoples Party in 1967 by electing Zulfikar Ali Bhutto its first chairman. The Pakistan Peoples Party's leftist program remains far more successful and integrated in the civil society than the Communist Party.
Since then, the Peoples Party has been a leading proponent of democratic socialism with the mainstream agenda of social democracy, favouring semi-secular and semi-Islamic socialist principles. Historically, the Peoples Party favoured financially stable farmers, industrial labour unions and the middle-class. The Peoples Party rejected far-left politics and ultra-leftism, supporting unregulated business and finance, and laissez-faire capitalism, after which it was no longer widely viewed as a socialist or social-democratic party, as its economic policies swung dramatically to the right-wing, embracing economic neoliberalism and unfettered capitalism and privatisation of publicly owned institutions, favouring partial income taxes.
Despite its democratic-socialist ideas, the Peoples Party never actually allied with the Soviet Union, with the Communist Party of Pakistan remaining one of its major rivals. The Peoples Party has been criticised by various socialists such as Fahad Rizwan who accused the Peoples Party of opportunism. Recently, the Peoples Party has adopted privatisation and small-scale nationalisation policies, with centrist economic and socially progressive agendas.
Basic, enshrined principles of PPP include "Islam [as] our Faith. Democracy is our Politics. Socialism is our Economy. All Power to the People".
=== Issues involving foreign policy ===
Relations with China, Russia, Iran and Turkey, are the central and the strongest proponents of the Peoples Party's foreign policy. Under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan built closer ties with Soviet Union, China, and Iran, but under Benazir Bhutto, the foreign policy was revised after taking shifts to centre-right policies. Earlier in the 1970s, the Peoples Party faced a "secret" cold war with the United States, but then suffered a US-backed coup in 1977. On the other hand, Anti-Americanism among most PPP workers and its student wing grew twofold after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's execution at the hands of the pro-American Ziaul Haq dictatorship, the party's new chairperson, Benazir Bhutto, advised her party to concentrate on the removal of Zia alone. She also adopted Nawaz Sharif's conservative privatisation policies in order to secure funding from the United States and the World Bank, but received a harsh opposition from within the party. Throughout the 1980s, the party's credibility was damaged by the United States who "keenly sabotaged" any of its efforts and organizational establishment in the dense areas of country. Although PPP leader Bilawal Bhutto Zardari said he did not want to choose one side in the 21st century China-US strategic competition, Hina Rabbani Khar argues that the instinct to preserve Pakistan's partnership with the United States would ultimately sacrifice the full benefits of the country's "real strategic" partnership with China.
=== Academia ===
The Pakistan Peoples Party through Zulfikar Ali Bhutto proudly receives all credit for launching the atomic bomb project in 1972, public ceremonies are held on Youm-e-Takbir (lit. 'Day of Greatness') to commemorate the political services of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who established the program.
In 1976, Murtaza Bhutto graduated from Harvard University, Bhutto graduated with his thesis entitled "Modicum of Harmony". His thesis dealt with the spread of nuclear weapons in general, and the implications of India's nuclear weapons on Pakistan in particular. Murtaza went on to Christ Church, Oxford, his father's alma mater, for a three-year course to read for an MLit degree. Bhutto submitted his master thesis, containing a vast argumentative work on Nuclear strategic studies, where he advocated for Pakistan's approach to develop its nuclear deterrence program to counter Indian nuclear program.
Since its establishment, the Peoples Party has produced prolific scientists-turned technocrats, including Farhatullah Babar, Mubashir Hassan, and the senior academic scientists who played a role in building the atomic bomb. The Peoples Party member's notably provided their public support to Abdul Qadeer Khan who had been forced to attend the military debriefings by General Pervez Musharraf in 2004. In August 2012, after years of negligence, the peoples party made its effort to bestowed and award Munir Ahmad Khan the highest state honor, the Nishan-e-Imtiaz, as a gesture of political rehabilitation; the honor was publicly presented by President Asif Ali Zardari in a public ceremony.
In 1995–1996, the Peoples Party under Benazir Bhutto's era opened computer literacy centres to provide the public with access to computers and technology. In 1990, they made Pakistan the first Muslim country to launch a satellite, Badr-I. They are also responsible for establishing, nurturing, and funding the missile's programs, such as Ghauri and Shaheen in the 1990s. As part of the science policy, they established the Pakistan Science Foundation in 1973 and helped establish the Pakistan Academy of Letters in 1976. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto established SZABIST at Karachi to become a leading institution of science and technology and appointed academic Dr. Javaid Laghari as its first president, who later was also elected Senator from Sindh on a technocrat seat and eventually Chairman HEC leading a revolution of reforms in higher education in South Asia.
=== Ideology and platform ===
PPP’s stated objectives include:
Ensuring merit-based representation of marginalized regions and communities.
Enacting legal and electoral reforms, such as joined the politicians from contesting multiple seat the elections.
Implementing public welfare programs on organization, women, farmers, clean drinking water, clean road, transport, and healthcare.
== Challenges and controversies ==
=== "Losing the left" and post-secularism ===
Since the 1990s, the Peoples Party has been under intense criticism, both from its own members and the other leftists in the country, notably due to the charges of large-scale corruptions. The leading leftist, Nadeem Paracha, has asserted that since 1977, the Peoples Party's manifesto has been transformed into a centre-right platform, despite that during the 1977 parliamentary elections, the Peoples Party's manifesto did not mention socialism. During the 1973–75, the Peoples Party's radical ultra-left and communist wings led by Mirage Khalid and the Maoist wings under Khalid Syed were purged by the Peoples Party to ensure the political support of the powerful Sindh's feudal lords and Punjab's landed elite, with Paracha claiming the Peoples Party has "lost the left".
Leading left-wing journalist Mehdi Hasan has remarked that the Peoples Party is "not a secular party", firstly citing its support of declaring Ahmadiyya community as non-Muslims through the second constitutional amendment, secondly for banning the use of liquor, and thirdly for the Peoples Party declaring Friday as a holiday to win the support of religious elements.
=== Kashmir Cause ===
The chairman of PPP Bilawal Bhutto Zardari led a convention on 19 September 2014 in Multan, Punjab, where he reportedly quoted: "the [PPP] would take back entire Kashmir for his country."
Bhutto emphasized on his last part of the speech: "I will take back Kashmir, all of it, and I will not leave behind a single inch of it because like the other provinces, it belongs to Pakistan. He pledged to continue supporting Kashmiri freedom struggle morally and diplomatically...(.)".
=== Internal opposition and factionalism ===
Since the 1990s, the factionalism has grown in the party when Murtaza Bhutto returned to Pakistan. Disagreeing with Benazir and Asif Ali Zardari's political philosophy brewing the party, Murtaza Bhutto split and formed the more powerful yet more leaning towards left wing faction, Bhuttoist in 1995. Confrontation with Benazir Bhutto in 1999 over the party guidance, Aftab Sherpao splits from the party and forming the Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpaoist)—a more reformist with libertarian agenda.
Factionalism continued in 2011 when PPP sacked Mahmood Qureshi over the Raymond Davis incident in Lahore. Qureshi later defected to PTI. Another leftist leader, Malik Ali Khan also resigned from the Peoples Party, saying that he "did not agree with how President Zardari was leading the party particularly with regards to an alliance with centre-right PML (Q) and the foreign policy."
In 2012, the PPP's powerful leader, Zulfiqar Mirza, quit from the party despite urgings amidst disagreement with Asif Zardari's leadership and policies with regards to dealings with the liberal MQM in Sindh. Reasoning with their isolation, the socialist politicians felt that the party had now moved away from the original ideas it was founded on by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1967. In 2014, Labour leader, Safdar Ali Abbasi, formed the Workers faction amid disagreement with party's fiscal policy.
=== Defection in PPP: The Launch of Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarian-Patriots ===
The Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarian-Patriots (PPPPP) was launched in Lahore in the year 2002 as a 'forward bloc' that broke away from the PPP to back the Pakistan Muslim League Quaid-e-Azam (PML-Q) transforming itself into Pakistan's newest party at that time. The leader of the rebel group was Makhdoom Faisal Saleh Hayat. In January 2017, Former federal minister Syed Faisal Saleh Hayat joined the Pakistan Peoples Party on Monday, more than 14 years after being elected on the PPP ticket in 2002, bringing an end to the PPPPP.
== See also ==
Bhuttoism and Sindh
Roti Kapada Aur Makaan
Current and former breakaway factions of the PPP
Pakistan Peoples Party (Shaheed Bhutto)
Qaumi Watan Party, formerly Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpao)
Pakistan Peoples Party (Parliamentarians)
Pakistan Peoples Party (Workers)
Political realism
Socialism in Pakistan
List of Islamic political parties
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Shah, Sayed Wiqar Ali (2004). "Pakistan Peoples Party: Socialism and Dynastic Rule". Political Parties in South Asia. Washington, D.C.: Praeger Publishers. pp. 156–200. ISBN 0-275-96832-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (1969). The Myth of Independence. London: Oxford U.P. ISBN 978-0192151674. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Lieven, Anatol (2011). Pakistan: A hard country (1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610390231.
Hussain, Zahid (2010). Scorpion's Tail. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 245. ISBN 978-1439157862. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Jones, Philip E. (2003). The Pakistan People's Party: Rise to Power. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195799668.
Ali, Tariq (2012). The Duel: Pakistan on the Flight Path of American Power. New York [US]: Simon and Schuster. p. 1960. ISBN 978-1471105883. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
== External links ==
Pakistan Peoples Party Pakistan based Web site
Pakistan Peoples Party USA official site
The Pakistan Peoples Party, Radio France Internationale (in English)
A detailed Web site on the life of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
2008 Election dossier, Radio France Internationale (in English) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanie_Rosenberg | Chanie Rosenberg | Chanie Rosenberg (20 April 1922 – June 2021) was a South African-born artist, former teacher and socialist. She was the sister of Michael Kidron, the partner of Tony Cliff, and a founder member of the Socialist Workers Party in Britain.
== Life ==
Chanie Rosenberg was born to a Jewish Zionist family originally from Lithuania in South Africa, a relative was the poet Isaac Rosenberg. She studied Hebrew at Cape Town University. In 1944, she moved to Palestine to live on a kibbutz where she became an anti-Zionist and a revolutionary socialist and met Yigael Gluckstein (better known as Tony Cliff). After the war, she moved to Britain where she was a member of the Revolutionary Communist Party from 1944 to 1949; afterwards joining the group which eventually became the Socialist Workers Party. She was active in many anti-racist and anti-fascist mobilisations. She worked as a teacher who was active in the National Union of Teachers in Hackney. She was also an artist whose sculpture has been exhibited in the Royal Academy of Arts.
== Selected writings ==
Education and Society: A rank-and-file pamphlet (1968)
Education and Revolution: a great experiment in socialist education (1972)
Class Size and the Relationship Between Official and Unofficial Action in the NUT (1977)
Women and Perestroika (1989)
Education under capitalism and socialism (1991)
1919: Britain on the Brink of Revolution (1995)
Education: Why our children deserve better than New Labour (with Kevin Ovenden) (1999)
Fighting Fit: A Memoir (includes an illustrated pamphlet on Malevich and Revolution) (2013)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Ian Birchall Tony Cliff: A Marxist for his time (2011)
== External links ==
Obituary of Chanie Rosenberg by Donny Gluckstein in Socialist Worker
Remembering Chanie Rosenberg in Socialist Worker
Chanie Rosenberg Internet Archive
Review of Fighting Fit
Image of Chanie Rosenberg and Tony Cliff |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Order_Ordinance#External_links | Public Order Ordinance | The Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245; Chinese: 公安條例; ’POO’) is a piece of primary legislation in Hong Kong. It codifies a number of old common law public order offences. It imposes notification requirements for public processions and meetings which resemble a licensing regime. It also provides for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border and in the military installations. The 1967 Ordinance was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots. For the following decades, the stringent control over public processions and meetings was relaxed incrementally until 1990s when it was brought in line with human rights standards. Upon Hong Kong handover, the amendments in the 1990s were decreed "not adopted as the laws of the HKSAR" by the NPCSC of China and therefore reverted.
== History ==
=== Colonial period ===
A 1948 Ordinance of the same short title was enacted in 1948 by the British colonial government. The 1948 Ordinance transplanted the Public Order Act 1936 in the United Kingdom and the binding over procedure in the criminal code of Straits Settlements. It provided for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border.
The Public Ordinance Ordinance, 1967 was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots. The government relied on a number of emergency laws to suppress the prolonged unrest. The bill was published on 6 October 1967 and was passed into law on 15 November 1967 by the Legislative Council. The 1967 version of the law was a consolidation of various pieces of preexisting legislation with some substantive amendments. Before the enactment of the 1967 POO, the law dealing with public order was to be found in a previous POO, the Peace Preservation Ordinance, the Summary Offences Ordinance and in the common law.
Under the revised POO in 1980, it generated a licensing system for gatherings in public place.
The Public Order (Amendment) Bill 1986 raised concerns over the threat to freedom of speech as the government on the one hand took some potentially oppressive measures including its power to seize and suppress newspapers and other publications, off the books, but on the other hand strengthened provisions against "false news": the new provision stated that "any person who publishes false news likely to cause alarm to the public or a section thereof or disturb public order shall be guilty of an offence." The pro-democrats argued the definition of "false news" was not clearly defined. In 1989, the government repealed the section on its own initiative.
In 1991 the final years of the colonial rule, the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance Cap. 383 was enacted. A number of ordinances, including the POO that were thought to possibly violate the Bill of Rights had to be reviewed.
In 1995, most provisions in the law was repealed by the Legislative Council as part of the government to bring Hong Kong law in line with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the licensing system was replaced by a simple notification procedure.
In October 1996, Democratic Party's legislator James To introduced a private member's bill to amend section 6 of the POO to remove the power of the Commissioner of Police to control the extent to which music or speech might be amplified. The Secretary for Security Peter Lai moved an amendment to make it more explicit that the Commission of Police would exercise such power only if "he reasonably considers it to be necessary to prevent an imminent threat to public safety or public order". The Secretary for Security's amendment was carried and the 1996 Amendment Ordinance came into effect on 20 December 1996.
=== SAR administration ===
The People's Republic of China government was convinced that the 1995 amendment in the late colonial days was maliciously motivated and aimed at reducing legitimate public order regulatory powers of the government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The PRC considered the Bill of Rights Ordinance and the 1995 POO to contravene the Hong Kong Basic Law. The Preliminary Working Committee for the HKSAR, an organ oversaw the preparatory works for the transfer of the sovereignty consisting members who were appointed by the PRC government, proposed to reinstate the POO. Therefore, on 23 February 1997, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed a resolution that under Article 160 of the Basic Law that major amendments to the POO would be scrapped.
Following up the NPC's decision, the Office of the Chief Executive Designate proposed amendments to the POO, together with the Societies Ordinance and issued a hastily prepared consultation document "Civil Liberty and Social Order" to the public in April 1997. The proposed amendments created widespread criticisms that the future SAR government intended to restrict Hong Kong people's civil liberties. The colonial Hong Kong government even distribute a commentary criticising the proposals in unusual manner. The CE Office scaled down the amendments on 15 May in result. The Hong Kong Provisional Legislative Council enacted the new version of the POO on 14 June 1997, and it came into force on 1 July 1997. The restored and amended provisions were seen as a halfway between the licensing and notification systems.
== 1997 version ==
The 1997 amendment of the law gives government the power to prohibit a public meeting or procession on the grounds of "national security" and "the protection of the rights and freedoms of others," in addition to preexisting grounds of "public safety" and "public order." Under the section 17A any failure to do is a criminal offence and may face an imprisonment term of up to five years.
The details of the current version of the POO that restrict the right of assembly:
A public procession consisting of more than 30 persons can only take place if the Police Commissioner has been notified a week in advance and the Commissioner has notified the organiser that he has no objection. § 13(2)
The Commissioner can object to the public procession, but only if he reasonably considers that the objection is necessary in the interests of national security or public safety, public order or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. § 14(1)
The Commissioner may, where he reasonably considers it necessary in the interests of national security or public safety, public order or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others, impose conditions in respect of any public procession notified under section 13A, and notice of any condition so imposed shall be given in writing to the organiser and shall state the reasons why such condition is considered necessary. § 15(2)
Further requirements include the presence of the organiser at the procession, maintenance of good order and public safety, the prohibition of unreasonable use of amplification devices, compliance with directions given by a police officer for ensuring compliance with the Commissioner's requirements and the POO's requirements etc. § 15(4)
On the other hand, certain statutory safeguards are present in the POO.
The Commissioner can accept notice that is given in less than a week. If he decides not to, he must inform the organizers in writing as soon as possible and give reasons. § 13A(2)
The Commissioner can only reject an application if he considers objection is necessary for the statutory legitimate purposes. The "protection of public health & morals" purpose in the Bill of Rights is absent in the POO, hence restricting the Commissioner's discretion. § 14(1)
The objection must be given as soon as possible and within the statutory time limit. § 14(2)
The Commissioner is obliged not to object if he reasonably considers that the relevant statutory legitimate purposes could be met by imposing conditions. § 14(5)
The Commissioner's discretion may only be delegated to police officers of inspector or above. § 52
A decision by the Commissioner can be appealed to an Appeal Board. The decision of the Appeal Board can be judicially reviewed (but not appealed). § 16
=== "Public place" ===
"Public gathering", "public meeting" and "public procession" under the POO is defined with reference to the term "public place". All of the above activities must take place in a "public place"
”Public place" is defined under s.2 of the POO as:any place to which for the time being the public or any section of the public are entitled or permitted to have access, whether on payment or otherwise, and, in relation to any meeting, includes any place which is or will be, on the occasion and for the purposes of such meeting, a public place The test for whether a place is a "public place" is "whether the persons who are entitled or permitted to have access to the particular location or area are so entitled or permitted qua their being members of the public or members of a section of the public" (HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652). In Kwok Cheuk Kin v Commissioner of Police, the Court stated that "private premises to which access is restricted to the lawful occupiers’ invitees or licensees (in addition to, of course, the lawful occupiers themselves) would not generally be regarded as “public places” under the Ordinance" ([27]). In R v Lam Shing Chow, the accused was charged with "Fight in public". The appeal court quashed the conviction because the fight took place in a common corridor of a residential flat which is not a "public place". On the contrary, in 香港特別行政區政府 訴 梁超明 [2002] HKCFI 170, since the public is allowed to enter into the reception area of the Law Society located on 3/F Wing On House, the area constitutes a "public place" within the meaning of s.2 of the POO.
Cinemas and racecourses are public places despite the fact that the public might be required to purchase tickets for entry (HKSAR v Pearce [2005] 4 HKC 105 and HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652).
Areas within a university campus where the public has access would constitute a public place while other school campuses or private areas of university campuses would not constitute "public places".
== Cases ==
The first charge under the POO was taken after the handover was in 2000, when seven student leaders were arrested for joining "illegal assemblies" and obstructing the police on a demonstration on 26 June 2000 that was without a prior notice given to the police. The protest, served as a reminder of the Government's decision to seek for re-interpretation of the Basic Law after the right of abode rulings in 1999, received general public and media sympathy and was viewed by some as an orderly, non-violent and non-provoking act of civil disobedience. More than 500 academics and researchers signed a petition to support the students, about 1,000 people marched on the street without police's letter of no objection in open defiance of the POO, and the Hong Kong Bar Association condemned the police for singling out students for arrest. Due to large pressure from society, the Secretary for Justice Elsie Leung decided not to prosecute the student leaders and other protestors.
=== Leung Kwok-hung and Others v. HKSAR ===
The first case that the HKSAR government decide to prosecute protesters for violation of the notification system was launched on 9 May 2002 against veteran protestor Leung Kwok-hung of the April Fifth Action and two other student activists was charged with organising an unauthorised public assembly or assisting in organising one.
On 10 February 2002, a number of persons gathered at Chater Garden for a procession. Civil activist Leung Kwok-hung was the organiser of the procession, but did not notify the Commissioner in advance. A police officer invited him to go through the statutory notification procedure, but Leung refused and was warned of the consequences. Initially, the procession consisted of 40 people, but it eventually grew to about 96 persons. They ignored police advice for several times, but the procession was at all times peaceful. On 25 November 2002, the three were convicted for organising an unathourised public procession and for failing to notify the police under the POO. Each of them was fined 500 Hong Kong dollars and was required to be bound over for three months. Magistrate Partick Li held that requirement for the notification system was reasonable for maintaining ordre public of Hong Kong society. The appeal was heard before the Court of Final Appeal.
At the Court of Final Appeal, the constitutionality of the entire statutory notification scheme was challenged. On 8 July 2005, the Court of Final Appeal by a majority of 4 to 1 dismissed the appeal. Chief Justice Li, Justice Chan PJ, Justice Ribeiro PJ and Sir Anthony Mason NPJ, having considered all the statutory restrictions on the freedom of assembly and the statutory safeguards listed above, held that the notification system was constitutional. However, they held that the norm of "ordre public", which existed as a statutory legitimate purpose at that time, was too vague at statutory level and hence could not be said to be prescribed by law. "Ordre public" was as a result severed, but the term "public order" was sufficiently precise to survive. They also remarked in dicta that the norm of "protection of the rights and freedoms of others" was too wide and did not satisfy the legal certainty requirement. They affirmed the convictions as the severance did not affect the conviction. Justice Bokhary PJ dissented, noting in his judgment that the whole statutory scheme should be struck down except the entitlement to notification.
The government was criticised for politically motivated prosecute a few high-profile protesters as Leung Kwok-hung was the veteran activist and a leader of a radical political group and the student activists were the prominent members of the Hong Kong Federation of Students which is a vocal critic of government policy.
=== 2005 WTO conference ===
In the 2005 WTO conference, the Hong Kong Police referred to the POO to arrest nearly a thousand protesting South Korean farmers in Hong Kong, but afterwards but no one could successfully be convicted.
=== Recent cases ===
The HKSAR government recorded the number of prosecution under the POO in 2011. There were total of 45 protesters charged under the POO in 2011 compared with a total of just 39 since the handover. The 45 were among 444 protesters arrested were mostly in three massive protests. 54 prosecuted in total were police figures.
Two legislators from the radical political group People Power, Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan were convicted under the POO for organising and taking part in an unlawful assembly in the evening after the 1 July Protest in 2011 where Wong urged hundreds of People Power supporters to vow to march to the Government House. Protesters ended up with a sit-down on Garden Road after the police blocked the way of the march. It brought a serve traffic disruption. Sentencing has been adjourned until 16 May.
On 8 May 2013, Melody Chan, a 26-year-old volunteer of the Occupy Central movement was arrested for her alleged involvement in the blocking of roads in Central nearly two years ago, the same protest that Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan took part in and were charged much earlier.
=== 2016 Mong Kok unrest ===
In the 2016 Mong Kok civil unrest, the government prosecuted 36 protesters with the charge of rioting, a charge previously used only three times since 1970 which carried a maximum sentence of ten years' imprisonment under the POO. British human rights watchdog Hong Kong Watch criticised the charge of "rioting" and "incitement to riot" under the POO was vague and could lead to excessive punishment for protesters.
== Criticisms ==
The POO is criticized as a mean to suppress Hong Kong people's civil liberties.
The Reform Club of Hong Kong objected the legislation of the bill when it was first introduced in 1967. It stated the bill made every peace-loving resident of Hong Kong a potential criminal and made innocent persons who were charged with offences against it would 'be in grave danger of conviction, if they could not afford a lawyer and were undefended.
The system of letter of no objection has been criticised as a license system in disguise. If the police were to enforce the system strictly, there would large numbers of people would have to be prosecuted. However it would become a dead letter in the statute book and contrary to the rule of law principle if the law is not faithfully put into practice without discrimination.
== See also ==
Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23
Human rights in Hong Kong
Macau national security law
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
A Note on provisions relating to the regulation of public meetings and public processions in the Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245)
"Public Order Ordinance," the existing provisions
Bill Committee of the 1997 Public Order (Amendment) Bill
Outdated and Draconian: Hong Kong's Public Order Ordinance – Hong Kong Watch 10 July 2019 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Serra#:~:text=In%201970%20Serra%20received%20a,of%20the%20%22Tokyo%20Biennale.%22 | Richard Serra | Richard Serra (November 2, 1938 – March 26, 2024) was an American artist known for his large-scale abstract sculptures made for site-specific landscape, urban, and architectural settings, and whose work has been primarily associated with postminimalism. Described as "one of his era's greatest sculptors", Serra became notable for emphasizing the material qualities of his works and exploration of the relationship between the viewer, the work, and the site.
Serra pursued English literature at the University of California, Berkeley, before shifting to visual art. He graduated with a B.A. in English literature from the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1961, where he met influential muralists Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Supporting himself by working in steel mills, Serra's early exposure to industrial materials influenced his artistic trajectory. He continued his education at Yale University, earning a B.A. in art history and an M.F.A. degree in 1964. While in Paris on a Yale fellowship in 1964, he befriended composer Philip Glass and explored Constantin Brâncuși's studio, both of which had a strong influence on his work. His time in Europe also catalyzed his subsequent shift from painting to sculpture.
From the mid-1960s onward, particularly after his move to New York City in 1966, Serra worked to radicalize and extend the definition of sculpture beginning with his early experiments with rubber, neon, and lead, to his large-scale steel works. His early works in New York, such as To Lift from 1967 and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up from 1968, reflected his fascination with industrial materials and the physical properties of his chosen mediums. His large-scale works, both in urban and natural landscapes, have reshaped public interactions with art and, at times, were also a source of controversy, such as that caused by his Tilted Arc in Manhattan, New York in 1981. Serra was married to artist Nancy Graves between 1965 and 1970, and Clara Weyergraf between 1981 and his death in 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Serra was born in San Francisco on November 2, 1938, to Tony and Gladys Serra – the second of three sons. His father was Spanish from Mallorca and his mother Gladys (nee Fineberg) was the daughter of Russian Jewish immigrants from Odessa, USSR. From a young age, he was encouraged to draw by his mother and he carried a small notebook for his sketches. His mother would introduce her son as "Richard the artist." His father worked as a pipe fitter for a shipyard near San Francisco.
Serra recounted a memory of a visit to the shipyard to see a boat launch when he was four years old. He watched as the ship transformed from an enormous weight to a buoyant, floating structure and noted, "All the raw material that I needed is contained in the reserve of this memory." Serra's father, who was related to the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí, later worked as a candy plant foreman.
Richard Serra studied English literature at the University of California, Berkeley in 1957 before transferring to the University of California, Santa Barbara and graduating in 1961 with a BA in English Literature. In Santa Barbara, Serra met the muralists, Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Both were in the Art Department and took Serra under their wing. During this period, Serra worked in steel mills to earn a living, as he did at various times from ages 16–25.
Serra studied painting at Yale University and graduated with both a BA in art history and an MFA degree in 1964. Fellow Yale alumni contemporaneous to Serra include Chuck Close, Rackstraw Downs, Nancy Graves, Brice Marden, and Robert Mangold. At Yale Serra met visiting artists from the New York School including Philip Guston, Robert Rauschenberg, Ad Reinhardt, and Frank Stella. Serra taught a color theory course during his last year at Yale and after graduating was asked to help proof Josef Albers's notable color theory book Interaction of Color.
In 1964, Serra was awarded a one-year traveling fellowship from Yale and went to Paris where he met the composer Philip Glass who became a collaborator and long-time friend. In Paris, Serra spent time sketching in Constantin Brâncuși's studio, partially reconstructed inside the Musée national d'Art moderne on the Avenue du Président Wilson, allowing Serra to study Brâncuși's work, later drawing his own sculptural conclusions. An exact replica of Brâncuși's studio is now located opposite the Centre Pompidou. Serra spent 1965 in Florence, Italy on a Fulbright Grant. In 1966 while still in Italy, Serra made a trip to the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain and saw Diego Velázquez's painting Las Meninas. The artist realized he would not surpass the skill of that painting and decided to move away from painting.
While still in Europe, Serra began experimenting with nontraditional sculptural material. He had his first one-person exhibition "Animal Habitats" at Galleria Salita, Rome. Exhibited there were assemblages made with live and stuffed animals which would later be referenced as early work from the Arte Povera movement.
== Work ==
=== Early work ===
Serra returned from Europe moving to New York City in 1966. He continued his constructions using experimental materials including rubber, latex, fiberglass, neon, and lead. His Belt Pieces were made with strips of rubber and hung on the wall using gravity as a forming device. Serra combined neon with continuous strips of rubber in his sculpture Belts (1966–67) referencing the serial abstraction in Jackson Pollock's Mural (1963.) Around that time Serra wrote Verb List (1967) a list of transitive verbs (i.e. cast, roll, tear, prop, etc.) which he used as directives for his sculptures. To Lift (1967), and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Splash Piece (1968), and Casting (1969), were some of the action-based works with origins in the verb list. Serra used lead in many of his constructs because of its adaptability. Lead is malleable enough to be rolled, folded, ripped, and melted. With To Lift (1967) Serra lifted a 10-foot (3 m) sheet of rubber off the ground making a free-standing form; with Thirty-five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Serra, with the help of Philip Glass, unrolled and rolled a sheet of lead as tightly as they could.
In 1968 Serra was included in the group exhibition "Nine at Castelli" at Castelli Warehouse in New York where he showed Prop (1968), Scatter Piece (1968), and made Splashing (1968) by throwing molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. In 1969 his piece Casting was included in the exhibition Anti-Illusion: Procedures/Materials at the Whitney Museum of American Art in . In Casting the artist again threw molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. He then pulled the casting made from the hardened lead away from the wall and repeated the action of splashing and casting creating a series of free-standing forms.
"To prop" is another transitive verb from Serra's "Verb List" utilized by the artist for a series of assemblages of lead plates and poles dependent on leaning and gravity as a force to stay upright. His early Prop Pieces like Prop (1968) relied mainly on the wall as a support. Serra wanted to move away from the wall to remove what he thought was a pictorial convention. In 1969 he propped four lead plates up on the floor like a house of cards. The sculpture One Ton Prop: House of Cards (1969) weighed 1 ton and the four plates were self-supporting.
Another pivotal moment for Serra occurred in 1969 when he was commissioned by the artist Jasper Johns to make a Splash Piece in Johns's studio. While Serra heated the lead plates to splash against the wall, he took one of the larger plates and set it in the corner where it stood on its own. Serra's break into space followed shortly after with the sculpture Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–71). Serra wedged an 8 by 24-foot (2.4 × 7.3 m) plate of steel into a corner and divided the room into two equal spaces. The work invited the viewer to walk around the sculpture, shifting the viewer's perception of the room as they walked.
Serra first recognized the potential of working in large scale with his Skullcracker Series made during the exhibition, "Art and Technology," at LACMA (the Los Angeles County Museum of Art) in 1969. He spent ten weeks building a number of ephemeral stacked steel pieces at the Kaiser Steelyard. Using a crane to explore the principles of counterbalance and gravity, the stacks were as tall as 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 m) high and weighed between 60 and 70 tons (54.4 and 63.5 t). They were knocked down by the steelworkers at the end of each day. The scale of the stacks allowed Serra to begin to think of his work outside the confines of gallery and museum spaces.
=== Landscape works ===
In 1970 Serra received a Guggenheim Fellowship and traveled to Japan. His first outdoor sculptures, To Encircle Base Plate (Hexagram) (1970) and Sugi Tree (1970), were both installed in Ueno Park in Tokyo as part of the Tokyo Biennale.
While in Japan, Serra spent most of his time studying the Zen gardens and temples of the Myoshin-ji in Kyoto. The layout of the gardens revealed the landscape as a total field that can only be experienced by walking. The gardens changed Serra's way of seeing space in relation to time. Upon returning to the United States he built his first site-specific outdoor work: To Encircle Base Plate Hexagram, Right Angles Inverted (1970). Here Serra embedded two semi-circular steel flanges, forming a ring 26 feet (7.9 m) in diameter, into the surface of 183rd Street in the Bronx. One semi-circle measured 1 inch (25.4 mm) wide and the second, 8 inches wide (203.2 mm). The work was visible from two perspectives: either when the viewer came directly upon it or from above on a stairway overlooking the street.
Throughout the 1970s Serra continued to make outdoor site-specific sculptures for urban areas and landscapes. Serra was interested in the topology of landscape and how one relates to it through movement, space, and time. His first landscape work was made in late 1970 when Serra was commissioned by the art patrons Joseph and Emily Rauh Pulitzer to build a sculpture on their property outside St. Louis, Missouri. Pulitzer Piece: Stepped Elevation (1970–71) was Serra's first large-scale landscape work. Three plates measuring 5 feet (1.5 m) high by 40 to 50 feet (12 to 15 m) long were placed across approximately 3 acres (12 140 m2). The placement of the plates was determined by the fall of the landscape. Each plate was impaled into the ground far enough until its rise was 5 feet (1.5 m). Serra's intention was for the plates to act as cuts in the landscape that function as surrogate horizons as viewers walked amongst them.
Shift (1970–1972), Serra's second endeavor in the landscape, was built in a field owned by the collector Roger Davidson in King City, Ontario. The sculpture is composed of six rectilinear concrete sections placed along the sloping landscape. In 2013 Shift was designated a Heritage Site under the Ontario Heritage Act. Shift, like Pulitzer Prizes pieces, was based on the elevational fall of the land over a given distance. The top edges of the plates function as a horizon being placed into specific elevational intervals as you walk the entire field.Serra's subsequent site-specific works in landscape continued to explore the topography of the land and how the sculpture relates to this topography by way of movement, meditation, and perception of the viewer. Among the most notable of the landscape works are Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) at the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark; Carnegie (1985) outside the Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990) on Videy Island, Iceland; Schunnemunk Fork (1991) in Storm King Art Center, New York; Snake Eyes and Box Cars (1993) in Sonoma County, California; Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) in Kaipara, New Zealand; and East-West/West-East (2014) in Qatar.
The sculpture Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) was commissioned for the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Humlebaek, Denmark. After walking the museum grounds, Serra chose a ravine that runs towards the Kattegat Sea as the site for his sculpture. The ravine was the only area on the grounds that had not been landscaped. Two plates were set at an angle to each other at the end of a sloping stretch of path which fronts the ravine. The plates function in their location like a gate that opens as the viewer walks down the path toward the sea. Seen from the center of a bridge, which crosses the ravine and leads to the museum, the two plates form a single plane as if the gate had closed. As you walk down from the museum to the ocean below, the plates appear to have a continuous swinging motion. In 1988 Serra was invited by the National Gallery of Iceland to build a work. Serra chose Videy Island as the site for Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990). The sculpture consists of nine pairs of basalt columns (a material indigenous to Iceland) and is placed along the periphery of Vesturey in the western part of the country. All nine locations share the same elevations in that the stones of each pair are situated at an elevation of 9 and 10 meters, respectively. Each set of stones is level at the top. All stones at the higher elevation measure 3 meters; all stones at the lower elevation measure 4 meters. Because of the variance of topography, the stones in a set are sometimes closer together, sometimes further apart. The rise and fall of Videy Island and the surrounding landscape are seen against the fixed measure of the standing stones. The stones are visible along the horizon of the island and orient the viewer against the rise and fall of the surrounding landscape.
Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) is located on a vast open pasture on Gibbs Farm in Kaipara, New Zealand. The sculpture stands 20 feet (6 m) high and spans 844 feet (257 m) as one continuous contour that follows the rolling hills, expansion, and contraction of the landscape. The sculpture's elevation is perpendicular to the fall of the land.
East-West/West-East (2014), located on an east-west axis in the Brouq Nature Reserve in Qatar, was commissioned by Sheika al-Mayassa al-Thani of Qatar. It consists of four steel plates either 543⁄4 or 481⁄2 feet (16.7 or 14.8 m) high. The plates are placed at irregular intervals in a valley that runs between two gypsum plateaus. The plates are level with each other and the elevation of the adjacent plateaus. The work spans less than a kilometer and all plates are visible from either end.
=== Urban works ===
In the landscape, the sculptural elements draw the viewer's attention to the topology of the land as its walked. Serra's site-specific Urban sculptures focus the viewer's attention on the sculpture itself. Their locations often more accessible to the public than the landscape works, invite the viewer to walk inside, pass through and move around them. Because of the confines of Urban architecture, sculptures such as Sight Point (1972–1975) at the Stedelijk Museum, The Netherlands; Terminal (1977) in Bochum, Germany; T.W.U. (1980) at the Deichtorhallen, Hamburg, Germany; Fulcrum (1986–87), installed in Broadgate, London; Exchange (1996) outside the City of Luxembourg; or 7 (2011) on a pier in Doha, Qatar, reflect the verticality of their surrounding architecture. Outdoor sculptures like St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) temporarily installed outside the Holland Tunnel entrance in New York City; Tilted Arc (1981) installed and later removed from New York City's Federal Plaza; Clara-Clara (1983), temporarily installed at Tuileries, Place de la Concorde, Paris; Berlin Junction (1987) installed outside the Berlin Philharmonic; are all curved forms or arcs that open and close depending on the direction the viewer takes walking around them.
Sight Point (1972–1975) was Serra's first vertical Urban work and a continuation of the balance and counterbalance principles of his earlier work Prop. Sight Point stands outside the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, consisting of three vertical steel plates 10 feet (3 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) high that lean in at an angle and forming a triangular space on the ground with three openings that can be walked through. Once inside the viewer can look up and see the sky framed by the triangular shape made by the leaning plates.
Another vertical sculpture, Terminal (1977), was conceived for "Documenta VI" in 1977. It was permanently installed on a traffic island between the street car tracks in front of a train station in Bochum, Germany. Serra chose the site because of its proximity to a high-traffic area. Exchange (1996), sited in a vehicular round-about on top of a highway tunnel, made of seven trapezoidal plates. The sculpture stands 60 feet (18 m) high and can be seen by drivers as they enter and leave the City of Luxembourg.
In 1980 Serra installed two sculptures, with the support of the Public Art Fund, in New York City. T.W.U. (1980) and St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) were each placed in areas where traffic and people converged. T.W.U, a vertical sculpture consisting of three vertical plates, each 36 feet (11 m) high, was installed at a subway entrance near West Broadway between Leonard and Franklin Streets. The sculpture is now permanently installed outside the Deichterhallen, Hamburg, Germany. St. John's Rotary Arc, one of Serra's earliest curved sculptures, was 12 feet (3.6 m) high and spanned 180 feet (55 m). From 1980 to 1988 the site-specific sculpture was installed on the rotary at the entrance and exit to the Holland Tunnel.
In 1981, a second site-specific curved sculpture Tilted Arc (1981) was installed in New York City's Federal Plaza. Commissioned by the U.S. General Services Administration's Art-in-Architecture Program following a rigorous selection process, the sculpture's arc spanned 120 feet (36 m) and 12 feet (3.6 m) high. The sculpture was a curve that tilted and leaned away from its base. It was anchored into the plaza at both ends so that the center of the sculpture was raised. Serra's intention for the sculpture was to draw pedestrians' attention to the sculpture as they crossed the plaza. Tilted Arc was met with resistance by workers in the Federal building. An eight-year campaign to remove the sculpture ensued and Tilted Arc was ultimately removed on March 15, 1989. In Serra's defense to preserve the sculpture he stated "To remove Tilted Arc, therefore, is to destroy it", advocating an art-for art's sake mantra of site-specific artworks. Following the hearing and GSA's decision, Serra responded that he would deny his authorship of Tilted Arc if it were relocated. and would consider it a "derivative work". The case of Tilted Arc continues to highlight the tension surrounding the nature of public art and its intended audience.
=== Gallery works ===
Serra's work has enjoyed numerous exhibitions in gallery and museum settings. His site-specific gallery installations are sometimes used to test ideas. Serra's first U.S. solo exhibition was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York City in 1969. There he exhibited ten lead Prop Pieces, a Scatter Piece: Cutting Device: Base Plate Measure (1969), and a Splash Piece: Splashing with Four Molds (To Eva Hesse) (1969).
After his process-based works of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Serra began to solely use rolled or forged steel in his sculpture. Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin) (1977) was Serra's first forged sculpture. Made for the plaza outside the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, the sculpture weighs 70 tons. His other forged sculptures include Elevation for Mies (1985–88) at Museum Haus Esters, Krefeld, Germany; Philibert et Marguerite (1985), in the Musee de Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse, France; Weight and Measure (1992), a temporary site-specific installation at the Tate Gallery, London; Santa Fe Depot (2004), in the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego; and Equal (2015) in the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Serra's most known series of sculptures using rolled steel plates are the Torqued Ellipses. In 1991 Serra visited Borromini's Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome and mistook the ovals of the dome and the floor to be offset from one another. He thought to make a sculpture in this torqued form. Serra constructed models of this perceived form in his studio by cutting two ellipse-shaped pieces of wood and nailing a dowel between them. He then turned the ellipses so they were at a right angle to one another and wrapped a sheet of lead around the form. After making a template from the models Serra worked with an engineer to fabricate the sculptures. In total there are seven Torqued Ellipses and four Double Torqued Ellipses (an ellipse inside of an ellipse) dated between 1996 and 2004. Each sculpture has a different degree or torque and measures up to 13 feet (3.9 m) high. The sculptures all have an opening so that they can be walked through and around. Three Torqued Ellipses are on permanent view at Dia Beacon, New York.
In 2005 "The Matter of Time", a commissioned installation, opened at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao in Spain. Consisting of eight sculptures spanning a decade from 1994 to 2005, "The Matter of Time" highlights the evolution of Serra's sculptural forms. Serra chose to include five sculptures derived from the initial torqued ellipse: one single, one double ellipse, and three torqued spirals. The Torqued Spirals followed after the Double Torqued Ellipses when Serra decided to connect a double ellipses into one wound form that can be entered and walked through. The remaining sculptures in "The Matter of Time" are one closed (Blind Spot Reversed) and one open (Between the Torus and the Sphere) torus and spherical sculpture; and Snake: made of three parts, each comprising two identical conical sections inverted relative to each other and spanning 104 feet (31.7 m) overall. The sculptures are organized by Serra with intention. The direction which the viewer moves through the space creates a sensation of varying scale and proportion, and an awareness to the passing of time.
In 2008 Serra participated in Monumenta, an annual exhibition held in Paris's Grand Palais featuring a single artist. For Monumenta Serra installed a single sculpture, Promenade (2008), consisting of five plates, each 55 feet (16.8 m) tall and 13 feet (4 m) wide, placed 100 feet (30 m) apart from one another across the cavernous interior of the Grand Palais. Overall, the sculpture spanned 656 feet (200 m). The plates were not placed in a line but stood side to side off the Grand Palais's center axis. They tilted either left or right, leaned either toward or away from another, and the viewer as they strolled around them.
The sculpture Equal (2015), in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York, consists of eight forged blocks. Each block measures 5 by 5 1⁄2 by 6 feet (1.5 × 1.7 × 1.8 m) and weighs 40 tons. The blocks are stacked in pairs and positioned on their longer or shorter sides so that each stack measures 11 feet (3.4 m) tall. When walking amongst the four stacks the viewer becomes aware of their own sense of weight, balance, and gravity in relation to the sculptures.
Four Rounds: Equal Weight, Unequal Measure (2017), consisting of four 82-ton (74 t) forged cylinders of varying dimensions is permanently installed at Glenstone in Potomac, Maryland. The sculpture is installed within a building designed by Thomas Phifer of Thomas Phifer and Partners, in collaboration with Serra to highlight the sculpture's mass within the confines of the building's interior.
=== Drawings ===
Drawing was integral to Serra's practice. He made drawings on large sheets of canvas or handmade paper. They include horizontal or vertical compositions; constructions of overlapping sheets; or line drawings. His drawings were primarily done in paintstick, lithographic crayon, or charcoal and are always black. Serra experiments with different techniques and tools to manipulate and apply the medium. He often pushes the conventions of drawing towards a tactile, phenomenological experience of movement, time, and space. The artist said that his drawing practice is involved with "repetition, knowing there's no possibility of repeating, knowing that it's going to yield something different each time".
After his break into space with sculptures like Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–1971), Serra became interested in redefining architectural space with drawing as well. In 1974 Serra started to make his Installation Drawings—large-scale site-specific sheets of canvas completely covered in paintstick and stapled to the wall. The Installation Drawings cover the wall, or walls, of a given space. Shafrazi and Zadikians were two of Serra's first Installation Drawings. Both were exhibited at Leo Castelli Gallery, New York City in 1974 and measured approximately 10 1⁄2 feet (3.2 m) high and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide overall. Serra continued to make Installation Drawing throughout his career. Other notable drawing series include: Diptychs (1989); Dead Weight (1991–92); Weight and Measure (1993–94); Videy Afangar (1989–1991); Rounds (1996–97); out-of-rounds (1999–2000); Line Drawings (2000–2002); Solids (2008); Greenpoint Rounds (2009); Elevational Weights (2010); Rifts (2011–2018); Transparencies (2011–2013); Horizontal Reversals (2014) Rambles (2015–16); Composites (2016); Horizontals and Verticals (2016–17); and Orchard Street (2018).
National and international survey exhibitions of Serra's drawings have included Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings 1971–1977 at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1978; Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings at the Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastrict in 1990; Richard Serra Drawing: A Retrospective at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012; and Richard Serra: Drawings 2015–2017: Rambles, Composites, Rotterdam Verticals, Rotterdam Horizontals, Rifts at the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen. Rotterdam, The Netherlands in 2017.
=== Prints ===
Serra began making prints in 1972. Working closely with Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, he developed unconventional printing techniques. He made over 200 printed works and like his sculpture and drawing, his prints reflect an interest in process, scale, and experimentation with material.
His early lithographs starting in 1972 include the prints Circuit; Balance; Eight by Eight; or 183rd & Webster Avenue, each titled after a sculpture created around the same time. In 1981 Serra produced his first lithograph series comprising seven editions, titled: Sketch #1 through Sketch #7. That same year Serra begin to make larger-scale prints such as Malcolm X; Goslar, or The Moral Majority Sucks.
After pushing lithography to its limit, Serra began to work with silkscreen to produce a unique surface in his prints. He did so by first applying a layer of ink onto the paper. He then would apply a layer of paint stick through the second screen creating a saturated and textured surface.
Serra continued to work this his silkscreen technique, sometimes combining it with etching and aquatint. His print series include: Videy Afanger (1991); Hreppholer (1991); WM (1996); Rounds (1999); Venice Notebook (2001); Between the Torus and the Sphere (2006); Paths and Edges (2007); Level (2008); Junction (2010); Reversal (2015); Elevational Weight (2016); Equal (2018); and (?) (2019).
=== Films and video works ===
From 1968 to 1979 Serra made a collection of films and videos. Although he began working with sculpture and film at the same time, Serra recognized the different material capacities of each and did not extend sculptural problems into his films and videos. Serra collaborated with several artists including Joan Jonas, Nancy Holt, and Robert Fiore, on his films and videos. His first films, Hand Catching Lead (1968), Hands Scraping (1968) and Hand Tied (1968) involve a series of actions: a hand tries to catch falling lead; pairs of hands move lead shavings; and bound hands untie themselves.
A later film Railroad Turnbridge (1976) frames the surrounding landscape of the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon, as the bridge turns. Steelmill/Stahwerk (1979), made in collaboration with the art historian Clara Weyergraf is divided in two parts. The first part is made up of interviews of German steel factory workers about their work. The second part captures the forging of Serra's sculpture Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin).
Survey exhibitions and screenings of his films have been held at the Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland in 2017; Anthology Film Archives, New York, October 17–23, 2019; and Harvard Film Archive, January 27 – February 9, 2020. In 2019, Serra donated his entire film and video works to the Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan, New York.
== Exhibitions ==
Serra's first solo exhibition was in 1966 at Galleria Salita in Rome, Italy. His first solo exhibition in the U.S. was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York in 1969. His first solo museum exhibition was held at the Pasadena Art Museum in Pasadena, California in 1970. The first retrospective of his work was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1986. A second retrospective was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York in 2007.
The first survey exhibition of his drawings was held at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam in 1977 and traveled to the Kunsthalle Tübingen in 1978. A second retrospective of drawings was presented at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; and The Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012. An overview of the artist's work in film and video was on view at the Kunstmuseum Basel, in 2017.
Serra enjoyed solo exhibitions at the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden, 1978; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 1980; Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1983–1984; Museum Haus Lange, Krefeld, 1985; The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1986 and 2007; Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk, 1986; Westphalian State Museum of Art and Cultural History, Münster, 1987; Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich, 1987; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, 1990; Kunsthaus Zürich, 1990; CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain, Bordeaux, 1990; Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, 1992; Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 1992; Dia Center for the Arts, New York, 1997; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 1998–1999; Centro de Arte Hélio Oiticica, Rio de Janeiro, 1997–1998; Trajan's Market, Rome, 1999–2000; Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis, 2003; National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 2004; and Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, in 2017.
== Collections ==
Serra's work is included in many museums and public collections around the world. Selected museum collections which own his work include The Museum of Modern Art, New York; The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; Art Institute of Chicago; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Centre Cultural Fundació La Caixa, Barcelona; Centre Georges Pompidou, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas; Dia Art Foundation, New York; Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and New York; Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida; Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Moderna Museet, Stockholm; and Glenstone Museum, Potomac, Maryland.
Selected public collections which hold his work include City of Bochum, Germany; City of Chicago, Public Art Collection; City of Goslar, Germany; City of Hamburg, Germany; City of St. Louis, Missouri; City of Tokyo, Japan; City of Berlin, Germany; City of Paris, France; Collection City of Reykjavík, Iceland.
== Personal life ==
Serra moved to New York City in 1966. He bought a house in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia in 1970 and spent summers working there. He and art historian Clara Weyergraf married in 1981. As of 2019, Serra maintained a home in Manhattan and studios in Nova Scotia and the North Fork of Long Island. His brother is noted San Francisco attorney Tony Serra.
Richard Serra died from pneumonia at his home in Orient, New York, on March 26, 2024, at the age of 85.
== Awards and honors ==
Serra is the recipient of many notable prizes and awards including the Fulbright Grant (1965–66); Guggenheim Fellowship (1970); République Française, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1985 and 1991); Japan Arts Association, Tokyo Praemium Imperiale (1994); a Leone d'Oro for lifetime achievement, Venice Biennale, Italy (2001); American Academy of Arts and Letters (2001); Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste, Federal Republic of Germany (2002); Orden de las Artes y las Letras de España, Spain (2008); The National Arts Award: Lifetime Achievement Award (bestowed by Americans for the Arts 2014); Hermitage Museum Foundation's Award for Lifetime Contributions to the World of Art (2014); Chevalier de l'Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur, Republic of France (2015); Landesmuseum Wiesbaden Alexej-von-Jawlensky-Preis (2017); and a J. Paul Getty Medal (2018).
== Writings and interviews ==
Gathered in the following three anthologies is a comprehensive collection of writings by, and interviews with, the artist:
Richard Serra: Writings/Interviews. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. August 15, 1994. ISBN 978-0-226-74880-1. OL 9651745M. Includes writings by the artist and interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Patricia E. Bickers, Lizzie Borden, Lynne Cooke, Douglas Crimp, Peter Eisenman, Mark Francis, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, Annette Michelson, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, Mark Rosenthal, Nicholas Serota, David Sylvester, and Clara Weyergraf
Richard Serra, Interviews, Etc., 1970–1980. Yonkers, New York: Hudson River Museum. 1980. OCLC 9946126. OL 4124913M. Written and compiled by Richard Serra in collaboration with Clara Weyergraf; includes interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Lizzie Borden, Douglas Crimp, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, and Clara Weyergraf
Richard Serra, Schriften, Interviews 1970–1989. Bern: Benteli Verlag. 1990. OCLC 950242621. German translation of the 1980 Hudson River Museum publication with additional contributions by Thomas Beller, Peter Eisenman, Philip Glass, Gerard Hovagymyan, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, and Harald Szeemann
== Actor ==
Serra plays an architect who is a third level Mason in artist and filmmaker Matthew Barney's Cremaster 3 from the director's five-part Cremaster Cycle.
== Selected writing ==
All are solely by Richard Serra unless indicated otherwise.
"Play it Again, Sam," Arts Magazine 44, no. 4 (February 1970), pp. 24–27
"Verb List, 1967–68," First published in Avalanche [New York], no. 2 (Winter 1971), pp. 20–21
"Skullcracker Stacking Series," In Scott, Gail R., A Report on the Art & Technology Program of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art 1967–1971, pp. 299–300, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1971
Jackson, Ward, and Richard Serra; "Richard Serra," Art Now: New York 3, no. 3 (September 1971), p. 4
Serra, Richard, "Statements," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64
"On Frame, on Color-Aid," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64
Jonas, Joan, and Richard Serra; "Paul Revere," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), pp. 65–67
Serra, Richard, and Rosalind Krauss; ed. "Shift." Arts Magazine 47, no. 6 (April 1973), pp. 49–55
Serra, Richard, and Clara Weyergraf; "St. John's Rotary Arc," Artforum 19, no. 1 (September 1980), pp. 52–55
"Notes from Sight Point Road," Originally published in Perspecta: The Yale Architectural Journal, no. 19 (1982), pp. 172–81
Edited and printed as "Extended Notes from Sight Point Road" in Richard Serra: Neuere Skulpturen in Europa 1977–1985 (Eine Auswahl)/Recent Sculpture in Europe 1977–1985 (Selected), pp. 11–15
"Letter from Richard Serra to President Ronald Reagan" [in Portuguese and English], Lo Spazio Umano [Portugal], no. 2 (April–July 1985), pp. 89–92, bilingual, Portuguese and English
"Serra Writes the President," Art & Artists 14, no. 3 (May–June 1985), special supplement, pp. 3, 22
"Notes on Drawing," First published in Güse, Ernst-Gerhard, ed. Richard Serra, pp. 66–68, New York: Rizzoli, 1988
"Weight," In Richard Serra: 10 Sculptures for the Van Abbe, pp. 10–12, Exh. cat. Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988, bilingual in Dutch and English
"'Tilted Arc'—A Precedent?" [letter to the editor], The New York Times, April 30, 1989, sec. 2, p. 5
"'Tilted Arc' Destroyed," Art in America 77, no. 5 (May 1989), pp. 34–47, cover
"Artists Have Rights to Their Works," The Des Moines Sunday Register, October 29, 1989, pp. 3C
"The Yale Lecture, January 1990," Kunst & Museumjournaal [Amsterdam: English edition] 1, no. 6 (1990), pp. 23–33
"Art and Censorship". Critical Inquiry. 17 (3): 574–581. April 1991. doi:10.1086/448597.
"Afangar Series," Open City, no. 2 (1993), pp. 101–7
"Donald Judd, 1928-1994" [eulogy. Parkett, nos. 40–41 (1994), pp. 176–79
"Basel, 18. January 1994/Basel, January 18, 1994," In Martin Schwander, ed., Richard Serra: Intersection Basel, pp. 72–79, Basel: Christoph Merian Verlag and Düsseldorf: Richter Verlag, 1996, ISBN 9783928762526. OCLC 37725722
"Notes on The Matter of Time," In Richard Serra: The Matter of Time, p. 141, Bilbao: Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, and Göttingen: Steidl Verlag, 2005, ISBN 9788495216434, OCLC 66529716
== References ==
== External links ==
Hand Catching Lead, 1968
One Ton Prop (House of Cards), 1969
Strike: To Roberta and Rudy, 1969–71
Railroad Turnbridge, 1976
Berlin Block (For Charlie Chaplin), 1977
Tilted Arc, 1981
Richard Serra: Torqued Ellipses at Dia Beacon
The Matter of Time, 1994–2005
East-West/West-East, 2014
Equal, 2015 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River#Depth | Mississippi River | The Mississippi River is the primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for 2,340 mi (3,770 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is 1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km2), of which only about one percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the world's tenth-largest river by discharge flow, and the largest in North America.
Native Americans have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years. Many were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations, and some practiced aquaculture. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and throughout as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several tributaries, most notably its largest, the Ohio and Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. The river also became the subject of American literature, particularly in the writings of Mark Twain.
Formed from thick layers of the river's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment, and American Bottom are some of the most fertile regions of the United States; steamboats were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi's final capture by Union forces marked a turning point to victory for the Union. Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination. A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the Atchafalaya River and bypassing New Orleans.
Since the 20th century, the Mississippi River has also experienced major pollution and environmental problems, most notably elevated nutrient and chemical levels from agricultural runoff, the primary contributor to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone.
== Name and significance ==
The word Mississippi itself comes from Misi zipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was set by the Treaty of Paris as, for the most part, the western border of the new United States. With the Louisiana Purchase and the country's westward expansion, it became a convenient boundary line between the western and eastern halves of the country. This is reflected in the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, which was designed to symbolize the opening of the West, and the focus on the "Trans-Mississippi" region in the Trans-Mississippi Exposition.
Regional landmarks are often classified in relation to the river, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi" or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi". The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast call-signs, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, overlapping in media markets along the river.
Due to its size and importance, it has been nicknamed The Mighty Mississippi River or simply The Mighty Mississippi.
== Divisions ==
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
=== Upper Mississippi ===
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The headwaters, 493 miles (793 km) from the source to Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota; and
A navigable channel, formed by a series of human-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some 664 miles (1,069 km).
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name Itasca was chosen to designate the "true head" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the St. Anthony Falls Lock. Before the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota, was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49-foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
=== Middle Mississippi ===
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free-flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm/km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
=== Lower Mississippi ===
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic meters per second), while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft/s (5,900 m3/s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the combined flow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River was once an additional tributary, its water now flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
== Watershed ==
The Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest drainage basin ("watershed" or "catchment"). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km2), including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey's number is 2,340 miles (3,766 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days; while speed varies along the course of the river, this gives an overall average of around 26 mi (42 km) per day, or 1 mi (1.6 km) per hour.
The stream gradient of the entire river is 0.01%, a drop of 450 m over 3,766 km.
== Outflow ==
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (6,000 and 20,000 m3/s). The Mississippi is the fourteenth largest river in the world by volume. On average, the Mississippi has 8% the flow of the Amazon River,
which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m3/s) during wet seasons.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 440 million short tons (400 million metric tons) of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 160 million short tons (145 million metric tons) per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
=== Mixing with salt water ===
Denser salt water from the Gulf of Mexico forms a salt wedge along the river bottom near the mouth of the river, while fresh water flows near the surface. In drought years, with less fresh water to push it out, salt water can travel many miles upstream—64 miles (103 km) in 2022—contaminating drinking water supplies and requiring the use of desalination. The United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed "saltwater sills" or "underwater levees" to contain this in 1988, 1999, 2012, and 2022. This consists of a large mound of sand spanning the width of the river 55 feet below the surface, allowing fresh water and large cargo ships to pass over.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA's MODIS show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
== Course changes ==
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
As Pangaea began to break up about 95 million years ago, North America passed over a volcanic "hotspot" in the Earth's mantle (specifically, the Bermuda hotspot) that was undergoing a period of intense activity. The upwelling of magma from the hotspot forced the further uplift to a height of perhaps 2–3 km of part of the Appalachian-Ouachita range, forming an arch that blocked southbound water flows. The uplifted land quickly eroded and, as North America moved away from the hot spot and as the hotspot's activity declined, the crust beneath the embayment region cooled, contracted and subsided to a depth of 2.6 km, and around 80 million years ago the Reelfoot Rift formed a trough that was flooded by the Gulf of Mexico. As sea levels dropped, the Mississippi and other rivers extended their courses into the embayment, which gradually became filled with sediment with the Mississippi River at its center.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
=== Prehistoric courses ===
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary" rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "over-sized" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage, about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
c. 5000 BC: The last ice age ended; world sea level became what it is now.
c. 2500 BC: Bayou Teche became the main course of the Mississippi.
c. 800 BC: The Mississippi diverted further east.
c. 200 AD: Bayou Lafourche became the main course of the Mississippi.
c. 1000 AD: The Mississippi's present course took over.
Before c. 1400 AD: The Red River of the South flowed parallel to the lower Mississippi to the sea
15th century: Turnbull's Bend in the lower Mississippi extended so far west that it captured the Red River of the South. The Red River below the captured section became the Atchafalaya River.
1831: Captain Henry M. Shreve dug a new short course for the Mississippi through the neck of Turnbull's Bend.
1833 to November 1873: The Great Raft (a huge logjam in the Atchafalaya River) was cleared. The Atchafalaya started to capture the Mississippi and to become its new main lower course.
1963: The Old River Control Structure was completed, controlling how much Mississippi water entered the Atchafalaya.
=== Historic course changes ===
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.
The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles (16 km) of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acres (930 ha) island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
=== New Madrid Seismic Zone ===
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the Midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
== Length ==
When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of 2,340 miles (3,766 km). When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower's Spring in Montana, the source of the Missouri River, it has a length of 3,710 miles (5,971 km), making it the fourth longest river in the world after the Nile, Amazon, and Yangtze. When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the Ohio River, by extension the Allegheny River, would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in Pennsylvania.
== Depth ==
At its source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi River is about 3 feet (0.91 m) deep. The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between 9 and 12 feet (2.7–3.7 m) deep, the deepest part being Lake Pepin, which averages 20–32 feet (6–10 m) deep and has a maximum depth of 60 feet (18 m). Between where the Missouri River joins the Mississippi at Saint Louis, Missouri, and Cairo, Illinois, the depth averages 30 feet (9 m). Below Cairo, where the Ohio River joins, the depth averages 50–100 feet (15–30 m) deep. The deepest part of the river is in New Orleans, where it reaches 200 feet (61 m) deep.
== Cultural geography ==
=== State boundaries ===
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee but isolated from the rest of its state.
=== Major communities along the river ===
=== All communities along the river ===
Notable communities listed from the source at Lake Itasca to the mouth the Mississippi Delta.
=== Bridge crossings ===
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek") flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges that have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.
Stone Arch Bridge – Former Great Northern Railway (now pedestrian) bridge at Saint Anthony Falls connecting downtown Minneapolis with the historic Marcy-Holmes neighborhood.
I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge – In Minneapolis, opened in September 2008, replacing the I-35W Mississippi River bridge which had collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100.
Eisenhower Bridge (Mississippi River) – In Red Wing, Minnesota, opened by Dwight D. Eisenhower in November 1960.
I-90 Mississippi River Bridge – Connects La Crosse, Wisconsin, and Winona County, Minnesota, located just south of Lock and Dam No. 7.
Black Hawk Bridge – Connects Lansing in Allamakee County, Iowa and rural Crawford County, Wisconsin; locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the Historic American Engineering Record.
Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge – Connects Dubuque, Iowa, and Grant County, Wisconsin.
Julien Dubuque Bridge – Joins the cities of Dubuque, Iowa, and East Dubuque, Illinois; listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Savanna-Sabula Bridge – A truss bridge and causeway connecting the city of Savanna, Illinois, and the island city of Sabula, Iowa. The bridge carries U.S. Highway 52 over the river, and is the terminus of both Iowa Highway 64 and Illinois Route 64. Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge – A 4-lane steel girder bridge that carries Interstate 80 and connects LeClaire, Iowa, and Rapids City, Illinois. Completed in 1966.
Clinton Railroad Bridge – A swing bridge that connects Clinton, Iowa and Fulton (Albany), Illinois. Known as the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Bridge.
I-74 Bridge – Connects Bettendorf, Iowa, and Moline, Illinois; originally known as the Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge.
Government Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa, adjacent to Lock and Dam No. 15; the fourth crossing in this vicinity, built in 1896.
Rock Island Centennial Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1940.
Sergeant John F. Baker, Jr. Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1973.
Norbert F. Beckey Bridge – Connects Muscatine, Iowa, and Rock Island County, Illinois; became first U.S. bridge to be illuminated with light-emitting diode (LED) lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge.
Great River Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge connecting Burlington, Iowa, to Gulf Port, Illinois.
Fort Madison Toll Bridge – Connects Fort Madison, Iowa, and unincorporated Niota, Illinois; also known as the Santa Fe Swing Span Bridge; at the time of its construction the longest and heaviest electrified swing span on the Mississippi River. Listed in the National Register of Historic Places since 1999.
Keokuk–Hamilton Bridge – Connects Keokuk, Iowa and Hamilton, Illinois; opened in 1985 replacing an older bridge which is still in use as a railroad bridge.
Bayview Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge bringing westbound U.S. Highway 24 over the river, connecting the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois.
Quincy Memorial Bridge – Connects the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois, carrying eastbound U.S. 24, the older of these two U.S. 24 bridges.
Clark Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge connecting West Alton, Missouri, and Alton, Illinois, also known as the Super Bridge as the result of an appearance on the PBS program, Nova; built in 1994, carrying U.S. Route 67 across the river. This is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area, replacing the Old Clark Bridge, a truss bridge built in 1928, named after explorer William Clark.
Chain of Rocks Bridge – Located on the northern edge of St. Louis, notable for a 22-degree bend occurring at the middle of the crossing, necessary for navigation on the river; formerly used by U.S. Route 66 to cross the Mississippi. Replaced for road traffic in 1966 by a nearby pair of new bridges; now a pedestrian bridge.
Eads Bridge – A combined road and railway bridge, connecting St. Louis and East St. Louis, Illinois. When completed in 1874, it was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of 6,442 feet (1,964 m). The three ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material; it was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge project.
Chester Bridge – A truss bridge connecting Route 51 in Missouri with Illinois Route 150, between Perryville, Missouri, and Chester, Illinois. The bridge can be seen at the beginning of the 1967 film In the Heat of the Night. In the 1940s, the main span was destroyed by a tornado.
Bill Emerson Memorial Bridge—Connecting Cape Girardeau, Missouri and East Cape Girardeau, Illinois, completed in 2003 and illuminated by 140 lights.
Caruthersville Bridge – A single tower cantilever bridge carrying Interstate 155 and U.S. Route 412 across the Mississippi River between Caruthersville, Missouri and Dyersburg, Tennessee.
Hernando de Soto Bridge – A through arch bridge carrying Interstate 40 across the Mississippi between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.
Harahan Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying two rail lines of the Union Pacific Railroad across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.
Frisco Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying a rail line across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee, previously known as the Memphis Bridge. When it opened on May 12, 1892, it was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest span in the U.S. Listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.
Memphis & Arkansas Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying Interstate 55 between Memphis and West Memphis; listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Helena Bridge
Greenville Bridge
Old Vicksburg Bridge
Vicksburg Bridge
Natchez-Vidalia Bridge
John James Audubon Bridge – The second-longest cable-stayed bridge in the Western Hemisphere; connects Pointe Coupee and West Feliciana Parishes in Louisiana. It is the only crossing between Baton Rouge and Natchez. This bridge was opened a month ahead of schedule in May 2011, due to the 2011 floods.
Huey P. Long Bridge – A truss cantilever bridge carrying US 190 (Airline Highway) and one rail line between East Baton Rouge and West Baton Rouge Parishes in Louisiana.
Horace Wilkinson Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying six lanes of Interstate 10 between Baton Rouge and Port Allen in Louisiana. It is the highest bridge over the Mississippi River.
Sunshine Bridge
Gramercy Bridge
Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge
Huey P. Long Bridge – In Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, the first Mississippi River span built in Louisiana.
Crescent City Connection – Connects the east and west banks of New Orleans, Louisiana; the fifth-longest cantilever bridge in the world.
== Navigation and flood control ==
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
The upper backwaters of the Mississippi normally freeze over by December, while the main channel freezes over only in the coldest years, historically as far south as St. Louis.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams. The scope and scale of the levees, built along either side of the river to keep it on its course, has often been compared to the Great Wall of China.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150-foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
=== 19th century ===
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5-foot-deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5-foot-deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams that direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
=== 20th century ===
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6-foot-deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9-foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low-water dam and an 8.4-mile-long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually, the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
=== 21st century ===
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy remains in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
== History ==
Approximately 50,000 years ago, the Central United States was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large floodplains and extending the continent further to the south in the process. The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.
=== Native Americans ===
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BC. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BC during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices.
A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers.
The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 AD and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Meskwaki, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo-ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag-ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi-ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi-ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi-ziibi was named "Mississippi River". The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi-ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi-ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint-Louis.
=== European exploration ===
In 1519 Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, followed by Hernando de Soto who reached the river on May 8, 1541, and called it Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river" in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league" (less than 2 miles or 3 kilometers) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
In 1727, Étienne Perier begins work, using enslaved African laborers, on the first levees on the Mississippi River.
=== Colonization ===
Following Britain's victory in the Seven Years War, the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States". With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795. However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. This triggered a dispute between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida Spain had ceded to France in the first place, which would decide which parts of West Florida the U.S. had bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase, versus which were unceded Spanish property. Due to ongoing U.S. colonization creating facts on the ground, and U.S. military actions, Spain ceded both West and East Florida in their entirety to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.
The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of the War of 1812, when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans just 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guidebook called The Navigator, detailing the features, dangers, and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
=== Steamboat era ===
Mark Twain's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce, which took place from 1830 to 1870, before more modern ships replaced the steamer. Harper's Weekly first published the book as a seven-part serial in 1875. James R. Osgood & Company published the full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s, only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats, which suggests it was not very profitable. The Secretary of War, Charles M. Conrad in 1851 authorized a scientific study of the river in order to prevent flooding primarily. The report was first published in 1861 under the title, "Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River" and was the most extensive river study undertaken in the world at that time.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight, until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steamboat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourist trade.
=== Civil War ===
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War, forming a part of the U.S. Anaconda Plan. In 1862, Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. One of the last major Confederate strongholds was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi; the Union's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 – July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ended the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, and was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War.
=== 20th and 21st centuries ===
The "Big Freeze" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km2) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1930, Fred Newton was the first person to swim the length of the river, from Minneapolis to New Orleans. The journey took 176 days and covered 1,836 miles.
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000 m3) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden-hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin. The Nature Conservancy's project called "America's Rivershed Initiative" announced a 'report card' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long-distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
=== Future ===
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes—through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30% of the Mississippi flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the floodwaters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1/4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 cubic feet per second (4,200 m3/s) of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty-year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere—when the structures can't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river's going to jump its banks and try to break through."
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 12–20 ft (3.7–6.1 m) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
== Recreation ==
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km/h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
Effigy Mounds National Monument
Gateway Arch National Park (includes Gateway Arch)
Vicksburg National Military Park
Natchez National Historical Park
New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park
Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve
== Ecology ==
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna" of North American freshwater.
=== Fish ===
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basins exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum, and shovelnose sturgeon.
=== Other fauna ===
A large number of reptiles are native to the river channels and basin, including American alligators, several species of turtle, aquatic amphibians, and cambaridae crayfish, are native to the Mississippi basin.
In addition, approximately 40% of the migratory birds in the US use the Mississippi River corridor during the Spring and Fall migrations; 60% of all migratory birds in North America (326 species) use the river basin as their flyway.
=== Introduced species ===
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for out-competing native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Mississippi River – project of the American Land Conservancy
Flood management in the Mississippi River (PDF). Archived August 18, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.
Friends of the Mississippi River Archived March 14, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
Mississippi River Challenge – annual canoe & kayak event on the Twin Cities stretch
Mississippi River Field Guide |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Damon | Johnny Damon | Johnny David Damon (born November 5, 1973) is an American former professional baseball outfielder who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1995 to 2012. During his MLB career, Damon played for the Kansas City Royals (1995–2000), Oakland Athletics (2001), Boston Red Sox (2002–2005), New York Yankees (2006–2009), Detroit Tigers (2010), Tampa Bay Rays (2011) and Cleveland Indians (2012). He also played for the Thailand national baseball team and was a member of the squad for the 2013 World Baseball Classic qualifiers.
== Early years ==
Damon was born in Fort Riley, a U.S. Army post in Kansas. His mother, Yome, is a Thai immigrant to the United States and his father, Jimmy, is an American of Croatian and Irish descent. They met while his father, a staff sergeant in the United States Army, was stationed in Thailand. Damon spent much of his infancy as an "Army brat," moving to several posts including Okinawa, Japan and West Germany before his father was discharged from the Army. The Damon family settled in the Orlando, Florida, area while Johnny was a pre-schooler.
Damon was a quiet child, largely on account of a stutter. "My thoughts just raced ahead of my tongue," Damon said of his problem. "I'd sing songs as therapy, and I got better, but I still just kept quiet most of the time." He played in South Orange Little League as a child. He played for the Walker Jr. High baseball team before attending Dr. Phillips High School in Orlando where, during his senior year in 1992, he was rated the top high school prospect in the country by Baseball America, was named to USA Today's High School All-America team and was the Florida Gatorade Player of the Year. Damon also ran track at Dr. Phillips where his senior year he was runner up in the 200m dash. Damon also played football in high school, once getting hit by Warren Sapp and sustaining the first concussion in his life.
== Playing career ==
=== Kansas City Royals (1995–2000) ===
Damon was selected by the Kansas City Royals in the first round (35th overall) of the 1992 MLB draft. He made his MLB debut on August 12, 1995, after playing the previous season with the minor league Wichita Wranglers. He played for the Royals from 1995 to 2000. He scored 104 runs in 1998 and 101 runs in 1999. One of his best seasons came in 2000 when he led the American League in runs with 136 and stolen bases with 46, and he was second in hits (214), at bats (655), and plate appearances (741).
=== Oakland Athletics (2001) ===
Damon spent 2001 with the Oakland Athletics. In a three-way trade involving the A's, Royals, and Tampa Bay Devil Rays, the A's received Damon along with pitcher Cory Lidle from the Devil Rays and second baseman Mark Ellis from the Royals. He was third in the league in at bats (644) and seventh in runs (108).
=== Boston Red Sox (2002–2005) ===
On December 21, 2001, Damon signed a four-year, $31 million contract with the Boston Red Sox.
In 2002, he led the league in triples (11) and was third in infield hits (25), becoming the first player selected by the fans in the inaugural American League All-Star Final Vote.
On June 27, 2003, Damon became only the second player in MLB history since 1900 to record three base hits in an inning, when he did so against the Florida Marlins. During Game 5 of the 2003 American League Division Series, Damon collided head-on with teammate Damian Jackson while both players were attempting to chase down a pop fly. Damon suffered a severe concussion and had to be removed from the field on a stretcher. Jackson was also concussed, but was able to walk off the field with assistance.
In 2004, Damon was second in the league in runs (123) and began to re-establish himself among the premier lead-off hitters and center fielders in the game. In arguably his best season in the Major Leagues, Damon batted .304 with 20 home runs and 94 RBIs and showed improved patience at the plate. According to his autobiography, he was only the fourth leadoff batter in the history of Major League Baseball to drive in more than 90 runs in a season. Damon batted a torrid 7-for-15 during that year's Division Series against the Angels but struggled in the ALCS against the Yankees, going only 3-for-29 from the plate through the first six games. In Game 7, Damon hit two home runs, one of which was a grand slam, to lead the Red Sox to the pennant. In the World Series, he also hit a home run as the Red Sox won the series against the St. Louis Cardinals in a four-game sweep. This was the first Red Sox World Series championship since 1918, effectively terminating the Boston Red Sox's 86-year "Curse of the Bambino" World Series drought.
Through his four-year career with the Red Sox (2002–2005), Damon appeared in 597 games (590 in center field and seven as a designated hitter) and hit 56 home runs. Of his 2,476 at bats, 2,259 were as leadoff hitter. Damon batted second in the lineup for 156 at-bats in 2002, accounting for nearly all of the rest except for occasional pinch hit. He started two games as the third hitter in 2004, and in 2005, he had 624 at-bats, and all but three as the lead-off hitter. He also earned his second All-Star selection, starting as the American League's center fielder. He led the AL with 35 infield hits, and matched the 35 doubles he had hit in 2004.
=== New York Yankees (2006–2009) ===
On December 20, 2005, Damon signed a four-year, $52 million contract with the New York Yankees. The Red Sox stood firm on a three-year contract and chose not to negotiate against a five-year deal proposed by agent Scott Boras.
Damon's signing with the Yankees led to his being subsequently vilified by many Red Sox fans because of his previously professed loyalty to the city and Red Sox organization, including his now infamous statement in May 2005, where he claimed, "There's no way I can go play for the Yankees, but I know they're going to come after me hard. It's definitely not the most important thing to go out there for the top dollar, which the Yankees are going to offer me. It's not what I need."
As the Yankees had a strict dress code for players forbidding both long hair and facial hair beyond neat mustaches (the latter requirement being relaxed in 2025), Damon had his shoulder-length "cave man" hair cut and beard shaved on December 22. Damon, who had a clean-cut appearance until his third season with the Red Sox, had been planning on cutting his hair and shaving his beard off even if he did not sign with the Yankees, but waited until after he signed with them in order to prevent speculation.
The following season, in a pivotal five game series in August between the Yankees and Red Sox at Fenway Park, Damon went 3-for-6 in each of the first three games, including a doubleheader on August 18, and a game on August 19. Damon hit two home runs, drove in eight runs, and scored eight runs in the first three games as the Yankees won by a combined score of 39–20 and dealt a severe blow to the Red Sox 2006 playoff aspirations.
In 2006, Damon finished third in runs (115) and ninth in stolen bases (25) in the AL, while hitting 24 home runs, his career high. He also tied his mark of 35 doubles from the previous two seasons. He was only one of 4 players in the major leagues to hit at least 24 home runs and steal at least 24 bases.
On June 7, 2008, Damon went 6-for-6 in the Yankees 12–11 win over the Kansas City Royals, including a walk-off ground-rule double, which had bounced over the wall. He is the first Yankee to have six hits in a 9 inning game since Myril Hoag accomplished the feat in 1934. Damon said in a post-game on-field interview that this was his first walk-off as a Yankee.
The Yankees placed Damon on the 15-day disabled list for the first time in his MLB career on July 6, 2008, with a bruised AC joint in his left shoulder. The injury occurred a day earlier when Damon collided with the outfield wall in an attempt to catch a triple. At that time, Damon was one of only three active major league ballplayers who had played at least 10 years in the majors without going on the disabled list. He returned to active duty, and hit 27 doubles for the season. Damon hit 53 home runs in his three complete seasons with the Yankees.
On July 27, 2009, Damon hit his 200th career home run against the Tampa Bay Rays' Brian Shouse. For the 2009 season, he batted .282 and tied for the lead among AL left fielders in errors (with 5), while he was fourth in the league in runs scored (107).
Damon hit a home run in Games 3 and 4 of the 2009 ALCS, defeating the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in six games. When the Yankees went on to play the Philadelphia Phillies in the 2009 World Series, Damon got credit for stealing two bases in one play when the Phillies defense was shifted against batter Mark Teixeira. Damon got his second championship ring as the Yankees would eventually defeat the Phillies in six games.
Damon, after winning his second World Series, entered free agency after the 2009 season despite expressing his desire to return to the Yankees. He insisted that the Yankees not even make him an offer, however, unless they pay him at least the $13 million he earned for the past four years. As a result of his contract demands, the Yankees signed 1B/DH Nick Johnson to a one-year/5.5MM deal, despite Damon lowering his salary demands at the last minute. The Yankees then signed outfielder Randy Winn to a one-year $2 million deal which essentially closed the door on Damon's return to the Bronx.
=== Detroit Tigers (2010) ===
On February 20, 2010, Damon agreed to a one-year, $8 million deal with the Detroit Tigers. On April 14, 2010, he recorded his 1,000th career RBI against the Kansas City Royals. On May 1, he hit a walk-off home run against Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim pitcher Scot Shields at Comerica Park to win the game 3–2. On July 6, Damon recorded his 2,500th career hit off Jake Arrieta of the Baltimore Orioles, and hit a walk-off home run off David Hernandez, giving the Tigers a 7–5 win. For the season, he batted .271 with eight home runs and 51 RBI. He became a free agent at the end of the season.
=== Tampa Bay Rays (2011) ===
On January 21, 2011, Damon agreed to a one-year, $5.25 million deal with the Tampa Bay Rays. The Rays also signed his former Boston Red Sox teammate Manny Ramirez in a package deal suggested by agent Scott Boras. Also reunited with Damon was former Red Sox player Kelly Shoppach.
Manager Joe Maddon said he expected the 37-year-old Damon to often be replaced by Sam Fuld during the season late in games that the Rays are leading. After Ramirez's abrupt retirement, this would be moot as Damon primarily would play as the designated hitter.
On April 16, 2011, Damon had the game-winning hit for the fifth consecutive game for the Rays, two of which were walk-off hits. On June 29, 2011, Damon tied Ted Williams for 71st on the all-time hit list with 2,654 hits. The hit came at Tropicana Field in the bottom of the sixth inning. On July 2, 2011, Damon went 4-for-4 and his first-inning single moved him past Ted Williams on the all-time hit list. He would finish the season 57th all-time with 2,723 career hits.
In Game 1 of the ALDS, Damon hit a two-run home run in the second inning off Texas Rangers starting pitcher C. J. Wilson to give his team an early 2–0 lead. The Rays won the game 9–0, however they eventually lost the best-of-five divisional series 3–1.
=== Cleveland Indians (2012) ===
On April 12, 2012, Damon signed a one-year minor league contract with the Cleveland Indians for $1.25 million (and an additional $1.4 million in incentives). On May 1, Damon was called up to Cleveland. He made his debut on May 2, batting leadoff against the Chicago White Sox. He finished the game 0–3 with a walk. Indians manager Manny Acta dropped Damon to seventh in the batting lineup after going 4–29 in the leadoff position, including 2 hits in his last 18 at-bats. On June 26, in a game against the Yankees, Damon became the 52nd player in MLB history to amass 2,750 career hits. Heading into the All-Star break, Damon had 35 hits in 163 official at-bats and was hitting .215 in 50 games. On July 20, Damon tied a season-high with three hits versus the Baltimore Orioles.
Damon was designated for assignment on August 3, 2012. He was released by the Indians, along with pitchers Derek Lowe and Jeremy Accardo, on August 9.
Damon finished his career with 2,769 hits, placing him 54th on the MLB all-time career hits leaders.
His first year of eligibility for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum came in 2018 where he joined a notable group of first-time candidates, including Chipper Jones, Jim Thome and Omar Vizquel. Damon only received eight votes (1.9% of the voting ballot) and was thus dropped from future consideration.
=== Free agency (2013–2015) ===
Damon hoped to be signed for 2013, and offered the Yankees the opportunity to sign him to a contract for the league's minimum salary as a replacement for the injured Curtis Granderson, also expressing a willingness to be released once Granderson returned. The Yankees indicated that they were not interested in signing Damon. Damon remained unsigned for all of 2013, and did not play.
In late 2013 and early 2014, Damon indicated a desire to keep playing, in part to have the opportunity to attain 3,000 hits (he needed 231 to reach that goal). He told members of the media that he has stayed in good physical condition and hoped to receive invitations to spring training.
Damon did not receive any offers prior to the start of the 2014 season. In a May 2014 interview while in Boston to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the Red Sox 2004 World Series championship, Damon indicated that he has no plans to officially announce his retirement, even though he acknowledged that he will likely not play in the major leagues again. He also stated that he still wants to play, has continued to stay in good physical condition, and could play if given the opportunity, saying "I feel like if a team calls me, I can be ready. If I play tonight, I'll hit a homer." On June 22, 2014, he played in his first New York Yankees Old-Timers' Day.
A July 2014 press report indicated that Damon still hoped to play again in the major leagues. According to the story, in June Damon completed an impromptu session with a batting practice pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies, who was impressed enough to suggest that the Phillies should consider signing him.
On August 4, 2014, Damon gave an interview with the WEEI-FM radio show "Middays with MFB" and indicated that while he wants to still play, no teams have expressed an interest, and "those days are over".
According to press accounts in December 2014, Damon hoped to play in 2015, and his agent told a reporter "If you ask Johnny, he'd love to come back."
== Awards ==
== Other appearances ==
In 2005, Damon wrote Idiot: Beating "The Curse" and Enjoying the Game of Life with Peter Golenbock.
Damon contributed backing vocals to Dropkick Murphys' 2004 single "Tessie."
Damon hosted WWE Raw on December 21, 2009.
Damon participated in the Celebrity Apprentice competition in the spring of 2014 in New York City. The shows that he filmed were part of the 2015 season of the show. He was eliminated from the show on the episode which aired on February 2, 2015.
Damon appeared on the Animal Planet show Tanked in 2016.
Damon appeared on MTV Cribs in 2005, where he gave a tour of his home near Orlando, Florida.
In April 2018, Damon was announced as one of the celebrities who will compete on season 26 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Emma Slater. He was eliminated on the first episode, and he placed in ninth place.
In August 2019, Damon and his wife appeared as one set of primary charter guests during seasons 4 & 5 of the show Below Deck Mediterranean.
On February 22, 2023, Damon played in an exhibition game with the Savannah Bananas, in a game of Banana Ball against the Party Animals at Jackie Robinson Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida.
== Personal life ==
Damon has had two marriages and has fathered eight children. Damon married Angela Vannice, his high school sweetheart in 1992, and later divorced in 2002. The couple had a set of twins (a son and a daughter) together in 1999.
Damon married Michelle Mangan in 2004. The couple have six children together; five daughters (including a set of twins) and a son.
Damon and his family reside in Windermere, Florida. While with the Yankees, Damon and his wife lived in Cresskill, New Jersey.
He is active with the Wounded Warrior Project, which works to raise awareness and enlist the public's aid for the needs of severely injured service men and women.
Damon was one of the victims of the $8 billion fraud perpetrated by convicted wealth manager Allen Stanford.
Damon spoke at a rally in Florida during Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign and chanted in support of a border wall between the United States and Mexico. Damon formerly served as a committee member on Trump's council on Sports, Fitness, & Nutrition.
On October 26, 2019, in Orlando, Florida, Damon was the Special Guest at the Orange County Republican Party's Trump Defender Gala and 2019 Annual Lincoln Day Dinner.
On February 19, 2021, Damon was arrested in Windermere, Florida, for driving while intoxicated (DWI) and for resisting an officer without violence. Police reported that he had a blood alcohol content (BAC) of .30, measured two hours after he was stopped by police. Bodycam footage released by the Windermere Police Department showed Damon claiming that his arrest was part of being targeted because of his support for Trump.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from MLB · ESPN · Baseball Reference · Fangraphs · Baseball Reference (Minors) · Retrosheet · Baseball Almanac
Johnny Damon at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Argentine_general_election | 1989 Argentine general election | The Argentine general election of 1989 was held on 14 May 1989. Voters chose both the President and their legislators and with a turnout of 85.3%, Carlos Menem won the presidency, and the Peronist Justicialist Party won the control of both houses of Congress. This is the last presidential election the president was elected by the electoral college.
== Background ==
Inheriting a difficult legacy from his military predecessors, President Raúl Alfonsín's tenure had been practically defined by the foreign debt Argentina's last dictatorship left behind. Signs of unraveling in Alfonsín's 1985 Austral Plan for economic stabilization cost his centrist Radical Civic Union (UCR) its majorities in the Chamber of Deputies (lower house of Congress) and among the nation's 22 governorships in the September 1987 mid-term elections. Facing a restive armed forces opposed to trials against past human rights abuses and mounting inflation, the president brought elections forward five months, now scheduled for May 14, 1989. Both major parties held national conventions in May 1988. The UCR nominated Córdoba Governor Eduardo Angeloz, a safe, centrist choice and the most prominent UCR figure not closely tied to the unpopular President Alfonsín. In an upset, however, Carlos Menem, governor of the remote and thinly populated La Rioja Province, wrested the Justicialist Party nomination from the odds-on candidate, Buenos Aires Province Governor Antonio Cafiero, a policy maker close to the Justicialists' founder, the late Juan Perón. Cafiero's defeat resulted largely from CGT trade union opposition to his Peronist Renewal faction; Alfonsín's top political adviser, Interior Minister Enrique Nosiglia, in turn saw Menem's flamboyance as an opportunity for the struggling UCR.
The Justicialists (Peronists) took a sizable lead in polling early on, however, even as nearly half the voters remained undecided. Hoping to translate this into a UCR victory over the outspoken and eccentric Menem, President Alfonsín enacted an August 1988 "Springtime Plan" in a bid for lower inflation (then running at 27% monthly). The plan, criticized as a rehashed "Austral Plan" by the CGT, called for budget cuts and renewed wage freezes - policies they blamed for sliding living standards. Initially successful, a record drought late in the year buffeted critical export earnings and led to rolling blackouts, dissipating any gains Angeloz might have made from the "relief" of 6% monthly inflation.
A perennial third-party candidate, conservative economist Álvaro Alsogaray, made gains following the January 1989 assault by Trotskyist militants on the La Tablada Barracks, west of Buenos Aires. Twice minister of the economy and remembered for his belief that the economy must go through "winter," the unpopular Alsogaray ran on a free market platform, calling for mass privatizations and deep cuts in social spending (amid 30% poverty). Angeloz took the controversial decision of including social spending cuts in the UCR platform, as well, earning the right-wing Federal Party's endorsement; but alienating many others (particularly pensioners, among whom Alfonsín had won decisively in 1983). The largely civil campaign became increasingly a debate between the Justicialist nominee and the president, himself; Angeloz, the UCR nominee, remained "presidential" during the frequent exchanges of innuendo between Alfonsín and Menem.
Following a sharp drop in Central Bank reserves, the austral fell around 29% to the U.S. dollar in heavy trading on "black Tuesday," February 7. The sudden drop in the austral's value threatened the nation's tenuous financial stability and, later that month, the World Bank recalled a large tranche of a loan package agreed on in 1988, sending the austral into a tailspin: trading at 17 to the dollar in January, the dollar quoted at over 100 australes by election day, May 14. Inflation, which had been held to the 5-10% monthly range as late as February, rose to 78.5% in May, shattering records and leading to a landslide victory for the Peronists. Polling revealed that economic anxieties were paramount among two-thirds of voters and Menem won in 19 of 22 provinces, while losing in the traditionally anti-Peronist Federal District (Buenos Aires).
The nation's finances did not stabilize after the election, as hoped. The austral halved to the dollar next week, alone, and on May 29, riots broke out in the poorer outskirts of a number of cities. Having declared his intention to stay on until inaugural day, December 10, these events and spiraling financial chaos led Alfonsín to transfer power to President-elect Menem five months early, on July 8. When Menem accepted the presidential sash from Alfonsín, it marked the first time since 1916 that an incumbent government peacefully transferred power to the opposition.
== Candidates for presidency ==
Justicialist Party (Peronist, populist): Governor Carlos Menem of La Rioja Province
Radical Civic Union (Center-left, social liberal): Governor Eduardo Angeloz of Córdoba Province
Union of the Democratic Centre (Center-right, conservative liberal): Deputy Álvaro Alsogaray of the City of Buenos Aires
== Results ==
=== President ===
=== Chamber of Deputies ===
==== Results by province ====
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damned_Soul_%28Bernini%29 | Damned Soul (Bernini) | Damned Soul (Italian: Anima dannata) is a marble sculpture bust by the Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini as a pendant piece to his Blessed Soul. According to Rudolf Wittkower, the sculpture is in the Palazzo di Spagna in Rome. This may well be what is known today as the Palazzo Monaldeschi.
There is a bronze copy, executed by Massimiliano Soldani Benzi some time between 1705 and 1707, in the Liechtenstein Collection.
Recent scholarship on the sculpture has queried whether its topic is not the Christian personifications of pain (possibly inspired by prints by Karel van Mallery), but a depiction of a satyr.
== See also ==
List of works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
== Notes ==
== References ==
Avery, Charles (1997). Bernini: Genius of the Baroque. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 9780500286333.
Baldinucci, Filippo (2006) [1682]. The Life of Bernini. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271730769.
Bernini, Domenico (2011) [1713]. The Life of Giano Lorenzo Bernini. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271037486.
Dempsey, Charles (2000). Inventing the Renaissance Putto. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. ISBN 9780807826164.
Mormando, Franco (2011). Bernini: His Life and His Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226538525.
Wittkower, Rudolf (1955). Gian Lorenzo Bernini: The Sculptor of the Roman Baroque. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 9780714837154. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
== External links ==
Media related to Damned Soul (Bernini) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov | Kliment Voroshilov | Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov (Russian: Климент Ефремович Ворошилов ; Ukrainian: Климент Охрімович Ворошилов, romanized: Klyment Okhrimovych Voroshylov), popularly known as Klim Voroshilov (Russian: Клим Ворошилов; 4 February 1881 – 2 December 1969), was a prominent Soviet military officer and politician during the Stalin era (1924–1953). He was one of the original five Marshals of the Soviet Union, the second highest military rank of the Soviet Union (junior to the Generalissimo of the Soviet Union, which was a post only held by Joseph Stalin), and served as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal Soviet head of state, from 1953 to 1960.
Born to a Russian worker's family in Ukraine, Voroshilov took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 as an early member of the Bolsheviks. He served with distinction at the Battle of Tsaritsyn, during which he became a close friend of Stalin. Voroshilov was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1921, and in 1925 Stalin appointed him People's Commissar for Military and Navy Affairs (later People's Commissar for Defence). In 1926, he became a full member of the Politburo. In 1935, Voroshilov was named a Marshal of the Soviet Union.
At the outbreak of World War II, Voroshilov was held responsible for Soviet failures in Finland during the Winter War and was replaced as Defense Commissar by Semyon Timoshenko. Following the German invasion in June 1941, he was recalled and appointed to the State Defense Committee. Voroshilov failed to stop the German encirclement of Leningrad and was again relieved from his command in September 1941.
After the war, Voroshilov oversaw the establishment of a socialist regime in Hungary. Following Stalin's death in 1953, Voroshilov was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. His fortunes declined during the rise of Nikita Khrushchev and the Supreme Soviet turned against him. He peacefully resigned in 1960, although he came out of retirement in 1966 and re-joined the party. Voroshilov died in 1969 at the age of 88.
== Early life ==
Voroshilov was born in the settlement of Verkhnyeye, Bakhmut uyezd, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, Russian Empire (now part of Lysychansk city in Luhansk Oblast, Ukraine). His father, a former soldier, was employed at different times as a railway worker or miner, and went through periods of unemployment. According to the Soviet Major General Petro Grigorenko, Voroshilov himself alluded to the heritage of his birth-country (Ukraine) and to the previous family name of Voroshylo.
In his published autobiography, Voroshilov described a childhood of extreme hardship, working from the age of six or seven, and receiving frequent beatings from wealthy peasants, which left him with a lifelong aversion to 'kulaks'. He grew up illiterate, until he was able to enroll in a newly opened school in a nearby village, at the age of 12, and received two years' schooling. During his school years, Voroshilov became a close friend and almost a member of the family of Semyon Ryzhkov.
In 1896, he started work in a factory near his home village, where he led a strike in 1899. In 1903, he enrolled in a German owned factory in Luhansk (which was renamed Voroshilov during the Stalin era). There, he joined the Bolsheviks, and acted as a strike leader during the 1905 revolution. In April 1906, he travelled to Stockholm for the Fourth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), using the provocative pseudonym 'Volodya Antimekov' or Anti-Menshevik. In Stockholm, he shared a room with the delegate from Georgia, Josif Dzhugashvili, later known as Stalin.
In spring 1907, he travelled to London for the Fifth RSDLP Congress. On his return, he was arrested and deported to Arkhangelsk, but in December he escaped and moved to Baku, where Stalin was also active. Arrested again in 1908, he was released from exile in 1912, and for a time worked in an ordnance factory in Tsaritsyn (Stalingrad/Volgagrad).
== Russian Revolution and Civil War ==
Voroshilov was in Petrograd (St Petersburg) during the February Revolution, but returned to Luhansk, where he was chairman of the town soviet, and was elected to the Constituent Assembly. His military career began early in 1918, when he was given command of the Fifth Ukrainian Army, which was made up of a few scattered units, who were driven out of Ukraine by the German army. After a long, hazardous retreat, his group reached Tsaritsyn, where Stalin was posted in summer 1918 as representative of the central party leadership, and where Voroshilov was given command of the Tenth Army. Stalin and Voroshilov led the Red Army's 1918 defense of Tsaritsyn. They also sponsored the creation of the first Red Cavalry unit, commanded by Semyon Budyonny, which was composed chiefly of peasants from southern Russia. In Tsaritsyn, Voroshilov clashed with Leon Trotsky, the People's Commissar for War, who considered him undisciplined and unfit to command an army, and in October 1918 threatened him with court martial. Voroshilov was transferred to Ukraine, as commander of the Kharkiv military district, and later People's Commissar for War in the Ukraine soviet republic. He sided with the 'Military Opposition', who opposed the formation of a centralised army, preferring to rely on local mobile units, and objected to the recruitment into the Red Army of former officers from the Tsarist army. Later, during the Polish–Soviet War, Voroshilov was political commissar with Budienny's First Cavalry.
I
== Interwar period ==
Voroshilov served as a member of the Central Committee from his election in 1921 until 1961. In April 1921, he was appointed commander of the North Caucasus military district. In March 1924, he was promoted to the post of commander of the Moscow military district. In 1925, after the death of Mikhail Frunze, Voroshilov was appointed People's Commissar for Military and Navy Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, a post he held until 1934. Despite the high offices he held, Voroshilov appears not to have been part in the inner leadership. In November 1930, the chairman of the Russian government, Sergey Syrtsov, alleged that a "tiny group", which excluded Voroshilov but included nominally much less senior figures such as Pavel Postyshev, was making decisions "behind the back of the Politburo".
His main accomplishment in this period was to move key Soviet war industries east of the Urals, so that the Soviet Union could strategically retreat, while keeping its manufacturing capability intact. Frunze's political position adhered to that of the Troika (Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Stalin), but Stalin preferred to have a close, personal ally in charge (as opposed to Frunze, a "Zinovievite"). Frunze was urged by a group of Stalin's hand-picked doctors to have surgery to treat an old stomach ulcer, despite previous doctors' recommendations to avoid surgery and Frunze's own unwillingness. He died on the operating table of a massive overdose of chloroform, an anaesthetic. Voroshilov became a full member of the newly formed Politburo in 1926, remaining a member until 1960.
Voroshilov was appointed People's Commissar (Minister) for Defence in 1934 and a Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1935.
== The Great Purge ==
During the first of the Moscow trials, in August 1936, Voroshilov was one of four Politburo members who signed the order that appeals for clemency were to be denied and that the defendants were to be executed without delay. He was also of the main speakers at the March 1937 plenum of the Central Committee, which ended with the arrests of Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov, whom Voroshilov denounced as "renegades".
In the early stages, he seemed to have believed that the purge would not affect the armed forces, and was seemingly unprepared for the arrest of Marshal Tukhachevsky and others in April and May. Voroshilov did not personally share the paranoia towards upper-class elements of the officer corps. He openly declared that the saboteurs in the Red Army were few in number and tried to save the lives of officers like Lukin, who would serve with distinction during the Second World War, and Sokolov-Strakhov, and he was sometimes successful. But on 30 May, he telephoned the commander of the Ukraine military district, Iona Yakir, ordering him to take a train to Moscow for a meeting of the Military Revolutionary Council, knowing that he would be arrested on the way. When the Council met on 1 June 1937, Voroshilov vacated the chair to deliver a report in which he said, apologetically: "I could not believe we would reveal so many and such scoundrels in the ranks of the highest command of our glorious, our valiant Workers' and Peasants' Army."
After that, he played a central role in Stalin's Great Purge of the 1930s, denouncing many of his own military colleagues and subordinates when asked to do so by Stalin. He wrote personal letters to exiled former Soviet officers and diplomats such as commissar Mikhail Ostrovsky, asking them to return voluntarily to the Soviet Union and falsely reassuring them that they would not face retribution from authorities. Voroshilov personally signed 185 documented execution lists, fourth among the Soviet leadership after Molotov, Stalin and Kaganovich. He had no problem denouncing officers he disliked such as Tukhachevsky.
Despite taking part in the purging of many "mechanisers" (supporters of wide usage of tanks rather than cavalry) from the Red Army, Voroshilov became convinced that reliance on cavalry should be decreased while more modern arms should receive higher priority. Marshal Budyonny tried to recruit him to his cause of protecting the status of cavalry in the Red Army but Voroshilov openly declared his intention to do the opposite. He praised the army's combined arms warfare capabilities as well as the high quality and ability to take initiative of the officers during the 1936 summer manoeuvers. However he also pointed out issues in the Red Army as a whole in his full report. Among the issues he pointed out were insufficient communication, ineffective staffs, insufficient cooperation between arms, and the rudimentary nature of the command structure in tank units and other modern arms.
When the Great Purge ended, some reforms were undertaken by the high command to reconcile Red Army doctrine (for example deep operations doctrine) with the real state of the Red Army. The politically appointed commanders of the post-purge Red Army saw that the army, especially after the purge, was not suitable to carry out deep operations style warfare. Commanders such as Voroshilov and Kulik were among the instigators of these reforms which positively impacted the Red Army. These commanders themselves turned out not to be able to carry out such operations in practice. Voroshilov and Kulik turned out to be unable to put these reforms into practice. One of these reforms was a reorganization of Red Army field units which accidentally moved Red Army organization to a far less advanced state than it had been in 1936. This reorganization was conceived by Kulik but put into practice by Voroshilov.
When territorial units were abolished Voroshilov noted that among the reasons for disbanding them was inability to train conscripts in the use of modern technology. He had openly proclaimed that the system was inadequate in an era in which imperialist powers (such as Germany) were expanding the capabilities of their armies. The territorial units had been very unpopular, not only with Voroshilov, but with the Red Army leadership a whole. They were hopelessly ineffective: territorial conscript Alexey Grigorovich Maslov noted that he never fired a shot during his training, while it was noted that these units only underwent real training in the one month a year when experienced veterans returned.
== World War II ==
Voroshilov commanded Soviet troops during the Winter War from November 1939 to January 1940 but, due to poor Soviet planning and Voroshilov's incompetence as a general, the Red Army suffered about 320,000 casualties compared to 70,000 Finnish casualties. When the leadership gathered at Stalin's dacha at Kuntsevo, Stalin shouted at Voroshilov for the losses; Voroshilov replied in kind, blaming the failure on Stalin for eliminating the Red Army's best generals in his purges. Voroshilov followed this retort by smashing a platter of food on the table. Nikita Khrushchev said it was the only time he ever witnessed such an outburst. Voroshilov was nonetheless made the scapegoat for the initial failures in Finland. He was later replaced as Defense Commissar by Semyon Timoshenko. Voroshilov was then made Deputy Premier responsible for cultural matters.
Voroshilov initially argued that thousands of Polish army officers captured in September 1939 should be released, but he later signed the order for their execution in the Katyn massacre of 1940.
Between 1941 and 1944, Voroshilov was a member of the State Defense Committee.
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Voroshilov became commander of the short-lived Northwestern Direction (July to August 1941), controlling several fronts. In September 1941 he commanded the Leningrad Front. Working alongside military commander Andrei Zhdanov as German advances threatened to cut off Leningrad, he displayed considerable personal bravery in defiance of heavy shelling at Ivanovskoye; at one point he rallied retreating troops and personally led a counter-attack against German tanks armed only with a pistol. However, the style of counterattack he launched had long since been abandoned by strategists and drew mostly contempt from his military colleagues; he failed to prevent the Germans from surrounding Leningrad and he was dismissed from his post and replaced by Georgy Zhukov on 8 September 1941. Stalin had a political need for popular wartime leaders, however, and Voroshilov remained as an important figurehead.
== Post war ==
=== Hungary ===
Between 1945 and 1947, Voroshilov supervised the establishment of the socialist republic in postwar Hungary. He attributed the poor showing of the Hungarian Communist Party in the October 1945 Budapest municipal elections to the number of minorities in leadership positions, arguing that it was "detrimental to the party that its leaders are not of Hungarian origin".
=== 1952–1953 Soviet leadership ===
In 1952, Voroshilov was appointed a member of the Presidium of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Stalin's death on 5 March 1953 prompted major changes in the Soviet leadership. On 15 March 1953, Voroshilov was approved as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (i.e., the head of state) with Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Communist Party and Georgy Malenkov as Premier of the Soviet Union. Voroshilov, Malenkov, and Khrushchev brought about the 26 June 1953 arrest of Lavrenty Beria after Stalin's death.
One of Voroshilov's responsibilities as chairman of the Presidium was to oversee the appeal review of Soviet death row inmates. Analysis by Jeffrey S. Hardy and Yana Skorobogatov describe his role thus:
"Chairman Voroshilov presided over the meetings and clearly had the most influential voice, but split votes were not uncommon and Voroshilov was sometimes outvoted... Throughout his tenure as Presidium chair, he behaved like someone who believed that one should follow established procedure and not act too quickly in matters of life and death."
Hardy and Skorobogatov indicate that Voroshilov frequently exerted his influence on the committee toward leniency, especially in the case of those who expressed repentance in their appeal documents and those convicted of crimes of passion or under the influence of alcohol; he judged those convicted of political crimes or acts with financial motives more harshly. During his tenure, many individuals sentenced to death had their punishments commuted to prison terms of varying lengths. The authors of the study observe that his successor, Brezhnev, took a noticeably harder line in appeals cases.
However, the contrast between Voroshilov's relatively magnanimous attitude toward pardon cases in the 1950s with his well-documented participation in the deadly purges of the 1930s (as described above) was noted even at the time by Khrushchev, who asked him, "So when were you acting according to your conscience, then or now?"
=== Fall from grace ===
After Khrushchev removed most of the Stalinists like Molotov and Malenkov from the party, Voroshilov's career began to fade. On 7 May 1960, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union granted Voroshilov's request for retirement and elected Leonid Brezhnev chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council (the head of state). The Central Committee also relieved him of duties as a member of the Party Presidium (as the Politburo had been called since 1952) on 16 July 1960. In October 1961, his political defeat was complete at the 22nd party congress when he was excluded from election to the Central Committee.
Following Khrushchev's fall from power, Soviet leader Brezhnev brought Voroshilov out of retirement into a figurehead political post. Voroshilov was again re-elected to the Central Committee in 1966. Voroshilov was awarded a second medal of Hero of the Soviet Union 1968.
== Death ==
During a winter night in 1969, Voroshilov started to feel unwell. His family proposed to call an ambulance immediately, but he adamantly refused. In the morning he put on his military uniform, and after calling a car, he went to the hospital himself, fully decorated. Voroshilov died on 2 December, at the age of 88, and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, in one of the twelve individual tombs located between the Lenin Mausoleum and the Kremlin wall.
== Personal life ==
Voroshilov was married to Ekaterina Voroshilova, born Golda Gorbman, a Ukrainian Jew from Mardarovka. She changed her name when she converted to Orthodox Christianity in order to be allowed to marry Voroshilov. They met while both were exiled in Arkhangelsk, where Ekaterina was sent in 1906. While both serving on the Tsaritsyn Front in 1918, where Ekaterina was helping orphans, they adopted a four-year-old orphan boy who they named Petya. They also adopted the children of Mikhail Frunze following his death in 1925. During Stalin's rule, they lived in the Kremlin at the Horse Guards.
His personality as it was described by Molotov in 1974: "Voroshilov was nice, but only in certain times. He always stood for the political line of the party, because he was from a working class, a common man, very good orator. He was clean, yes. And he was personally devoted to Stalin. But his devotion was not very strong. However in this period he advocated Stalin very actively, supported him in everything, though not entirely sure in everything. It also affected their relationship. This is a very complex issue. This must be taken into account to understand why Stalin treated him critically and not invited him at all our conversations. At least at private ones. But he came by himself. Stalin frowned. Under Khrushchev, Voroshilov behaved badly."
== Honours and awards ==
=== Soviet Union ===
The Kliment Voroshilov (KV) series of tanks, used in World War II, was named after him. Two towns were also named after him: Voroshilovsk in Donbas (now Alchevsk) Voroshilovgrad in Ukraine (now changed back to the historical Luhansk) and Voroshilov in the Soviet Far East (now renamed Ussuriysk after the Ussuri river), as well as the General Staff Academy in Moscow. Stavropol was called Voroshilovsk from 1935 to 1943.
Hero of the Soviet Union, two times (No. 10840 – 3 February 1956 (in conjunction with his 75th birthday), No. 47 – 22 February 1968 (in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the Armed Forces of the USSR))
Hero of Socialist Labour (No. 10268 – 7 May 1960)
Order of Lenin, eight times (No. 880 – 23 February 1935, No. 3582 – 22 February 1938, No. 14851 – 3 February 1941, No. 26411 – 21 February 1945, No. 128065 – 3 February 1951, No. 313410 – 3 February 1956, No. 331807 – 3 February 1961, No. 340967 – 22 February 1968)
Order of the Red Banner, six times (No. 47 – 26 June 1919, No. 629 – 2 April 1921, No. 27 – 3–2 December 1925, No. 5 – 4–22 February 1930, No. 1 – 5–3 November 1944, No. 1–24 June 1948)
Order of Suvorov, 1st class (No. 125 – 22 February 1944)
Order of the Red Banner of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (17 February 1930)
Order of the Red Banner of the Tajik SSR (No. 148 – 14 January 1933)
Order of the Red Banner ZSFSR (25 February 1933)
Jubilee Medal "XX Years of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army" (22 February 1938)
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
Medal "For the Defence of Leningrad"
Medal "For the Defence of Moscow"
Medal "For the Defence of the Caucasus"
Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" (21 September 1947)
Jubilee Medal "30 Years of the Soviet Army and Navy" (22 February 1948)
Jubilee Medal "40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (17 February 1958)
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1965)
Honorary Revolutionary Weapon (1920, 1968)
=== Foreign awards ===
==== Mongolia ====
Hero of the Mongolian People's Republic (29 May 1957)
Order of Sukhbaatar, twice
Order of the Red Banner
Order of the Polar Star
==== Finland ====
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (1955)
==== Turkey ====
Honorary citizen of İzmir, November 1933; in İzmir a street was also named after him. In 1951, it was renamed "Plevne Bulvarı".
== See also ==
Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union
Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization
Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s
Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941
Voroshilov Sharpshooter
"Stalin and Voroshilov in the Kremlin," a famous Soviet painting
List of mayors of Luhansk
Soviet cruiser Voroshilov
== References ==
== External links ==
Collection of Soviet songs about Klim Voroshilov
Newspaper clippings about Kliment Voroshilov in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Official Soviet visit by Kliment Voroshilov to China, 1957: Photo with Chairman Mao [1] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Award | Linus Pauling Award | The Linus Pauling Award is an award recognizing outstanding achievement in chemistry. It is awarded annually by the Puget Sound, Oregon, and Portland sections of the American Chemical Society, and is named after the US chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994), to whom it was first awarded in 1966.
Another Linus Pauling Award is given annually by the Chemistry Department at Buffalo State College.
== Oregon Laureates ==
Source: ACS
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== Sources ==
Linus Pauling Medalists, Portland State University Chemistry Department
Linus Pauling Award, Buffalo State University Chemistry Department
Linus Pauling Award, University Washington
Linus Pauling Medal Award 2010
Linus Pauling Award 2011
Linus Pauling Award 2018 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_and_Nikki_Newman#:~:text=However%2C%20they%20divorce%20again%2C%20and,and%20Victor%20and%20Ashley%20divorced. | Victor and Nikki Newman | Victor and Nikki Newman are fictional characters and a supercouple from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. Victor is portrayed by Eric Braeden and Nikki is portrayed by Melody Thomas Scott. Together, they have shared three marriages and two children; Victoria and Nicholas Newman (Amelia Heinle and Joshua Morrow). The couple is often referred to by the portmanteau "Niktor" by fans on internet message boards and in magazines. Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a prostitute and stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society. Nikki gave birth to Victoria in 1982, and the pair were married in 1984. Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson, Brenda Epperson) then came between Victor and Nikki, causing them to divorce and each of them remarrying to Ashley and Victor's nemesis, Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), respectively. However, the pair continued to be linked to one another, with an affair between the two resulting in second child Nicholas.
The soap opera's writers originally detailed Victor and Nikki to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion or continuous cycle, a take on the original supercouple formula. Their pairing, regarded as an "inspired decision", led to Victor and Nikki becoming the most successful supercouple on The Young and the Restless. Despite Victor marrying architect Diane Jenkins (Alex Donnelley) in 1997, Nikki suffered a gunshot wound the following year and came close to death, resulting in Victor supposedly divorcing Diane and remarrying Nikki on her deathbed. However, Victor and Diane's divorce was never legal, invalidating the pair's remarriage. An actual divorce between Victor and Diane took place, resulting in the reunion of Victor and Nikki. In September 2002, they remarried again at the site of their first wedding, which would last six years. In 2008, Nikki began an affair with the devious David Chow (Vincent Irizarry), resulting in the pair's second divorce. Scott has stated that she thinks the couple always has to get back together, but "not without a challenge". In March 2013, after four years of an on-and-off relationship, Victor and Nikki remarried for the third time, coinciding with the 40th anniversary of The Young and the Restless.
Victor and Nikki are recognized as one of daytime television's most prominent pairings, as well as receiving a positive response from critics throughout the years. Scott has also stated that she believes the pair "will always be a huge dynamic". Braeden has stated that he thought Victor and Nikki's storyline was an "honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki". The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era.
== Development ==
Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society. They fell in love and had a baby, Victoria Newman (Heather Tom), and later a son Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow). The couple are widely considered a supercouple within the realm of soap operas. The writers of The Young and the Restless detailed characters Victor Newman and Nikki Reed to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion in a continuous cycle. This has taken place for as long as the couple has been together, a take on the original supercouple formula. Soap Opera Digest relayed the beginning of the pairing's creation and their impact. The "inspired decision" led to Victor and Nikki becoming the series' most successful supercouple. In an interview with Dose magazine, Melody Thomas Scott said that the couple always has to get back together, but not without a challenge. She stated:
That's the writers' job to come up with something believable. I mean, that is always their challenge. Nikki and Victor have played this cycle over and over again and it’s very successful because people care about them. I would imagine just because I've watched the show for 33 years as well as played it – they've got to get back together! There’s nothing else they could do! They have to get back together, as for how, I don't know. The writers have a rough job coming up with something that I hope will be good!
The characters had their first wedding on the episode that aired on April 13, 1984.
== Storylines ==
=== 1981–2000 ===
Victor Newman met Nikki Reed, who, barely out of her teens, was working as a stripper at the Bayou. Victor was intrigued by her and took her home, where under his influence, she was transformed into a classy young lady. Victor is adamant at first that he has no romantic feelings for Nikki, but he soon succumbed to her charms and they had a night of passionate love-making. Victor cast this off as a mistake, and instead took up with a woman named Lorie Brooks, who in truth only wanted to be with Victor to write an exposé on him. Victor later admitted that he truly is in love with Nikki, and she eventually gives birth to a daughter, Victoria Newman, and the couple was married in a lavish ceremony two years later.
One of the greatest threats to Victor and Nikki's union is arguably Ashley Abbott, as some time later, Victor fell in love with her, who happens to be the sister of his archenemy Jack Abbott. Victor was heartbroken in discovering that Ashley had aborted his baby so that he would stay with a dying Nikki. Nikki later recovered, but intentionally hadn't informed Victor to stay clear of the threat Ashley posed. Yet, they share one final night of passion together, which resulted in the birth of Nicholas Newman. Victor and Nikki ended up divorcing after he lashed out at her for purposely providing information about Ashley's abortion to an unauthorized biographer — Leanna Love. Victor marries her, all while being unaware of her true intentions. The marriage is quickly annulled and Victor pays Leanna a settlement, but she remains a bothersome component in Victor's life on occasion. Victor then married Ashley by 1990, but the marriage ended after three years due to extreme marital problems. Nikki married Jack, which ended after four years when Victor told Jack he would give him Jabot Cosmetics if he divorced Nikki.
After Victor was blasted by Nikki, Ashley and teenaged Victoria, all resenting the control he tried to exert in their lives, he left town, and during his trip, he is robbed of his wallet, jewelry, and car. After his car is found with a body inside burned beyond recognition, word reaches Genoa City that Victor is dead. However, Victor turned up at the Kansas farm of the blind Hope Wilson just in time to rescue her from a rapist. After Victor lived with Hope, they grew close, and they returned to Genoa City and married. Afterward, Hope gave birth to a son, Victor Adam Newman, Jr., and shortly after she left Victor. Victor hoped to return to Nikki, but she was engaged to Brad Carlton. After Victor was shot by Mari Jo Mason, Nikki returned to his side until he decided to visit Hope again. By 1997, Victor married architect Diane Jenkins, Jack's ex-fiancée, but when Nikki was shot by her husband's ex-wife Veronica Landers, Victor left Diane to remarry Nikki on her deathbed, and eventually Nikki survived. They realized they wanted to be together, and thus led Victor to divorce Diane, although with his speedy marriage to Nikki, the divorce wasn't legal. Eventually, Diane reluctantly agreed to a legal divorce after she acquired millions in the divorce settlement in a very lengthy divorce. Yet, by that time Victor and Nikki had gone their separate ways again.
=== 2002–2011 ===
Two years later, Victor and Nikki remarried legally at the site of their first wedding. Nikki and Victor again started up the rocky aspect of their romance when Victor's unethical and illegal business practices harm Jabot, as Nikki had made a notable investment there. Nikki started to have horrible flashbacks of accidentally shooting Joshua Cassen when she was five years old, and she was stunned to discover that Joshua was the older brother of her new business associate Bobby Marsino, with whom she has a brief romance. Victor came to Nikki's rescue after Bobby's mob associates kidnapped her. Nikki moved on, and she and Victor partnered with Phyllis Summers to create a chain of Wellness Spas across the country. However, when Victor learns that Nick, married to Sharon Newman, had an affair with Phyllis, Victor fires her and returned to holding the reins of his company.
When Victor suffers a head injury while rescuing Nikki from a carjacking, Victor becomes epileptic. His loved ones were well off at the seemingly new laid-back personality Victor now encompasses, but they soon became worried for his health when he began experiencing seizures. Making things even more complicated, as well as bizarre, he suddenly developed a friendly relationship with his main enemy Jack. Nikki later became concerned that Jack was manipulating a vulnerable Victor for his own personal financial gain. After a while, Victor finally appeared in good health. Victor and Nikki had their ups and downs, but typically manage to find their way back to each other romantically through various situations. Victor's son Victor, Jr. returned to town, now going by Adam Newman. However, they divorce again, and Victor married Victoria's friend Sabrina Costelana, and Nikki married David Chow. The following year, Victor remarried Ashley, but Nikki and Victor reunited after he was shot by Patty Williams and given a heart transplant. They went to Europe, and Victor and Ashley divorced.
Victor returned from Belgium with Nikki on his arm. Victor declared himself as head of Newman Enterprises, and Victor and Nikki move back into their Ranch house, and helped discover and return their kidnapped infant granddaughter Faith Newman back to her parents Nick and Sharon. Adam ends up being found "dead", and Victoria and Nick were arrested. In order to protect his children, Victor takes the blame saying he did it for everything Adam did to his family. Victor is later released and Nick is the main suspect. However, there was a growing amount of proof to suggest that Adam killed Richard Hightower to fake his own death. In order to protect Nick, Victor went to Canada trying to find Adam. There he befriended Meggie McClaine and he ended up nearly being killed. Back at the Newman Ranch, Victor tries to rebuild his relationship with Nikki, but she felt that Meggie was in the way. Victor claimed that he was trying to protect her and she became Nikki's personal assistant. In reality, she put together a scheme to get Nikki drinking again, therefore opening up the way for her to marry Victor. Once she marries him, she would kill him and get his money. Meggie eventually recruits Deacon Sharpe to help spike Nikki's drinks. Eventually, Deacon and Meggie set up Victor and Nikki to look like Nikki and Deacon were having an affair. Once Victor caught them, he sent Nikki to rehab, where Deacon soon ends up to continue scheming with Meggie. In rehab, he tried to actually help Nikki, and their relationship did turn romantic, especially when Meggie was able to elope with Victor. Meggie posted their wedding photo online and Nikki saw it, giving into romance with Deacon. Meggie fully revealed herself as a manipulative gold-digger targeting the Newman fortune as a widow after she mortally eliminates him. After apparently many spiked drinks, Victor appeared to suffer a heart attack, but stunningly unveiled his sobriety and caught her in a sting operation set up by him, Patrick Murphy, and the cops though Nikki didn't know. Meggie was arrested and Victor went to fill in Nikki, but before he did found her in bed with Deacon, blemishing the chances of another marriage. Victor explained that Meggie caused her alcoholic craving by spiking all her drinks to rid her from the ranch and get to him and his money.
=== 2011–present ===
Nikki continued her romance with Deacon, while Victor ended up remarrying Diane Jenkins. Nikki broke up with Deacon after his role in Meggie's scheme came to light, and Victor and Nikki eventually had an affair, but their reunion was short lived. Eventually, Victor sent Nikki back to rehab as her alcoholism issues had resurfaced. After a quick annulment from Victor, Diane posted pictures of him and Nikki in bed online. She was murdered months later. After Nikki returned—having escaped from rehab—memories of Diane's murder caught up with her. She then confessed to being the killer to Victor, who admitted to killing his ex-wife to protect Nikki.
Victor was jailed, and later married Sharon to keep Nikki away from him, though the marriage ended days later. Deacon blackmailed Nikki into marrying him, using fake information about Diane's murder. Nikki agreed, however this marriage was short lived. When Victor was released from jail, the two reunited again.
Victor brought Chelsea Lawson and her mother to town to ruin Victoria's marriage to Billy Abbott. When Nikki learned of this, she left him. Victor then pursued a genuine relationship with Sharon, much to everyone's dismay. Nikki moved on from Victor when she reunited with Jack after eighteen years apart, and ended up marrying him. Hours after this marriage, Victor eloped with Sharon, despite showing up at the wedding and unsuccessfully telling Nikki not to go through with it.
Yet soon after Victor disappeared and ended up in Los Angeles in amnesia. Sharon set out to get revenge by taking over Newman, while Nikki left Jack to try to find Victor. As a result of an explosion, it was believed that Victor died and the family was shocked. Yet, Victor actually survived.
Nikki and Victor reunited, while they set out to destroy Sharon and Tucker McCall who wanted to keep Victor away so he could take over Newman.
== Reception and impact ==
Victor and Nikki are recognized as one of daytime's most prominent couples. The couple has received positive reviews from critics throughout the years, The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era. They have garnered a large fan following, being commonly referred to as "Niktor" on internet message boards. In addition, the couple's weddings have been reported by mainstream media. Melody Thomas Scott has said, "Let’s face facts: Victor and Nikki will always be a huge dynamic, they’ve been in a circular cycle for over 30 years! Finding a new leading man that you have chemistry with is like finding gold." Eric Braeden has said, "I love working with Melody [as well]. I always thought it was an honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki." Former As the World Turns actress Martha Byrne has said, "Young and Restless' Victor and Nikki are the perfect example of a couple who they can tear apart and put back together how many times? And [the writers] do it really well because they're so stable as characters that you can basically do anything with them now, and the audience will go on the journey with them." Daytime expert Michael Fairman stated: "Victor and Nikki just can’t, we mean can’t, ever get it together long enough to find any happiness with each other. So, many would say that they deserve each other and the baggage and betrayals that come along with their co-dependent relationship."
== See also ==
List of supercouples
== References ==
== External links ==
SoapCentral |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCG_Yavuz_(F_240) | TCG Yavuz (F 240) | TCG Yavuz (F 240) is the lead ship of Yavuz-class frigate of the Turkish Navy.
== Development and design ==
Yavuz-class frigates were designed in Germany and are part of the MEKO family of modular warships; in this case the MEKO 200 design. An order for ships was signed by the Turkish government in April 1983 for four MEKO frigates. Two ships were built in Germany and two in Turkey with German assistance. They are similar in design to the larger Barbaros-class frigates of the Turkish Navy, which are improved versions of the Yavuz-class frigate.
The Turkish Navy has an ongoing limited modernization project for an electronic warfare suite. The intent is to upgrade the ships with locally produced ECM, ECCM systems, active decoys, LWRs, IRST, and the necessary user interface systems.
== Construction and career ==
Yavuz was launched on 30 May 1985 by Blohm+Voss in Hamburg and commissioned on 11 October 1987.
On 11 September 2020, she escorted TCG İskenderun in the Mediterranean while on her way to the Port of Marmaris.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to TCG Yavuz (F-240) at Wikimedia Commons
The First Upgraded MEKO 200 Frigate Of Turkish Navy
BARBAROS CLASS ( MEKO 200 Track II) (Turkey) Archived 2013-01-24 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_Nuns_Community_Hospital#:~:text=In%201996%20Dr.,director%20until%20retiring%20in%202017. | Grey Nuns Community Hospital | The Grey Nuns Community Hospital is an acute care hospital located in the Mill Woods area of south Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. The Grey Nuns Community Hospital provides a full range of services including a 24-hour Emergency Department. The 14-bed tertiary palliative care unit is known for its delivery of care and teaching practices. The hospital traces its roots to the Grey Nuns of Montreal who sent Sister Emery (Zoe LeBlanc), Adel Lamy and Alphonse (Marie Jacques) to the Edmonton area in 1859.
== Main services ==
The Grey Nuns Community Hospital offers a wide range of services.
General and Vascular Surgery
Intensive and Cardiac Care
Family medicine
internal medicine
Children's Health
Women's Health
Diagnostics
Mental Health
Ambulatory Care
== Gender clinic ==
Lorne Warneke opened the first gender identity clinic in Canada at the Grey Nuns Community Hospital in 1996, where he served as medical director until retiring in 2017. Warneke was a major advocate for transgender rights and played an important role in getting Alberta Health Services to cover gender reassignment surgery in 1984, and again in 2010.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Special_Olympics_World_Summer_Games | 2007 Special Olympics World Summer Games | The 2007 Special Olympics World Summer Games (Chinese: 2007年世界夏季特殊奥林匹克运动会; pinyin: 2007 Nián shìjiè xiàjì tèshū àolínpǐkè yùndònghuì) were held in Shanghai, China.
== Venues ==
A select list of venues used during the games:
Shanghai Pudong Swimming Arena
Shanghai Stadium
Shanghai Indoor Stadium
Fudan University
Qizhong Forest Sports City Arena
== Events ==
Aquatics
Athletics
Badminton
Basketball
Bocce
Bowling
Cycling
Equestrian
Floor hockey
Football
Golf
Gymnastics
Judo
Kayaking
Powerlifting
Roller skating
Sailing
Softball
Table tennis
Team handball
Tennis
Volleyball
Cricket
Dragon boat
Dragon Lion
MATP
== Young Athletes introduction ==
Concluding its pilot run in 2006, The Special Olympics officially introduced Young Athletes, a sports program for children aged 2–7 with intellectual disabilities. It was designed to get the children exposed and interested in sports before they are eligible to compete in the Special Olympics. It was tested in 11 other countries and over 10,000 children participated.
== Revenue and expenses ==
The Games made a total of $101,663,833 in revenue, gains, and other financial support. It was a $16,898,416 increase compared to the year before. Total expenses for the year were $101,010,125, another increase from 2006, this time worth $19,841,738.
== Founder receives award ==
Special Olympics founder, Eunice Kennedy Shriver was awarded with the Minerva Award for Lifetime Achievement two weeks after the closing ceremony on October 23. She won the award for her contributions not only to the Special Olympics, but for efforts to help people with disabilities. The award is named after the Roman goddess Minerva and serves as a way to honor women who have sparked change in their communities, states, and nations.
== See also ==
2008 Summer Olympics
2009 Summer Deaflympics
== References ==
== External links ==
2007 Summer Special Olympics official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motaz_Azaiza | Motaz Azaiza | Motaz Hilal Azaiza (Arabic: معتز هلال عزايزة; born (1999-01-30)30 January 1999) is a Palestinian photojournalist from Gaza. He is known for covering the Gaza war, drawing a large social media following. In 2023, he was named Man of the Year by GQ Middle East and one of his photos, showing a girl trapped in rubble from an Israeli air strike, was named one of Time's top 10 photos of 2023, and was featured on Time's list of the 100 most influential people of 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Azaiza was raised in the Deir al-Balah Camp in the Israeli-occupied Gaza Strip. He attended Al-Azhar University in Gaza, graduating in 2021 with a degree in English studies. As of 2023, he was employed by UNRWA.
== Career ==
=== Early career ===
Prior to the Gaza war, Azaiza's online posts mostly focused on photographing daily life in his native Gaza Strip. He told The Guardian he did not intend to become a war journalist and wished "people knew me for my art, I wanted to capture the beauty of my people". His dream was to become a travel photographer according to Grazia UK, but he could not yet afford the visa expenses. Although he covered the 2014 Gaza War and the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, his social media accounts did not gain much attention at the time. There are few foreign journalists in the Gaza Strip due to Israel and Egypt denying them access to the territory, which has led to Azaiza becoming a key reporter on the ground in Gaza.
=== 2023–present ===
Before the Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October 2023, Azaiza's profile on Instagram had approximately 25,000 followers. On 13 October, his Instagram account was restricted, but access was restored the following day. His follower count had increased to one million by 17 October, nine million by October 30, 12.5 million by November 3, and 13 million by November 7. As of 27 December, Azaiza's Instagram profile had 17.5 million followers, with the number reaching over 18 million by January 2024.
In January 2024, Azaiza appeared on Mehdi Hasan's final show with MSNBC to discuss the dangers of reporting from Gaza under Israel's bombardment. Later that month, after 108 days of reporting, Azaiza and some of his family evacuated to Egypt and then Doha, Qatar via Al-Arish Airport, their first time on a plane. Azaiza subsequently began meeting with ministers, diplomats, and media figures to share his accounts, frustrated that his attempts to broadcast what was happening in Gaza had not changed things.
On his first civilian flight, Azaiza flew to Istanbul on 26 February 2024, beginning his travels to "show, tell and speak more". He then went to Geneva, Switzerland on 8 March for the FIFDH, appearing on a panel with Farah Nabulsi and Mohamed Jabaly at the premiere of Jabaly's film Life is Beautiful. Azaiza visited American universities for talks in April, including a Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) panel, and went to London in May, where he joined protests and gave a speech on Nakba Day.
In August, English band Massive Attack invited Azaiza to speak on stage at their Bristol concert, which garnered an audience of over 30 thousand. He also paid visit to Derry, where he was welcomed by mayor Lilian Seenoi-Barr and interviewed by actress Jamie-Lee O'Donnell. In September, he featured on the BBC News programme HARDTalk.
== Personal life ==
On 11 October 2023, at least 15 of Azaiza's relatives were killed in an Israeli airstrike on the Deir al-Balah Camp, shortly after the outbreak of the Gaza war.
In a February 2024 interview with The Guardian, Azaiza mentioned the traumatic flashbacks and feelings of guilt and hopelessness he experienced after leaving Gaza.
== Accolades ==
In November 2023, GQ Middle East named Azaiza their Man of the Year, with editor Ahmad Ali Swaid stating that "he reminds us that no matter who we are or where we're from, it's us – ordinary people, men, and women – who have the power to enact that very change that we want to see."
Azaiza's photograph, "Seeing Her Through My Camera", part of his extensive coverage of Gaza during the Gaza war, was listed among Time's top 10 photos of 2023. In late October, following an Israeli airstrike, Azaiza used a low shutter speed on his camera to capture the moment, revealing a young girl trapped under rubble at the Al Nusairat refugee camp. This technique allowed him to witness her in the darkness where the naked eye couldn't confirm her condition before a Civil Defense rescue worker's light illuminated her face.
After arriving in Istanbul in February 2024, Azaiza accepted his 2023 TRT World Citizen Award.
Azaiza was featured on Time's list of the 100 most influential people of 2024 in April. In June, Azaiza was awarded the Freedom Prize in Normandy, France. Azaiza was one of four Palestinian journalists to be nominated for the 2024 Nobel Peace Prize.
== See also ==
Bisan Owda
Wael Al-Dahdouh
Plestia Alaqad
Killing of journalists in the Gaza war
History of Palestinian journalism
== References ==
== External links ==
Motaz Azaiza on Instagram |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishansar_Lake | Krishansar Lake | The Krishansar Lake or Krishan Sar (lit. 'lake of Krishna') is a high elevation oligotrophic lake located in the Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir in India. It is situated near the tourist town of Sonamarg, in the Ganderbal district, at an elevation of 3,710 metres (12,170 ft) less than one kilometer northwest of Vishansar Lake which it outflows into, and has a maximum length of 0.95 km and maximum width of 0.6 km.
== Etymology, geography ==
Krishansar in Sanskrit and Kashmiri means the lake of Krishna. It is home to many types of fishes among of which is the brown trout. It freezes during winter, and is inaccessible during this season due to heavy snowfall. It is surrounded by green lush meadows and attracts local shepherds who graze their flocks of sheep and goat during summer. The Krishansar Lake is adjacent to Vishansar Lake, at its back are the mountains standing covered with snow in which lies the Gadsar Pass, a mountain pass which leads to the Gadsar Lake. The lake is a famous trekking site just north of the Kashmir Valley. It is mostly fed by melting of snow and glaciers. It drains out through a small stream which falls into the Vishansar Lake and gives rise to Kishanganga River.
== Access ==
The Krishansar Lake is situated 115 km. northeast from Srinagar and 35 km from Shitkadi Sonamarg. It can be accessed from Srinagar or Srinagar Airport 80 km by road NH 1D up to village Shitkadi from which ponies can be hired to cover an alpine trek of 35 km to reach the Krishansar Lake, which takes a complete day of trekking passing Nichnai Pass of 4100 meters above sea level. The Gadsar Lake is some 9 kilometers in the north westwards. The best time to visit the lake is from the month of June to September.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Huh | June Huh | June E Huh (Korean: 허준이; born June 9, 1983) is an American mathematician who is currently a professor at Princeton University. Previously, he was a professor at Stanford University. He was awarded the Fields Medal and a MacArthur Fellowship in 2022. He has been noted for the linkages that he has found between algebraic geometry and combinatorics.
== Early life and education ==
Huh was born in Stanford, California while his parents were completing graduate school at Stanford University. He was raised in South Korea, where his family returned when he was approximately two years old. His father was a professor of statistics at Korea University, while his mother was a professor of Russian language at Seoul National University. Poor scores on elementary school tests convinced him that he lacked the innate aptitude to excel in mathematics. He later dropped out of high school to focus on writing poetry after becoming bored and exhausted by the constant routine of relentless
studying. Huh has been described as a late bloomer, both in terms of his career phenomena and with regards to his academic and professional development. Huh matriculated at Seoul National University in 2002, but found himself initially unsettled and suffering from depression. He pinned his initial career aspirations on becoming a science journalist and decided to major in physics and astronomy, but compiled a poor attendance record and had to repeat several courses that he initially failed at.
Early in his studies he was mentored by Japanese award-winning mathematician Heisuke Hironaka, who went to Seoul National University as a visiting professor. Having failed several courses, Huh took an algebraic geometry course under Hironaka in his sixth year which focused on singularity theory and was based on Hironaka's current research rather than established teaching material. Huh credited the course with sparking his interest in research-level math. Huh then proceeded to complete a master's degree at Seoul National University, while frequently travelling to Japan with Hironaka and acting as his personal assistant. Due to his poor academic record as an undergraduate, Huh was rejected from all but one of the American universities that he applied to. He started his Ph.D. studies at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign in 2009, before transferring to the University of Michigan in 2011. He graduated in 2014 with a thesis written under the direction of Mircea Mustață at the age of 31. He was awarded the Sumner Byron Myers Prize for his PhD thesis.
== Career ==
In 2009, during his PhD studies, Huh proved the Read–Hoggar conjecture, about the unimodality of coefficients of chromatic polynomials in graph theory, which had been unresolved for more than 40 years. In joint work with Karim Adiprasito and Eric Katz, he resolved the Heron–Rota–Welsh conjecture on the log-concavity of the characteristic polynomial of matroids.
With Karim Adiprasito, he is one of the five winners of the 2019 New Horizons in Mathematics Prize, associated with the Breakthrough Prize in Mathematics. He was a winner of Blavatnik Award for Young Scientists (U.S. Regional) in 2017. In 2018, Huh was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Rio de Janeiro. In 2021, he received the Samsung Ho-Am Prize in Science for physics and mathematics.
Huh was awarded the 2022 Fields Medal for "bringing the ideas of Hodge theory to combinatorics, the proof of the Dowling–Wilson conjecture for geometric lattices, the proof of the Heron–Rota–Welsh conjecture for matroids, the development of the theory of Lorentzian polynomials, and the proof of the strong Mason conjecture". Huh is the seventh recipient of East Asian ancestry and the first winner of Korean ancestry to have the prize bestowed upon him.
== Personal life ==
Huh is married to Kim Nayoung, whom he met during his studies while attending Seoul National University. Kim is a graduate of Seoul National University where she earned her doctorate in mathematics. The couple have two sons.
== References ==
== External links ==
June Huh publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria | Geography of Nigeria | Nigeria is a country in West Africa. It shares land borders with the Republic of Benin to the west, Chad and Cameroon to the east, and Niger to the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast. Notable geographical features in Nigeria include the Adamawa Plateau, Mambilla Plateau, Jos Plateau, Obudu Plateau, Niger River, Benue River, and Niger Delta.
Nigeria is in the tropics, where the climate is very humid and seasonally wet. Nigeria has majorly four climate types; these climate types are generally gradated from south to north. Nigeria's principal streams are the Niger, from which it got its name, and the Benue, the primary tributary of the Niger. The country's most elevated point is Chappal Waddi (or Gangirwal) at 2,419 metres or 7,936 feet, situated in the Adamawa mountains in the Gashaka-Gumti Public Park, Taraba State, on the border with Cameroon.
The capital of Nigeria is Abuja, situated in the centre of the country, while Lagos is the country's major port, monetary center and largest city. Communicated in dialects are English (official), Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. It is assessed that Nigeria has around 250 different ethno-etymological gatherings.
== Area data ==
Area
Total: 923,768 km2 (356,669 sq mi)
country rank in the world: 31st
Land: 910,770 km2 (351,650 sq mi)
Water: 13,000 km2 (5,000 sq mi)
Area comparative
Australia comparative: slightly smaller than South Australia
Canada comparative: slightly smaller than British Columbia
United States comparative: slightly less than three times the size of New Mexico
== Climate ==
The tropical monsoon climate, designated by the Köppen climate classification as Am, is found in the southern part of the country. This climate is influenced by the monsoons originating from the South Atlantic Ocean, which are brought into the country by the (maritime tropical) MT air mass, a warm moist sea-to-land seasonal wind. Its warmth and high humidity gives it a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious rainfall, which is a result of the condensation of water vapour in the rapidly rising air. The tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range. The temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year; for example, Warri in the southern part of Nigeria records a maximum of 28 °C (82.4 °F) for its hottest month while its lowest temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) in its coldest month.
The southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall. These storms are usually convectional in nature because of the region's proximity to the equatorial belt. The annual rainfall received in this region is very high. Parts of the Niger Delta receives over 4,000 millimetres or 160 inches of annual rainfall, while the southeast receives between 2,000 and 3,000 millimetres (80 and 120 in). The southern region of Nigeria experiences a double rainfall maxima with two high peaks. The first rainy season starts in March, ending in June. The August break, a short dry season, follows, followed by a short rainy season in September and a long dry season in October.
The tropical savanna climate, characterized by distinct rainy and dry seasons, dominates western to central Nigeria. It has a single peak in the summer and consistently high temperatures above 18 °C or 64.4 °F. Abuja, Nigeria's capital, experiences a temperature range of 18.45 to 36.9 °C (65.2 to 98.4 °F). The dry season occurs from December to March and is hot and dry with the Harmattan wind, a continental tropical (CT) air mass laden with dust from the Sahara, prevailing throughout this period.
With the Intertropical Convergence Zone swinging northward over West Africa from the Southern Hemisphere in April, heavy showers coming from pre-monsoonal convective clouds mainly in the form of squall lines also known as the north easterlies formed mainly as a result of the interactions of the two dominant airmasses in Nigeria known as the maritime tropical (south westerlies) and the continental tropical (north easterlies), begins in central Nigeria while monsoons arrive in July, bringing with it high humidity, heavy cloud cover and heavy rainfall lasting until September when the monsoons gradually begin retreating southward to the southern part of Nigeria. Rainfall totals in central Nigeria varies from 1,100 mm (43.3 in) in the lowlands to over 2,000 mm (78.7 in) along the south western escarpment of the Jos Plateau.
A hot semi-arid climate (BSh) is predominant within the Sahel in the northern part of Nigeria. Annual rainfall totals are low. The rainy season in the northern part of Nigeria lasts for three to four months (June to September). The rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) . Potiskum, Yobe State in the northeast of Nigeria recorded Nigeria's lowest ever temperature of 2.8 °C (37.0 °F).
Highland climates are found on highlands regions in Nigeria. Highlands over 1,520 metres (4,987 ft) above sea level are cool enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands, mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height, a cool mountain climate.
=== Annual rainfall ===
Rainfall in the coastal belt of the Niger Delta is heavy due to the closeness of the Delta region to the equator. Annual rainfall totals vary from 2,400 millimetres or 94 inches at Port Harcourt to as much as 4,870 millimetres or 192 inches at Forcados, a coastal town in the Niger Delta, 4,200 millimetres or 165 inches at Bonny, and 3,070 millimetres or 121 inches in Calabar, the rainiest city with over one million people in Nigeria. As one moves northward and eastward, annual rainfall declines steadily to around 650 millimetres or 26 inches at Sokoto in the northwest and as low as 400 millimetres or 16 inches in the extreme north of Yobe and Borno States, which under the sweltering conditions that prevail is dry enough to be a hot arid climate (Köppen BWh).
=== Trade winds ===
==== Tropical maritime air mass ====
The tropical maritime air mass (MT) is responsible for Nigeria's rainy season. This wind begins in February in the southern part of Nigeria while it takes longer for the wind to fully cover the whole of the country, reaching the northern part of Nigeria in June. Its presence a result of the northward retreat of the Harmattan. The northward retreat of the tropical continental air mass (CT) is caused by the sun's northward shift from the tropic of capricorn in the southern hemisphere to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. This shift begins from February and ends in June, when the sun is fully overhead at the tropic of cancer. During this northward migration of the sun as a result of the earth tilting along its axis, the sun crosses the equator (around March), moving over West Africa. West Africa comes directly under the sun at this time. The whole of West Africa is heated intensely as result of the increased insolation. Temperatures can climb as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F) over West Africa during this time. Temperatures in the northern part of Nigeria can go as high as 48 °C (118.4 °F) in cities like Maiduguri.
High temperatures and increased insolation cause low pressure in West Africa and Nigeria between March and May. The Saharan continental air mass weakens due to land surface overheating, causing the atmosphere to expand and become lighter. The air mass retreats, and the sun's rays enter Nigeria's atmosphere more intensely than during Harmattan. The heating of the West Africa land mass creates a low pressure region over West Africa. This low pressure zone aid in the development of the tropical maritime air mass from the south Atlantic.
The tropical maritime air mass is a warm, humid and unstable trade wind. Convection currents form within the airmass whenever there is little instability in the airmass as a result of a slight to a very high orographic uplift in mountainous regions like the Obudu Plateau or the heating of the land which can trigger the formation of cumulonimbus cloud leading to thunderstorms within the air mass. During the dominance of the tropical maritime air mass, mornings are bright and sunny, the sun's heating of the land in the mornings and afternoons sets up convectional currents, these currents rise vertically, cumulonimbus clouds are formed, and torrential downpours can occur in the afternoon.
The African easterly wave is another major contributor of rainfall during the summer monsoons months of May to September. The nature of this wave changes at about 15 degrees north latitude. The waves that pass south of this latitude carry moisture and create convection that leads to rain clouds. Nigeria's location in the wetter part of the easterly waves south of the 15 degrees north latitude creates wetter climatic conditions for Nigeria, especially during the monsoons.
==== Tropical continental air mass ====
The tropical continental air mass, locally known as the Harmattan, is a wind originating from North Africa which crosses the Sahara into West Africa. Nigeria's dry season from December to March is dominated by a dusty tropical continental air mass, which creates a haze and hinders visibility. Originating near the equator, it generates dust rather than precipitation. Despite its impact on transportation, the low humidity helps farmers dry their crops.
=== Temperature ===
Nigeria's seasons and temperature variance are determined by rainfall with rainy season and dry season being the major seasons in Nigeria. The rainy season of Nigeria brings in slightly cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage of the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the Sun's rays in the rainy season (and trapping some heat in the ground, making it not too cold); this in turn cools the land, and the winds above the ground remain cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season. Despite the temperatures being cooler in the rainy season, the rainy season also has an increased temperature at night compared to the dry season. Also afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid. In the rainy season it is damp, and the rainfalls are usually abundant.
The dry season of Nigeria is a period of less cloud cover in the southern part of Nigeria to virtually no cloud cover in the northern part of Nigeria. The Sun shines through the atmosphere with little obstructions from the clear skies making the dry season in Nigeria a period of warmer weather conditions. In the middle of the dry season around December, the dust brought in by the Harmattan partially blocks the sun's rays, which lowers temperatures. But with the withdrawal of this wind around March to April following the onset of the rainy season, temperatures can go as high as 44 °C (111.2 °F) in some parts of Nigeria.
Semi-temperate weather conditions prevail on the highlands in central Nigeria above 1,200 metres (3,937 ft) above sea level, namely the Jos Plateau. Temperatures on the Jos plateau ranges between 16 and 25 °C (61 and 77 °F) which are cool all year round. Temperate weather conditions occur on the highlands along the Nigeria Cameroon border, in the eastern part of Nigeria. Highlands in these region attain an average height of more than 1,524 m (5,000 ft) to some standing above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level. The climate on these highlands is temperate all year round. The major highlands in this region are the Obudu Plateau above 1,584 m (5,197 ft), Mambilla Plateau above 1,524 m (5,000 ft) and Mt. Chappal Waddi above 2,000 m (6,562 ft).
=== Examples ===
== Topography ==
Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the Niger and Benue River valleys, which merge into each other and form a "y" shaped confluence at Lokoja. Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast.
=== Niger Delta ===
The Niger Delta is located in the southern part of Nigeria. It is one of the world's largest arcuate fan-shaped river deltas. The riverine area of the Niger Delta is a coastal belt of swamps bordering the Atlantic. The mangrove swamps are vegetated tidal flats formed by a reticulate pattern of interconnected meandering creeks and tributaries of the Niger River. About 70% of Nigeria's crude oil and gas production is from the area. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,244 km2 (480 sq mi) of tidal flats in Nigeria, making it the 27th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.
== Vegetation ==
Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land (least common and mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border). Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts.
Some of the forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp. North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps, and north of that is rain forest.
The savannah zone's three categories are divided into Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees, the most common across the country; Sudan savannah, with short grasses and short trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast.
=== Plant ecology ===
Nigeria has numerous tree species, of which the majority of them are native while few are exotic. A high percentage of man-made forests in the country is dominated by exotic species. This culminated from the assumption that exotic trees are fast-growing. However, studies have also investigated the growth of indigenous trees in with that of exotic species. Due to overexploitation, the remaining natural ecosystems and primary forests in Nigeria are restricted to the protected areas which include one biosphere reserve, seven national parks, one World Heritage site, 12 Strict Nature Reserves (SNRs), 32 game reserves/wildlife sanctuaries, and hundreds of forest reserves. These are in addition to several ex-situ conservation sites such as arboreta, botanical gardens, zoological gardens, and gene banks managed by several tertiary and research institutions
Many countries in Africa are affected by Invasive Alien Species (IAS). In 2004, the IUCN–World Conservation Union identified 81 IAS in South Africa, 49 in Mauritius, 37 in Algeria and Madagascar, 35 in Kenya, 28 in Egypt, 26 in Ghana and Zimbabwe, and 22 in Ethiopia. However, very little is known about IAS in Nigeria, with most technical reports and literature reporting fewer than 10 invasive plants in the country. Aside from plant invaders, Rattus rattus and Avian influenza virus were also considered IAS in Nigeria. The initial entry of IAS into Nigeria was mainly through exotic plant introductions by the colonial rulers either for forest tree plantations or for ornamental purposes. The entry of exotic plants into Nigeria during the post-independence era was encouraged by increasing economic activity, the commencement of commercial oil explorations, the introduction through ships, and the introduction of ornamental plants by commercial floriculturists.
In the semi-arid and dry sub-humid savannas of West Africa, including Nigeria, numerous species of herbaceous dicots especially from the genera Crotalaria, Alysicarpus, Cassia and Ipomea are known to be widely used in livestock production. Quite often they are plucked or cut and fed either as fresh or conserved fodders. The utilization of these and many other herbs growing naturally within the farm environment is opportunistic.
Many other species native to Nigeria, including soybean and its varieties, serve as an important source of oil and protein in this region. There are also many plants with medicinal purposes that are used to aid the therapy in many organs. Some of these vegetations include Euphorbiaceae, which serve the purpose of aiding malaria, gastrointestinal disorders respectively and many other infections. Different stress factors such as droughts, low soil nutrients and susceptibility to pests have contributed to Maize plantations being an integral part of agriculture in this region.
As industrialization has increased, it has also put species of trees in the forest at risk of air pollution and studies have shown that in certain parts of Nigeria, trees have shown tolerance and grow in areas that have a significant amount of air pollution
== Natural resources and land use ==
Nigeria's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, and arable land.
== Extreme points ==
This is a list of the extreme points of Nigeria, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Niger immediately northwest of the town of Chadawa, Sokoto State.
Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Cameroon immediately east of the village of Munyego, Borno State.
Southernmost point – unnamed headland south of the town of Egeregere, Bayelsa State.
Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Benin Republic immediately east of the Beninoise town of Jabata, Oyo State.
== See also ==
ISO 3166-2:NG
Climate change in Nigeria
Administrative divisions of Nigeria
Heat wave in Nigeria
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_ICC_World_Twenty20_final#:~:text=Match%20officials,-The%20on%2Dfield&text=Jeff%20Crowe%20was%20the%20match%20referee. | 2012 ICC World Twenty20 final | The 2012 ICC World Twenty20 Final was played between Sri Lanka and West Indies at the R. Premadasa Stadium in Colombo on 7 October 2012. This was the 4th ICC World Twenty20. West Indies won the match by 36 runs, its first World Twenty20 victory. This was West Indies's first major trophy since the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy. West Indies became the 4th team to win this title after India, Pakistan and England. This was the first time where a host team (SL) qualified for the final. In the stadium, the match was watched by 38,000 spectators.
== Background ==
Prior to this match Sri Lanka and West Indies played 4 times against each other in Twenty20s, where Sri Lanka won all 4 times. Their most recent meeting was in the same tournament. In that group stage match Sri Lanka won by 9 wickets. Including that they also met each other twice in 2009 ICC World Twenty20, once in group stage and another in semi final. Both match were won by Sri Lanka. they won by 15 runs in the group stage and in the semi-final they eliminated West Indies from the semi-final with a dominating 57 runs win.
== Road to the final ==
=== Sri Lanka ===
Sri Lanka were the favorite from the beginning of the tournament since they were the hosts. They made a flying start against Zimbabwe. They thrashed Zimbabwe and won by 82 runs. But they lost to South Africa by 32 runs (D/L Method) to finish second to South Africa in Group C and qualified for the Super 8 stage. Though the syWorld Twenty20 made them C1 of that group. They had a nice and smooth journey at Super 8 stage. They won comfortably against West Indies and England. But their first match at super 8 against New Zealand was a thriller where the result of the match was decided by super over and Sri Lanka won. They qualified for the semi-final by being the topper of Group 1 with 3 wins in 3 matches. In the semi-final they faced Pakistan. They won by 16 runs to qualify for the final of 2012 ICC World Twenty and their second world twenty20 final.
=== West Indies ===
The Windies arrived as a team that could make a run in the minds of some thanks to such players as famed power hitters and all-rounders Chris Gayle and Kieron Pollard and emerging star off-spinner Sunil Narine, but they did not begin the tournament well and were beaten by Australia in their first match. Their next match was against Ireland and it was washed away by rain. Both of the team received 1 point. But West Indies qualified for the Super 8 from Group B, next to Australia by the virtue of a superior Net run rate. In the super 8 stage they were placed to Group 1 with Sri Lanka, England and New Zealand. They won against England easily and won against New Zealand in super over. But they were thrashed by the hosts Sri Lanka. still with 2 wins in three matches they qualified for the semi-final. A rematch against Australia in the semi-finals, but an unbeaten 75 off 41 from Gayle, including four sixes, helped West Indies post a mammoth total of 205/4. Australia struggled to respond, eventually slumping to 131 all out.
== Team composition ==
Sri Lanka made one change from their winning team of semi final. Akila Dananjaya was in for Rangana Herath, while West Indies team were unchanged.
== Match details ==
=== Match officials ===
The on-field umpires were Aleem Dar of Pakistan and Simon Taufel of Australia, with Rod Tucker being the third (TV) umpire. Ian Gould was the fourth umpire. Jeff Crowe was the match referee. This was the last match of Simon Taufel as an international cricket umpire.
On-field umpires: Aleem Dar (Pak) and Simon Taufel (Aus)
TV umpire: Rod Tucker (Aus)
Reserve umpire: Ian Gould (Eng)
Match referee: Jeff Crowe (NZ)
=== Toss ===
West Indies captain Darren Sammy won the toss and chose to bat first.
=== Summary ===
Batting First, West Indies suffered an early collapse as both their openers Chris Gayle and Johnson Charles, were dismissed for three and 3 to leave the West Indies at 2–14 after 5.5 overs, resulting 14 runs after the end of batting powerplay that included first wicket maiden over bowled by Angelo Mathews. later then Marlon Samuels and Dwayne Bravo stabilized the innings added 59 runs in 8.5 overs. Marlon Samules played a knock of 78 from 55 balls, involving 3 fours and 6 sixes including the longest six of the tournament at 108 meters. Captain Darren Sammy also led a late charge that produced a small, but valuable knock of 26 runs of just 15 balls. West Indies added 108 runs in the last 10 overs resulting to able
to the respectable score of 137 with the loss of 6 wickets and thus able to set Sri Lanka a target of 138.
In reply Sri Lanka also did not get good start their opening batsman Tillakaratne Dilshan was bowled on duck by Ravi Rampaul. Then Kumar Sangakara started to move innings slowly. With the good tight bowling Sri Lankans were restricted to 39/1 after eight overs, With the fall of Wicketkeeper batsman Kumar Sangakara by Samuel Badree on the score of 48 in 10th over Started down Lankans in trouble. Just in span of 21 runs Sri Lankans were reduced to 69/7 in 14.3 overs including the two run outs. Nuwan Kulasekara mustered a brief fightback (26 runs from 16 balls) but holed out to leave the tail end exposed, and Sri Lanka was soon all out on 101 in 18.4 overs resulted in 36 runs short of the target. Captain Mahela Jayawardhane was the top scorer of 33 runs whereas Sunil Narine produced a brilliant figures of 9-3 in 3.4 overs.
Samuels was judged as Man of the Match for being his brilliant allround figures contributed with bat of the top-scoring batsman on either side while also taking 1–15 in his entire quota of four overs of bowling.
The win marked the West Indies' first win in an ICC event since the 2004 Champions Trophy and their third ICC world title – though it was also their first since the 1979 World Cup, when a team including Viv Richards, Michael Holding and Clive Lloyd had won the tournament for the second time in a row.
== Scorecard ==
Source:
1st innings
Fall of wickets: 1/0 (Charles, 0.5 ov), 2/14 (Gayle, 5.5 ov), 3/73 (Bravo, 13.6 ov), 4/87 (Pollard, 15.2 ov), 5/87 (Russell, 15.3 ov), 6/108 (Samuels, 17.1 ov)
2nd innings
Fall of wickets: 1/6 (Dilshan, 1.1 ov), 2/48 (Sangakkara, 9.3 ov), 3/51 (Mathews, 10.4 ov), 4/60 (Jayawardene, 12.1 ov), 5/61 (J Mendis, 12.3 ov), 6/64 (Perera, 13.1 ov), 7/69 (Thirimanne, 14.3 ov), 8/96 (Kulasekara, 16.3 ov), 9/100 (A Mendis, 17.5 ov), 10/101 (Malinga, 18.4 ov)
Key
* – Captain
† – Wicket-keeper
c Fielder – Indicates that the batsman was dismissed by a catch by the named fielder
b Bowler – Indicates which bowler gains credit for the dismissal
== References ==
== External links ==
ICC World Twenty20 2012 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaj_Kishan_Bhan | Maharaj Kishan Bhan | Maharaj Kishan Bhan (9 November 1947 – 26 January 2020) was an Indian pediatrician and clinical scientist. He received M.B.B.S. Degree (1969) from Armed Forces Medical College, Pune and M.D. Degree from Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh. He carried out extensive post doctoral research at All India Institute of Medical Sciences in the areas of diarrheal diseases and child nutrition with an emphasis on public health issues. He served as the president of the Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER).
He was known for developing Rota Viral Vaccine in collaboration with Bharat Biotech International. He was positioned as Secretary, Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, until 2012. Bhan conceived the newly formed BIRAC, which is expected to result in product development by industry in collaboration with academia. This initiative is to boost product development in the country. For this Bhan was actively assisted by Renu Swarup and Ravi Dhar from BIRAC. An elected fellow of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, he was awarded in 1990 the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, the highest science award in India, in the Medical Sciences category. He held honorary Doctor of Science and was responsible for policy formulation and was Member of the Jury for nearly all major national science awards awarded by the Government of India.
== Prizes and honours ==
Genome Valley Excellence Award — BIO ASIA (2013)
Padmabhushan for civil services - 2013.
Biotech Product and Process Development and Commercialization Award - 2003
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology - 1990
National Ranbaxy Award - 1990
S.S. Mishra Award of the National Academy of Medical Sciences - 1986
ST Achar Gold Medal of the Indian Academy of Pediatrics - 1984
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Arundel#History | Codex Arundel | Codex Arundel (British Library Arundel MS 263) is a bound collection of pages of notes written by Leonardo da Vinci and dating mostly from between 1480 and 1518. The codex contains a number of treatises on a variety of subjects, including mechanics and geometry. The name of the codex came from the Earl of Arundel, who acquired it in Spain in the 1630s. It forms part of the British Library Arundel Manuscripts.
== Description ==
The manuscript contains 283 paper leaves of various sizes, most of them around 22 cm × 16 cm. Only a few of the leaves are blank. Two folios, 100 and 101, were incorrectly numbered twice. The codex is a collection of Leonardo's manuscripts originating from every period in his working life, a span of 40 years from 1478 to 1518. It contains short treatises, notes and drawings on a variety of subjects from mechanics to the flight of birds. From Leonardo's text, it appears that he gathered the pages together, with the intention of ordering and possibly publishing them. Leonardo customarily used a single folio sheet of paper for each subject, so that each folio presented as a small cohesive treatise on an aspect of the subject, spread across both back and front of a number of pages. This arrangement has been lost by later book binders who have cut the folios into pages and laid them on top of each other, thereby separating many subjects into several sections and resulting in an arrangement which appears random.
It is similar to the Codex Leicester, which is also a compilation of the notes, diagrams and sketches. The Codex Arundel is recognized as second in importance to the Codex Atlanticus.
== History ==
The manuscript was written in Italy at the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century. Most of the pages can be dated to between 1480 and 1518.
The manuscript was purchased in the early 17th century by Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl of Arundel (1585–1646), art collector and politician. His grandson, Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk (1628–1684), presented it to the newly-founded Royal Society in 1667. The manuscript was first catalogued in 1681 by William Perry, a librarian, as a scientific and mathematical notebook.
It was purchased by the British Museum from the Royal Society along with 549 other Arundel manuscripts (half of Arundel's collection) in 1831. It was catalogued by the British Museum in 1834. It remained in the British Library as MS Arundel 263 when the library separated from the British Museum in 1973.
The most recent facsimile was published in 1998. On 30 January 2007 the manuscript became part of the British Library's project "Turning the Pages", when it was digitised along with Codex Leicester, and became available in the 2.0 format. These two manuscript of Leonardo notebooks were reunited online.
== See also ==
List of works by Leonardo da Vinci
Codex Atlanticus
Codex Leicester
Codex Urbinas
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Leonardo da Vinci, Il Codice Arundel 263 nella British Library, ed. by Carlo Pedretti, 2 vols (Florence: Giunti, 1998) (in Italian)
Nicholl Ch., Leonardo da Vinci, Lot wyobraźni, Warsaw 2006, W.A.B., ISBN 83-7414-220-0 (in Polish)
Philip Howard, The British Library: A Treasure House of Knowledge (London: Scala Publishers, 2008), no. 41.
== External links ==
The Codex Arundel: mapping Leonardo's working life – via Google Arts & Culture
Codex Arundel Archived 2012-10-18 at the Wayback Machine on the British Library's Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts
A full digital version of the Codex Arundel Archived 2019-07-13 at the Wayback Machine on the British Library's Digitised Manuscripts website
Codex Arundel at The Book that closes a century and opens a new millennium
Codex Arundel at the Art and music
Carlo Pedretti, Introduction to Leonardo's Codex Arundel Archived 2019-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
Page from the codex Archived 2012-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
Turning the Pages 2.0 Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Codex Arundel (see index) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison,_Michigan | Addison, Michigan | Addison is a village in Lenawee County, Michigan, United States. As of the 2020 census, its population was 573. It is located on the boundary between Rollin Township on the south and Woodstock Township on the north.
== History ==
In 1834, three years before Michigan became a state, John Talbot settled along a winding creek in a vast forest, dotted with clear blue lakes and occupied by the Potawatomi. With the raising of a simple grist mill along Bean Creek around December 1835, Addison's history was started, operating under the settlement name “Manetue.”
Having failed to secure a spot along the river that provided enough water power to run his mill, Talbot dismantled the settlement and moved to the present location of Addison, and by the fall of 1836, milling operations restarted. The town was renamed “Peru” by 1838, and over the next generation would be given several other monikers before the final name of Addison was entered onto plat maps in 1851. Addison J. Comstock, a banker from Adrian, Michigan, purchased a sizable plat of the pioneer town and changed the identity to reflect this acquisition. The village itself was incorporated as such in 1893.
The village grew sufficiently to attract the railroad in 1883, an event which contributed to a sudden expansion of the local economy. Businesses came to Addison in great numbers including a three-story hotel, designed to cater to the visiting tourist. The Addison Courier newspaper started its 76-year run in 1884, and the economic upturn brought on by the railroad continued well after the line ceased to operate through Addison.
One of Addison's last landmarks, the old grist mill built in 1848, was removed in 1980. Despite the economic downturn of the village in the last half of the 20th century, a large 3-day sesquicentennial celebration was held in 1984. Additionally, a 175th Anniversary celebration spanning only one day was held in the village on August 8, 2009.
In the later 2010s, the medical cannabis industry identified Addison as a community open to economic expansion with provisioning and grow centers. As of 2022, Addison has two open facilities and two additional operations under construction.
Two history books have been written on the village in recent years, "The History of Addison, Michigan" in 1996 and "Memories of Addison" in 2013, both by village historian Dan Cherry. Among the early village historians were A.J. Kempton, Richard DeGreene, J. DeWitt McLouth and Alice Slocum.
Addison got its own radio station in August 2014 with the sign-on of WQAR-LP "Q95 the Panther" at 95.7 FM. The station is owned by Addison Community Schools and programmed by students with classic rock music.
Addison Community Schools is a K-12 central campus with 797 students, first organized in 1887. The school's athletic program adopted red and black as its colors, and originally carried the nickname "Addison Millers." This was changed in 1945 to "Addison Panthers." The current superintendent is Scott Salow. The school mascot is a black panther.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.00 square mile (2.59 km2), of which 0.96 square miles (2.49 km2) is land and 0.04 square miles (0.10 km2) is water.
== Demographics ==
=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 605 people, 245 households, and 156 families residing in the village. The population density was 630.2 inhabitants per square mile (243.3/km2). There were 274 housing units at an average density of 285.4 per square mile (110.2/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 97.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0% of the population.
There were 245 households, of which 35.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.3% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.06.
The median age in the village was 35.1 years. 26.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 10% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.3% were from 25 to 44; 26.1% were from 45 to 64; and 10.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46.8% male and 53.2% female.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 627 people, 247 households, and 164 families residing in the village. The population density was 642.6 inhabitants per square mile (248.1/km2). There were 265 housing units at an average density of 271.6 per square mile (104.9/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.41% White, 0.16% Native American, 0.96% Asian, 0.16% from other races, and 0.32% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.07% of the population.
There were 247 households, out of which 35.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.2% were married couples living together, 13.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.2% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.17.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $35,781, and the median income for a family was $45,313. Males had a median income of $31,875 versus $23,000 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,883. About 6.0% of families and 8.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.2% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over.
== Transportation ==
US 127 (Steer Street) intersects Main Street.
== Notable people ==
Maxine Kline, professional baseball player of 1940s, was raised in Addison.
Joseph H. Steere, Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court, was born in Addison.
Nick Smith, retired politician, born in Addison and 1953 Addison High School graduate. Served politically at the local, state and National level.
John Randolph Bray, early animator, lived in Addison as a child. His father was a traveling minister who served the Methodist-Episcopal Church in Addison for a time.
== References ==
== External links ==
Addison Community Schools web site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopula_modicaria | Scopula modicaria | Scopula modicaria is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was described by John Henry Leech in 1897. It is found in China, the Russian Far East, Korea and Japan.
The wingspan is 19–30 millimetres (0.75–1.18 in).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Premier_League#League_table | 2021–22 Premier League | The 2021–22 Premier League was the 30th season of the Premier League, the top English professional league for association football clubs since its establishment in 1992, and the 123rd season of top-flight English football overall. The start and end dates for the season were released on 25 March 2021, and the fixtures were released on 16 June 2021.
Manchester City successfully defended their title, winning for the second consecutive year, securing a sixth Premier League title and eighth English league title overall on the last day of the campaign; it was also the club's fourth title in the last five seasons.
== Summary ==
Manchester City were the defending champions, having won their fifth Premier League title during the previous season.
This season saw the return of full attendance, after the final third of the 2019–20 and the entirety of the 2020–21 seasons were held with limited or no attendance due to the restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This season was the second season to feature a winter break, with no Premier League matches scheduled between 23 January and 7 February 2022.
=== The race for first place ===
The early title race was dominated by Liverpool, Manchester City and Chelsea, who were separated by two points by early December. By December, Chelsea led the way following a run of just one defeat in 14 matches until a shock defeat to West Ham United gave City the edge. A run of 12 consecutive victories, concluding in a victory over Chelsea that essentially ended their title hopes, gave Manchester City a 13-point lead by January (though Liverpool had two games in hand due to COVID-19 postponements). Liverpool then went on a 10-game winning run, including both their games in hand, helped by a costly 2–3 home loss for City to Tottenham Hotspur in February, to cut City's lead to a single point ahead of their meeting at the Etihad on 10 April. A 2–2 draw retained City's narrow lead going into the final weeks of the season.
=== Newcastle takeover ===
On 7 October, Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund purchased an 80% stake and completed the £300m takeover of Newcastle United, ending the 14-year ownership of Mike Ashley. On 12 October 2021, an emergency meeting was convened by the other 19 Premier League clubs between themselves and the Premier League, where they voiced their anger at the league's decision to ratify the takeover; Newcastle United were the only Premier League club to be excluded from attending the meeting. On 18 November 2021, Premier League clubs voted to tighten the Premier League's financial controls in order to limit Newcastle United's spending power.
At the time of the takeover, Newcastle were in 19th position having failed to win any of their first seven games. The new ownership announced the departure of Steve Bruce and hired Eddie Howe; while Newcastle did not win a game until the 15th attempt, their form improved dramatically after five signings in the January transfer window. A run of 12 wins in their final 18 games secured an 11th place finish.
=== COVID-19 outbreaks force postponements ===
In December 2021, multiple matches were postponed due to the COVID-19 outbreaks in multiple clubs, with many clubs calling for the league to shut down until 2022. Following a meeting on 20 December involving all 20 Premier League clubs, a decision was made to fulfil the fixtures over the Christmas period "where it is safe to do so". Clubs were advised that if they had 13 fit players, plus a goalkeeper, then they should fulfil their fixtures.
=== Abramovich sanctions ===
On 2 March, Roman Abramovich announced that he planned to sell Chelsea, stating his intent to donate all proceeds of the sale to the victims of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In the following days, numerous reports about interested buyers surfaced including Swiss billionaire Hansjörg Wyss, Los Angeles Dodgers and Lakers shareholder Todd Boehly, Pakistani businessman Javed Afridi, and other unnamed parties.
On 10 March, the British government froze all of Roman Abramovich's assets due to his close personal ties with Vladimir Putin, leaving Chelsea unable to sell tickets or merchandise, buy or sell players, and negotiate contracts. The UK government issued Chelsea a licence that allowed the club to continue footballing activities, ensured that employees continued to be paid, and allowed season-ticket holders to continue to attend games.
=== Final day climax ===
Going into the last day of the season, the title race, Champions League, Europa League, Conference League qualifications, and the relegation battle were all decided on the final day for the first time in Premier League history.
==== Title ====
With a one point advantage over Liverpool, Manchester City needed to match or better Liverpool's result to clinch back-to-back titles. Liverpool needed to win and hope that Manchester City dropped points to Aston Villa, managed by former Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard.
Liverpool went behind to Wolves in the 3rd minute, but quickly equalised. Aston Villa took a shock 2–0 lead after 63 minutes thanks to goals from Matty Cash and Philippe Coutinho. Manchester City then scored three goals (from substitute Ilkay Gundogan and Rodri) in under six minutes to take the lead in the match. Two late goals from Liverpool's Mohamed Salah and Andy Robertson meant they won their game 3–1, but their result was irrelevant as City's 3–2 comeback win over Villa confirmed City as champions for the fourth time in five seasons.
This season is mainly remembered for the great quality of play expressed by Manchester City and Liverpool, which gave rise to a fantastic title fight (as was the case in the 2018–2019 season that also ended with the Citizens' victory) but it is also true that VAR in its third season in England caused various problems, often due to a "high bar" that forced and twisted the protocol and made VAR intervene on very few occasions, the goal was to intervene in a targeted manner as UEFA did at EURO 2020, but despite the good will, some mistakes were made, among the most glaring being the failure to award a penalty in Everton-Manchester City in favour of the home team due to a handball of Rodri, an episode that affected the title race.
==== Relegation ====
Norwich City, who were promoted from the Championship last season, suffered relegation with four games to spare following a 10th loss in 12 matches, against Aston Villa. Norwich also recorded the worst goal difference since Derby County in 2007–08. The next weekend Watford, who were also promoted, were the second to go down after defeat to Crystal Palace.
The final relegation spot was contested by Everton, Burnley and Leeds United, all of whom spent time in the bottom three in the final months of the season. Everton endured a run of just three wins between October and April, but victories against Manchester United, Chelsea and Leicester City meant that victory over Crystal Palace in their final home game of the season would secure safety. Although they went 2–0 down at half time, Dominic Calvert-Lewin's goal in the 85th minute to put Everton 3–2 ahead had fans invading the pitch. Fans stormed the pitch again at full time, after avoiding what would have been the club's first relegation since 1951 and prolonging their top-flight status for a 69th year running.
Burnley and Leeds went into the final day level on 35 points, with Burnley having the edge over Leeds due to a superior goal difference. Burnley fell behind 2–0 to Newcastle, while a Raphinha penalty put Leeds ahead against Brentford in the 54th minute. A 78th minute equaliser from Brentford and a Maxwel Cornet goal gave Burnley hope of survival, but an added time winner from Jack Harrison confirmed safety for Leeds and relegated Burnley after six consecutive seasons in the Premier League.
==== Champions League, Europa League and Conference League spots ====
With Chelsea securing a top-four finish for a fourth straight season, only Tottenham and Arsenal were in the hunt for the final Champions League spot. Arsenal were in 4th with three games remaining, but Arsenal's defeats against Tottenham in the North London derby and Newcastle in their final away game combined with Tottenham victory against Burnley in their final home game saw Tottenham leapfrog them with one game remaining. Spurs just needed a point against already relegated Norwich on the final day to secure Champions League qualification for the first time in three years, and won 5–0 with two goals from Son Heung-min, who secured a joint Golden Boot with Mohamed Salah. Arsenal failed to qualify for the Champions League for a sixth season, despite beating Everton 5–1.
Manchester United suffered another difficult season, culminating in the sacking of Ole Gunnar Solskjær on 21 November 2021, which followed a humiliating 4–1 defeat to Watford. Ralf Rangnick would be appointed as interim manager for the rest of the season. The club ultimately finished the season in 6th, with a goal difference of zero and their worst points tally in the Premier League era, at just 58, as well as losing on the final day. United still managed to qualify for the Europa League, as West Ham's 3–1 defeat at Brighton prevented them from qualifying for back-to-back Europa League spots; they instead had to settle for a spot in the Europa Conference League.
=== Other teams ===
Brentford manager Thomas Frank had a promising first season in the Premier League. Thanks to January signing Christian Eriksen, the team won seven out of their last 11 games of the season, which included a 4–1 victory against Chelsea. The Dane guided the Bees to a 13th place finish, 11 points above the relegation zone and not spending a single week in the relegation zone.
Brighton had their best season in the top-flight with Graham Potter's side finishing ninth with a total of 51 points, despite their poor home record. Their 4–0 win against Manchester United was another new high for them, as it was also their biggest top-flight win.
== Teams ==
Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the Championship. The promoted teams were Norwich City, Watford (who both returned to the top flight after a year's absence) and Brentford (who returned to the top flight after a seventy-four year absence). This was also Brentford's first season in the Premier League. They replaced Fulham, West Bromwich Albion (both teams relegated to the Championship after just one year in the top flight) and Sheffield United (relegated after a two-year top flight spell).
=== Stadiums and locations ===
Note: Table lists in alphabetical order. Source:
=== Personnel and kits ===
a.^ Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang was club captain at Arsenal until 14 December 2021, when he was stripped of the captaincy following a disciplinary breach; he was later let go by the club on 1 February. Alexandre Lacazette served as the de facto captain until early February, when he was officially named to the role.
b.^ Troy Deeney was club captain at Watford at the start of the season, but left the club on 30 August. Moussa Sissoko was named the captain following Deeney's departure.
c. ^ Three and Hyundai suspended their sponsorships of Chelsea in response to sanctions imposed on the club and Roman Abramovich following the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The former does however remain on the club's shirt and will at least until a new kit is released the following season. Should the sponsorship be put back on hold, Three will remain Chelsea's shirt sponsor.
=== Managerial changes ===
== League table ==
== Results ==
== Season statistics ==
=== Top scorers ===
==== Hat-tricks ====
Notes
4 Player scored 4 goals(H) – Home team(A) – Away team
=== Clean sheets ===
=== Discipline ===
==== Player ====
Most yellow cards: 11
Junior Firpo (Leeds United)
Tyrone Mings (Aston Villa)
James Tarkowski (Burnley)
Most red cards: 2
Raúl Jiménez (Wolverhampton Wanderers)
Ezri Konsa (Aston Villa)
==== Club ====
Most yellow cards: 101
Leeds United
Most red cards: 6
Everton
== Awards ==
=== Monthly awards ===
=== Annual awards ===
== Attendances ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea | Mediterranean Sea | The Mediterranean Sea ( MED-ih-tə-RAY-nee-ən) is an intercontinental sea situated between Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Europe, and on the south by North Africa. To its west it is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Gibraltar that separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa by only 14 km (9 mi); additionally, it is connected to the Black Sea through the Bosporus strait that intersects Turkey in the northeast and the Red Sea via the Suez Canal in the southeast.
The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi), representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface; it includes fifteen marginal seas, including the Aegean, Adriatic, Tyrrhenian, and Marmara. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.
The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies; it is sometimes described as an "incubator of Western civilization". and saw the emergence of some of the earliest and most advanced civilisations, including those of Egypt, Greece, and the Fertile Crescent. The Levant in the Eastern Mediterranean was among the first regions in the world to display permanent human habitation as early as 12,000 BC. The Mediterranean Sea was an important route for merchants, travellers, and migrants in antiquity, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between various peoples as well as colonisation and conquest. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast.
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,109 ± 1 m (16,762 ± 3 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes, the shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation.
The countries surrounding the Mediterranean and its marginal seas in clockwise order are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine (Gaza Strip), Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco; Cyprus and Malta are island countries in the sea. In addition, Northern Cyprus (de facto state) and two overseas territories of the United Kingdom (Akrotiri and Dhekelia, and Gibraltar) also have coastlines along the Mediterranean Sea. The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands, some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia.
== Names and etymology ==
Romans called the Mediterranean Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare Internum ("Internal Sea") and, starting with the Roman Empire, Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville. It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin, a compound of medius ('middle'), terra ('land, earth'), and -āneus ('having the nature of'). The Latin word is a calque of Greek μεσόγειος (mesógeios; 'inland'), from μέσος (mésos, 'in the middle') and γήινος (gḗinos, 'of the earth'), from γῆ (gê, 'land, earth'). The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'.
In Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ (البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط) 'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm(ī) (بحر الروم or بحر الرومي) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'. At first, that name referred to only the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was later extended to the whole Mediterranean. Other Arabic names were Baḥr al-šām(ī) (بحر الشام) ("the Sea of Syria") and Baḥr al-Maghrib (بحرالمغرب) ("the Sea of the West").
The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur. This term (lit. 'great green') was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to the semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile Delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond.
The Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syriac texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", הים הגדול, HaYam HaGadol, (Numbers; Book of Joshua; Ezekiel) or simply as "The Sea" (1 Kings). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of the region of Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing the east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines", (Book of Exodus). In Modern Hebrew, it is called הים התיכון HaYam HaTikhon, 'the Middle Sea'.
The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (hē thálassa; 'the Sea') or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα (hē megálē thálassa; 'the Great Sea'), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα (hē hēmetérā thálassa; 'Our Sea'), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡμᾶς (hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs; 'the sea around us'). According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity, cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g., the Red Sea), and white to west. This would explain the Greek Áspri Thálassa, the Bulgarian Byalo More, the Turkish Akdeniz, and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea".
The Old English name for the Mediterranean was the Wendel-sæ, or "Vandal Sea", after the Vandals who had occupied the shores of North Africa in the Migration Period.
One name for the Mediterranean in Old (West) Norse appears to have been Jórsalahaf, the "Sea of Jerusalem". The "Hreiðsea", Hreiðmarar, mentioned on the Rök runestone might also refer to the Mediterranean.
Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", in Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Rōm (دریای روم) which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬). In Classic Persian texts it was called Daryāy-e Šām دریای شام) "The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea".
In Turkish, it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ﺁق دكز, which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea. The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with the Black Sea. In Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd, which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish. It is probably the origin of the colloquial Greek phrase Άσπρη Θάλασσα, Áspri Thálassa, 'White Sea'.
== History ==
=== Ancient civilisations ===
Major ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages. The earliest advanced civilisations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans, who traded extensively with each other. Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse, which resulted in the destruction of many cities and trade routes.
Two other notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity are the Greek city-states and Phoenicians, both of whom extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean.
Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse.
Following the Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Western Mediterranean region. When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the Levant, giving the lake the nickname "Roman Lake".
=== Middle Ages and empires ===
The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. The east was again dominant as Roman power still existed on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire. During that time, another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads, controlled the Iberian Peninsula, making a new phase of art and culture in the region.
A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to the western Mediterranean's Spain and Sicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots, saffron and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—aceite and aceituna, respectively—are derived from the Arabic al-zait, meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical Greco-Roman times.
The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world. Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice.
The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo. Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.
The Crusades led to the flourishing of trade between Europe and the outremer region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, when there was gradual centralisation of state power in the Renaissance of the 12th century.
Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Hayreddin Barbarossa, the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538), opening up Tripoli and the eastern Mediterranean to Ottoman rule. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) damaging the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.
The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.
The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Especially after the naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II.
With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally. The fastest route now led through the Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards the southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade.
=== 21st century and migrations ===
In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die".
Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.
Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis. Between 2013 and 2018, over 700,000 migrants landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans.
== Geography ==
The Mediterranean Sea connects:
to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west. This also separates Europe from Africa
to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. This separated Europe from Asia
The coastline length is about 46,000 km (29,000 mi).
The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same. This separated Africa and Asia.
=== Marginal seas ===
The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas:
Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin. It does not recognise the label Sea of Sardinia.
Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea.
Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it.
=== Extent ===
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins:
Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa)
On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina, a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily
On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia)
Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin
On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles
On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal
On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Palestine (through the Gaza Strip)
=== Hydrography ===
The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region. Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000 and 5,500,000 km2 (1,500,000 and 2,100,000 sq mi), depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not. The longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea is the Nile, which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains. Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif, both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains. In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan, both on the south side of the Taurus Mountains. In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône, Ebro, Po, and Maritsa. The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains, encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps. The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkan Mountains, which are the major ranges bordering Southern Europe.
Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin. These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s). Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and the Italian Lakes (Po). While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere.
The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while not having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:
In Europe, through various rivers: Andorra, Bulgaria, Kosovo, North Macedonia, San Marino, Serbia, and Switzerland.
In Africa, through the Nile: Congo, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.
=== Coastal countries ===
The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:
European: Spain, France, Italy, Malta, Monaco, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece
Middle Eastern: Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and the island of Cyprus
North African: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt
=== Exclusive economic zone ===
Exclusive economic zones in Mediterranean Sea:
=== Subdivisions ===
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):
the Strait of Gibraltar
the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco
the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands
the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy)
the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Corsica, Italian peninsula and Sicily
the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece
the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania
the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey
=== Largest islands ===
The Mediterranean Sea encompasses about 10,000 islands and islets, of which about 250 are permanently inhabited. In the table below are listed the ten largest by population.
=== Climate ===
Much of the Mediterranean coast has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. The Mediterranean basin has a climate characterised by mild wet winters, and calm, dry and hot summers. Although they are rare, tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea, typically in September–November.
==== Sea temperature ====
== Seabed ==
The Mediterranean Sea has numerous underwater geological features formed by the subduction of the African Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate. The sea is divided naturally into western and eastern regions by the Malta Escarpment that runs from the island of Sicily to the African coast.
The western Mediterranean region may be separated into three main underwater basins:
the Alboran Basin lies between the Moroccan and Spanish coasts, east of Gibraltar, west of Sardinia and Corsica, which acts as a gateway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and is a biodiversity hotspot.
the Algerian Basin stretches from the Algerian coast to the French coast, and includes depths of up to 2,800 metres (9,200 ft). There has been significant hydrocarbon exploration, particularly off the coasts of Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia; The Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia is a field of submarine volcanoes located about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Sicily very close to sea level and which temporarily emerge above sea level during significant eruptions. These include Ferdinandea, also known as Graham Island, and Empedocles;
the Tyrrhenian Basin, also referred to as the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Italy and the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. The basin includes Marsili, a large undersea volcano in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about 175 kilometres (109 mi) south of Naples, and the Palinuro Seamount, one of the largest in the Tyrrhenian Sea and lies about 30 kilometres (19 mi) northeast from Marsili. Marsili is one of the largest volcanoes in Europe, with a length of 70 kilometres (43 mi) and a width of 30 kilometres, larger than Mount Etna and part of the Aeolian Islands volcanic arc.
The eastern Mediterranean region may also be subdivided into the following underwater basins:
the Ionian Basin, which is a deep and narrow oceanic basin, stretches south of Italy, Albania, and Greece and contains the Calypso Deep, also known as the Oinousses or Vavilov Deep, featuring the deepest point in the Mediterranean Sea, located in the Hellenic Trench, 62.6 kilometres (38.9 mi) southwest of Pylos, Greece, with a maximum depth of approximately 4,900 metres (16,000 ft);
the Levantine Basin to the south of Anatolia separated from the Ionian Basin by the Mediterranean Ridge. The 1,300-kilometre (810 mi)-long submarine ridge running from Calabria along the south of Crete, to the southwest corner of Turkey is a 150-to-300-kilometre (93 to 186 mi)-wide curved feature, which is also known for its mud volcanoes and dome-like structures and has been the subject of studies on the Messinian salinity crisis. The Eratosthenes Seamount, a carbonate seamount is found in the Levantine basin about 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of western Cyprus.
the island of Crete delineates the Levantine Basin from the Aegean Sea, which is that portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Crete and is bordered on the east by the coast of Turkey and on the west and north by the coast of Greece. Numerous Greek islands and seamounts are located in the Aegean Sea; and
the Adriatic Sea, which is northwest of the eastern Mediterranean Sea's main body, is bordered to the east by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania, and to the west and north by Italy.
Until the 1960s, the Mediterranean was believed to be the primary remaining portion of the earlier (200 million years old) Mesozoic Tethys Ocean, which once encircled the Eastern Hemisphere. However, since the late 20th century, research using the theory of seafloor spreading has indicated that most of the current Mediterranean seafloor is not a portion of the Tethys sea floor. Some researchers consider the Ionian Basin, to the east of the Malta Escarpment, to be the remnant of the Tethys Ocean. Over the course of the last 44 million years, the continental plates of Africa and Eurasia have converged and receded, resulting in the current tectonically active basin and its surrounding mountain chains. According to the interpretation of geologic data, there are currently several major places where Africa and Eurasia collide, causing land submergence, mountain building, and volcanism.
Sediment cores drilled in 1970 and 1975 led to theories that about 6 million years ago, the Mediterranean was around 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) below the current sea level and included arid deserts blanketed with evaporite salts. It was thought that Gibraltar's high ridges prevented Atlantic waters from entering until roughly 5.5 million years ago, when they broke through and flooded the Mediterranean. According to more recent seismic and microfossil research, the seafloor was never entirely dry. Rather, approximately 5 million years ago, the seafloor was made up of many basins with varying topography and sizes, spanning in depth from 200 to 1,520 metres (650 to 5,000 ft). Salts were likely accumulated on the bottom of highly salinised waters of widely differing depths. The uncertainty of the timing and nature of sea-bottom salt formation and evidence from later seismic research and core samples has been the subject of intense scientific debate.
=== Malta Escarpment ===
The Malta Escarpment is a 250-kilometre (160 mi) undersea limestone escarpment that stretches south from Sicily's eastern coast to the Maltese islands' eastern coast and beyond, primarily formed due to tectonic activities. There are more than 500 undersea canyons along the cliffs, which can reach heights of 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) in some locations. Rich biological communities may be found in the canyons, which also serve as channels for contaminants and nutrients due to underwater currents. These deep valleys are special due to the fact that they were not carved out by surface rivers. Underwater landslides are among the natural hazards found on the Malta Escarpment. The University of Malta, UK National Oceanography Centre, New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, University College Dublin and Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica collaborated on a recent study financed by the European Union that focused on the Escarpment.
== Oceanography ==
Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. The average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m (16 ft) depth.
The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F).
The net water influx from the Atlantic Ocean is ca. 70,000 m3/s (2.5 million cu ft/s) or 2.2×1012 m3/a (7.8×1013 cu ft/a). Without this Atlantic water, the sea level of the Mediterranean Sea would fall at a rate of about 1 m (3 ft) per year.
In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea, the European Mediterranean Sea or the African Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere, like the Baltic Sea, and the North-east Atlantic Ocean.
=== General circulation ===
Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be attributed to the surface waters entering from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar (and also low salinity water entering the Mediterranean from the Black Sea through the Bosphorus). The cool and relatively low-salinity Atlantic water circulates eastwards along the North African coasts. A part of the surface water does not pass the Strait of Sicily, but deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean. The surface waters entering the eastern Mediterranean Basin circulate along the Libyan and Israeli coasts. Upon reaching the Levantine Sea, the surface water, having warmed and increased its salinity from its initial Atlantic state, is now denser and sinks to form the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW). Most of the water found anywhere between 50 and 600 m (160 and 2,000 ft) deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW.
LIW are formed along the coasts of Turkey and circulate westwards along the Greek and south Italian coasts. LIW are the only waters passing the Sicily Strait westwards. After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters circulate along the Italian, French and Spanish coasts before exiting the Mediterranean through the depths of the Strait of Gibraltar. Deep water in the Mediterranean originates from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from which most of the deep water in the eastern Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of Lion. Deep water formation in the Mediterranean is triggered by strong winter convection fuelled by intense cold winds like the Bora. When new deep water is formed, the older waters mix with the overlaying intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean. The residence time of water in the Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean especially sensitive to climate change.
=== Other events affecting water circulation ===
Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can affect the water circulation on short time scales. In the mid-1990s, the Aegean Sea became the main area for deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold winter conditions. This transitory switch in the origin of deep waters in the eastern Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) and had major consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean.
Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the northern part of the Ionian Sea, off the Greek coast. The transition from anticyclonic to cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the origin of the waters fuelling it; when the circulation is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre originate from the Adriatic Sea. When the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine Sea. These waters have different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre (called Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean circulation and biogeochemistry around the Adriatic and Levantine regions.
=== Climate change ===
Because of the short residence time of its waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot-spot for climate change records, registering indeed marked increases in temperature across the entire water column since the 1950s. According to climate projections, the decrease in precipitation over the region will lead to more evaporation, ultimately increasing marine salinity. As a result of both temperature and salinity increases, the Mediterranean Sea is likely to become more stratified by the end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation and biogeochemistry. The stratification and warming have already led the eastern Mediterranean to become a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere.
Human-induced climate change appears to play a growing role in the development of marine heatwaves that have become a prominent subject of research in recent years, particularly in the Mediterranean where a number of areas in both western and eastern sub-basins now experience peaks of temperatures, along with more frequent, more intense, more prolonged warming events than ever seen on record. These events, mainly driven by a combination of oceanic and atmospheric factors, are often triggered by high pressure systems that will reduce cloud cover and increase solar absorption by the sea surface. Their impacts on marine ecosystems, such as mass mortality in benthic communities, coral bleaching events, disruptions in fishery catches and shifts in species distributions, can be devastating. Extreme warming can lead to biodiversity loss and presents an existential threat to some habitats while making conditions more hospitable to invasive tropical species.
== Biogeochemistry ==
In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea are very low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the world. The Mediterranean Sea is commonly referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) area. The Mediterranean Sea fits the definition of a desert in which its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult for plants and animals to develop.
There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity in the Mediterranean. Nutrient concentrations in the western part of the basin are about double the concentrations in the eastern basin. The Alboran Sea, close to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary productivity of about 0.25 g C (grams of carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average daily productivity of 0.16 g C m−2 day−1. For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is termed "ultraoligotrophic". The productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small. High (i.e. more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll a per cubic metre) productivity occurs in coastal areas, close to the river mouths which are the primary suppliers of dissolved nutrients. The Gulf of Lion has a relatively high productivity because it is an area of high vertical mixing, bringing nutrients to the surface waters that can be used by phytoplankton to produce Chlorophyll a.
Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability. In winter, the strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing, bringing nutrients from the deep waters to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it into biomass. However, in winter, light may be the limiting factor for primary productivity. Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off between light intensity and nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur. In summer, high atmospheric temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters. The resulting density difference virtually isolates the surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient exchanges are limited. As a consequence, primary productivity is very low between June and October.
Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea biogeochemistry: most of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in sub-surface waters between 80 and 200 metres deep. Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (N:P). Redfield demonstrated that most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio around 16. However, the Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a widespread phosphorus limitation.
Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are dominated by small organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria.
== Geology ==
The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African Plate and Eurasian Plate during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.
Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850,000 km2 (330,000 sq mi); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640,000 sq mi). Coastal areas have submarine karst springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the water from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.
=== Messinian salinity crisis ===
During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins created two roughly parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they gradually closed during the middle and late Miocene: perhaps several times. In the late Miocene the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), characterised by the deposition of a thick evaporitic sequence – with salt deposits up to 2 km thick in the Levantine sea – and by a massive drop in water level in much of the Basin. This event was for long the subject of acute scientific controversy, now much appeased, regarding its sequence, geographic range, processes leading to evaporite facies and salt deposits. The start of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.
After the initial drawdown and re-flooding, there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.
=== Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna ===
The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The Betic closed about 6 mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the Rifian or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which allowed migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species.
Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project) across the Straits, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was also intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).
== Paleoclimate ==
Because of its latitude and its landlocked position, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is subject to the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.
== Biodiversity ==
Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is stable due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which is favourable to life, even the smallest macroscopic type of volcanic life form. The stable marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors. It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the Mediterranean Sea with generally higher marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental shelves, and decreases with depth.
As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean is derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded later.
The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece.
There was a resident population of orcas in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when they went extinct, probably due to long-term PCB exposure. There are still annual sightings of orca vagrants.
== Environmental issues ==
For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations, dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.
The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises such as the latifundia took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. The major deforestation might have taken place in modern times—the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages", and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of human activity.
Even Grove considered that human activity could be the cause of climate change. Modern science has been able to provide clear evidence of this. The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behaviour, as it is and has been closely related to human usage patterns. The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, in line with the "1950s syndrome" as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns and instead became scenery-setting agents for tourism. This resulted in more uniform, large-scale formations. Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.
=== Natural hazards ===
The Mediterranean region is one of the most geologically active maritime area of the globe, sitting on a complex tectonic boundary zone between the European and African plates. The geology of the region, with the presence of plate boundaries and active faults, makes it prone to quite frequent earthquakes, tsunamis and submarine landslides with can have devastating consequences in densely populated coastal areas. In addition climate change now intensifies the frequency and impacts of storm surges and coastal flooding, putting additional human lives and property at risk.
Earthquakes are relatively frequent in the Mediterranean Basin, starting in the Mediterranean 70 million years ago. They are still ongoing. From the boundary of tectonic plates, the Mediterranean territory is called two distinct parts: the Eastern Mediterranean (from Italy to Turkey), which is characterised by intense seismicity with earthquakes whose magnitude can rise to 7.5 Richter with more than 350 recorded tsunamis, and the Western Mediterranean. During the 20th century, 198,548 earthquake victims were recorded.
Volcanic eruptions are not uncommon either and left their mark in historical and archaeological records. The largest include the Thera eruption, dated around 1600 BC, and the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius in 217 BC and AD 79 - the latter famously known for the destruction and the burying of the ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. In the same region the Phlegraean Fields west of Naples constitute one of the most significant volcanic systems in the world, still very active. In the same general area, volcanoes like Mt. Etna and Stromboli are considered in a state of permanent activity, with frequent eruptions and lava emissions through the past 1500 years.
Tsunamis, usually triggered by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and submarine landslides, have caused a number of documented disasters in the Mediterranean Basin in the past 2500 years. Historical examples include the 365 and 1303 tsunamis in the Hellenic Arc, more recently the disastrous 1908 event that destroyed the cities of Messina and Reggio Calabria, and the large tsunami that occurred off the Algerian margin in 2003.
On the diplomatic front, the experience of coastal countries and regional authorities is leading to exchange at the international level with the cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipal authorities. The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations between traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmit and Athens in 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe. The largest amount of funding requests in the EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes. Forest fires, whether human-made or natural, are a frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Tsunamis are also an often-underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and were among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe.
=== Invasive species ===
Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering a number of local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of marine species shows that over 70% of exotic decapods and some 2/3 of exotic fishes found in the Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin, introduced from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal the first pathway of arrival of alien species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to be considerable, mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a familiar sight.
According to definitions by the Mediterranean Science Commission and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and are found outside their normal, non-adjacent area of distribution. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (human-made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the Canal raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and lead to even more species passing through the Canal.
==== Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species ====
In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become noticeable. In many cases this reflects an expansion – favoured by a warming trend of sub-tropical Atlantic waters, and also by a fast-growing maritime traffic – of the natural range of species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar. While not as intense as Lessepsian migration, the process is of importance and is therefore receiving increased levels of scientific coverage.
=== Sea-level rise ===
By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 and 61 cm (1.2 and 24.0 in) as a result of the effects of climate change. This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:
Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.
A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.
Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea levels.
Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east–west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 and 100 cm (12 and 39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C (0.09–0.18 °F) in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.
=== Pollution ===
Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'
Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.
The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2 (5,010/sq mi).
=== Shipping ===
Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. An important destination is the Port of Trieste, the starting point of the Transalpine Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's oil demand (100% of the federal states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and 50% of the Czech Republic. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.
=== Tourism ===
The coast of the Mediterranean has been used for tourism since ancient times, as the Roman villa buildings on the Amalfi Coast or in Barcola show. From the end of the 19th century, in particular, the beaches became places of longing for many Europeans and travellers. From then on, and especially after World War II, mass tourism to the Mediterranean began with all its advantages and disadvantages. While initially, the journey was by train and later by bus or car, today the plane is increasingly used.
Tourism is today one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries, despite the human-made geopolitical conflicts in the region. The countries have tried to extinguish rising human-made chaotic zones that might affect the region's economies and societies in neighbouring coastal countries, and shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the rapid cooperation between various naval fleets. Unlike the vast open oceans, the sea's closed position facilitates effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any human-made or natural disaster.
Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities, including islands, independent of urban centres. However, tourism has also played a major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region, but this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats by erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.
Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce the incentive for tourists to visit.
=== Overfishing ===
Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits. Some of the most important fisheries are threatened. There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas, larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.
=== Marine heatwaves ===
A study showed that climate change-related exceptional marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea during 2015–2019 resulted in widespread mass sealife die-offs in five consecutive years.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Dickson, Henry Newton (1911). "Mediterranean Sea" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 67–69.
Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Eastern Mediterranean Sea Long Term Ecological Research Station Archived 5 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine
The Mediterranean : Seaports and sea routes including Madeira, the Canary Islands, the coast of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; handbook for travellers. Written and published in Leipzig by Karl Baedeker in 1911. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Fajardo | Sergio Fajardo | Sergio Fajardo Valderrama (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈseɾxjo faˈxaɾðo βaldeˈrama]; born 19 June 1956) is a Colombian politician and mathematician. He first entered politics in 2003 when he was elected Mayor of Medellín, the second largest city in Colombia and the capital of Antioquia. He was the mayor of Medellín from 2003 to 2007 and was recognized for transforming the city from a violent and impoverished place to a model of social and urban development. Fajardo was the vice presidential nominee of Antanas Mockus in 2010, finishing in second place after losing the runoff against Juan Manuel Santos and Angelino Garzon. Fajardo served as the governor of Antioquia from 2012 to 2016. Fajardo brands himself as a pragmatic politician with no particular ideology, with political analysts and media outlets in Colombia labelling him as a centrist politician not tied to the traditional parties in Colombia.
In July 2017, Fajardo announced his campaign to run for president in the upcoming elections in 2018. During the 2018 Colombian presidential election, Fajardo finished third in the first round. In March 2022, Fajardo announced that he would begin his presidential campaign for the 2022 Colombian presidential election. He finished fourth in the first round.
== Early life and education ==
Fajardo was born and raised in Medellín, Colombia on 19 June, 1956. His father is Raúl Fajardo Moreno, an architect who designed the Coltejer Building. He graduated high school from the Colegio Benedictino and then moved to Bogotá to receive an undergraduate and a graduate degree (M.Sc.) in mathematics from the Universidad de los Andes. Fajardo later went to the United States for his doctorate degree, and earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
== Career ==
Before entering politics at age 40, Fajardo taught mathematical logic at the University of the Andes.
=== 2003–2007: Mayor of Medellín ===
In 2003, Fajardo was elected as the first independent mayor of Medellín. During his four-year administration, he led a significant transformation of the city from one of violence and corruption to a city of urban development, for which he was named Best Mayor of Colombia in 2007 and received other national and international awards.
=== 2010–2015: Vice presidential nominee and governor of Antioquia ===
In 2010, Fajardo was vice presidential candidate with the also independent politician and mathematician Antanas Mockus. From 2012 to 2015, he was elected governor of the state of Antioquia. During his administration, Antioquia experienced the best national performance in open government, transparency, and investment of oil royalties according to the National Planning Department and the Anti corruption Office of Colombia. He was named the best governor of the country in 2015 by the organization Colombia Líder.
=== 2018–2022: Presidential candidate ===
Fajardo launched his independent presidential candidacy in 2018, which was supported by the Coalición Colombia, made up of the Green Party, the Polo Democrático and his movement, Compromiso Ciudadano. In the first round of elections, Fajardo obtained more than 4.6 million votes, only 1.5% away from passing to the second round. In 2021, Fajardo faced embezzlement charges for allowing a $98 million loan contract to be denominated in dollars during his governance of Antioquia. According to LatinNews, the charge was seen as politically motivated.
=== 2022–present ===
Currently, Fajardo is professor at the School of Government and Public Transformation of the Instituto Tecnológico of Monterrey in Mexico. A member of the Inter-American Dialogue, Fajardo intends to represent a Third Way inspired by former British Prime Minister Tony Blair to overcome the traditional divide on the left–right political spectrum. The Colombian Communist Party accused Fajardo of trying to perpetuate the Colombian neoliberal system under the guise of moderation and pragmatism.
== Personal life ==
Fajardo is married and has two children.
== Publications ==
Fajardo, S., Keisler, H.J. (2002), Model Theory of Stochastic Processes. Lecture Notes in Logic. Association for Symbolic Logic. A.K.Peters, Natick, MA. ISBN 1-56881-172-1.
Fajardo, S. (2007), Medellín del miedo a la esperanza. Alcaldía de Medellín.
Fajardo, S. (2017), El poder de la decencia. Editorial Planeta.
== References ==
== External links ==
Sergio Fajardo on Twitter
A conversation with Sergio Fajardo, former mayor of Medellín
Sergio Fajardo Profile at Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Bassanini#:~:text=Franco%20Bassanini%20(born%209%20May,minister%2C%20and%20undersecretary%20of%20state. | Franco Bassanini | Franco Bassanini (born 9 May 1940) is an Italian lawyer, politician, minister, and undersecretary of state.
== Career ==
Born in Milan, Bassanini was a deputy from 1979 to 1996 and a senator from 1996 to 2006. He served as the minister of public administration and regional affairs from 1996 to 2001 in the cabinets led by firstly Romano Prodi, then by Massimo D'Alema and lastly by Giuliano Amato.
Bassannini was president of Astrid, a think-tank specialising in the study of institutional and administrative reform. As a member of the administrative council of the ENA, he was called by Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007 to take part in the Commission pour la libération de la croissance française, presided over by Jacques Attali and designed to reform France's administration.
A member of Italy-USA Foundation, Bassanini served as the professor of constitutional law at the First University of Rome, and was the chairman of Cassa Depositi e Prestiti. He is also on the advisory board of the Official and Financial Institutions Forum (OMFIF), where he is regularly involved in meetings regarding the financial and monetary system.
== Electoral history ==
== Honours ==
Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, 13 January 2015.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanie_Rosenberg#:~:text=Chanie%20Rosenberg%20(20%20April%201922,artist%2C%20former%20teacher%20and%20socialist. | Chanie Rosenberg | Chanie Rosenberg (20 April 1922 – June 2021) was a South African-born artist, former teacher and socialist. She was the sister of Michael Kidron, the partner of Tony Cliff, and a founder member of the Socialist Workers Party in Britain.
== Life ==
Chanie Rosenberg was born to a Jewish Zionist family originally from Lithuania in South Africa, a relative was the poet Isaac Rosenberg. She studied Hebrew at Cape Town University. In 1944, she moved to Palestine to live on a kibbutz where she became an anti-Zionist and a revolutionary socialist and met Yigael Gluckstein (better known as Tony Cliff). After the war, she moved to Britain where she was a member of the Revolutionary Communist Party from 1944 to 1949; afterwards joining the group which eventually became the Socialist Workers Party. She was active in many anti-racist and anti-fascist mobilisations. She worked as a teacher who was active in the National Union of Teachers in Hackney. She was also an artist whose sculpture has been exhibited in the Royal Academy of Arts.
== Selected writings ==
Education and Society: A rank-and-file pamphlet (1968)
Education and Revolution: a great experiment in socialist education (1972)
Class Size and the Relationship Between Official and Unofficial Action in the NUT (1977)
Women and Perestroika (1989)
Education under capitalism and socialism (1991)
1919: Britain on the Brink of Revolution (1995)
Education: Why our children deserve better than New Labour (with Kevin Ovenden) (1999)
Fighting Fit: A Memoir (includes an illustrated pamphlet on Malevich and Revolution) (2013)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Ian Birchall Tony Cliff: A Marxist for his time (2011)
== External links ==
Obituary of Chanie Rosenberg by Donny Gluckstein in Socialist Worker
Remembering Chanie Rosenberg in Socialist Worker
Chanie Rosenberg Internet Archive
Review of Fighting Fit
Image of Chanie Rosenberg and Tony Cliff |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogra_Art_Museum,_Jammu | Dogra Art Museum, Jammu | Dogra Art Museum, Jammu previously known as the Dogra Art Gallery is a museum of Dogra cultural heritage housed in the Pink Hall of the Mubarak Mandi complex, Jammu, India. The main attractions of the museum are the Pahari miniature paintings from Basohli.
== About ==
Dogra Art Museum, Jammu is a government museum and the biggest in Jammu region, one of the three divisions in the north Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The museum is unit of Directorate of Archives, Archaeology and Museums, under the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Jammu and Kashmir Government.
The building was erected in commemoration of the visit of the British Monarch Edward VII when he came to Jammu as the Prince of Wales in 1875. This building housed the Public Library as well as the Museum.
== History ==
In its initial days it was known as the Ajaib Ghar, an Urdu term for the word "Museum" (Urdu used to be the court language then) and was housed in a mini hall having some collection of arms and old photographs where now the Assembly hall has been erected within New Secretariat, Jammu. It was the first step towards setting up of a museum in the erstwhile Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu.
After the states' accession with the Union of India, a committee – in the year 1954 – was organized under the president-ship of Shri Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, Shri Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq, Education Minister, Shri G.L.Dogra, Finance Minister, Master Sansar Chand Baru famous Artist and Prof.R.N.Shastri (now Padamshri) were the members of the committee. Some space in the Gandhi Bhawan Hall adjacent to New Secretariat was allotted to this committee for housing and display of artifacts.
The Museum was inaugurated by the first president of India Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 18 April 1954 at the Gandhi Bhawan, Jammu as the Dogra Art Gallery. It was upgraded to a full-fledged museum and shifted to, its present building, the Mubarak Mandi Complex, Jammu. Master Sansar Chand Baru was appointed its first Curator (Head).
== Collections ==
The museum has a collection of 7216 objects of historical and cultural importance. Among the collections are the Rasmanjari series of the famed Basohli miniature paintings and some rare manuscripts like the beautifully illustrated Shahnama and Sikandernama in Persian.
Terracotta heads from Akhnoor, Sculptures, numismatics, manuscripts, Dogra costumes, jewellery, arms and armours, metal objects and artifacts related to Decorative arts. The intricately decorated marble jharokhas with inlaid work of semi precious stones in the marble hall further embellishes the charisma of the museum collection. However, what the museum is known all over for is the Pahari miniature paintings from Basholi.
A gold plated bow belonging to Mughal emperor Shah Jehan and a stone plate with inscriptions in Takri Script are among some of the most prized possessions of the museum.
== Visitors Information ==
The museum is closed on Mondays. Entry fee of ₹10 for every Indian citizen and ₹50 for non-Indian citizens. Taking pictures inside the museum requires a payment of ₹150.
== See also ==
Shashvat Art Gallery Jammu
National Museum of India
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_Star_Catalogue | Bright Star Catalogue | The Bright Star Catalogue, also known as the Yale Catalogue of Bright Stars, Yale Bright Star Catalogue, or just YBS, is a star catalogue that lists all stars of stellar magnitude 6.5 or brighter, which is roughly every star visible to the naked eye from Earth. The catalog lists 9,110 objects, of which 9,095 are stars, 11 are novae or supernovae (which were "bright stars" only at the time when they were at their peak), and four are non-stellar objects which are the globular clusters 47 Tucanae (designated HR 95) and NGC 2808 (HR 3671), and the open clusters NGC 2281 (HR 2496) and Messier 67 (HR 3515).
The catalogue is fixed in number of entries, but its data is maintained, and it is appended with a comments section about the objects that has been steadily enhanced. The abbreviation for the catalog as a whole is BS or YBS but all citations of stars it indexes use HR before the catalog number, a homage to the catalog's direct predecessor, published in 1908, named the Harvard Revised Photometry Catalogue.
== History ==
The earliest predecessor of the YBSC, titled Harvard Photometry, was published in 1884 by the Harvard College Observatory under the supervision of Edward Charles Pickering, and contained about 4,000 stars. Following its release, Pickering promoted a broader stellar survey for the southern celestial hemisphere, equally as thorough as the Harvard Photometry of 1884. This photometry work was carried out by Solon I. Bailey between 1889 and 1891, leading to the publication of the Revised Harvard Photometry in 1908. The new catalogue contained stars down to magnitude 6.5 in both hemispheres, for which John A. Parkhurst continued work through the 1920s.
The Yale Bright Star Catalogue has been steadily enhanced since the Yale astronomer Frank Schlesinger published the first version in 1930; even though the YBS is limited to the 9110 objects already in the catalog, the data for the objects already listed is corrected and extended, and it is appended with a comments section about the objects. The edition of 1991 was the fifth in order, a version that introduced a considerable enhancement of the comments section, to a little more than the size of the catalogue itself. This most recent edition, in addition to several previous editions, was compiled and edited by Ellen Dorrit Hoffleit of Yale University.
The Harvard Revised Photometry, based on visual observations, has been superseded by photo-electric measurements using band pass filters, most prominently the UBV photometric system. This can differ substantially (up to 1.8 magnitudes ) from the older system. Hence many stars brighter than V=6.50 are not in the YBSC (and hundreds of stars in the YBSC are fainter than V=6.50). Dorrit Hoffleit with Michael Saladyga and Peter Wlasuk published in 1983 a Supplement with an additional 2603 stars for which a V magnitude of brighter than 7.10 had been measured at that time.
=== Editions ===
There have been one predecessor, and five editions of the YBS Catalog:
predecessor – Revised Harvard Photometry (1908)
1st edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1930)
2nd edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1940)
3rd edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1964)
4th edition – The Bright Star Catalogue (1982)
Supplement – A Supplement to the Bright Star Catalogue (1983)
5th edition – The Bright Star Catalogue (1991), which exists only in electronic form, not in book form.
== See also ==
=== Astronomical topics ===
Photometry
Star catalog
=== Astronomers ===
Solon I. Bailey
Ida Barney
Ellen Dorrit Hoffleit
Carlos Jaschek
Louise Freeland Jenkins
Edward Charles Pickering
Frank Schlesinger
== References ==
== External links ==
"Yale Bright Star Catalog". Provides a link to a program "sbsc" for consulting the Bright Star Catalog.
"Complete catalog from CDS". cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (FTP). (To view documents see Help:FTP)
"Online version of the catalog from VizieR".
"Online version of the supplement to the 4th edition of the catalog". |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbin_Bleu#Personal_life | Corbin Bleu | Corbin Bleu Reivers ( BLOO; born February 21, 1989) is an American actor and singer. He began acting professionally in the late 1990s before rising to prominence in the late 2000s for his leading role as Chad Danforth in the High School Musical trilogy (2006–2008). Songs from the films also charted worldwide, with the song "I Don't Dance" peaking inside the Top 70 of the Billboard Hot 100. During this time, he also starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie Jump In! (2007) and the film To Write Love on Her Arms (2015). He competed in the 17th season of Dancing with the Stars.
Bleu has also pursued a music career and his debut album Another Side was released in 2007, which included the hit "Push It to the Limit". The album debuted and peaked at number 36 on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart, selling 18,000 copies in its first week. His second album, Speed of Light, was released in 2009. He returned to television, starring in the short-lived Ashton Kutcher–produced CW series The Beautiful Life: TBL (2009) and the movie Free Style (2009). He has appeared in the films The Little Engine That Could (2011), Scary or Die (2012), Nurse 3D (2013), Sugar (2013), The Monkey's Paw (2013), Walk. Ride. Rodeo. (2019), Remember Me: The Mahalia Jackson Story (2022), and Camp Hideout (2023).
In 2010, Bleu played Usnavi in the Broadway company of In the Heights. In 2012, he returned to Broadway in the revival of Godspell. In 2013, he was cast as Jeffrey King in the short-lived online revival of the daytime soap One Life to Live. In 2016, Bleu played Ted Hanover in the Broadway company of Holiday Inn, the New Irving Berlin Musical. He subsequently signed a recording contract with Ghostlight Records, to distribute his Holiday Inn soundtrack music, released in 2017. In 2019, he returned to play Bill Calhoun/Lucentio in the Broadway company of Kiss Me, Kate. He subsequently signed a recording contract with Ghostlight Records, to distribute his Kiss Me, Kate soundtrack music, released on June 7, 2019. Bleu later made his West End debut in the European premiere of The Great Gatsby at the London Coliseum as Nick Carraway in April 2025.
== Early life and education ==
Corbin Bleu was born in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, the son of Martha (née Callari) and David Reivers (born 1958), an actor. His mother is Italian-American and his father is Jamaican-American. He has three younger sisters. As a child, Bleu studied dance for several years, focusing on ballet and jazz. His great-uncle is actor Joseph Callari.
Bleu appeared in television commercials starting at age two, for products such as Life cereal, Bounty, Hasbro and Nabisco. He began taking jazz and ballet classes, usually as the only boy in the class. By age four he was a model with the Ford Modeling Agency in New York. He appeared in print ads for stores such as Macy's, Gap, Target and Toys R Us and in fashion spreads in Child, Parents, and American Baby magazines, as well as having his image on toys and game packaging.
At age six, Bleu appeared in his first professional theater production, at The Town Hall. This three-concert series, created, written, and hosted by Scott Siegel, took place over one weekend and included a tribute to David Merrick. Bleu played an abandoned homeless mute in the play Tiny Tim is Dead.
Bleu graduated from Los Angeles County High School for the Arts. He trained in dancing at the Debbie Allen Dance Academy and attended the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts as a theater major, following in his mother's footsteps. Bleu graduated from high school in 2007 and was admitted to Stanford University, but declined to matriculate.
== Acting career ==
=== 1996–2005: Early career ===
Bleu moved with his family from New York to Los Angeles in 1996. He worked steadily in episodic television and feature film roles, including a recurring role on the short-lived ABC police drama High Incident and a guest star appearance on ER. He also appeared in some films, like Beach Movie (1998) and the sci-fi thriller Soldier (1998). His feature films from this period include the Tim Allen comedy Galaxy Quest (1999), the comedy Mystery Men (1999), and the drama Family Tree (1999), Bleu also had roles in Malcolm & Eddie, as Matthew, and Cover Me: Based on the True Life of an FBI Family (2000), as Nick Elderby, and smaller roles like in the comedy series Nickelodeon's show The Amanda Show.
Additionally, Bleu was developing his dance skills and in 2001 began intensive training at the Debbie Allen Dance Academy. There he undertook a full gamut of dance instruction, including ballet, jazz, tap, modern, hip-hop, African, break dance, salsa, flamenco and ballroom. Debbie Allen, the choreographer who starred in the TV series Fame, told Dance Spirit magazine: "I think [Bleu] really has a career. Success is one thing, but a career is a much longer, broader journey".
Bleu attended the Los Angeles County High School for the Arts, a magnet school like the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts, which was portrayed in the movie and television series Fame and which Bleu's mother attended. During his freshman year, he won his first sizable film role in the teen action caper Catch That Kid (2004), about a girl named Maddie Phillips and her friends Austin and Gus who decide to rob a bank after learning that money is needed to aid her ailing father Tom Phillips (Sam Robards), alongside Kristen Stewart and Max Thieriot. It was a box-office flop, grossing $10 million, but served as an important step for Bleu, who was still building his acting career. During high school, he performed in student productions of Footloose and Grease, winning the honor of Theatre Student of the Year.
In the summer of 2004 Bleu landed a starring role in the television series Flight 29 Down, alongside Allen Alvarado, Hallee Hirsh, Lauren Storm, Jeremy James Kissner, Johnny Pacar and Kristy Wu, which aired for three seasons on the Discovery Kids network. The program, a juvenile version of the ABC series Lost, concerned a group of teenagers stranded on a tropical island after their plane crashes. Bleu played Nathan McHugh, a Boy Scout whose leadership skills do not quite measure up to his self-confidence.
=== 2006–2008: High School Musical and breakthrough ===
Bleu's next television project was the Disney Channel original film High School Musical (2006), in which he portrayed the basketball player Chad Danforth, who tries to persuade his teammate Troy Bolton (Zac Efron) to give up his interest in theater and focus on winning a basketball championship. High School Musical premiered on January 20, 2006; with an audience of 7.7 million television viewers, it was the Disney Channel's most successful TV movie up to that point. The film, which also starred Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, Vanessa Hudgens, and Monique Coleman, was a major success and helped Bleu gain recognition among teenage audiences. The film's soundtrack was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
He joined co-stars on the 51-date High School Musical: The Concert (2006–2007) tour to promote the film, work on the second film in the series began, and Bleu was confirmed to be returning for the sequel. High School Musical 2 (2007) was released on August 17, 2007. The premiere was seen by over 17.2 million viewers in the U.S., almost 10 million more than its predecessor, making it the highest-rated Disney Channel movie of all time. Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind-the-scenes look into the movie's production. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It" was on Radio Disney on May 25, 2007, and "I Don't Dance" premiered on August 14, 2007. The film was generally well received by critics, gaining a score of 77/100 at Metacritic and 82% on Rotten Tomatoes. It broke opening-weekend records and grossed over $250 million worldwide. Its soundtrack, featuring many contributions from Bleu, sold over three million copies in the U.S. alone. "I Don't Dance", a duet with Lucas Grabeel, became his first top-40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was named the official theme song of the 2007 Little League World Series. During this time, Bleu began singing on soundtracks for the Disney Channel, and released a cover of "Two Worlds" (2007) to promote Tarzan.
In 2007, Bleu starred in his next film, the Disney Channel original Jump In!, which aired on January 12, 2007. Directed by Paul Hoen, the movie revolves around a young boy, Izzy Daniels, who trains regularly to try to follow in his father's Kenneth Daniels (David Reivers)' footsteps and win the Golden Glove, an amateur boxing tournament. Bleu played Izzy and Keke Palmer portrayed Mary Thomas, his friend who has a crush on him. Again, Disney scored a crossover hit with the Jump In! soundtrack album, released in January 2007, on which Bleu sings the track "Push It to the Limit". Reaching the screens on the Disney Channel that January, Jump In! was a major hit among young viewers and quickly became the network's highest-rated premiere, breaking the record set by The Cheetah Girls 2 in 2006. Its soundtrack was also a commercial hit, achieving gold status from the RIAA three months after its release. Bleu appeared in the Atlanta group Small Change's music video "Don't Be Shy", featuring Chani and Lil' JJ.
He guest starred as Johnny Collins in the premiere two episodes of Disney's Hannah Montana (2006–2008). He also had a small role as Spencer on Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, appearing in the episodes "Dismissal & School Plays" and "Revenge & School Records". He also appeared at the Mother Goose Parade as Grand Marshal in 2006 and 2007. While with Disney Channel, Bleu also participated in the first ever Disney Channel Games and co-captained the blue team along with Jake T. Austin, Maiara Walsh, Cole Sprouse and Kiely Williams. A year before, he returned to repeat his captaincy of the blue team with Brenda Song, Vanessa Hudgens, Monique Coleman and Jason Earles. In August 2007, Bleu starred in Flight 29 Down: The Hotel Tango, a teen drama film version of the television series of the same name. Also in 2007, he was the voice of the Magic Gourd in The Secret of the Magic Gourd (2007), He appeared on The Tyra Banks Show in 2008.
Bleu went on to reprise his role of Chad Danforth in High School Musical 3: Senior Year (2008), the first film in the High School Musical franchise to receive a theatrical release. It opened at number one at the North American box office in October 2008, earning $42 million in its first weekend, which broke the record previously held by Mamma Mia! for the biggest opening by a musical. The film finished with $252 million worldwide, which exceeded Disney's expectations. The song "The Boys Are Back" (2008), a duet with Zac Efron, became his second top forty hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). For his role as Chad Danforth, the team captain of the school's basketball team, he was nominated for an NAACP Image Award, a Young Artist Award and Teen Choice Awards in 2007 and 2009 respectively. Bleu lent his voice for the role of Chad Danforth in various High School Musical video games.
=== 2009–present: Continued work ===
The following year, Bleu played the lead role in the film called Free Style (2009). It concerns Cale Bryant, an eighteen-year-old man who tries to find himself by winning the Amateur National Motocross Championships. Free Style performed poorly in the box office, having only grossed $720,000 from a $10 million budget. Over the next few years, Bleu's television roles included the drama series The CW Television Network's show The Beautiful Life: TBL. The series was subsequently cancelled on September 25, 2009, after televising 2 episodes. In December 2009, the technology company HP became the show's sponsor and began airing the show's five episodes on YouTube. Also in 2009, he was a voice actor in Beyond All Boundaries, and appeared on Entertainment Tonight and The Morning Show with Mike and Juliet. Also in 2009, he was the voice of Coltrane in the premiere two episodes of Disney's Phineas and Ferb.
Corbin Bleu made his Broadway stage debut in 2010 as the lead character, bodega-owner Usnavi de la Vega, in the critically acclaimed musical In the Heights. and guest starred in one episode of The Good Wife as DJ Javier Berlin in October 2010. in 2010, Corbin starred in the short comedy film I Owe My Life to Corbin Bleu, alongside Andrew Caldwell, Drake Bell, Sarah Hyland, Ryan Pinkston, Sterling Knight, Matt Prokop, Matt Shively and Josh Sussman. In 2011, he performed the voice of Lou in The Little Engine That Could (2011). From August 5–7, Bleu performed in the musical Hairspray as Seaweed J. Stubbs at the Hollywood Bowl, alongside Nick Jonas, Harvey Fierstein, Marissa Jaret Winokur, Drew Carey and Darlene Love. and he performed the voice of Flip in Tonka Chuck and Friends: Big Air Dare.
In 2012, Bleu also had a role in and co-produced the indie horror anthology Scary or Die (2012), a collection of five short horror films. In 2012, he joined the cast of Godspell as Jesus Christ beginning April 17 at the Circle in the Square Theatre. He joined co-stars on the 66th Annual Tony Awards, to performing "Day by Day" and "Light of the World" at Beacon Theatre, with Neil Patrick Harris as the host. During this time, he recorded the duet "If I Never Knew You" (2012), with Anna Maria Perez de Tagle to promote Pocahontas. He guest starred in one episode of Blue Bloods as Officer Blake in 2012. In 2012, he performed the voice of Drew in Twinkle Toes, Bleu starred in the drama film To Write Love on Her Arms (originally titled Renee) in 2012, with Kat Dennings, Chad Michael Murray and Rupert Friend. The film began production in Orlando, Florida, in February 2011.
In March 2013, Bleu had a role in the horror film The Monkey's Paw (2013). and guest starred in one episode of Franklin & Bash as Jordan Allen French in 2013. In April 2013, Bleu was cast in the role of Jeffrey King on the ABC daytime soap opera One Life to Live. In 2013, Bleu starred in the film Sugar (2013), alongside Shenae Grimes and Marshall Allman. about a runaway girl named Sugar living on the streets of Venice, Los Angeles. The film began production in Venice, Los Angeles, on November 30, 2010. Also in 2013, Bleu appeared in the horror films Nurse 3D (2013), alongside Paz de la Huerta and Katrina Bowden. The film began production in Toronto, on September 6, 2011, and wrapped on October 21, 2011. In 2014 he also appeared as a guest star in Psych, the USA Network television series in Season 8.
In September 2013, Bleu took part in the seventeenth-season of ABC's dancing competition Dancing with the Stars. He finished as runner-up.
Bleu's only release in 2015 was the moderately successful Megachurch Murder (2015), in which he played a Marcus King, with Tamala Jones, Shanica Knowles and Romeo Miller. In addition, Bleu appeared in Family Shots with The Human Race Theatre Company. In 2016, he also made a guest appearance in an episode of the family drama, The Fosters, playing the role of Mercutio, a character who appears in a school musical production of Romeo and Juliet. Bleu and fellow guest-star Ashley Argota also co-starred in a production of Romeo and Juliet: Love Is a Battlefield at Rockwell Table and Stage, produced by The Fosters co-creator Bradley Bredeweg. He also had a small role as Hunter on Castle in 2016.
In January 2016, he joined the cast of The Dodgers as Simon, the rational voice amid the habitually stoned chatter, and beginning January 21 at the Hudson Mainstage Theatre. In October 2016, he took part in Broadway productions notably the leading role in Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical (originally titled Holiday Inn), a musical based on the 1942 Academy Award-winning film of the same name. Returning to his tap dancing roots was "like riding a bike". His former Disney co-stars attended a performance in October 2016. Bleu began vlogging during his tenure in Holiday Inn, resulting in Bleu Skies: Backstage at Holiday Inn with Corbin Bleu. Bleu, who played Ted Hanover in the new Irving Berlin musical, gave a glimpse of backstage life at Studio 54, where he and his co-stars (including former vlogger Bryce Pinkham, Lora Lee Gayer, Megan Lawrence and Megan Sikora) celebrated an entire year's worth of special occasions eight times a week. Bleu Skies launched off on August 23 and ran every Tuesday for eight weeks. with Bleu being nominated for a Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography in 2017, for outstanding dancing in a Broadway show and eventually winning a Chita Rivera Award for his performance.
While with ABC television, Bleu also participated in the revival of Battle of the Network Stars, joining the red team along with Joey Lawrence, Nolan Gould, Lisa Whelchel and Kim Fields, with Ronda Rousey as the captain. The series premiered on June 29, 2017. From July 28–30, Bleu performed in the musical Mamma Mia! as Sky at the Hollywood Bowl, alongside Dove Cameron, Lea DeLaria and Jennifer Nettles. The theatre premiered on July 28, 2017. Corbin Bleu's career also included voice over work with Breathe Bible. In December 2017, Corbin Bleu hosted the 2017 Looking Ahead Awards, presented by The Actors Fund.
In November 2017, Bleu returned to 25th season of Dancing with the Stars and in Week 8, he performed in a trio salsa with Jordan Fisher and his professional partner Lindsay Arnold. After the trio delivered their salsa to audiences, they ended with a score of 30 from the judges,
In January 2018, he guest starred in one episode of The Middle as Luke, a handsome drummer that catches Brad Bottig (Brock Ciarlelli)'s attention. In 2018 he also appeared as a guest star in Chicago Med, the NBC television series in season 3, as Tommy Oliver. From June 27 – July 3, Bleu performed in the musical Singin' in the Rain as Don Lockwood at the St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre, a musical based on the 1952 BAFTA Film Award-winning film of the same name. The theatre premiered on June 27, 2018. with Bleu being nominated for a St. Louis Theater Circle Awards in 2019, for Outstanding Actor in a Musical. Near the end of 2018, Bleu played Billy Crocker in Anything Goes, which was performed in-the-round at Arena Stage in D.C. Washington from November 2, 2018, to December 23, 2018. with Bleu being winnin a Helen Hayes Award in 2019, for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Musical.
In March 2019, he was cast in the Netflix drama film Walk. Ride. Rodeo. (2019), alongside Missi Pyle, Spencer Locke and Bailey Chase, directed by Conor Allyn. He appeared on Show Offs in 2019. In 2019, Bleu played Bill Calhoun/Lucentio in the Broadway revival of Kiss Me, Kate at the Roundabout Theatre's Studio 54. The musical originally opened on Broadway in 1948 and five years later was the basis for a liberally adapted 1953 film of the same name. The production, directed by Scott Ellis, began previewing on February 14, 2019. The limited engagement played until June 30 at Studio 54. For his performance, Bleu was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical. Bleu was also nominated for a 2019 Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography, for Outstanding Male Dancer in a Broadway Show and for an Audience Choice Awards for Favorite Featured Actor in a Musical. He was cast in a co-starring role in the Jordan Barker film Witches in the Woods (2019), The project also stars Hannah Kasulka and Sasha Clements. Bleu filmed an independent movie titled Ovid and the Art of Love. Filmed partially at the old St. Agnus Church in Michigan, the project also stars John Savage, Tamara Feldman and Tara Summers.
In 2020, he appeared on The Disney Family Singalong, which aired on ABC on April 16, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In May 2020, he also appeared as a guest star in Supergirl, the CW television series in season 5, as Trevor Crane. On June 30, 2020, Bleu joined in a live reading adaptation of Jason Reitman's Up in the Air to help raise funds for Acting for a Cause. The event's purpose was to help industry personnel impacted by COVID-19. Bleu was later announced as the host of the 2021 Jimmy Awards, in honor of legendary Broadway producer and theater owner James M. Nederlander.
In 2021, he guest starred as Blaine in the premiere two episodes on The CW Television Network soap opera Dynasty. In July 2021, he was cast in the Hallmark Channel original entitled Love, for Real (2021), alongside Chloe Bridges, Camille Kostek and Scott Michael Foster, directed by Maclain Nelson. In December 2021, he appeared as the male lead in the a Lifetime Christmas movie, titled A Christmas Dance Reunion (2021), alongside Monique Coleman, directed by Brian Herzlinger. During this time, Bleu performed songs for the soundtrack of Winnie the Pooh: The New Musical Adaptation, and released a cover of "Winnie the Pooh" (2021).
In July 2022, he was cast in the Hallmark Channel original entitled Campfire Christmas (2022), alongside Tori Anderson and Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman, directed by David I. Strasser. He returned to the High School Musical franchise, guest starring as himself in the third and fourth seasons of High School Musical: The Musical: The Series, Bleu contributes to two numbers a duet with star Sofia Wylie on the original song "Different Way to Dance" and with the entire cast on "Everyday". From July 5–13, Bleu performed in the musical Mary Poppins as Bert at the St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre, directed by John Tartaglia, choreographed by Patrick O'Neill, with music direction by Brad Haak. In September 2022, he starred as Cab Calloway, in the drama film Remember Me: The Mahalia Jackson Story, alongside Keith David, Vanessa Williams and Columbus Short, directed by Denise Dowse.
In 2023, he was cast in the comedy film Camp Hideout (2023), with Christopher Lloyd, and directed by Sean Olson. Starting in the summer of 2023, he starred in the world premiere of the musical Summer Stock at the Goodspeed Opera House. On September 26, 2023, Bleu performed in the horror comedy rock musical Little Shop of Horrors as Seymour Krelborn, replacing Jeremy Jordan at the Westside Theatre, directed by Tony Award winner Michael Mayer, choreographed by Ellenore Scott, with music direction by Will Van Dyke. In April 2024, he returned to the show as Seymour replacing Darren Criss with Jinkx Monsoon as Audrey Fulquard. In April 2025, he starred in The Great Gatsby as Nick Carraway at the London Coliseum for its London and West End premiere.
== Music career ==
Bleu's first professionally recorded song was titled "Circles" or "Circles in My Mind" for his then TV show, Flight 29 Down. Bleu signed a contract with Hollywood Records, a Disney-owned label. His debut album Another Side, was released in May 2007. The album debuted at No. 36 on the Billboard 200 album charts, selling 18,000 in its first week. Bleu, who admires Prince, Michael Jackson, and Justin Timberlake, cowrote five songs on the album. One of those tracks was titled "Shake It Off", an ode to the musician Prince. In 2007 he toured in support of Another Side with the teen sister duo Aly & AJ.
Bleu worked with Ne-Yo on "I Get Lonely", and with other performers such as Matthew Gerrard and Eric Hudson. A music video for his first single, "Push It to the Limit" premiered on the Disney Channel, and was used to promote the movie Jump In! "Push It to the Limit" reached the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100, and his second single, "Deal With It", was originally written and sung by Jay Sean. He later gave it to Bleu, whose version of the song features background vocals by Sean. The song went on to earn Sean a BMI Songwriter Award. Bleu sang the duet "Still There for Me" with Vanessa Hudgens for his debut album Another Side.
Bleu toured with fellow High School Musical cast members from late November 2006 to late January 2007 in High School Musical: The Concert, and with Drake Bell and Aly & AJ performing in about 40 different cities. To promote his debut album, Bleu performed at the Nextfest Summer Tour with Aly & AJ and Drake Bell and special guest Bianca Ryan.
His debut single "Run It Back Again" was featured in the movie Minutemen, on January 22, 2008. The song is also featured on Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 10. Bleu performed at the Crawford County Fair Grandstand with Vanessa Hudgens, on August 18, 2008. A week later, on August 25, Bleu performed at the Michigan State Fair with Raven-Symoné. His second album Speed of Light was released on March 10, 2009, via Hollywood Records. The album's first single, "Moments That Matter", was performed by Bleu at Kids' Inaugural: "We Are the Future".
In 2017, Bleu signed a one-album recording contract with Ghostlight Records to distribute his Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical soundtrack music, was released digitally on June 2, 2017. The album featured twenty-one songs, and was produced by Kurt Deutsch with Todd Whitelock serving as coproducer and Universal Stage Productions as executive producer. Bleu later signed a two-album recording contract with Ghostlight Records to distribute his Kiss Me, Kate soundtrack music, the 24th cast album recording for Roundabout Theatre Company, since launching the musical theatre program with She Loves Me in 1993.
In an interview with Paul Wontorek, Bleu said he is naturally a lyric baritone. He added that he is a fan of Brian d'Arcy James and gets vocal influences from him.
== Personal life ==
Bleu has been a supporter of Do Something. On March 16, 2010, he was added to the "Broadway Wall of Fame". His portrait was unveiled at Tony's Di Napoli Restaurant in New York City. In 2011, Bleu began dating actress Sasha Clements. On October 15, 2014, they became engaged, and they married on July 23, 2016.
== Public image ==
In 2013, an MIT study discovered that Bleu was the third most-common biography article subject among all the different language versions of Wikipedia; pages on him were available in 194 languages, placing below only Jesus (214) and Barack Obama (200), and above Confucius (192) and Isaac Newton (191). The contradiction between Bleu's high notability on Wikipedia and low real-life notability comparative to the aforementioned historical figures made the creation of these pages unusual. In 2019, a Reddit user found that these translations were likely done by a single user whose IP addresses on Wikipedia locate to Saudi Arabia. By 2025, Bleu had dropped to number 19 on the list of biographies but saw an increase in Wikipedia notability, being available in 217 languages, surpassing Johann Sebastian Bach, who had pages in 216 languages.
== Philanthropy ==
Bleu has supported various charitable organizations and causes during his career. In 2011, Bleu worked for charities such as Starlight Children's Foundation, the Make-A-Wish Foundation, and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. In May 2011, he attended the Do Something Awards kickoff event.
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
=== Television films ===
=== Television series ===
=== Theater ===
=== Video games ===
=== Music videos ===
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Another Side (2007)
Speed of Light (2009)
=== Soundtrack albums ===
High School Musical (2006)
Jump In! (2007)
High School Musical 2 (2007)
High School Musical 3: Senior Year (2008)
Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical (2017)
Kiss Me, Kate (2019)
== Concert tours ==
Headlining
High School Musical: The Concert (2006)
Opening act
Nextfest Summer Tour (Co-headlining with Aly & AJ, Drake Bell and Bianca Ryan) (2007)
Crawford County Fair Grandstand (Co-headlining with Vanessa Hudgens) (2008)
Michigan State Fair (Co-headlining with Raven-Symoné) (2008)
Kids' Inaugural: "We Are the Future" (Co-headlining with Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato and Jonas Brothers) (2009)
Disney Channel Summer At Sea (Co-headlining with Jonnie and Brookie) (2009)
== Awards and nominations ==
== See also ==
List of characters from High School Musical
List of Italian-American actors
List of Italian-American entertainers
List of Jamaican Americans
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Scott, Dee (2006). Corbin Bleu: Up Close (Pocket books ed.). New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 978-1-4165-4114-1.
Betsy, West (2007). Corbin Bleu to the Limit. New York City: Penguin Young Readers Group. ISBN 978-0-8431-2685-3.
Boone, Mary. Corbin Bleu. Hockessin, Delaware: Mitchell Lane Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58415-674-1.
== External links ==
Corbin Bleu at the Internet Broadway Database
Corbin Bleu at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air#W:O:A_in_numbers | Wacken Open Air | Wacken Open Air (, abbreviated as W:O:A) is a heavy metal music festival, held yearly since 1990 on the first weekend of August in the village of Wacken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is often called the world's biggest and most renowned metal festival, or the "Mecca of heavy metal". The four-day event involves around 200 bands, is attended by around 85,000 metalheads from more than 80 countries, and takes place on a 240-hectare site including campgrounds. Wacken has two main stages and several smaller stages, as well as areas with stalls, beer tents and entertainment; including a medieval-themed 'Wackinger' village and apocalyptic-themed 'Wasteland'. Wacken Open Air has long focused on traditional heavy metal and extreme metal genres such as power metal, speed metal, thrash metal, death metal, black metal, doom metal, industrial, symphonic and folk metal. Locals had always been involved with the festival. However, in recent years Wacken has included more mainstream and alt-metal bands as headliners, become more commercialized and attracted non-metalhead 'festival tourists', upsetting long-time attendees.
Several documentaries have been made about Wacken, and many bands have recorded live albums at the festival. WOA also runs the Wacken Metal Battle, an international battle of the bands contest for unsigned bands.
== History ==
=== Background ===
The idea for Wacken Open Air was conceived in 1989 when Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner visited a restaurant together. Both lived in Wacken and were friends, Jensen played the electric bass with rock cover band Skyline. From its beginnings until 1992, the band was composed of Ines Jeske from Vaale (vocals), Thomas Jensen from Wacken (bass), Peter Huhn from Wacken (electric guitar), Dennis Harman from Itzehoe (keyboard), and Andreas Göser from Wacken (drums). Skyline was one of the first regional Metal and Rock cover bands at that time. The band was regionally known, working its way from appearances in village pubs and gigs at biker meetings up to an appearance as supporting band of "Extrabreit". Hübner was a disc jockey with a focus on Rock music and Heavy Metal. Jensen and Hübner developed the idea to organise an open-air concert in a gravel pit in Wacken and persuaded Skyline drummer Andreas Göser and Jörg Jensen, Thomas Jensen's brother, to help make it happen. Until then, the pit had already served as a meeting venue for up to 3,000 members of biker club 'No Mercys', it was therefore perfectly suited for their plans and also presented an opportunity to attract motorcycle fans. From the beginning, it was clear that the focus of the event would be on Rock and Metal and that, in contrast to other single-day festivals such as Monsters of Rock or Super Rock in Mannheim, there would also be camping grounds.
=== Early years and growth ===
The first two-day festival took place in the gravel pit on 24 and 25 August 1990 and barely had 800 visitors. The performing bands all hailed from Germany, and apart from Skyline, bands like 5th Avenue, Motoslug, Sacred Season, Axe 'n Sex, and Wizzard played. The first festivals were organised privately, with the technology being built on a trailer borrowed from a local trucking company and the stage being a DIY construction.
In subsequent years, too, most of the tasks were carried out by the small team. Until August 1994, for example, ticket orders were organised privately by Andy Göser's mother Regina Göser and security duties were performed by friendly motorcycle clubs up until 1996. In 1991, the number of visitors increased to 1,300, and with Skyline returning, Bon Scott, an AC/DC cover band from Hamburg, Gypsy Kyss, Kilgore, Life Artist, Ruby Red, and Shanghai'd Guts joined them on stage for an all-regional roster. That same year, the iconic skull logo was designed by Mark Ramsauer after the basic shape had been determined by Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner. The cow skull refers to the venue, a meadow for cows, and to Jensen and Hübner as "boys from the village".
In 1992, the programme changed to include internationally renowned bands such as Blind Guardian and Saxon for the first time, and the number of bands rose to 26, listing bands from Sweden, the US, Ireland, and Belgium. The organisers used a professional stage with lighting and PA for the first time and were able to win cigarette brand Prince Denmark as a sponsor. That year, the Party Stage was set up in the DJ tent next to the main stage, where cover bands and fun projects were to perform exclusively. The additional post-concert costs for garbage disposal on the campground, where 2,500 paying guests and many more were present and celebrated, as well as the significantly oversized security, among other things, meant that the organisers recorded a loss of around 25,000 D-Mark that year.
With the reunion of the band Fates Warning at the festival in 1993, Wacken Open Air had a special feature and also made a name for itself in the following years with unusual band constellations and reunions. At the same time, Doro Pesch and other well-known bands made for interesting appearances, which resulted in a new record attendance of 3,500 paying customers. Simultaneously, the team tried their hand at concert organisation and, under the moniker Stoned Castle Promotion, held a Motörhead concert for 2,000 people in Flensburg, which could not cover its promotional costs. A show with Dio/Freak of Nature became a disaster with only 167 tickets sold, and together with the Open Air, which again recorded a minus, the organisers incurred debts of around 350,000 D-Mark. As a result, Jörg Jensen and Andreas Göser left the team; Holger Hübner and Thomas Jensen remained, as did Jörn-Ulf Goesmann for another two years, continuing to run the Wacken Open Air despite the debts for which their parents had provided guarantees. During the same year, Thomas Jensen's mother died and Holger Hübner had a serious accident – the year went down in Wacken history as the "year of the plague".
On its fifth anniversary in 1994, the financial situation stabilised and the festival finally broke even. The line-up remained professional and featured many internationally known bands from the metal scene. A total of 4,500 tickets were sold; on top of that, due to the rising costs of garbage disposal, tickets for the camping grounds had to be purchased separately, and pre-orders were rewarded with a free T-shirt. Also in 1995, income and expenses evened out thanks to the commitment of bands such as Tiamat, D-A-D, the Pretty Maids, and Angra. But even with roughly 5,000 attendees, the festival did not turn a profit. However, for the first time, national media became aware of Wacken Open Air, especially Rock Hard magazine, as well as the newly founded TV station VIVA with its Heavy Metal programme Metalla.
Ticket sales for the 1996 festival again started sluggishly, despite a headliner like Kreator and numerous internationally renowned bands such as The Exploited, Gorefest, and Crematory. Management tried to prevent another loss by securing more acts and finally managed to get Böhse Onkelz to perform. The engagement of the controversial band also led to criticism, and some bands cancelled their gig in Wacken that year. Cologne band Brings called off their gig on short notice and offered to refund their fans' ticket prices.
As a result of many visitors flooding the village in 1996, the inhabitants of Wacken voiced their concern over an event of this size being held in the local gravel pit. Uwe Trede offered to relocate the festival site to his own property and the areas previously used as campgrounds and took care of the acquisition of additional land. The organisational team grew to include Thomas Hess as production manager, who had previously been active as tour manager for Die Böhsen Onkelz, as well as Sheree Hesse for catering to the artists and VIPs. With the W.E.T.-Stage, a third stage was set up in 1997. The "Wacken Evolution Tent" was to be made available primarily to newcomers and bands without record deals. That year, the number of visitors reached 10,000 for the first time, with Rockbitch's erotic stage show causing a scene.
=== Peak years ===
Over the years, the size of Wacken Open Air has grown continuously, and now dozens of bands and tens of thousands of visitors flock to the festival. Even though the organisers said in 2006 that 62,500 visitors were "the limit of what is possible", changes were made to the structure of the festival grounds the following year by allocating a larger area to the "Party Stage". In addition, tickets could no longer be purchased directly on the festival grounds to reduce the number of spontaneous or ticketless visitors. In 2007 and 2008, the festival had already sold out as a result of advance ticket sales; for W:O:A 2009, tickets had even sold out by the end of 2008. The tickets for 2010, too, sold out months in advance.
While the festival originally only lasted two days, the performances have been lasting from Thursday to Saturday, i.e., three days, for some years. Thursday became a "Night to Remember", with mainly "classical" Heavy Metal bands appearing, such as the Scorpions in 2006. On the actual Party Stage, younger and more modern bands play as a contrast to the "Night to Remember". In addition, the event is accompanied by a rich complementary programme; in addition to a merchant area – obligatory for music festivals – a beer garden has been operating since 2000, in which the Wacken Firefighters' marching band opens the festival before its official start. On Thursday in 2007, the "Hellfest Stage" was initiated. Since 2009, there has been a "Medieval Stage", where mainly Medieval and Folk Metal bands play.
The fact that many well-known bands, including the Scorpions, Saxon, Twisted Sister, Dimmu Borgir, Slayer, and Helloween, have recorded live DVDs at Wacken, shows how esteemed the Open Air has since become. Ahead of their farewell tour in 2004, Die Böhsen Onkelz also performed an extended set at W:O:A.
Since 2002, the so-called "Metal Train" has been travelling from Munich to Wacken and back before and after the festival to bring fans to the Northern German village and provide a matching entertainment programme. Bus tours from Scandinavian countries, especially Zurich and Sweden, but also from Austria, are organised each year and used by several hundred fans.
The "W:O:A Soccercup" has been taking place annually since 2002. This football tournament, which started with nine teams and takes place on Wednesdays, has grown over the years and has been held in World Cup mode with 32 teams since 2007 (a one-off event in 2011 featured 36 teams). The international teams register in advance and are composed of festival visitors. For the tournament's 15th anniversary in 2016, a band was featured and took part for the first time: Serum 114 formed a team with several fans and were able to win the tournament. Although it is meant to be a fun tournament, in which creative outfits and names take precedence over athletic performance, the award ceremony after the tournament has been held on one of the stages since 2013 and prizes can be won.
The festival is one of the Metal scene's highlights of the year. Nowadays, about a third of the visitors, some of whom arrive quite some time before the official start of the festival, and the majority of the bands come from abroad. According to the organisers, 2018 saw visitors from more than 80 nations attending the festival.
The number of participants increased to 75,000 in 2008 and included 65,000 paying guests. In 2008, the festival sold out twice (W:O:A 2008 in spring and W:O:A 2009 on 31 December 2008).
As is common with festivals of this size, Wacken Open Air received criticism for its hygienic conditions, prices, security personnel, as well as for the overcrowding and commercial orientation of the event. These points of criticism were addressed by making further substantial investments in the festival's fixed and mobile infrastructure. In 2008, the organisers also contributed 1,000,000 Euros to the expansion of Wacken's local outdoor swimming pool in order to make the festival even more attractive to the residents and visitors of the town.
Since 2006, the festival has been running an online radio station called Wacken Radio, which broadcasts Metal music around the clock. It is being produced in cooperation with RauteMusik as of February 2014.
The event sold out ten times in a row between 2006 and 2015. For the 23rd edition of Wacken Open Air, the sale of an "X-Mas Package" started on Monday, 8 August 2011, shortly after the end of that year's festival, and was sold out within 45 minutes. Tickets for Wacken Open Air 2015 sold out after just 12 hours on 4 August 2014 – just a few hours after the end of W:O:A 2014. The X-Mas Tickets for W:O:A 2016, which cost 10 Euros less and whose buyers were entitled to a free T-shirt, were completely sold out only 20 minutes after the start of pre-sales. Booking office Metaltix' servers were highly busy. In the minutes before the start of the pre-sale, the pages were no longer accessible; after that, data traffic had to be limited by wait lists.
In 2013, the "Full Metal Church" took place in Wacken for the first time. Marking the local church's 150th anniversary, the team, together with the parish, organised a concert by the band Faun, which was framed by two readings and sermons by "Volxbibel" author Martin Dreyer. Both the concert and the services were completely overcrowded by festival visitors.
Prices for the festival have risen and are currently at a level similar to other major Rock festivals, such as Rock am Ring and Hurricane Festival. After several years of success in which the festival sold out within hours, the first 60,000 tickets for the 2017 festival were sold in mid-2016. 55,000 tickets were sold within the first hour. By the end of April 2017, the festival was almost sold out except for a few remaining tickets. The price for the festival ticket was 220 Euros, but there was no fee for early arrival campers, who often set up their elaborately designed accommodations before the festival begins – partly to get the best spots near the festival grounds. In addition, all toilets and showers were free in 2017.
The festival sold out within a few days each in 2014–2016. However, the last tickets for the 2017 festival were sold after 309 days, a mere 2 months before the start of the festival, even though only 10,000 tickets remained after the first day of sales. This was a matter of speculation at first, and reasons such as the changed security situation or the price development were taken into account. Regardless of that, the festival sold out for the 13th time in a row in 2018.
On 5 April 2018, Thomas Hess, the festival's longtime production (and former security) director, died. He had joined festival management in 1996 as a former tour manager of Böhse Onkelz and was considered one of the most important leading figures for the festival, along with the remaining founders and the Trede family, who organise the camping areas and the camping supervisors as subcontractors. He made a significant contribution to the W:O:A being so well organised, peaceful and successful.
For W:O:A 2019, all 75,000 tickets were sold within the first four days of sales, making this the 14th time in a row that the festival completely sold out.
=== Since the Covid pandemic ===
On 16 April 2020, it was announced that the 2020 edition of the festival would be cancelled because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The organisers created an event for that year called, "Wacken Worldwide", featuring well-known bands performing on a mixed-reality stage, along with interviews and other interactive features. It was the biggest livestream event of 2020. The first set of bands were announced on 1 August 2020 for the rescheduled festival for 2021.
On 1 June 2021, the promoters of Wacken Open Air announced that the festival would not take place this year, again due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and was scheduled to return in the summer of 2022, with more information and details to be announced in September 2021.
2022 was the first edition that was able to take place since the COVID-19 pandemic. Headliners were Powerwolf, Slipknot and Judas Priest.
The 2023 edition was sold out in record time of 5 hours. Headliners were Iron Maiden, Heaven Shall Burn, Doro and Helloween. But for the first time in the festival's history, they had to announce a travel stop for motorized vehicles due to heavy rainfall and storm alerts. This announcement came Wednesday morning, the day before the festival was supposed to officially start. The police estimated 50,000 festival goers were able to reach the festival by the time the travel stop was announced. The people who were not able to reach the festival were offered a full refund.
As per usual, the 2024 edition sold out, once again in a record time of 4.9 hours. Announced bands included Amon Amarth, KoЯn, Scorpions and Blind Guardian.
== Overview by year ==
The following chart shows the development of prices and visitor numbers of past festivals as published by the organisers. Prices refer to the total amount per ticket (incl. parking and camping) in pre-sale (without additional fees). The price for the 4-day 2023 edition (299.00 EUR) has been adjusted accordingly.
== Organisation ==
The organisers of Wacken Open Air founded Stone Castle Rockpromotions in 1990 in order to organise the first festival. The name is derived from the direct translation of "Steinburg" from the district of Steinburg, to which Wacken belongs. Stone Castle remained the company's name until 1996. Up until 2014, the headquarters were located in Dörpstedt (Schleswig-Flensburg district) and then moved to Wacken. The company's name has been ICS (International Concert Service) GmbH since 1999. The company owns the label Wacken Records and the mailorder Metaltix, among others.
A daily festival newspaper has been available since 2007, reporting on what's happening on the festival grounds. The Thursday edition is also included free of charge with all newspapers published by Schleswig-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag.
In 2014, the online radio station RauteMusik took over production of the official Wacken radio. Wacken Radio has its own container on the festival grounds every year, where it reports live.
Up until a few years ago, Wacken's official town signs were either replaced by plastic signs spelling Heavy Metal Town during W:O:A or bolted more tightly because they were often stolen as souvenirs. Some shops are now selling black cotton bags with the Wacken town sign on one side and the words "This town sign I may keep" on the other.
An action for exceeding the maximum noise limit, brought before the Administrative Court of Schleswig by residents of Wacken, ended in January 2013 with an out-of-court settlement. Now, if the average noise level of the festival exceeds 70 dB, the organisers pay 1,000 Euros to the community, which donates the money to charitable causes.
In July 2022, it was announced that starting with W:O:A 2023 and onwards, the festival will be officially extended from three to four full days and that the Wednesday will be the new first full day. Up until 2022, while there was plenty of programme on Wednesdays, it was more of an unofficial afternoon introduction to the festival and Thursdays remained the official opening day.
=== Infrastructure ===
The site covers more than 240 hectares, which are divided by more than 45 kilometres of fence. The inner area, including the main stage, has a size of 43,000 square metres. More than 1,300 toilets and almost 500 showers are available for the 75,000 paying attendees. 2,200 trucks with equipment are needed for the entire festival. Stage construction and dismantling usually take 7 days and 5 days respectively. For this, 75 trucks of stage equipment (1,000 tons), 10 trucks of sound equipment and 27 trucks of lighting equipment are used.
Since 2014, the electric output has amounted to 12 megawatts, roughly matching the needs of a small town counting 70,000 inhabitants. In addition, 40 diesel-fuelled emergency power generators are required. 25 electricians are responsible for the power supply.
600,000 Euros were spent on the construction of sewage systems and the improvement of power supply on the festival grounds. At the same time, 700,000 Euros worth of drains were installed in front of the stages in order to improve the drainage of water masses during heavy rains. The main paths were also paved with 10 km of mobile roads to facilitate access for rescue vehicles.
A total of approximately 5,000 employees work for the festival, including 1,800 security staff members, 150 cleaners, 70 construction and dismantling assistants, as well as 400 police officers, 250 firefighters, 900 paramedics, and six emergency doctors.
In 2017, a beer pipeline measuring one kilometer to supply ten dispensing systems was used for the first time. At full capacity, this construction allowed for 10,000 litres of beer to be tapped within the hour.
=== Stages ===
Wacken Open Air now boasts eight stages for musicians and accompanying entertainment. The most important ones are the Faster and the Harder Stage, which are designed as connected twin stages and have a shared sound and lighting system. Together with the slightly smaller Louder Stage, these two stages make up the Infield, or The Holy Ground. All three stages are also equipped with video walls to allow visibility of the performers even from remote positions.
Up until 2016, these three stages were called Black Stage, True Metal Stage, and Party Stage. After Wacken 2016, visitors were encouraged to suggest new names. From these suggestions, the best ideas were to be put up to a vote in a survey. Instead, however, the slogan "Faster - Harder - Louder" became the inspiration for the names and the three stages were renamed accordingly.
Two more twin stages, the W.E.T. Stage (Wacken Evolution Tent) and the Headbanger Stage, are located inside a big tent called Bullhead City Circus. The Metal Battle takes place on these stages on Wednesday and Thursday, followed by regular band appearances on the days after.
While the large stages and tent stages are open to all genres, the remaining stages are dedicated to specific themes. The Wackinger Stage is located in the medieval area of the festival and is played primarily by bands from Folk, Pagan and Medieval genres, while the Wasteland Stage, which was established in 2014, is geared towards music with an apocalyptic touch. The Beergarden Stage is modelled after typical folk festival stages, but also accommodates permanent Wacken guests such as the Wacken Firefighters and Mambo Kurt.
=== Event area ===
Wacken Open Air's event area is divided into several structurally separated sections. Since 2014, only one major security check is performed upon entering the grounds, after that, only the festival wristbands are checked.
Special features of the W:O:A include the Wackinger area, which resembles a medieval market and contains specialty food and beverage stalls as well as the Wackinger Stage, where matching music is played. Various walking acts also entertain the audience. This area borders on the Wasteland designed by the Wasteland Warriors, where a post-apocalyptic world and stage (Wastelandstage) styled in homage to the Mad Max franchise is set up.
The area in front of the main stages comprises both the Bavarian beer garden and a large shopping mile called Metal Markt. There are also various food stalls, the Wacken Foundation Camp, ATMs, and the Movie Field, where Heavy Metal documentaries and feature films are screened.
The most important stages, the focal point of the festival, are located in the so-called Infield, which can be reached only via the Center. In addition to these stages, it also hosts food and beverage stalls.
=== Camping grounds ===
As Wacken Open Air only sells 3-day tickets, the majority of visitors spend the entire festival on-site. As a result, most of the more than 240 hectares of the festival site are designated camping areas. Camping opens on Monday and has been included in the ticket price since 2017. However, in the years before, an extra fee was charged for arrival before Wednesday.
The campsite is equipped with showers, flushing toilets, portable toilets, drinking fountains, small supermarkets, food stalls and information boards, and is continuously patrolled by the police, fire brigade and security services. A refuse collection service collects refuse bags on the premises.
Since the large crowds lead to a bottleneck situation in terms of mobile service, some providers now set up portable base stations for GSM, UMTS, and LTE+ during the festival.
=== Medical services ===
A festival of this size needs capable medical services, which here are called the Wacken Rescue Squad. Every year, hundreds of helpers from various relief organisations from all over Germany arrive before the festival to prepare the medical camp and care for people in need during the event. The medical service is managed by the local DRK association in Kaltenkirchen.
The visiting and local relief organisations provide vehicles and material during the course of the festival. These include ambulances and radios for communication in particular. Due to the road conditions, quads and foot patrols are often used in Wacken, especially in the vicinity of the medical centre. In addition to the medical service, which counts approx. 270 people at peak times, the rescue service cooperation Schleswig-Holstein has more than ten emergency vehicles (ambulances and mobile intensive care units) on site while coordinating the overall emergency management.
In 2013, around 3,300 people received medical care from approximately 500 medics.
=== Crime and accidents ===
Despite the size of the festival, no serious security problems have been encountered so far. Disputes among visitors are rare, and in 2011, a total of 20 reports of bodily injury was filed. The main problem consists of several hundred reported thefts each year. In 2011, police were able to arrest three gangs of thieves. In comparison to other events of this scale, the festival is classified by police as secure.
So far there have been four deaths and some serious injuries:
In 2005, a heavily intoxicated 37-year-old crashed into an ambulance moving at walking pace and succumbed to his head injuries in the hospital. To support his family, organisers held a fundraising event; W:O:A 2006 honoured the deceased with a minute's silence.
In 2011, a rioting fan was overwhelmed by security guards in the village and died of cardiovascular arrest.
In 2012, a 22-year-old festival visitor went to sleep near a generator and breathed in its carbon monoxide fumes. He could not be revived.
In 2013, a 52-year-old visitor from Poland died of natural causes in his tent. That same year, a fan was seriously injured when the cartridge of his camping stove exploded for unknown reasons.
In 2016, two men were injured when one of them set fire to illegal firecrackers and the other tried to stop him. Reports that one of the men's ears had been torn off turned out to be false.
In 2017, a 16-year-old was seriously injured while trying to refill a camping stove with denatured alcohol.
== Commitment ==
=== Metal Battle ===
W:O:A Metal Battle is an international band contest first held in 2004. During Metal Battle, newcomer bands compete against each other in national qualifiers and finals; the winner of each country then competes against the other finalists in the grand finale at Wacken Open Air.
An international jury selects the competition's best bands. In earlier years, winners of the competition were offered a record deal, whereas nowadays, the five best bands receive cash or material prizes.
=== Wacken Foundation ===
The Wacken Foundation was founded in 2009 by the festival's organisers and serves as a charitable foundation. Its objective is to support young bands from the Heavy Metal genre.
Sponsorship is granted to specific projects such as the production of a CD or the realisation of a tour. In addition, the Wacken Foundation provides information about its projects at many European festivals each summer. Since the 2017/2018 season, the Wacken Foundation's lettering can be found on the jerseys of German 3rd league club FC Carl Zeiss Jena. This was facilitated by jersey sponsors Heaven Shall Burn, whose logo has been moved to the jersey's sleeve for this cause. Part of the proceeds from the jersey's sale is donated to the foundation.
=== Wacken Music Camp ===
2014 saw Wacken Music Camp take place for the first time. One week after the festival ended, young people from all over Germany were invited to write and play their own songs under the guidance of professional musicians. They were accommodated in the so-called Kuhle, the site of the first Wacken Open Air.
=== Blood donations ===
The organisers regularly call for blood donations with the whole festival team. Blood is donated at the Itzehoe Clinic and the entire wing is decorated in W:O:A style, while Heavy Metal is blasted through the speakers.
=== DKMS typing campaign ===
Since W:O:A 2014, visitors and musicians have been encouraged to have their bone marrow typed for donation by the German Bone Marrow Donor Database. In 2014, 2,700 visitors took this opportunity.
=== Stark gegen Krebs – Strong against cancer ===
The festival works with the organisers of the so-called Wattolümpiade ("mudflat Olympics") in Brunsbüttel to promote the slogan Stark gegen Krebs ("Strong against cancer"). The festival's team helps out with logistics for the event.
== Related events ==
In addition to the festival itself, there are numerous other events planned and carried out by the organisers.
=== Hamburg Metal Dayz ===
The indoor festival Hamburg Metal Dayz takes place at the same time as the Reeperbahn-Festival and is considered a get-together for the scene. In addition to concerts, there are panels with musicians, managers, and other Metal experts, as well as workshops and a question and answer session with the W:O:A organisers.
=== Wacken Roadshow ===
For the Wacken Roadshow, several bands tour Europe under the banner of Wacken Open Air. These concerts are meant to complement the warm-up parties organised in many places.
=== Wacken Rocks ===
Several open-air festivals called Wacken Rocks were held in the past to transport the Wacken atmosphere to other places.
=== Wacken Winter Nights ===
Wacken Winter Nights (WWN), a three-day Folk and Medieval open-air festival, took place for the first time in February 2017 at temperatures of -2 to -6 degrees Celsius in Wacken. With over 3,500 attendees, the festival's first edition sold out several weeks in advance. Most of them spent the nights on the camping site. A second edition took place from 23 to 25 February 2018. Due to the construction on the previous year's campground, the overnight accommodations were relocated to the area that is also used for the regular Open Air. The walking distance, therefore, increased to about 15 minutes. With 4,000 visitors, the 2018 event also sold out. For the third event in 2019, the festival grounds were expanded considerably and 5,000 visitors attended. The fourth WWNs are planned for the 14th to 16 February 2020.
=== Zum Wackinger ===
The former country-style restaurant Zur Post in Wacken, built in 1919, has been the hub of the village and the surrounding communities for decades. It was here that bartenders Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner conceived the idea for today's Wacken Open Air. Today, it is used to accommodate staff and to serve other business purposes. A series of events called "Zum Wackinger" sees artists from music, comedy, and entertainment perform regularly. Since 2016, a two-day medieval feast with jugglers and bards takes place here.
=== Metal Monday ===
In the summer of 1990, Metal Monday took place for the first time at Knust in Hamburg. For five years, regional, national and international Metal bands like De la Cruz, 5th Avenue, and King Køng played at Knust every Monday. After a break of almost 20 years, Metal Monday was revived by the Wacken Open Air organisers in 2014 in cooperation with the Knust, Seaside Touring, All Access, and Hamburg Konzerte. Metal, Rock, and Folkrock bands now perform once a month, following the motto "three bands - small entrance fee". In addition to regional bands, international newcomers are always invited.
=== Metal Church ===
The Evangelical Lutheran Village Church in Wacken belongs to the Lutheran congregation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany. For Wacken Open Air and Wacken Winter Nights, it is turned into the Metal Church. During said festivals, the Metal Service is held here and bands from the Folk and Medieval scene perform in the church.
=== Full Metal Mountain ===
During the winters of 2016, 2017 and 2018, an annual ski trip to Nassfeld, Austria was organised for Metal fans under the name Full Metal Mountain. Numerous bands and artists were present. For 2019, the festival was cancelled entirely.
=== Full Metal Holiday ===
Planning and preparation are underway for a holiday trip to Mallorca with the title Full Metal Holiday - Destination Mallorca, which will offer Metal concerts on the beach from 12 to 19 October 2020. The event was originally planned for 2017 and said to head to Ibiza, then rescheduled for 2018 and changed to Mallorca.
=== Full Metal Cruise ===
Cruises with Heavy Metal bands on board under the name Full Metal Cruise have been organised within Europe since 2013.
=== StrongmanRun ===
The Fisherman's Friend StrongmanRun visited the Metal festival grounds of Wacken for the first time in April 2016. With their Wacken debut, the StrongmanRun season formally kicked off. About 3,000 participants, some in colourful costumes, took part in the run on the 20 km track with 40 obstacles. In 2017, the StrongmanRun took place on the festival grounds.
== Merchandise ==
A wide range of merchandising has also been developed over the years. In addition to T-shirts and a comprehensive range of CDs and DVDs, the festival also has accompanying print media. The W:O:A History Book contains the open-air's history up until 2005. The book Die Wahrheit über Wacken ("The truth about Wacken", Oidium Verlag 2005, new edition published at Verlag Andreas Reiffer 2011) provides a more humorous account of the festival. It was written by satirist Till Burgwächter in collaboration with comic artist Jan Oidium and is also available as an audio book comprising three CDs. The publication of a Metal cookbook shows how far merchandising has come. However, the mounting range of merchandising has led to growing criticism, as some consider it to be purely profit-oriented. The increasing coverage of the festival, especially in the wake of the documentary Full Metal Village, is perceived by the traditional Metal scene as "selling out".
In 2005, Wacken Premium Pilsner was offered as the festival's "own" beer for the first time. It was produced in the Bavarian brewery Maximiliansbrauerei in Chieming. At W:O:A 2006 and 2007, the beer was available as well, this time produced in 0.5-litre bottles by the Flensburger brewery. The large number of glass shards later forced the organisers to switch to 0.5-litre cans.
As a motto, the phrase "See you in Wacken - Rain or Shine" has established itself alongside "Faster, Harder, Louder". Additionally, the festival features the sentence "Louder Than Hell" in its advertising.
The organisers of Wacken Open Air have been releasing an official live DVD every year since 2003:
Metal Overdrive: Wacken Overdrive, 2003
Armageddon Over Wacken 2003, 2003
Armageddon Over Wacken 2004, 2004
Armageddon Over Wacken 2005, 2005
Wacken 2006 – Live at W:O:A, 2006
Wacken 2007: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2007
Wacken 2008: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2008
Wacken 2009: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2009
Wacken 2010: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2010
Wacken 2011: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2011
Wacken 2012: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2012
Wacken 2013: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2014
Wacken – Der Film, 2014
25 Years of Wacken: Snapshots, Sraps, Thoughts & Sounds, 2015
Wacken 2014: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2015
Live At Wacken 2015 – 26 Years Louder Than Hell, 2016
Live at Wacken 2016 – 27 Years Louder Than Hell, 2017
Live at Wacken 2017 – 28 Years Louder Than Hell, 2018
Live at Wacken 2018 - 29 Years Louder Than Hell, 2019
Live at Wacken 2019 - 30 Years Birthday Harder Louder than hell, 2019
== Media ==
=== Documentaries ===
German television has produced numerous Wacken Open-Air documentaries in recent years. The following list is therefore not complete:
Metalheads, documentary on the 10th anniversary of Wacken Open Air (director: Thomas Greiner)
Nordland, documentary on the 15th anniversary of Wacken Open Air (director: Thomas Greiner (author))
Full Metal Village, 2006 (Director: Cho Sung-Hyung)
Ein Dorf im Ausnahmezustand - A village in a state of emergency / Three days of Wacken - Bauernschlau und Heavy-Metal, 2006 (film by Petra Petersen, NDR)
Rockpalast (WDR), Festival Wacken-Open-Air, 2006, 2007 and 2009, each approx. 2 h documentary, can be downloaded free of charge in the media library of the public broadcaster (as of February 2016)
Wahnsinn Wacken, 2007 (DMAX) approx. 1 h documentary
Ein Dorf und 100.000 Rockfans, 2008 (ZDF)
Metaller die auf Brüste starren, 2010
Road To Wacken - The Movie, 2011
Heavy Metal auf der Wiese, 2011 (NDR) (Director: Manfred Studer)
Heavy Metal trifft Karniggels - Detlev Buck goes Wacken, 2012 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig)
Heiter, harder, louder, 2013 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig)
Alles auf Schwarz – Wacken!!! Sarnau und Hübner bei den Metalheads, 2013 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig)
Wacken 3D, 2014 (Director: Norbert Heitker) - also in 2D.
25 Years Louder Than Hell - The W:O:A Documentary, Jun 2015, DVD and Blu-ray, 3 Eps. 45 min, 1 h 5 min, 42 min, original sound: German, English, and Spanish with subtitles in German, English.
Road To Wacken, 2016 (DMAX) - two-part documentary (45 min each) about the band Blind Guardian, who plan, prepare and perform their set at W:O:A, as well as the festival itself, its visitors, the village of Wacken and its inhabitants.
Welcome to Wacken - A Documentary Film in Virtual Reality, Jul 2017 (Director: Sam Dunn), °360 VR Film in English in five parts, with animations of the festival area.[87][88]
Der Wacken-Wahnsinn, Wie geht das? NDR Television, August 2018
Legend of Wacken | Making Of | RTL+ RTL+ Television, July 2023
W:O:A - Wacken Open Air Festival: Schlammfest des Heavy Metal | WELT HD DOKU August 2023
Since 1999, various documentaries about W:O:A have been made. The first documentary, Metalheads - The Official Documentary, was produced in 1999 on the occasion of the festival's 10th anniversary and was released on VHS by Rock Hard in 2000. The film team lived on the festival grounds for ten days prior to the actual start of the festival and documented the work of construction workers, farmers such as Uwe Trede, villagers, fans and organisers. Although the film shows excerpts from performances by some of the bands and interviews with the artists, it is more of a behind-the-scenes documentary. The film was produced with the simplest means, including a professional Hi8 and a Mini-DV camera and a team of three, and was regarded by the organisers as a trial run on the subject of film. According to the organisers, a total of 10,000 copies were made and sold. The film Nordland was shot for the 15th edition of W:O:A, but was only used for internal promotion. Both films were made by Thomas Greiner.
The documentary Metal: A Headbanger's Journey by Sam Dunn (2005) features Wacken Open Air. The festival is described as a Mecca of Heavy Metal. The film Full Metal Village by director Cho Sung-Hyung, made in 2005 and 2006, portrays the people of Wacken dealing with the festival. In 2006, she was awarded the main award of the Hessischer Filmpreis and the Schleswig-Holstein Filmpreis for best documentary. Full Metal Village was the first documentary ever to win the Max Ophüls Award for young filmmakers in 2007. WDR-Rockpalast profiled the festival in 2006, 2007, and 2009 with two-hour documentaries. Broadcaster DMAX also sent a camera team and produced a one-hour documentary on the construction of W:O:A in 2007.
ZDF television filmed the 30-minute feature Ein Dorf und 100.000 Rockfans about Wacken Open Air 2008.
The aforementioned projects are almost identical in content; they invite visitors, organisers, and the citizens of Wacken to comment on the festival and generally present it in a positive way. However, there has been criticism of the fact that the Wacken Firefighters have been featured too prominently. The three Rockpalast documentaries focus on interviews with the musicians and the performances of the bands.
Another perspective is offered by the low-budget production Metaller die auf Brüste starren ("The Metalheads Who Stare At Breasts", title based on The Men Who Stare At Goats), which five festival attendees shot during their stay at Wacken. "Offener Kanal Bad Offenbach" is listed as its official producer. The film shows the festival from the filmmakers' (subjective) point of view and comments on the events in the style of New Journalism. In contrast to other documentaries, this one focuses on the fans. Whether it's a documentary in the true sense of the word or whether the film is just entertainment remains controversial. The filmmakers themselves avoid this question and classify their work as a "trash documentary". The film premiered on 5 May 2011.
Schleswig-Holstein's Prime Minister Peter Harry Carstensen (CDU) commented on the opening of W:O:A 2009: "I don't come here to listen to the music, but I do identify with the festival".
=== Live albums recorded at Wacken ===
Numerous bands have recorded their performances at Wacken Open Air and released them as audio CDs or DVDs. The following list contains only full live albums and no albums containing only individual live tracks from the festival:
Hypocrisy – Hypocrisy Destroys Wacken, 1999
Rose Tattoo – 25 to Live, 2000
Tygers of Pan Tang – Live at Wacken, 2001
Grave Digger – Tunes of Wacken – Live, 2002
Twisted Sister – Live at Wacken: The Reunion, 2005
Bloodbath – The Wacken Carnage, 2005
Scorpions – Live at Wacken Open Air 2006
Emperor – Live at Wacken Open Air 2006
Dimmu Borgir – The Invaluable Darkness, 2007
Rage – Live in Wacken 2007 (bonus DVD for the album Carved in Stone), 2008
Mambo Kurt – The Orgel Has Landed: Live at Wacken, 2008
Lacuna Coil - Visual Karma (Body, Mind and Soul), 2008
Avantasia – The Flying Opera, 2008
Die Apokalyptischen Reiter – Tobsucht (Reitermania over Wacken & Party.San), 2008
Atheist – Unquestionable Presence: Live at Wacken, 2009
Heaven & Hell: Neon Nights: 30 Years of Heaven & Hell (CD & DVD format), 2009
Exodus – Shovel Headed Tour Machine – Live at Wacken, 2010
Grave Digger – The Clans Are Still Marching, 2010
Immortal – The Seventh Date of Blashyrkh, 2010
Rage – Live in Wacken 2009 (bonus DVD for the album Strings to a Web), 2010
At the Gates – Purgatory Unleashed – Live at Wacken, 2010
Running Wild – The Final Jolly Roger
Motörhead – The Wörld Is Ours – Vol. 2: Anyplace Crazy as Anywhere Else, 2011
Saxon – Heavy Metal Thunder – Live – Eagles Over Wacken, 2012
Sacred Reich – Live At Wacken Open Air, 2012
Degradead – Live at Wacken And Beyond, 2012
Megaherz – Götterdämmerung: Live At Wacken 2012, 2012
Gorgoroth – Live at Wacken 2008, 2012
God Seed – Live at Wacken, 2012
Atrocity – Die Gottlosen Jahre – Live In Wacken, 2012
Ministry – Enjoy The Quiet: Live at Wacken 2012, 2013
Airbourne – Live at Wacken 2011, 2013
Nightwish – Showtime, Storytime, 2013
Alice Cooper – Raise The Dead : Live From Wacken, 2014
Circle II Circle – Live at Wacken (Official Bootleg), 2014
Deep Purple – From the Setting Sun … In Wacken (recorded in 2013), 2015
Sabaton – Heroes On Tour, 2015
Europe – War Of Kings Special Edition, DVD/BluRay 2 Live at Wacken, 2015
Danko Jones – Live at Wacken (recorded in 2015), 2016
Judas Priest – Battle Cry, 2016
Unisonic – Live in Wacken, 2017
Hansen & Friends – Thank You Wacken live, 2017
Arch Enemy – As The Stages Burn! (recorded in 2016), 2017
Status Quo – Down Down & Dirty at Wacken (recorded in 2017), 2018
Accept – Symphonic Terror - Live at Wacken 2017, 2018
Epica – Live in Wacken, 2018
Parkway Drive – Viva The Underdogs, 2020
Sabaton – 20th Anniversary Show (recorded in 2019), 2021
Dream Theater - Lost Not Forgotten Archives: Live at Wacken (2015) (recorded in 2015), 2022
Visions of Atlantis - Pirates over Wacken (record in 2022), 2023
Tarja Turunen - Rocking Heels: Live at Metal Church (recorded in 2016), 2023
=== Other media ===
On 12 July 2023 the broadcaster RTL+ started airing the first season of six episodes of the mini series Legend of Wacken
The plot is about the struggle of the founders to kick off their festival idea with comedy and satiric style. When Holger is nearly electrocuted by a live wire he (in a coma) and his co-organizer Thomas reflect on their creation, the Wacken Open Air Heavy Metal Festival that in 1990 had an audience of 800 and now attracts 100,000 fans per year. The cast of the founders: Sammy Scheuritzel as young Holger Hübner, Charly Hübner as older Holger Hübner, Sebastian Jakob Doppelbauer as young Thomas Jansen and Aurel Manthei as older Thomas Jansen. It is not an accurate documentary series and has a huge part of fiction.
In her crime novels Tod in Wacken and Der Teufel von Wacken, author Heike Denzau places her storylines at Wacken Open Air, describing the location as well as the festival and its visitors.
To mark its 30th anniversary, the Norddeutsche Rundschau published a special edition that offered insights into the organisation of the Wacken Open Air. In addition, there will be a special exhibition at the Prinzesshof Kreismuseum in Itzehoe to mark the anniversary.
Selected concerts of Wacken Open Air 2014 were broadcast live in an online stream. Furthermore, the cooperation between Spiegel Online and Arte made some performances available as video on demand.
== Awards ==
In 2008, W:O:A received the Live Entertainment Award (LEA) for best festival of 2007.
Wacken Open Air 2018 was named the best major festival at the European Festival Awards 2018 and best festival at the Helga! Awards.
== Further reading ==
Till Burgwächter: Zwischen Aasbüttel und Vahlenmoor. Die Wahrheit!!! – über Wacken. Oidium, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-9809697-5-4 → edition 2011; ISBN 978-3-934896-35-2.
Andreas Schöwe: Wacken Roll – Das größte Heavy Metal-Festival der Welt. 2., updated and extended edition. Hannibal Verlag, Höfen 2012, ISBN 978-3-85445-376-5.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official Wacken Radio
Website of ICS (organiser)
Festival history with a list of the bands that have performed |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX#:~:text=March%2014%2C%202002%20in%20El%20Segundo%2C%20California%2C%20U.S.&text=The%20company%20offers%20internet%20service,6%2C000%20small%20satellites%20in%20orbit. | SpaceX | Space Exploration Technologies Corp., commonly known as SpaceX, is a private American aerospace company and space transportation company headquartered at the Starbase development site in Starbase, Texas. Since its founding in 2002, the company has made numerous advances in rocket propulsion, reusable launch vehicles, human spaceflight and satellite constellation technology. As of 2025, SpaceX is the world's dominant space launch provider, its launch cadence eclipsing all others, including private competitors and national programs like the Chinese space program. SpaceX, NASA, and the United States Armed Forces work closely together by means of governmental contracts.
SpaceX was founded by Elon Musk in 2002 with a vision of decreasing the costs of space launches, paving the way to a self-sustaining colony on Mars. In 2008, Falcon 1 successfully launched into orbit after three failed launch attempts. The company then moved towards the development of the larger Falcon 9 rocket and the Dragon 1 capsule to satisfy NASA's COTS contracts for deliveries to the International Space Station. By 2012, SpaceX finished all COTS test flights and began delivering Commercial Resupply Services missions to the International Space Station. Also around that time, SpaceX started developing hardware to make the Falcon 9 first stage reusable. The company demonstrated the first successful first-stage landing in 2015 and re-launch of the first stage in 2017. Falcon Heavy, built from three Falcon 9 boosters, first flew in 2018 after a more than decade-long development process. As of May 2025, the company's Falcon 9 rockets have landed and flown again more than 450 times, reaching 1–3 launches a week.
These milestones delivered the company much-needed investment and SpaceX sought to diversify its sources of income. In 2019, the first operational satellite of the Starlink internet satellite constellation came online. In subsequent years, Starlink generated the bulk of SpaceX's income and paved the way for its Starshield military counterpart. In 2020, SpaceX began to operate its Dragon 2 capsules to deliver crewed missions for NASA and private entities. Around this time, SpaceX began building test prototypes for Starship, which is the largest launch vehicle in history and aims to fully realize the company's vision of a fully reusable, cost-effective and adaptable launch vehicle. SpaceX is also developing its own space suit and astronaut via its Polaris program as well as developing the human lander for lunar missions under NASA's Artemis program. SpaceX is not publicly traded; a space industry newspaper estimated that SpaceX has a revenue of over $10 billion in 2024.
== History ==
=== 2001–2004: Founding ===
In early 2001, Elon Musk met Robert Zubrin and donated $100,000 to his Mars Society, joining its board of directors for a short time. He gave a plenary talk at their fourth convention where he announced Mars Oasis, a project to land a greenhouse and grow plants on Mars. Musk initially attempted to acquire a Dnepr launch vehicle for the project through Russian contacts from Jim Cantrell.
Musk returned with his team to Moscow, this time bringing Michael Griffin, who later became the 11th Administrator of NASA, but found the Russians increasingly unreceptive. On the flight home, Musk announced he could start a company to build the affordable rockets they needed instead. By applying vertical integration, using inexpensive commercial off-the-shelf components when possible, and adopting the modular approach of modern software engineering, Musk believed SpaceX could significantly cut launch costs.
In early 2002, Elon Musk started to look for staff for his company, soon to be named SpaceX. Musk approached five people for the initial positions at the fledgling company, including Griffin, who declined the position of Chief Engineer, Jim Cantrell and John Garvey (Cantrell and Garvey later founded the company Vector Launch), rocket engineer Tom Mueller, and Chris Thompson. SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California. Early SpaceX employees, such as Tom Mueller (CTO), Gwynne Shotwell (COO), and Chris Thompson (VP of Operations), came from neighboring TRW and Boeing corporations. By November 2005, the company had 160 employees. Musk personally interviewed and approved all of SpaceX's early employees.
Musk has stated that one of his goals with SpaceX is to decrease the cost and improve the reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten.
=== 2005–2009: Falcon 1 and first orbital launches ===
SpaceX developed its first orbital launch vehicle, the Falcon 1, with internal funding. The Falcon 1 was an expendable two-stage-to-orbit small-lift launch vehicle. The total development cost of Falcon 1 was approximately $90 million to $100 million.
The Falcon rocket series was named after Star Wars's Millennium Falcon fictional spacecraft.
In 2004, SpaceX protested against NASA to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) because of a sole-source contract awarded to Kistler Aerospace. Before the GAO could respond, NASA withdrew the contract, and formed the COTS program. In 2005, SpaceX announced plans to pursue a human-rated commercial space program through the end of the decade, a program that would later become the Dragon spacecraft. In 2006, the company was selected by NASA and awarded $396 million to provide crew and cargo resupply demonstration contracts to the International Space Station (ISS) under the COTS program.
The first two Falcon 1 launches were purchased by the United States Department of Defense under the DARPA Falcon Project which evaluated new U.S. launch vehicles suitable for use in hypersonic missile delivery for Prompt Global Strike. The first three launches of the rocket, between 2006 and 2008, all resulted in failures, which almost ended the company. Financing for Tesla Motors had failed, as well, and consequently Tesla, SolarCity, and Musk personally were all nearly bankrupt at the same time. Musk was reportedly "waking from nightmares, screaming and in physical pain" because of the stress.
The financial situation started to turn around with the first successful launch achieved on the fourth attempt on September 28, 2008. Musk split his remaining $30 million between SpaceX and Tesla, and NASA awarded the first Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract awarding $1.6 billion to SpaceX in December, thus financially saving the company. Based on these factors and the further business operations they enabled, the Falcon 1 was soon retired following its second successful, and fifth total, launch in July 2009. This allowed SpaceX to focus company resources on the development of a larger orbital rocket, the Falcon 9. Gwynne Shotwell was also promoted to company president at the time, for her role in successfully negotiating the CRS contract with the NASA Associate Administrator Bill Gerstenmaier.
=== 2010–2012: Falcon 9, Dragon, and NASA contracts ===
SpaceX originally intended to follow its light Falcon 1 launch vehicle with an intermediate capacity vehicle, the Falcon 5. The company instead decided in 2005 to proceed with the development of the Falcon 9, a reusable heavier lift vehicle. Development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated by NASA, which committed to purchasing several commercial flights if specific capabilities were demonstrated. This started with seed money from the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006. The overall contract award was $278 million to provide development funding for the Dragon spacecraft, Falcon 9, and demonstration launches of Falcon 9 with Dragon. As part of this contract, the Falcon 9 launched for the first time in June 2010 with the Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit, using a mockup of the Dragon spacecraft.
The first operational Dragon spacecraft was launched in December 2010 aboard COTS Demo Flight 1, the Falcon 9's second flight, and safely returned to Earth after two orbits, completing all its mission objectives. By December 2010, the SpaceX production line was manufacturing one Falcon 9 and Dragon every three months.
In April 2011, as part of its second-round Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, NASA issued a $75 million contract for SpaceX to develop an integrated launch escape system for Dragon in preparation for human-rating it as a crew transport vehicle to the ISS. NASA awarded SpaceX a fixed-price Space Act Agreement (SAA) to produce a detailed design of the crew transportation system in August 2012.
In early 2012, approximately two-thirds of SpaceX stock was owned by Musk and his seventy million shares were then estimated to be worth $875 million on private markets, valuing SpaceX at $1.3 billion. In May 2012, with the Dragon C2+ launch, Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to deliver cargo to the International Space Station. After the flight, the company private equity valuation nearly doubled to $2.4 billion or $20/share. By that time, SpaceX had operated on total funding of approximately $1 billion over its first decade of operation. Of this, private equity provided approximately $200 million, with Musk investing approximately $100 million and other investors having put in about $100 million.
SpaceX's active reusability test program began in late 2012 with testing low-altitude, low-speed aspects of the landing technology. The Falcon 9 prototypes performed vertical takeoffs and landings (VTOL). High-velocity, high-altitude tests of the booster atmospheric return technology began in late 2013.
=== 2013–2015: Commercial launches and rapid growth ===
SpaceX launched the first commercial mission for a private customer in 2013. In 2014, SpaceX won nine contracts out of the 20 that were openly competed worldwide. That year Arianespace requested that European governments provide additional subsidies to face the competition from SpaceX. Beginning in 2014, SpaceX capabilities and pricing also began to affect the market for launch of U.S. military payloads, which for nearly a decade had been dominated by the large U.S. launch provider United Launch Alliance (ULA). The monopoly had allowed launch costs by the U.S. provider to rise to over $400 million over the years. In September 2014, NASA's Director of Commercial Spaceflight, Kevin Crigler, awarded SpaceX the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract to finalize the development of the Crew Transportation System. The contract included several technical and certification milestones, an uncrewed flight test, a crewed flight test, and six operational missions after certification.
In January 2015, SpaceX raised $1 billion in funding from Google and Fidelity Investments, in exchange for 8.33% of the company, establishing the company valuation at approximately $12 billion. The same month SpaceX announced the development of a new satellite constellation, called Starlink, to provide global broadband internet service with 4,000 satellites.
The Falcon 9 had its first major failure in late June 2015, when the seventh ISS resupply mission, CRS-7 exploded two minutes into the flight. The problem was traced to a failed two-foot-long steel strut that held a helium pressure vessel, which broke free due to the force of acceleration. This caused a breach and allowed high-pressure helium to escape into the low-pressure propellant tank, causing the failure.
=== 2015–2017: Reusability milestones ===
SpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage in December 2015 with Falcon 9 Flight 20. In April 2016, the company achieved the first successful landing on the autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS) Of Course I Still Love You in the Atlantic Ocean. By October 2016, following the successful landings, SpaceX indicated they were offering their customers a 10% price discount if they choose to fly their payload on a reused Falcon 9 first stage.
A second major rocket failure happened in early September 2016, when a Falcon 9 exploded during a propellant fill operation for a standard pre-launch static fire test. The payload, the AMOS-6 communications satellite valued at $200 million, was destroyed. The explosion was caused by the liquid oxygen that is used as propellant turning so cold that it solidified and ignited with carbon composite helium vessels. Though not considered an unsuccessful flight, the rocket explosion sent the company into a four-month launch hiatus while it worked out what went wrong. SpaceX returned to flight in January 2017.
In March 2017, SpaceX launched a returned Falcon 9 for the SES-10 satellite. This was the first time a re-launch of a payload-carrying orbital rocket went back to space. The first stage was recovered again, also making it the first landing of a reused orbital class rocket.
=== 2017–2018: Leading global commercial launch provider ===
In July 2017, the company raised $350 million, which raised its valuation to $21 billion. In 2017, SpaceX achieved a 45% global market share for awarded commercial launch contracts. By March 2018, SpaceX had more than 100 launches on its manifest representing about $12 billion in contract revenue. The contracts included both commercial and government (NASA/DOD) customers. This made SpaceX the leading global commercial launch provider measured by manifested launches.
In 2017, SpaceX formed a subsidiary, The Boring Company, and began work to construct a short test tunnel on and adjacent to the SpaceX headquarters and manufacturing facility, using a small number of SpaceX employees, which was completed in May 2018, and opened to the public in December 2018. During 2018, The Boring Company was spun out into a separate corporate entity with 6% of the equity going to SpaceX, less than 10% to early employees, and the remainder of the equity to Elon Musk.
=== Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general ===
In 2019 SpaceX raised $1.33 billion of capital across three funding rounds. By May 2019, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $33.3 billion and reached $36 billion by March 2020.
On August 19, 2020, after a $1.9 billion funding round, one of the largest single fundraising pushes by any privately held company, SpaceX's valuation increased to $46 billion.
In February 2021, SpaceX raised an additional $1.61 billion in an equity round from 99 investors at a per share value of approximately $420, raising the company valuation to approximately $74 billion. By 2021, SpaceX had raised more than $6 billion in equity financing. Most of the capital raised since 2019 has been used to support the operational fielding of the Starlink satellite constellation and the development and manufacture of the Starship launch vehicle. By October 2021, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to $100.3 billion. On April 16, 2021, Starship HLS won a contract to play a critical role in the NASA crewed spaceflight Artemis program. By 2021, SpaceX had entered into agreements with Google Cloud Platform and Microsoft Azure to provide on-ground computer and networking services for Starlink. A new round of financing in 2022 valued SpaceX at $127 billion.
In July 2021, SpaceX unveiled another drone ship named A Shortfall of Gravitas, landing a booster from CRS-23 on it for the first time on August 29, 2021. Within the first 130 days of 2022, SpaceX had 18 rocket launches and two astronaut splashdowns. On December 13, 2021, company CEO Elon Musk announced that the company was starting a carbon dioxide removal program that would convert captured carbon into rocket fuel, after he announced a $100 million donation to the X Prize Foundation the previous February to provide the monetary rewards to winners in a contest to develop the best carbon capture technology.
In August 2022, Reuters reported that the European Space Agency (ESA) began initial discussions with SpaceX that could lead to the company's launchers being used temporarily, given that Russia blocked access to Soyuz rockets amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Since that invasion and in the greater war between Russia and Ukraine, Starlink was extensively used.
In 2022, SpaceX's Falcon 9 also became the world record holder for the most launches of a single vehicle type in a single year. SpaceX launched a rocket approximately every six days in 2022, with 61 launches in total. All but one (a Falcon Heavy in November) was on a Falcon 9 rocket.
In November 2023, SpaceX announced it would acquire its parachute supplier Pioneer Aerospace out of bankruptcy for $2.2 million.
On July 16, 2024, Elon Musk posted on X that SpaceX would move its headquarters from Hawthorne, California, to SpaceX Starbase in Brownsville, Texas. Musk said this was because the recently passed California AB1955 bill "and the many others that preceded it, attacking both families and companies". This new law in California bans school districts from requiring that teachers notify parents about changes to a student's sexual orientation and gender identity. The headquarters officially moved to Brownsville, Texas in August 2024, according to records filed with the California Secretary of State. The move to relocate SpaceX's headquarters was seen as largely symbolic, at least in the short term. The Hawthorne facility continues to support the company's Falcon launch vehicles, which was SpaceX's workhorse product in 2024.
SpaceX's 2024 Polaris Dawn mission featured the first-ever private spacewalk, marking a major milestone in commercial space exploration.
In 2025, ProPublica reported that Chinese investors were investing in SpaceX via offshore entities, such as the Cayman Islands. Experts speculated that this might raise national security concerns with regulators. Later in 2025 ProPublica reported that Chinese equity ownership in SpaceX likely extended to direct investment, citing the court testimony of investor Iqbaljit Kahlon.
By July 2025, as part of $5 Billion equity raise SpaceX agreed to invest $2 billion in xAI.
==== Starship ====
In January 2019, SpaceX announced it would lay off 10% of its workforce to help finance the Starship and Starlink projects. The purpose of the Starship vehicle is to enable large-scale transit of humans and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. SpaceX's Starship is the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown, with a planned payload capacity of 100+ tons. Construction of initial prototypes and tests for Starship started in early 2019 in Florida and Texas. All Starship construction and testing moved to the new SpaceX South Texas launch site later that year.
On April 20, 2023, Starship's first orbital flight test ended in a mid-air explosion over the Gulf of Mexico before booster separation. After launch, multiple engines in the booster progressively failed, causing the vehicle to reach max q later than planned. "Max q" is the theoretical point of maximal mechanical stress which occurs during the launch sequence of a space vehicle. In the case of a rocket that must be self-destructed during its ascent, max q occurs at the point of self-destruction. Eventually, the vehicle lost control and spun erratically until the automated flight termination system was activated, which intentionally destroyed the rocket. Elon Musk, SpaceX, and other individuals familiar with the space industry have referred to the test flight as a success.
Musk said at the time that it would take "six to eight weeks" to get the infrastructure prepared for another launch. In October 2023, a senior SpaceX executive stated the company had been ready to launch the next test flight since September. He accused government regulators of disrupting the project's progress, adding the delay could lead to China beating U.S. astronauts back to the Moon.
On November 18, 2023, SpaceX launched Starship on its second flight test, with both vehicles flying for a few minutes before separately exploding.
In early March 2024 SpaceX announced that it was targeting March 14 as the tentative launch date for its next uncrewed Starship launch configuration flight test, pending the issuance of a "launch license" by the FAA. This license was granted on March 13, 2024. On March 14, 2024, at 13:25 UTC, Starship launched for the third time and for the first time Starship reached its planned suborbital trajectory. The flight ended with the booster experiencing a malfunction shortly before landing and the ship being lost during re-entry over the Indian Ocean.
On June 4, 2024, SpaceX received the launch license for Starship's fourth flight test. The licensure itself was notable in that it was the first time that the FAA included a clause that would allow SpaceX to launch subsequent test flights without a mishap investigation, provided that they met a similar launch profile and used the same specification of hardware. The provision could prove to speed the development timeline.
On October 12, 2024, SpaceX received FAA approval for Starship's fifth flight test. The flight was the first without engine failures, and the first successful tower catch.
SpaceX launched Starship on its sixth flight test on November 19, 2024. The booster aborted the catch attempt, while the ship conducted a relight in space.
On January 16, 2025, SpaceX launched Starship on its seventh flight test, with the first Block 2 Ship, Ship 33 (standing at 403 ft or 123 meters). This test also carried a demonstration payload, a Starlink V3 simulator. The test launched at 22:37 UTC. The test resulted in the second catch of the Super Heavy booster, B14, but after 8 minutes, SpaceX lost contact with 'Ship', which is the upper stage of the Starship which resulted in the failure of the ship during the ascent. The spacecraft reportedly exploded around 8.5 minutes after launch over the Atlantic Ocean near the Turks and Caicos Islands. The FAA, on January 18, required a mishap investigation of the failure.
On March 7, 2025, SpaceX launched another Starship rocket, this time from Texas. Contact was lost minutes into the test flight and the spacecraft came tumbling down and broke apart, with wreckage seen across Florida's skies. As per preliminary investigation, Starship's 7th test flight was disrupted by an oxygen leak, flashes and sustained fires in its aft section, which caused the rocket's engines to shut down and turn on the spacecraft's self-destruct system.
On June 18, 2025, a SpaceX Starship rocket exploded during a static fire test at the company's Starbase facility in Texas, following what the company described as a “major anomaly”.
==== Crewed launches ====
A significant milestone was achieved in May 2020, when SpaceX successfully launched two NASA astronauts (Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken) into orbit on a Crew Dragon spacecraft during Crew Dragon Demo-2, making SpaceX the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station and marking the first crewed orbital launch from American soil in 9 years. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) in Florida.
==== Starlink ====
In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first large batch of 60 Starlink satellites, beginning to deploy what would become the world's largest commercial satellite constellation the following year. In 2022, most SpaceX launches focused on Starlink, a consumer internet business that sends batches of internet-beaming satellites and now has over 6,000 satellites in orbit.
On July 16, 2021, SpaceX entered an agreement to acquire Swarm Technologies, a private company building a low Earth orbit satellite constellation for communications with Internet of things (IoT) devices, for $524 million.
In December 2022, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the launch of up to 7,500 of SpaceX's next-generation satellites in its Starlink internet network.
In September 2025, SpaceX said it would purchase the rights to use some of EchoStar's spectrum for $17 billion in a cash and stock deal. The company said it would use the spectrum as a foundation for Starlink's direct-to-cell business around the globe.
=== Summary of achievements ===
== Hardware ==
=== Launch vehicles ===
SpaceX has developed three launch vehicles. The small-lift Falcon 1 was the first launch vehicle developed and was retired in 2009. The medium-lift Falcon 9 and the heavy-lift Falcon Heavy are both operational.
Falcon 1 was a small rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms into low Earth orbit. It launched five times between 2006 and 2009, of which two were successful. The Falcon 1 was the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.
Falcon 9 is a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 22,800 kilograms (50,265 lb) to orbit, competing with the Delta IV and the Atlas V rockets, as well as other launch providers around the world. It has nine Merlin engines in its first stage. The Falcon 9 v1.0 rocket successfully reached orbit on its first attempt on June 4, 2010. Its third flight, COTS Demo Flight 2, launched on May 22, 2012, and launched the first commercial spacecraft to reach and dock with the International Space Station (ISS). The vehicle was upgraded to Falcon 9 v1.1 in 2013, Falcon 9 Full Thrust in 2015, and finally to Falcon 9 Block 5 in 2018. The first stage of Falcon 9 is designed to retro propulsively land, be recovered, and flown again.
Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 63,800 kg (140,700 lb) to Low Earth orbit (LEO) or 26,700 kg (58,900 lb) to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). It uses three slightly modified Falcon 9 first-stage cores with a total of 27 Merlin 1D engines. The Falcon Heavy successfully flew its inaugural mission on February 6, 2018, launching Musk's personal Tesla Roadster into heliocentric orbit.
Both the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy are certified to conduct launches for the National Security Space Launch (NSSL). As of December 11, 2025, the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy have been launched 589 times, resulting in 586 full mission successes, one partial success, and one in-flight failure. In addition, a Falcon 9 experienced a pre-flight failure before a static fire test in 2016.
SpaceX is developing a fully reusable super-heavy lift launch system known as Starship. It comprises a reusable first stage, called Super Heavy, and the reusable Starship second stage space vehicle. As of 2017, the system was intended to supersede the company's existing launch vehicle hardware by the early 2020s.
=== Rocket engines ===
Since the founding of SpaceX in 2002, the company has developed several rocket engines – Merlin, Kestrel, and Raptor – for use in launch vehicles, Draco for the reaction control system of the Dragon series of spacecraft, and SuperDraco for abort capability in Crew Dragon.
Merlin is a family of rocket engines that uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1 propellants. Merlin was first used to power the Falcon 1's first stage and is now used on both stages of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles. Kestrel uses the same propellants and was used as the Falcon 1 rocket's second-stage main engine.
Draco and SuperDraco are hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engines. Draco engines are used on the reaction control system of the Dragon and Dragon 2 spacecraft. The SuperDraco engine is more powerful, and eight SuperDraco engines provide launch escape capability for crewed Dragon 2 spacecraft during an abort scenario.
Raptor is a new family of liquid oxygen and liquid methane-fueled full-flow staged combustion cycle engines to power the first and second stages of the in-development Starship launch system. Development versions were test-fired in late 2016, and the engine flew for the first time in 2019, powering the Starhopper vehicle to an altitude of 20 m (66 ft).
=== Dragon spacecraft ===
SpaceX has developed the Dragon spacecraft to transport cargo and crew to the International Space Station (ISS).
The first-generation Dragon 1 spacecraft was used only for cargo operations. It was developed with financial support from NASA under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. After a successful COTS demonstration flight in 2010, SpaceX was chosen to receive a Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract.
The currently operational second-generation Dragon 2 spacecraft conducted its first flight, without crew, to the ISS in early 2019, followed by a crewed flight of Dragon 2 in 2020. It was developed with financial support from NASA under the Commercial Crew Program program. The cargo variant of Dragon 2 flew for the first time in December 2020, for a resupply to the ISS as part of the CRS contract with NASA.
In March 2020 SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL, designed as a resupply spacecraft for NASA's planned Lunar Gateway space station under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract. Dragon XL is planned to launch on the Falcon Heavy, and is able to transport over 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to the Gateway. Dragon XL will be docked at the Gateway for six to twelve months at a time.
SpaceX designed a spacesuit to be worn inside the Dragon spacecraft to protect from possible depressurization. On May 4, 2024, SpaceX unveiled a second spacesuit designed for extravehicular activity, planned to be used for a spacewalk during the Polaris Dawn mission.
=== Autonomous spaceport drone ships ===
SpaceX routinely returns the first stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets after orbital launches. The rocket lands at a predetermined landing site using only its propulsion systems. When propellant margins do not permit a return to a launch site (RTLS), rockets return to a floating landing platform in the ocean, called autonomous spaceport drone ships (ASDS).
SpaceX also had plans to introduce floating launch platforms, which would be modified oil rigs provide a sea launch option for their Starship launch vehicle. As of February 2023, SpaceX had sold the oil rigs, but had not ruled out sea-based platforms for future use.
=== Starlink ===
Starlink is an internet satellite constellation under development by Starlink Services, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of SpaceX, that consists of thousands of cross-linked communications satellites in ~550 km orbits. Its goal is to address the significant unmet demand worldwide for low-cost broadband capabilities. Development began in 2015, and initial prototype test-flight satellites were launched on the SpaceX Paz satellite mission in 2017. In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first batch of 60 satellites aboard a Falcon 9. Initial test operation of the constellation began in late 2020 and first orders were taken in early 2021. Customers were told to expect internet service speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 150 Mbit/s and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms. In December 2022, Starlink reached over 1 million subscribers worldwide.
The planned large number of Starlink satellites has been criticized by astronomers due to concerns over light pollution, with the brightness of Starlink satellites in both optical and radio wavelengths interfering with scientific observations. In response, SpaceX has implemented several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their brightness. The large number of satellites employed by Starlink also creates long-term dangers of space debris collisions. However, the satellites are equipped with krypton-fueled Hall thrusters which allow them to de-orbit at the end of their life. They are also designed to autonomously avoid collisions based on uplinked tracking data.
In December 2022, SpaceX announced Starshield, a program to incorporate military or government entity payloads on board a Starlink-derived satellite bus. The Space Development Agency is a key customer procuring satellites for a space-based missile defense system.
In June 2024, SpaceX introduced a compact version of its Starlink antennas, the "Starlink Mini", designed for mobile satellite internet use. Offered for $599 in an early access release, it was more expensive than the base model. The Mini antenna, half the size and one-third the weight of the Standard version, featured a built-in WiFi router, lower power consumption, and over 100 Mbit/s download speeds.
== Other projects ==
=== Hyperloop ===
In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would sponsor a Hyperloop competition, and would build a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters for the competitive events. The company held the annual competition from 2017 to 2019.
=== COVID-19 antibody-testing program ===
In collaboration with doctors and academic researchers, SpaceX invited all employees to participate in the creation of a COVID-19 antibody-testing program in 2020. As such, 4300 employees volunteered to provide blood samples resulting in a peer-reviewed scientific paper crediting eight SpaceX employees as coauthors and suggesting that a certain level of COVID-19 antibodies may provide lasting protection against the virus.
=== Other ===
In July 2018, Musk arranged for his employees to build a mini-submarine to assist the rescue of children stuck in a flooded cavern in Thailand. Richard Stanton, leader of the international rescue diving team, encouraged Musk to facilitate the construction of the vehicle as a backup in case flooding worsened. However, Stanton later concluded that the mini-submarine would not work and said that Musk's involvement "distracted from the rescue effort". Engineers at SpaceX and The Boring Company built the mini-submarine from a Falcon 9 liquid oxygen transfer tube in eight hours and personally delivered it to Thailand. Thai authorities ultimately declined to use the submarine, stating that it wasn't practical for the rescue mission.
== Facilities ==
SpaceX is headquartered at the SpaceX Starbase near Brownsville, Texas, where it manufactures and launches its Starship vehicle. However most of the company's operations are based out of its office in Hawthorne, California where it was previously headquartered, where it builds Falcon rockets and Dragon spacecraft, and where it houses its mission control.
The company also operates a Starlink satellite manufacturing facilities in Redmond, Washington, a rocket development and test facility in McGregor, Texas, and maintains an office in the Washington, D.C. area, close to key government customers.
SpaceX has two active launch sites in Florida, one active launch site in California and one active launch site at Starbase in Texas.
=== Hawthorne, CA: Falcon and Dragon manufacturing, mission control ===
SpaceX operates a large facility in the Los Angeles suburb of Hawthorne, California. The three-story building, originally built by Northrop Corporation to build Boeing 747 fuselages, houses SpaceX's office space, mission control, and Falcon 9 manufacturing facilities.
The area has one of the largest concentrations of space sector headquarters, facilities, and subsidiaries in the U.S., including Boeing/McDonnell Douglas main satellite building campuses, The Aerospace Corporation, Raytheon, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, United States Space Force's Space Systems Command at Los Angeles Air Force Base, Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, and AECOM, etc., with a large pool of aerospace engineers and recent college engineering graduates.
SpaceX uses a high degree of vertical integration in the production of its rockets and rocket engines. SpaceX builds its rocket engines, rocket stages, spacecraft, principal avionics and all software in-house in their Hawthorne facility, which is unusual for the space industry.
The Hawthorne facility was SpaceX's headquarters until August 2024. However, the move to relocate SpaceX's headquarters was seen as largely symbolic, at least in the short term, as the facility will remain to the company's operations.
=== Starbase, TX: Starship manufacturing, launch ===
SpaceX manufactures and flies Starship test vehicles from the SpaceX Starbase in Boca Chica near Brownsville, Texas, having announced first plans for the launch facility in August 2014. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued the permit in July 2014. SpaceX broke ground on the new launch facility in 2014 with construction ramping up in the latter half of 2015, with the first suborbital launches from the facility in 2019 and orbital launches starting in 2023.
SpaceX has faced increased scrutiny over the environmental impact of its Starbase facility. In August 2024, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality cited SpaceX for violating environmental regulations by repeatedly releasing pollutants into water near the Boca Chica launch site. The EPA fined SpaceX approximately $150,000 for allegedly discharging "industrial wastewater" and violating the Clean Water Act.
=== McGregor, TX: Rocket Development and Test Facility ===
SpaceX's Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor, Texas is a rocket engine test facility. Every rocket engine and thruster manufactured by SpaceX must pass through McGregor for final testing being used on flight missions. The facility also serves as a testing ground for various components and engines during the research and development process. In addition to engine testing, after splashdown and recovery, Dragon spacecraft make a stop at McGregor to have their hazardous hypergolic propellant fuels removed, before the capsules continue on to Hawthorne for refurbishment.
SpaceX calls the facility the most advanced and active rocket engine test facility in the world, and said that as of 2024, over 7,000 tests had been conducted at the facility since it opened, with seven engine test fires on a typical day, across more than a dozen test stands. Despite its low-profile compared to the company's other facilities, is a critical part of SpaceX's operations, and company president and COO Gwynne Shotwell maintains her primary office in McGregor.
Originally the site of the Bluebonnet Ordnance Plant during World War II, the facility was later used by Beal Aerospace before being leased by SpaceX in 2003. The company has since expanded it significantly from 256 acres (104 ha) in 2003 to 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) by 2015. In July 2021, SpaceX announced plans to build a second production facility for Raptor engines at McGregor. This expansion is expected to significantly increase SpaceX's production capacity, with the goal of producing 800 to 1,000 Raptor engines per year.
=== Starlink manufacturing facilities ===
SpaceX's Starlink subsidiary operates over two main facilities. Satellite manufacturing takes place near Seattle, Washington while user terminal manufacturing takes place near Austin, Texas.
Starlink's satellite development and manufacturing operations campus occupies over 314,000 square feet (29,200 m2) in at least six buildings located in Redmond, Washington, east of Seattle. The first building opened in early 2015, and the company later expanded into five buildings on the Redmond Ridge Corporate Center.
Starlink opened a user terminal manufacturing facility just outside of Bastrop, Texas, east of Austin in December 2023. In its first nine months of operation, the one-million-square-foot (93,000 m2) facility produced one million user terminals and was on track to become the largest factory for printed circuit boards in the United States.
=== Launch facilities ===
SpaceX operates four orbital launch sites, at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center in Florida and Vandenberg Space Force Base in California for Falcon rockets, and Starbase near Brownsville, Texas for Starship. SpaceX has indicated that they see a niche for each of the four orbital facilities and that they have sufficient launch business to fill each pad. The Vandenberg launch site enables highly inclined orbits (66–145°), while Cape Canaveral and Kennedy enable orbits of medium inclination (28.5–55°). Larger inclinations, including SSO, are possible from Florida by overflying Cuba.
Before it was retired, all Falcon 1 launches took place at the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Omelek Island of the Marshall Islands.
In April 2007, the Pentagon approved the use of Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 (SLC-40) by SpaceX. The site has been used since 2010 for Falcon 9 launches, mainly to low Earth and geostationary orbits. The former Launch Complex 13 at Cape Canaveral, now renamed Landing Zones 1 and 2, has since 2015 been used for Falcon 9 first-stage booster landings. Later on, SpaceX will retire these two landing zones and add three landing zones for Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets to conduct to "Return-to-launch-site" landings, two at LC-39A and one at SLC-40.
Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 4 (SLC-4E) was leased from the military in 2011 and is used for payloads to polar orbits. The Vandenberg site can launch both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles, but cannot launch to low inclination orbits. The neighboring SLC-4W was converted to Landing Zone 4 in 2015 for booster landings.
On April 14, 2014, SpaceX signed a 20-year lease for Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A. The pad was subsequently modified to support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches. As of 2024 it is the only pad that supports Falcon Heavy launches. SpaceX launched its first crewed mission to the ISS from Launch Pad 39A on May 30, 2020. Pad 39A has been prepared since 2019 to eventually accommodate Starship launches. With delays in launch FAA permits for Boca Chica, Texas, the 39A Starship preparation was accelerated in 2022.
== Contracts ==
SpaceX won demonstration and actual supply contracts from NASA for the International Space Station (ISS) with technology the company developed. SpaceX is also certified for U.S. military launches of Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle-class (EELV) payloads. With approximately thirty missions on the manifest for 2018 alone, SpaceX represented over $12 billion under contract.
=== Cargo to ISS ===
In 2006, SpaceX won a NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Phase 1 contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to the ISS, with a possible contract option for crew transport. Through this contract, designed by NASA to provide "seed money" through Space Act Agreements for developing new capabilities, NASA paid SpaceX $396 million to develop the cargo configuration of the Dragon spacecraft, while SpaceX developed the Falcon 9 launch vehicle with their resources. These Space Act Agreements have been shown to have saved NASA millions of dollars in development costs, making rocket development 4–10 times less expensive than if produced by NASA alone.
In December 2010, with the launch of the SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1 mission, SpaceX became the first private company to successfully launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft. Dragon successfully berthed with the ISS during SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 in May 2012, a first for a private spacecraft.
Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) is a series of contracts awarded by NASA from 2008 to 2016 for the delivery of cargo and supplies to the ISS on commercially operated spacecraft. The first CRS contracts were signed in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to SpaceX for 12 cargo transport missions, covering deliveries to 2016. SpaceX CRS-1, the first of the 12 planned resupply missions, launched in October 2012, achieved orbit, berthed, and remained on station for 20 days, before re-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.
CRS missions have flown approximately twice a year to the ISS since then. In 2015, NASA extended the Phase 1 contracts by ordering an additional three resupply flights from SpaceX, and then extended the contract further for a total of twenty cargo missions to the ISS. The final Dragon 1 mission, SpaceX CRS-20, departed the ISS in April 2020, and Dragon was subsequently retired from service. A second phase of contracts was awarded in January 2016 with SpaceX as one of the awardees. SpaceX will fly up to nine additional CRS flights with the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft. In March 2020, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop the Dragon XL spacecraft to send supplies to the Lunar Gateway space station. Dragon XL will be launched on a Falcon Heavy.
=== Crewed ===
SpaceX is responsible for the transportation of NASA astronauts to and from the ISS. The NASA contracts started as part of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, aimed at developing commercially operated spacecraft capable of delivering astronauts to the ISS. The first contract was awarded to SpaceX in 2011, followed by another in 2012 to continue development and testing of its Dragon 2 spacecraft.
In September 2014, NASA chose SpaceX and Boeing as the two companies that would be funded to develop systems to transport U.S. crews to and from the ISS. SpaceX won $2.6 billion to complete and certify Dragon 2 by 2017. The contracts called for at least one crewed flight test with at least one NASA astronaut aboard. Once Crew Dragon received NASA human-spaceflight certification, the contract required SpaceX to conduct at least two, and as many as six, crewed missions to the space station.
SpaceX completed the first key flight test of its Crew Dragon spacecraft, a Pad Abort Test, in May 2015, and successfully conducted a full uncrewed test flight in early 2019. The capsule docked to the ISS and then splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. In January 2020, SpaceX conducted an in-flight abort test, the last test flight before flying crew, in which the Dragon spacecraft fired its launch escape engines in a simulated abort scenario.
On May 30, 2020, the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley, the first time a crewed vehicle had launched from the U.S. since 2011, and the first SpaceX commercial crewed launch to the ISS. The Crew-1 mission was successfully launched to the International Space Station on November 16, 2020, with NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker along with JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi, all members of the Expedition 64 crew. On April 23, 2021, Crew-2 was launched to the International Space Station with NASA astronauts Shane Kimbrough and K. Megan McArthur, JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide, and ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet. The Crew-2 mission successfully docked on April 24, 2021.
SpaceX also offers paid crewed spaceflights for private individuals. The first of these missions, Inspiration4, launched in 2021 on behalf of Shift4 Payments CEO Jared Isaacman. The mission launched the Crew Dragon Resilience from the Florida Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A atop a Falcon 9 launch vehicle, placed the Dragon capsule into low Earth orbit, and ended successfully about three days later when the Resilience splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. All four crew members received commercial astronaut training from SpaceX. The training included lessons in orbital mechanics, operating in a microgravity environment, stress testing, emergency-preparedness training, and mission simulations.
=== National defense ===
In 2005, SpaceX announced that it had been awarded an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity (IDIQ) contract, allowing the United States Air Force to purchase up to $100 million worth of launches from the company. Three years later, NASA announced that it had awarded an IDIQ Launch Services contract to SpaceX for up to $1 billion, depending on the number of missions awarded. In December 2012, SpaceX announced its first two launch contracts with the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The United States Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center awarded SpaceX two EELV-class missions: Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and Space Test Program 2 (STP-2). DSCOVR was launched on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle in 2015, while STP-2 was launched on a Falcon Heavy on June 25, 2019.
The Falcon 9 v1.1 was certified for National Security Space Launch (NSSL) in 2015, allowing SpaceX to contract launch services to the Air Force for any payloads classified under national security. This broke the monopoly held since 2006 by United Launch Alliance (ULA) over U.S. Air Force launches of classified payloads. In April 2016, the U.S. Air Force awarded the first such national security launch to SpaceX to launch the second GPS III satellite for $82.7 million. This was approximately 40% less than the estimated cost for similar previous missions. SpaceX also launched the third GPS III launch on June 20, 2020. In March 2018, SpaceX secured an additional $290 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three GPS III satellites.
The U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) also purchased launches from SpaceX, with the first taking place on May 1, 2017. In February 2019, SpaceX secured a $297 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three national security missions, all slated to launch no earlier than FY 2021. In August 2020, the U.S. Space Force awarded its National Security Space Launch (NSSL) contracts for the following 5–7 years. SpaceX won a contract for $316 million for one launch. In addition, SpaceX will handle 40% of the U.S. military's satellite launch requirements over the period.
SpaceX also designs and launches custom military satellites for the Space Development Agency as part of a new missile defense system in low Earth orbit. The constellation would give the United States capabilities to sense, target and potentially intercept nuclear missiles and hypersonic weapons launched from anywhere on Earth. Both China and Russia brought concerns to the United Nations about the program, and various organizations warn it could be destabilizing and trigger an arms race in space.
In March 2024, Reuters reported that, as part of a $1.8 billion contract signed with the National Reconnaissance Office in 2021, SpaceX is building a network of hundreds of spy satellites. This new network, Reuters reported, would be able to operate as a swarm in low orbits.
In December 2024, WSJ reported that Musk didn't have access to government secrets.
== Launch market competition and pricing pressure ==
SpaceX's low launch prices, especially for communications satellites flying to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), have resulted in market pressure on its competitors to lower their own prices. Prior to 2013, the openly competed comsat launch market had been dominated by Arianespace (flying the Ariane 5) and International Launch Services (flying the Proton). With a published price of $56.5 million per launch to low Earth orbit, Falcon 9 rockets were the least expensive in the industry. European satellite operators are pushing the ESA to reduce launch prices of the Ariane 5 and Ariane 6 rockets as a result of competition from SpaceX.
SpaceX ended the United Launch Alliance (ULA) monopoly of U.S. military payloads when it began to compete for national security launches. In 2015, anticipating a slump in domestic, military, and spy launches, ULA stated that it would go out of business unless it won commercial satellite launch orders. To that end, ULA announced a major restructuring of processes and workforce to decrease launch costs by half.
Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the NASA Space Act Agreement process of "setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station [while] leaving the details to industry" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at a substantially lower cost. According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX's total development cost for the Falcon 9 rocket, including the Falcon 1 rocket, was estimated at $390 million. In 2011, NASA estimated that it would have cost the agency about $4 billion to develop a rocket like the Falcon 9 booster based upon NASA's traditional contracting processes, about ten times more. In May 2020, NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine remarked that thanks to NASA's investments into SpaceX, the United States has 70% of the commercial launch market, a major improvement since 2012 when there were no commercial launches from the country.
As of 2024, SpaceX operates a Rideshare and Bandwagon (mid inclination) programs. This provides additional competition for small satellite launchers.
== Corporate affairs ==
=== Business trends ===
=== Board of directors ===
=== Leadership changes ===
In November 2022, the company announced COO Gwynne Shotwell and vice president Mark Juncosa would oversee Starbase, its Texas launch facility, along with Omead Afshar, who at the time oversaw operations for Tesla in Texas. Shyamal Patel, who was senior director of operations at the site, would shift to its Cape Canaveral site. CNBC reported that these executive moves demonstrated "the sense of urgency within the company to get Starship flying".
=== Taxes ===
According to The New York Times, SpaceX has likely paid little to no federal income taxes due to tax loss deferral of up to $5.4bn in deferred losses, but has privately told investors that it may never realize some or all of those losses.
=== Workplace culture ===
According to former NASA deputy administrator Lori Garver, the company overall has a male-dominated employee culture, similar to that of the spaceflight industry in general. In December 2021, claims of workplace sexual harassment from five former SpaceX employees, ranging from interns to full engineers, were published. The former employees claimed to have experienced unwanted advances and uncomfortable interactions. Additionally, the accounts included claims of a culture of sexual harassment existing at the company and one where complaints made to executives, managers, and human resources officers went largely unaddressed.
In May 2022, a Business Insider article alleged that Musk engaged in sexual misconduct with a SpaceX flight attendant in a private jet in 2016 citing an anonymous friend of the flight attendant. In response, some employees collaborated on an open letter condemning "Elon's harmful Twitter behavior". It also asks the company to clearly define SpaceX's "no-asshole" and "zero tolerance" policies, which it says is unequally enforced from one employee to the next. The next day, Gwynne Shotwell announced that those employees who were involved with the letter had been terminated and claimed that unsponsored, unsolicited surveys were sent to employees during the work day and that some felt pressured to sign the letter.
The company has also been described as having a work culture that pushes employees to work excessively and is described as fostering a burnout culture. According to a memo by Blue Origin, a rival aerospace company with a history of lawsuits and anti-SpaceX political lobbying, SpaceX expected very long work hours, work on weekends, and limited use of holidays.
"SpaceX employees say they’re paying the price for the billionaire’s push to colonize space at breakneck speed" reported Reuters in 2023. An examination of OSHA's records revealed injury rates higher than the industry's averages. In addition, Reuters documented at least 600 previously unreported workplace injuries at SpaceX, including "crushed limbs, amputations, electrocutions, head and eye wounds and one death." The person who died was Lonnie LeBlanc, a former United States Marine.
In June 2024, eight ex-employees, the same who had previously been fired for penning the open letter against Elon Musk, filed a lawsuit against Musk and SpaceX alleging sexual harassment and discrimination. The lawsuit has since stalled on headquarter jurisdiction grounds.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Berger, Eric. Reentry: SpaceX, Elon Musk, and the Reusable Rockets that Launched a Second Space Age. BenBella Books (2024). ISBN 978-1637745274
Berger, Eric. Liftoff: Elon Musk and the Desperate Early Days That Launched SpaceX. William Collins (2021). ISBN 978-0008445621
Davenport, Christian. The Space Barons; Elon Musk. Jeff Bezos, and the Quest to Colonize the Cosmos. PublicAffairs (2018). ISBN 978-1610398299
Fernholz, Tim. Rocket Billionaires: Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and the New Space Race. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (2018). ISBN 978-1328662231
Vance, Ashlee. Elon Musk: How the Billionaire CEO of SpaceX and Tesla is Shaping Our Future. Penguin Random House UK (2015). ISBN 978-0753555620
== External links ==
Official website
SpaceX on OpenSecrets, a website that tracks and publishes data on campaign finance and lobbying
SpaceX on LittleSis, a website that publishes data on who-knows-who between government, donors and business |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritis#:~:text=Guidelines%20outlining%20requirements%20for%20inclusion,detect%20osteoarthritis%2C%20as%20of%202021. | Osteoarthritis | Osteoarthritis is a type of degenerative joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone. A form of arthritis, it is believed to be the fourth leading cause of disability in the world, with an estimated 240 million people worldwide having activity-limiting osteoarthritis. The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. Usually the symptoms progress slowly over years. Other symptoms may include joint swelling, decreased range of motion, and, when the back is affected, weakness or numbness of the arms and legs. The most commonly involved joints are the two near the ends of the fingers and the joint at the base of the thumbs, the knee and hip joints, and the joints of the neck and lower back. The symptoms can interfere with work and normal daily activities. Unlike some other types of arthritis, only the joints, not internal organs, are affected.
Possible causes include previous joint injury, abnormal joint or limb development, and inherited factors. Risk is greater in those who are overweight, have legs of different lengths, or have jobs that result in high levels of joint stress. Osteoarthritis is believed to be caused by mechanical stress on the joint and low grade inflammatory processes. It develops as cartilage is lost and the underlying bone becomes affected. As pain may make it difficult to exercise, muscle loss may occur. Diagnosis is typically based on signs and symptoms, with medical imaging and other tests used to support or rule out other problems. In contrast to rheumatoid arthritis, in osteoarthritis the joints do not become hot or red.
Treatment includes exercise, decreasing joint stress such as by rest or use of a cane, support groups, and pain medications. Weight loss may help in those who are overweight. Pain medications may include paracetamol (acetaminophen) as well as NSAIDs such as naproxen or ibuprofen. Long-term opioid use is not recommended due to lack of information on benefits as well as risks of addiction and other side effects. Joint replacement surgery may be an option if there is ongoing disability despite other treatments. More than 90% of hip and knee joint replacements are due to osteoarthritis. An artificial hip or knee joint typically lasts more than 20 years.
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting about 237 million people or 3.3% of the world's population as of 2015. It becomes more common as people age. Among those over 60 years old, about 10% of males and 18% of females are affected. Osteoarthritis is the cause of about 2% of years lived with disability. Those with osteoarthritis of the hips or knees (the most commonly affected large joints) have a 20% increased risk of mortality, possibly due to reduced activity levels.
== Signs and symptoms ==
The main symptom of osteoarthritis is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity (such as prolonged sitting). Pain with ascending/descending stairs or getting in or out of a car or the bath is associated with osteoarthritis of the patellofemoral joint (the joint behind the kneecap), as this joint is stressed with knee flexion. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved, especially the shoulder and knee joints. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results.
Osteoarthritis commonly affects the hands, feet, spine, and the large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although any joint in the body can be affected. As osteoarthritis progresses, movement patterns (such as gait), are typically affected.
In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. Osteoarthritis of the toes may be a factor causing formation of bunions.
== Causes ==
Damage from mechanical stress with insufficient self-repair by joints is believed to be the primary cause of osteoarthritis. Sources of this stress may include misalignments of bones caused by congenital or pathogenic causes; mechanical injury; excess body weight; loss of strength in the muscles supporting a joint; and impairment of peripheral nerves, leading to sudden or uncoordinated movements. The risk of osteoarthritis increases with aging, history of joint injury, or family history of osteoarthritis. However exercise, including running in the absence of injury, has not been found to increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Nor has cracking one's knuckles been found to play a role.
=== Primary ===
The development of osteoarthritis is correlated with a history of previous joint injury and with obesity, especially with respect to the hips and knees. Osteoarthritis of the hips and knees is twice as common in those with obesity. Changes in sex hormone levels may play a role in the development of osteoarthritis, as it is more prevalent among post-menopausal women than among men of the same age. Women also tend to have more severe symptoms and imaging findings for hip and knee osteoarthritis as compared to men. Conflicting evidence exists for the differences in hip and knee osteoarthritis in African Americans and Caucasians.
==== Occupational ====
Increased risk of developing knee and hip osteoarthritis was found among those who work with manual handling (e.g., lifting), have physically demanding work, walk at work, and have climbing tasks at work (e.g., climb stairs or ladders). With hip osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk of development over time was found among those who work in bent or twisted positions. For knee osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk was found among those who work in a kneeling or squatting position, experience heavy lifting in combination with a kneeling or squatting posture, and work standing up. Women and men have similar occupational risks for the development of osteoarthritis.
=== Secondary ===
Certain medical conditions or injuries can increase the risk of osteoarthritis:
Alkaptonuria
Congenital disorders of joints
Diabetes doubles the risk of having a joint replacement due to osteoarthritis, and people with diabetes have joint replacements at a younger age than those without diabetes.
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
Injury to joints or ligaments (such as the ACL)
Ligamentous deterioration or instability
Marfan syndrome
Obesity
Joint infection
== Pathophysiology ==
While osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that may cause gross cartilage loss and morphological damage to other joint tissues, more subtle biochemical changes occur in the earliest stages of osteoarthritis progression. The water content of healthy cartilage is finely balanced by compressive force driving water out and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure drawing water in. Collagen fibres exert the compressive force, whereas the Gibbs–Donnan effect and cartilage proteoglycans create osmotic pressure which tends to draw water in.
However, during the onset of osteoarthritis, the collagen matrix becomes more disorganized, and there is a decrease in proteoglycan content within cartilage. The breakdown of collagen fibers results in a net increase in water content. This increase occurs because whilst there is an overall loss of proteoglycans (and thus a decreased osmotic pull), it is outweighed by a loss of collagen.
Other structures within the joint can also be affected. The ligaments within the joint become thickened and fibrotic, and the menisci can become damaged and wear away. Menisci can be completely absent by the time a person undergoes a joint replacement. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces in the absence of the menisci. The subchondral bone volume increases and becomes less mineralized (hypo mineralization). All these changes can cause problems functioning. The pain in an osteoarthritic joint has been related to thickened synovium and to subchondral bone lesions.
The inflammation of the joint lining (synovium) in osteoarthritis is characterized by involving macrophages via activation of the innate immune system (as compared to T-cell activation in the joint lining of people with rheumatoid arthritis). Pro-inflammation cytokines in osteoarthritis stimulate matrix metalloproteinases which leads to degradation and remodeling of the joint. Tissue damage or degradation of the articular cartilage or synovium leads to further release of inflammatory cytokines, driving the process.
== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis is made with reasonable certainty based on history and clinical examination. X-rays may confirm the diagnosis. The typical changes seen on X-ray include: joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis (increased bone formation around the joint), subchondral cyst formation, and osteophytes. The combination of knee pain and osteophytes on x-ray or hip pain and osteophytes on x-ray, has good sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of osteoarthritis of those joints. X-rays may not correlate with the findings on physical examination or with the degree of pain, especially in the early course of osteoarthritis, where imaging findings may be relatively normal.
In 1990, the American College of Rheumatology, using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the diagnosis of hand osteoarthritis based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies.
=== Classification ===
Several classification systems are used for the gradation of osteoarthritis:
WOMAC scale, taking into account pain, stiffness and functional limitation.
Kellgren-Lawrence grading scale for osteoarthritis of the knee. It uses only projectional radiography features.
Tönnis classification for osteoarthritis of the hip joint, also using only projectional radiography features.
== Management ==
Lifestyle modification (such as weight loss and exercise) and pain medications are the mainstays of treatment. Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) and NSAIDs (available as oral or topical formulations) are first line pain medications for symptomatic treatment of osteoarthritis. Medications that alter the course of the disease have not been found as of 2025. For overweight people, weight loss may help relieve pain due to hip arthritis. Recommendations include modification of risk factors through weight loss, increasing physical activity or exercise, healthy diet, management of contributing co-morbidities and adjustment of occupational factors that may contribute to osteoarthritis.
Successful management of the condition is often made more difficult by differing priorities and poor communication between clinicians and people with osteoarthritis. Realistic treatment goals can be achieved by developing a shared understanding of the condition, actively listening to patient concerns, avoiding medical jargon, and tailoring treatment plans to the patient's needs. Recent research suggests that remote peer mentorship may help to improve self-management among people with hip or knee osteoarthritis who are experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage.
=== Exercise ===
Weight loss in those who are overweight or obese and exercise provide long-term benefit and are recommended in all people with osteoarthritis. Weight loss and exercise are the most safe and effective long-term treatments, in contrast to short-term treatments which usually have risk of long-term harm. Therapeutic exercise programs, such as aerobics and walking, may reduce pain and improve physical functioning for up to 6 months after the end of the program.
High-impact exercise can increase the risk of joint injury, whereas low or moderate-impact exercise, such as walking or swimming, is safer for people with osteoarthritis.
Moderate exercise may be beneficial with respect to pain and function in those with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. These exercises should occur at least three times per week, under supervision, and focused on specific forms of exercise found to be most beneficial for this form of osteoarthritis.
While some evidence supports certain physical therapies, evidence for a combined program is limited. Providing clear advice, making exercises enjoyable, and reassuring people about the importance of doing exercises may lead to greater benefit and more participation. Some evidence suggests that supervised exercise therapy may improve exercise adherence, with knee osteoarthritis, supervised exercise has shown the best results.
=== Physical measures ===
There is not enough evidence to determine the effectiveness of massage therapy. The evidence for manual therapy is inconclusive. A 2015 review indicated that aquatic therapy is safe, effective, and can be an adjunct therapy for knee osteoarthritis. Among people with hip and knee osteoarthritis, water exercise may reduce pain and disability, and increase quality of life in the short term. Hydrotherapy might also be an advantage in the management of pain, disability, and quality of life.
Functional, gait, and balance training have been recommended to address impairments of position sense, balance, and strength in individuals with lower extremity arthritis, as these can contribute to a higher rate of falls in older individuals. For people with hand osteoarthritis, exercises may provide small benefits for improving hand function, reducing pain, and relieving finger joint stiffness.
A study showed that there is low-quality evidence that weak knee extensor muscles increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Strengthening of the knee extensors could prevent knee osteoarthritis.
Lateral wedge insoles and neutral insoles do not appear to be useful in osteoarthritis of the knee. Knee braces may help, but their usefulness has also been disputed.
=== Thermotherapy ===
For pain management, heat can be used to relieve stiffness, and cold can relieve muscle spasms and pain. The use of ice or cold packs may be beneficial; however, further research is needed. A 2003 Cochrane review of 7 studies between 1969 and 1999 found ice massage to be of significant benefit in improving range of motion and function, though not necessarily relief of pain. Cold packs could decrease swelling, but hot packs did not affect swelling. Heat therapy could increase circulation, thereby reducing pain and stiffness, but with the risk of inflammation and edema. Another review found no evidence of benefit from placing hot packs on joints.
=== Medication ===
==== By mouth ====
The pain medication paracetamol (acetaminophen) or NSAIDs are first line treatments for osteoarthritis related pain. With paracetamol, pain relief does not differ according to dosage. However, a 2015 review found acetaminophen to have only a small short-term benefit with some concerns on abnormal results for liver function test. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness of acetaminophen is similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, though for more severe symptoms, NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding.
Another class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective when compared to nonselective NSAIDs, and have lower rates of adverse gastrointestinal effects, but higher rates of cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction. They are also more expensive than non-specific NSAIDs. Benefits and risks vary in individuals and need consideration when making treatment decisions, and further unbiased research comparing NSAIDS and COX-2 selective inhibitors is needed. The COX-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib was removed from the market in 2004, as cardiovascular events were associated with long term use.
Education is helpful in self-management of arthritis, and can provide coping methods leading to about 20% more pain relief when compared to NSAIDs alone.
Failure to achieve the desired pain relief in osteoarthritis after two weeks of therapy should trigger reassessment of dosage and pain medication. Opioids by mouth, including both weak opioids such as tramadol and stronger opioids, are also often prescribed. Their appropriateness is uncertain, and opioids are often recommended only when first-line therapies have failed or are contraindicated. This is due to their small benefit and relatively large risk of side effects. The use of tramadol likely does not improve pain or physical function and likely increases the incidence of adverse side effects. Oral steroids are not recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis.
Use of the antibiotic doxycycline orally for treating osteoarthritis is not associated with clinical improvements in function or joint pain and long term use is associated with a high risk of side effects.
A 2018 meta-analysis found that oral collagen supplementation for the treatment of osteoarthritis reduces stiffness, but does not improve pain and functional limitation.
==== Topical ====
There are several NSAIDs available for topical use, including diclofenac, which may provide symptomatic relief of osteoarthritis. Recessed joints (joints located deep within the body, rather than near the skin surface, such as the hips) may be less responsive to treatment with topical therapies. Transdermal opioid pain medications are not typically recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. The use of topical capsaicin to treat osteoarthritis is controversial, as some reviews found benefit while others did not.
==== Joint injections ====
Intra-articular injections of steroids, hyaluronic acid, or platelet-rich plasma may be used for pain relief in people with knee osteoarthritis.
Local drug delivery by intra-articular injection may be more effective and safer in terms of increased bioavailability, less systemic exposure and reduced adverse events. Several intra-articular medications for symptomatic treatment are available.
===== Steroids =====
Joint injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short-term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months.
A 2015 Cochrane review found that intra-articular corticosteroid injections of the knee did not benefit quality of life and had no effect on knee joint space; clinical effects one to six weeks after injection could not be determined clearly due to poor study quality. Another 2015 study reported negative effects of intra-articular corticosteroid injections at higher doses, and a 2017 trial showed reduction in cartilage thickness with intra-articular triamcinolone every 12 weeks for 2 years compared to placebo. A 2018 study found that intra-articular triamcinolone is associated with an increase in intraocular pressure.
===== Hyaluronic acid =====
The highest quality studies for hyaluronic acid injections of the hip and knee only showed a minor benefit. In other studies, injections of hyaluronic acid have not produced improvement compared to placebo for knee arthritis, but did increase risk of further pain. In ankle osteoarthritis, evidence is unclear.
===== Platelet-rich plasma =====
The effectiveness of injections of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is unclear; there are suggestions that such injections improve function but not pain, and are associated with increased risk. A 2014 Cochrane review of studies involving PRP found the evidence to be insufficient.
=== Radiotherapy ===
Low-dose radiotherapy has been shown to improve pain and mobility of affected joints, primarily in extremities. It is approximately 70-90% effective, with minimal side effects.
=== Ablation of knee sensory nerves ===
Radiofrequency ablation of sensory knee nerves, also called genicular neurotomy or genicular RFA, is an outpatient procedure used to reduce pain from knee osteoarthritis.
In the procedure for genicular RFA, a guide cannula is first directed under local anesthesia and imaging (ultrasound or fluoroscopy) to each target genicular nerve, then the radiofrequency electrode is passed through the cannula, and the electrode tip is heated to about 80 °C (176 °F) for one minute to cauterize a small segment of the nerve. The heat destroys that segment of the nerve, which is prevented from sending pain signals to the brain.
As of 2023, reviews of clinical outcomes indicated that efficacy for reducing knee pain was achieved by ablating three or more branches of the genicular nerve (one of the articular branches of the tibial nerve). Other sources indicate 4-5 genicular nerve targets may be justified for ablation to optimize pain relief, while a 2022 analysis indicated that as many as 10 genicular nerve targets for RFA would produce better long-term relief of knee pain.
Knee pain relief of 50% or more following genicular RFA may last from several months to two years, and can be repeated by the same outpatient procedure when pain recurs.
Injection of phenol may be used as a neurolytic treatment of sensory knee nerves to relieve chronic pain from knee osteoarthritis.
=== Surgery ===
==== Bone fusion ====
Arthrodesis (fusion) of the bones may be an option in some types of osteoarthritis. An example is ankle osteoarthritis, in which ankle fusion may be used in severe cases not responsive to other therapies.
==== Joint replacement ====
If the impact of symptoms of osteoarthritis on quality of life is significant and more conservative management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery may be used. Evidence supports joint replacement for both knees and hips as it is both clinically effective and cost-effective.
People who underwent total knee replacement had improved quality of life, were feeling better compared to those who did not have surgery, and may have short- and long-term benefits for quality of life in terms of pain and function. The risk of death within the first 90 days after hip and knee replacements is less than 1%. The risk of serious complications (such as prosthetic joint infections which may require removal of the artificial joint, blood clots, joint dislocations) is less than 5% after hip or knee replacements. 90% of people with a hip replacement and 80% of those with a knee replacement reported little or no arthritis related pain after the procedure. Less than 10% of artificial knees and less than 20% of artificial hips required replacements over 20 years after the initial surgery. Arthroscopic debridement of the knee, also known as "joint resurfacing" is not recommended for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and has a limited role in people who have osteoarthritis with a meniscal tear who have failed other treatments.
==== Shoulder replacement ====
For people who have shoulder osteoarthritis and do not respond to medications, surgical options include a shoulder hemiarthroplasty (replacing a part of the joint) and a total shoulder arthroplasty (replacing the joint). Demand for this treatment is expected to increase by 750% by the year 2030. There are different options for shoulder replacement surgeries, however there is a lack of evidence in the form of high-quality randomized controlled trials to determine which type of shoulder replacement surgery is most effective in different situations, what are the risks involved with different approaches, or how the procedure compares to other treatment options. There is some low-quality evidence that indicates that when comparing total shoulder arthroplasty over hemiarthroplasty, no large clinical benefit was detected in the short term. It is not clear if the risk of harm differs between total shoulder arthroplasty and a hemiarthroplasty approach.
==== Other surgical options ====
Osteotomy may be useful in people with knee osteoarthritis, but has not been well studied, and it is unclear whether it is more effective than non-surgical treatments or other types of surgery. Arthroscopic surgery is largely not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes in knee osteoarthritis, and may result in harm. It is unclear whether surgery is beneficial in people with mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis.
=== Unverified treatments ===
==== Glucosamine and chondroitin ====
The effectiveness of glucosamine is controversial. Reviews have found it to be equal to or slightly better than placebo. A difference may exist between glucosamine sulfate and glucosamine hydrochloride, with glucosamine sulfate showing a benefit and glucosamine hydrochloride not. The evidence for glucosamine sulfate affecting osteoarthritis progression is somewhat unclear and if present likely modest. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International recommends that glucosamine be discontinued if no effect is observed after six months and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence no longer recommends its use. Despite the difficulty in determining the efficacy of glucosamine, it remains a treatment option. The European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO) recommends glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate for knee osteoarthritis. Its use as a therapy for osteoarthritis is usually safe.
A 2015 Cochrane review of clinical trials of chondroitin found that most were of low quality, but that there was some evidence of short-term improvement in pain and few side effects; it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints.
==== Supplements ====
Avocado–soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) is an extract made from avocado oil and soybean oil sold under many brand names worldwide as a dietary supplement and as a prescription drug in France. A 2014 Cochrane review found that while ASU might help relieve pain in the short term for some people with osteoarthritis, it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints. The review noted a high-quality, two-year clinical trial comparing ASU to chondroitin – which has uncertain efficacy in osteoarthritis – with no difference between the two agents. The review also found there is insufficient evidence of ASU safety.
Only a few moderate-quality studies of Boswellia serrata showed small improvements in pain and function. Curcumin and s-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) showed little effect in improving pain. A 2009 Cochrane review recommended against the routine use of SAMe, as there has not been sufficient high-quality clinical research to prove its effect.
A 2021 review found that hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) had no benefit in reducing pain and improving physical function in hand or knee osteoarthritis, and the off-label use of HCQ for people with osteoarthritis should be discouraged. There is no evidence for the use of colchicine for treating the pain of hand or knee arthritis.
There is limited evidence to support the use of hyaluronan, methylsulfonylmethane, rose hip, capsaicin, or vitamin D.
==== Acupuncture and other interventions ====
While acupuncture leads to improvements in pain relief, this improvement is small and may be of questionable importance. Waiting list–controlled trials for peripheral joint osteoarthritis do show clinically relevant benefits, but these may be due to placebo effects. Acupuncture does not seem to produce long-term benefits.
Electrostimulation techniques such as TENS have been used to treat osteoarthritis in the knee. However, there is no conclusive evidence to show that it reduces pain or disability. A Cochrane review of low-level laser therapy found unclear evidence of benefit, whereas another review found short-term pain relief for osteoarthritic knees.
Further research is needed to determine if balneotherapy for osteoarthritis (mineral baths or spa treatments) improves a person's quality of life or ability to function.
There is low-quality evidence that therapeutic ultrasound may be beneficial for people with osteoarthritis of the knee; however, further research is needed to confirm and determine the degree and significance of this potential benefit. Therapeutic ultrasound is safe and reduces pain and improves physical function in knee osteoarthritis. While phonophoresis does not improve functions, it may offer greater pain relief than standard non-drug ultrasound.
There is weak evidence suggesting that electromagnetic field treatment may result in moderate pain relief; however, further research is necessary, and it is not known if electromagnetic field treatment can improve quality of life or function.
== Epidemiology ==
Globally, as of 2010, approximately 250 million people had osteoarthritis of the knee (3.6% of the population). Hip osteoarthritis affects about 0.85% of the population.
As of 2004, osteoarthritis globally causes moderate to severe disability in 43.4 million people. Together, knee and hip osteoarthritis had a ranking for disability globally of 11th among 291 disease conditions assessed.
=== Middle East and North Africa (MENA) ===
In the Middle East and North Africa from 1990 to 2019, the prevalence of people with hip osteoarthritis increased three–fold over the three decades, a total of 1.28 million cases. It increased 2.88-fold, from 6.16 million cases to 17.75 million, between 1990 and 2019 for knee osteoarthritis. Hand osteoarthritis in MENA also increased 2.7-fold, from 1.6 million cases to 4.3 million from 1990 to 2019.
=== United States ===
As of 2012, osteoarthritis affected 52.5 million people in the United States, approximately 50% of whom were 65 years or older. It is estimated that 80% of the population have radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis by age 65, although only 60% of those will have symptoms. The rate of osteoarthritis in the United States is forecast to be 78 million (26%) adults by 2040.
In the United States, there were approximately 964,000 hospitalizations for osteoarthritis in 2011, a rate of 31 stays per 10,000 population. With an aggregate cost of $14.8 billion ($15,400 per stay), it was the second-most expensive condition seen in US hospital stays in 2011. By payer, it was the second-most costly condition billed to Medicare and private insurance.
=== Europe ===
In Europe, the number of individuals affected by osteoarthritis has increased from 27.9 million in 1990 to 50.8 million in 2019. Hand osteoarthritis was the second most prevalent type, affecting an estimated 12.5 million people. In 2019, knee osteoarthritis was the 18th most common cause of years lived with disability (YLDs) in Europe, accounting for 1.28% of all YLDs. This has increased from 1.12% in 1990.
=== India ===
In India, the number of individuals affected by osteoarthritis has increased from 23.46 million in 1990 to 62.35 million in 2019. Knee osteoarthritis was the most prevalent type of osteoarthritis, followed by hand osteoarthritis. In 2019, osteoarthritis was the 20th most common cause of years lived with disability (YLDs) in India, accounting for 1.48% of all YLDs, which increased from 1.25% and 23rd most common cause in 1990.
== History ==
=== Etymology ===
Osteoarthritis is derived from the prefix osteo- (from Ancient Greek: ὀστέον, romanized: ostéon, lit. 'bone') combined with arthritis (from ἀρθρῖτῐς, arthrîtis, lit. ''of or in the joint''), which is itself derived from arthr- (from ἄρθρον, árthron, lit. ''joint, limb'') and -itis (from -ῖτις, -îtis, lit. ''pertaining to''), the latter suffix having come to be associated with inflammation. The -itis of osteoarthritis could be considered misleading as inflammation is not a conspicuous feature. Some clinicians refer to this condition as osteoarthrosis to signify the lack of inflammatory response, the suffix -osis (from -ωσις, -ōsis, lit. ''(abnormal) state, condition, or action'') simply referring to the pathosis itself.
== Other animals ==
Osteoarthritis has been reported in several species of animals all over the world, including marine animals and even some fossils; including but not limited to: cats, many rodents, cattle, deer, rabbits, sheep, camels, elephants, buffalo, hyena, lions, mules, pigs, tigers, kangaroos, dolphins, dugong, and horses.
Osteoarthritis has been reported in fossils of the large carnivorous dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis.
== Research ==
=== Therapies ===
Pharmaceutical agents that will alter the natural history of disease progression by arresting joint structural change and ameliorating symptoms are termed as disease modifying therapy. Therapies under investigation include the following:
Strontium ranelate – may decrease degeneration in osteoarthritis and improve outcomes
Gene therapy – Gene transfer strategies aim to target the disease process rather than the symptoms. Cell-mediated gene therapy is also being studied. One version was approved in South Korea for the treatment of moderate knee osteoarthritis, but later revoked for the mislabeling and the false reporting of an ingredient used. The drug was administered intra-articularly.
The anti-IL-1β monoclonal antibody canakinumab showed a reduced incidence of knee and hip replacements in those with osteoarthritis in a long term trial. IL-1β is a cytokine involved in joint destruction in osteoarthritis.
=== Cause ===
As well as attempting to find disease-modifying agents for osteoarthritis, there is emerging evidence that a system-based approach is necessary to find the causes of osteoarthritis. A study conducted by scientists at the University of Twente found that osmolarity induced intracellular molecular crowding might drive the disease pathology.
=== Diagnostic biomarkers ===
Guidelines outlining requirements for inclusion of soluble biomarkers in osteoarthritis clinical trials were published in 2015, but there are no validated biomarkers used clinically to detect osteoarthritis, as of 2021.
A 2015 systematic review of biomarkers for osteoarthritis, looking for molecules that could be used for risk assessments, found 37 different biochemical markers of bone and cartilage turnover in 25 publications. The strongest evidence was for urinary C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (uCTX-II) as a prognostic marker for knee osteoarthritis progression, and serum cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) levels as a prognostic marker for incidence of both knee and hip osteoarthritis. A review of biomarkers in hip osteoarthritis also found associations with uCTX-II. Procollagen type II C-terminal propeptide (PIICP) levels reflect type II collagen synthesis in body and within joint fluid PIICP levels can be used as a prognostic marker for early osteoarthritis.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Osteoarthritis". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_Fields | Chip Fields | Chip Fields is an American singer, actress, television director, and producer who has appeared in popular films, television series, and Broadway theatre. She is best known for portraying Linella Gordon, the abusive birth mother of Penny Gordon Woods (played by Janet Jackson), in a four–episode story arc (1977) of the 1970s sitcom Good Times.
== Early life and career ==
Fields began her career as a singer. She joined Ronnie Spector as a Ronette in 1973 and recorded two singles for Buddah Records.
Fields began her acting career as an extra in the 1974 film Claudine. She has had numerous supporting roles and guest appearances on television. She played an unwed mother opposite Patty Weaver in the NBC television soap opera, Days of Our Lives. Also during the 1970s, she played the abusive birth mother of Millicent "Penny" Gordon Woods (Janet Jackson) on the sitcom Good Times.
From 1978 to 1979, she played Rita Conway in the short-lived The Amazing Spider-Man TV series. Rita Conway was J. Jonah Jameson's secretary, the same function as the black Glory Grant from the 1970s comics. She also appeared in What's Happening!!, Hill Street Blues, T. J. Hooker, Roc, Kirk (a short-lived sitcom starring Kirk Cameron), The Wayans Bros., and The Parkers. She played the role of "Laverne", mother to the character "Regine" (played by Kim Fields) on Living Single.
Fields was a consultant for The Parkers, Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century, Living Single, and was a dialogue coach for the film, Menace II Society. She also directed episodes of the popular UPN sitcoms, One on One, All of Us, Girlfriends, The Parkers, as well as episodes of Romeo!, Just Jordan, Hannah Montana, Tyler Perry's House of Payne and Meet the Browns.
== Discography ==
1973 (as Ronnie and the Ronettes) – "Go Out and Get It" b/w "Lover, Lover" (Buddha 384)
1974 (as Ronnie Spector and the Ronettes) – "I Wish I Never Saw the Sunshine" b/w "I Wonder What He's Doing" (Buddha 408)
== Filmography ==
=== Acting ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
=== Production ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Chip Fields at IMDb
Chip Fields at the Internet Broadway Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siachen_Glacier#:~:text=The%20Siachen%20Glacier%20lies%20immediately,called%20the%20%22Third%20Pole%22. | Siachen Glacier | The Siachen Glacier is a glacier located in the eastern Karakoram range of the Himalayas, just northeast of the point NJ9842 where the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends in northeastern Kashmir. At 76 km (47 mi) long, it is the longest glacier in the Karakoram and second-longest in the world's non-polar areas. It falls from an altitude of 5,753 m (18,875 ft) above sea level at its head at Indira Col on the India–China border down to 3,620 m (11,875 ft) at its terminus. The entire Siachen Glacier, with all major passes, has been under the administration of India as part of the union territory of Ladakh since 1984. Pakistan maintains a territorial claim over the Siachen Glacier and controls the region west of Saltoro Ridge, lying west of the glacier, with Pakistani posts located 1 km below more than 100 Indian posts on the ridge.
The Siachen Glacier lies immediately south of the great drainage divide that separates the Eurasian Plate from the Indian subcontinent in the extensively glaciated portion of the Karakoram sometimes called the "Third Pole". The glacier lies between the Saltoro Ridge immediately to the west and the main Karakoram range to the east. The Saltoro Ridge originates in the north from the Sia Kangri peak on the China border in the Karakoram range. The crest of the Saltoro Ridge's altitudes range from 5,450 to 7,720 m (17,880 to 25,330 feet). The major passes on this ridge are, from north to south, Sia La at 5,589 m (18,336 ft), Bilafond La at 5,450 m (17,880 ft), and Gyong La at 5,689 m (18,665 ft). The average winter snowfall is more than 1000 cm (35 ft) and temperatures can dip to −50 °C (−58 °F). Including all tributary glaciers, the Siachen Glacier system covers about 700 km2 (270 sq mi).
== Etymology ==
"Sia" in the Balti language refers to the rose family plant widely dispersed in the region. "Chen" refers to any object found in abundance. Thus the name Siachen refers to a land with an abundance of roses. The naming of the glacier itself, or at least its currency, is attributed to Tom Longstaff.
== Dispute ==
Both India and Pakistan claim sovereignty over the entire Siachen region. In June 1958, first Geological Survey of India expedition went to the Siachen glacier. It was the first official Indian survey of Siachen Glacier by Geological Survey of India post-1947 and that was undertaken to commemorate the International Geophysical Year in 1958. The study included snout surveying of five glaciers namely Siachen, Mamostong, Chong Kumdan, Kichik Kumdan and Aktash Glaciers in Ladakh region. 5Q 131 05 084 was the number assigned to the Siachen glacier by the expedition. U.S. and Pakistani maps in the 1970s and 1980s consistently showed a dotted line from NJ9842 (the northernmost demarcated point of the India-Pakistan cease-fire line, also known as the Line of Control) to the Karakoram Pass, which India believed to be a cartographic error and in violation of the Simla Agreement. In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot, a military operation that gave India control over all of the Siachen Glacier, including its tributaries. Between 1984 and 1999, frequent skirmishes took place between India and Pakistan. Indian troops under Operation Meghdoot pre-empted Pakistan's Operation Ababeel by just one day to occupy most of the dominating heights on Saltoro Ridge to the west of Siachen Glacier. However, more soldiers have died from the harsh weather conditions in the region than from combat. Pakistan lost 353 soldiers in various operations recorded between 2003 and 2010 near Siachen, including 140 Pakistanis killed in the 2012 Gayari Sector avalanche. Between January 2012 and July 2015, 33 Indian soldiers died due to adverse weather. In December 2015, Indian Union Minister of State for Defence Rao Inderjit Singh said in a written reply in the Lok Sabha that a total of 869 Army personnel have died on the Siachen glacier due to climatic conditions and environmental and other factors from the date that the Army launched Operation Meghdoot in 1984. In February 2016, Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated that India will not vacate Siachen, as there is a trust deficit with Pakistan and also said that 915 people have died in Siachen since Operation Meghdoot in 1984. According to official records, only 220 Indian soldiers have been killed by enemy bullets since 1984 in Siachen area. Both India and Pakistan continue to deploy thousands of troops in the vicinity of Siachen and attempts to demilitarize the region have been so far unsuccessful. Prior to 1984, neither country had any military forces in this area.
Aside from the Indian and Pakistani military presence, the glacier region is unpopulated. The nearest civilian settlement is the village of Warshi, 10 miles downstream from the Indian base camp. The region is also extremely remote, with limited road connectivity. On the Indian side, roads go only as far as the military base camp at Dzingrulma (35.1663°N 77.2162°E / 35.1663; 77.2162), 72 km from the head of the glacier. The Indian Army has developed various means to reach the Siachen region, including the Manali-Leh-Khardung La-Siachen route. In 2012, Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army General Bikram Singh said that the Indian Army should stay in the region for strategic advantages, and because a "lot of blood has been shed" by Indian armed personnel for Siachen. The present ground positions, relatively stable for over a decade, mean that India maintains control over all of the 76 kilometres (47 mi) Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as all the main passes and heights of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier, including Sia La, Bilafond La, Gyong La, Yarma La (6,100m), and Chulung La (5,800m). Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to TIME magazine, India gained over 1,000 square miles (3,000 km2) in territory because of its 1980s military operations in Siachen. India has categorically stated that India will not pull its army from Siachen until the 110-km long AGPL is first authenticated, delineated and then demarcated.
The 1949 Karachi agreement only carefully delineated the line of separation to point NJ9842, after which, the agreement states, the line of separation would continue "thence north to the glaciers". According to the Indian stance, the line of separation should continue roughly northwards along the Saltoro Range to the west of the Siachen glacier beyond NJ9842; international boundary lines that follow mountain ranges often do so by following the watershed drainage divide such as that of the Saltoro Range. The 1972 Simla Agreement made no change to the 1949 Line of Control in this northernmost sector.
== Drainage ==
The glacier's melting waters are the main source of the Nubra River in the Indian region of Ladakh, which drains into the Shyok River. The Shyok in turn joins the 3000 kilometre-long Indus River which flows through Pakistan. Thus, the glacier is a major source of the Indus and feeds the largest irrigation system in the world.
== Environmental issues ==
The glacier was uninhabited before 1984, and the presence of thousands of troops since then has introduced pollution and melting to the glacier. To support the troops, glacial ice has been cut and melted with chemicals.
Dumping of non-biodegradable waste in large quantities and the use of arms and ammunition have considerably affected the ecosystem of the region.
=== Glacial retreat ===
Preliminary findings of a survey by Pakistan Meteorological Department in 2007 revealed that the Siachen glacier has been retreating for the past 30 years and is melting at an alarming rate. The study of satellite images of the glacier showed that the glacier is retreating at a rate of about 110 metres a year and that the glacier size has decreased by almost 35 percent. In an eleven-year period, the glacier had receded nearly 800 metres, and in seventeen years about 1700 metres. It is predicted that the glaciers of the Siachen region will be reduced to about one-fifth of their 2011 size by 2035. In the twenty-nine-year period 1929–1958, well before the military occupation, the glacial retreat was recorded to be about 914 metres. One of the reasons theorized for the recent glacial retreat is chemical blasting, to construct camps and posts. In 2001 India laid oil pipelines (about 250 kilometres long) inside the glacier to supply kerosene and aviation fuel to the outposts from base camps. As of 2007, the temperature rise at Siachen was estimated at 0.2-degree Celsius annually, causing melting, avalanches, and crevasses in the glacier.
=== Waste dumping ===
The waste produced by the troops stationed there is dumped in the crevasses of the glacier. Mountaineers who visited the area while on climbing expeditions witnessed large amount of garbage, empty ammunition shells, parachutes etc. dumped on the glacier, that neither decomposes nor can be burned because of the extreme climatic conditions. About 1,000 kilograms (1.1 short tons) of waste is produced and dumped in glacial crevasses daily by Indian forces. The Indian army is said to have planned a "Green Siachen, Clean Siachen" campaign to airlift the garbage from the glacier, and to use biodigestors for biodegradable waste in the absence of oxygen and freezing temperatures. Almost forty percent (40%) of the waste left at the glacier is plastic and metal, including toxins such as cobalt, cadmium and chromium that eventually affect the water of the Shyok River (which ultimately enters the Indus River near Skardu). The Indus is used for drinking and irrigation. Research is being done by scientists of The Energy and Resources Institute, to find ways to successfully dispose of the garbage generated at the glacier using scientific means. Some scientists of the Defence Research and Development Organisation who went on an expedition to Antarctica are also working to produce a bacterium that can thrive in extreme weather conditions and can be helpful in decomposing the biodegradable waste naturally.
=== Fauna and flora ===
The flora and fauna of the Siachen region are also affected by the huge military presence. The region is home to rare species including snow leopard, brown bear and ibex that are at risk because of the military presence.
== Border conflict ==
The glacier's region is the highest battleground on Earth, where Pakistan and India have fought intermittently since April 1984. Both countries maintain a permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6,000 m (20,000 ft).
Both India and Pakistan have wished to disengage from the costly military outposts. India launched Operation Meghdoot to occupy Siachen Glacier in 1984. Then, due to the Pakistani incursions during the Kargil War in 1999, India abandoned plans to withdraw from Siachen, wary of further Pakistani incursions if they vacate the Siachen Glacier posts.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit the area, during which he called for a peaceful resolution of the problem. After that present Prime Minister Narendra Modi also visited this place. President of Pakistan Asif Ali Zardari also visited an area near the Siachen Glacier called Gayari Sector during 2012 with Pakistan Army Chief Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. Both of them showed their commitment to resolve the Siachen conflict as early as possible. In the previous year, the President of India, Abdul Kalam became the first head of state to visit the area.
Since September 2007, India has opened up limited mountaineering and trekking expeditions to the area. The first group included cadets from Chail Military School, National Defence Academy, National Cadet Corps, Indian Military Academy, Rashtriya Indian Military College and family members of armed forces officers. The expeditions are also meant to show to the international audience that Indian troops hold "almost all dominating heights" on the key Saltoro Ridge and to show that Pakistani troops are nowhere near the Siachen Glacier. Ignoring protests from Pakistan, India maintains that it does not need anyone's approval to send trekkers to Siachen, in what it says is essentially its own territory. In addition, the Indian Army's Army Mountaineering Institute (AMI) functions out of the region.
== Peace Park proposal ==
The idea of declaring the Siachen region a "Peace Park" was presented by environmentalists and peace activists in part to preserve the ecosystem of the region badly affected by the military presence. In September 2003, the governments of India and Pakistan were urged by the participants of the 5th World Parks Congress held at Durban, to establish a peace park in the Siachen region to restore the natural biological system and protect species whose lives are at risk. Italian ecologist Giuliano Tallone said the ecological life was at serious risk, and proposed setting up a Siachen Peace Park at the conference. After a proposal of a transboundary Peace Park was floated, the International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) organised a conference at Geneva and invited Indian and Pakistani mountaineers (Mandip Singh Soin, Harish Kapadia, Nazir Sabir and Sher Khan). The region was nominated for inclusion in the United Nations' World Heritage List as a part of the Karakoram range, but this was deferred by the World Heritage Committee. The areas to the east and west of the Siachen region have already been declared national parks: the Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuary in India and the Central Karakoram National Park in Pakistan.
Sandia National Laboratories organised conferences where military experts and environmentalists from both India and Pakistan and also from other countries were invited to present joint papers. Kent L. Biringer, a researcher at Cooperative Monitoring Center of Sandia Labs suggested setting up Siachen Science Center, a high-altitude research centre where scientists and researchers from both the countries can carry out research activities related to glaciology, geology, atmospheric sciences and other related fields.
== In popular culture ==
In the 2018 Hollywood movie Mission: Impossible – Fallout, a rogue agent plants nuclear bombs at the base of the Siachen Glacier. The scene was actually filmed in Preikestolen, Norway, due to the Indian government denying permission to film in Kashmir.
== See also ==
Batura Glacier
Colonel Narendra Kumar
NJ9842
Indira Col
Robert D. Hodgson
Baltoro Glacier
Saltoro Kangri
Sia La
Bilafond La
Gyong La
Actual Ground Position Line
2016 Siachen Glacier avalanche
Siachen Muztagh
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Myra MacDonald (2008) Heights of Madness: One Woman's Journey in Pursuit of a Secret War, Rupa, New Delhi ISBN 8129112922. The first full account of the Siachen war to be told from the Indian and Pakistani sides.
V. R. Raghavan, Siachen: Conflict Without End, Viking, New Delhi, 2002
TIME Asia's cover story on Siachen Glacier (July 11, 2005)
Kunal Verma / Rajiv Williams, The Long Road to Siachen: the Question Why, Rupa & Co., New Delhi, 2010
Analysis: Peace may return to Siachen – The Washington Times
Siachen by Arshad H Abbasi
== External links ==
Video about the Conflict in the Siachen area and its consequences
Siachen Peace Park Initiative
Outside magazine article about Siachen battleground
BBC News report: Nuclear rivals in Siachen talks; 26 May 2005
Confrontation at Siachen, Bharat Rakshak. Archived 7 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
National Geographic article: Siachen Glacier Tragedy |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydenham_Hospital#:~:text=Sydenham%20opened%20in%201892%2C%20occupying,125%20Street%20and%20Lenox%20Avenue. | Sydenham Hospital | Sydenham Hospital was a healthcare facility in Harlem, Manhattan, New York, which operated between 1892 and 1980. It was located at 124th Street and Manhattan Avenue.
== History ==
Sydenham opened in 1892, occupying nine houses on 116th Street near 2nd Avenue as of 1911 serving mostly African American patients. Around 1924 the hospital moved to a new 200-bed building at the intersection of West 125 Street and Lenox Avenue. In 1944 the staff doctors were all white despite serving a mostly African American community. Soon after, it was the first hospital to have a full desegregated interracial policy with six African American trustees and twenty African Americans on staff. It was New York City's first full-service hospital to hire African-American doctors, and later became known for hiring African American doctors and nurses when other nearby hospitals would not.
Because of its relatively small size, Sydenham continually faced more financial problems than most private hospitals, and on March 3, 1949, control of it was taken by New York City and it became part of the municipal hospital system. However, in a new practice for the municipal hospital system, the city continued to allow Sydenham's private physicians to hospitalize their patients there. In 1971 Florence Gaynor became the first African American woman to head a major teaching hospital, taking over as executive director of Sydenham Hospital during a financial crisis.
During the severe economic troubles for New York city, the administration of Mayor Ed Koch in December 1978 formulated a tentative plan for an additional 10% reduction in funding for municipal hospitals, and closing or dramatically shrinking services at four hospitals, including Metropolitan Hospital Center in East Harlem and Sydenham. The cuts were a response to the prominent pressure that healthcare costs exerted on the municipal budget while the federal and New York state governments dithered over the escalating expense of healthcare. New York City was particularly vulnerable to healthcare costs because New York State uniquely required localities to pay 25 percent of Medicaid costs within their borders. Care to the uninsured through the city's hospital system ”accounted for more than half the budget gap for most of Koch’s mayoralty.” The administration feared that the municipal hospital system alone was "the one agency that could plunge us back into a fiscal crisis," according to Deputy Mayor Robert F. Wagner III. Sydenham was the smallest of the city's municipal hospitals with 119 beds and the most costly to operate. According to government studies, the daily cost of patient care at Sydenham was $382.40 ($1,194.40 in 2021 dollars), about $100 more per day ($312.34 in 2021 dollars) than at Bellevue Hospital, the city's flagship facility.
=== Closing ===
Koch saw the hospital closings and reorganization as steps to take control of healthcare costs and, in the bargain, deliver better services. But the hospital meant more to the community than just healthcare due to its place in history in the fight against segregation. Also, the threat of closing Sydenham came only months after the closing of Arthur C. Logan Memorial Hospital, also a Harlem institution and the only African American charitable hospital in the city. Furthermore, of the four municipal hospitals slated for closure, none were situated in predominantly white areas. However, the Civil Rights Office of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare certified the Koch reorganization plan as without discriminatory effect.
In January 1979, the Committee for Interns and Residents staged a one-day walkout of doctors at municipal hospitals to protest the cuts, and were often supported on picket lines by hospital workers from District Council 37 of AFSCME. A “Coalition to Save Sydenham” supported legal efforts to stop the closing, organized public rallies and lobbying of elected officials, and helped publicize research to demonstrate the need for the hospital. (In 1977 the federal government designated Harlem a medically underserved area, with Joseph A. Califano Jr., the United States Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, calling it a “health disaster area".)
In the spring of 1980, as Sydenham was about to be shut down, angry demonstrators stormed the hospital, and initiated an occupation that lasted 10 days under a so-called “People’s Administration.”
On June 24, 1980, city, state and federal officials proposed a plan they said would improve healthcare in Harlem by keeping Metropolitan Hospital open with improvements and converting Sydenham to a drug, alcoholism and outpatient clinic. Community activists rejected that plan and, in November 1980, Sydenham's doors were closed for good, while Metropolitan Hospital was saved.
Although unsuccessful, the demonstrations raised the profile of Sydenham among people who had previously never heard of the hospital. Nurse and Health Activist Ebun Adelona said the closure of Sydenham became a “symbol” for Black people throughout New York to revitalize communities, improve health, and exercise political power. In 1998 Sharon Lerner asserted that “The Sydenham blunder paved the way for today's more clandestine approach to hospital downsizing, in which the city reduces its contribution to the Health and Hospitals Corporation and the agency is thereby 'forced' to make cuts to the public hospitals.”
Historians and healthcare experts have observed that the closing of historically black hospitals was an unintended consequence of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the enactment of Medicare in 1965. White hospitals were obliged to desegregate and Black patients followed Black physicians into previously all-white hospitals, but white patients did not cross over to historically black hospitals. The result was the decline of historically black hospitals from 124 institutions in 1944 to only 10 by 1989.
== Physicians ==
Ethelene Crockett, M.D., Michigan's first Black woman certified in OBG, did her residency at Sydenham Hospital.
Peter Marshall Murray
Doris L. Wethers
== Deaths ==
William Christopher Handy (1873–1958), bronchial pneumonia.
== See also ==
Basil A. Paterson
== Further reading ==
Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York, New York, 2020
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Soffer, Jonathan M. (2010). Ed Koch and the rebuilding of New York City. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52090-4. OCLC 750192934. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kamotho | Joseph Kamotho | John Joseph Kamotho (5 December 1942 – 6 December 2014) was a Kenyan politician. He held many Cabinet portfolios including Education, Trade, and Environment and Natural Resources. Kamotho was a former member of parliament for Mathioya Constituency and Kangema Constituency.
== Early life and education ==
Kamotho was born on 5 December 1942 in Gacharageini village in Fort Hall District. He joined the Muthangari Primary School in Fort Hall in 1948 and sat for CE in 1952. He later joined Njumbi Intermediate School in 1955. In 1958, he sat the Kenya African Preliminary Examination and was admitted to Nyeri High School. He sat for the Cambridge Secondary Education Examination in 1962 and obtained a Division Two.
He worked for the East African Customs and Excise as a trainee customs officer in Mombasa and later joined Standard Chartered Bank. He applied for a Russian scholarship and joined the Moscow State University in 1964 where he studied economics but quit a year later. He later got a scholarship from the Institute for International Education, which enabled him to study at Syracuse University in the US and obtained a degree in liberal arts.
After finishing his first degree in 1968, he returned to Kenya to teach at the Kenya Institute of Administration. In 1969, he went to study at the University of Birmingham and obtained a master's degree in Development Administration and Social Sciences.
== Political career ==
He was the fifth secretary general of the KANU party from 1989 to 2003.
He retired from active politics after the 2007 elections.
In the 2013 general elections, Kamotho ran for the Muranga Senatorial seat but lost to Kembi Gitura.
== Personal life ==
In March 2013, Kamotho was admitted to Nairobi Hospital for three months. Kamotho's family later flew him to South Africa where he underwent intensive treatment. On 6 December 2014 at the age of 72 at Milpark Hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa, Kamotho suffered from cardiac arrest and was pronounced dead. He is survived by his wife Eunice Wambui Kamotho and four children. He was buried on 17 December near his home in Mioro, Murang’a.
JJ, as he was fondly known, will be remembered for his fiery brand of politics during the 1990s in Kenya.
== References ==
== External links ==
John Joseph Kamotho Memorial |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgaon_kidney_scandal#:~:text=On%2025%20January%202008%2C%20the,transplants%20in%20the%20past%20decade. | Gurgaon kidney scandal | The multi-billion rupee Gurgaon kidney scandal came to light in January 2008 when police arrested several people for running a kidney transplant racket in Gurgaon, an industrial township near New Delhi, India. Kidneys of most of the victims, who were the poor hailing from the nearby western Uttar Pradesh, were transplanted into clients from the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Saudi Arabia and Greece. The police raid was prompted by complaints by the locals from Moradabad about illegal kidney sales. The man accused of the scandal, Amit Kumar, was arrested in Nepal on 7 February 2008 and denied any hand in criminal activity.
== Chronology of events ==
=== The police raid ===
On 24 January 2008, police teams from Haryana and Uttar Pradesh raided a residential building and a guest house owned by Amit Kumar.
According to the Gurgaon police, the scandal at a local clinic had been going on for six to seven years. The donors were lured with offerings of about Rs. 30,000 for kidney 'donation'. First, they were lured to the clinic on the pretext of job opportunities. They were instead asked for donating their kidneys for a fee and all those who resisted this were drugged against their will and subsequently operated upon.
The Haryana police, under whose jurisdiction the crime happened, issued arrest warrants against Upendra Aggarwal, a general physician and an associate of Amit Kumar for his involvement in the scandal. However, at the time of the police raid, Kumar and his other accomplices escaped after the knowledge of possible arrests.
The raid helped rescue five people and shifted them to a Gurgaon hospital.
=== Aftermath of the raid ===
On 25 January 2008, the police detained a United States–based non-resident Indian couple and three Greek nationals, two among them being patients receiving the transplants.
The police revealed that Dr. Amit Kumar and his accomplices had performed 600 kidney transplants in the past decade. Additionally, at least two hospitals were involved in the after care of patients. Police, through the technology of fingerprinting, determined that Kumar went by many aliases and had been previously arrested at least four different times for illegal organ trade operations. It was further revealed that Kumar, his brother Jeevan Kumar, Upendra Aggarwal and Saraj Kumar, an anesthesiologist were previously arrested three times on charges of illegal human organ transplantation in Delhi, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. They were, however, released on bail. On 7 January 2008 Kumar was arrested by Delhi Police but was released on a bribe of Rs. 20 lakhs. Jeevan Kumar was later arrested on 17 February 2008 in Delhi.
The Indian Medical Association, arranged a probe by its three-member committee, and further requested investigation by Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), India's higher investigation agency. The Haryana police further uncovered 2 hospitals and 10 laboratories in Greater Noida and Meerut, cities nearby to New Delhi for their alleged involvement in the scandal.
In the meanwhile, a Gurgaon court had issued arrest warrants for Amit Kumar and his brother, Jeevan Kumar Rawat. With growing suspicions that Kumar might have fled the country, the Haryana police requested the CBI to alert the Interpol. Thereafter, Red corner notices were issued for the Kumar siblings.
=== Arrest of Amit Kumar ===
On 7 February 2008, Amit Kumar was arrested in the neighboring country of Nepal. He was hiding in a wildlife resort, about 35 miles from the Indo-Nepal border. He had a bank draft worth Rs. 9,36,000 along with a total of €145,000 and $18,900 in cash. At the resort he made an unsuccessful attempt to bribe the Nepali policemen to let him go. The charges filed against him by CBI are under sections 326 (voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapon), sections 342 (wrongful confinement), sections 420 (cheating) and sections 120B (criminal conspiracy).
=== Subsequent conviction ===
In March 2013, a CBI special court convicted five accused while acquitting another five in the case of a Gurgaon kidney transplant racket that was busted in 2008. Dr Upender Dublesh and Dr Amit Kumar, who was termed a "quack" in no uncertain terms by the court, got seven-year rigorous imprisonment (RI) besides a fine of over Rs. 60 lakh each.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulcie_September | Dulcie September | Dulcie Evonne September (20 August 1935 – 29 March 1988) was a South African anti-apartheid political activist who was assassinated in Paris, France, in 1988.
== Early life ==
The second eldest daughter of Jakobus and Susan September, September grew up in Gleemore, a suburb of Cape Town. While living in Cape Town, September cultivated her social awareness concerning the state of apartheid and dedicated herself to political activism, fighting for national liberation, democracy, and social justice. She began her primary schooling at Klipfontein Methodist Mission, and later attended Athlone High School. As a “Cape Coloured,” she witnessed first hand the segregation built into the South African school system based on Bantu education laws, forming the crux of her political framework. Several of her teachers at Athlone High School were actively involved in civic and political organizations and helped raise September's political consciousness and social awareness. Though her formal schooling was cut short halfway through Standard Eight (Grade 10), September continued her education by attending night classes. She passed her Standard Eight exams in 1952. In 1954, she enrolled at the Wesley Training School in Salt River to pursue a career in teaching, and completed her Teacher's Diploma in 1955 at Battswood Training College.
She began her teaching career, first at City Mission School in Maitland, then at Bridgetown East Primary School in Athlone in 1956, and in 1957 became a member of the newly established Cape Peninsula Students' Union (CPSU), affiliate of the Unity Movement of South Africa, which aimed at overcoming racial divisions and forging solidarity among students of different cultural backgrounds. Through CPSU, September met other political activists such as Dr. Kenneth Abrahams, Ottilie Abrahams, Neville Alexander, Marcus Solomon, and Fikile Bam, who would later become her political allies. She belonged to the Athlone branch of the Teacher's League of South Africa (TLSA).
== Activism in South Africa ==
After facing frustration with TLSA and forgoing her membership, September subsequently joined the African Peoples' Democratic Union of Southern Africa (APDUSA), established in 1960. She was later elected to the APDUSA’s finance committee, though the APDUSA was soon divided into two divisions due to internal conflict. Under the leadership of Dr. Kenneth Abrahams and Neville Alexander, who were both suspended from APDUSA in 1962, September and others formed an unofficial body within the APDUSA, the Caucus, to reconcile differences within the organization. After the Sharpeville massacre, September and other likeminded activists grew frustrated with the endless political discussions and adopted a militant stance.
Under the direction of Neville Alexander, September and other likeminded militant activists formed the militant study group named the Yu Chi Chan Club (YCCC) in July 1962, inspired by the Chinese Communist Revolution and named after Chinese guerilla warfare. The YCCC was later disbanded at the end of that same year and was replaced with the National Liberation Front (NLF), launched in January 1963. On 12 July 1963, September’s home was raided by security police, followed by Neville Alexander’s home. When NLF materials were found in their homes, September was detained on 7 October 1963 and put into Roeland Street Prison without trial. Together with nine others, she was charged under the Criminal Procedure Act, the principal charge being "conspiracy to commit acts of sabotage, and incite acts of politically motivated violence". After months of court proceedings, judgment was delivered on 15 April 1964.
== Imprisonment and release ==
September was sentenced to five years imprisonment, during which time she endured severe physical and psychological abuse. September, along with her fellow prisoners, Elizabeth van der Heyden, Doris van der Hayden, and Dorothy Alexander, were eventually moved to a facility reserved for political prisoners at Kroonstad after authorities discovered they were radicalizing illiterate female prisoners. In March 1965, the Bloemfontein Appeal Court dismissed NLF members for their request to appeal their sentences. September was released a few years later in April 1969, with a strict five-year banning order under the Pretoria regime. September then went to live with her sister in Paarl.
According to the conditions of her release from prison in April 1969, the Pretoria regime imposed strict restrictions on September under the Suppression of Communism Act of 1950 to be lifted on 30 April 1974. Under Section 9(1), September was prohibited from engaging in social gatherings, political activities, and teaching in South Africa. Under Section 10(1)(a), her activities were further restricted, including the placement of a strict curfew, restriction from “Bantu areas,” prohibition from communicating with other persons restricted by the Act (including many of her friends and political allies), and a ban on receiving almost all visitors (except medical personnel and her father, which was later changed to her sister and brother-in-law).
== International work ==
In 1973, as her banning order drew to a close, September applied for a permanent departure permit, having secured a position at Madeley College of Education in Staffordshire. She left South Africa on 19 December 1973. In London, she joined the activities of the Anti-Apartheid Movement and was in the frontline of numerous political rallies and demonstrations at South Africa House in Trafalgar Square. Later she gave up her job as a teacher and joined the staff of the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. In 1976, she joined the African National Congress (ANC) where she worked in the ANC Women's League. It was here where she was recognized for her dedication to women's issues and made it her mission to welcome newly exiled South Africans to London. In 1979, International Year of the Child (IYC), she was elected chairperson of the IYC Committee of the ANC Women's Section in London. As a representative of the ANC, September attended conferences in Finland, Canada, and France and worked with the United Nations (UN), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the Women’s’ International Democratic Federation (WIDF) to champion children’s and women’s rights. In 1981, September was called to work full-time in the Regional Preparatory Committee (RPC) at the ANC headquarters in Lusaka, where she was soon elected as chairperson. At the end of 1983, September was appointed ANC Chief Representative in France, Switzerland and Luxembourg. Subsequently, she underwent a required, short military training in the Soviet Union. As Chief Representative, September rallied support and pushed for economic sanctions of the South African government in the three countries directly under her mission.
Between October 1986 and September 1987, September was involved in the Albertini Affair, an anti-apartheid movement that ended with the embarrassment of both the South African and French governments. During this time, she campaigned for the release of Pierre Andre Albertini, a French national who had become involved with the ANC and was subsequently imprisoned by the South African government. Additionally, she petitioned for the French president, Francois Mitterrand, to deny South Africa's new French ambassador, Hennie Geldenhuys, until Albertini was released from his prison in Ciskei.
By 1987, September had become a formidable threat to the South African government. She raised strong anti-apartheid campaigns in France, Switzerland, and Luxembourg, where she pushed for economic sanctions and disinvestment of South Africa. Additionally, September forged strong ties with anti-apartheid pressure groups and left-wing politicians in these countries.
== Assassination ==
On the morning of 29 March 1988, September was shot 5 times with a silenced .22 caliber rifle outside the ANC's Paris office at 28, Rue des Petites-Écuries, as she was opening the office after collecting the mail. She was 52 years old. Her death stoked a strong popular reaction in Paris where more than 20,000 gathered to mourn.
Her case remains unsolved. There is speculation that her assassination was the work of South African hitmen, possibly with the collaboration of the French secret service. The French government concluded that there was no sufficient evidence to take any suspects into custody, and the case was closed after remaining unsolved for 10 years.
Before her assassination, September had been investigating trafficking of weapons between France and South Africa. In an investigation held by the Truth Commission Files, it was found that the crime motive was possibly linked to September’s knowledge of the illegal arms dealings as well as a possible nuclear collaboration between the French government and the South African Armscor. Upon her discovery of this knowledge, September allegedly said she “feared for her life.” During her investigation into the illegal dealings between France and South Africa, she reported her concerns to some of her superiors in the ANC, where she was promptly dismissed. Some of September’s friends allege that before her death, September reported being followed and threatened and asked for protection from French authorities, to which she was denied. Charles Pasqua, the interior minister, denied these allegations and claimed that September never made such request. However, sources claim that the French had intelligence that South Africa had plans to possible kill September by December 1987, though this is officially denied.
On the day after her murder, Alfred Nzo, secretary-general of the African National Congress, commented: "If ever there was a soft target, Dulcie September was one."
== Legacy ==
=== Arts and media ===
Jean-Michel Jarre composed a song for his 1988 Revolutions album named "September", dedicated to Dulcie September. The song was performed at his Destination Docklands concert at London's Royal Victoria Dock in October 1988, and features on the album recording of this, Jarre Live (1989).
The conceptual artist Hans Haacke devoted his 1989 installation "One Day, The Lions of Dulcie September Will Spout Water in Jubilation" to her. The site-specific intervention that modified an existing but defunct fountain in front of the Grande halle de la Villette in Paris, was part of the exhibition Magiciens de la terre by Jean-Martin Hubert.
Her short story "A Split Society – Fast Sounds on the Horizon" was included in the 1992 anthology Daughters of Africa, edited by Margaret Busby.
Cold Case: Revisiting Dulcie September is a solo play written by Basil Appollis and Sylvia Vollenhoven that pays tribute to Dulcie September, played by Denise Newman. The play was invited to perform at a French cultural festival in Paris and eventually won the inaugural Adelaide Tambo Award for Human Rights in the Arts.
A book about her murder, Dulcie: Een Vrouw Die Haar Mond Moest Houden by Evelyn Groenink, was published in the Netherlands in 2001. A podcast about the murder of Dulcie September, They Killed Dulcie by Open Secrets and Sound Africa, was released in March 2019. The 2021 documentary Murder in Paris (directed by Enver Samuel and edited by Nikki Comninos) explores the life and assassination of September. Subsequently, an online awareness campaign and petition for September was started under the hashtags “#justicefordulcie” and “#mercidulcie.”
The 300-page graphic novel, Dulcie from Cape Town to Paris, an investigation into the murder of an anti-apartheid activist, was published by Benoît Collombat and Grégory Mardon to revive the September’s murder investigation 30 years after her assassination.
=== Memorials and dedications ===
A square in the 10th arrondissement of Paris is named after Dulcie September, and was officially inaugurated on 31 March 1998, ten years after her death. Translated from French, the plate reads “Dulcie September Square: Representative of the African National Congress: Assassinated in Paris on 29 March 1988.” A street in Cléon, near Rouen, is named after her. There is also a place named Dulcie September in Nantes, and a primary school in Évry-sur-Seine carries her name as well as a middle school (collège in French) in Arcueil, the town near Paris where she last lived.
In August 2010, the first Dulcie September Memorial Lecture took place at The Centre for Humanities Research of the University of the Western Cape, as well as the launch of the Dulcie September Fellowship Awards in the Humanities and Social Sciences that featured speakers including Barbara Masekela and Margaret Busby.
In October 2011, Staffordshire University Students' Union honoured Dulcie September by renaming their boardroom the "September Room" and erecting a plaque in her memory. She was a former student of Madeley College of Education, one of the founding colleges of North Staffordshire Polytechnic.
In 2013 the Athlone Civic Centre was renamed the Dulcie September Civic Centre.
In Amsterdam, Netherlands, a road in the city's Transvaalbuurt is named Dulcie Septemberpad. Other buildings and streets in the neighbourhood have also been named after prominent historic South Africans, including Steve Bikoplein, Nelson Mandela School and Retiefstraat.
== See also ==
List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace | Ada Lovelace | Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (née Byron; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), also known as Ada Lovelace, was an English mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation. Ada Lovelace is often considered to be the first computer programmer.
Ada Lovelace was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Anne Isabella Milbanke. All her half-siblings, Lord Byron's other children, were born out of wedlock to other women. Lord Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever. He died in Greece whilst fighting in the Greek War of Independence, when she was eight. Lady Byron was anxious about her daughter's upbringing and promoted Lovelace's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her father's perceived insanity. Despite this, Lovelace remained interested in her father, naming one son Byron and the other, for her father's middle name, Gordon. Upon her death, she was buried next to her father at her request. Although often ill in her childhood, Lovelace pursued her studies assiduously.
She married William King in 1835. King was already a Baron, and was created Viscount Ockham and 1st Earl of Lovelace in 1838. The name Lovelace was chosen because Ada was descended from the extinct Baron Lovelaces. The title given to her husband thus made Ada the Countess of Lovelace.
Lovelace's educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Charles Babbage, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone and Michael Faraday, and the author Charles Dickens, contacts which she used to further her education. Lovelace described her approach as "poetical science" and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)".
When she was eighteen, Lovelace's mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage. She was in particular interested in Babbage's work on the Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him on 5 June 1833, when she and her mother attended one of Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées with their mutual friend, and Lovelace's private tutor, Mary Somerville.
Though Babbage's Analytical Engine was never constructed and exercised no influence on the later invention of electronic computers, it has been recognised in retrospect as a Turing-complete general-purpose computer which anticipated the essential features of a modern electronic computer; Babbage is therefore known as the "father of computers," and Lovelace is credited with several computing "firsts" for her collaboration with him.
Between 1842 and 1843, Lovelace translated an article by the military engineer Luigi Menabrea (later Prime Minister of Italy) about the Analytical Engine, supplementing it with seven long explanatory notes. These notes described a method of using the machine to calculate Bernoulli numbers which is often called the first published computer program.
She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities. Lovelace was the first to point out the possibility of encoding information besides mere arithmetical figures, such as music, and manipulating it with such a machine. Her mindset of "poetical science" led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes), examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool.
Ada is widely commemorated (see Commemoration below), including in the names of a programming language, several roads, buildings and institutes as well as programmes, lectures and courses. There are also a number of plaques, statues, paintings, literary and non-fiction works.
== Biography ==
=== Childhood ===
Lord Byron expected his child to be a "glorious boy" and was disappointed when Lady Byron gave birth to a girl. The child was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself. On 16 January 1816, at Lord Byron's command, Lady Byron left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory, taking their five-week-old daughter with her. Although English law at the time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation, Lord Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights, but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare.
On 21 April, Lord Byron signed the deed of separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Aside from an acrimonious separation, Lady Byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husband's immoral behaviour. This set of events made Lovelace infamous in Victorian society. Ada did not have a relationship with her father. He died in April 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday.
Lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother. She was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke, who doted on her. However, because of societal attitudes of the time—which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation—Lady Byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about her daughter's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern. In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to her daughter as "it": "I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own." Lady Byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation. Lovelace dubbed these observers the "Furies" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her.
Lovelace was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, something which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she was able to walk with crutches. Despite the illnesses, she developed her mathematical and technological skills.
When Ada was twelve years old, this future "Lady Fairy", as Charles Babbage affectionately called her, decided she wanted to fly. Ada Byron went about the project methodically, thoughtfully, with imagination and passion. Her first step, in February 1828, was to construct wings. She investigated different material and sizes. She considered various materials for the wings: paper, oilsilk, wires, and feathers. She examined the anatomy of birds to determine the right proportion between the wings and the body. She decided to write a book, Flyology, illustrating, with plates, some of her findings. She decided what equipment she would need; for example, a compass, to "cut across the country by the most direct road", so that she could surmount mountains, rivers, and valleys. Her final step was to integrate steam with the "art of flying".
Ada Byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833. She tried to elope with him after she was caught, but the tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Lady Byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal. Lovelace never met her younger half-sister, Allegra, the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont. Allegra died in 1822 at the age of five. Lovelace did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court.
=== Adult years ===
Lovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville, and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included the scientists Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens. She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen "and became a popular belle of the season" in part because of her "brilliant mind". By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse, Byron's friend, described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth". This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to her mother's influence, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends.
On 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King, becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park, Surrey; a Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire; and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset, which had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845, the family's main house was Horsley Towers, built in the Tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry, and later greatly enlarged to Lovelace's own designs.
They had three children: Byron (born 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella, born 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure". Ada was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace. In 1843–44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a "moral" instructor for Ada. He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an "unbecoming" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off.
In 1841, Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Ada's father was also Medora's father. On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished. In fact, you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected." She did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was." In the 1840s, Ada flirted with scandals: firstly, from a relaxed approach to extra-marital relationships with men, leading to rumours of affairs; and secondly, from her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s. The gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband. She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her. During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her.
=== Education ===
From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately educated in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King, and Mary Somerville, the noted 19th-century researcher and scientific author. In the 1840s, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan extended her "much help in her mathematical studies" including study of advanced calculus topics including the "numbers of Bernoulli" (that formed her celebrated algorithm for Babbage's Analytical Engine). In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that Ada's skill in mathematics might lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence".
Lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science. Whilst studying differential calculus, she wrote to De Morgan:
I may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in one shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar.
Lovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts. She valued metaphysics as much as mathematics, viewing both as tools for exploring "the unseen worlds around us".
=== Death ===
Lovelace died at the age of 36 on 27 November 1852 from cervical cancer (which contemporary accounts called uterine cancer, since a distinction between the two was not made at that time). The illness lasted several months, in which time Lady Byron took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, Ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Lady Byron her executor. She lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. It is not known what she told him. She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire.
== Work ==
Throughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology and mesmerism. After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings ("a calculus of the nervous system"). She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running preoccupation, inherited from her mother, about her "potential" madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments. In the same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, Researches on Magnetism, but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft. In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning "certain productions" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music.
Lovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month, Babbage invited Lovelace to see the prototype for his difference engine. She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Number". In 1843, he wrote to her:
Forget this world and all its troubles and if possible its multitudinous Charlatans—every thing in short but the Enchantress of Number.
=== Babbage's lecture, Menabrea's French transcription, Lovelace's translation and Notes A-G ===
In 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer and the future Prime Minister of Italy, transcribed Babbage's lecture into French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève in October 1842. Babbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English.
During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Lovelace translated Menabrea's article. She augmented the paper with seven notes, A to G, about three times longer than the translation. The translation and notes were then published in the September 1843 edition of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs under her initials AAL.
Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task; many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the British establishment had shown little interest in it. Lovelace's notes even had to explain how the Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine. Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing.
=== Babbage's preface ===
Lovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (criticising the government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface, which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration. When Taylor's Scientific Memoirs ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that "His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her ... because of her 'celebrated name'." Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as Philosopher's Walk; it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles.
=== First published computer program ===
The notes are important in the early history of computers, especially since Note G described, in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, which might have run correctly had it ever been built. Though Babbage's personal notes from 1837 to 1840 contain the first programs for the engine, the algorithm in Note G is often called the first published computer program. The engine was never completed and so the program was never tested.
In 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished as an appendix to B. V. Bowden's Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines. The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software.
==== Controversy over contribution ====
Based on this work, Lovelace is often called the first computer programmer and her method has been called the world's first computer program.
Eugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it "incorrect" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer. Babbage claims credit in his autobiography for the algorithm in Note G, and regardless of the extent of Lovelace's contribution to it, she was not the very first person to write a program for the Analytical Engine, as Babbage had written the initial programs for it, although the majority were never published. Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes. Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as "more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development".
Allan G. Bromley, in the 1990 article Difference and Analytical Engines:
All but one of the programs cited in her notes had been prepared by Babbage from three to seven years earlier. The exception was prepared by Babbage for her, although she did detect a "bug" in it. Not only is there no evidence that Ada ever prepared a program for the Analytical Engine, but her correspondence with Babbage shows that she did not have the knowledge to do so.
Bruce Collier wrote that Lovelace "made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way".
Doron Swade has said that Ada only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it, but agrees that she was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as a machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities.
In his book, Idea Makers, Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that "there's nothing as sophisticated—or as clean—as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she was definitely the driver of it." Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence "a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine—something which Babbage never did".
=== Insight into potential of computing devices ===
In her notes, Ada Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote:
[The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations, and which should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the operating notation and mechanism of the engine...Supposing, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent.
This analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Ada's insight regarding the application of computing to any process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: "When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns, it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations." This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine.
According to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade:
Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw...was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had a machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation—to general-purpose computation—and looking back from the present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper.
Note G also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence. She wrote that "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths." This objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence". Most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers.
=== Distinction between mechanism and logical structure ===
Lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism, as covered in an 1834 article on the Difference Engine,
and the logical structure of the Analytical Engine, on which the article she was reviewing dwelt. She noted that different specialists might be required in each area.
The [1834 article] chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect, entering but slightly into the mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative, but giving, in considerable length, many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences. M. Menabrea, on the contrary, exclusively develops the analytical view; taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes, but without attempting to explain how; and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of the manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism. It is obvious that, in the invention of a calculating engine, these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation... They are indissolubly connected, though so different in their intrinsic nature, that perhaps the same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both.
== Commemoration ==
The computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, MIL-STD-1815, was given the number of the year of her birth.
In 1981, the Association for Women in Computing inaugurated its Ada Lovelace Award. As of 1998, the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal, and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students. BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates. In 2013, the University of Deusto in Spain established the Ada Byron Award for women in technology, which was subsequently expanded to several Latin American countries.
Ada, the National College for Digital Skills, is a specialist college of further education and higher education in England, focused on digital skills. The college has campuses in London (Pimlico) and Manchester (Ancoats). The college teaches degree-level apprenticeship, as well as a sixth-form college for students aged 16 to 19.
Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated on the second Tuesday of October, which began in 2009. Its goal is to "... raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths," and to "create new role models for girls and women" in these fields. Events have included Wikipedia edit-a-thons with the aim of improving the representation of women on Wikipedia in terms of articles and editors to reduce unintended gender bias on Wikipedia.
The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements.
The building of the department of Engineering Mathematics at the University of Bristol is called the Ada Lovelace Building.
The Engineering in Computer Science and Telecommunications College building in Zaragoza University is called the Ada Byron Building.
The computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Lovelace lived, is named after her.
Ada Lovelace House is a council-owned building in Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, near where Lovelace spent her infancy.
In 2012, a Google Doodle and blog post honoured her on her birthday. In 2013, Ada Developers Academy was founded and named after her. Its mission is to diversify tech by providing women and gender-diverse people the skills, experience, and community support to become professional software developers to change the face of tech. On 17 September 2013, the BBC Radio 4 biography programme Great Lives devoted an episode to Ada Lovelace; she was sponsored by TV presenter Konnie Huq.
As of November 2015, all new British passports have included an illustration of Lovelace and Babbage. In 2017, a Google Doodle honoured her with other women on International Women's Day. On 2 February 2018, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite named in honour of Ada Lovelace. In March 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for Ada Lovelace.
On 27 July 2018, Senator Ron Wyden submitted, in the United States Senate, the designation of 9 October 2018 as National Ada Lovelace Day: "To honor the life and contributions of Ada Lovelace as a leading woman in science and mathematics". The resolution (S.Res.592) was considered, and agreed to without amendment and with a preamble by unanimous consent. In November 2020 it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom was to be Lovelace. The four new busts (Ada Lovelace, Mary Wollstonecraft, Augusta Gregory and Rosalind Franklin) were unveiled on February 1st 2023
In March 2022, a statue of Ada Lovelace was installed at the site of the former Ergon House in the City of Westminster, London, honouring its scientific history. The redevelopment was part of a complex with Imperial Chemical House. The statue was sculpted by Etienne and Mary Millner and based on the portrait by Margaret Sarah Carpenter. The sculpture was unveiled on International Women's Day, 2022. It stands on the 7th floor of Millbank Quarter overlooking the junction of Dean Bradley Street and Horseferry Road.
In September 2022, Nvidia announced the Ada Lovelace graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture. In July 2023, the Royal Mint issued four commemorative £2 coins in various metals to "honour the innovative contributions of computer science visionary Ada Lovelace and her legacy as a female trailblazer."
=== Bicentenary (2015) ===
The bicentenary of Ada Lovelace's birth was celebrated with a number of events, including:
The Ada Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability, Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, 20 December 2015 – 31 January 2016.
Ada Lovelace Symposium, University of Oxford, 13–14 October 2015.
Ada.Ada.Ada, a one-woman show about the life and work of Ada Lovelace (using an LED dress), premiered at Edinburgh International Science Festival on 11 April 2015, and continued to touring internationally to promote diversity on STEM at technology conferences, businesses, government and educational organisations.
Special exhibitions were displayed by the Science Museum in London, England and the Weston Library (part of the Bodleian Library) in Oxford, England.
== In popular culture ==
=== Novels and plays ===
Lovelace is portrayed in Romulus Linney's 1977 play Childe Byron. In Tom Stoppard's 1993 play Arcadia, the precocious teenage genius Thomasina Coverly—a character "apparently based" on Ada Lovelace (the play also involves Lord Byron)—comes to understand chaos theory, and theorises the second law of thermodynamics, before either is officially recognised.
In the 1990 steampunk novel The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, Lovelace delivers a lecture on the "punched cards" programme which proves Gödel's incompleteness theorems decades before their actual discovery. Lovelace and Mary Shelley as teenagers are the central characters in Jordan Stratford's steampunk series, The Wollstonecraft Detective Agency.
Lovelace features in John Crowley's 2005 novel, Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land, as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel.
The 2015 play Ada and the Engine by Lauren Gunderson portrays Lovelace and Charles Babbage in unrequited love, and it imagines a post-death meeting between Lovelace and her father. Lovelace and Babbage are also the main characters in Sydney Padua's webcomic and graphic novel The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage. The comic features extensive footnotes on the history of Ada Lovelace, and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence.
=== Film and television ===
In the 1997 film Conceiving Ada, a computer scientist obsessed with Ada finds a way of communicating with her in the past by means of "undying information waves".
Lovelace, identified as Ada Augusta Byron, is portrayed by Lily Lesser in the second series of The Frankenstein Chronicles aired on ITV in 2017. She is employed as an "analyst" to provide the workings of a life-sized humanoid automaton. The brass workings of the machine are reminiscent of Babbage's analytical engine. Her employment is described as keeping her occupied until she returns to her studies in advanced mathematics.
"Lovelace" is the name of the operating system designed by the character Cameron Howe in Halt and Catch Fire, which aired on AMC in the US in 2015.
In the documentary Calculating Ada: The Countess of Computing (2015), Dr Hannah Fry covers the life of Ada Lovelace.
Lovelace and Babbage appear as characters in the second season of the ITV series Victoria (2017). Emerald Fennell portrays Lovelace in the episode, "The Green-Eyed Monster."
Lovelace features as a character in "Spyfall, Part 2", the second episode of Doctor Who, series 12, which first aired on BBC One on 5 January 2020. The character was portrayed by Sylvie Briggs, alongside characterisations of Charles Babbage and Noor Inayat Khan.
=== Games ===
In the board game Ada's Dream (2025) the player(s) will help Ada finish her work on the Analytical Engine.
A clone of Ada Lovelace appears in the 2023 video game Starfield
Ada Lovelace is a playable leader in Sid Meier's Civilization VII.
=== Computing and STEM ===
Ada Lovelace Day
A computer language, initially developed by the US Department of Defense, is called Ada.
The Lovelace Medal awarded by the British Computer Society (BCS).
The Lovelace Lectures at the BCS sponsored by the Alan Turing Institute.
The Lovelace Lectures at Durham University.
The Ada Lovelace Award awarded by the Association for Women in Computing
The Ada Initiative supporting open technology and women is named after her.
Ada Lovelace Building, the engineering mathematics building at the University of Bristol.
Ada Lovelace Building, in Exeter Science Park.
Ada Byron Building, in the Department of Computer Science and Systems Engineering at the University of Zaragoza.
Ada Byron Research Centre in University of Malaga, Andalucía.
Ada Lovelace Institute, a think tank dedicated to ensuring data and AI work for people and society.
Ada Lovelace Centre for Digital Scholarship, Oxford
Ada Lovelace Center for Digital Humanities at the FU Berlin.
ADA Lovelace Centre for Analytics, Data, Applications at Fraunhofer IIS originally called the ADA Lovelace Centre for Artificial Intelligence.
Ada Lovelace Excellence Scholarship at the University of Southampton.
Adafruit Industries
Ada Lovelace Centre, part of the Science and Technology Facilities Council, a UK government agency that carries out research in science and engineering.
The Cardano cryptocurrency platform, launched in 2017, uses Ada as the name for the cryptocurrency and Lovelace as the smallest sub-unit of an Ada.
Ada, an artwork incorporating artificial intelligence house at Microsoft's Building 99.
In 2021, the code name of Nvidia's GPU architecture in its RTX 4000 series is Ada Lovelace. It is the first Nvidia architecture to feature both a first and last name.
Ada Byron University Programming Contest at the Polytechnic University of Valencia.
=== Other ===
A green plaque is to be found on Fordhook Avenue on the corner of 5 Station Parade, Uxbridge Road, Ealing.
Blue plaques are at Mallory Park and St James's Square.
Ada Lovelace C of E High School in Greenford, specialising in music, digital technologies and languages.
Ada Lovelace House, council offices in Nottinghamshire, later proposed to be let to small business.
Ada Byron King Building at Nottingham Trent University
Ada Lovelace Suite at Seaham Hall.
The Lovelace Memorial is a Grade II Listed monument in Kirkby Mallory.
== Publications ==
Lovelace, Ada King. Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Lord Byron's Daughter and her Description of the First Computer. Mill Valley, CA: Strawberry Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-912647-09-8.
Menabrea, Luigi Federico; Lovelace, Ada (1843). "Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage... with notes by the translator. Translated by Ada Lovelace". In Richard Taylor (ed.). Scientific Memoirs. Vol. 3. London: Richard and John E. Taylor. pp. 666–731. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023.
Also available on Wikisource: The Menebrea article, The notes by Ada Lovelace.
=== Publication history ===
Six copies of the 1843 first edition of Sketch of the Analytical Engine with Ada Lovelace's "Notes" have been located. Three are held at Harvard University, one at the University of Oklahoma, and one at the United States Air Force Academy. On 20 July 2018, the sixth copy was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for £95,000. A digital facsimile of one of the copies in the Harvard University Library is available online.
In December 2016, a letter written by Ada Lovelace was forfeited by Martin Shkreli to the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance for unpaid taxes owed by Shkreli.
== See also ==
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== General and cited sources ===
== Further reading ==
Jennifer Chiaverini, 2017, Enchantress of Numbers, Dutton, 426 pp.
Christopher Hollings, Ursula Martin, and Adrian Rice, 2018, Ada Lovelace: The Making of a Computer Scientist, Bodleian Library, 114 pp.
Miranda Seymour, 2018, In Byron's Wake: The Turbulent Lives of Byron's Wife and Daughter: Annabella Milbanke and Ada Lovelace, Pegasus, 547 pp.
Jenny Uglow (22 November 2018), "Stepping Out of Byron's Shadow", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 18, pp. 30–32.
== External links ==
"Ada's Army gets set to rewrite history at Inspirefest 2018" by Luke Maxwell, 4 August 2018
Works by Ada Lovelace at Open Library
"Untangling the Tale of Ada Lovelace" by Stephen Wolfram, December 2015
"Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing". Women in Science. SDSC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2001.
"Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace". Biographies of Women Mathematicians. Agnes Scott College.
"Papers of the Noel, Byron and Lovelace families". UK: Archives hub. Archived from the original (archive) on 24 April 2012.
"Ada Lovelace & The Analytical Engine". Babbage. Computer History.
"Ada & the Analytical Engine". Educause. Archived from the original (archive) on 10 August 2009.
"Ada Lovelace, Countess of Controversy". Tech TV vault. G4 TV. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2007.
"Ada Lovelace" (streaming). In Our Time (audio). UK: BBC Radio 4. 6 March 2008.
"Ada Lovelace's Notes and The Ladies Diary". Yale.
"The fascinating story Ada Lovelace". Sabine Allaeys. 13 September 2015 – via YouTube.
"Ada Lovelace, the World's First Computer Programmer, on Science and Religion". Maria Popova (Brain). 10 December 2013.
"How Ada Lovelace, Lord Byron's Daughter, Became the World's First Computer Programmer". Maria Popova (Brain). 10 December 2014.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ada Lovelace", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_(singer)#Film | Monica (singer) | Monica Denise Arnold (formerly Brown; born October 24, 1980), best known mononymously as Monica, is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. Born and raised in College Park, Georgia, she began performing as a child and joined a traveling gospel choir by the age of ten. Monica signed with record producer Dallas Austin's label Rowdy Records in 1993, and gained prominence following the release of her debut studio album, Miss Thang (1995). Her follow-up albums were met with continued success; her second, The Boy Is Mine (1998) remains her best-selling album and spawned three Billboard Hot 100-number one singles: "The Boy Is Mine" (with Brandy), "The First Night " and "Angel of Mine".
She then parted ways with Arista and Rowdy Records in favor of Clive Davis's J Records upon the label's launch in 2000. Her Japan-exclusive third album, All Eyez on Me (2002), was met with a steep critical and commercial decline, although its partial re-issue, After the Storm (2003), served as her fourth album and became her first to debut atop the US Billboard 200. Its lead single, "So Gone", peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100. Her fifth and sixth albums, The Makings of Me (2006) and Still Standing (2010), debuted at numbers eight and two on the Billboard 200, respectively; the latter received two Grammy Award nominations. Her seventh, New Life (2012) debuted at number four on the chart despite unfavorable critical response; her eighth album, Code Red (2015) marked her final release with RCA.
Monica's popularity translated into an acting career, with television roles in Living Single (1996), Felicity (2001), and American Dreams (2003), and film roles including Boys and Girls (2000), Love Song (2000), and Pastor Brown (2009). In 2008, she served as an advisor for the NBC competition series The Voice. The recording of her 2008 single, "Still Standing" (featuring Ludacris) along with her personal life resulted in her receiving a reality television series, Monica: Still Standing on BET.
Monica has sold over 25 million records worldwide, with more than five million of those in the United States alone. In 2000, Billboard ranked her tenth its list of the Top Female Solo Artists of the 1990s. In 2010, the magazine listed her 24th on its list of the Top 50 R&B and Hip-Hop Artists of the past 25 years. A five-time nominee, she won Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for "The Boy Is Mine" at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards. Her other accolades include a Billboard Music Video Award, a BET Award, and a Soul Train Music Award. In 2009, she received the Lady of Soul Honor.
== Early life ==
Monica Denise Arnold was born in College Park, Georgia, the only daughter of Marilyn Best, a Delta Air Lines customer service representative and former church singer, and M.C. "Billy" Arnold Jr, who was a mechanic for an Atlanta freight company. Arnold's mother is of African American descent and her father is African American, Indian and Irish, as she stated in an interview with Wendy Williams in the year 2000; " My Grandfather was Irish & Black, and my Grandmother was entirely Indian, as my father has Blonde hair & blue eyes." . She has a younger brother, Montez (born in 1983), and a half brother, Jermond Grant, on her father's side. Monica is also a cousin of record producer Polow da Don, and is related to rapper Ludacris through her mother's second marriage to Reverend Edward Best, a Methodist minister.
At the age of 2, Monica followed in her mother's footsteps with regular performances at the Jones Hill Chapel United Methodist Church in Marilyn's hometown Newnan, Georgia. While growing up in the modest circumstances of a single-parent home after her parents' 1984 separation and 1987 divorce, Monica continued training herself in singing and became a frequent talent-show contestant, winning over 20 local singing competitions throughout her early teenage years. When she was 10 years old, she became the youngest member of "Charles Thompson and the Majestics", a traveling 12-person gospel choir. She attended North Clayton High School with rapper 2 Chainz. She graduated from high school in 1997 at age 16, having skipped ahead scholastically by studying year-round with a private tutor.
== Career ==
=== 1991–2000: Miss Thang and The Boy Is Mine ===
In 1991, at the age of eleven, Monica was discovered by music producer Dallas Austin at the Center Stage auditorium in Atlanta, performing Whitney Houston 1986's "Greatest Love of All". Amazed by her voice, Dallas offered her a record deal with his label Rowdy Records, and consulted rapper Queen Latifah to work as Monica's first manager. Shortly afterwards Dallas and then staff producers Tim & Bob entered the studio with Monica to start writing and producing her debut Miss Thang, which was released in July 1995 and peaked at number 36 on the Billboard 200 (and number seven on the Top R&B Albums chart). To date the album has sold 1.5 million copies in the United States. By January 2000, it received triple platinum certification by the RIAA for three million units. The album yielded three singles, including her debut "Don't Take It Personal (Just One of Dem Days)", and its follow-up "Before You Walk Out of My Life", which made Monica the youngest artist to have two consecutive chart-topping songs on the U.S. Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart. Miss Thang earned Monica an American Music Award nomination for Favorite New Soul/R&B Artist. The video for "Don't Take It Personal", directed by Rich Murray, was nominated for a Billboard Award for best video by a new artist.
Following the album's success, Monica's mainstream success was boosted. Her 1997 song "For You I Will"—recorded for Space Jam: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture (1996)—became her next pop hit, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was written by Diane Warren. The following year, she was asked to team up with singer Brandy and producer Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins to record "The Boy Is Mine", the first single from both of their second albums. Released in May 1998, surrounding highly publicized rumors about a real-life catfight between both singers, the duet became both the biggest hit of the summer and the biggest hit of 1998 in general in America, spending thirteen weeks on top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It earned the pair a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal" and garnered multi-platinum sales (to date, it remains as one of the top twenty most successful American singles in history based on Billboard chart success).
Jermaine Dupri, David Foster and Austin consulted on the album The Boy Is Mine, which was released later that year and it eventually became Monica's biggest-selling album; selling over 2,016,000 copies.
In June 2000, the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for three million shipped units. It yielded another two U.S. number-one hits with "The First Night" and "Angel of Mine", a cover of Eternal's 1997 single, as well as a remake of Richard Marx' "Right Here Waiting". Rolling Stone proclaimed it "closer to soul's source... harking back past hip-hop songbirds like Mary J. Blige and adult-contemporary sirens like Toni Braxton", while AllMusic called the album an "irresistible sounding [and] immaculately crafted musical backdrop [...] as good as mainstream urban R&B gets in 1998." Monica has also made guest appearances on several television shows such as Living Single (1996), Beverly Hills, 90210 (1997, 1999) and the Cartoon Network special Brak Presents The Brak Show Starring Brak (2000).
=== 2000–2005: All Eyez on Me and After the Storm ===
In 2000, Monica made her film debut as Camille Livingston, a young woman torn between the life her parents have planned for her and the world she experiences after meeting a musician from the wrong side of the tracks, in Love Song, the third drama produced by MTV Films. Love Song was released on December 1, 2000, and debuted the song "What My Heart Says" along with promotion for the singer's third studio album All Eyez on Me (2002). Monica has also acted in Felicity (2001) and American Dreams (2003), playing Mary Wells and singing "My Guy".
Also in 2000, Monica contributed chorus vocals for "I've Got to Have It", a collaboration with Jermaine Dupri and rapper Nas. Released as the Big Momma's House theme song, the track saw minor success in the United States. The following year, she released the Ric Wake–produced "Just Another Girl", a promotional single for the Down to Earth soundtrack.
A year later, Monica channeled much of her heavily media-discussed experiences into the production of her third studio album, All Eyez on Me, her first release on her mentor Clive Davis's newly established label J Records. "I just wanted to give the people back something that had personal passion, instead of just, 'Oh, let's dance to this record'", she said regarding the issues worked into the tracks. The first single "All Eyez on Me", a Rodney Jerkins-produced R&B-dance track, saw minor to moderate success on the international charts but failed to enter the higher half of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. A follow-up song, "Too Hood", also got a lukewarm response and as a result, the album's tentative release was pushed back several times. "I don't think people wanted to hear a big fun record from me, after knowing all the things that I had personally experienced", Monica second-guessed her new material which saw both early and heavy bootlegging via internet at that time.
After the Japan-wide release of All Eyez on Me, Monica was asked to substantially reconstruct the record with a host of new producers, and as a result she re-entered recording studios to start work with songwriters Kanye West, Jazze Pha, Andre "mrDEYO" Deyo, Bam & Ryan and Dupri—replacing executive producer Missy Elliott. Released in June 2003, After the Storm debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart with first-week sales of 185,500 copies. This was Monica's first and only time reaching number-one on the chart. It eventually received a gold certification, and has sold 1,023,000 copies to date. Media reception of the CD was generally enthusiastic, with AllMusic saying the album "has all the assuredness and smart developments that should keep Monica's younger longtime followers behind her—all the while holding the ability to appeal to a wider spectrum of R&B and hip-hop fans." The album's lead single, Elliott-penned "So Gone", was one of Monica's biggest commercial successes in years, becoming her first top ten single since 1999's "Angel of Mine". In addition, it reached the top position of the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks and Hot Dance Club Play charts. Subsequently, After the Storm spawned another three singles, with final single "U Should've Known Better" reaching number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
=== 2006–2010: The Makings of Me, Still Standing, and reality television ===
Towards the end of 2006, Monica released her next studio album The Makings of Me. Titled after Curtis Mayfield's recording "The Makings of You", it saw her particularly reuniting with producers Elliott, Dupri, and Bryan Michael Cox; they had previously contributed to After the Storm. The album received a positive reception from most professional music critics, with AllMusic calling it a "concise and mostly sweet set of songs", and Entertainment Weekly declaring it "a solid addition" to Monica's discography. While it debuted at number one on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, and at number eight on the official Billboard 200, it widely failed to revive the success of its predecessors. Singles such as snap-influenced "Everytime tha Beat Drop" featuring Atlanta hip-hop group Dem Franchize Boyz and Elliott-produced "A Dozen Roses (You Remind Me)" failed to reach the top forty of the regular pop charts. Also in 2006, she made a cameo appearance in the American comedy-drama film ATL, playing the Waffle House waitress.
In August 2008, Monica appeared in the Peachtree TV reality show special Monica: The Single, which tracked the recording of the song "Still Standing" for her same-titled sixth studio album. The following year, she lent her voice to the ballad "Trust", a duet with Keyshia Cole, that peaked in the top five on Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and joined the cast of Rockmond Dunbar's drama film Pastor Brown. In 2010, with the success of the 2008 one-hour special, Monica joined the production of the BET network for her own series Monica: Still Standing, producing a spin-off her Peachtree show, containing the same concept. It focused on finding a hit single for the album's release while balancing her personal life as a full-time mother and dealing with her troubled past. The premiere and encore episode garnered 3.2 million total viewers, while the show itself was made the second-highest series debut in BET history behind the debut of Tiny & Toya, and was given a B rating by Entertainment Weekly.
Featuring production by Stargate, Ne-Yo, and Polow da Don, Still Standing was released in March 2010 and garnered a generally positive response by critics, who perceived its sound as "a return to the mid-'90s heyday" of contemporary R&B. The album debuted atop on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop albums chart, and number two on the Billboard 200 with opening week sales of 184,000 copies, becoming her highest-charting album in years. Lead single "Everything to Me" scored Monica her biggest chart success since 2003's "So Gone", reaching the top position of the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks charts for seven weeks. The album was certified gold by the RIAA with domestic shipments of 500,000 copies within a single month. With it success, the album and "Everything to Me" were nominated for a Grammy Award for Best R&B Album and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, presented at the 53rd Grammy Awards. Monica met future husband and NBA player Shannon Brown in June 2010 when they shot the music video for her second single "Love All Over Me". Also in 2010, Monica joined Trey Songz on his Passion, Pain & Pleasure Tour, her first North American concert tour in ten years.
=== 2011–2016: New Life and Code Red ===
In 2011, Monica joined the debut season of the reality talent show The Voice as an adviser to musician coach Cee Lo Green. In April 2012, her seventh studio album, New Life, was released. It marked her first release with RCA, following its absorption of J Records in October 2011. Reception for the album was generally mixed; AllMusic complimented the album's "saucy, spirited, and soulful vibe" while Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly criticized its "cheesy choruses and outdated tunes". Commercially, New Life debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The album spawned two preview singles, "Anything (To Find You)" and "Until It's Gone", both of which peaked in the top 30 on the Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Lead single "It All Belongs to Me", another duet with singer Brandy, charted similarly, reaching number 23 on the same chart. The same year, Monica along with Fred Hammond was featured on gospel music recording artist James Fortune and FIYA's single "Hold On" which became a top five hit on the Christian Songs chart and garnered a Grammy Award nomination for Best Gospel Song at the 54th awards ceremony.
In October 2013, Monica appeared on the soundtrack of Malcolm D. Lee's Christmas comedy-drama The Best Man Holiday with her Jermaine Dupri-produced rendition of "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas". In December 2015, her eighth studio album Code Red was released. Upon its release, the album received generally mixed reviews from most music critics, and debuted at number 27 on the US Billboard 200 chart. Leading single "Just Right for Me", a collaboration with Lil Wayne, reached number twelve on the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart but failed to impact elsewhere, resulting in lackluster sales in general and the release of no further singles. In support of the album, Monica embarked on her first solo concert tour in years, The Code Red Experience to promote Code Red. In November 2016, Monica announced her departure from RCA Records after only four years with the label.
=== 2018–2024: New music and Verzuz ===
In December 2018, Monica released the ballad "Be Human" to introduce The Be Human Foundation, a non profit organization founded by herself. The same month, she previewed music from her ninth studio album when she appeared on the seventh season of the VH1 reality series T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle. In January 2019, she released "Commitment," the first single on her own label, Mondeenise Music. A sleeper hit, "Commitment" reached number one on the US Billboard Adult R&B Songs in the week ending July 21, 2019, becoming her first chart topper in nine years. This was followed by the release of "Me + You" in April 2019 and the album's initial title track "Trenches" featuring Lil Baby in August 2020. The release of "Trenches" coincided with Monica and Brandy's appearances on the webcast battle series Verzuz which took place on August 31, at Tyler Perry Studios in Atlanta. At least 1.2 million people tuned in for the battle. In October 2020, Monica was featured on the single "Pink" alongside Dolly Parton, Jordin Sparks, Sara Evans and Rita Wilson. The single was released in aid of Breast Cancer Research.
In July 2022, Monica released the single, "Friends," featuring Ty Dolla Sign. The song became her first top forty hit on the US R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart in three years. In 2023, she reteamed with singer James Fortune on the duet "Trusting God." Released as a single through Fortune's FIYA World Entertainment, it reached the top 30 on the US Billboard Hot Gospel Songs chart. "Letters," another single, was released through Mondeenise Music in June 2023. In December 2023, Monica appeared alongside Nicki Minaj and Keyshia Cole on the song "Love Me Enough" from the "Gag City" deluxe version of Minaj's album Pink Friday 2. In June 2024, Ariana Grande released "The Boy Is Mine (Remix)," a reimagination of the 1998 duet which also features both Monica and Brandy. In late July, the singer re-signed with WMA agency in partnership with her production company MonDeenise Productions. She announced that her recently renamed R&B album, now called MDA, along with her country album Open Road, executive produced by country singer Brandi Carlile, were both set for release later this year. However, neither release ultimately materialized.
=== 2025: Tour with Brandy ===
On June 24, 2025, it was announced Arnold would co-headline a United States tour with Brandy; the tour is due to commence in October 2025, and finish in December 2025. Titled the Boy Is Mine Tour, the shows will also feature support acts Kelly Rowland, Muni Long and Jamal Roberts.
== Artistry and influences ==
Monica possesses an alto vocal range, which Billboard's Erika Ramirez described as "impeccable". Elysa Gardner of the Los Angeles Times likened her "husky, dramatic alto" to that of singer Toni Braxton. Writing that the singer arguably possesses "the best alto of her generation", PopMatters contributor Tyler Lewis said Monica has "always been able to elevate even the most generic material [...] with conviction and the sheer beauty of her voice", despite believing she uses "a little too much vibrato at times".
Monica has said many times that Whitney Houston is her biggest inspiration and influence since childhood. Another big influence is Mary J. Blige. Other artists she looks up to are Betty Wright, Gladys Knight and Anita Baker.
== Personal life ==
Monica's career slowed down in 1999 due to problems in her relationship with ex-boyfriend Jarvis Weems. In July 2000, the couple were together at the gravesite of Weems's brother, who had died in an automobile accident at age 25 in 1998. Weems then, without warning, put a gun to his head and committed suicide. "Afterward, I felt, 'What else could I have done?' You replay that situation over and over and you switch it around: 'Maybe if I had said this, or if I would have done that'", Monica said in an interview with the Associated Press in 2003. "It's just something that it's never possible for me to go back and change." Monica briefly dated rapper, C-Murder, until he was incarcerated for a murder in 2003.
Monica met rapper Rodney "Rocko" Hill, a former SWA officer and real estate manager, shortly after Weems's suicide, a time which she described as her "weakest". While the pair soon began dating in the fall of the same year, they ended their relationship in 2004. A few months later, Monica and Hill reunited and she became pregnant with their first child. On May 21, 2005, she gave birth to their son, Rodney, who performs under "Rodneyy" as a SoundCloud rapper. Monica and Hill
then became engaged on Christmas Eve 2007, shortly before the birth of their second child, named Romelo Montez Hill after Monica's younger brother, on January 8, 2008. The couple split in early 2010.
In June 2010, Monica met NBA player Shannon Brown while she was looking for someone to play the love interest in her video for the song "Love All Over Me". In October 2010, she announced her engagement to Brown via her Twitter account, posting a photo of a rose-cut diamond ring. On November 22, 2010, the couple married in a secret ceremony at their Los Angeles home. Their wedding, however, did not become a matter of public record until January 21, 2011, when Brown told the Hip-Hop Non-Stop TV-Show. A second wedding ceremony was held for family and friends to attend in July 2011. On September 3, 2013, Monica gave birth to her third child, Laiyah Shannon Brown. After eight years of marriage, Monica filed for divorce from Brown in March 2019. In October 2019, their divorce was finalized.
In August 2025, Monica married executive entertainment boyfriend, Anthony Wilson.
== Awards and nominations ==
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Miss Thang (1995)
The Boy Is Mine (1998)
All Eyez on Me (2002)
After the Storm (2003)
The Makings of Me (2006)
Still Standing (2010)
New Life (2012)
Code Red (2015)
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Monica at Billboard.com
Monica at IMDb
Monica at AllMusic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isham_Warren_Garrott#:~:text=Garrott%20was%20a%20member%20of,Representatives%20in%201845%20and%201847. | Isham Warren Garrott | Isham Warren Garrott (c. 1816 – June 17, 1863) was a colonel in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Garrott was killed during the Vicksburg Campaign before his commission as a brigadier general was confirmed by the Confederate Senate or delivered and became effective.
== Early life ==
Garrott was born in either Anson County or Wake County, North Carolina in about 1816. He graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and then studied law. In 1840, he moved to Marion, Alabama where he practiced law. Garrott was a member of the Whig Party and a Mason. Garrott was also an incorporator of the Marion and Alabama River Transportation Company and President of the Board of Trustees of Howard College. He was elected to the Alabama House of Representatives in 1845 and 1847. Garrott served as an elector for John C. Breckinridge's failed 1860 Presidential Election campaign. Alabama Governor Andrew B. Moore sent Garrott to North Carolina as a commissioner to enlist his home state's aid in joining the secession movement.
== Civil War ==
When the Civil War began, Garrott formed the 20th Alabama Infantry Regiment, serving briefly as its lieutenant colonel) from September 16, 1861, to October 7, 1861, and thereafter as its colonel. The brigade was stationed in Mobile, Alabama during 1861 and 1862. Garrott's brigade was sent to Mississippi as part of General Edward D. Tracy's brigade. Garrott took part in the Battle of Port Gibson and the Battle of Champion's Hill. Garrott was killed by a Union sharpshooter on June 17, 1863, shortly before being promoted to brigadier general. His commission to rank from May 28, 1863, was received at headquarters after his death. Because of his death, his posthumous appointment was not confirmed by the Confederate Senate.
According to Warner's footnote, Garrott was buried under the window of a friend's {Finney} house in Vicksburg and remains never moved {letter from Garrott's wife}. What happened to Garrott was the following: A Confederate undertaker's list/map of CS burials in Vicksburg was lost-although partially found years later. This list reported a "Colonel Garnet" of the 20th Alabama-although gravesite plot unknown. Apparently, Garrott was reburied in Vicksburg's Cedar Hill/Confederate Cemetery; however due to the misspelling of his surname and incorrect rank-his Generals commission was received after his death-apparently lead to reporting that his remains were not moved from his first burial place. Thus the NPS listing for Garrott now has his correct rank/surname but no grave number. A stone cenotaph marker for him stands in Soldiers Rest Confederate Cemetery, ironically located in the Cedar Hill (Old Vicksburg City) Cemetery.
== Legacy ==
Fort Garrott near Vicksburg was named for him. The fort did not fall to the Union Army in battle because the planned final assault on Confederate positions scheduled for July 6, 1863 was avoided due to Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton's surrender of his army to Major General Ulysses S. Grant on July 4, 1863. Sons Of Confederate Veterans Camp 764 Marion, Alabama Named In His Honor.
== See also ==
List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate)
== Notes ==
== References ==
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.
Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8160-1055-4.
Solonick, Justin S. Engineering Victory: The Union Siege of Vicksburg. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8093-3391-2.
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. ISBN 978-0-8071-0823-9.
Web biography
== External links ==
Short Web biography for Garrott. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa_Genzken#Work | Isa Genzken | Isa Genzken (born 27 November 1948) is a German artist who lives and works in Berlin. Her primary media are sculpture and installation, using a wide variety of materials, including concrete, plaster, wood and textile. She also works with photography, video, film and collage.
== Early life and education ==
Hanne-Rose "Isa" Genzken (pronounced EE-sa GENZ-ken) was raised mostly in the small northern German city of Bad Oldesloe and in Hamburg.
She studied fine arts and art history with Almir Mavignier and Kai Sudeck at the Hamburg University of Fine Arts (1968–1971) and the Berlin University of the Arts (1971–1973). To pay her tuition, Genzken worked part-time as a model. In 1973 she transferred to Arts Academy Düsseldorf while also studying art history and philosophy at the University of Cologne. At the academy, fellow students included artists Katharina Fritsch and Thomas Struth.
Upon graduating in 1977, Genzken taught sculpture at the academy. She married German visual artist Gerhard Richter in 1982 and moved to Cologne in 1983. The couple separated in 1993 and Genzken moved back to Berlin.
Genzken has bipolar disorder, goes through manic and depressive phases and has spent time in psychiatric hospitals. She has frequently undergone treatment for substance abuse. In a 2016 interview, she said that her alcohol problems began after her divorce and that she had been sober since 2013.
Genzken has worked in studios in Düsseldorf, Cologne (designed in 1993 by architect Frank Tebroke); for short stretches in the United States, in Lower Manhattan and Hoboken, New Jersey; and currently in Berlin.
== Work ==
Although Isa Genzken's primary focus is sculpture, she has produced various media including photography, film, video, works on paper, works on canvas with oil, collages, collage books, film scripts, and even a record. Her diverse practice draws on the legacies of Constructivism and Minimalism and often involves a critical, open dialogue with Modernist architecture and contemporary visual and material culture. Genzken's diverse work also keeps her from being predictable in her work. Despite Genzken's diverse work, much of her practice still maintains conventions of traditional sculpture. Using plaster, cement, building samples, photographs, and bric-a-brac, Genzken creates architectonic structures that have been described as contemporary ruins. She further incorporates mirrors and other reflective surfaces to literally draw the viewer into her work. Genzken also uses location placement methods to inflict emotions into her sculptor viewers by making her viewers physically move out of the way of Genzken's sculptor due to the placement of the sculptor. The column is a recurring motif for Genzken, a "pure" architectural trope on which to explore relationships between "high art" and the mass-produced products of popular culture.
In the 1970s, Genzken began working with wood that she carved into unusual geometric shapes such as hyperboloids and ellipsoids. In the photographs of her Hi-Fi-Serie (1979), she reproduced advertisements for stereo phonographs.
In 1980, Genzken and Gerhard Richter were commissioned to design the König-Heinrich-Platz underground station in Duisburg; it was completed in 1992. Between 1986 and 1992, Genzken conceived her series of plaster and concrete sculptures to investigate architecture. These sculptures consist of sequentially poured and stacked slabs of concrete featuring rough openings, windows and interiors. A later series consists of other architectural or interior design quotations made from epoxy resin casts, such as column or lamp sculptures. In 1986, Genzken's architectural references switched from the 1910s, 20s and 30s to the 1950s, 60s and 70s. In 1990 she installed a steel frame, Camera (1990) on a Brussels gallery's rooftop, offering a view of the city below. In 2000, a series of architectural models roughly patched together, was inscribed with Fuck the Bauhaus. Later, in the series New Buildings for Berlin, which was shown at Documenta 11, Genzken designed architectural visions of glass high-rises.
The project entitled Der Spiegel 1989-1991 is a series of images comprising 121 reproductions of black and white photographs selected and cut from German newsweekly Der Spiegel. Presented in a non-sequential but methodical manner, each image is glued against a piece of white card and individually mounted in a simple frame. Whilst the images themselves remain caption-less, the dates in the series' titles offer clues about the artist's intentions.
Her paintings of suspended hoops, collectively entitled MLR (More Light Research) (1992), recall gymnastics apparatus caught mid-swing and frozen in time.
Starting in 1995, while in New York for several months, Genzken created a three-volume collage book entitled I Love New York, Crazy City (1995–1996), a compendium of souvenirs from her various stays in the city, including photographs of Midtown's architecture, snapshots, maps, hotel bills, nightclub flyers, and concert tickets, among others.
One of Genzken's best known works, Rose (1993/7), is a public sculpture of a single long-stemmed rose made from enamelled stainless steel that towers eight metres above the Leipzig fairgrounds. The artist's first public artwork in the United States, her replica Rose II (2007) was installed outside the New Museum as part of a year-long rotating installation in November 2010.
Genzken has also produced numerous films, including Zwei Frauen im Gefecht, 1974, Chicago Drive, 1992, Meine Großeltern im Bayerischen Wald, 1992, and the video Empire/Vampire, Who Kills Death, 2003.
As an artist she published five portfolio styled books. Each including her expressive work, they can be purchased under David Zwirners Books website. Her books include Sculpture as a World Receiver, October Files, Isa Genzken: Retrospective, Isa Genzken: Oil, and Isa Genzken.
Since the end of the second half of the 1990s, Genzken has been conceptualizing sculptures and panel paintings in the shape of a bricolage of materials taken from DIY stores and from photographs and newspaper clippings. She often uses materials that underline the temporary character of her works. As part of her deep-set interest in urban space, she also arranges complex, and often disquieting, installations with mannequins, dolls, photographs, and an array of found objects. New Buildings for New York are assembled from found scraps of plastic, metal and pizza-box cardboard. The assemblages from the Empire/Vampire, Who Kills Death series, originally comprising more than twenty sculptures that were created following the attacks of September 11, are combinations of found objects – action figures, plastic vessels, and various elements of consumer detritus – arranged on pedestals in architecturally inspired, post-destruction scenes. Elefant (2006) is a column of cascading vertical blinds festooned with plastic tubes, foil, artificial flowers, fabric and some tiny toy soldiers and Indians. For her installation Oil, the artist transformed the German Pavilion at the 2007 Venice Biennale into a futuristic and morbid Gesamtkunstwerk.
Genzken worked frequently with Zwiner, who held her Paris New York Exhibition from August 29-October 10 in 2020. She had five solo exhibitions with him and this last one was her fifth. She has worked with him since 2010. The exhibition included Genzken's early work at the Kunstmuseum Basel. The installation of Genzken's recent "tower" sculptures. It was inspired by the artists decades-long fascination with architecture and urban skylines. She used multiple forms that include, vertical structures, of medium-density fiberboard with inclusion of a mirror foil, spray paint as well as other media.
=== Genzken's impact ===
Genzken's work has undoubtedly impacted art culture through her unique ability to create sculptures out of many materials such as wood, plaster, concrete, steel, epoxy resin, and even household kitchen materials, as seen in her "Babies" semblance from 1997. Genzken redefined the art of creating sculptures and even combated discrimination against sculpture art in the 60s and 70s as she pursued her unique talent. Simply put, her work has been seen as an attempt to encourage and broaden the art of sculpture without eliminating it. Genzken's art and media have always stayed true to the logic of her work, which continues to be contradictory, unpredictable, and in opposition throughout the sculpture. Her sculptures have even been recognized as art that creates illusions with the mind and opens the imagination of the viewer.
== Exhibitions ==
Genzken's first solo exhibition was held in 1976 at the Konrad Fischer Gallery in Düsseldorf, and her first exhibition with Galerie Buchholz was in 1986 in Cologne. From November 23, 2013 to March 10, 2014, "Isa Genzken: Retrospective" was on view at the Museum of Modern Art. The exhibition then traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, and Dallas Museum of Art.
== Collections ==
Genzken's work is included in the collections of many institutions internationally, including the Nationalgalerie, West Berlin; Staatsgalerie Stuttgart; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven; Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo, the Museum of Modern Art, New York; Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; the Generali Foundation, Vienna; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.; the Kemper Art Museum, St. Louis; the Museum Ludwig, Cologne; the Museum Frieder Burda, Baden-Baden; the Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven and the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Ruby City, Linda Pace Foundation, San Antonio, TX
Rose III sculpture in Zuccotti Park, NYC.
== Recognition ==
She won the International Art Prize (Cultural Donation of SSK Munich) in 2004 and the Wolfgang-Hahn-Prize (Museum Ludwig, Cologne) in 2002.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of German women artists
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66_Maja#:~:text=It%20was%20discovered%20on%209,after%20Maia%20from%20Greek%20mythology. | 66 Maja | 66 Maja () is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the central regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 71 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 9 April 1861, by American astronomer Horace Tuttle at the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The asteroid was named after Maia from Greek mythology.
== Orbit and classification ==
Maja is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.2–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,571 days; semi-major axis of 2.65 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at the Harvard Observatory, one night after its official discovery observation.
== Physical characteristics ==
In the Tholen classification, Maja is a carbonaceous C-type asteroid, while in the SMASS classification it is a "hydrated" carbonaceous subtype (Ch).
=== Rotation period and spin axes ===
Several rotational lightcurves of Maja have been obtained from photometric observations since 1988. Analysis of the best-rated lightcurve by French amateur astronomers Maurice Audejean and Jérôme Caron from February 2011 gave a rotation period of 9.73509 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.25 magnitude (U=3).
In 2016, a modeled lightcurve was derived from various photometric database sources, giving a concurring sidereal period of 9.73570 hours and two spin axes of (49.0°, −70.0°) and (225.0°, −68.0°) in ecliptic coordinates.
=== Diameter and albedo ===
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Maja measures between 62.87 and 82.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.03 and 0.0759.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0618 and a diameter of 71.82 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.36.
== Naming ==
This minor planet was named by Harvard's former president, J. Quincy, after Maia, one of the Seven Sisters of the Pleiades in Greek mythology. She is the mother of Hermes (Mercury) and the daughter of Atlas and Pleione. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 10).
The asteroids 130 Elektra, 233 Asterope and 1051 Merope were also named after the mythological Seven Sisters. In 1861, the director of the discovering observatory, George Phillips Bond, raised a minor concern since these names had already been applied to some of the brightest stars of the Pleiades in the constellation of Taurus: Maia, Electra, Asterope and Merope.
== Spacecraft visits ==
At present, Maja has not been visited by any spacecraft. As of 1988, mission planning for the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft included a flyby of Maja while leaving the inner solar system in March 1997, however due to delays, the launch of Cassini-Huygens was moved from April 1996 to October 1997, thus negating the option to pass near Maja. Cassini-Huygens passed by asteroid 2685 Masursky on 23 January 2000 instead.
== References ==
== External links ==
Disc-Integrated Radar Properties of Main-Belt Asteroids, JPL, Magri (2004)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info Archived 16 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
66 Maja at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
66 Maja at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo-Yo_Ma | Yo-Yo Ma | Yo-Yo Ma (born October 7, 1955) is an American cellist. Born to Chinese parents in Paris, he was regarded as a child prodigy, and began to study the cello with his father at age four. At the age of seven, Ma moved with his family to Boston and later to New York City, where he continued his cello studies at the Juilliard School before pursuing a liberal arts education at Harvard University. He has performed as a soloist with orchestras around the world, recorded more than 92 albums, and received 19 Grammy Awards.
In addition to recordings of the standard classical repertoire, Ma has recorded a wide variety of folk music, such as American bluegrass music, traditional Chinese melodies, the tangos of Argentine composer Astor Piazzolla, and Brazilian music. He has also collaborated with artists from a diverse range of genres, including Bobby McFerrin, Carlos Santana, Chris Botti, Diana Krall, James Taylor, Miley Cyrus, Zakir Hussain, and Sting.
Ma has been a United Nations Messenger of Peace since 2006. He has received numerous awards, including the Avery Fisher Prize in 1978, The Glenn Gould Prize in 1999, the National Medal of Arts in 2001, the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011, Kennedy Center Honors in 2011, the Polar Music Prize in 2012, and the Birgit Nilsson Prize in 2022. He was named as one of Time's 100 Most Influential People of 2020.
Ma's primary performance instrument is the Davidov cello, made in 1712 by Antonio Stradivari.
== Early life and education ==
Ma's mother, Marina Lu, was a singer, and his father, Hiao-Tsiun Ma, was a violinist, composer and professor of music at Nanjing National Central University (now relocated in Taoyuan, Taiwan; predecessor of the present-day Nanjing University and Southeast University). They both migrated from the Republic of China to France during the Chinese Civil War. Ma's sister, Yeou-Cheng, played the violin and piano professionally before obtaining a medical degree from Harvard Medical School and becoming a pediatrician. The family moved to Boston when Ma was seven.
From the age of three, Ma played the drums, violin, piano, and later viola, but settled on the cello in 1960 at age four. When three-year-old Yo-Yo said he wanted a big instrument, his father went to see Étienne Vatelot, a foremost violin maker in Paris who, after a chat, lent him a 1/16th cello. He jokes that his first choice was the double bass due to its large size, but he compromised and took up the cello instead. While Hiao-Tsiun handled much of his son's early music education, he eventually conceded that Yo-Yo required a more skilled teacher, and signed his son up for cello lessons with the renowned Michelle Lepinte. He began performing before audiences at age five and played for presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy when he was seven. At age eight, he appeared on American television with his sister in an event introduced by Leonard Bernstein. In 1964, Isaac Stern introduced them on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, and they performed the Sonata of Sammartini. After moving to New York, Ma enrolled at the Juilliard School, where he studied under renowned cellist Leonard Rose, and attended Trinity School in New York but transferred to the Professional Children's School, where he graduated at age 15. He appeared as a soloist with the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra in a performance of Tchaikovsky's Rococo Variations.
Ma attended Columbia University, but dropped out. He later enrolled at Harvard College. Prior to entering Harvard, Ma played in the Marlboro Festival Orchestra under the direction of cellist, conductor and Ma's childhood hero Pablo Casals. He spent four summers at the Marlboro Music Festival after meeting and falling in love with Mount Holyoke College sophomore and festival administrator Jill Hornor during his first summer there in 1972.
Even before that time, Ma gained fame and performed with many of the world's major orchestras. He has also played chamber music, often with pianist Emanuel Ax, with whom he has a close friendship from their days at Juilliard. Ma received his bachelor's degree in anthropology from Harvard in 1976, and in 1991 received an honorary doctorate from Harvard.
== Career ==
Ma was featured on John Williams's soundtrack to the Hollywood film Seven Years in Tibet (1997). He was heard on the soundtrack of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), and Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003). He collaborated with Williams again on the score for Memoirs of a Geisha (2005). He has also worked with Italian composer Ennio Morricone and has recorded Morricone's compositions of the Dollars Trilogy, including The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, as well as Once Upon a Time in America, The Mission, and The Untouchables. He has recorded over 90 albums, 19 of which are Grammy Award winners. He received the Award of Excellence from New York's International Center.
In addition to his prolific musical career, Ma collaborated in 1999 with landscape architects to design a Bach-inspired garden. Known as the Music Garden, it interprets Bach's Suite No. 1 in G major, with the garden's sections designed to correspond to the suite's dance movements. Toronto enthusiastically embraced the design, originally planned for Boston, and it was subsequently built in the Harbourfront neighborhood.
Ma was named Peace Ambassador by then-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in January 2006. He is a founding member of the influential Chinese-American Committee of 100, which addresses the concerns of Americans of Chinese heritage.
On November 3, 2009, President Barack Obama appointed Ma to serve on the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. His music was featured in the 2010 documentary Jews and Baseball: An American Love Story, narrated by Academy Award winner Dustin Hoffman. In 2010, President Obama announced that he would recognize Ma with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, which Ma received in February 2011.
In 2010, Ma was named Judson and Joyce Green Creative Consultant of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. He launched the Citizen Musician initiative partnership in partnership with the orchestra's music director, Riccardo Muti. Also in 2010, he appeared on a solo album by guitarist Carlos Santana, Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time, playing alongside Santana and singer India Arie on the Beatles classic "While My Guitar Gently Weeps".
In 2015, Ma performed with singer-songwriter and guitarist James Taylor on three tracks of Taylor's chart-topping album Before This World. In 2019, Ma directed the orchestra at the annual Youth Music Culture Guangdong. Ma is represented by the independent artist management firm Opus 3 Artists. Ma contributed to the charity tribute album The Metallica Blacklist, released in September 2021, backing Miley Cyrus on a cover of the Metallica song "Nothing Else Matters".
Ma serves on the Board of Trustees of the World Economic Forum.
=== Silk Road Ensemble ===
Ma formed his own collective, the Silk Road Ensemble, named after the route across Asia which for more than 2,000 years was used for trade between Europe and China. His goal was to bring together musicians from diverse countries that were historically linked via the Silk Road. The ensemble's recordings are issued on the Sony Classical label. He also founded the Silk Road Connect, an educational pilot program for children from middle schools in the United States, including New York City.
== Playing style ==
Yo-Yo Ma has been referred to by critics as "omnivorous" and possesses an eclectic repertoire. In addition to numerous recordings of the standard classical repertoire, he has recorded Baroque pieces using period instruments; American bluegrass music; traditional Chinese melodies, including the soundtrack to the film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon; the tangos of Argentinian composer Astor Piazzolla; Brazilian music, recording traditional and contemporary songs composed by Antônio Carlos Jobim and Pixinguinha; a collaboration with Bobby McFerrin (where Ma admitted to being terrified by McFerrin's improvisation); and the music of modern minimalist Philip Glass, in such works as the 2002 Naqoyqatsi.
Ma is known for his smooth, rich tone, soulful lyricism, and virtuosity. He released a cello recording of Niccolò Paganini's Caprice No. 24 for solo violin and Zoltán Kodály's Solo Sonata.
== Instruments ==
Ma's primary performance instrument is the Davidov cello, made in 1712 by Antonio Stradivari. It was previously owned by Jacqueline du Pré, who bequeathed it to him. Du Pré voiced her frustration with the cello's "unpredictability", but Ma attributed du Pré's sentiment to her impassioned style of playing, adding that the Stradivarius cello must be "coaxed" by the player. Prior to the Davidov, he performed on a 1722 Matteo Gofriller cello which he used for much of his early career. The instrument was previously in the possession of the French cellist Pierre Fournier.
Ma also plays on a 1733 Domenico Montagnana cello, named the "Petunia". In 2005, it was valued at US$2.5 million (US$4 million in 2024 prices). A student approached Ma after one of his classes in Salt Lake City and asked if the cello had a nickname. Ma replied, "No, but if I play for you, will you name it?" The student chose Petunia, and it stuck. In 1999, Ma inadvertently left the cello in a taxicab in New York City, but it was quickly returned undamaged. That year, when its neck was damaged during X-ray baggage inspection, he borrowed the Pawle Stradivarius cello from the Chimei Museum for a concert in Taiwan. The damage was repaired in time, but Ma played both Petunia and Pawle in the concert nonetheless.
Ma also owns a modern cello made by Peter and Wendela Moes of Warrenton, Virginia, one of carbon fiber by the Luis and Clark company of Boston, and a Samuel Zygmuntowicz cello. According to Zygmuntowicz, he "wants to give (Ma) a reason to leave his Montagnana at home."
== Notable performances ==
On July 5, 1986, Ma performed in the New York Philharmonic's tribute to the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty, which was televised live on ABC Television. The orchestra, with conductor Zubin Mehta, performed in Central Park.
Ma performed a duet with Condoleezza Rice at the presentation of the 2001 National Medal of Arts and National Humanities Medal Awards. He was the first performer on September 11, 2002, at the site of the World Trade Center, while the first of the names of the dead were read on the first anniversary of the attack on the WTC; he played the Sarabande from Bach's Cello Suite No. 5 in C minor. He performed a special arrangement of Sting's "Fragile" with Sting and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir in the opening ceremonies of the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. He also appeared as a Pennington Great Performers series artist with the Baton Rouge Symphony Orchestra in 2005.
He performed John Williams's Air and Simple Gifts at the first inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009, along with Itzhak Perlman (violin), Gabriela Montero (piano), and Anthony McGill (clarinet). While the quartet played live, the music, played simultaneously over speakers and on television, was a recording made two days prior due to concerns over the cold weather damaging the instruments. Ma said, "A broken string was not an option. It was wicked cold."
On May 3, 2009, Ma performed the world premiere of Bruce Adolphe's "Self Comes to Mind" for solo cello and two percussionists with John Ferrari and Ayano Kataoka at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The work is based on a poetic description written for the composer of the evolution of brain into mind by neuroscientist Antonio Damasio. A film of brain scans provided by Hanna Damasio, and other images, were coordinated with the performance.
On August 29, 2009, Ma performed at the funeral mass for Senator Edward M. Kennedy. Pieces he performed included the Sarabande movement from Bach's Cello Suite No. 6 in D major and Franck's "Panis angelicus" with Plácido Domingo.
On October 3, 2009, Ma appeared with Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper at the National Arts Centre gala in Ottawa. Harper, a fan of The Beatles, played the piano and sang a rendition of "With a Little Help from My Friends" while Ma accompanied him on cello. On October 16, 2011, Ma performed at the memorial of Steve Jobs at Stanford University's Memorial Church.
In 2011, Ma performed with American dancer Charles "Lil Buck" Riley in the United States and in China at the U.S.-China Forum on the Arts and Culture.
On April 18, 2013, he performed at an interfaith service to honor the victims of the Boston Marathon bombing, held at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, where he played the Sarabande from Bach's Cello Suite No. 5. He and other musicians also accompanied members of the Boston Children's Chorus in a hymn.
On September 9, 2015, Ma performed all six of Bach's cello suites at the Royal Albert Hall (London) as part of the BBC Proms season.
On September 12, 2017, Ma performed all six of Bach's cello suites at the Hollywood Bowl (Los Angeles). After the first three suites, there was a "ten-minute pause" (as the Bowl video screen described it). The audience of around 17,000 also heard him play an encore, a tribute to "cellist Pablo Casals, who as a 13-year-old in 1890 discovered an old copy of the Bach suites in a secondhand music store, bringing them to modern attention. Ma's memorable last words were, "If there are any 13-year-olds here—don't throw anything away."
On November 11, 2018, Ma performed at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, with violinist Renaud Capuçon, in front of a crowd of world leaders during a ceremony marking the centenary of the armistice that ended World War I.
On May 1, 2019, he performed at Paranal Observatory in the Atacama desert. He said that his interest in astronomy motivated him to visit and perform there.
On June 20, 2019, Ma performed Bach's Cello Suites at Jay Pritzker Pavilion in Chicago, Illinois. The free performance attracted what might have been his largest audience, with a pavilion capacity of 11,000, and many thousands more listening from surrounding Millennium Park.
On January 20, 2021, Ma's performance of "Amazing Grace"—pre-recorded due to the COVID-19 pandemic—was played during the inauguration of Joe Biden. In March 2021, Ma played "Ave Maria" in an impromptu waiting room concert, after receiving his second dose of a COVID-19 vaccine at Berkshire Community College in Massachusetts.
On September 14, 2021, Ma again performed Bach's six cello suites at the Hollywood Bowl, this time without intermission, pausing only briefly for applause between suites, and to announce his dedications for two of them.
On December 7, 2024, on the Reopening of Notre-Dame in Paris, Ma performed the prelude of the First Cello Suite from Bach.
== Media appearances ==
Ma appeared as himself in an episode ("My Music Rules") of the animated children's television series Arthur, and on The West Wing (the episode "Noël"), where he played the prelude to Bach's Cello Suite No.1 at a Congressional Christmas party. He made five appearances on Sesame Street, all of which first aired during the show's 17th season in 1986. He appeared in The Simpsons episode "Puffless", where he played a serenade and theme music. Ma's likeness appeared in another Simpsons episode, "Missionary: Impossible", but he was played by regular Simpsons cast member Hank Azaria rather than Ma himself. Ma appeared twice on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, developed a friendship with creator and host Fred Rogers, and later received the inaugural Fred Rogers Legacy Award.
Ma was often invited to press events by Apple Inc. and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs, performed during the company's major events, and appeared in a commercial for the Macintosh computer. Ma's Bach recordings were used in a memorial video released by Apple on the first anniversary of Jobs's death.
Ma was a guest on the "Not My Job" segment of Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! on April 7, 2007, where he won for listener Thad Moore.
On October 27, 2008, Ma appeared as a guest and performer on The Colbert Report. He was also one of the show's guests on November 1, 2011, where he performed songs from the album The Goat Rodeo Sessions with musicians Stuart Duncan, Edgar Meyer and Chris Thile. He also performed several of Bach's cello suites for the 2012 film Bill W. On October 5, 2015, he appeared on Colbert's new program, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, in support of ballerina Misty Copeland, and prematurely celebrating his 60th birthday.
In August 2018, Ma appeared on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts.
On June 19, 2020, the same group of musicians who recorded The Goat Rodeo Sessions released a second album, Not Our First Goat Rodeo. On September 1, 2020, the same group performed a virtual concert of some songs from Not Our First Goat Rodeo on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts.
On June 13, 2021, Ma was the guest on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs. His musical choices included "Tin Tin Deo" by the Oscar Peterson Trio and "Podmoskovnye Vechera – Moscow Nights" by Vasily Solovyov-Sedoi. He selected as his book the 24 volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and as his luxury item a Swiss Army knife. He revealed that his career in music felt like a "gift" after scoliosis threatened his ability to play in his 20s.
In 2022, Ma made a cameo appearance as himself in the Netflix film Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery.
== Personal life ==
Since 1978, Ma has been married to Jill Hornor, an arts consultant. They have two children, Nicholas and Emily. Although he personally considers it the "worst epithet he's ever faced," he was "tagged" in 2001 as "Sexiest Classical Musician" by People. He has continued to receive such accolades over the years, including from AARP in 2012, when Ma was named one of the "21 sexiest men over 50".
According to research presented by Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates Jr. for the PBS series Faces of America, a relative hid the Ma family genealogy in his home in China to save it from destruction during the Cultural Revolution. Ma's paternal ancestry can be traced back 18 generations to the year 1217. The genealogy was compiled in the 18th century by an ancestor, tracing everyone with the surname Ma, through the paternal line, back to one common ancestor in the 3rd century BC. Ma's generation name, Yo, was decided by his fourth great grand-uncle, Ma Ji Cang, in 1755. DNA research revealed that Ma is distantly related to actress Eva Longoria.
Aside from English, Ma is fluent in Mandarin Chinese and French.
== Discography ==
Ma's albums include recordings of cello concertos, sonatas for cello and piano, works for solo cello, and a variety of chamber music. He has also recorded in non-classical styles, notably in collaboration with artists such as Bobby McFerrin, Carlos Santana, Chris Botti, Chris Thile, Diana Krall, James Taylor, Miley Cyrus and Sting.
== Awards and recognition ==
Grammy Award
Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance:
1986: Brahms: Cello and Piano Sonatas in E Minor Op. 38, and F Op. 99
1987: Beethoven: Cello and Piano Sonata No. 4 in C & Variations
1992: Brahms: Piano Quartets Op. 25, Op. 26
1993: Brahms: Sonatas for Cello & Piano
1996: Brahms/Beethoven/Mozart: Clarinet Trios
Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance:
1990: Barber: Cello Concerto, Op. 22/Britten: Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, Op. 68
1993: Prokofiev: Sinfonia Concertante/Tchaikovsky: Variations on a Rococo Theme
1995: The New York Album – Works of Albert, Bartók & Bloch
1998: Yo-Yo Ma Premieres – Danielpour, Kirchner, Rouse
Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance:
1985: Bach: The Unaccompanied Cello Suites
Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition:
1995: The New York Album, Stephen Albert: Cello Concerto
Grammy Award for Best Classical Album:
1998: Yo-Yo Ma Premieres – Danielpour, Kirchner, Rouse
Grammy Award for Best Classical Crossover Album:
1999: Soul of the Tango – The Music of Astor Piazzolla
2001: Appalachian Journey
2004: Obrigado Brazil
2009: Songs of Joy & Peace
Grammy Award for Best Folk Album:
2012: The Goat Rodeo Sessions w/ Stuart Duncan, Edgar Meyer & Chris Thile
Grammy Award for Best World Music Album:
2017: Sing Me Home – Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble
Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance:
2022: Beethoven: Cello Sonatas - Hope and Tears – Yo-Yo Ma & Emanuel Ax
=== Honorary doctorates ===
1991: Honorary Doctor of Music, Harvard University
2005: Honorary Doctor of Musical Arts, Princeton University
2019: Honorary Doctor of Music, University of Oxford
2019: Honorary Doctor of Arts, Dartmouth College
2021: Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts, Mount Holyoke College
2022: Honorary Doctor of Music, Stony Brook University
2022: Honorary Doctor of Music, Columbia University
Others
1978: Avery Fisher Prize
1993: Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1999: The Glenn Gould Prize
1999: Member of the American Philosophical Society
2001: National Medal of Arts
2004: Harvard Arts Medal
2004: Latin Grammy for Best Instrumental Album at the Latin Grammy Awards for Obrigado Brazil
2006: Dan David Prize
2006: Léonie Sonning Music Prize
2011: Kennedy Center Honor
2011: Presidential Medal of Freedom
2012: Polar Music Prize
2012: Songlines Music Awards - Best Cross-Cultural Collaboration for The Goat Rodeo Sessions
2013: Gramophone Hall of Fame inductee
2013: Vilcek Prize in Contemporary Music
2014: Fred Rogers Legacy Award - Inaugural Recipient. Upon reception of the award, Ma stated, "This is perhaps the greatest honor I've ever received."
2016: Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters
2020: Asia Game Changer Award from the Asia Society
2021: Praemium Imperiale
2022: Birgit Nilsson Prize
2024: Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Quotations related to Yo-Yo Ma at Wikiquote
Official website
Yo-Yo Ma at Sony Classical
Yo-Yo Ma's gear at Gearboard
Yo-Yo Ma at AllMusic
Appearances on C-SPAN
Yo-Yo Ma discography at Discogs
Leonard Bernstein presents 7-year-old Yo-Yo Ma's high-profile debut for President John F. Kennedy. on YouTube. Duration: 8 min 01 sec. Yo-Yo Ma, violoncello, and his sister Yeou-Cheng Ma, piano, perform the First movement of Concertino No. 3 in A major by Jean-Baptiste Bréval (1753-1823) on 29 November 1962. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
"Yo-Yo Ma Real Name: 馬友友 - Mǎ Yǒuyǒu. [Yo-Yo Ma discography with 216 entries]". discogs.com. Discogs. 2023. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
"Santana - Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics Of All Time". discogs.com. Discogs. 2010. Retrieved April 10, 2023. Entry: CD04 While My Guitar Gently Weeps, Featuring – India.Arie, Yo-Yo Ma. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold_Rudenberg#:~:text=Work%20and%20research,-Rudenberg%20taught%20at&text=At%20Harvard%20he%20was%20head,to%201952%2C%20when%20he%20retired. | Reinhold Rudenberg | Reinhold Rudenberg (or Rüdenberg) was a German-American electrical engineer and inventor, credited with many innovations in the electric power and related fields. Aside from improvements in electric power equipment, especially large alternating current generators, among others were the electrostatic-lens electron microscope, carrier-current communications on power lines, a form of phased array radar, an explanation of power blackouts, preferred number series, and the number prefix "Giga-".
== Early life and education ==
Reinhold Rudenberg was born in Hannover to a family of Jewish descent. His father Georg was a manufacturer, who operated a plant for preparing, cleaning feathers and down goods. His mother was a daughter of the Chief Rabbi of the county of Braunschweig. He attended the Leibniz University Hannover (then Technische Hochschule), and after receiving his electrical engineering degrees (Dipl. Ing.) and doctorate (Dr. Ing.), both in 1906, he worked for Professor Ludwig Prandtl as a teaching assistant at the Institute for Applied Physics and Mechanics at Göttingen University. There he also attended courses in physics and the celebrated Advanced Electrodynamics course by Emil Wiechert, who only ten years earlier had been one of the discoverers of the electron.
In 1919 Rudenberg married Lily Minkowski, daughter of the Göttingen mathematician Hermann Minkowski and Auguste née Adler. The physicist H. Gunther Rudenberg was the son of Reinhold and Lily Rudenberg.
== Work and research ==
Rudenberg taught at Göttingen, Berlin, London, and in the U.S. at MIT and Harvard University. At Harvard he was head of the Department of Electrical Engineering at the Graduate School of Engineering from 1939 to 1952, when he retired.
After leaving Göttingen in 1908 he started at the manufacturer of electrical machinery Siemens-Schuckertwerke (SSW), part of the Siemens group of companies, in Berlin. He entered as a machine design engineer, and quickly advanced to head this department. His work soon broadened to include transmission lines, distribution systems, and protective relays and switches. In 1923 he was appointed Director of the Scientific Department (Wissenschaftliche Abteilung) of SSW responsible for the research on and development of machinery and systems for the firm. Simultaneously he was named Chief Electrical Engineer (Chef-Elektriker) of the firm.
In 1916, Rudenberg designed the electric generator for the main power station in Cologne, then the largest known.
He had a keen and agile mind, published much and became a prolific inventor. His books, especially on electrical transients, were widely read and used as college texts. Among his contributions were:
Carrier current communications (patent)
Hollow conductors for overhead high voltage power transmission
Electron microscope with electrostatic lenses (patent)
Reversing or Backing of Ships and Propellers
Phased array radar "geoscope" (patent)
First analysis of explosives blast overpressure versus energy of charge
Hyperbolic field lenses for focusing electron beams
Electric power directly from atomic radiation (patent)
Explaining the contributing cause of electric power systems blackout
== Electron microscope and patents ==
In 1930, just after returning home from a summer vacation on the Dutch seaside, his 2 3⁄4-year-old son became ill with leg paralysis. This was soon diagnosed as poliomyelitis, which at that time was a frightening disease with a death rate of 10–25% as the disease progressed to the lungs. Polio was then known to be caused by a virus, too small to be visible under an optical microscope. From that time Rudenberg was determined to find or invent a way to make such a small virus particle visible. He thought that electrons, because of their subatomic size, as he had learned in Göttingen from Wiechert, would be able to resolve such small virus particles, and he investigated ways to focus these to create their enlarged image.
Already in 1927 Hans Busch, his friend since Göttingen, had published an analysis of a magnetic coil acting as a lens. Rudenberg reasoned that an electron beam leaving a point on an object in an axially symmetric electrostatic system could be focused back to an image point if the radial electric field was proportional to the electron distance from the axis. Thus he believed that real magnified images could be obtained under these conditions. As the date of a public lecture on electron optics was approaching Siemens applied for a patent on Rudenberg's electrostatic-lens instrument and his general electron microscope principles on May 30, 1931. Siemens also obtained patents in six other countries. In Germany this, or patents derived therefrom, were granted at various later times from 1938 to 1954. Some competitors voiced complaints against the Rudenberg patents, but ignored or did not notice the earlier year that Rudenberg began his invention (1930) nor the difference of the stimulus that initiated it, nor would they recognize the technical differences between his electrostatic electron lenses and the magnetic lenses used by others.
== Honors ==
1911 – Montefiori Prize, Institut Montefiore, Liège, Belgium
1921 – Dr.Ing. h.c. T.U. Karlsruhe
1946 – Stevens Institute Honor Award and Medal "For notable achievement in the Field of Electron Optics as the inventor of the electron microscope."
1949 – Cedergren Medal, Sweden
1954 – Eta Kappa Nu Eminent Member
1956 – TU Berlin Honorary Senator
1957 – Grand Cross of Meritorious Service of the Federal German Republic, Germany's GVK medal "Pour le Merite" (Große Verdienstkreuz des Verdienstordens der Bundesrepublik)
1961 – Elliott Cresson Medal, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia
== Works ==
Rüdenberg, Reinhold (1916) Artilleristische Monatshefte, No. 113/114, 237–265, 285–316 (in which Rudenberg analyzes the mechanism and the propagation of shock waves from heavy explosions and determines the laws of destruction at a distance).
Rüdenberg, R. (1932) Elektronenmikroskop (Electron microscope). Naturwissenschaften 20, 522
Rüdenberg, Reinhold (1943) The frequencies of natural power oscillations in interconnected generating and distribution systems. Trans. Amer. Inst. Elec. Engineers 62, 791–803 (In which Rudenberg shows the fundamental period of power surge and sag after a major transient, that may trigger a total blackout).
Rüdenberg, Reinhold (1943) "The Early History of the Electron Microscope", J Appl. Physics 14, 434–436, (in which Rudenberg describes stimulus to begin his work, also patent excerpts showing his electrostatic aperture electron lenses).
Rüdenberg, Reinhold (1945) J. Franklin Inst. 240, p. 193ff & 347ff (in which Rudenberg investigates the reversal and the transient behaviour of propellers and ships during maneuvering for controlled rapid action and the prevention of loss of control from propeller "cavitation").
== Notes ==
== References ==
Jacottet, Paul; Strigel, R (1958): Reinhold Rüdenberg zum 75. Geburtstag. ETZ-A 79, 97–100. [on his 75th birthday] [in German] (List of publications)
White, J.T. (1965) Rudenberg, Reinhold, in The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, 47:48–49, J. T. White & Co. New York
Weiher, Siegfried von (1976) Rüdenberg, Reinhold, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 11: 588–589, Ch. Scribner's and Son, New York.
Schoen, Lothar (1994) Rüdenberg, Reinhold, in Feldtkeller, Ernst; et al. (Eds.) Pioniere der Wissenschaft bei Siemens), Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim pp. 53–59 (Pioneers of Science at Siemens capsule biography, career and main contributions to science and Siemens during his tenure 1908–1936). [In German]
Schoen, Lothar (2006) Rüdenberg, Reinhold Neue Deutsche Biographie 22: 210–212 [In German]
== Further reading ==
Rudenberg, H. Gunther and Rudenberg, F. Hermann (1994), "Reinhold Rudenberg as a physicist – his contributions and patents on the electron microscope, traced back to the 'Göttingen Electron Group'", MSA Bulletin, 24, No. 4, 572–578.
== External links ==
Reinhold Rudenberg at Find a Grave |
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